STRUCTURAL MECHANICS

A. DARKOV and V. KUZNETSOV

 Mill
PUllUSllERS
A. n, J\APKOG, B. n. IOf3UEuon

CTPOIlTE,TIbHAA MEXAHlfKA

na;nATElIbCTBO .UblCllliUl uu<on....

JolOCI1DA.
A. DARKDV and V. KUZNETSDV

STRUCTURAL
MECHANICS

MlR PUBLISHERS MOSCOW

1119
VDC G2~.U4(U7~.8)_2U

First Publlihtod 1!J64j

Seeund Edltlun
 OOtiTEN'TS

rlllro,lllcti,jl'1 11

Chi'I''''r 1. KINEMATIC ANAL VS IS OF STRUCtUIlES

1.1. Sllllrl(lrl~ "
21. G<'Olllclricp\ SltlhiJity hr F,~"u'd :itrllctuu""
3.1. Stali<-~Il}" Determimlte Fr/lIl.t"l1 !\lr'M;UII',S ,."
17

Cb.pwr 2. BEAMS
1.2. GC1I(>r1l1
"
2.2, ltl'lIel '(In I"n""ncc L.n.." I~,r 5illlv1r SIIJllll"'!lC(1 n"l""a ... itIL
0<" Wlll"'1111 O"I-rho,," .....
"
3.2. 1;('lIdinl:: M'~l1l'''1 /lad Shl'M )110"('1)"" UtiCO' ror Sm1t.l)' Sur'
J",rl.l~l lJeam!; wi1h (lr "1t.hOlll ('v"rhllll&
4.2, lortlll'lIcC LJHe~ 101' ~i"'Jlll- ('"ulile"er 1\eam~
5.2, {"nneu"" Lines III ClI.<C" nflllClir"el LQIl,1 Apl,llca1.wu
8.2. D"INlllillOlwlI <of Fon~e~ \'1),1 .\r"II";,,l" \\ill, llll' ,\,,1 "I Ill'
fh,,,u"I; I.in" . . . .
7.2. Uf'h'l'tulUlItinn "I Ihl' J',lo~1 u"rllv\,u,,,I,h, P,,~ili,," "f ~ L"p,1
8.2. J)('\.{'''llinnlillll of Matim"m Mlirncnr lint! F"rtl" "'1II~
E:quh'pl('nl Uniform 1.'1/111:0-
9.2. MlIlIl"'I'/lll Sl.lirally Oot"nmnalc ~(,;'I1i~
10.2. o...l.cmli",.!lon of M'lml)'llt." 31,,1 t'v....f!S Inlturrd hr a ~)'",l,(',u
of lIi'lH Loads in Mulli"I"'" Sl::llit;aU)' O..tcnninatf JW!""~
11,2. Inn,",,1('1" I.i"". for Mllrll~I>oIn Shtio.l.lly OClI!'rUlln.k' 1.\(0.1.11'1"
12..2. Il~utlinl:: M'~nl'lLt!l and 5b{'{lfllog POt~f';'I iI"I.,w:N! by Fu'l'd
Ll...Il.S in :::tlltkally Oell'nnh".le O,,"l", KnCi' Pra",..~ altd
~alo ... 1 t'ol}1:t1n:o.l OMigll . . . . .

Chllpter 3. THREE-HINGED ARCHES AND FRAMES .

1.3. Throe-Illngcd Sysloms .
2.3. Support no,";tion~ of 11 Thrl"(l-Illngod .\reh
3.3. Dt'll'rmillation of StrlO;;~~ in Thtct~TJ inj,\"c,1 "rc\,c,
voe 6Vi.04 (015.81_ 2G

"'irst PubllsllH 1966

5ODd F..dill ..n
 CONTENTS

/ntro,l,,,'lloll It

Ch/ll'l~r 1. KINEMATIC ANALYSIS Of STRUCTURES . l~

1.1. Sl1j'llOrts 15
2..1. G('QIllcVklll Stllbility '11 Flllllltd Slrochlrc.' li
3.1. $laUCIlII)' Dcotl>nni",.le FHll1lC"l ~hurtuf(,!! . ;"'\5

ChllJlLr1' 2.. BEAMS :11

1.2. Gt'I...... t :u
2.2. 1I1.'/lf'linn lunuf'f\oCo Lilk~ lor :;IIllIII)' !'ul'l""!"" n"all'~ Mlh
01 Wlll'h"~ O~crhllllg aIi
3.2. fkmlilllr jl,I'Jml'n~ ~HlIl 1'111.'11, lun"<'uce l.1I11.'- I".S'"'I"l' !:tu.,...
1)01...11'11 Rllllrn~ with o. Wilh..,ut Ow.h:.ng <\1)
4.2. InOIl"I!tt' Li,,('~ f"r Siml'I., LllhUII.'I'(" TlI'lIm~ 4R
5.2. IUnHIl"(11 Lilies io Ca;>o.'~ 'If Ilidln!et LOllo.l Al'pllcllli,," ~l}
6.2. Dl.-l,l.'I"'HII~lion (If F(>.'(<,s n,,,I hlolUollls '~ltl! tlte ,\,,1 "f 1,,-
n'!l'lle<' 1.1111'$ . . 52
7.2. Dl)t.\'rtHlu~ti"n uf lhe ~Iost l!IIIIl\l,n';lhll' l'".-.(i"u ul a ,.,1111,1 ~~')
8.2. I)l'tf'l',ullllll;(>n "I MuxilltlUlI .\I(lItll'l1l- ~nd r"rrl''' 1'~i1lR
EquiYl1lt'nl I'ulfor," L(O:ul~ . . . . . 711
9.2. \l1l1t-i-P311 SIIILi...lllly Dl't.t'1\unatll L~,tl" ..... ,r,
10.2. Dl'h'tmilll1lil'n of M"lllenL~ IInd P.... rel.~ In,lul:,-,'l hy :lI Sycll.'lll
01 Fi_"ed LOlld~ in \luhi!I".n sl.t~311y O",l<;nlllllall' ~lImC 11'0
11.2. !nO,u,,,tO l.il"",~ for \1,,11;5'1"'11' StllllUH)' Dl'~rmit<ate Iw;"n~ !II
12.2. l:ll'!l<!iniil toIolU .. n~ and Shl,llOoing ""one.... luduccd h)' f',~(tl
L6:ld" in 51.. Ucall) O... t .."nin;oh Ikllt. KIK"" F,aUIl.!S IIltd
BN'O" "I Polntonal n .....igu !~')

Ch.l'~t 3. THREE-HIMBEO ARCHES AND fRAMES . . If)"

1.3. Thteo-liingedSyst.l'lns . tilt,
2.3. !:illpptorl nelactions "Ill '1'hrcll.lllngcd Areh 11"17
3.3. D"knninat.ion of Sll'('$.'Ie~ in Tltl'l:(\-llillged ,\t'c,llV~ 114
6

4,3. \r:nJloum ECOlHllllY Arrh~~ 128

5.3. J)(>~ll;n hf Thl'OO-Hillged <\l'chos Subj,'c,\el! to :\1l1"inll LOil,Ia 12':1
&.3. CfIr.' Mnnwnl.s. and Nlwmal :::tr(lSS<~S in Thrl'()-Ilingnd Ard,('a 142
1.3. "\II:dy~is "f 'flir('c-~ling('il Tiel! Arches Hod U('lll,s j4<1

Cb~pt{>r 4. THE TRUSSES 1:--,0

1.... DidiJlJtl(lo~ Rul! CIas-~iftCfl.U(\fl of Trussl's 150
2A. DII'l'cl, )lcllwds or i".l"(!sS J)elel'lnin~lion in \1"'JlItlPr~ ur
Sltnlll" 'rrH~."Cs . 1;;3
3.4. Grill,ldeal "'1,tlJ(Jd.,f Slr,s.s AUilly~is in Si",ple 'frlJs",-'s 1i4
4.4. I);n'd\\['llwd of Slro"~ Ol'tel'lllj,,~tiQn ill CompJiralcd Slnl-
jeull}' D"l(,rmlllllle Frauu,,<l Structures HI2
5.4. ~Lr(''''~ Di~Lrlblllj('n ill Dilfel'llllt TYPI)S of Tr\l~es 186
8.4. \II~Jy_i~ of (:(,(~Mlrical StllhiJity or \lramI'd Structures 191
7.4. IlOnlle1l- Lines fnr ~It"s~~ III Simple f'l'''m('d Structll"~'~ fro
8.4. 1111111('1":1' r.IJ",s for Slr('~ws in Cmnpliealed rr~med
Slrlld',,~s . 213
8,4. TnJ~>('~ \\;lh Subdivided Pmltls . 216
10.4. 'I'hru'\. Dtw(lJupinll' Fr","e.1 Sh'~Jet"r(,5 U~
11.4. V.. ri",l1.~ ur Tn,~,*d Archl'S 231,

Chapter 5. SPACE FRAMEWORk 21,:~

1.6. C"JJNal . 21o;{

2,5. Rr~Cl' l'ram{)work SUllI'Juil.s 245
3.5. '1'11,' f"rlna~i'Jn or SIHin\lIy DN{!rl1li)lat~ Sp.'c'! rrnm('\\'ot'k 2!'i:I
4.5. Sln'~ An~lpJ~ In Split.!! Fr:llUl'wm'k 251
5.6. Ih,\Iuplos of Sfrl!S.' ;\nl\lysi~ in Spllcn Ihmnework 257

Chaplur 8. KINEMATIC METHOD OF INFLUENCE LINE CONSTRUCTION 1t'i1

1.6. (,;l'lI"nll 261
2.6. H&sic Prmciples of the Kin('lnatic ~{{lt"(>d 2tl2
3.8. 1l1'1'!aC('\lwnl <lr CUflstralllts by Corre~)lolldj\1g Forces 266
4.6. Conslruct;"" of Ib" Di~lljllrcmcnl Graphs 269
5.6. l)ell'I'mi"aIIOIl or thl.' Sc.a]., Fuc,tor 273
6.6. The Sigil CUll\'l,,\UOn 2,:)
1.6. 1~~Mlll!les of illfiuC'llrl!- Liu{\ Connruelion 27f'

CbapLrr 7. RETAIIlINB WALLS AltO EARTH PRESSURE COMPUTATION 2~1

1.'1, G('lwr"l 2$\1

2.'1. Phy~ica] p!'<,pC'rtiC'$ 01 GrauulM :\Iuterials 2.'12
3.7. ,\c_l.i\'C' Pr('~sure of Grnl1ulal' MUIC'rials 2'14
 C~lIlrlljJ 7

4.7. Gtllphi"lll Oetennlnation oC Maximum .\Gti,-.. 1'''''.'lSUr.. 2lI7

5.7. Ponc:ell'l's Metbod . . . . . . . . . . 2!lO
6.7. Ml'thod 01 Direcl Comput.tion of .the E~rtl. I'rl!:'!~lre 2!.l2
7.7. PNl"\i~lltBr Ca~ 01 P~Il'" Compultliun 298
8.7. l'aSl!i,,1' l'I'!'."lre o[ Gr:anubr Materials 3(}.'1

0131'4>" a. STRAIN ENERBY THEORY AND :GENERAL METHODS Of DIS-

PLACEMENT COMPUTA.TlDH 310
1.8. OmIPnlt 310
2..8. Wurk '1[ EXll'I'nol Fnrn's 31(l
3.6. Sirloin Eneri;)' 3J7
4.6. l'I",ot'C'1ll of H,-eipn1ul WO,.kK ('I'h"OR111 01 B"lly) 321
5.6. l'hl'o'('lIl "r Ilt'C-il'roc.a1 Dil\lllllceln"ll~ (Th('ort'lll 'If Muwelll 325
6.6. Mlltl,o,l~ of Di~plll~(,llll'"t Comput.alion :'127
'1.B. "l'mp!'I'alurl' Sll1lill~ . . . . . . . . 3..17
8.8. Ui!pIIWlnen\ c'0Il11I1,loali,,,, 1'.... hnillut5 ~
9.8. E:(tltnpl,'$ "f Di!'pIMHnf'nt Comp"tation U!lllllt \"'I'l'-
sItfI1l1Ii:i,,'1l )1('I!tod 31.<;
10.8. Str:oin En<.'<'1ty MNhoo or Di~pl:lt'l'fl'l6nl (:"'111"'\31''''', :\:'".5
11.8. TI.1' EI'II\;r Loads ~Iclhod 357
12.8. Si.Jlpli~1 It"Vre."i"'iOll "1 EI/t.~llc lPad.'\ rOt &-llM lInl! It ill;II
Ftllllle.~ . . . . . . . . . .. 31'>3
13.8. Simplirll!il f.lIl'l'('s;l,on of Elastic LOlItI,. I(\r 1-li,IIo...C"ulll'(.lJ!'d
SlrllClurell . . . . . . . .. ;I!;t;
14.8. Il,rol"l'llnli()n~ of Sllllically D"'Le'T11inll\e Strllo:_l"r... ~ C~u'td
b~' lh(' :\11'l\'~!IIo!llt or SUJlpOl'l-l! . . 3;2
15.8. Def""IIllllill"e \,[ a Killemlllic Chain (:lIu'NI I.)' lh\, )[utual
nulatiull of Two Nelghbourilllj: LIJlk~ 316
16.8. D... notli(>n~ of Threc-Diml'o~llInIJ F'rllnu)d !ihn~t"I1!S . . . 37~

Chllrtor 8. A"ALYSIS OF THE SIMPLER STATIClLlY [NDETERMIIlATE

STRUCTURES BY THE METHOD OF FORCES 38.1
Ut Gooetltl . ;llI3
2.9. (""1I001cal EqttatiuMo Ded\l1I by Ihe MKh<>d ot fore.... ::ltl!l
3.8. Analyoi". "f \h,' Simpler Ill'llundlnt Strllctu~ 3\\-1
4.8, Slres"l.'JI In 1l ...I"nllllnt Struclurl/!S due to Temper:lture
r.hallll'('s .............. 408
5.9. Sln'~"'C" in Iledund:lnl Slru~t""'5 Cau!('il by Ihe J\lO\'~
lI,enl uf SllPPort.~ . . . . . . 410
8.8. Diayr.. m~ ll,ll Shollriny IJId Direct S\l'('.."l.'S. Checklnlt of
Dil'grlllU8 <lIS

'1.9. SItIl'nS Du,l D"ncetimul uf :>lll\lcnlly Ind~lenninllle Struc-
~m Q3
8.9. The Ehl~~it_ (;f'1l1,ro Muthod . i2~i
9.9. II1[hlcllf,.' Lint" fur tJu~ Siml!Jl!f Ill'Llllndllll1 Strlldur('l' 1,31

CIIIII'!u 10. CONTINUOUS BEAMS <\<\1

1.10. Th('('n'm (;/. TllrOO "'''"Ulr.nl.~ 3i1
2:.10. Till;' f'Ot'd I'owl.. MHI,I)(I <\~3
3 '10, LI"nrli"g Mo'm!!,,! 1::"",,1,,1'1': Cut\'('" <\61
.10. l"nm'IIeu Ulll'~ r~'r (".roIJll\Il"'~ /1"10, 411(,

CJ'~I'I,'r 11. REDUNDANT ARCHES ',71,

1.11. I}dillit,nn~. Ch"i("ll "I tlu:. N"Ulrnl Lint' . . ,-;.)
2.11. Arcl,,-. with '-ari,l.Ie CI'Os......."fcl'"nal DlmC)lsivlU! 4.'\11
3.11. l;onj"R3to SI'ltieall)' D"to.'rmiJ'lllt' Slrudures U5Cd for Stnt~.
AuaJysl~ of nu..1 End Arehes ~bl
4.lT. ~\pl'r<>lImllll' lI(_thlXl~ of DE'gl!:Jlllwl An.l)-~i~ of Fix,~ En,!
Arth(,-" "i8',
5.11. !;;ff'l'l'L or Shrltlk~"1! lmd 'l'ClIl/ICI'ollll'O Chllnge~ On ,",ul',1 En,l
IIdn'.....l!d C..-.no:",t(' Aro:,hl'3 :,11'1
6,11. I)itt.... ~ C.'~lLl'"t~1 i,," or l'ulubnlk Ylx,~l ["d Arches 521
7.11. '1 "" .. tll"ll'.-d Al'l:hc!' .:.~

Chapt.l!r 12. ANAL YSIS OF HIOHl Y REDUNDANT STRUCTURfS 32!1

1.12. 1I~ "I :::}'I1lIl'l('tr)" 52':1
2.12. C,"l'I'I"II1: "r tho UllknQWll~ ~
3.12. ~Ylllmulri'<1I1 '11,,1 Anti~rrnfll()lriCll.l Lo~djnl; &');.;
".12. Lt>.UII Trlln~rVnJlllti"n 538
5.12. A(C:'IfIl"~' c.."uu,,\..,1 All thi! 't\'rm,.: Ent('ring the Simultllnoous
I::tl'''''''''l~ :>42-
6.12. .\hiolllC'd 1'dl"tlllu (lr C... noniral l':quillioll!l M~
7.12. ~""r" I "r..h\"m" ill Strc:>.'! J\l1l1l)~i~ or Illlduodllllt Frames ~'\I-.
8.12.Shlinll)' In<!('tf!/'t,,inal.c "l'rll"lI(lS . . . . . :'7,;)
9.12. C:"lllpHll,~i.,u "f !lotlltlcully Ind('ll'.'mlllllle ~t;uelurl'lI with
the "id 01 1'uul'lcr StrucLure,!! lil'ilundll1ll' tu a 1.O\\er Oegreo .=.t>r
10.12. 11lIluNlc. LlIle Modd~ 101' Gonlir,,'Ou~ U,~~m.. :il:s:;

Chapter Ta. SlOPE AND OEFLECTlONS. COMBINED AND MIXED METHODS 5B8

1.13. Cl'uiol:e of l:"kllown>' 58lt

2.13. O('wm,;u.ti,.n of the Xumlll'r 01 Unkll<l\\'11'" 5\,.-,
3.13. Thl' CUlljUl:lltll F.y"It'1n of lletlUlldilllL r.l.'lItro~ :)03
 4.13. Canonical Eqllalinn~ }<.'Culiar tQ lill' Sll'loe ""d D....necli.. n'
Method 001
5.1', SllIticlll /II.'lhod hi Dl'll'rminiug tlit> C"f'ffICll'lI~S III ~hll
Unkn"wlIs and the frCI} 'l'l'rmll r~11
6.13. Dcll'l'mim,lion or th~,(:oemdcllllllo tl1l' Ulll;lIoWlIlIa.n,1 of tllll
F1'('tl Tl'mlS by the ''l'11101l Qf Grllpll .Mu1tilllieation 612
7.13. Ch('cklllj: Iht' f;oofIOeil'''~ to Lhe l"kllu..... n~ and th~ F~
Tet'nJ" I""'lailllng to tl.... Simultanl;4>U'" j:;'lualions of tile
Slupe an,1 lJl'neeli"nll Ml'lh,wl t~1"
B.13. C.on~ruelllJn of 1I,0;lf. fri and Q Diagram" filii
9.13. CUllllh,lulioJ' or lho TI'l,nhlll Strllill~ [')' tlwSlopoJlluID,.nl'C-
tion~ M"thrH\ Ut~
10.13. AlllI\~'!i! of Symllll.'lrie.lI\ Slrlle.tun~ 624
11.13. ,\n KJ:lllfll,l.. of Fr""I1' AlIlIl~'~i", hy till' SIt'I'" am1 01.'0,,<,110115
""l'lIlod . Il~
1~.13. 11,, Mhed Moth.,,) 641
13.13. TIl.. C<Ilnbinr.\l ;\I"thooJ ~l;
14,13. C""l1lnlelioll Of!lln""llel' LUll' Ity Ihe ~I"\le al,,1 DenCCUOlIS
~1~11",,1 f-4'1

Chllpter 14. APPROXIMATE METHODS OF STRESS ANAL VS IS FOR REDUN-

DANT FRAMES 65,
1.14. c.:11l'itiflCJl.l;nn of A\ll'rn:dlllllte MelhO(ls (,,~
2.14. The M"th<lC1 of Momt'nl Dill\ribuli..,u 6."i5

Chapter 15. MODERN DESIGN METHODS rm

us. ll"lIle Princ.itJlt'II I1ti7
2.15. DO"IGn (.If Sll,tJ(llll)' Oetermillllt' H('lllllS . fj71
1.15. DO!'liO uf Slatic"Uy Indcle'1n;n:lt" Delllo!' 6.5
4.15. Df'~iRn of Itl'thuuJllnt rnlln~ :md AlT.he.~ ~
5.15. D(><oil;n of nllltll\llI:ITl~ 'l'rUJl'''t''' 693
6.15. II'<J"ntlan\ S\.lllclurt"! Suhjtetl'd 10 Hl'f'rol ..d L'la,\ing 69<1
Ind~.'( G97
 INTRODUCTION

Structural mochanics is a science which sLudillS the strength.

the rigidity and the stahility of engineering slruet.llrc~ find P1Hts
thereof. The strcngth of mAterials dealing with the strength.
rigidity and stability of isolated member!!; the t.heory of Hl3stici-
ty. which is cooceroed with tlte same problems but gives more
strict solutions; the theory of plasticity which invcstigtltes the
stresse-c; and strAin!! of plastic and elasto-pl:lstic rnatf)rinls. and
rmally the theory of structluc!:l which studios the strength. riA'id-
ity and stability of whole structures-all form pMI.s of this
discipline.
It was Lellllnr<:!o da Vind 04:J2~1:119), th~ gl''l)at llalintl sden-
tist aJld artllit, who was Ute first to formutale a number of valuable
idea!! on the strell~th of malerials. These ideas nover ht-flume widely
known And remained confIned to his manu~criJllS un Ulechanical
research. In those days, large-scale studies of prohlems which form
the subject of contemporary stf1lclural mechanics wert;> "tlorty
impo&'lible. Oldy partial 8Ohltions of isotatod problems rclatNI to
l.he strength of certain structural members could 00 obtained.
The emin~llt physicist, mathematician and astrollonu".r Galileo
Galilei (1564.-Hi42) is generally considered to be the father of scien-
tilic studies in tho strength of enginu("rin~ malerinls ami structures.
11' thoso days the expansion of maritime trade called for large
increases in the tonnage of cargo vessels and for improvements
in their desiRJ1. Dealing' with thesa questiolls Galilei discovered
that the ship's overall strength and sea-worthiness could not be
satisfactorily fHlsured silnply increasiug' the dimensions of hel'
Ulember~ ill direct proportion to her si7.e. He also proved that the
dead weight to ultimate load ratio may dmer for geometrically
similar bodies.
Galilci's .~tudies of beams subjected to bcnding led him to a num-
bcr ()f valuable conclusions which have Mt lost interest up to dale,
JlUt he was unable to develop a true naxural theory, as he procee1led
from a false conc.eption that the whole cross s.cction of lhe beam is
uniformly extended. Neither had Galilei allY knowledge of the rcla-
lion existing between stresse~ alld strains. The simplest form o(
12

(hi!! relalion Will' di!<o\'cnJ1 ill 1G78 by H()Lt'rt Hooke ,,'hu e~pl'l!~d
it as "uL tC-tlsiu sic vis" (""Ihl' t'xtellsion is liS lt~IIL as Lhe forcc")_
The facl that l'(lmpN'-$'<i\'~ slrcs."CS;l, '\Oitdl as the tendle Odes l'XiSl
in the ao~ Sl'cliun of It ht'am suhjcclcorl to J'f'lltling was discoven:d
in lh(' s(lc(lllll half of l'!to HHh coni ur)' as tho OUI.C.OIllC or It S(.ri,'s "f
tl:8lS condudl'll with grl'nl thorolJglml;.,~, At that /.iuto tilt' rapid
dt\v'llopmcnl. of t.rncle.s lIrl(1 indm:lriC'H. was c(lll~tanl.ly (',ailing FIJI'
neW :"'illlllifw acllic\'l'ItIClll~'1 Among whkh was thl' COn'~ct soluLlul1
nr ~he I"rolJlcm of bendin![' pnt. by Glllilei,
SiglJirlcltut atll'ltnct'~ ill lIigllN In:llhttnHitks and mt'chllIlics
achieved ill th~ 18th Ct'otury l'ontributC'd greatly Lo lilt, t/(lyclop-
merIt of sludil's in till) strellRth uf cHllt'riMI! I\lld slrllClllro~, Works
by J. I~agrrlll'lo 1I1lt! L. Euler wtlre of IJOrtkular inl)KlrlallCC in Ihis
ro5lk'Cl.
Vigorous gftl",lh of iudllslry in thco HHh cell(UfY. thl' illtroduc~
tiOll or. the .. tl!llIll l'Il!!;illl', thc cOlljjlrut,tiOll of railways, bridges.
dams. CMlltds, 11\'l."1' su'amships and lln..IlL Luihlil)g!'I lIccclt'ratpd
thl.l sLudit's ill lilt' stn'llgth of 1'1lgi11C{!r11l1(' Illllwrial~ und alrut:lurcs,
The cvorgrowin~ comrJluKilr 01 strudural forms lInd tho pre.~sill.r,r
dornalHI fC/r 11 l'('llurliOIJ ill IJllildil1g' co"ts resulted ill lilt' develop,
1110111 of new lIIolbo.l:; of .\Ilr<'Htl'th cOlllputrllion :lnd in the forlllali(ill
of a lIew ulIgincoring- scioJlcc-strudllfl\l mcdll\lIirs (tll"o rlllloll
Lho tht'ory of 1IIr'll:t<l"-OS).
Trtl:;5e:;, al'\'lu::d Sy>ltCIIIS, rclninillg wnlb and ri,l.!id rrames form
the nll\iJl c1aS'<cs (If structures d~all. with 11)' 1II(l(Il::1'11 :<Irllclnral
ll1('chanics,
III thl.ir simplest form Jnltn~' of thost' strlWtllteS h:id lIi..-en all"l'adY
1I~'(1 by Lho 11IIcit'lIls, bUl the methods or their cOlnl'ullI.tioll l't'lllailll'ld
ulllwoWII.
A L prU,'ll.'nl. trllSSI.'>l Ilud Irian.!tuJaled S)'!llcms Rl'C widol)' u:;CII
irl hrirlge lllld rllof t~oll:;t.lIcLi()1J (hridge IIUrl roof Irus,S!.'s) liS well
liS ill lra\'c.llirtJC 1;,1'.1 lit':>. toWt'r Cl'UIH.'i'S. Ilowerlinc lowcr.':\, R('fi~d
:'llppol'l.s ,uHt in a largo 1l11UdJ('.1' uf othl'r slnlfl,l'lres.
Arched ,~YSlI'IIIS JnflUl' their IIppl'arll.nr", ill allcil~lIl, ROJllc. wh('f(l
thoy WOfIJ iltlCCC....c;rulJy used rur the cOlISlrllclion of nl3S1lnrr brid~1'1!
Ilnrl aqut'lhll'l..'!, In tile i'K'COIlt! hnlf or Lhe 19Lh ('entury thc!'l6 sJsl.ems
becnmo useu ill Sllocl-brid'lt.l construction Mid in the 20Lh ("","ltlty
reinforce.<! cOII('rolt' Ill'.,.'omes tile ffi::lill Itlnterinl USL'li for Illat Lype
of 51 rucll.res. ,\ I prcSl}nl arthcd sy"'lcrns nr.' widely u.;cd in ninny
killd;'l or Iltrgt'-sI13n construction work.
llttainillg .....alls have h{'('n used to prevent. tllo ~Iiding down (\{
steep !ollopt's in varj.ltls hfUllchos of engineering activi I,it's sinCC' ti III~-S
inlnJelllorial. Higid frAllleS became \\'i,!e.spn'ad ill mudern tinll'S,
reinforced cOllcrelc (llld litcel frames uciuK' ,'urren!!y ulled for tllC
COl1strucLion or si IlgJe llnd mlllti~toricd i nil usl ri3 I Anrl other bui1dinW!.
 As a rcsu II., mulhoos of compuLllLioll of COllLllhcllk,J rcduuoullL
strudllre." tHin.! bt.-ell furLllC_r pcrIcc\.iollcrl and simlllifJcll lu such
an ('.:ttclll that today tJll'Y nrc lIscd in everyday lh:.<:i/oCll prartice.
IlllporLllnt IHlvanc('s hll\"e 1I1so hl'tln mndc ill lhu stud ius lIf thin-
walled tuhular 8()clioll~ which MU rrcqul'ntly lltiliZl~d ill uircrnfl
constl"llctioll as well as in otber brnnches flr cng:illcerillll'_ Vuriolls
probltlUlS N"11\tud 1.0 tile stability of structure."l Iwvl;J bl.'ell sUl~ct'$rtllly
soh'cd. or hiLa t.he nYtlami,,. of IHlginl.-'lJring iltrucLures hu\'& bciln
acqllirillg all eVllr illcrell~illg impurtnncu. 11. forms 1l0W a scparntc
brr\llc]l or 1111.1 f;tl'llctllral Ulccbar1ic."l, Slllllll os Lhl' l,heory or 1I1l\'ul
alld neronautical an:hite<.:turo.
I\[nung t.he Soviet scienlists and I't.!SllArch workers the folltl\\'ing
hH\'C made Lhe great.eSl.l,lontributinlls to the dev~lopmcllt of strnctur-
allllcdlnnics: A. Krylov, U. GaJl.'rkin, A. Gvoldo\', H. Zttemochkirl.
1. RnLinovkh, N. SLrcllll~ky, I. Prokofytlv, N. BCluktwv, N. Bclya-
cV, V. Bototin. K. Zavriev, A. Smirnov, S. PunOmllrtW, V. Vlasov
M. Filonellko-Borodkh, P. Papkovich and 1\. SniLko.
 1. KINEMATIC ANALYSIS
OF STRUCTURES

Lt. SUPPORTS

Struct.ural mechanics deals wilh u'lyidding systems Hr st.l'llctun:.....

in other words, wilh sucb slruct.llrlll systems no point. or which
can be displaced without a deformation ()f tbcirelcmenlS. The immu-
lahility of such syslems (their It"t'ometrical Rlability) .....ith rul3liuIl
to the ground - is ensured by m~alls of !lupports. ReactiofllS ftrisinl:
at these supports together with the- applied loads [orlll n balanet'<!
system of outer or external force.. which mAintain the ~tructuru ill
equilibrium.
Let 115 first l'>.l'lminQ the diIferent types of supporls which may
be encountered in plane slruclun'!i.
The I1rst lYllt! as represented ill Fig. 1.1 con..~i.sts of two rockor.o<
(the upper and t.he lower GUll) with 8 !lin in betwi.'en pcrmiltillg
the rotation of tho upper roc.kef with respect to lhe lowor Orll'.
At the same timl.l both lockers
CUll move to"ether 1111 rollt'rg along
the bearing plate.
'1'hu~, the system has t ....o dtlgret'!1 of frt'(l.dom, "he friction deve]opt,d
in the bc-arinl: boiR!: usually neglootcd. The rcnctiou or thi.... type
of support pa~s through. the centre or the pill and is perpcndicubr
to the bearing plate surface, Le.. lo the surface along which lh~
roBets may traveL Thus, only olle parameter of the r('llction, Le ..
its magnitude, has to be known in order to determine this l"C<aCliOll
complctt'iy.
Supporls of this type s.re known SlS jre#' ~nd or movable rolkr
support.!. Schematicall)' they are represented by ono bar with hinged
onds" (Fig. 2.1).
The bar is convtlnUonally considered lo be of inflnite length;
its upper extremit.y may mov~ only <alu/lg n straight Hnc, DorD1<a1

The word ,rOllml wiU hen'alter refer to any rigid invnriable body .
.. In ,,;ome ca!e5 lIlovllbla supports aclualh' cOIl:!lsl or a v('rtienl e!l.'D1NLl
with hingo! al both extremltjell, in whieh ease t)ley nrr rofl'l"l'I)tl 10 ll'" l)~rHlulu",
fllppurlf. .
I" Kill~"'lI/IC AIlIlIII~I. of Slrl<clurCI

~::'1=~t:_~-:r
.__ liingo

~-
,,-
rf)Cker

Fig. J.1. Fig. 2.1 Fir; ..~J

F: : -.:' '.'.

FI,. 1.1 Fig..';.1

,
,
--------+--- -
,
,

Fig G.I
 17

t.o its axis, a straight line being a circumference of infinite radiw.

The bar is also regarded as infinitely rigid so that its strains can
be completely disregarded. These two conventions fat very do..~ly
into the actual \\"Orking conditions of supports ()f the type just
described.
Tile second type of supports differs from the first one by the fact
tbat t.he lower rocker is fixed and cannot move (Fig. 3.1). This type
of bearing possesses only one degree of freedom. It. is u~lllally termed
hi/teed imMOl)tJble or flUdo end support.
The reactioll will still pass through the centre of the pin, but
its direction may be arbitrary, and accordingly to determino it
c,ompletely two para,meters have to he found-its mo.gnitudc and
direction (or, which'\.; the same, the magnitude of two of its compow
nents, say. the vertical and the horizontal one).
Sehematically the second type of support may be represented
by two bars with hinge.!! at their ends, the top hinge being COmmon
to both bars (Fig. 4.1). That fixes the point of application of the
reaction which coincides with the top hinge. hut in thi.!! case the
r1irection of this force remains unknown.
The directions of the bars themselves may be chosen at will as
allY force may he resolved into two compo0t:nts of any direction.
Tbe lbird type of support is the bulltin end (Fig. 5.1) whose
degree of freedom is nil. The determination of the reactions devel-
oped by this support requires the knowledge of three paramet.crs-
the direction and magnitude of a force passing through tiny point
chosen at will SlId the magnitudl! of tbe nloment about tho same
point. Actually this forms a combinotion of the reaction of a hinged
imillo\'abl~ support with the reactive moment.
This type o[ support may be represented by three bars ns in
Fig. tu. To atlain perfect rigidity or the support the distance lo
must be rt'garded as extremely small or tho builtin end of the beam
as absolut.ely rigid.
It is worth noting that tilt: nlUltbn' of bars t, theu $C'~m4lic repre
$tntallons 0/ S/lpplJrtl il alwaYI ~qu.Ql to tM numbu Of parameters
thtn-mintng compklely the r~tUUvn at thi! ~UPPOTt.

:2.1. GEOMETlIlCAt. STA.B1Ll'fY OF FflAMED STRUCTUllES

FrfUlU'd or through str~turt'$ ('onsist of a series of separate, u!lually
straight, membllrs connected together by welded, ri\'etctl, bolted
or other t}pcs of joints. Oue of the simplest t\Vo-dimcnsioual forms
of framed structures is tho plane truss.
In most MSOS tilll joints of framed structure!! are not hiugtd and
possess a certain dlJU'retl of rigidity. The exact computatioll of trusse.'l
wHh rigid joint!! is oxtremely eomplic8tcd fl5 the system becomes
Z-U3
"
many times staticaHy indeterminate. On the other band, when rigid
joints are conventionally replaced by hinged ones, the analysis
becomes greatly simplified and under certain conditions equations
provided by statics alone will suffice.
Tests carried out as well as the results of theoretical analysis
indicate that in general the conventional introduction of hinges
does not lead to any substantial errors in stress computations per-
taining to through structures loaded with a system of forces acting
at the joints. Therefore, for design purposes ordinary trusses are
always regarded as being hinge-jointed.
Let us now examine a system consisting of three rigidly con-
nected straight bars as represented in Fig. 7.1a.. lf the rigid joints
are replaced by hinges. the system will continue to be Uftylelding
(Fig. 7.1b), i.e., it will he uDcapable of undergoing auy distortion
without the deformation of at least one of the bars.
Should, ho.....ever, the quadrilateral system, shown in Fig. 8.1a,
undergo the same treatment, we shall obtain a system whose shape
can be alured (Fig. 8.1b) without any deformation of its
members.
The simplat unyielding system consisting of a number of separate
pin-jointed bars is a triangle with hinges at all tbe three vertices
(Pig. 7.1b).
Let us establish the rules governing the formation of geomelri.
cally stable systems comprising more than three pinjoillted bars.
In tbe first instance let us examine a system consisting of two
bars (Fig. 9.1) placed along a straight line and connecting joint
C with two fixed points A and B. If the bars AC and BC were
disconnected at point C, the extremity C of bar AC would become
free to move along the circular arc m-m, while the extremity C
of bar BC-along the arc n-n, the two fll'CS ha'l.'ing a common tangent
at point C. It follows that if the extremity C of one of the two bars
moves over a very short stretch along a perpendicular to AB, the
other bar will offer no resistance. Thus, the system is geometrically
unstable, as its shape can be altered without any change occurring
in the length of its members or, in other words. without any defor-
mation of the bars.
Hereunder we shall refer to systems consisting of two bars placed
along a straight line (see Fig. 9.1) as imtanta.neoudy umtable.
these systems becoming rigid as soon as a small shift of point C
along the perpendicular to AB has been completed.
The situation would change entirely if the two bars AC and BC
were not in alignment (Fig. 10.1). In this case the circumferences
m-m and n-n have uo common tangent, and, therefore, even the
slightest displacement. of joint C is impossible without a correspond-
ing deformation of the bars.
2.1. GeometrIcal Stablllly pt F,anud StnUIII'" 19

"" ".
AA
".;.-
.

(oj -

fI,t. 7.1
... {tJ}

,
:
.
' . - .-~-~-~-~-~_._._'--"
:
,
,
,, ,, ,
A'----4'
(.1
FIt:. ~.I

m ,n
,
,.
ie 8/:
.
,"
'm 'n
r
,m
,,
, -n
~,,~c-_
A?-.--------n-",:~

F'K. 10.1

,.
20

It follows that each addilional joint forming part of a geomet-

rically stabJ~ systom must be attached thereto by means of two sepa-
rate bors the axes of which do not lie
6 1 S S l i S l l ) on the same line.
Comequently. any system fhvel

~, aped from a hinged tri-angk by suc-

cessive addition of joints, each flew
;oint being connt'cted la two existing
onrs by two bars not in alignment,
wtll be geomnrically stable (invar-
iable). Systems so formed will be
called hereafter simple fra med struc-
tures in order to distinguish them
, , z It 5 7 !I from the complicated ones. usually
(lcrived from the former by replace-
ment of a number of bars or hy
97SJlu 6 superposition.

~
All the plane tru5..'<tJs represented
in Fig. 11.1 belong to the simple
8 {i S b frames, each having beon obtained
successively by adding hinged joint.~
7~ to a basic pin-connected triangle
abc. in the sequence indicated. Any
9 S 2 I
triangular combination of three
70742 pin-jointed bars may serve as a basis
for verifying the gcometrical stahil-
9 J ity of simple framcd structures.
Thns, any system consisting solely
11 8 s , 1)/ triangles l.~ obvtously unyieldi'lg
7 s , (geometrically stable). This property
may be checked with etplal SUC('es~
in a reverse order, viz., by rejectill.lC
onc by one all the hinged joints
together with the two bars abutting
to each of them. If in the outcome
, a pin-jointed triangle is obtairu'd the
system is glJometrtcally stable.
Fig. 11.1
.Let 115 now establish the rclo-
tion between the number of bars
ond joilltll forming a simple truss. As stated IlllOve, such a truss
consist~ of. onc basic. pin-jointed triangle, to which a number of
additional joints have bllen successively attached, each by means
of two separate bars not in alignment. Let S be the number of hars
and K the number of joints. The hasie triangle consists of three hars
and thrl'o joints; all the othor joints, numbering (K - 3) are
 2.1 Gtamdrlctd Sfal>"/t/l af Framtd Structure!

attached by means of two bars each. Therefore, the total number

of bars in :\ simple truss will be
S~3+2(K-R)~2K-3 (1.1)
If the number o( bars S < 2K - 3, the tmss does not contain
a number of hars suffleielJt to ensure its geornetrical stability and

D[z]~
(a) (b) (c)

Pig. 12.1

the system will evidently be unstable. All example of such a system

is furnished by a quarlranglo (Fig. 12:la) characterized by S = 4.
3ud K = 4. Consequently
S=4<2K-3=2x4-3=5
This quadrangle may be couverted into all unyielding system
by adding a IHth diagollral brar, as shown in Fig. i2.1b. Should

IIJ ,,,". ,.' "

Fig. 13.1

we introduce a second diagonal bar which would give a total of

sb: bars as against four joints (Fig. 12.1c), this sixth. bar would
be redundant from the view-point of geometrical .'llability. This
example shows that we may encounter geometrically stable systems
for which S > 2K _ 3.
It should be noted that the condition S ~ 2K - 3. tl/imgh neces-
sary, is not sufficient to e.nsure. the geometrical stability of a hinge-
connected system. Thns, the truss rep~esented in l~ig. 13.ia is
unstable although the number of its bars totals exactly 2K - 3.
The truss shown in Fig. t3.1b has an even greater number of bars
but still remaill5unstable.Tnis is due to tho fact that the right-
hond panels of both these trosscs consist of hingejointed rectangles.
'"
'Furthermore. in certain cases Iramed sLr\.c\ures for which tho COII~
dition S = 2K - a is fulfrlled may he instantaocollSl}' ullsl.1ible.
Let us now con"ider the problem of connecting gevJnctricAlly
stllble syslem.s to the ground hy IlleallS of support:!.

structure (plate) Structure (plate)

Iq) Ib)

In the majority of cases a plane structure (which nlay he rogarrled

as n rigid disk or pInta) will rest on two hillge SUPPOfU-Ollti lUovllble
and the olher riXt!d (Fig. 14. tal. This t}'pe of connectiOIl betWCl'D
ComfflOO
__----~_ hiflge

/'
," -o
~',
I \
(Plate)
,

Iq)
(b)
Fig. /5.1

structu.re and ground is geomotrically stable (unyielding). It is nOl

essential that two of the three !!Ilpporting bllrs should have a common
hillg9; indeed thoy may have nOlle (Fig. t4.1b).
However, should the directions of ~II tlie !lupporting bars inLersect
at one and the same point (Fig. 15.1/1',). this point will constitut~
an instanlanto/U centrt of rotation abollt which the whole system
will be able to accomplish an infinitely small rotary movement.
(Practically such a displacement lllAy become quite appreciahln.)
Once this mo\'ement accomplished, the supporting bars will no long-
er concur at the same point and llll fut,ther displacement.!! will
 23

!x'rOOlC impo.'lsiblc wilhout a corrc!lpollding dcfurmnliulI of these

bars.
.'\ system connliGlcd to the ground in the way lust de:-<'ribed will
be hlslaulnneously ullsl"blc and. therefore, such an arran~mcJlt
of supports C31l1l0t be tolerated.'
On 'he contrary. tb~ nonconcurring end DOlqlnralJel" bars
..... ilI lllways provide 1\ geometrically stable SuppOrt.

fIr. 16.J Fit. 17.1

All the above 8[)plie~ equally to t.he cOllocclion of any two g('o-
Illctrtcally s . . ,. ble slruclun-s (or rigid pla~) between thomselves
thus pcrnliUing to formulate the following rule: two rigid plate~ will
form a geometrically ,Iable (unyldding) sYltem 11 /My art connected
together by ml'llllS 01 thru bars which are not p01'alIel and do 1/ot con-
verge at a common pOint of intersectton.
If a hinge is placed at the point of intersection of nny two of the
three bllts and is connected to the plote, the system will remain
unyielding and may be regarded as consisting of two separate plates
cOnJll'ded by means of onl.\ r,ommon hinge and one bor (Fig. 1fl.1b).
It follows that two di$ks may be rigidly connected together u&ing Om!
hing(' olld one bar provided the direction 0/ this bar d~1 not pou through
the ce"tre 0/ thu htnge.
Three plates Inlly Le connected to form one single unyielding
~yslcm with the aid of tbrea hinges placed at the ,-erUces of a trinn-
i:le, ('nch of these hinges c.ounectingone pair of plates O'~ig, 16.1).
r\lterllatively the sall1e result will be obtained by placing six inde
pt'lldent bars (Fig. 17.1), as each hinge Dlay be replaced by two bars
illtcrst'Ctingt at the cenlre of this hinge.
However.! the sy~tcm represented in Fig. 18.1 is instantaneously
unstable, the intersectiolJs of the bars connoot.ing each pair of plates
+
As wHl bo shc;>wn in Art. 6.1" e\'01'I very small ull~rnal IOll.lls .nay streSS
tl.& installtaneousl)' IJn!toble systE'ms very hellylly.
"P~rlllIellinl'a hllying 9 )Joint of inter&l'Cttou in the infInity,
Ftf. 19.1

Fig. 20.1
 2.1. GeometrIcal Stabllltll 01 F"am~d Structure'

being in alignment. This system is similar to the one shown in

Fig. 9.1.
Thus. three rigid plates connected together with six bars, pro/lickd
each pair 01 plate$ is connected by two ban and pro/lided also the Inter-
sections of these two bars do not Ue along one stratght line, will always
lorm an unyielding combinatton.
Fig. 19.1 shows a number of systems constituted as jusL described.
A plausible arrangement of a statically determinate multispan
(clllltilever) beam is illustrated in Fig. 20.1 (such systems being

Fill. 21.1

dcscrihed in grcoler detail in Art. 9,2). Let us check the geometricAl

stability of this beam. For this purpose. let us first select SUUIC
unylcldinA' portiOll of the structure rigidly connected to the ground
end thon let us see whether all the other geometrically stable pal'lS
of the struNure are connected to the former by mMllS of a sllmcienl
numb!'r of bars. It should be kept in mind that the ground and any
portion of the structure connected to it with the required minimllm
of three bars constitute an unyielding combination uod thereforo
it is quite immaterial on which of the two the connecting bars will
take support.
In the system under consideration bar [ is rigidly connected
to the ground with the aid of three bars which have no commou
point of intersection and which are not parallel. Bar lJ rests on two
uprights standing directly on the ground and is attached to bar
I by means of the insert ab, Bur III is connected to har l/ in
a similar way. Finally, the hinge e nnd an upright connect the last
member el to har III and to the ground, respectively. Consequently
the system as a whole will he geometrically stable.
Another illustration is arIorded by the structure of Fig. 21.1.
The lateral parts I and III may be regarded as simple stays AD
and CP, and then it becomes apparent that plate II is connected
to the ground by means of three bars (one vertical B and two iuclioed
ones AD and CP) all of which intersect at one and the same point E.
This system is, therefore, instuotaneously unstable.
2H K/ntmaf/r Alla/ys/s of S/ruclllrts

3.t. STATlCAr.. r;'i D~:TElnHl\ATg }'[\M1E:1) STRUCTUr-lgS

As has been stated, an unyielding connection of a structure with
the ground may be schematically represented by th.ree nonconcurrcnt
bars. This type of connection is staticalIy determinate as the number
of reactive forces in these bars is equal to the number of equations
furnished by statics for coplansr forces io equitibrium (for inslancc,
EX_O. EY~O. ~M~O).
Any plane ~'tructure will be externally statically determinate (i.e.,
.~talically determinate with re/creme to the supports) i/ the. number

/
. ,,

(b)

P"g. 22.1

0/ parameters determining the rew:.tions at these supports is equal to

three. The supports in the following examples fulfil this condition:
(t) A combination of olle fixed and onB roller support for two-
dimensional structures supported at two points (Fig. 22.ta).
(2) A combination of three roller supports for the same type
of structures resting on threo fulcra, provided the directions of
the three reactions are neither concurrent not" parallel (Fig. 22.1 b).
H (I geometrically stable system. rests on four or more supporting
bars. three of which have no common point of intersection and are
not parallel, the structure as a whole is statically indeterminate
or redundant (Fig. 23.1). Equations provided by statics become
insufficient for the analysis of such structures, additional equations
hased Oil tho study of deformations or strai ns becoming indispensable.
HaVing formulated the cOllditio[}s under which a stmcture is
externally statically determina,tc, let us now examine those which
render a framed structure internlllly statically doterminate, i.e.,
 27

I ;J;:
Fig.
;J;:
28.1
1
f
~
P
-r

I,)
rig. 24.1
\ ~ 1'1
Fig. 2!U

~
' D',

I--..l-";':~+..l--"l'--<l--"l'--<l--"'l" " "

,
(b)

Fig. 20.1

Fig. 27.1
28 KIMmatit Analyd, 01 Struclurt.

such wbere the forces acting in all of its ban may be wmputed using
equations of equUibrium alone.
It. may btl sasily shown that stresses in the bars of a hinged truss
subjected to concentrated loads acting at the joints will be always
normal to the cross seetiODS of these bars. Indeed, having 58paralt>.d
one of the bars. say, bar ab, let U.!l llIoalyte the conditions of its
equilibrium (Fig. 24.14, b).
If no extern:11 load is applied directly to this bar, it.! equilibrium
will be ensured only in the case when the forces N acting on the
bBr through the hinges a and b are equal in amount but opposite
ill direction. TJlese forces will always pass through the contres of
the hinges since in our analysis theso are assumed to be frictlonles.'l.
It follows that forcas N will act along a Iiue connecting tho hinge
cenl.res and, therefore. the cross sections of bar ab will lie subjcetlJd
eith('r to direct t8nsion or to direct compression.
Should \.he ~rus.s contain curved bars, these will be suhjected to
bendillg 1Il0menls in addition to the normal forces just mentioned,
tile maximum value of these moments equalling M.,.u, = A'j
(Fi,lt. 25.1).
\\-"hell the truss as a whole i.! in equilibrium under the :!lction
of e:tLcrnal loads and reactions (Fig. 26.1a), each of it.! joints is
also in equilibrium (fig. 26.lb). Accordingly, the external load
applit-rl 10 any jnint And the internal forces in the bars conveI'l:ing
lit lids joint must be balllnced.
Statics will furnish each joint subjected to a system of concurrenL
cOpb.lIllf forces .....ith two eqnilibrium equllLions
zx_o aod !y=o
If the truss contains K joints, we mllY form 2K equations or
equilillrium wb.ich must provide for the determinotion of all the
inlernal forces in the members and of the three unknown param-
eters of the reactions. Any otber equilibrium equations which
may be formed for the truss as a whole or for any part thereof can
be derived from the above and consequently will contain no addi-
tional information.
Hence the truss will be statically determinate. if the number
of its ba.rs S ill equal to double the number of joints K less 3
S_2K_3 (2.1)
As will be readily ob~rved, this is tbe snme relation as the one
sivinl,{ the minimum number of bar.l of a geometrically stable system
lexpression (1.1 )1.
Consequently, any limpk truss obtaintd by the Sltccessiue addJ.tton
of foints to a htnged triallgle, each Joint being connected by means
u

0/ two baN IWl tn. alignment. is both geometrically slablt and SUltically
ddermi1U1te.
If. when rOlloting the Ilumber of bars of a truss, those forming
its supporls were also laken into consideration, expression (2.1) will
becomo
S,o/=2K (:~.1)

This rOrmUhl becCllnes particularly U!cful when the sll'uCI-ure

though being geometrically un1'!tnble (lblJ llumlJer of its bars totdlillg
I~~ tlUlll 2K - 3) is Innected to the ground in such a WilY that
I,ogothl:lr tlley form a single u.nyieldillg nnd stlllicaUy dctermiultte
5y81('III, A. structuro of that typtl is fl'Pl'oselltcd in Fig. 2;.1. Hero
Ko:::: 8 ""llile tho number of bars (suPllorting bars arc omiHed)
tolnls12. Thus the strudure is Ilustnlll", for
s= 12 while 2K-3=n
However. S/I>I (including (he supporting bus) is equal tu 16 "'hich
sRlislies equation (3:1) l\nd thcrefort! the whole system /Ilay he (and
in this c.'lse actually is) Loth Be<lmetricnlIy stable and Sl.lltically
dotertniulltc.
In a uatually tkt~rmJno.~ syslt:m all ~ bars art: absolutely illdi~pm
SQbk to t:nsurt: its gtomtlrlcal sl4bility. in otht:r UJords. i.n such 0. struc-
tuu lhrTl' U not a singlt: w/Hr/luoUJ (rrdundant) mt:mb~r.
When a geometrically stable system contains more hal'S th"n is
strictly ne>ssary it bceomes sto.ticalLlI indeterminate or rt'dundant.
The theory of strtlctures 8.llalyzfs only geometricallr 5Lahle
systems both statlcally detl'rminate aull ,~lattcldly illdetermillflte or
redundant.
The I'Hldl'l' i~ invHed to find out on his I,WIl to which of these two
culegnrirs UIC slruclllte,.o; rcprescrltt'd ill Fi~. 28.1 belong.

'"The ~llall'~js of su(\I, syUt'ms is co"si,l~rd in drlail )a1er (see Art, 6.4).
 2. BEAMS

1.2. GI>N~I\AL

'l'hf' rC'lldt'r hnvillg ulready studied the slrmglh of mattrials must

be fAmiliar whit methods pcrmittill{t the determinAtion of sLresscs
llctiu8' over the cross lIectioJls of .sl.alicoUy determinate simply $UP-
porled beallls. as well as with the eOIlSlruetiol1 of diagrams showing
the distribution of these stresses along Q beam subje<:ted to a system
of fixed loads. 'I'he sa me methods are used in structural mechanics.
'fhe following sigil convention ....ill be adopted hereunder: TIu:
waring force 0 (or 'imply the sll~ar) will be considerN positlw wkn
U tmtU to uplIft tht' left utremUII of flu rlght--hanJJ portion of Cl beam
wilh rc!erenu to tlu: right ezlremity of the left-hand portion, T~ bend-
lflg mommt At will bt: reckoMd positive when Lt tends to rotalt the kIt
atremity of the right-hand portion. Dj 4 lam. clockwik alld the right
rztremity of the kit-hand portion counte.rclockwise.
When tbe IURds an: not at right angles with the l\Xis (J[ n bea III ,
the Illller will also be subjected to forces N nOt'lllol to its erO$)
Jlt!ctions. These wW bll regarded as positive wltm they catlSC tensile
stresses and llegati/lt' when these stresses are compreulL't.
Positive directions o[ bending moments. sheariug nnd normal
forC(,ll are shown in Fig. 1.2. It will be seell that a posilivtl hendillg
or
1ll0tllCllt causes compression of the top Jibrl!S a bel1l1lllnd all exlen-
sion of the lower ones, while a positive sbollr will tend 1.0 roll\tc eAch
portion of the beam clockwise with reSIJect to its otllCr !;!IId.
When ploUing thl' diograms of shearing and normnl forces their
positive values should be scaled orr aoo\'e the %-n.xis and UlC negatin.
ones below. It is i:QOd pracLice to illdicnte prominently 011 the SIrl"SS
dillgn)DlS the SigM of tile corresponding stresses. As for bending
mom~lIts, their positive values shall be scaled off lJelnw the x-Ilxis
and the negative oncs above it; thus, bendillg moment diagrallll:l
\\111 always appear 011 thc side of the extellded fibres of the bC!am.

In cerLpln trelltiN.'s Oil th(' S~fellRth ul m~teriab. po.!!iti\'t' Il(lnoJing 1lJ()IIICnIS
lilT(' plolhHl flU thlll!ide of COlDllrcs..-ro Min'"
32

The sign of the shearing force ean be also ascertained with the aid
of the bending moment diagram. using the following rulo: T~ shear
($ positive in anTI cross eectian where tJu nlperpo!ition of the azi.t of the
elemt!nt with tk tangent to the bending moment diagram r~uires
a clbckwUe rotation of the former, provided the angle of rotation does
nol ex.ceed 00".
lAft. f_ at'
H M right WtiM

RIgllt-tl'/d" 0(
l,rt portlDrt
Q

PIt. 1.~
Fit. 2.2

Assume, for example, Lhat it is required to find the sigil of the

shearing force at cross section .J: of 8 beam, whose bending moment
diairam is represented in Fig. 2.2. In this case. the axis of the beam
should be rotated clockwise in order to bring it in coincidence with
the tangent to the bending moment diagram (the direction of rotation
is indicated by a dott&d arrow), hence, the shearing forte is positive.
However, in CtOSS sections close to the right.hand extremity or the
beam the shear will be negative. ror the tmperposition of the axis
with the tangent would require eounterclockwise rot"tiOll (see
fig, 2.2).
The shear Q tn any cross sedion Is eqWJ.l in amount and !1tgn to the
$urn of projections of all the e:dernallorces acting to the kft 01 this cross
~ctton on a normal to the beam axis pt1.S$ing through this cr().~ section,
or to the sum 01 projections of all tlu external forces w the right of the
cross &t'ction on the same normal bllt taken with an opposite sigrL
Q~~Y=-~Y (1.2)
L n
the projeclions being reckoned posilh'e when they are directed
Up'o'llllrd!<.
The bending morMnt ltf In any crors section is nfllal in tuno/mt
and $Ign to tJu tum of morMnts about the z-axis (this a.ri& passing
through tM centraia of the cross $tion IWrmally to the plane 0/ tk
beam) of all the uternal forces arting to the left of tilt' cro.u sultan
or to IM sum of moments of all the tJ:ter/Ull forc('$ acting to tJu rtght
of thllf lrection bllt takM with an opposiU sign
M="2.M,=-IM a- (2.2)
L n
+
-The index ~ nlay be lIDiiLtcd.
 J.t. Genual 33

the moment,s being fc('.kOlll'd 1JOsil.iv8 when they tClld 10 rolalo

the cross section clo('.kwisc.
Thr. nurmal force LV is equal in amaunf and sign ta the sum uj pro-
jections of a.ll the external fllrCI:5 to the left of the cro.<;$ seclion limier
crJl/sldRratian un the beam a:ci,~, or to the sum of projectIOns (un the
SIl/1l1! a;e/s) of all fhl! exlefllallorc'.'i ta the right 0111lis Sr.!Ctillll but taken
with an apposite sign
.Y=!:,'( -~X
, R

t11t'-"C projections being rl<\;koltud positive whe1l llley arc dirccted

from right to l('ft.
Thl'H! is a set of fclD.liollS between tlte III and Q diilgJ"illl1:l ;lud lIw
loadiuM of tlllJ bell Ill, these relatiol\ll facilitatiuIo( tbe plotting of
thtlso C\lrves ulId permitting their voriJicD.~ion. These relnLiOllS afC
of great importance for they apply not onty to beams but equally
lo bents and frames of Vl\I'iOllil types.
Thl' ha!iic relal.iulI can be n'/lre..'5Cnted as follows

Q=~
<I,
(4.2)

in other words, the shellr is equllt 1.0 the ftrst derivative of the bend-
iug moment in terms of dx (thl'oTt'1ll of Zhuravsky), tile liign COllVCU-
lion;)s set out above rOmaill.-; in ftm:ll for M' alLd Q, while thc positivo
diJ'ccliorl of the :r-nxi:-; is fr'om left to right.
MUl"c'O\'t'l', there is equally lilt, rl'l,ltil1!l
dQ
fj .=--
d,
(5.2)

whit;h meilns tllat the iutensity of t-ho distributed load applied nor
mall.v l(1 tho boam axis is e(IWII tn the lirst deri\'nlive of thc shear,
the distributed toad being I'eckollcd 1lositivc whclI it is directed
llpwllrns.
The following can he easily deducted frorn those two reLations,
-t, ~~(';:,ati\'e she!u's l:UI'rospond Lo dcc.rcasing bending moment
Vil I IIC'$, indicatr.d hy all inrTCasl'l of the bonding moment diagrllm
11(.diIlOlles from left tll l'igllt. Silllilnl'ly decreasing hendiltg moment
ding-fillll or'oinntcs will :-;ig-Ilify that tho cllr'respouding shear,s aro
'positive.

11 ." r!eemerl IlnUllCeSS311' tu dwell ill dl'taH 'lit tho eorr..spolldillll demollstra-
lions.
 2-, The sLeeper the slope of the ltlrlgcml ~o the hending mOulCllt
diagram, the greatel in Clbsolllte villut' is the slLear, for the l(ltlet
is IlUllIeriealJy equal to the JHllUrlll tangellt of the angle flllIll(.!I1
by the tangeul to the diagralll and the llMm axis.
::l. The bending moment will pa~ through II maximum or a lIlilll-
mum at thoso cross seclions whore the sheul" is niL
4, The hending momeut diagram l)(~lwcell two (:ollcelltl'l,tcl~
loads (110 distrihuted loads intervening) forms a straight linc,
g-enerally inclined, while that of the shear rcdllCCS to a hori-
zonLal.
f). ,J\ conic parabola for bl'mling moment diagram wiU correspond
to n Illlifnrlllly clistrihutod load, Uw sheal' diagram becoming ill
that CUMl an inclinecl straight line,
Ii. The convexity or the bending momellt diagram i~ n,lways llll'lwd
in the direction of the distributed 10<1ds.
7, Concent.rated J():HJ~ cause hrellks in t.he oirection of tile bendinlt
momllnt diagram aTld jumps in the shellf diug:rum, 'fhe rises and falls
in the laHer case are equal in amount and direction to the magnitude
of tile COllcelltratod loads us met wllen moving from left to right
along the beum.
8. The change in the Illagnitude of tile lWllding ffilHnont occurJ'ing
over a certain portion of tile heam length is equal to the area of
the shear diagram over Lhe same h('um length provided no external
momllllts are npplioll thol'eto.
9. The change in the mugnitucle of \,ho shear occurriilg o\'er a l\et~
tllin porlion or the be<111l length is equnl to the area of the distriblllod
10:1<1 !liagrllm over the same beam lengl:h.
In the present chapter we shall $tudy tht! methods of stress comp\l~
tation in cro~ sections of SilHply supported beams carrying moving
louds alld in t,hose of IIlUltilipilll c<Hltilevor beams subjected hotll
to lixed Hlld moving loads . .Moving loads are frequently enwt1nlcl"cd
in the r,omplltatioll of Lriclges, overltea.d cranes and other el1!;inccring"
stl'ucturas. An example of a moving load to; furnished by a f,l'uin
trl\vellin~ along a railway bridge, or an overhead crane modng
along nune trllck~, etc.
Stnwi01; /lud strains in tile Jiffm'enl- etemQllts of 8. slructure depond
On the p05ilioll o( the moving load. In order to determine the maxi-
mum design stt"csses, it is always nOSS3ry to know the mo~t Ull[tl~
voura!Jlo position of the load or loads for tlle element concerMd.
Thus, when designing the cruss section of any truss momber, the
rnOVilll! load must be so plncod liS to (luuse the grca~cst possible stress
in this particular member. This loading IlOsitioll is usually l'l!ferred
to as the most uri!mlOurable or dangerous. A distinct most unfavoura-
ble load position ean be alw~ys found for each truss member, every
cross seetion of a beam, etc.
 It should be 110tl'd t1lilt thill remain!'; tnle not only for sl,resse.<;
bllt also for rraclious at thl;' l'lIIPllorts, for deflectioll!! and so forth.
Tlle rlesi,ltn of structures subjertod 10 moving loads is grcllLly
hcilitated by the possibilily of applying the principle of Snprtposi-
lioll. This mc-ans lhat. t.hl! inh.Wll31 forces, fihre stresses 3ud strains

__t'
A
Fig. 3,2

caused in ::I structure by different loads wiU adrJ. tu uue auol1H,r,

It follows that if some pnrticulor load increases a certain number
of times, t.he stressel! and str3ins sct up by this load will increase
in the same ratio.
It nlS(} follows thnt if two different groups of loath! are aPIJlied
to tl 5tructure, the totRl stress in each memllCr will be equal to tne
~um of stff'~'>SCS caused separately by each of t.he two groups,'"
Vh shall start with our nnalysis of lhe effect of moving loads
with the simplest case possiblc~thnt of a single verticnl unit load
P moving along a r,:imply supported henm (Fig. 3.2), LClt us investi
gat.e the changes !':ustained by each of the parameters under consid-
eC:l.tion (rellct.ion at the support, interml1 force in a lru"S member,
bending moment ill a particular cross seetion of a beam, the beam's
deOection at a Gel'tain point, etc.) when the load P = t travels
1lloJlg the structure. We shall represent graphically tho olterations
or tilt' parameter choscn in terms o[ tbe load position.
The di(lgram which depicts tM 11uctuation of some partlclllar pram-
eta (say, the bending mommt in a cross section of a beam) when
the ,,,ad P = 1 travel!> awng the structure is termed the influence line
for thr said parameter."
Infiuenec lines should Ile\'or be confounded with the stress
dingrll ms. In fact, the ordinates to thu laHO(' represent thcvaria-
tiol) of the pammctcr undel' considcrntioll (say, of tho hending

The 'JriIlCipl" of ~upcrpll~itjoll applies lIr.t only 1.11 the ell.!I(! of cOllcenlratell
l"arls lint equally 10 di~trib\lte,llo31Is, IJcllding moments, temperatllre ~t.re~<;e~,
etc,. It dor.s lJot Ilpplr in lhe ense or buckling witb bending, In all cases when
!.hI) material drM not follow Hoolw's Jaw and in some otlier cue.~.
'* lnflue.tlce Iinl1J< rep,'o.."1.'llting the variations of ",ithl'r stresses <or ~Lrail\S "'/In
:llso be plotted for unit benrling JllOmonLS, (lxLernal for~ normal tu the crO;;lJ
se<:tiOll ani! other type~ of l"lIds. moving aLong t!JL" ~truetllrl'.
;:Jj; Ileum:

Olomelll) ill all cross sections of the beam for one definite j)ositiulI
of Llu~ lcwd, wherC!lls lhose of tho illnueoce line indicate Lhe variation
of a !'(.lI'arnc.lU;!r (Sll:Y, of lhe Sllllle belllling mOlllt~ILL) in one particular
ero."!; ,<:cctlQII- whorl l,he load IUti Ly Ira/!el.~ i.l Loug the I{)hole ll1nglh of
lhe beam.

2.2. l\Ili\CTJON [NFLUENCE I,L~'ES FOIl ':;JMPJ.Y SUPPOJl n.:D

Ile,.\\IS WITlI OH \\TI'I-IOUT OYEIIHANG
Let liS IISSIlHll' thi'lt a unit load P = 1 lllOVl'.'i along a f'llllply
supporu.'d hea11l AB (Fi~. 4,2a.) and 1ut os designale by r the di~
llllln' from the I(Hll] t(1 the righL-h:Ultl sllJIIJOrt. This (ihlanee will

, p., ,
loJ 8

(fJ) .... ,
-r

1II!t<lMCI! ltne for 8

le!

F,/(. :/,2

vary trolll 1,(}1'0, when Lhe load is direc-Liy o\-'er this sl1l'porl, 10 1
when it is over lhe lefL-hand OI1l'. In order to determilltJ the roacLiOl)
A in Ll,r/ll~ of x, we Clln write tho cqllaliolL of Njllilibrium of moments
of all the eXLernal force.,; aholll tlle l"igltl,-hand fillpport.
ZM,,=Al-I'.t=(J
wlumce
p<
..-1=-,-
Howevl!r. !iillOO P = 1, lIum
1< <
A=-Y-:":"t

This eqllaLiOH ~iv~ \I.'; the 11Iw go~erl\illg the vAriatiorl of the l'eacLioD
A as the load I) = 1 ~Itirt.s from onc point to another.
PlotLing out the l-elllliorl j\lsl e.!ltahlishetl we obtllin the illnUon('l'
line for I'he reactioll A al I-he Idt-lllllrd support. Sinc-e this cquatioll
is of lite fir.::t dt'gr'CC ill terms (If or. lite influCIlCC lille will he rec.li-
Iiuear (Fig. 1i.2b) ltlld
for.r=O A" 0
for r = l ,
:1=1.= t

The ordinates to tb~ inllut'Jlce IIlte for the reaction nrt.! dimen-
sion'e:'\S. for both ;r. lllld tare expresscd in units of Jength.
Some senll' JIlust be solec.ted in order tu ]JIOI the influetlc,t.! line.
If. fur irl.~lanc{'. we adopL a !'.l'IlllJ of 1 ill I cm. WI' shull Iny flr!' I cm
OVUI' Lilt' loft.-hlllul Sllllport. WllOl'll A = I. The ordinato to the innll-
I'flee Iin{\ for tbe n'llcLion at A ffit'USllrcd H (]istaneo x frOIll Lhu tjl.thL-
ltlt110 SUjljlurL will equal -T' Thi!' ordinale wjIJ be lluffierir,lIJly cqu[l1
1.0 tllo r<.>:lctiOII it wht'll lhe disLanet> (.() the lond l' = t liS lU<'MIUrcd
from th~ ri~ht-hand sulljlort equal.'c .t. f n other words. tht urdinalr
UI t~ infllf~1U'1' hue lor tlK rroctton A at Q. given crO$! stlon repreSitmu
to !fUJ1. tJ~ value 01 tM mid rtoctiOlI af tlU' tnrtant whm tl..t wut load
Pis plaud dirf"Clly tWtr this rrO# scrlion. Accordingly, till' nllll{llitud<,
of the t\.'.actioll A corresponding Lo 11 gi"an positioll of thu 10lld J1 = 1
fAlll ht oht.ainC'd by simply sc.....linl: oft Lhe ordinate to thc innUlmc.c
Jillt' at tht! )mint o( I(lad applic.ItLiulI.
WI,en the load actually appli<,d 1(/ tho IJeam umulIlll.s to PI' the
reliction A will lIe ObLltilJoo by mllltiplyiug the ordinate LO tha influ-
ent'~ lil\l' at lhe POillL of loarling (tllis ordiltuLe. [15 olread)' 1Ilcntiullcd,
rel'l't':'iclllillg Lbe feacHol1 A COl'rll.\ljlflllding to a unit Joltd) hy lIHJ
III1IgniL1H!c of FIIIcc J),. SltOllld n Jl\1IJ11H'" of conconlr"tcc! vartic;t1
loads ad 011 lite beum i'lirnuhllll(,otl.~ly. lhe totlll rCl\cLioll A will
bc fl'ltnd a:s the :sum of scpiltat<, rOflclion~ tlue to enclt of Ihose tlif-
fl.'ft'IIL fMC.eJ;.
I..el u.~ tlOW I'rtll:.ei."d with tb.e consLrllction or Ihe iUnllCIlCC HUI'
for l'Caction B. For this purpose wc mflY e(IUa~ to :ero tho sum o[
Ill 1Ile 1Il0m(lllts of t.!xlcrnal furC(!s ahuut the hinge ('clllre at .4;
IoM.1 = -Hl+P(l-:t)-O
leadillg to

This equation ri:'llr<'Scnts the varhtli<tll of reaction JJ ill terms

of th.e po!'ition of load unily P. III ol'ller Lo trace the iUnUellell
lillO, let us put

I,hell
,,
Bn .. - = 1
38

:md
~heD B -- l-t
I
-0
-

Fig. 4.a represcnls the influellCt' line for tile real.'Han B. The
ordinales to Ibis line am again dimensiOlllcss and th(' !leale should
'* Ihe same as for rellctiull A. These ordinates roprt"scnl tile amount
of reaction B W!lOll tlllllil load is applied nt the (.ross section COrrl\-
;';Iwnding to tlH." given urdinate. Hence weenn delermillc this rellctioll
for n l(Hld unity by simply measuring tho ordillatcs 1.0 I!tO influence
line.

I' ,
,.--,1 -'"r=t

(0

P,g. j.t

The significance of influence Hnes ftlpt'cSenled in .Fig. 4..2& and

c is greatly enhanced lly the fact that they IJermit imlllctliatll deler-
lOinaLioll of the load position causing the greatest reactions. 'rhu:>,
it is readily seen that the reaction A ..... ilI rell.ch its maximum wlwlI
load PI will stand direclly over the lelt-hand support. The Slime is
true for reaction B when the load Pt is applied to the right.lland
suppc>rt, Le., wh('o it coincides with llw maximum ordiultte to Ille
innllCIICO lint'.
It ~hould he kept in miud. howe"lr. thllt each influeNce; /jilt' lctll
deptd sclelg CM oorEatloTlS t1f EM paramrtef for whU:h it has 1Jc'm plt1ltrd.
'fhus tll(' illlluellce lill~ for rel:lcLiollS A and B will COIl"'tl)' in[orIlHJ-
lioll 0\. these reactions ft.'spcclhl:!y.
Let us consider now the inlluencc lilll's for Lhe reactions (If;. hlJ;lht
~anlilc\'erillg over OIlO of its supporl.!s as shown ill fig. 5.Ztl. The
illnUCIICC line for fl!lIclioll A will be tlt>ri\'ecJ rrom eql1Hlion

'i.M tJ - Al- Pr - 0
whence (with P-=1)
pJ: h: J:
A=-,-=T""'T

This equation is identical with t.hat obtained before far a simply

supported beam, with the sole difference that. in the latter equatioll
:x (all vary from 0 to 1 while in the present case it can do so from
o +
t.o (1 k) where k is tile le-JIg-lit of the overhanl.(. The ordinatt."l
t(l t.he influt'"JlCC line at pertinent points arc
(orx=O
fllrx=l
A "",,0
,
A- T "", 1

ror,1;_l~k A=.lik-.1++

Wt.' can now procet'<l with the conatructioll of tho ionuenct'

line for readioll .1 by Simply laying off lhl'o ordinates obtained
(Fig. 5.2b). It should be noted that there is no real ILcecs.sit.y to
dtltC'rmine all the three ordinate!!, as the influence linc is rectilinear
and in this CII!lC the knowledge of only two ordintlte valu~ (saY,
,al x = 0 and at :l = l) i.'l sufficient.
A comparison of 1111 influence linc for a beam with overhallg with
Ult' infiuenec lille rellrcscntE'd in Fi2'_ 4.2b shows t.hnt the lirst. ani.'
~an he easily obttlined by a simple extension or the latter until ill;
inter~ction with the vertical passing through the eud of the over-
hang.
'fhe rollowillg equnLion. wiH I>e uSlld fOr thc construcUon of the
in[Juence line for reactiolL n
!.M... = -Bl+Jl(l-x)=O
whence
B_ P(I;-.l) = l(l;:t) = l-;:t

Comparing this equation with the 000 rchlting to a sinlply supported

bel;llll we fiod that they tire exactly the "aml'_, the OJlly diffcr<'llC{'
residing in the limit:! between which % may vary.
Ld us oow determine the ordinate \'alues of t.his innuC'nco line
,
B=T=I

fOr %_l '_I

B --,--0
B=l-(l+kj k
l =-T
'0
Plotting IJI('Sl~ orl!innles as ill Pig. ~.2c we obtahl the j"nUt>ntc
lint' fot I"O:l.ctioll B . .'\5 in the (la~ of rc/tt'lion A. the computation
of Ihe ordinate for .:t -.1 +
k pro\'t.'i' sUPl'rnIlOUs.
The illnllencc line Ior tlu:> readiOIl LJ tor It llt!am with overhang rAn
!lISQ I,e derived from tilt! oJle pertnitlillg to a simph. beam by cx1tud
ing the line until ic.s intersection with the vertical drawn throug-It
the ~.~t.rCDlily uf the o\'crhnng.

I I
l/l(lutn:o!' linP f.:w- :
I 8
I
I

Frg. 6 i

The flirt that some of the ordinates 1.0 tlll\ influenc.. . lillt's art, this
tllllC ll:'gnlive indiClll.CS that wllen the load point coincidoSl WitJI
these Jl('~atiVl' or(ljllltlc~. Lho rl,1actiotl JJ ilselF is al~o IIegnLi\'(! or,
ill ol.Jll~r W(II'dS. direel.C1d dOWIIW'lrU.'i.
TIle SIlOll' pro(.cl)U['(l liS dcS(:ribcll "ho\'o should be followl'J for
LIlO ('_orlstI'Uc.LiOIl of tnrlucnce lines fOl' thc l'cncUOnS of 11 hO/HO c:lllti-
lc\'crhl!& UVCr il.<: righlhand sUJ)I10I'1.
fig. (;.2 represents the influence /ill(\S 101,' Ihe reacliuns (If It hefllll
whh two 0\,crhall,,5. The reader is irl\:ill'fl 10 write l.ht'o c,Mrcsp1llldillq:
equnliolls on his own.

3,2. (lENDING MmlEN'r AND SlIliAll J:i'FUJENCE: LINES rOIl

SIMPLY SlIPI>()JlTED BEAft.S Innl OH WI'I'JIOUT
OVEHHANG
Lel liS now an"lyzc tho cullslruc.tion or illnllenre line.c; ror bending
momenl... find sheMing rorces illducro Ill' II movi1lg 10:ld in :I siulIlly
supporled beam. We shall lJl'gill our ill\'cstigation by examining
the infl/ll'nc~ line for fJ~ blondlng mom/'IIt in crn~ scctioll r Inl''lled
a llislllrlcC a from lhe lcft.-hand SUPllOl'l nud (J dislance b lfi)1Il l.lw
right-haml. onc (Pi~. i.2a). The oelldilll{ UlUlll(!llt in lhi~ scelio/)
 3.~. Ift'ld//tf Atumtfll "lid S/v"r Inilrj~"u L/ru,
"
is equal to tlltl algebraic slim of mOlllellts of lhe outer forces lo the
lefl ut this ~lioll Ilbout its ccnlroid or lo the Slim or
momellL" of
forc~ l.o its right but tllken
wHh:l1l opposilesignlSl.'t! e~pres
siun (2.2)1.
All long liS the IMd is si Lualed
lo thtl ti~ht. of .54!clion 1 (Fig. 7.20.),
__2'~: 1__'__
I
_'_01
b ...
1
i,t'", Il!I 10llg liS Z.(:: b, t.he only
t'xlernol force to the left i:o< the
rcnct.itm A :tut! thtlft>[orc the (0)
hCllding momenl..M! ill ~ll(;l,ion.l
L~ oqual lo Aa,
Ac('ordingly Lho innllCUCC line
for this bt'luling moment IIllly (c)
he dcrj\"I'(1 from the ;lInllenre
)iutl (.n re<lclion A by mulli-
plying its ordi"nl.cs by a. (d)
Substit.uting for A it:. \"nlue
found ill Art. 2.2 Wti (lllwin
M1 =T a
The ~laphical rcprt"~entll.tion t>f
t.his t'qualion rtqllire:;; thtl knowl-
edge of two distiOlt Vl\lul'S of M J Ce)
for x=O Aft-O
,b
fOl'X"""b ftf1 =T
If)
U:o<illg thelio valuo.'i wo CArl
IIOW traGe the right-hand portion
of Lilo illOucuce line [or Af,
Wig. 7.2c). h!C ordiuHll'S will
furnish the values of lhe beud- (g}
tng lllOmtml in secLion f when
the unit load is 5iLuaLcd 10 t.he
right uf this section, i.e.. whell
-- -"

z..(: b. Ftt. 7.2

When the load paSleS to the
It'fl f1[ sed ion J, Le., when J, >
b (Pil(. i .2b) it hecomes lIlon:
connmieut to lIse the equations pertaining tu the rigltt.h'llld pur-
lion of the bt!:UIl.
III that case the bllllding momellt M, = - Db rOf, nlthough
lhtl momellt or reaction n ilhout the controid of seo.;tioll I al,;t.!I COIIII-
tcrc.1oc.,kwisc anu is therefore oegnLive. tho "ending momonl I,;llu~cd
by it in tilE' beam romains positive [sce cxpre.'i~ion (2.2)1.
 Substituling the value of 8 Isee Art. (2.2)1 we obtain
I-z
Mt=-,-b

FOI' a gr.tlpbical representation of this expression, wc Sllldl once

..!Igain find two valucs ot lIf l
for x=b /lf l = 1/1, b=~

fOf;1:=1 M/= l~l b_O

These dal.tl permit the construction ot th.o kJt-hand porliuo of

tilt' inRuenco line for M, (Fig-. i.U). Its ordinll.WS will furnish
the bending moment values fllr sectiun I v.ilen load unity P is to
the kit oC the section. Le. when % varies from b to l..
H tile lllf"" .tlnd the right-hand portions of the inOu{'nce lint'
(fig. 7.2c .tlnd d) Are flOW brought together (Fig. i.~) they loill
mterJ;<>ct unbr cross sec:tion I. Should these Hlle.~ be extend~ until
they meet with the \"crticnls passing t.hrough tho SUjlporL" they would
illLOreopt Lhcreoll tho following ordinatos: over t.he II'fI.-hanO olle
all rmlinllle. equal to a. t1nd ovcr llie right-halld o/le an ordinal.!;' equl\1
IQ b (Fig. 7.2e). This can he eDsily prove,1 J)y sub1<litutillg 0 and
I (or z in tite e.tpressioDs of tllo dght- Hnd leh-hand portilllls of the
influence line respectiv('ly. Th('refore, in practice the M 1 inllUl"IICe
lin!' is frequently constructed in the following way: ordinate a i.I
plutltd ~r IM 1~/t-hand support and ordinau b OVfr tlu right-hand
(l1l~. a and b /Ning rnpediwly the dW,ances fram section [ to tnue
two supports. This being done two straight linn connecUng r.Q('h 01
tJ~ ordifUlttt teUk ~ ~TO ordinak point at the OO$e of lhe otntT are
fraud, the two lines intersecting e:tacLly under cross secliOll T.
The above procedure may be simplified us (allows: first draw the
Hilt correspolWJng to any of the tUl(J portions 01 Ou in/lu~,u:e line (say,
to the rlght-ho.nd one). alul then connect Us point 01 intersection with
the vertical p(lSSing through the section concerned with the zero pol/lt
(It Vu. oth~r I>upport (ill our c.ase at the left-hallO one).
rbe orilinnt ....:s to the bending moment ill[luence line Ql'U ('xprcssed
ill tlllits of lellgtll. This for example m3}' be sceli froro the fact. ~b:rt
the tJrdil1i1.te over the left support. is taken equal 10 the length a.
Hence the same scalo may be adopted for both the beam length
and the building momellt influence lille.

-Onlin;,tu or posith'c oo<l(ling mO!U(-'IIl!! are direct.ed \lJlward~. Aceordiugly,

.....1,(11 the bl.mdill/l: 1i'l(lmellt iHl1\len~e line i~ aboyu Iha btollnl a;I:i~ tho lowur nbre!1
<Ill ,.tll' bl'am 81'\' e.tlellded.
 A,lY ordinati' w tM influmce lf~ lor /If, willlurnL<JI. tJu tJalM 0/
.tIle bmdLng moment in ~ti01t I when the unit load is situated over
.thi, particular ordinate. AC('oroLngly tht' ddumtna.tion 0/ tJu bending
momen.t in St'Ction J for a tl~n position o/loud P = 1 rtf/Ilir..., svuly
the 1/Uasurcmt'llt 0/ the influern:e l&ne ordt1tl.1U at tlte laad potnt.
It should bE' borne in milld that the innuence lille for lit, c:cpresses
the variation of the bendihl:" moment only in section J. If it were
r+><tuired to find the low goverlling the variation of the bending
moment in SOlnc uthQr sce.tion. a new influellce line corr~ponding
to that parlie.l1lar sl;lction should be ('-<Instructed.
r~cL tl!< now examine !,he construction oC the shear influence line
fOl' .section I. As alreody stated. the shellr ill any soction is equal
to the algebraic sum of vet'tical proj~clions Hf all oxternol forl;Cs
8C'tillg 1,0 tile left (If Ille section concerned. or to the same sum takl;:u
with the opposite ,o,;igu and pertainillR' to thc e:<.ternal forces to the
rirlht of this section [sce expression (t .2)1.
J<;xominlng ~wo unit load posilions, one wllen the load is tQ I,lae
right of seclioll I and the Olher when it is to lhc left of i~. we
fmd:
(1) In the flfjOl case. I.e., when z ~ b (see Fig. 7.212) the equi-
librium equ3tioll relativc to the leH-hand PQrUon of the heam fur-
nishC!l

GmplLical repre!!entalion of tllig r('latioll requires tllU CU1llpu

tltlioll of two dislinct values of Q,
fOI'x=O Q,=O
b
fOI'J"=b Q/"", T

l:sillg thesc "alUm:! wc can construct the right-hand porllu/t oj

tltr Q, tnjlllellce Line (Fig. i.2j). its ordinatps giving H.I' values
of tile I"hcilt in section J when the unit 10l1d Us t.o Lhe righL of this
~.Lion. i.e. when x ~ b.
(2) In lbe st'Cond case. I.e.. when,2;::':> b (Fig. 1.2b) the Mme e-Oll-
sideratiolls as abO"e give Q, = - n ItlItbouglL reaetioll B i~ directed
upwards aud L'! therefore posili,-e. it. must bc taken with tbe nlinu~
tolign. in accordance wit.h cJ"pl'cssion (1.2)1.
SilllX'
8 =J.=..=..
I
1-.
Qr l>ecoillL'$ -- r
 IJMm!J

Complllinq t .....o distinct v..lu('S l,f 0,

for z-= b Q,-'- -..!.:y!-,::",-7-
I-I
forz=l Q1=--Y--O
Itlld ploUiug' lheln fI$ ill 1"i~.7.21 WI! obLI)in the '()f1~hlllld pOI'liol)
of (Ill' !ll'l!llr illnllerrCe Hlle (as the ordimHl!s IlfC' llC'l-:"ltUVU llll'f are
IllulWd downwards).
Ilut! Wl' j'xtCtlded the illfluCHce Iille" olJlllinod until tllllir intl'r-
st'Ctioll witl, th{' verlit'lll", (lltSSillg through the support., the I.:urr{'s-
IwrulillK iuLl'rl'opLs w{)lIld ('qual: Ill. die left Ilupport ;-1, and aL the
ril(hl oue -J. This call bo easily proved by substitlJtint: r = 0
;tIld.r = I in the equatioos relnlivo to the right-hand and to the ICft4
h:Hld porLiolls uf the inOuence I;n~. respectively,
11. follow:.; lllar llle shoor innllcnc.(' Ij,lle NIlI be couslrutled as illdi-
Co'll(!(! ill "'iq. 7.2g ))y plotting lh~ ordinat~$ +1 (upwards) and -J
(dmnlll-Ytrds) (/Im~g the ~rtlc(l,u pa$.~inK through tl~ lelt-Mud and
tht' rlKhr.-ltulld .~ul'ports resptc.tilJt:ly and by joiui'lf( each 01 lht.' IWI1
paints ,W ob/a/m'd with tkr ba.vr. paint uf. th~ olh/if" support. I t is oJ)\'iOIl,'i
that Ih('.!i~ ~wo Iin<.'s wil! be Pllrallcl. This Ltling nOllll, R verlkal
i'< l.ncell through tho !'!ecl,ion 1l1\((l'r con.:;iderntioll liS in Fig. 7.2g.
The ordinat!!.!! or the .:;IUJar inRllenoo lines are dimlln..,ionll'S!. h('Il(,~
their scale lI1ay be t.hc sallle a!l in th" CMH.' of tllmtmcn, readioll
innllClIce lillos.
Ordiuat~, 10 the th~ur lnflUI!11t:r! lill~ ~pf"l!St!ld lll .J~or vaL/I.('! in
31;'1/ I Qr~lng Iroln ludt load P acti"g in eN 1IIron corrnpo"dtng
10 thl! .yo,id ordinal/". TJur~/ore. the amvunl 01 l1t~ ..J~rin~ lorc('$ ill
Jf{!l!tion I lor (1 J(illi'n position 01 tM unit Wad P calt ~ obtained by !/IItlllg
mro.~urlnc rM ordinau 01 the war infl.IJ,(Onl!~ line at Ihe load poi,tl.
I r UJl~ ordillato at loml point, is Ilcgath'(', Lho shear ill tho Sl.,t:l.ioll
will ldsu he IlcgSlLivc for this JlosiLion Qf the load. TlIB on!in;lll'S
10 tho Qf illfluQnc(llint\ l'opl'OStlnt tiLe .:;hcu \'al'iatioH only in <;(If:lion
f. Should iL he fi.~qllire(( to find tbe sh.ear \'urintiQn ill !jnml' olhl'f
"(ll'lion, n IJ<'~W illnllOllCC line would hllY..' to bt:. cQll.!ilrllcl<,'d.
!...t'1. liS IIOW illYt::slignte bending mom~nl. and shcllr innucu{"f' linE'S
for a J),Ja1ll c~'UHilcvcringov~r the left support, as sllOwn ill Fig. ~.2a.
Conslructiull or the inOuoncc Hill'S for a cross 5ei'lion loc-nlml 1,...-
t""i.'(ln tht, supports A aud n remains e,;:a,ctly the Sllme a~ in t!lo pl't>-
violls (a~, Le .. as in Lhc Cl\SO of a lIimply supporlod Ixolllll \\'ith
110 lI\'l'rIJ:l.llg. TW(l load poiot.l-ont> 10 tllll riJl'ht of the ~IiOl1 and
(HI!) 1,0 iLs ,~rt should hI! rOllsid{'l'ed, thr. 1X't1ding tllomf'nts 3nrl the
slll'nrs l,cing cxpressl'd in !lolh {".J\St!s lhrough the react,ions A Ilnd 0.
Sillce Lho ('.qllntions or the alHltmcnt re8.l\tion innlJ{lIIC<.\ lirtes arc
tllo ,~llllltl for 11 ~irrtrly sllllllortod beam with or without O\'Crhi1llg
(sce Art. 2.2), it is ob\'iolls that lhc correspolldilll{ oq1lntiuus for
t.he I...nding momenl nnd sheo.r will .. Iso Ikl the :;sallle for boil. lyf'Cs
of bl.JalllS, wiLh t.bo solo diffcrence that x, ..... hich vlUk..'d ill lilt: lil"1'l
CAs..' fr'HlIl 0 to 1. will now Hlry from 0 to (l -:- k).
TI.is wilt Il[ft'('t. the ,:,ollstruclivll uf shoaf Stud h('lldil'K 1lI0lllcnt
innllenc.., lines in Ihe ~".o w<ty as lbo~ fj,r the fCllctiulIS. in other
, ,
,
'0' 11
A

,
'",
1
i..-t-
I ...
I
;"1
'" ,I IP.,
A

,
I
,
I /
,
I/"fluMC'l' lu~
... far /1/1
~

,<I

word::!, those linlls will simply h..'1.\'U to bo extcnded 10 the left cxLronl
it)' o{ \hc o"erhal\f (Fig. 8.2l: and d). 'I'he reader is oncc again
ill\'ited lO check himself analytically thn illnuellce lines so obtained.
i\"ow lot U:i ~ whAt happens in St,.'CLioll TT siLllaled II distance
c (trllll tile left tllld of the overhang (Fig. 8.2a). Once agnin wc must
l'ollsi.lcr two posltion~ of the unit lond P.
(l) 1'11" loud point t.f ta the right of sectlcm Il (Fig. 8.2a). '11 this
casu 1I1erc arc no external fon'Cs to the left of IlCctioll ({ and thoreforl!
"the B~'''H'

1x!llding moment. in this sc-ctiOI1 is nU. The appropriate portiOI}

of tile i'lnucrtcc lino is represented in Fig. B.a by a horhontal line-
coinciding wilh the x-uis, as a1l the ordinal.cs are nil along t..h&
whole stre1.Ch fronl soolioD 11 to the support at B.
(2) TM /.oQd t~ to tht It!! Of SfCtion Jl (Fig. S.2bl. In this 1,asc-
t.here is only on6 force to the left of thc section, henl"o the bending
mOIll('n\.. in set:tion I1 will Le

whore Xl is the cH!llnncu from the I01lt.! point to ~clion 11. 'rIds
distance may vllry from 0 (when Lho lOAd point coiuciocs wHh tllCo
.~cction COllc,cl'ued) to c (when the 10l1d reaclies the (!lid of the over-
hallg) .
For tileS{! two c.... tro.Il{'. values or XI wc have. respccl.i,ely. 111'1 =- ()
IIl1rl M,r = -ie. This portj(w of tht! influence line is roprescllttld
in rig. 8.:2, nogative ordinates bolng ploUed downwtlrcls. Thus,
Fig. 8.21' reprtl!l4!nLs the bending moment innuence. line for ~tiOrt
f} for tlllY posiHon of the load.
Let us proceed wilJI tho eonstroctioll of the shear QII influence
line for section fJ.
(f) A" long as tM load ren/.Uill./r to thl- rtght of till' ~ction ~ll('ro are
no fol'('cs whlttsoe\'or lo its left Itud therefore QII = O. The corre-
sponding part of the i"nuc.nce !ille (frona IlCcl.ioil If to the support
at E) is represl'lIted in Pig. 8.2{ by a horizontal stretch coineitling
with tho x-axis.
(2) Whrft t!lf! Ilnit load [.~ to the kfl of mlum If, tho sllenr OIl =
= _ 1 Which moans thot tho sheDr rOmains constant irresp('.cti\'(~
of tho position of 1,.110 load point, provided it lies to tho left of the
seclif'll. This port.iOll of t.ho iufluunoo line is reprcselltf'd ill Fig. 8.2{
hy It Hill.'_ parallel to the .r-ln:is. opgative t:;h('ars bnill~ plOlll.'d down-
wards. Fig. 8.2f gives the shoar infhlencc line for ~ctir"l J I in its
e11 tiruty .
'\5 will be noticed, tho bending moment and shear illnu~nee Iin~s
for .!'t'c1i(lIls st'lcetcd within 1.he' o,erhang dHTer very SlIhsttllltiaIly
ff()lI\ th~ rolatif1l;: to soctions situated between the supports.
In Pig. 9.2 we have represented the bending mOIll",nt innupn(:l'
Iillos far 11 number of scetians of a fxo.am eantilevcring over bolt"
sllppart.s. sections /I and vr. coinciding with tho IClH.-hnnd nntl
right-hand support!, respcctinly. The sbear inDuencu lil'll:!! for t,h.e
same sections are presented in Fig. 10.2. Two soctions eorre.'l:polJ~1
to each suppurt. s~ctions Jla and VIa being inunedialely to the-
left thereof, and soctions lIb and Vlb immediat.t>ly to the tight.
Il will bo notod that she.. r innuence lines for sections Ha Rnd Jl~
liS well as for SCe,Hons V/a aud Vlb are quito different..
I If m Irv~rp I IIQ lib III IY Y "1" "1l> ~11

, ltofWf!1oellJ>t
, I ,
frr N"
,
r I I , 1 1

---J
I
"
:
I
I I I ,'
1 f -_ '''f~
Q I I
UMI flJr "'1/1
I '

Fi/:. 9.2 Fig. 10.2

Pig. 11.t
 I'rublem. H j~ rl"Quircd la l;vllstruet the l'l'noJlng 1ll0Ul('nlltlld sllt'ar wnu('flct'
11Ile,. (or ~_Liull'" of 1I beam ffl'fl"5(!nted in 1'1".1 t .:la. till.' \.lJlillo..... r lru\'elllng
lromrLO
",11"111111. t'iTl!1 eoustruct Iht.' illnueD\".(> Hllo fur I'e.rlion A. H"IIIn r. ~ing
rIgidly CAITU,e<:lA...1 to """"" All by lIIeall;; of the S1.allCliillU 11'1. tllu JVitCliol\ A
will l'qllal (.!ef1 "'jg. Il.Zb)

Till] I'l'lldinll mUfflN,t, in soo(llon III for "11)' l'U.'itiull of I!II' unit lo~d 0"
li('.~Jl) ,. will l'l.JOIlll

"IIl-AII
AC'<l:urdingly, t/,o bellrliug UlOtlWnt inlluunc(' JlIll.' fm' hl.octJUII III will Ill) i,-><JUlUL-
...calll' ~iluiJl\r to Ihnt "f Illu Jell-lllulIl ",uclwlI. thl) latter'.. ordirUHc. ,,,I,,,,s
being lLlulllplil',j by 11 COIl~lllllL fnCl.at ('llllal
)MA to a. Tbl~ illfltHlnCC Iillc Is rep.-{'!'(>llll.'d ill
Pig. H.2c.
The slll"" innl,lllll<'O Hnl.' will he (lb-
101
c [/liut"! tluvugb Lho !!1Il1' procelluro l.nu
will
diiltr in llU rt'~lll'<:l frnm Ihlll f"r I-rDC_

iiiiB
tinu A.

4.2. lNFLUEXCt: I.IN~ FOH

I Snll'l.E CAKTllEVEtl llt:!\l\lS
LN os fifflt filld the innm"lcc Ijlle
for J'C/!,ctioll A ut the SlIpport
Wig. 12,2n). Tho eqlliJibrilllll l'{)U8-
tiOr< for lite verl.ic3! projl,cLioll~ of
I tho t'slt!rlllll J'1J((:-t>S givcs
I
I l;Y=-l+A=()
I hellO!,)
I
I
/tIfllltflCe line : l\l.'l.'Mclillgll'. rUl I\IlY position of
I for /If" I
IJw ItOilll. u( applicnLioll of the 1I1Ii.1

m
~
"1Jlll1lfllilli
103d P the readiou remains equal
to 1. Adopling nn nppropriatl' scale
as e:l:plailLcd in_Art. 2.2, we call trace
PIll. 12.2 lhe illnllCIlCt' lin' sbuwn ill "'ig. i2.2b.
In orJor to lilld lhu bclldillg rnOlncllL
innllCIlI:e lillc for scclion I IOt'al-cd II distalltc c frolll th~ I,rt-h;tllfl
l'::r.ln'llIity of t!lll LcalO. wc shall proc:Clul in the ~lI.lI11: way a!< ill II'e
case of a l,cal1l wilh U\'tJrhllll!{ rcproSClIlld ill Pig. 8.2. Lo..
(t) wlh.'1I tho load is lo lhe dlSht or StJclion / (,~lid Iille in
Fig. 112.2a)
(2) when the load is to the ldt of S(lCtiOll 1 (dash line in
Fig. 12.2a)
ft.f/ = - i ' x l = -XI
where Xl is tile distancc from load point tu 5('t:linn I;
forx,_O Mr=O
(orxl=c 1\1/=-c
The correspondillg infiuence lioo is ",presented in Fig. 12.2c.
It is quite similnr to Lbo bendillg moment i'lnucnce lin(: for n section
within th.e cantilcvcring portion of a beam with an o\'crhang (sce
Fig. 8.2e).
J[ section I is chosen directly lit the !Support ~1 (c being equal
to I), we sh.aH obtAin th.o influencc lillO ef the rixl.-d-end moment
AlA' This line is shown in Fig. 12.2d.
For 0 btainillg th(j shOAr inilucuoo line we shall proceed as desc.riholl
in the previous article.
(1) When the unit load is to the right of section I the shear i~ nil,
JlO fo)'(es existing to the left 01 this section.
(2) When the unit load is to the left of section J the shear 0, -
= - 1. which means that the ordinates to the influence line will
remain constant and equal to - t over the whole slrtltch from section
1 to the left extrenlity of the beam.
The shear influence line 0, is rcp['(':renled in Fig. 12.2.... It has
exactly thll same sho. pe as the one for suction 11 in the conlilovoring
part of the beam wit.h o\'!'rhong shown in Fig. 8.2f.

5.2. INFLUENCt; LINES IN C.\SIiS OF INDlRl!CT LO.\D

APPLICATION
Thus far we have been eonsidering cases when the external loads
were applied directly to the beams. In practice, especially in bridge
construction. the loads are 1l~lIany tranSlniUcd to the mnin beam
or girdu by seconllary or floor beoms, which in their turn support
auzfUary beams or ~rfnger$ (fig. 13.24). The strinl:ers are siug'le-
span simply supported beams, each stringer span being called a panel
Dud each point where (l floor beam bears on a girder-a. panel point.
When the load is applied t<l the stringer somewhere betwt"ell pan!;!1
points III and n, it will be transmitted to the girder only at tht'sc two
points. Tbis mode I1f transmission will have no effcct on tlte gird!'f
abutment reactic)Os llS will be r&adily seen from the equilibrium eqna-
tion of Inoments about any OIlC of the supports. Hl'ncc the influence
lines for t11e reactions will be exactly the same as if the load were
applied directly to the girder (l"~ig. 13.2b and c).
The innuence line for tho bfnding moment will also remain unal-
tered for any cross section I lying within the panol mn, as long !IS
'-8~3
the load point is either to the left 01 111. or to the rigM of n. In utllcr
words, os lone- as the load is situated oulside the panel containing
the section undf'r consideraUon, tbe bending momcnt inQuencc line
lQay he drawn in the same way as in the c.:a!e of direct load applica-
tion. This is euily connrmed by the cor/'("sponding cxprc$ions vf
the oonding momenLs. Thus. in ~tion J situated a distance a frum
the left support AI I = Aa whcn the load point is between It IHld
B and M, = B (I - a) whcll
the load point is hdwCtln m
and A. These two f'xpressions
"1 coincide exaclly with those
obtained in Art. 3.2 for ordi-
nary beams. and therefore
having constructed the bend-
ing moment influencc line
(t)}-
for section J as explained
nbove. we may shade thtl ClrcBS
bounded by portions Am and
Bn of this Hne indicating thus

n, .
, ,, , that these portIons ore dofinile
(Fig. 13.2d).
~~ I' :lI1!I<le17'e lme
, for M, However, when tho load is
I

1::', I
C,
.... I I
CotIIlflCt,ng IUlf' within the panel mn, it... dract
will be transmitted to the gird-
((/)
, ,, er at panel points m ami /I.,
its (",omponents R", and Rn'
!hown in dash lines in Fig.
14.2a. being equal to the cor-
"1 responding reactions of Lbe
stringer beam.
--- In order to find the shape
of the innuence line when the
'11. 13.2 load is within the panel coo
\aining tho sect.ion. let us fmd
the value of any function S, set up in section. J by a unit load
(P = 1) situated as st-at.ed aoo"e. Assuming that y", and y" arc
the ordinates to the influence line at the correspooding panel
poin~ (Fig. 14.2b) and using the method of superposition we C30
wriU! tho following equation

s, = T.Py = R...v", + R~y,.

where
R m =.!..:.!..._...!..:.!..="":'"
d d d
 1>.2. f1l/I'H1Ice Li"~ 111 C"6e~ ~f 11Id!recl LMJ ilppllcaU01I 51

and
_ P (d-I) 'I (d-t) 11-:
/1 n - cl cl -.--
where d = panel length
z = distanctl from the load point lo the right-hand panel
point.
Substituting the values of R m and Rn in the llrst cquatioll, we
obtain
" d_:
8 1 =7 YlII+-.-Y'

Accordingly, when the lond is situated belwceu the panel poillt..s

lit'alld n, the function S r varies linearly with z from S/ = 'Y n for
z = 0 to S r = Ym for z = d.
P~I

,':J=j'"
, IR"
r-~~~' ':--,]
+
'" [ I I
m: . d
I
~n ~

I1IITITIITI~ru~n i
(bl t=.====~
Fig. 14.2

Henco the influence line for such a function is a straight line

connecting the panel point ordinates Ym and Yr>' 1t follows that
in tho caso of thp, influence line for bending moment At 1 wc must
simply connect by a straight line the ordinates at panel points
m and n determined previously, obtaining thu" the influence line
represented in Fig. 13.2d.
The construction of the shear inOuence line for section 1 is quite
similar. From A to m and from n to B the ordinates to this line will
he exactly the same as if the load were applied directly to the girder.
Within the panel Inn which contains the cross section 1 the influence
line will be represcnted by a straight line connecting the ordinates
at panel points (Fig. 13.2e).
Thus, when the load is applied through an intermediate beam
the influence linc may be constnlcted in the following sequence:
(1) first draw the line as though the load were applied directly
to the main beam or girder;
,.
" (2) this being dono. flDd tbe illle~se(,tioll of the line with tho ordi-
nates passing through the panel j)Qints pertaining to the V:\l\el which
contaiJlS the cross scc:tioll under cOll.sidlrtItion and conllccl. tlll.'se
in\eracetiflD points by a straight lino.
r-~I t-C-i:-i"""")
, 11/11 Y 11/1 A
~ , 7lQ... q I. j t '1/7i'B;
I I l I I I I
1 I I 1 ........... I I I/nflulllC't line I/
I I I J -"I I I frr "'1 I
I 1 I I t;) I
I I: I :

'I
I I I I I -'--_

~
l I: I 1/f1f'[~ lilleforMU----
I I
I

nor-'
I
<.> I I I I
1 I I I
_.:"l"n"fl"""-:="line"",-"f~"-'O'"'_--J

Fig. 15.2

Fig. 15.2 represents the influence line ror 111 llnd Q corrl'~pundillg'
to .$Octions I and I1 of a beam witll Ull overhang.
lnilucnce lines for the reactions havo boon omitted all thoy flo J101
dmer in any respect from those of a bum subjected to direct loading.

.2. DETEIUlINATION OF FOnCt::S AND M01llEXTS WITH THE

AID OF INFLUENCE LINES
nle colntru.ctlon of influence lines having been discuS!!ed in dplait
in the previou!l lUtkl~ of this chAptt'r. (pt liS 'IOW examine thl'
deUrminlllion offurce! and moments with the use of thc"6liTlI,lS (lhty
can also be lIscd for t1l0 determinatioll of stra.ins, dcnediolls, (\nd
other deformatioll!).
1'''''0 ca.'ie.'l will be considered:
(a) concentrated load~ and
(b) uniform IOAdfi.
CO$~ of concentrated loads. As already explnined in Art. 2.2, tIw
c1111crmiu(ltion of nny function cau~c1 hy a IOll.d PI requires the
 (;.2. Dele,."''''"lIon o} F"rCC$ and Momenll

Illcml\H'Cmenl of the ordinate to tho influenc,e line for this function

and its lJIultiplication by the magnitude of load. If the structure
carries .soveral loads at a time (Fig. t6.2a), tIle full value of the
function in a section will be obtained by measuring the ordinate
under each load, these ut'dinaw.'l being thl!J1 multiplied by the rnflg-
llitllde of tllO ~~orm8porlding loads and thll products summed lip.

la) J'
I
(' r
:' "*;a! :--.....
.. ---.,. I I
I

I I I~~-... Influence llfl[, I

I I I I -- I far N I
I I "" I I I I I I
:1 1 171 1 hJ I
Ib)
e
h i '
I I
, I I
I I: I/flflue'nct: l"ne
I I 1!or al
I ~ - - 1_ I h'
I h, _ t I I J
o ,
(t)
h;C "~------,"B
F"~. 1G.2

'rho!!, in order to obtain the bending moment ill soction J (the

influcncu !jno for M I is representerl in Fig. 16.2b) Wt! must multiply
the 1(lfld Pt by the or~lintltu h l (sinc<1 this ordiJHltc is n<1gativc, the
product Ptll! will al!'-o be negative), the load Pt by the ordinate h!
aJld t.1ll' Inlld p) by the orrlinate 1t 3 Tho hending momenL ;res\JltiJlg
frolll l}1O combiuP,d actioll of 10al18 PLO P: and P3 will equal
/If, = r,Ph= -Pth j +Pth t + P 3h,
Tho ordinates to the bending moment influellcc lino being mC<ls,
lIrod in length Imit.:;, say, mottoes, if t.he londs arc measured in tons,
the product Ph representing the bending moment will he expressed
i.n Lon.~ multipLied by metres.
A similar procedure may be used for tho determination of the
slwaring forco Qr in section J (tllo infiueocc line for Qt is reprcsenl.cd
in Fig. 16.2c)
QI = P1h;- P,h~ -+- P3~
whore h;. h~ und hi arc the ordinates to the shear influence line
under the loads PI' P,: and P,.
54 Beams

The ordinates to the shear influence line are dimensionless and

therefore the product Ph' giving the shear value will be expressed
in the same units as the load P.
The support reactions can be found in a similar way, using the
relevant influence lines.
Thus, in ordu to compute any function (abutment reaction, bending
moment, shear, internal/orce in any truss member, etc.) arising under
the action of several concentrated loads the ordinates to the corresponding

Fig. 17.2

influence line must be measured at all the load points, they must be
then nmltiplied by the respective loads, the products so obtained being
finally summed up.
Problem. Using the influence line for the bending moment JIff represented
in Fi.g. 17 .2b determine the value of this moment in section I of the beam shown
in, FIg. 17.2... This beam carries three concentrated loads the amounts of which
are also indicated in the same figure. Ordinate values at load points are shown
on the infiuence Hne, but they can also be scaled off the drawing orcaleulated.
Solution. Tbe bending moment in section I equals
M 1 = -P,h,+P2h2+P3h3- -4XO.5+8 X 1.0+10x 1.0-=16.0 ton-metres
'rhe 6rst term of tbe right-hand part o[ the equation is preceded by a minus
sign, the ordinate hI being negative. .

Case Of uniform loads. The sequence of operations is illustrated

by thefollowing example: a uniform load of intensity q is distributed
along a certain length of a beam represented in Fig. 18.2a and it
is required to determine the bending mOlllent 1n section I (the influ-
ence line for M 1 is shown in Fig. 18.2b). Let us replace the uniform
load acting along an infinitely small length dx by a concentrated
load qdx (Fig. 18.2a). The moment in section I due to this-load will
amount to q dxh:< where h", is the influence line ordinate ,under the
load. Proceeding in the same way we can replace the whole load
distributed along the beam by an infinitely great number o( concen-
 6.2. DeterMt1l/JJio1l of FortU lI11d !tfOrM1IU 55

trated loads qd% and the bending moment in section I due to all
of these loads will be then obtained hy a summation of all the prod-
ucts qd:xh" or

Mt=~qd%~=q~h,.d%
the load intensity q remaining constant,
The integration limits c and d indicate that the summation must
be carried over the whole length of the beam section, along which
the load is di~tributed.
The term ~ h" dx represents the area bounded by the influence
line, the ordi~atcs corresponding to the limits of loading and the
x-axis (this area being shaded vertically in Fig. 18.2b) for h" dx

(a) ~
~
~_x~' w !lll;Wofflce'une :
(h) l ri, ' I ,h. :fa'M1 :

Fif. 18.2

is an elementary area shaded with slanting lines in the .!ame figure.

If we denote the whole area by w the bending moment in section
I will be
M,=qw
Thus, in order to deurrnw the amount of any function arising in
4 given section aJ' 11 result 0/ the applUatum of a uniform load, the
inunsity 0/ thts load must be multiplWl by the area bounded by W
in/lrunce line, the x-axis and the ordinates passing through the load
limits.
When the inOuence line within the load limits changes sign the
areas will be taken with their signs. Thus, the total shear~in section
56 Beams

I (the corresponding influence line is drawn in Fig. 18.&) will be

obtained by summing up the areas Cll l and 002
Q/=Q(WI+W2)
WI being reckoned negative.
Problem I. ASSUUlIl that a simply supported beam is uniformly loaded over
~~~di~~I~~f~:~:e::~hth~t~h:~/i~e~~~t>:n1d\t~~g~l;;:)beI~S ::1u:;;:dr~~c~i:nt~~
thelch support using the influenclllines represented in Fig. 19.2b, c and d.

(c'
w,

(d)~~1
rr------
, I{nfluem:e line
I (or Q,
I
I

o -~ __ ~'--_IJ
Fig, 19.2

Sol"ti"n. AS this load is spread over the whole length of the beam the areas
bounded by the influence !inllsmust be calculated for the entire span.
Detcrmlnalion 01 rtaction A. The area bounded by the influence line being

the abutment reaction equals

OOI_+.l.1 ... +
A=qWI=*
Ddcrmination 0/ I.he bmdlng momtnl Mj. The area bounded by tho influ-
encelinobeing
1 I /z
wZ""'7/T-T
the bending moment will equal
MI-qW2=~
 6.2. De/trminlllllln III Forte, IInd Mom~nt, 51

Dettrml""tilln III t}u ,hqr Q,. The inDuence line consists 01 two portions
bounding areall equal in size but opposite in sign

&ls=-i-++--+; &li-+i-
Therefore
(-+++)=0
Q,=q(WS+W,)-q

Problem 2. Determine with the aid of inftuenee lines the bending momenl
and the abear in section 1 of a simply supported beml with an overhang loaded.
n indicated In Fig.20.2G.

Fit. 20.2

$1I1"'/toll. Start by drawing the inDuenee lines for tbe bending momenl and'
shear in section 1 (Fig. 20.2b and c).
m~:~:r~,,::= li~:~~~:b: ~~:~:r:{~d r:.~ ~dl:~u:i t~ ~~.6~d;~N
the area IIlot under the inDuenee liDe of the uniformly loaded stretch tot.1,

w,,=+X8X 1.6_6.4m1
Therefore the required hending moment will amount to
M t - -Pll j +'1Wj--3X 1.6+2X6.0f0_8.0 ton-metres

Q, U~dt:;":~":fl~:dll~ t~u:~:lIo.f'~h~rll~ ~~in:::. ~~n~~ ib~ll~~;e i~iD:e~~~.

line over the uniformly loaded portion of the beam ill

~_+X8XO.8=3.2 In

Accordingly
 Brams

We shall now show that the lunction S of any load (whether con-
-centrated or distributed) acting over a straight portion of an influence
line will be eqlUJ.l to the resultallt If 01 this sY$tcm 0/ wads multlpUed
by the ordilLatl' h o curre,~poltdtllg to this resultant. In effect let us eoo-
:!Iid~r the influence line for fUTlction S presented in Fig. 21.2 and

i
1
I
I b
:!*f
cl I

_
I
1 )
I" I
I---
I
1
J
I"'
~,
00
{}J
0/1
,'"' I
..-j
"I
I .I:: ~ ~ I
I -<:; --- I
a et -- 0
In(luefla! lint! for S e
Fig. 21,2

.a set of oonccntraled loads PI> P:, ... , P" with a resultant R

I;iluated over the straight portion cd of this influence line. Then
S= ZPh=P1h j -+- P2hl+P3ha+ ... +l'"hr.
Let us express the ordinates hl. hi' ... , etc.. in terms of their
distances ai' r12, ele., to the point of intersection 0 of the line
cd wi~h thl' .r-axis (Fig. 2J .2)
hl=a,tana:; h l =a 2 taUaj h3=aatana, ... ,
h.. -a" tan IX
Substituting theso values in the formula giving the value of
function S wo obtain
S = (Pla, +- PIU:+- p~J+ ... +PnUn) tana.
As will be readily seen, the expression in parentheses repreStlnts
the mOlllont of the loads Pt, P 2 , P.lo , P n Il.uout point 0, the
moment being l.'qual to the moment of their resultant abnut tho sam()
point, i.o., to f1aQ (Fig. 21.2). Consequently, S -- Rao tan u = Rho.

7.2. DETERMINATJON OF THE MOST UNloAVOUllABLE

POSITION OF A LOAD
We have just seen how Lhe iuEluence lines for various funetious
(abutment reactions, bending momtlnt, shears. etc.) may be used
for the determination of the value of the appropriate function
for any given position of a load.
 7.2. Det~rmjrultl6,. 01 IM Mod U"/"lIOur.!>~ Putllen. I1 11 [,oad 059

We shall now endevour to fmd the position of thc load correspond-

ing to the maximum value of the function considered. Such a position
is usually termed the most un/avourabk or dangeroIU positton.
Hereafter the maximum positive va.lu&!J of the function will be
denoted by A mQ~' 111mU' Q.... ,,%, etc" whilst the maximum negativt!
valucs by A ... , iW"'I'I> Qrnl'" etc.
1. Cau: of 4 singk concentraW moving load. In this case the posi.
tion (If the load producing: the maximulll value of function S is
found very easily. (t OOillCidcs with the position of the maximum

Ft:. 22.2

ordinate to the ionueow line. By multiplying the amount of the

load by this Groinale \\-"e shall obtain the maximum value of the
function under consideration. Posit.ive maximums of the fWlction
are furnished by the largest positive ordinal.cs whilst the negative
maximums or minimums-by the largest negative ofilinates.
2. Ca:;e of a St't of concentraledmoving loads. I n this cakl we must rInd
!!uch a position of the given Stlt of loads whio.':h would pro"ide the
maximum "alue of EPh, where h slallds for tile ordinnto to the infJu-
i!lu:.clioe corresponding to the respective load P. Whcn tho number of
loalls is not '"tlry great tbe problem is solved by triol, thc set of
loads being shifted from onc position to another. When the max(-
mum valuo of the function is sought the loads are l1lad~ to coincifle
alteruately with the maximum positive ordinates and wllcll the
minimum onc is required-with the negative ones. It may happen
tbat the loads will be simultaneously situated o'"cr the positive
and negath'c portions of tht! innuence line. Such a case would arise,
for ilLstance, H it. wcre desired to find S",u for an innucoce line
represented in Fig. 22.2 due t.o a.set of loads (say, a locomotive) whose
total length would exc06d the length a corresponding to the positive
part. of the line.
Fi~. 23.2 sllOWS the most unfavourable position of a twin-ule
bogie wHh equal wheel loads for various inOuence lines. Fig. 23.2a
represent!! the loading corresponding to 11[1 ... ,,% .In this caoo the
greatest value of 'i.Ph is obtained wheA the left wheel coincid~"
with the maximum positive ordinate. Should we bring thc right
wheel over this ordinate, the left ono would shift to ordinate mn,
.and. us the latter is smaller lhan mInI the sum 'i.l'h wOl.lld also hi)
00 Hcam6

(a/
7J;a
r"
r
, ,
-'
+ r
,m m,
InflfJWlO:1 (<fie fur Ht
I
(b)
e n n, "
-- I fp!llHfI<.... llM
fIT H,

le)
e , ,
'"
I/n(luence line

Id)
-'rr---"
, for a,

" ,r-
,,r
,
- .--
: Influem:;U!ie-
fur Qr I

I') a " ,
b---- 1-
1 -----L....1.
FIt !! 2

P,
p, r r,
'
P, P, P.

,,
" ",
'
,' , ,"", ~x
" d ,I'," I'
" " ,,
"
"
,
" I,
11
"
11
,
a '. " " '. 9

Flf 24.:
 7.2. Deltrmi,wtlo1l "I tll~ Most Unjavoural.ile Po.<it/on (I} at-MId 1)1

small"r 'han in tho first casu. Any othttr position of the.set of 10Clds
~.ollsillertld wOlllrl equally lead to a :!lIwUer value of the bending
mOlllent.
l-~i~. 23.2b shows the po~ition of the same set of loads prQviding
for .1'1 r",in'
Fig. 23.2c and d indil'ates Lhe load positiolls corresponding Lo
thl:' maximllln and minimum values of the shearing force. In Lhe
first ~o.!>El it is a::iSunwd that the left-hand load stands an illfmitesi 4

mal distance to the right of section I and therefore it.s anlount must
be filultipliNL by the ordinate ab (Fig. 23.2c). In the second ease
it. is ussumerl that it is the right-hand load whic.h is infinitely dose
to sertion I from its left and therefore the amount of thiJI load must
bo multipliod by tho ordinaw ab l (Fig. 23.2d).
Let us consider now the innucncc line for a function S cOIl.~isting
of a. Ilumber of straight portions interstlctil1g at points a. b, C, d, c, f.
and g and n set of conccntraled loads (IS indicawd in Fig. 24.2,
the loads b~illg in position I. As will be scen, none of these loalhl
stolid over the verticos mentioned above. As~mming tbat the whole
~t of loads is shifted over l\ distanc.e x to the right (position [/),
tht'_ ordinate hj, c-Orrespon.ding to a load Ph will be increased by
!J,h l = o'x tall <x, *
",hilt\ the i1lcrement of fUllction S will equal
l_,. 1=,. l_n
/:J.S = ~ PI6,h j =
~I
LJ
'_1
Pi,lxttlll<X/=o'X ~ PItana/
~l
(C.2)

Should we shift the set of loads agllin by 6.x to the right (posi.
tion Ill) the new increment of function S would still be given
b~' t.he oxpression (6.2). Assume 1I0W that position 11 corresponds to
the maximum value of the function S (in other words. that this
posiLion is the most unfavourable or the most dangerous one). III
that case the increment AS will be positive when the set of loads
1!'l shifted from position I to position Il and negativo whell the lonns
move from position 11 to position IJ1. Thus, when the ~et of loads
pa~IlS through its most unfavourabltt position, the incroJnent of
;_1>
tlw function S (and accordingly lhe sum
.sigil .
,-,Ll Pi tan (It) mlJ.'~l ChaJlge
As will he easily seen from expression (6.2), a change in :;iftl1
of tho illcrenumt 6.S may occur only when onc or more loads whirh

*11I Fill. 24.2 tht> Bnglrs,,",.,,"~, o;~. ""I' Md al Are pU5ilive wl,ilst Lho llfi!l"l,'s
,~ und 0;" Bre negatlvl'..
"The samo remains true fQr minilll1lm V!,hle$ of the flllH'Llon S.
 wore previously sitllaled over one rectilinear portion of the i..IlDuence
line have shifted to an adjacent portion.
1 ~ follows that a d4ngaous posiUo/~ of thL SIn of load$ wtll occ~r
luhen one or more load points coinclck with the ordi.na~s panillg
thrtJugh the apicn 0/ tM influence lint:. This important remark grutly
faeilitaw$ the seareh for the most unfavourable position of the
loads, as it reduces the number of trials to the cases when one or
several load points stand over the soid apices.
Hereafter botb the load and the apex iD the influence line ovor-
which this load mu.st stand to ioduCll a maximum of tho function
undor consideration will be termed critical.
Let us assume now that position fl is the most unfavourable
onc and that it occurs when the r,riticnl load P3 stands over th"
critical apex c of the inOuellcc line (Fig. 24.2). ln that cast: the incre-
ment /is must be positive when the system of loads shifts towards.
tne right from position I t() position II and it must bo negative as

.--
!loon as the load P, passes to the right of point c. For the samll reason .
the sum ~ P1tan OJ must be posilive when the 1000ds sLalld to
i_I
the left of the dangerous position and becomes negative as !loon as
they hQ\'e shifted to the right of the latter (see exp. (6.2)1. \Ve must
also have p,tan u! >P1tan 0, which leads to It: >cx,. Thus,
the slope of that portion of the inBuence line which is lo the left or
the critical apex must be greater tban tlte slope of tho portion !<ituat-
cd immediately to the right of this apex. This condition is satisfied
in Fig. 25.2a only. It follows that ll. critical poinl t" flu IllfluenCi'
line wW always coincide with one 01 Its conlH'X apices or peaks, the
same temainillg true in the case when tho minimum value of II fune.
lion is sought. This again reduces the number of trials necessary-
to fllld a dangerous posiLion for a given sel of loads.
It should be noted that thc intcrsection poillts of an inDuelle@'
line which form peaks when the maximum value 01 a function is
sought cease being such when its minimllm is required, and vil.'.e-
VCJ'!lll. Thus, in Fig. 25.2c points c, e, anl: g of the illflucn~ line form
peoaks when S,."", is sought, while poin\s at b, a, and 1 would become
such were the minimum of S required. In order 1.0 a!C(!rtl:lin the
nature of the extreme points a and g of the influence lino th(' :I:-axis-
lOhould be extc'lded in both directions (as shown by d3.s.h lines in

It may It:l.ppl'.ll that having Jl!aclled it~ mu:imum, th(' function T't'llHlins
constallt during Lhe PISSbgo or certain 10000d.t from ODe of the apices to tJll'! n/'lt
one. In tllaL Clse a maximum ""iIl exist even though liS is nil And no (olld is lit
nn apex:, but the ruJe just ulontioned still hoMs good, for iniLll\lIy this DIuimUl"
nccurred when the uitical load (or loads) stood over an ai~x (or apices) of lho
illnUllllCfl line.
 ,
n .~

, , ~

I'J 'b)

a
___ 0 """"lliLLCtlll.l>= 9---

d f
ra,
Fig. 25.2

N.' No.S No.i, ~O,J Na.fi Ni~7 /vo,{/, No

J.'
" " J.5 '.0
" ".S ' "
-
"
., -- ~
"~ig. 25.2.:), thl'S8 porlion!o being considered as part of this innuence
lint) with zcro ordillll.lf's.
<
We havcalready stll.l.Cd that when~k.ingS...,,,,thesUln ~ Pj X tan
is posttttlt' Ichtn the ft't of loaJis is slluat,.d to tM kIt 0/ its most
wl/IJJ)OI~r(lble position and negatilN wkm thi$ set }un shlf~ to the
.., "I
right of flu> lnUt'r. It ill clear that whcll 5"'1" is required, the sum
j .....

~
,-, t:ln
PI'will lU'gatlve whm the luads are to flu> ll.'/t
UI hI! their
dangerous posWon alld positive whm they are to its right. Tllis al'iO
0;

sinLllljflCs the (lcttlrlllination of the most ullfavullrablll loading.

,
,

,
Ho'
No' , Nd N0.5 NaG ffo.7
d

J.' ,.,
FIC 28.2

As all example, let us fmu tho most u.nfavourable position uI

~ SYIIWIll of loads shown in Fig. 26.2 pro\'iding for S ..."", when tbe
influence Hlle for S consists of throo rcct.i1inea~ po~tiolls as sho\\T1
ill Fig. 27.2. The tangents of the angles fo~med by these threo por-
li(lllll with tho :c-axis II.~&
1 0.2& t 1
Laoat=+a; tima 2 = - T = - 1 l j ; tanCl3--"'F
W(' know that the mOllt ullfalTou~lIble posHion of t.h~ loading
Ci'llll\lJ~ OCCll~ withou~
at least une of the loads c.oiJlciding with the
Ileak b o~ r of the innllenco linc.
i_ ..

will
Th~ luads being shifled r~om ~ight to left the sum ~ PI lan
~I'main negati\"tl as long as nil Ibe luads are situated over por-
.-, Q l

~ioll.'J Ix and ccl of the innucnce line formin:;- negative an~le."l with
1110 -,-<\XIS. As stated before when the loads pass throngh 11 dangerous
t)O.:liliull, this SUllt mu"t challge sign and become positive. Ac.eord
injtly, we musl contiuue to mo\'c the londs in the same direction,
+
-"llic/!sa alld d do ll,!t [onn peaks fllld lheroforo the pa~Mge of a load O\'l)r
Hnc of the.e 111''' Ilt)inls is of no danger.
 (.2. TJf.len"illalioll of fhe },fosl UII/llvourable "uti/ion of 11 Load 65

i.ll., from righ~ to loft UlLtil thissUlll he(comos positivtl. Lot us consid
(.[ till' loading rtlpruscntclL in Fig. 28.2. So long as tho loads remain
tu I.IlC rjgh~ of Lh~ po.~ition
j=n
1
h P" tall a, = pI 5+3.5)+-(3.5+3.5+3.5) 1l j _
i_L
t t1
-(3+3)"F=-m:<O
But a~ soon as they sllift to ~he left tllis slim becomes

~PIt(ll1aj ..H.5+3.5+3.5) ~ -(3.5+3.5) 1~;-

~,

This weans that the pas~age or 1./11) S<!t 01 loads from n position
sliglltly 10 thl: right frOlTl tllO one indicntou in Fig. 28.2 to a posi-
\,ion slighlly to its left C(llISCS a change in tiLo sign o[ the increment
AS fr<l/n negative to positive. Therefo!'e, the position represented
ill Fig. 21Ll i~ ,I dangerOUs onc and load S is a critical load.
Suppooo now that the Il1nds Xos. 8 ami 9 (sce fig. 20.2) which are
still beyond tILe limits of our structure when the fLrst dangerous
loading OCCllr!! nre considernbly greater than all the other 10D.ds and
total1iJ tOil!! oach. ln that case ii the train of IOD.ds is shifted furtller
Il~ tbe loft so tllat load~ 8 IiIld 9 would reach portions be nnd cd or
l~"
the illnUcncc line thtl sum
.-.2l Pitall a j would again become Jlcga-
tive, and at tbe monLcnt onc of these lo;;uls passes thu peak b it will
change sign again. Accordingly there would be a !<econd dangerous
positioll of the set of loads considered, for which the vahw of Srn"",
should he ngnin cnleulatl:ld. The larger o( tbe two maximums should
be adopted lor design purpo&!s.
Let us now consider the cage when tlte innul:!llce line forms n
triangle as represcnted in Fig. 29.2. Let Per denoto the critical load,
: ,
P -the Sl1m of the lOads situated over the left-hand portion of
the influence line. and 2l P-the
R
sum of these loads over the right-
hand one.
.-.._.
"Vc have shown prc.. iou!'I1y that when the set of loads is to tho
left of its dangerolls position, the sum ~ PI' tan , is positive and
when it shift~ to the right the sum becomes negative. In other words,
~-853
;>lj

a .. 1.m 6.Gm
1~8m

Pig. :to.2

3.0m lGm 4.5m lGm

Flit. :;/.2

'_lm
in thc prc~nt case
tll,nat,{ZP+Pu )+ tau all T,P > 0
L R
""d
tan (XL 'iP
L
+ tlln all (T.PR + P cr) <0
Substituting in the noo\'c t'xpl"llS!iuns for tan (h aod-~ A:,,:"
for tan all (st't! Fig. 29.2) a/ld cUfying ont some clenlcntary
trllnsformal ion:'", we ohtain
"lPTr>.. tt>
L >-!L
and

Xf' P.,-II'
-'-' <
(j

!l't-/J"
."dding to hol h llide.'5 of the ir!:!! c:<prc.ssiun c''--~_ 11 lid tQ hoth

sides of the ."el.'und OlH' +
!P
wc get
~P+/)<r+"ll'
P ')~>
('f.P'o C ' "
,- lIb b

!./J J..l'c'T~/'
r.P~< L "
l. aIJ 6
SlIll6titutillg 1 (or (a+b) and delloLing lhe Slim of all the loads
by IP, th!'Se expressions will cllsily rf'duce 10
T.P + 1' > 1:1).-1-- (7.2)
L
and
, < I[J.-j-
!,{l (8,2)

These two inequalities show that !he crilicalload is tM one width

renders the sum. ~ P + Per greater than ~ P
, -T' prOl;fded that ~, P

is smaller than the lotter,

In most cases tho moving lund (say, a locomotive) may cnl.<!r
the structure (say, a bridgo) from bolh :-idcs, and lo each of these
c.oties thero will correspond its own maximum value o[ the [unction S,
,.
,.
In Ord!;!f to obtain the larger of these two values the front wbeels
of the locomotive, which are u.'ill1l.Hy the heaviest, should be pJaced
O\'or the Illflrhand portion of tho Lnflw.lnce line when a < b (scc
Fig. 29.2) aod over its right-band portion when a > b.
"roMI'm. It is rc<\u(roo to flIld tll& mu~t <1nllgeI'OU~ position of a tn.in 01
lmuls sllO ...1] in Fill. ;J1.2 wi~h resllect to the inDuenctl line for function S represent-
ed ill Fig. :JO.:! and charac_terized b~' j ,.. S m, " =- :.: m and /l.m"~ ., L
S"llLlion. Tllo Slim of (ouds which can fllld plnoo 011 a span 8 metres loug
CHIII:ll... 11 = 5 X 3.5"'" 17.5 lons.
Shifting 1he train of loadsfrolll rigllL 10 left and making use of tile inequ~lilics
(7.2) and (8.:.!), wo sbaJl iiml
,
!!:+ P,r >17.5 X 11=10.375 Lo",;
nml
,<
IP ,',,(175 tollS

This shows that \-ho socond load is tho critic"l olle fol' onl)' ill that
cr'!:!C botll of ~l,e hlt'(j\lalitl~'s hccolUn satisfled. Effectively, let l;P=;1.5 tons
~/lll l'("r=3.5 tons, U'C'1l
:I:P+Pcr",,3.:i+3.5- 7.0> I,. 31.'; 10ns
I-
anI!
,
:I:P::03.5<4.3i5 t(ln~

The mo. t unfavounhle position of tIle train of loads lhus (ound is inJlc,1\ed
ilt fill'. 32.2_ 1n order to find tho value of Smllx Ctlrrl.'sIIOlldilll,l 10 this loading
let Ill< find 1110 ordinalo~ h 1, h z, h~, "" and h~

"~, =0,4 tan a=OA...!...=O.2 ,

II-]. ... hm""_t

hJ ={1.6 X 2+1.2) lan ~-(t.6x 2+ 1.2) ~ =0, 73:~

I
h,,,,,, (1.6+1.2) tnn ~_(t.6+ 1.2)"6 _0.461

h~_1.2 t,m ~ .. 1.2 x +_0. 2

wllcN'lnlm
S'lI""'= "l,Ph_ PI:,h_3.5 (0.2+1+0. 73J+O.4lJ1 +0.2) _9.1
If the ordjllQ\es of "he inO'lellce line were measured in metres, thfl [unction
Sm,,'" - 1l.1 wnuld he Hxpres.~d ;n tnl'-m"t..e. On the other hand, if thoso ordi-
nates wpm dimcnsionless tlw I'cslrh obtained would be (\x1lre~sed in \Ol\~.

3. Cas~ 0/ Il moving uniformly distributed load. In Art. B.2 we

have seelL tl1l1t the vaLue o( 1\ fun.ction S induced by a uniformly
dil!lriblll~{L load is equal w the product of the intensity of that
lCk1d q by the area ro bounded by tho infillence line uml the orrlil1uws
pagsing through the limits of the load, Le., S =(IW. The intensity
of the load q being constant, the maxi ilIum value of thll function
will correspond to tho maximum of (0 which in its turn will occur
\I'hcn the loao q will occupy the whole of that portion of the structure,
over which the innuenc.c line dOes not chnnge sign.

~ , .!
-:
I

j"fluef/Ce line
1l far H,

I
--- I
l/nfluence lUTe for
M,
.

I
:Jnfluenc!! LW!! far

I" ~~-:--:--~Cll~~-.
I Q,

-- l - - - - - - __
-- I J"fltJem:e lifle (or
Q,
Id)

--- -- -----
Fig. :JiJ.2

In Fig. 33.2 we have repfCsented the most unfavourable cases

of loading for a beam with overhung carrying a uniform load. Case a
indicates the load position for J\t[lm",..; case b for M lrtHn ; case c
for Q,m"", and case d for Q,m,n' It will be noted that in all the four
cases these portions of the beam which correspond to the positive
or n(!~ative pnrt.~ of the innuence line are fully loaded .

It i~ assumed that tll\' loads 1ll3y 116 distribu'oo (lVer a stretch of (lny length.
70 llrca/lll

8.2. OIi:TmIlNATroN OF MAXL'llml MOMENTS AND FOHCES

USING EQVH'ALEN'l' USlfOIlIlj LO,\ns
\-Vo hllve 8('1'11 that tho dClllrlllinnLion of the mitxirnllUl vnlut!
of a function by the dirt'ct application of a train of cO/l\~ent.r[l!ed
luads to the innuence line jll\'olves a (;ollsil!ernblc llmoullt of cal-
culations dllC (0 the llecc1lo:ity lJf flnrling thl,; mo.~t unfnv(luraLlc
plJsition of the lo:\([s. in the easo of triangulnl' inl"JlIeJle(', line.s, alJ
the operations may be cOllsidllrubly simplilicd through the use of
so-eallod equlvalen.t loads. whose vllhlllS can he tal,ell (rum IlpprO-
priate tablos Iwn glllpIJS.
The equivalent loud may bl' defl lied as II uniformly distributed load
which will indm::e in a ciwn mflnber (ur st.'ctiiJn) 0/ the .I'tructuri' UllIu'r
co{/.~ickratio'l the sanw farce VI' I1UJltlnt as the cvrrt:sparu!iltg sysll.'tn 0/
conrmtrated lvads in thelr mast Im/owl/ruble position.
Denoting by 9~q tho illtOIlSity of the t'quivulcnt lond aI"! !.oy 0
tho area boulldod by the infilwllce line, we may write tho iolluwing
equation

frOIll which it may lie SCClJ that tl1Cl"O will he alll':I)1) all! y ()IW
dcl'illitc vll.!nc of the t'qllivalolLt !oad fol' cacll paltieuJar 10lldlllg
llldt'od, s{,lving the ahov\" equlltioll fol' f)cq we obtain
Zf'fh,
(hq=--,-,-
In ()UI' cXtlllIple of Arl. i.2 we hllVt' fuund that. for the train "r
lond!' eOllsiuol'Ou the maximum value of a certaill fUllctioll S l" -
tulll'd D.1. III l.hi... case
\I.l O. I '275
fJe'1=T)(F=T= . tOllS per metro
--:r-
rt migllt sceUl tbat this h\ads w; c.Ut.tly llowhct't~. far in order
to Hnd an Ilqllh'alclIt load wc IllIlSt rrrst dtll.erluillO the mitxirllUIll
value of the [Ilfl(.'tion IJy trial. In rlJaHty this is Ilot su. I,'or n triaHgu-
lar influence line the intensity of an equivlllcnt I(lad far iJ given .''.et
of f;oncQnlratcd loads is indopendent 01 tho lH!tual valuc or tile
ordinates to the infillQJll'C line IInd will altel' only witlt a ()hang~
in ~he length of thll~ portion llf the .structure which C,HTies UlO load..,
find witll 11 varill.lioll in the position of tho innuenclJ liuo apt'X witll
r~spcct to it:i tlxtrt'mHies. This jlcrmits CUwpllttt.tion and labulllliun
(or rcprcsenltltioll ill the fOl'm of t!raphs) of eqllivaknt. load jnl.en-
Sith)8 pertaining to typical loading schemes and to tile rhoro wnl-
lOom shape:> of triangnlat infilU)llce lines.
 Ld //..~ cuU simU.ar tu'" lujluN/(le lints when the ordinal~ 1'/ (mt of
!lti'm mayix' Obtllifl.N1 hy mulUplyLJlg tho~ of lhe other by Il cUIMtlmt
fllcMr. aud lrt liS show thal t1u' inlttuity 0/ tM l"fJuit;lI-knt wml/f fnr tlOO
simL/ar lull'S r('mains Ihi' J(UI~.

la'
I
la

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
tb, 1
I
I
a

Fig. M.~a and b n!pl'fJ"C.nts two such lines; the base longtl,~ of
tho.'" liul'S lire the samo while their ordinalt\s diffe-r by a constant
factor equa 1 \0 u.
The ('qui\"<tlent load for the line in Fig. 33.2b is
. IPllli . .
q..,-~ with 1I;=nJI1
lllid
Q' =U.5nh(u+b)=,lQ
whllro III ll11d Q <Ire tho ordinllt.e aud the area of the innUonCll line
rcp~&lnlcd in I"ig. 34..2a. respectively.
Suhstil\lllug Q' and hi by lhtlir values expresso<!. in terms of Q
and h we fmd

tor linc a.
 D~tllI"

\Ve !Iave t.bus proved t.hat. equivaltmt loads for similar inOut'lI<'C
Ijll~ are identical.
The intensity of ..ho equivalent load depends 011 three fllctors ollly:
(1) the llistribution aod magnitude of th" loads; (2) tho Icnglh of
the loadl'li portion; (3) the position of tlll'l :lptl-x of the illflucllce lille
over the span (or over the loaded portion of the structure).
TroUl
~

~~~
~ - _... ---.~ ~~ --
~~
_.............
.... .., .............-- <::<:: ~~ 'ton
", ........ ..; <') <OS ~~
O-S'"' ... .-; ... <-i ... ~~ ~~
"""
I'!,"e

(r(Jtll
H,
..., ....._.........
'-
"'.,~""'
~ ..........
....,
... ~~
,
~~
..............., -
. . ..........
..........
..., ...,
-- -- ,
...," ;o?, cS~ u>r's I~"
...., <-; <"\ ") <":i ~~ "'S <"j "'S-; ...
~" ~~
, "',>1:..'

, , 1 S G7 8 . ID 11 12 13 14 IS16 1718

Train ...,................., ...............

.................
~~.." ...",..",
-
.- ....................
7 ((l/"f'~,.
H. <1'
.... "" ...........
~~'*' .::t!{,"('

/ ! J .. S Ii 7 8 11 10 11/'l/J It.. 15 "b' :'1:11

1 r>oUJ' pt!r gAle orE g. vell;'t (011$

,.It. J!f.2

Inlcllsitil'S o( equivalent loads computed for a stalldanl train

HI (Fig. 35.2) used in 1.he V.S.S.H. for designing railway bridges
are tabulated hereuJldcr.
.'\5 will btJ ob~rvcd. the table (,onl:'lins the ":'1111(';'< of l.:tl'lhalclIt
lands for \'ariou$ Il?llgtbs of the I03dl:'d portion (lip tll M m)
and flit three different. i>O"itionll 01 tJu." in[Juence liut.' alhX. llallll.'ly
whcll the lattt>r is over the edgl?, at quarler Sp:lll ami at fllid-sprlll.
"'hen the tlJX':'\: falls at some intermt!diaLc poillt. 1./1<.' \'llhlC 01 the
l'qui"nlent toad ni3y ho obt3incd by tllttlrpolation.
+
'fhe Ilist.unC~5 between loads ill Fig. 35.2 urc givcn in metre~.
 T"f,lt> 1.2
E(Juivl\l~nt LUDds per Running Metre of Trltdo: fur Slandard IT\
Train in 1'nns
TTPe and lLI<elllb nr inllunce line
A~ 1 tbe u.lremitr Apn 11 ql)at'UT ilP"ll "lIn ill th~ '1l10<l1~
LrllCth
~
~~ r-----...
of lIle
r"oWd
\o<onloa
I'lm ~

,,,
I 7.00 7.00 i.l~I
<i. :tu 3.5l' :{.:IO
3..1~ 3.01 2.St
:,. l!j 2.57 2.1~
5 :.UII 2AI 2.41

:L2f1 2.2(,
"8 2.1lQ

,.
7 2.71 2 21; 'J.2H
,. Vi3
2.51
2.:m
2.~
:.:.;(.8
2.2:1
2A2 2.16 2.11t
--- 12 2.2!l :.'..0." U16
1.!'l7
" 2.16 .. 88
1I\

"
211 ....
2.0:1
1.1',,!
1.88
1. ,7
1,(;9
1.82
1.7!1
1. 70\.

<. 1.77 I.Vl 1.51

<' I. 73 I. 51; t.~
tAr.
'"
,~)
71)
I. 7(1
l.H5
I.GI
1.55
1.52
t.46
1.401
1.4~

.SO I. ,:,!j 1.43 1.'i3

I~) t,~! 1.37 1.37
71. l.>l1l 1.33 U,2

'"'" 1.41
.. '"
1.27
t,2!1
1.::11 1.22
I(iU
110
120
'"
..1.32
1..:ro
.."
1.22
J.:!Q
I. IS
1.15
l.l3
J:'lIJ 1.27 I. 18 I. II
tt,v 1.21; l.H; 1.10
I!JrJ
'00
1.2>1
1.:t3
1.15
1. 1>1
.....
.. 07
1.00
,"
liLl

11~J
1.21
I.a
I.W
l. 12
LII
I.lU ..'"
"" 1.18 .. OO .. ""
t.ll5
7\

Uy IIItdliplyillg all till" axle loads of the standaru III lr:till by a

fnelor k which l'hamctcriws thtl Gins., of loading. wc shltll oblain
IOllflillg !l(;bCffiCS for dilfcrent cla8:les of t.rains. Thus. t.he dC'si!{1I
(.If trunk lines is carried (lilt for trains of class 7 Qr 8 (H 7 or H,) whilst
lilH:s oC local importaJlce are designod for H, and 11, train~.
"r"lItem I. '"",ill!: tlM'mClhod of t'(llIivllll!"~ loacls,lot(Ol'miuc tI,O ,Irds IlrodU('t...:J
hy ,I ,,~an,I, ...1 #, tr;,ill i" IRt'lUbcr 1-$ of lIl!iinlc track hridgf' Irrl!lll n'J,re:;enl<-d
III lo'ilt. :)Ii.~," Ul(' cOI"rrSII<'lIdl"g in1luellce Hnll bl.'illg FhoWlI ill Fig. 3G.2b.
"'~I!lII"" lu "nlcr tu ob\.ll[n tIll' maximum \,,,llIe of the tell.!;o" Indur~1<1 the
wll"I(. 1'''1'1 ;im or lhe ~1'ulI cvru'slJOlItliug to tho positivI' ordilWICl1l of Ih" innut'llce

(a) ~
,
<

--- -- , I
I Iltr~,7('it 't,ile r, D'S

~~
1--_ I

tb) { 6:
--- h~
Jm Gm

Ft::. 36.2
---
IHle s1"'1l1J In' 1""I,~I. the ll'1~lh of !JIb tlllt'lion toI.aJs 8.0 Ill. lu e"hllran 3 "I
'l'ahl(! 1.2 .... le' 1,,,,1 Ihllt Ihe ~'<luivaJ..nt 10"'\ fl.H' I""i" III ...." .. hl equal ill that
e.l3(: :l.2X lOllS 1Il-"I' Il,ttru. TI,u muimum I~ll$it'" prodll('~d h)- an 11, train will
th~,<t 1.0 dL'i\"{',j fl'UlII the follOWing e-:o:pn~ion

2D~).,.4q.,U_7X2.28X ~ X ~ _39.90 lOllS"

Du_O.SX39.911_IU.t'S ltlns
TI'(j lUOU;lUIIIll cumrrcs..><ion ...ill 101.' obl"inod by 1000ding Ihl" wltol(> ~Iret.eh
ill'CI'" Iho 1H';:":l.l(vo, I",rlioll of \ht' inllu('net' 1I11l". i'rmn 1'lIlill' 1.2 wu (Illd lnal

"Iw lacl.<lr 2 ill Irnlll uf th, Idl-!lllll,1 tenll or

Ihili l"xr'1'l!Miofl i~ dill'
ll' Ilu~ fact lh~t thQ llqui\.l]cnl l"ads In Tabl.. 1.2 are givl'lI lllr olle tra('.k,
i.Il, ror both truS,S(,>J\ or
11 sill!:!e-Irack brIJc:e.
 S.t. Daler.... inolto,. 01 M.uIMu.m MometU. Ami I'O'ru 75

fur 11 IcDglJ> l_ <4 In IlK- IlflUi'l3Ji>"I I"ad i~ 2:.57 tOIlS !Joer moire (!N.' culumn 3).
TI" IllUilllUlll CODlI"l'!i!!WlI will Ih('ll he givcn by
;; oi
;!f).~_ kit..,il _7 X 2';'; X 1ii X "2 - t I. 24 I."UII

"'I","ea D,~ =0.:' x 11.:.14 _:i. (\:.1 Ions

I>Tlll,l~"" 2. t-~lul:! ~hc m"lhod ,.! t'lJu;vnll'ul loo lIs Iin'l M I '!l'l~' Q { ",,,~,
nnd (1/ mi. "d.-ing in ~ln enrl ~UP!""'le\1 plato girdOl' hrl\l![ll (rlj:l, ,'j1,1'lj 'lfrillg
tl1l' I'll~!;l'!-!~. 1,1 nil Jf 7 train, The Illnu~ncc lino.' r"'t' b"l1di"~ wlJIIlt'nl 111ld ~hl'al'

la) ---ip------....
~a ~
Jl,.a-i

'.
Z/11t 118/11
:
, 0

,---- '''''0m
iI
:/
!l ll.n. fir Ir1flu~ Hr
(6)
~l @ I
I

t+-- ~1~ In{luiJ~ I

lint for Qr :

(C)JJ ~ et> - =:
e az-------- E
Fit. 37.$

iUl'\'C.lillll J 01 une Iwlk:r:lf1'. ~pre~nled in Fig. 37,2/) ilnd r. 1'110 I>dltgc is :ljlllin
5ingJt, trat"k "lie, loo r.lils bc'-''il" f,xl'd, to ."ltiDRer'S .ml rro5,5 be.un! t.u,,\M,rll'd lo)'
1\\'0 IlIlTallp) g,rd.....,.. AccOl'dil1gl)'lhn .,quiv~tellt load ror one Rirol... r wi l.be hair
of tloal giVl'/1 III 'rable 1.2.
$of"I,o'l, IJ.,,,,,.m/tWllofl oJ AI! "'U' TI.... J('ngt.h uf Ihe> J(lltdin ~bouM lit)
lukl'Il ~ual lu lite whole ~Il>l" of llC ll:irtlet, 1.0;1" to 10.0 m. As Ihe ~I'''X or lI.e
InDuen((' lIne fnll! 1...'lw('l'Il Ihe llh1l.rtet !pan IM/illt and Ih ... enll of th" !:u'd"r the
cqujva!""L lOAd l!lU~t 1'0 found toy intl,lrpohtLion. to'or all If, twin

<J,,-qu-l-('I, ~-'/o) 1~1 _2.42+{2.11J_2'':'2)~:~_

.....2.42-0.2.tiXO.8_2.2t to", IlOf melrt'
where '10 "',. l'ilui\./tleot. 1".,1 for 10a,I....1 ICllglh or 10,0 III with lht! IlIflUI'I~o
It
Ilot'! Itjl('.'t: o ....r UUI j,ll",x1.n.'1niL) 1,1 Ih... iirdt..-t IrtJulltl in Tabl" 1.2)
'1, I = ""lIIe cqll;vlllent I~d hul f."r Itn i"noolKo line willt lli" Itt~lf
al C1".tter-JlpaD (,,15O fonnd III TaMe t .2.)
9" ....:: equh'all"llt 1000d fOl' IIIll faSl' ....h"n thll i"OueT>W line "flt.'.'t: i~ at +,
of the lrirdt't 511l1n (.~ in Fig. 37.20)
11 ... diit:loctl frolll llou innUI"IlfC line .p... x to tll'" 1ll'3rt'SI cut! of the
irder
l
l = ""lftt. of lmuliug ("Iua! in Ihi! Illlttieubr Cll~ t<J ~ho .... Ioul.., ~Im"
01 tho gir,ier,
 For all H, tl"1lin the equivalent load will amount to
94 x 7 _ 2. 21 X 1= 15.<1,7 toilS p('r metre
For 0,)(' gifller it will reduco to one balr. i.e. q, "'" 7.735 tOllS pcr lIlt'tr...
'ri,,, art'il under the loending mOIDeul innueu(e liD~ ror ste:tlou I Nluala
I
6)''''"TX IOx t.G_8 m!
Conse'llltlntly
M 1 m,,>: .. 9'(,)1 .... 7. 735 X 8.0_lil.8& ton-lIlt't.,.!
r)tt~rminllflon 0/ (Jf ",..". In order 10 flml the maximum J>O$itive :'lht'", ;n
~ll()n I the 10(:",1 shQuld (over the ('lltil\1 posiU,'(' llortion (>f tflu Of Influence
liulI (Fig. !17.:k). Thlllcng'Lh of this portion i~ equl,llo 8 metr,,~ and t}u~ influenco
line apex is O\'t'f its Il.'ft extl"l.'mity. Table 1.2 yields the rollowin~ nlu(' for the
equivnlont IOall eerl'('~I)""dini t.o tho stilndard 11, Lr/l.in
qo-2.li3 lam; per metre
For 8'l /11 train thia 108,1 ",.i11 inert'llSC ~e\',mrold :md will lohl 7 X 2.63 ...
18.~ Iton" per meLre, while for ono girder Ihill should bl' haJy~I. I.e., ''1: "" 9.2
tOil! per metre.
Tho arell. bounded b}' tho positive porlion of Ihe shf'ar innuencu line equals
"'2""' ~ x8XO.S .. 3.2 m
ami therdore
01 m.,.- q:(l)~= 9.2 X 3. 2_ 29. 44 to,lS
J)rltttnlnatlOIl 0/0, ml'" The greatc~t Ml'lItivc Shl'.r in ."E'ClIon I will Of'.c;ur
wllen that portion "f tllu girder 'I\'bere the ordinalllS to the .!'hear influence line
atn negativG (t'ig. 37.2.:) is loaded in its entirety. This porti(m is 2 mf'trcs long
and thfl \nfluNlCfl line apex is .t its righthand ('dromity. For tllis Casl) wo
fUld iu T:lble 1.2 all equivalent load corrf'&ponding to a st3.IHlard HI train equal
10 .... 2 tenS per mf'lrc. fllr nn H 7 train this 1Il0~1 lJO [ncre:l1'('d hy 7 0" to
7 X ~.20 - 29A tons per metro, and for ono girder It reduces 10 1], .... 0.;'; X
x z<JA = fIo.7tun! per metro.
The area ulJdl'r thu ltcgath'u pOrLiOll 01 the IllnUCrl~e lino equals
1
(013- -TX 2 xO.Z- -0.2 III

Q'IMI,,-4#]- -0.2 X 14.7 __ 2.91 tons

9.2. MULTISPJ\N STATlCALLY DETHAflNATE BEAMS

By mul'ispan- stfluctllly deurminal~ canliinN'r ~am we lll)dNSlllOd
n geometrically stablo structure consisting of a series of simply
supported heams with or without overhangs connectod to.ltcUx.,.
by means of hinged joints. Such beams might be also call od IImUi-
span. hEngro b~am.s. The multispan cantilever beams also hl'lollg
ta this chls!> of hcmm!l constituting a particular ease thereof.
Single benms constituting these structures might be uith,.r of
plate girder or trussed construction or both. The theory of th(3 multi-
 77

span statically determinate beams has been developed in 1871 hy

1110 eminent Russian engineer G. Scmikoleno\'.
Bl:'llmS of this type are USU311y more economical tban a series of
disconnected simply supported beams spanning the game opening.
This mn}' be illustrated by the following example: assume that two
eq"al 8nd 3djaccnt. spans A B and BC 10 metres long each have l.O
=-It/m q:2t1m

ca'

AI--._-"''''---__ ..,'t-__-'c"om'''--__..,c
(0'

"I D
A C
IOm

'dl

,
M,tGtm
Ft,. 18.2

be hridged over, tIle design load being evenly dislriLull.'d and oqllsl
to 2 lOllS per metre. In the fir!!t instance let liS try separate simply
snpporlcd be;JlUs (Fig. ;~.2a). The bending momonts At miuspan
of each beam will amount to
qli 2xl0l _
MO=T%O.--,--.25 tollmctft"$

The diagrams of these bending moments arc r8presenWd in

Fig. 3S.2b.
Now let. us cn"isag~ 8 double-span hinged beam. llnd Jut liS Ilse
R beam with a two-m6tre overhang BD nc,roJ\.~ the spOon HC (Fig. 38.2c),
7'
this ovcrlHlllg wing hiu~'C-(;ollllec~t!d lo the ('od of fill 8 metro benm
AD. The maximum bclltlinl: moments (positive and nt'gll.tive) in
the must dangel"Uus cross sections of these two beams "'ill 00:
at midspiln of JJt>am AD
M,= 2~81 = Hi lUll-metre>
Over the support B of beam CD (b.'nm AD LrallsrniLtinl{ a rOIl-
cC/llrall'd load P_B lons lllWllgh hiJlge D) the b<>udillg mVll1c"t
Mn = - (8x 2 +2~2') = -20 lon-mclrPs

III the middle of the 51'all He tile bending moment will tllllollul Lo
:!:X1Ot :!II) _
Mt=-.---T= I" lOll-llwlres

but this is no longer a dangerous s~ction, for the JIl3Killlll.n momorlt.

Ill1lSL coitl"iilo with lWro shellf Aud lIw latter will ocellr at a di.-r
lilncc x from tile right-ham] lWPI)urt, this dishwee hcifll{ t1l,!'j\'l'd from
the fnllowilll; cqunlillT\
Qx= -C+qx...,.,.O
\\'hCI'l! (: ilj the right-IHllld alllltrncJlt rcac~ioJl equal 10
c= -8X2-2XlX\~2XIfJX5=8 lOllS

Mid thcrcful'C '"

-8+2%=0 x=-4 ml'trcs
Tile I'CIldill'l' mmnt'ut in this sc<:lioll will b..
M,..nr-8x4-2xli x2=16 tOIl-llIe~rL'S

Thu belldin~ monwnL diogmlll fur the dOllble-s~lIl hinged bellm

is rupl'l'SClllt'tl in Fig. ~_2d. H will 00 obsen'ed 111:11 ill o~luto
valul' lilt' iJcnding moml'_nts in I.his beam 111'" smaller th:m in each
of lite scpar:\tc beams cOllsitll!1'\.'4:! in \11.. rlr3~ place anrl tbcreforo
Lho lloubl"'-1IpOIl bt:am is obviously mort' l.oronomictll.
The liSt! of co,,~illnolls beams o1.so k,tlds to a sub)';tallli<tt n:ductioll
or ht'ndilllo: mOfllClIt,.<: as compAred with singl" lx.>arns, hut t.he multi-
~plln sUlticnlly dett'rminate beams presont o'rtain adclil-iOllallldVlIO-
tawes: (ll) their relaLi \'el y shor~ melllbors al'C well suitl!d for prohdnica-
lion. lransport..'1tion and installation, ulliug standard hoistillg I.'quill-
meflt; Cb) nil the forces i"du~d therein arc Slatica1Jy ,letNmillllt.e
a rill will 1I0l be innucllccd by any .'lotlllllllllllt uf the ~ll"IJorls. 'rhe
ahovCl cOlIsiderations havo led La fairly wifle 1150 of mullispl11l <:a.n-
tilever bcnms in engineering structures.
Stntically determinate 1Il1111i:lptln beam:! 1lI11}' always 110 ol}tllinCfl
inlrudlldng n llllml)er or hillges illl.lI a similar conlilHl(JIIS bl'Anl.
A., will be shown Inwr tht. number 01 hingl'lS must be cqual 1(1 ~IJ('
degree of redulIrlallc}' 01 the continuous beam.
r'ig. ~J.2a rcpreseulS a live-span COIlLLI1UOUS !leanl whose const-rnillLs
at Lhe supports may oo:lc.herual.ically replaced by scvcn hillKt'lt h;lr!,.
III ordllr lo dett'rmine Lbe Ivrces act ill!: in these bars wc have l)1I1~
three independent cquilibrium equatiolls :lIId therefore lbe stress:
conlputation for lhis boamcanDolbecarried out with the aid or 51n-
ties BloOtl. This benm has a degree of a redundancy equal 10 four .

.~ J;: "k J; ;b ;t
la,

.~ J,:;<>--<>J,:; J;HJ; ;;l,

'~ J<:
a
:J"
I'}a
J;
0J<: a
k
',0 a
J(;<
,
IcI

J;aI,,'J;
a
J;
,
,
J"
.~ J; J; \Ok J; J,.
.~ :J;
0
;t: J;;
re}
B

(fI
oc-~
~""" -J"
c ~

Fig. .t!J.Z

H we derlot~ hy C the number uf conslraintlS al lhe 1lI1IlIIlIrl.",

tlllJlI the degl'C'C uf redllndancy n of ti,e hu~m will 1,0 Cllllal to It -
= C - ;t Aplllying this formula t.o the beam ill Fig, 3!1,2a wc shnlJ
obtAin n = 7 - 3 = 4,
E:\r11 hinge introduccd either in the spAn or f)\'('r n SIIPllort Hr
n Ct)ntinuOllS beam Jlruvid~ for ono additional oqlJalion of sl<lticl'.
thi~ equation expn.'SSing lhnl the sum of moments of all the ('xtcrn<ll
forc('~ IOpplil.-<1 to the beam either to lhe right or lo 111(' k,n or tlll~
hillj{e I\bout iLs r.enlre equals zero.
He_net'_ when Ilu) lIumber of hi"~~.!l introduced into the henm
t'quAl:< it." degn.'t' (If redundancy, Lilo hcnlll bec.OnlO!l i'ltnlklllly (Iull~r
millllto for all LIJI) IInkllowns mllY he obtained ill Owl ('/ISO wiLh !.Ill'
aid o( tilo eqllntil)ns of stntks nlone.
 The hiDg'l!s mllst 00 distributed alollg the beam ill 5uth a war
th:.L t'lIch part v( the 3(rue~ure ShflUld become statically determinate
Ilml remain geometricAlly stable.
So,'eraJ ways of transforming till.' continuous bUtlll1 rcpre~nted
ill I~il:'. 39.~ into n staticaHy determinate one artl iUustrllt.cd in Fig.
:f,1.2b. c, d and e. Fig.::ro. 2/ gives all cnmple of :an unsatisfactory hinge
distribution for although their nlllllht'r in this caSt' algo equals
rOllr and then-fore corresponds to the degree of rodundancy of the
illiUal beam, portion AB of tile transformed benm still rcmtlills
sl.l\tieally illdetcrminate while portion nc has bC<.;OnlC unstable.
('1'110 JloliSible displll.ccrncnt..s of tllnt portion of tlte bll"J11 are shown
in da~h lines.)
" continuouS bell m with oue built-ill cnd is reprusenlcd in Fig. 40.2/1.
II ljllould be rcmemhercd that a builtin cnd is equi"alC'llt lo t.Im'C
:1I111!Xlrl eonstrllints as rcprosentod sehematically in Fig. 4t.~.
,\cctlrJingly Lho total numbor of ('onstraints of the bc/un is C =- 7
atul its degrro I)f redundancy is n = C - 3 = 7 - 3 = 4.
Thus, in order totrllnsform tbis beam inln a staticntly dewrminat.e
Olle, rl)Ur hinges should be introduced (IS illustrated in Pig. 4O.2'J.
..\ ('olltinunuJi beam with two built.-in ondsi!\ represented in Fig. 42.2a:
tlll,l ril:hthand end o( this beam sljlJ retains ('1\0 degreo r.r frf'tld'om
liS it can move horiz.untaHy. Therefohl 3t this end the nUlllher of
rostraiHts is cqllal to two as indicated in Fig. 43.2. Thus, tho loL-\!
lIumber o( cOJl.'.ltrllints of this beam is C _ 8 and its degree of redun-
dalll,\Y equals n = 8 - 3 = !>. In order to make tLtis bellm staticll.lJy
.lelcrmillate it would he neccssary to introduco live hinges. QlIe w3y
of distributing these hinges is shown in Fig. 42.211.
Tltt) Iwst way to rmd (Jut wnethol' a lUlIHisll311 ht'lIm o( lllllt t,yP(~
h stahle or not onc! also to get a cloar l>icLllrc of its work uuUer load
is to represenL schcmll.til'Mlly tllo illlcraction of its scpurato parts.
As.'SlIul(! for iUlltllnce thllt il is required to investij.{llto thti .stability
o( the beRm t'll[lte'lClltcd in Fi.'!. 44.2a. The inlcract,ion of itl:! cll'monts
is ruprescnterl. schemaLically in Fig. 44.2b, wht:ro all the illlcrmediaw
hinl,yUS arc replaced by fixod hinged supports connecting tho appro-
llrinle b~311l members. This schemAtic drawilll: sho\\'~ c10llrly that.
the whole beam i!l ~motrica.lly st.n"'e, for each o[ its constituent
mcml,ICr.l is 11. simple beam 'with (lr without o\'erballjl" connected
tu t11(~ ground or to aMtbcr part of the structure whose stability is
cn~urcd by menns of three nonconcurrent bars.
J~rroctivcly. beam ABE i~ wnnoet.ed to tbe ground by nlCt1IlS
of lhf('C supporting blll's and i~ therefore geoJOctric.l'llly stnble.

-/\ I(ll.'tbod or illYll~Lill'uting Ihl' geomelricul ~Lllbility of a muWSpan hinged
1Jl'~m \\'~~ p",~sl.'nILod In Art. 2.1.
 9.2. Mulli'fI~n Stllticalfy Dclcrm.inatr IJcam.

~ o JJ7 r:; 0?l ~

Fir;. 40.:!

Fi/:. ,/1.2

~ ~
,,)
JJ: a
~ JJ7' o~
Ib}
~'
0

~
Pig. 42.2

Fig I.B.2
" S'/MI5

A 8 ; C r D

JIb ?Al.' J; I,!

:k
F D

~ Jm

A 8 .1
JlJ, :Al- l"
Fit. 4;1.2

-;;a; LJ :;;A;;;
Fig. dS.2

;;;;;;;; L.1~

.11
la}
lJ

p 1: la}
I>;; I
I
TIle heam ECl? is SUIlporLeJ hy two bllrs at its end E and rests on
a verlie-al har !<taluling directly 011 the ground at C. The supports
of bl'-arn PD arc exactly similar, LllUS ensuring its stability.
Tho exalllples presented ahove lead to the establishment of the
following rulE1s relative to tho distribution of hillgt'::l in beams which
have no blllJLill enll;;:
(t) there may be no more than J! hinges in each spun;
(2) thl'rI! musl be no hinffes in the spans adjacent /0 tile one provided
with 2 hinges:

r (a)
~

(6)

Fig. dB.:!

(3) spans con/ainlug (I/lt" hinge only may follow each olJli<r~;with
the exceptton "i One 0/ th.. extreme spam where there shOl~ld be no hinge
at all.
Thus far we have cOJlsidered cases whore all tho supports but one
were freo to move in a horizonlal direction. Lel us 1I0W exnmine
ca,o;.es where two or moril- supports MC frxed and will allow 110 hori-
zontal tli:'!placemellt. In this CilSC the introduc.lioll of ordinary hinges
he{~omcs insurrLcicnt for the transformation of the cuntinuous beam
into n stlllically dctcrmillllLe one. This would require the inSLallatIon
of mobile llinges which offer lIO rc~islancLl to horizontAl displace-
ments. QIl{' of the-se hinges is fCptcstmled ~c-hcmalicaLly ill Fig. 1i,').2.
An example of a sLatieAHy dnterminato beam with lhree Iixcd sup-
porls and two JI\(}vfLble hinges is given in Fig. 46.2a, the interaction
of its e-lcments heing schelnlllically indicat<110 in Fig. 46.2b.
'f}le reader h invited to establish 011 his own the rt.\hllion between
the uJlmlwf of li.xl'd supports and of mobile hingllS in n Sl.atically
determinate llIultispan beam.
The 1lI0st commonly used multispnn hinged lX'ams arc represent-
ed in Figs. 47.2a and 48.2a.
'0
" The first one is characterized by alternating double-hinged spans
and spans d"void of allY hinges. It l;on5i~l, thus or 1I. series of beams
wHb two uvorhang,;; supporting su.'lpended' simple beams. Tbe
second beam is characteriud by the presence of 0. hinge in each
of its spans with the oxception ol the last olle; .. b.e i1llerllction of
ils ell!m~nL.'1 is represented ,~bematically in Fig. 48.2b.

It should be noted tlaat lhe favouftlblo effect of the ovurhangs

may hI.'. taken 8th-anlage. of 1101. only in ordinary solid we!> boams
but lllso in trussed syslolll8 such a.'I indicated ill Fig. 49.2. The
reactions of ~ueh a system will be found ill exactly the saUle WilY
as for 1111 nrdiuary statically delllrminatc multispan heam.

10.2. DETERMINATION OF MOMENTS AND FORceS INDUCED

llY A SYSTEM OF FIXGD LOADS IN MULTISPAN
STATICALl.Y DETERMINATE: BEAMS
The design of slntically determinaw multispnn bllarn$l will b~
now iIlustrotcd using as an exnmple the hinged beam represented
in Fig. 50.2a. Fig. 50.2b cont3ins tho .schematic drawing o( the
Interaction o( its separate mtlmbel"!.
The reactions RA, R.I1' Rc. R D will be reckoned po~i.'ive when
direct.ed upwards, wh.i1e the (orces Rh R t , and R J arising in the
hinges from the interaction of the dHttlrel\t elemeuL'I of the beam
wilt be considered such (see Fig. SO.2b) when the upper element
exerts a downward pressure on the lower onc. Fig. 50.2c, d, ~. I
~how5 1111 the separate elcmcnl$ of tho beAm as woll as all the forces
acLing on th.ese elements. All t.he reactions and forces indicatnd
in these drawings are positive.
We shnll st3rt with determining the reactions RI and Ht of the
upper most simply supported element H,flt spanning a length of
i rn. This element is subjected to a uniform load whose intensity
q equals 1.2 tons per metre and also to the reactions at the ltinr:1lS
+
-The u~ual three-span cantilever bridle belong" t<I lhis type of structur05.
Elleh of its outer ~paIl."l i~ lluc!IMCd dOllm at the ~hllre /lnd overhangs into the
eontrlll 5PIIll llbout one third of its length. Tho flUspended span, restlng 011 the
"cantilever arms", oecupl05 the remalnlng third of the central SpUIl.
 ](I.Z. Df'lt'rtnlltoU"" 01 Mo"ult" ""d Forcu 85

'0'

(f)

I n
(9)
21

(h)

FiK. 50.2
 IJ("I111/.<

(.sec Fig. 50.2d) totalling

R 1- -~-
-/1 2- 2 I.Zxl -0 b' to"
---2-'-~' ..

Noxt wc shall detcrmiJle the rcacUonsoftJle element ASH l situat-

ed just bll10w the ehHllCllt II 1H 2 <lnu constituting a simply sUPJlorted
beam with two OVCrb!lIl~. This lwam is .~lIbjectcd to the action
of loads and reactions indicutod in Pig. !i0.2c. From the e(Iuilibdllffi
of moments we obtain
IM.o= -Pllll+qa~ (It+ 22 ) +Rt (ll'!-fl 2 )-Rn l 1 --O
when'from
-PIIlI -+- qa 2 (Lt +--) +R s (1, 1-(2)
UR = /,

--+[ _2 X 1 + 1.2 X 1 (2 + ~) +O.li(2+ 1)J = 1.1i tuns

The eqllililJriulIl of the mOlllt\uts ahout poillt B yil:]ds

The yalllOS of the two reactions just fQllna C-llll he dux,ked using
the cquilihl'illlll equation uf the Vlortlca] cOllrpOJl('lIts
,ry = -Pj-qaz-R,+H",+lljJ=
= -2-"1.2 X t-0.13+2A+ 1.4= -3.8+:~.8"=O

Tillt,';. tho values of reactions RA alld R II arc COl'reet.

Consider now rCllctiuns Rc and n~ or
the simply supported bcam
with overhang 11lCH.1 : the forr.es and the rNlcHollS ading 011 this
beam arc showl! inl'ig. 50.2,. TILe l'quilihrium equation furnishes
again

whl'refrom
IIl.~ II ;'q'4+P 2(I,.
fll+/l~
O.6X 1 Z \.2 x 0r.'.'} x 1.21 +:1 xl = 0.5G6 ton
I l."
 10.'1. Del~Tmt""U/o" 0/ MtlI.un" Imd POTU.

The o~h('r cquilibl-iunl cqua~ion gives

~M,= -R~(a,-l a,+4,)-qa, (i +a,+a,)-
- /',a,+ Rc (0, +av = 0
wherdrUill

H,("s-+ "'+"))Tq", (--+"~+1I)) -!-P:r<J,

Rc - II~-t 11') =

".
O.l1 (1.2+ I + 1.5)+ 1.2 x 1.2
1 1.5
C/ + I +1.5) +3 x l.&
= Ii ,1j7/, tOll5

These two rl'llct.ions will l)e check...d :Ill. obo\'o

:ty = -RJ - qas-Pt+ Hc+R,= -0.6- 1.2 X 1.~-3+
+0.5G6+4.474= -5.04+5.04=u

wWcll shows that. RH t.ho computations were carried out correctly.

Next comes the t.urn of the cant.ilever beam 11 ~ loaded at. it.'l
free l'nd by tile vertical pressure Ra (see Fig. 5O.2f). r~l'Om the equi-
librium of tbe moments we obtain

leadillg' tu
MD = - R,l, _ - 0 .5UB X 2 _ - 'I. 1:32 tOIl-lOc:tres
Tht! lll'gativc vnhw of the mOlntmt (lblninoo indicnt.cs lIwl lhis
momC'JLt act8 il) a diroclioll opposit.~ tn the onc indicnted ill
J"ig. 50.21. ~'rOIlI t.hu IJIluilibrillm l"qulltion
~Y= -H,+R.o=O
we get

Having dl'lerminOlI 01111 t.he reactiol\S at tILe supports and all the
pressures l'~t>rlcd by t.hll separate 1l1ements of t.he betlll1 on each
other, WIl may now proc-eed with t.lie determiuat.ion of shears Q and
bending moments Jf act.ing iD t.hu \'ariollS Cl'Ogs sections of t.he beam
aod with Lhe OOIl::l~ruCt.jOIl of the corrci1pnllding dingram,. There
are t.\Vo Wtl.}"S of carrying out these compulat.ions.
l1) The shearing fOrcefol Q and the hcmding mornent~ .11 for the
multi5pall staLicnlly dckrmillat~ l}lJnrll undur rOll~id('ratiolL
(Fig. fJO.2a) may be determined ill thll Sllmt> WllY as for an ordinary
sl8tically dettlrlllillnto beam taking inlo cOllsidurnlioll only the
. Bum.

loads applied and the readiolliJ al the supports but. disrogBrdillg

tile intoractioll pressures at the hinges.-
If carried Ollt correctly, these computation:> must show that tho
bending mOlficllts ot nlL the binge:-; MC nil. The \'oluos or ex-prus-
sions of the shearing forces Q and the momeuts M llIay he then \I~d
for thll constrllc,tion of the cornliol)Xlnding: graphs.
(2) The shearing forces and the bending moments may be f1el~r
mined separately for each of the elements constituting the multi-
span beam Il.llowing tbe Cl,lnstnletion of lhe Q and M grnphs for
each of tbese elemenlS (Fig. 5O.2c. d, ~ and f). Putting t.oecther
these grnphs will givo the corresponding diagrams pertaining to
..ho full length of tbo bt\am.
The flffl.t of tll\l methods just described may be recommended
for beoms with a reduc.cd number of spans whiL'!t the second one
is hettor suited fur tho beam conrsistiflg of n largo number of elements.
In our case the first of the twn methods will be used for t.he. con-
strucUon of the shell.f diagram. Disregarding the intermediate hio!:rl'S,
the beam llIlder consideratioD may he divided iuto five portiOlls
characterhed by diITcrent expres.'iions for the shearing forces. These
portions Are denoted by corresponding ciphers in Fig. SO.2g. Lot %
represent the distance from tho cross section cODsidered to the )1'(1.
extremity of the beam, the (ollowing equations for each nf tht!
portions mentioned wilt then be Gbtaiocd.
Parium I
(0.-< x,1.0m): Ql _ IY = -PI = -2 tons

Portion ./1
(lm <r<3m) :Qll =I,Y """ -Pt+RA,- -2+2.4=0.4 ton
L
Portion III
(3m< z<O.2m): QJll =:EY = - PI +RA,+RB -q(.:r-3)=
L

= -2+2.4+ 1.4-1.2(x-3) ",,5.4-1.2x

Portion IV
(6.2m<:z<;7 .2m) :QIV = - IY = -8.0
n
+ p.=
= -0.566+3=2.434 tons
Portion V
(7 .2.,;:x<: 10. 7m): QV = -IY = - Ro = -0.566 ton
n
+
-These intora.ctions ltI've bt'en I'lreldy tak..n care of in ~he detormina~ion
of rel\ctions a~ tho supports.
~hl!
 80

The value..; uf t.he shears "hUll obtained for all tho five portion$
of the ~am will furnish the shear ditlgrlull represented in }'iJ:t. SO.2g.
TbI' ~IHHng momcnt dia~ram will be obtainod by thtl S('(ond
of the two methods desrribed. The corresponding graph for lht)
t1loment ABlft will be derivefl (ruDI tbe momenLs due t.o the actifms
of the force P. = 2 tons. to the l"OActions at the supports R.\ =
= 2.4 tons and R" = 1.4 toilS, to the uniformly distributed IOnd
q = 1.2 lons per metre, and to the intOl'aclion forre R, - 0.6
lon (!lee Fig. 5O.2c). Tbi.'1 graph will he r~tilincar along thu lelt.-
hand overhang at = 1 metro amI O\'('r the span l, "'" 2 moLn'!!, no
distriblltcd load acting along these ports. At Ute luft cxln:Jlllly
or the beam the Ix>ndillg moment will be nil. at the .<;upporl A it
will total -Pia. = -2 tOn-metres Sill! over too support n it .. quIlls
-PI (al + + 11) ll~ll = -2 (1 -:- 2) + 2.4 X 2 = -1.2 101l-1Il1111'es.
Within the portion nll l (right-hand overhang) the oonding
moment dipgram will be concnve, for this portion 0'
t1u~ beam i!l
!uhjected to a distributed load acting in n downward dircclion.
At the right-hand extremit.y nf lhe element ABll 1 the bellding'
moment will again cquaI1.oro. The dntn so obtained yield the ding-ram
represented in Fig. 5O.2h.
Using the same procedure we shall obwin tho bonding loomont
dingrnm IfzCH a Wig. SO.2t-). At both extremities of the boam
(hingeil1l11'1.nd H~j the bendinc: moments will equal 7,ero. Under the
IOll.d P z the moment will aqnal R.,a:, = 0.566 X 1.5 = 0.849 tun-
metres and over the support C it will amount to
R,(o$ + a~) - P~ = 0.566 (1.5+ 1.0) - 3 X 1 = - 1.58!"1 tOil-metre!!
Over the left-hand overhang tlkt graph will be curvilinear while
between the supports it will be represented by a strai.ght line. These
data will be again used for the cOnstruction of the bending moment
graph pertaining to the element H zCI/ J (Fig. 50.211.).
The bending moment diagram rorthc eklrncnt HIH~ will be bnund-
cd by a COnic parabola e.J"actly similu to the one obtllilled for tI uni
formly loaded similarly supported beam (Fig. SO.le). Its maximum
ordill..'\l:e will equalqi= 1
t.2:1 = 0.t5 ton-metre. The (Hag-mm
for the eloment HaD will be bounded by a straight line pas.Cling
throllgh zero at point H 3 and through the top of the ordinate JIf D =
= -t.132 In at the wall afi shown in Fig. SO.2h for the corresponding
element.
Al! these separate Rraphs when placed together will furnish t.he
bending moment diagram for the full length of the bC81n appearing
in Filr. 50.2h.
The reader i!! invited to check the Q and the M diagrams IIsing
the expressions mentioned in Art. 1.2.
", Brll.m.

}o~our dilfcrent continuous bcam<: are shown ill Fig. 51.2. It is

suggested that the reader should find 5ev(',ral alternative srhemes

,,4 J; J;. Jk J1
~ J; J; ;;;; J;
~ J; J;; 71 ~
A ;7k J; 7k A
Fig. SJ.2

of ~ndl!ring each beam staticaHy dctcrmilliJtc by introducing inter-

media.te hillgcs. He is also invited to carry out all the computations
P, .. /ot

lm

Jm Jm s'"
Fi~, .S2.2
leading to the constrllction of the bendillg moment and ShCPf dia-
grains for tile bellm oC Fig. 52.2 and to rmd tlae longth of the overhang

,
Fig. 53.2

II which would cquaJi?:c tbc bonding moments at mid-length of

tho \.Iace central .~raI\S of the beam rejlro!lE'.nl"d in Fig. 53.2.
 11.2. lnfl"cnc~ Lines ]"<Jr Multl1pan Stoli~lJlly DdermllllJtt Beam' 9\

11.2. INFLUENCE LINES FOR MULTISPAN STA'fICALLY

DETERM1NA'fE BEAMS

In Art. 5.2 uf. the llrescnt chaptor wo have 51wwn that when tho
load i~ tra\l~mitted throug"h secondary beams (stringers) thtJ influDnce
line for the main cnd-supported beam tcmains rectilinear. We
shall show now that in this respect influence lines for mullisllah
sLalically dctl.rrninale beams are quile similar lo LllOSO just men-
tioned.
i\sgnmc that it is required to draw t.he influence lines for reactions
A, IJ and C of beam A C represented in Fig. 54.2a.
The element CD of this beam is freely supporled at one end, it.s
othor end Leing hioj,<e-cofinected to the end D of the cantilever heam
AD. \Yhcn tho llnit load is appliod to the element CD the reac.tions
aL pointsD and C will be exactly the same as in the case of a simply
supported beam, bllt when the load shirts to beam AD the reactions
at pllinls D and C become niL Accordingly, the influence line ror
rtlllcLioll C will hnvo the shape indicated in Fig . .54.2c.
As legn.rds the reaction at support A its value wilt be the some
as for an ordinary beam wilh ovcrh:l1lg as long as the load unity
is applied botwetm points A (1nl! D. When this load is applied III
point J) the reaction nt A will be diructcd downwards ancl will
roar:.h its maximum negative value. When the load unity moves
"lon~ the clemellt DC the pressure excrted at hinge J) wIll equal
~ > in ot1to1' wurds, it will have the same value as though it were
transmittccl to tho .'!.ante point t.hroll~h a stringer nnd crOSt; bl\llfO.
Accordingly, the (nnuence lino for rtlflclion A of Lhe element DC
will he tllc.tilinCll.r with B. zero Ol'dinale at poinl C. This illnuollce
line i.'J reprc~nted in rig. fi4.2d while that for ~ho rl'aetioll aL poinL
B is shOwn in Fig:. 5!. 2e.
Let us consider now tho cOllslruction tlf Lhe influence lille [(lr
the shears ill sections 1 and Il of the stl'ucturtl scltemlllically ropre~
Slmtcd in :Fig. ~;'.2a.
Section 1 will be subjCf:,ted tfl tho action of lh.e ~hcarin~ [orc.e
only Whl.'[l Lhe unit load P is applied hetwcon abrllmcll~ 1 and
joint 3. Wlllln this load is app1ic{lll.~ joint Z, it is hilly LransrlliH(ld
to the overhung of the llIBin bean. with the shear in sedion { then
becoming ('qllUl to -1. Whell tile load unity shifts to the luft or
to the right of point 2 the pressure at this juint will dtlcren!ffi be-co m i lIg
nil \\'lwlI the load roaches point.l or point 3, the value of the said
prcSSJII.'C diminishing proportionally to the distance of the load
from one. of Lhese two points. Accurdingly, lhc iufLllen,;e line will
he trianguLar ill shape wilh an ordirlatll. at genion I = -1
(Fig . ."I5.2b).
 BI!Qm,

A
la,
(
,I. l
,I
I
I I
(~}nA; I
.~
i 1Pf faence line I
I for C I
I j,
10'

(d/\
,:fnflllence Bline
f~

I';
,I

,
Fig. ,;1.2

d -23~SG78910 11
rah"m r-;-I I f;r~ Cr.
~) :I~ ~fl! JlJ, ,
I : tA Infwl1nce line for Q; 8t
(6) ~l : i I
,,
I
\~. I1 \
,,
I I: Influence fine far al( I
f I I r I 1

(c)
1
1
I
1
,a
-__
1
hS
I
--,--_
'0
Z
'
1
I 10
,I
a $
h~
-
c,---6.___ ----
h
be "
Fig. 55.2
 11.2. JlIfllUTl~e LIMI far l\1ul/upan Slatlcally l)e1un~jTla[e Roam> 93

In section JI the shearing force will be exactly the same R!; in

the case of a direct applieatioll of the load as long as the lntter
is situated between points 2 and 5 or 6 and ]0. The corresponding
portions of the ianuonce line will therefore be represented by 'the
tine~ lU:\ amI c~b which Cllt thtl verticals passiug through POillts
A and B at +1 and -1, respectively. Between points 5 and G the
innuen~ line must remain sll'night, its ordinates h~ and hi having
already been found and therefore we only lIavo to join points c,
tlod c2' Whon t-ho load unily is applied to the terminal hoams .1-2 or

la)! ~
I Im I

lO;:
1- I'

I
i .
g I.
,e,
I I I I I
I I I III I I , I
'''Ilue,,~e line I I t I I
j
I
(d, I !
I [or MD I
I 1+'
I~I~
I I
[ Q.96m -
ri Z.Gm
Fig. 56.2

10-11 tho value o( the shearing force in section .fJ will vary from
Vl,2 (or h,o) to zero, the latter vl'lluQ corresponding to the Case when
-the load reaches the abutment. The varintion of any function being
linenr when the load shifts along a secondary beam, we may simpLy
'Connect the ordinates at points 2 and _10 with the points or- zero
ordinate 1 and 11 (Fig. 5.'>.2c).
Let us now consider the construction of influence lines for slat-
;calL~t doterminate beams of more tha.n two spans. Tn such cas~s
'it is always recommeuded to begin with tracing the interaction
'scheme.
Fig. 56.2a represents such a bealn, the interaction scheme of
;ls four cIemellls being shown in Fig. 56.2b. Let us fw~t construr.t
the influence line for the reaction at support A (Fig. 56.2c). For
tllat part of tIle beam from its left extremity to the hinge HI the
<otlStruction will be carried out exactly in the same 'Way n~ r'lr
 BetJ./fI.

tI ~iml,I)' supported beam with t o overhangs (&"C' Art, 2.2), When

\hu lond unity is Applied AAme hero belwet>lJ poilltll HI nnd H z
tho ",action A will be tlqual to the ontinate ab multiplied by the
prl'S!'Illnl P, exerted by the de.ment II,H 1 on tbe bt!am ABll t This
pn's..'mro varies linearly (rom PI = 1 when thu unit load is applied
lit hinge Ut to 7.ero when it reache! hil}ge H: and thl'lrefore the
innnCllo:e line oYer the portion HIFf~ 01 the beam may be obtained
by ~illlllly conn(.octing the ordinato b oyer hingt' [[I with n pOinl.
ur 1,Qru ordinll.W at the hinge lJ:. Onoo the load has ,5hif\Ccl to l,he
rig-ht of thu hinj!t! JI:, thl! Tellc-lion 1\t point A will equal ro(Oro And
thordoro the ordinate:; of tile influcnc-e line f,'om J/: to D will nho-
()qultl ;';(1(0, The simililurlll o[ triangles will permit us Lo liud tJItJ
ordinate.'l to tbe pcrtinl\llt poinls or our in!1u(Jnee lille
ih H2 - l':
-_. __ ~ Whl:'UCl' gh=l",.--:;-= I X?= I,:,>
3 3 _
Ik ~ ~-

ab 1 - -:-r1 '1
,1 ="'2 Wlll'flce ab-=l~' 2=--1 X 2=0.5
rA'l ll!l- now cOll!lrucl the inllul'lIcc li~ for tbe LcndinlZ moment
"cting over seo.:tioll 0 of (wr ht!am (Fig, a6,2d). When the Il!lld tra,'{'is
alull~ porliolllI:,D tho construction "f the influcnce tillO WIll be ('XIH'.t-
h' the SIIme:l..'1 for a cantilen'r lx>am with a builtill t'nd (:<ec Ark 1i.2).
fltAAing to pol1ifln If~C we uoticc thllt lhe prcssuro R 3 YlIriefol Ilro-
pllrliunnlly to t.he difoltallt.:e of tho unit load frolll point C rotlching
:U!N' whcn tho load is O"er this pOillt: therefore the innueflcu line
over this ]lOI'lion will ho repl''I!S(\lltcd by a line tl'Il!ll'('ting poiut cl
with n point of ZNO ordinate at C. Point 8 under hillgc Il z will bo
obtnined by extenuin.et this Hno until its intel~etiofl with 11l{' vortical
pn.'Osiflg through this JJingtl, IInd tho last portion of till' HnC' between
hing('s lt z arid IJ, will b(l obtained by connecting point e with a
POill~ of zoro ordinate at. the hiuge HI' Tbtl similitude of trillngles
pormi\.s the computation of the ordinate r! as follow~
e/12 --12
-=-= "., wllelJcc'l = cd'-;;7 = 2 X 0.48= 0.96 to
~ ~. ~.~

It is apparent that.. the illnucJ)("c lino for any fUlIction ill any lIection
of a mullispan statical1}' determinate bteoam may bu eonsLruetcd
follo"'ing tile prucedure outlined hereunder:
(I) The influence line corresponding to that portion of the beam
whi(:h contains the section under eonl\idcration is COllstrllcl.t..d l,xlI.ct.ly
in thc same WilY Qfol for 11 simply !upportcd heam (with or wiLhout.
overhangs).

'Thi~ {"HQ"""' frQlll the equilibri"m of ..,l('ment 11,11 2,
 (2) The ordinate ubtained at the paillt where the beam member
conllli1lillg the section meets with the adjactlnt one is then conne\l.l.cd
with a point o[ urO ordinate under the 8t\Cond support o[ thifl laller
elument. The same procedure JIlay be fuJlowed in order to oblnin
the iT.OLlence line uver Ul(1 more dislant elements o[ tile beal/I.
(3) The ordinates to tho j'l(lrtinellt points of the inOucnce line.
may be deri\'ed from tho similitude. of triangJes which cUlIstiLulo il.
The reader is inviled la chrn,.k tho inOuellctl lines represonll,d
ill FiiS. Si.2 nnd 58.2.

12.2. BENIHNG MO"JE~TS AND SHEA[IING FOnCES l)lDlICED

I3Y FIXED LO.\OS IN STATIC... ",;\' DETEHMli'\....TE DENTS,
({NEE .'IlAiIIES AND BEA~IS OF POLYGONAL DESIGN
The dctct'minf\tion of real:1 iOlls flril!infl 8t lite I':upporl,s of Illn! iea lIy
determillah: h~t1I" alld beams o( pol)'l:onal desigll, th1,l eOJlljlulalion
of internal forces ar1ing ()\'cr their c:roSf: seclions and the Lrllcillg of
Q. X :and.11 diagrams aro carried out in lite saDle way as ((.II' ordiunry
recLilinoar ht'am!. All the formulas, sign convent.ions alltl equilib-
rium l'qnations mentiolled in Art. 1.2 fCma.ill valid. Wh.en llenling
with knet' (rame" or other strucLurcl'l comprising "'erLicaJ elcments
it j~ J,'OOtI practice to del'ide htlforehand wbich extromity of sucb
nil element will be ronsidered al': t.he left-band (lne tlnd tu mark
tJlis extremity by ,s()IIlC Convent.ional sign (Ior instance. un tlswrisk).
Th... foLJowing 6xnmlllcs will illllstrate tbe construction 01 Q, IV and
lr( dingrnms for structures ill question.
l'r"blelll I. nequlred tho Q, N /lud AI diugram" ror a b(oam rtlllfl.':ll"Hll.'d in
~'il:. MI.2~.
Solution. 1I lIving doc.tdod In con~i,h,r the 1000w\)I' o~trenLity of lile elemeTlt AB
as the Jult-harlfl one, Illllrk it wilh an ostl'rl~k. The beam etlnslsling of tWll de
lUefl1s, U.OB ('.'(llrl'~si"lJs (U!) tllrougll (3.2) fOl' l.lw determination of Ihe slu::aring
and normal forces /lnd or thl! be.olling moment! in each 01 the.Ore elOlUents..
Eltment I. The intorn,l r""ee.~ ,,"cUng over 11 cro~s :.'\:'CUon. di~t.nco., from
tbll uf/per CIH) of t~1l eJ.emrlll ALJ will be
Q' __ ~y _ _ I' .Vl _ _ ::x_O

"
,Hl,,",~i1f= _(_ p%I)=P:rj
"
"
F.ltm.ttd 11. 1'1,0 lnlemal f,,~es aNin!:, oYer .ny 5tCition tlbtaoce ;,:: from
l!)to left end Ilr the elernenl BC 'I..i11 {'l]ual
rj'_:I:Y_O Nlr_1:X_P
L L
M ll <= 1:.41 _ - p~
L
Grallh!! obtuilllld WiLb the aid 01 Ihe abll\'e ElXpC!lSions .re roproduced'
in Fill;'. 5!L2b. t nnd d. H Sh"llld be no1ed th;.t lhe t.lpre5Sion~ ohLalncQ {or At'
 r"

I
Ilnfl~1!fIC9 l~fN"1
I 8 I
I
I
r"
I I
I/!'f/uem:e Uf/efor :
i M.. I
I I
(d) -"";",,,,-,,-~
I
I
Ilnflu8f1Cf1 lineforl
I
I
':
I I I I
I
I
:
I
f
I 1411 I I , I I I I I
I I I.'I~I~'
le) I I
Ul7m1lttJl""l~l-
~ .......
I
Ftg. 57.2

n k
I I r. I I
/ , , I 'f.I I I, I I I . I '
AB ~'I 0,11 El F
l-.f. __ l~....L,""I_L....... .h-k. L-I ~11..1-1.. 'L-+-L_
I Z I Z I 2. I
2 I 2 z ~ ~I 2 I Z Z I
I{~I I ~I I I IfnfluenceUneforAI
Ih) I"""'"I--J.-~~ , , I
) ~ I : - 1'1 I
I I I I I I I 1
I '~lllll
I I I 1
I I " Iln(Weni:e li.ne for lJ I
I') I ,_, I,! I
I I ~ I I I
I I I I I J I
r I I I , , I
I , I1nflllence line for I
Id) I .....100 M

i~:"f1"'''1I",:r~:
I I ....~ I
le) I_I I

Pig. 58.2
 12,2. Hrll'filll/ NC/1WII$ fllld SI'NIr/IIK Fvrce~

(H)d (/ ,10 Ilot ~ati~Ir cxpr(\"I!iulL (' . 2) of 11.1'1. 1.2 derived fWlII the theorem of
Zhlll'l,,.~kS' Ind..,NI.
dill! = diP.. j ) -I'=-fE
(I'lj dXj
t
Itl~lead or dM =Q'
d',
Thl~ is ,low 10 the fac~ l!uH III ~tl<J1I I or
thE' beanl 1,(f~jl;H' \'alue~ "f the ah~'j~
~(lS WC1't\ tJlE'aslIred lIOWllward~, III {,thE'r word~, rr'om l'igll~ to left, while the f0:.>1:,-

tiO'1 dM
(! _. ~ ,
rl'rnnms \ru(\ "11 1y WIle" '. UJJ~,l$1lIlS
1"'.!'ltlv~ '.' nr,_ !Jl(!u!ured [('oJ)O h . [l

\Q right.
A ,

(11)",
r ~r (b)

,,'

"'1" -59.2

Lt'l II~ now eJl1lck the {'{jllilibrium of joinl H. ~,,!,arnting it rrol11 lit"
1Jlh{,r 1'lIrt~ of tl.e ~tnwtur(\ 1I11,] applvi".~ at Llw cut~ th~, illleruJlI {(lI'ros coml!"tcrl
nhovQ wo <llttain the f{ll1owing e'lui)lbrium cquntiulIs (Fig. .'i9.2e)
:.M11= -M1l4 -,-JIllc- -1'<1+1',,=0
~Y_O

::::x_ -Qn.,+N l1C --f'+P-O

wtlic.h ,how.. that all the in\(!rII111 forcrs Wl\m computod COl'l'(>{'.tlr
It shonl,j bl1 rem~Hlbllrell that. E'1JuillhriUl1l equntioTls must JJl> ~R~isll~d what-
evor tl.~ '\"mlll'f of llllr:'! l\'l<'('I;lIg nt ooe joint. provilll'll atlt],{\{'d"l'Ilal 109,111 llP-
pliol1 diwclly to this joil1\. "re l1uly lakPn Cllre of.
Problem 2. 11(,IIuirerllt> Lr'lCll th" Q, N nnd jIf diagram. fM II knee framo r<:J'-
r"SI'"t{\,1 ill fig. "0.2".
98

;/ , ,
/'
~- p,

,.,
,0>

P ''-
,0> (6J

,..
~.~,
('r:~ '"'
.
p

~", ..
Fi,. 60.2 Fi,. 61.2
 12.2, Bending M~mwt$ and Shltaring For~e. 99

Solution. Choo~ing once again the lower ends of tbe vertical @Iem@nts M
tbeir loft-hond oxtremitillS, nlllrk them with asterisks. Subdivide the knee frame
ito;elf into four separato:! portions and write for each expJ'(lssions (1.2) through
(3.2) giving the shearing ~nd nonnal iorce.1 and tho bonding moments.
PtJr/ltJlI I

,
QI=:EY=qzl

Portio,. 1 J

PorlJon III
QI1I=_IY_P_qo; NIU,,",_IX __ I/o
R R
q~
},f I1I =-t.:I-~-2--P(Z9-a)-q4( "
2- )
Z3

P~rlion IV
QIY __ :EY __ qo; NIV=_IX",,_P __ qo
R R

,\flY"" -I/;1 _ qo (z~ _ ~ )_ Pa+M -'la (z~ _ ~ )_ q0 1+ qa 1 _

_ qo (z~- ~)
Tbe .liogr.1ms Obtained using the above expro~ionJI <lTt" repTt"senled
in Fif(. 60.:.!:/), r lInd d. Fill. 60.2" repr11_o;ents joint B !lubjecled to the internal
forces anrt moments acting at the cuts. It will be eeslty obSl.'rved that all 1ho
equilihrium equations for this joint aTO SlItisfied:
qll2 3
:ElIJ B - _qa 2 --2-+2'10:1-0
IX ... +qll-qa_O :EY =qa-qa. .... O
I'robl"m 3. Required to construct the Q. Nand lr1 graphs for lhe Wltically
determinato frame TepreSl'ntl'd in Fig. 61.2a..
Solullon. Detennine reacti()n~ RA' R" ilnd JI B shown in Fig. 6l.2a utili7.ing
tbe well-known equilibrium expressions
!M 11'" R A2a+ Pa-q2Da_O
wborofrom rornernhoring that P"""qa wo obtain
2qa~-qo3 a
R,,= 2a -qT
T.M A - _11 D2<l +q2aa. + Po "" 0
and lbus
2qaz+1a3 3
RH"" 2a -Tqa
IX=P-H/J=O
giving
He_P_qa
7'
 100 B~(II'u

"lark .glin tl.o lower end! of the v('rlinl dcn'llllt5 by AD .:;Uri.!lk as

iQ Fig. 01.20 con.!l;derin~ tbom In Iunn lhe J""l.-hand eXlrt'milics llnd subdi"ido
the /warn into fo,,1' portions for t'a(h of whicu Wo following CXllre.!f;ilJllll .rv
reallil}" obt.inl!d.
I'Orlflln {

Q'_o:
PorUon. IT
QIl _ _ p _ _ 'Ja;

lihd"g for
Z1-0 ,uIl_O I'lUlllor "'2-11 .1I 1t "'_q,,1
Po,litltl 1 If
Q"I_R... _qz,_q (-,i--Zl): Nttl_~p qll;

, qr~
" '" - R Ilrl-PfJ----;t-~'l ("
7r3-"--T .4)

Olll q ~

rlfl 3 HI
"'lien "'1-24 .j '"" -Tqa oH = -2.1,,1

Tile ,hearing force Q'll =9 ( ; - "",) bct"AJmes oil ",lIen %'1_; an,l
lI.(~rdingly lho ~ndjllg mOlJM'lLt will 1>11$ in this H"GtiOD t.h1"O!\Rh R mui.
ilIum or a tnil1imum
M '" -q (0:
4-/11_ 8Ill) --Tlld:
7

1'orl,o.. IV
Q,v_lI n _'/fJ: NIV""_RlI __ ~ q": .HIV __ fln,'l;~ ... q"rt
whe_n %,_0 M1V .... o
whl!'lI .l:,_21l JU'Y .. 2'11/1
The correspomllllg di.a~llS for Q, N and AI .rt' re"re~nt(\ol in Fig. (;1.20,
t lIod d.
Prtlld..m oli. 11.'quirt"<l to elln~trn- tbo Q. .\' .nd ,u di.grams for 11 heam n'pn'-
~nted in Fig. &2.201.
SOIIHUOIl. ltcplueo the iQClined load P by iLS vertical Dnd h<Wizont.1 eompo-
ntnts P, :md Pz
P",_P,_ Pcas4S"_O.707/>

and dctcrmintl reletlon RA whioh will suffice in tbl' eM'!.' uuJrr eonsideration
:f./If/!= R,,21 + PilI. 7071 + p'~1.7Qil_O
 12.2. nl'n(/(tlg Muml'lIu and Sht'arltlt! }'orl'u 1(01

wherefrom
~(1.707P~+O.i(l7PJ:) I -1707-0707
2l - - Z . X0707P_ -O.853P

The negath'o vlllue o{ thIs reactioll jJld;ca1e~ 1ha1 i1 is direcW11 downwards.

For each <Ji the 1hreD porlloM ('Of the heam the following equa1iolls giving the
v1l.1hcS of the shearing and nOOlnal forcl'.~ Uil!! of the bendjng mOIJ'Ienh /flay bB
now wrlU"'1J as

.;.... ,~ A
?
i,!

Q sraph

(b)

N graph
t,!

(d)

F,,;. {j2.2

Par/loll J
Q'_il... __ O,R5.1P; _!'{f_O; ltl f _-" R ...'rl- _O.&'"'~P.r1
whco :1',=0 _If' =0 when %)=21 NI = -1.70!'Pl
Portion J f
QH _P y =O.707P; Nil _ -P:r- -O.707P
.l{lJ _ -P",O.iU71-P~ (i.70l1-".;?l "" -0.707P (O.707l+1.707l-x;?)_
- -P (1.7071-0.707"'2)
w!ton %2~"() 1IJ11 = -l.i07Pl wllen :1'2=1 M IT = - 1'/
Par/itm II J
 102 B~"I1I&

, ,. p p

(a'

n p :
q
, F1 'p
- @.
" -,. p
N -

,
# ,.~

(U;;to
'-1::
,
."
a

R"r:t @-<'
p

a a p
le)
p @
a -
, p

Fig. 63.2

,
a
p
HI
q

"" I ,
a
"
a
-
"
~
" ,,
, ,,
p,!!'-

~
a
"
,
p
b ,"e,., -~ ",-
" rh!
q
p/=lJr (c)

,
, ~
a

<"
p

( ,)

Fig. 6/.2
 103

The corresponding diagrams are represented in Fig. 62.2b, c and d.

The reader is jnvited to
(1) ChllCk the sign of the shear diagram represented in Figs. 59.2
through u2.2 using th.e rule mentioned in Arl. 1.2 which stipulates
that tlte shear is positive when the axis of the beam must be turned
clockwise in order to superimpose it with the tangent to the bend
ing mOTJIoot diagram,
(2) check the Q, Nand JU graphs represented in Fig. 63.2,
(3) trace the Q, Nand .1f diagrams lor the frames represented
in Fig. 04.2.
 3. THREE-HINGED ARCHES
AND FRAMES

1.3. TfflUJE.H!NGED SYSTEMS

A thrt'il-hingocl system con~ish of two plntes (T "nd IJ), cOrln('f,'li.'d

together by moons of a hinge (hillge C ill Pig. 1.:5), wil.h two-hillged
Supports A nnd B resting on the ground. As the latter can itself
be regarued <lti another rigid plate, it rllny be snid that a three-hingel.!
system consi.~ts of three plntes connected
together hy inNing of thrcll Ilinges. these
hinges /lot Jyil1g on one straighl lioe.
We have seen proviously (soo Art. 2.t
and :Fig. W.!) that connections of this
I type arc chal'actl!-l'i!':tic of georllcLri(:aHy
, stable structures.
When the plates J and II cOllsi.<:t of
curved bats tlLC system is called a three-
hinged arch (Fig. 2.3a); in the event
these llars are :>troight or L-shapcd, the
system will be clllled a three-hinged bent
or fram~ (Fig. :! ..1b Ilod c); flllaUy, whon theso plnte.~ are through
.~t('ncturcs, lhe system becomes a thrl!e-hinged tmss or spandrel arch
(Fig. 2.3d).
The distanco l between the oculI'(''; of lhd Itingcs Ilt the supports
is c.nllcd the spa,n of the arch while tllC distancc f from the centre
of the l\rowu hinge la the straight line plls~ing through the former
two is callt.'<l its rise Wig. 2.3a).
A three-hinged ~}'~lom fIlay or may not !lave a vertical axis of
symmell'y. In lhe first case (F'ig. 6..3) lhe contral hiu/{tl C will lie
on this axi~ of symmetry and tiLe hillges at the supports A ond /J
will be at one and the same leveL Nonsymmetriclll systems may
have tllOir SUPP01'ts at different ]evel~ (Fig. 3.3).
r11 tltrec~hinged systems the fClactions at the support-s A alld B
will ha chur3c-teri7.ed by two parallwlcrs each_its magnitudo
and direction or by any two components of the~ fCflctiulIll,
SHY, tilo vertical V and the horizontal 11. (These two compommts
 _______CJc-'C----'T"'-'''e~-JlI,.geri S~ste.,""'C' _

(lrc frequently rjlIcrrcd to M the vcrlklll and horizolltrd

m1\ctions.)

~'X-M II
};,;_~ L~~

~11;"'~-
!Of

f II

, (e)

FI/I. 2.;;

Accordingly, tho rCRt;liollS of 11 threohingud arch will ht, full)"

determined by four )Jaramctcrs, for ill~tanc(l. the lIlROIJllts of thl'
reactions If A. 'l TO, V A and V n (Fig, 4.3).

II

Fig. a,3 Frg. <1.8

These may Le obtained from the three equilibrium l'qu[\tion,~

of external forct's (inclutlin,g tho reactions) acting upou the system
and from a fourth equation, expressing that the moment or all
the external forces acting to the left or to the right of the crown
hinge about its centre must be nil.
Thus, a three-hinged system is always statically det.erminal~,
\Vhen a system of vertical loads acts on a t.hree-hinged syst.em till'
horizontal components if" and H B of the reactions at Ule supporl~
+
*Thls is due to the bet that in any hinged 5Y5lofll in equllibt'ium lh(\ mOtllell!.
about any hing(! must be equlll to zero.
100 Thr"~-Hlflg,,d Au!>". ~J1d Pramu

will not reduce to zero. Accordingly, the three-hinged sysl.ems

usually develop a thrust. which must be ahsorbed either hy the sup-
ports ur by ,';;ome other arrangement.
It will be shown later that the bending rnomellls and Shl)ars acting
over cross sections of three-'hinged arches are cOllsiderably smaller
tlwTl lhll corresponding stresses ill a simple beam covering the same

IQU
~ i.~
c

,,,
" (II)
;0'

W H
C /I

Tie
A ,
A (d) ,.. f!
. re)

FIG. 5.S

span and carrying tho same load. Therefore, three-hinged arches

are more economical than ordinary beaJOs, particularly for large-
span structures.
However. when the spans are small, three-hinged arches !leoome
less desiraulc than ordinary beams, as their construction is lUore
eOnlplictltl~d and the prQvision of hinges both at the supporL.s :md
at the crown requires the use of more intricate arrangements.
In the throe~hinged systems coDsidercd thus far both supports
were c;''l.pable of absorbing a horizontal thrust. In practice it is
not unu~ual to encounter similar sy:;tems in which one of tbe hinges
is movable. In this case the geometrical stability of the system
+
Th'i lirs~ arched sys~om for l\ JarRll span was [lI"oposcd I" 1776 (i.e . some
hundred years before the creation 01 the science of structural mechamcs) by the
(lminent Russian engineer I. Kuhb!n. On the basis of general principles of theo-
retical mechanics. ho designed all archei! wooden brJdgo 300 m long spanning
the whole of t.he river Neva at St. Petersburg. He \VII,!; tho r,['~t to dotermine the
interaction of oxternal forces and streS3Cs in a throo-hiDgod arched system and
to use a funicular polygon for tho determlMtion of thc W,llpe of his arch many
years before this moth!)d became widely known. A huge 30 m model of Kuli-
bin's brtdgo was tosted by a load of approxImately Sf, wns and approved by the
Hussian Acadllmy of Scienco. The great mathematician and nHlmbar of tllll
Acail(!mY L. EuJer checked 1111 the computat.ions and i1rawings nf KuUbln's
llridgo and found them perfectl)' correct.
 2.3. S"pp(Jrt R"lIcti,,..-s oJ /l ThrtlHinll'd ArcA 107

is cMurcd by tit!$ established either at the level of thu supports

or somewhat. higher (Fig. 5.3tJ represents a t.hree-hingou t.icfl or
bowstring arch; Fig. 5.3b-:l three-hinged arch witll Rn elevated
tie; Fig. 5.&-3 thrce-hin.lted tied bent, and Pig. 5.3d-A similar
b(>nt with an elevated lie).-

2.3. SUPPOIlT REACTIONS OF A THHEE-HINGED AHCH

l. ANALYnCAL ).IETHOI)
As ha~ already been stated, wnon a system of verticul loads is
applied to a throtl-hinged arch (Fig. 1).3a) a vertical and a hori1.ontal
rlSl1Uinu will arise at each or the twn gupports makill~ four runctions

P,
c P, P,

,
-;;;-4'
fa}
IV.

to he determined in all. Let us designate the vertical rcachous by

V ..\ anl! VB and tho horhontal ones by If" and II JJ. rcs)')Cctivcly
(Fig. 6.3b).
In addition to the three equilibrium equations suppliod by the
statics for coplnnar syste1ns. a fourth equation can be used in the
cose of a three-hinged nrch. this equation oxpressing that the bend-
ing moment at the hinge C equals zerO, or in other words, that
the !lUID of the moments or all the external forces acting 10 the rigbt
or to the left of this hinge about its centre is nil

Theso fout equaU(lns of slat.ics will datermine compll:!t:cly the

four reactions at the supports.
It is recommended to a'"oid as much as possible !IimulLaoeous
solutions of several equations with several unknowns. For instance,
in t.ho case of an ordinary arch roprescllled in Fig. 6.3a we mB)'
fIrst write the equilibrium':equation ror the momellts of aU forces
about hinge B whicll will ci)lltain only onc 1lllkRl)wn vortical reAC-
,(6

tio" V,t. When this i.'l known we mAy solve the equation ~ Jfc-O
L
c:tpl'l!SI!iJl~ that UllJ sum of m01l1ellts of 011 forc.es 3eting ontllO leh
part of till' arch about hinge C is nil. this equation containing the
ronc:lion V,l which has just. lx-en determined and tbe unknown reac-
tion 11 A' We may thtlll proceed with the solution of an cllHation
OXIHO..c:silllt that tho mOIU('lIt of all external forces abouL hing<' A is

I~
F" 7.:1

7-lro which will give 1I!l the nllue of reaction V R ,md thOlt obtain
tILe mal!niludo of H JI t'quilling LQ r.ero thl' projection nf all the
~J(k'rnal (oref's Oil thl:' nori7,OIltaL
Till' computations just drscribcd may ht' ChflCkcd usinj:l' the equa-
tions
!Y =0 Rnd IM("=O

Tf thB Lwo ,O:llpport!l wl.\te at cliITOI'Cnl lovels as in (~ig. i.il/l, tho
('4unLion ~)V" = 0 would cUlltnin twu ulllmown.'; V" /tTlt! If..\.
thus requiring' the solution of 11. ~Y:ltem of two equalions with two
11J1lcrlowns. This can be easily avoi.ded if hol,h reac~ions WeN r~s<)h'cd
into cOlOponclll::i onl! of which woulct follow the linu C()rJll("cting
tile two ~upporl., ,1 and B (Pig. 7.3b), Whrn these components v:~.
Vi,. fr. lIud 11'0 arc Ilott'rmilltHl. t.Iltl "er Lit-I! and hori7.onlal compo-
1l0l\~ will be castly found u5in~ the t'xpre-ssions
V A = V;" + 1I;" !tin 0:: V II - Vir-Ilssin 0:
lI,A=JJ;"tosa; IJn-lfilcosa

%, \lR..\PII,CAL NETIIOD
1'ho graphiC<ll determinatioll of the reactions requires that tIte
rosu.ltants RI and Il z of all ilio forcC!s applied to tlll' left and to the
right of the Qntral hinge should be found in the firllt place. '['Ile
wactiollri indlle.ud by cne.h of these resultauts RI and /l2 will then
bEl dl'hmoiocd, their sumlllllt-ion giving t.he fm31 \'aluu of tile reac-
tioll l't'quinld. Wc may stnrt wilh detcrlllilling tbe rcactinos at the
SUPI)()rt ('au..~ by the ajlplication of t.he foreo li" In this ca~ the
reactiun at. th~ righLhnnd !!upport 0 1 II\Ust pass throll/.t:h Illc hinge
at this sUllport and the hillge at the crown (fig. 8.:1a) as otherwise
!he rll,::ht-hand portioJl of the ardl wbich is subjected solely to the
reaction at B l and th~ interaction of hin2C C ('ould Ilot remain ill
equilibrium. With fCactiol\ Al arisini: at the left-hand ~UI)llort,
tho orch as a whole will hil ill equilibrium under tho nclioll or th",'C
fvrl:es .1 1 , B l , NI

" A R,

8,
o 8,
8

rb,
,

Theoretical mechanic!' states that. three cvplanllr rOl'(llS actill~

on 0. body in equilibrium must nect'S&lrily conClIr at onc oncl the
so,mo !loint. The UI'lI) of thil! theorem ellnblcs U,S to fInd imml.ldi3tcly
the lIil1.'ction of reaction At whereaftl)l' tllo force IJolygon (Fig. 1:1.3b)
will give us the magnitude of both support l'l!-llCLions A I And El' The
support t'C'action.~ A ~ anti H,! due la tho appliClltion of the right-hrllld
resultAnt ll'l will be found ill exactly the sa.mo way (!$CC Fig. S.3a).
The method of sllperpo~iLion will ennbl~ us to obtain the I'osultant
l'l!-t1cUolls".1 Ilrill B at both supports. l,'or thiil purpose Il line )I<lrallel
to the line of action of the reaclion A z ",ill be traced thnlul:h IKlillt 3
of 11 force polygon (Fig. ~.3b) and the magnitude of reliction A,!
will b6 laid off along this line. The point 0 so obtailled will tllen
be counected with point 1, thus giVing the magnitude (If the full
reaction A at tile left-hond SUIJport, the full reaction 0 d tho right-
hand SUppfltt being obtllined bl' the Sllme method. The verticnl
nod hllriwntal compunenL'l V A , I/.t , V JJ anti If JI can be oblaill\'ll
th{'rl'a!tcr in lhe usual way.
'I'be graphical method of dotcrminillg the reactions lit tile SUllpllrls
of a three-hillg'ed ar..:h carrying a flUmber of verticlll lon{(s is iJIu-
110 Thrte-HI,,~d - Arc/ut and Frames

stratcd in F'ig. 9.3. At the outset resultllnls III and 112 ore found
u~ing tllo method of force and funiClltar polygons whereafter the
procedure followed does 1I0t difIer from the onc just described.
Problem I. Using hoth methods d9'>Cribed "hove determine the support.
reactions of a three-hinged arcb supporting two vertical loads liS indicalNI
in Fill. 10.3<1.
S"lulioll. t. A wzlyttcal mC/Md. Reptaeo the support reactions by their com'
ponents Y A, ]fA and V D. 1I I! (Fig. 10.3b). III ordcr '0 de!crmioe the magnitUII&
lIf V A equate to lOTO tha sum of all the forcl,lS actinj(" on the arcfi al'O\ll
llninl n

(I 3)

Ilc...~ M" is the moment of :Ill the e:<t9rn1l1 Lo~ds about the hinge aL the right-
hand suppOl'l.
The mngnitulle of l/ .. will be obtained from Wo equilibrium of the moments
"r all C:o.:llll'nlll forc-cs aeting on the left lu:llf of the are}l about l-he erown h;ll~ C

whell~,e
,
~Mc= V",h-f{",1- PI (11-01)- 0

H A
V Alt PI (It
1
<It) MC
--/- (2.3)
Horo M~ is Lho !lJO/llllnt of all tbe load~ (ox('llpL of H",) aIJting ou the telL-
hand porLion of the arch :thout point C.
1'lIe vortieal road ion V Jl will be obtilined by summing up And equllting:
10 7.'!ro lhe 1Il01ll0l\LS (If all tho ext(!rnal fOl'e",s about hin~ A
:::,M", __ V nl+ P::a2+Ptal =0
whence
(3 ::1)

Hl'rl" MA is tbe ruoment of nil the loads ahllut tho leftblllld support.
Thl.' last unknown roaetion f/ 11 will be found by projoeling all tllo forces
on the raxis

nA-Hn-n ~~
The l/lst fonnula shows that the fhru$/$ ari$lRI al both lupports o/lhru-htngea
,!!mm~lrical ar.nu ,ubjuud to ,-,<"rlieal load, a~ equol in site and oppodt~ /"
,lireclloTl.
Substituting in equations (1.3) through (~.3) tllll numorieal values of all
the paralllotlll"S wo obt.aln
V .., 4 (10-31+3{IO-6) 28+12 4l<lns
~ 10 ---'-0--
4x3-l-3x6
V H- to _3 tons

llA=HR-H .. 4x5- 1.{5-3)",.3 tuns

4
 :t.:I. Sup".'" Httlt;/iofOS 01 r4ur-Ifi"trd ,lrrlJ lit

,,
p.\
,
-- '
.~ ~:)a,
P.I(
0
---
C_
l\p,
0
, -, - ,
'
" ,
A,l
A /,,/A:;:
,
-- R, R,1... , \82
'
B,"', ...
8
fa' IbJ

Fit 9_'

,
la,
A
-"-

H,,"'Jt
'f----
fh'
~"'~t I
,,
". B fi;"
I

0
, o
0
v, (el
, I

,
0
0 P, 0 P, ,
0 I
v,,"'Jt I
'c
la'
,, "";1 lfI'"
,I
i'P. 7 ........ - __ J
'" a H~=Jt
A
a , I Srot8
t f r ft
Ftg.10.6
1I2 l'hru-HIIlIl,d AuJlr-6 IUTd Prtuttt'

rutin t}t upr""lon, (l..1llllld (.1' ..fI it ",Ill bt obl,rl'<!d IAa' lIu wrtk"j 'upporl
"art/MU 01 ti,u-nl,,:fil lI.rd!e, It,lU'VIIlK L',rtlNIlldlo alOll1 illL'C' file 'amI ""ho"
'fl In, ",adig,., gJ ,Imp!, ,"pport,d k",,,... of tlu .",m' ,pt'" and lo}Gded In rile lIIIlfll
Io"f{/ (t'lg. 10.3c). The bending 11101ll0'llt III mldsptln of this !loam "ein~ l'quIII 10
M~, 111, illru,l 1ft the artn 5upporl, mall IN oblllined hg dlllldln: till' krultn:
mOIll,,,t by /114 tiN of IM IIrlll [51~0 ~ua.Lioll! (2.3) and ('.all.
2. Graphllt,ll m,lhull.. Us-in(l the schomatle dr;'wing of ~hll aT('h (Fig. to.3d)
[t't us connect hinges A Ami D with the crOWl1 hinge C, oxumdillg thc.oc lioe~
dine' I llnd III to their interlleCtloll wilh the di..,)ction of 'ort:Oll p~ (,ml p,.
T1h!J1'rtively, HI, pnintll K 2 and Kt. Thew looilllS are lhcfl connecled directly tu
l'OIll!!.A Hin/: lllltnd I1 llille 1fT).

FJg, 11.3

IA'! us now Ill)' 011' loO SC:lIle forces Pll;Inl! PI (\'octOI'!! 1-211nd :1-8) nlong 11 \,'T
tied a~ in t'la. to.:k. "'01'1"" PI is tben resolved into two tQtnlHlIlent.3 ill' DJ
pauJlol to the linO\lIV antllllsee Fig, H.3d) fOf" whkh PI\I'PO~' r"ys 2-:' ~nd
1.$ ore trOl.'d through its ~nJ$. For(:1) P z i., resol'-(!llln Ill" SlIme ....ay thlls "Lt.ain-
inK a ray 2-1 oquml in amOllnt to A~ IInd para lid 10 the 11,,0 1 anti iil 111)' 3-4
<"\Iu'!.' ;n OmOI.lOL to R~ and I'nrollel to Ilflt' Ill. nlOl1'After TJ)'~ 1..s and.i-6
3ro Wired paralkl to hnes 2-.5 and 2-1. r"sreeth-ely. Hay 6-1 ....iIl he l"Qual \0
the 1('1I(';lIon al A lmtl u.y '-6 to the reaction 3t D. Tht' verliullllHI Iwri~Ollh'
<:omp()I>l'lIta of tbllSll TNcliollS " .. , VII .nd If A' n.ll Ill'(' <'ll5ily found.
I'rnblem 2. Dolormillll al1~lytielllly Ihl' thrusl of nil nl'<:h rcpr~f'nlel1 hi
t-i~. 1t.3 nniformly loaded <I\'('r the erlllro "'Ilan wILll Itn illlNlsily q.
SDII<!iDn. Starl with dClrrmining the fcn(';tiollS III tho "'ul1jJ(lrB U~jllg Ih"
following "llllilibrium oqllntionll
~MB""O ond ~MA_O

III the case untler clll1lll,leration thl'se equot'on! hoeomo

~,I/H-VAI-ql ~_o
't.M",-_lfsl+qlY_O

V.. -Yn-7 QI
,
In t!to cuo of vertical londs nlone the thrnst lI ... =ff 1f =f' m"y
Ill> ,leU'rmino<l hy rlluatinll I(J 'Zl'ro thn momt'nts of :Ill ('xtl'mnl fUfC<!S lIctins
 2,.1. SUI'!,ort lI~odtmls uf" T"rc~-!li"l:rd J1rc~

on 1Ill' Id' Imlf of Ill(' arch ahout the crown !Iinge C

/ I /
,
~M(."""- V A '[-1l1-72'7;~O
whenrl'

I'roblem :I. n"q",md tu ,1"'''I'I"i"o ],"1," Il'nl'hJcall y ""d un"I"jie"llr the

r\)acti'm~ induced at Uw ~\J]II'<lrt~ of lhe lll'(~llhjngNI Hell 1'l) lirI'SO"llrd in
flit, l:l.::lu hr 1111 j"rli"eu f"rc~' P = 5 Wll5 for cos ~ O,li allrl,~ill 0:; ~ O.Ii.

p
H.
I
11
8 \1:.--1
8 L..~

",
rr
..1_ ,
Gm I"
Smte
v, q,---,-,_~l_--,qm
/0 )

.'iU/IIl/QU. I. AlllIl!lt/f(lllll~lhDd. J,d ll~ t<\"olvE! tho rl/fCll l' int'! its v('Ilklll
nlll\ ],orizol\tlll c.umpullel1ls
p"",,,,~XO.8--=4 toM: I'r=:iXO.f>=3 tons
The vertical rI'neti,,)) V A lIlllr \l"~,, II(' dotcl'miul'd fr'>]" till' equilibrium
'~'IUlllioTl "I tlw ",om'ml!! about pojnl, JJ
~M}I-12Y" -9PII+3Pr-O
whl'lle'-
:~Pu-3P" :m-'J 27
12 ~----r:r-=12-2.25 ~ons

1'11" r rl'llcli,)II l'll will [Ill' ohtoined lrolll lh~ l'{Juilibrium

lllItJUI- I'lliot A
:EM ... = ~12VJI+3Pu+3P,,-O

V Jj"= r,x3+i:lx3
12
17' ,
,",,'." u,,~
,,-,. 1"111' now det.erminl' tIle Ill,riznnlut rl'8CliolJ 1,,,
""l,wtillg tIl1.H(1 lie
Ilwm"lltg 1) oil I"Kes aclino: <m ~hll Icf~ lildf "r the arel' nhou~ tl\l.' CI'O\\"
hjnge C
Ill,

HA _ '.'."x'
""-"'' -=::;-''-' ' '",""_
3X1
4
4X3
-0,375 ton

'rb" ncgatil'o sign oblainild indic."lW!! tbat tllu reaction ll" 'i.s di~k>d
tnw~rfls the left, Tu determinl: ti,e reliction II n l(\~ us equllte to ZCl"O the SIIIlI
or hnthontnl JlrojllCUons of all tho fotCl's;
~X-ll ... +P,,-{fTJ=O
wh~ncu
lfn =-0.37:i+3 .... 2,li2.', tLm~

2 Crap"lcal m..-thad Tt>lc{' line /1 through hing~ B HIIII C until it,. intl'N('c~
tlon wIth tho dIrection of !orr.c P at point J( (Fig. 12.3a). Point K wHI tlwll be
('onflocl-ed by line / with the hinge A, Thon Iny to ~nle Inl'Cl! P JlI.mllcl lo it~
directi<lll as ShOWll in "'ig. l2,311 and through Hs l'flds trace rays J-.~ llllU 2-$
parallel tu linos 1 and 11 of Fig, 12.3a. [0511~,<:_ti,,(~ly. Thoil I_wo rafs \\'illl'o)lm-
~nt to sen III ttLll "('nctinns at the ~upport.~ A and l); Llw;r' l",rimntlllullll vortica I
cumpoucnu :U'O /fA. un(1 Hr!. VA and V lI

3.3. DETBliM]:'>'ATroN OF STnESSES LV T/I1UEE-IitNCED

AnCII!I:S
l. ANALY'l'!CAL Mf',TIIQlJ
Tbl' inlorllal forces or stresses acting over tho l:rOS$ SUCLillrlS of
a thl'L'C-hillgcd arch consisl, of bending' moments _M, shears Q 3nl1
normal forc.cs N. They may be eompuled on the basis /If loads and
reactions tlcling to the left or to the rigllt of the Scctiou eon~idercd,
\Ve shall use lhe s&me sign cunvention!! for lIw three-hinged
aN'he,!! as adopted in Art. 1.2 [lJxpros.'lions (1.2) lhroug-h (3.2)1 for
ordinary beams, with llle exception of the sign of the normnl fon~e
which in this CllSC will be rcckonod positive when prollllcing- a co m-
prl':'l::iloll.
In the COfllplltatioll of stn\sses auxiliary coordinate axis will
he IlH'c1 for oach eros" f;l,!CUOII eOll:sidt'rod, tllO axis of nuseissas Il
coinciding with tlw tangent and tlLO axis of ordinatos v with the
normal to the c-entl~J linl' of the arch at this !\(c-tion. Th" projel'Uons
of rorces on tlws axes will be desig"llnted by U nod V.
With l_hc~' ('OIlVl'ntiolls cxpl'cssions (1.2) lhrough (:1.2) OtoCOlnt1
Q=rv=-~v
L ,

M='ZM= -2:M
r. 11.

N~W-
,. -w
, (1.3)

In these expressions lhe momcn15 will be reckoned posit.i\'o when

lhey lend to turn the section clockwi::;c, the compononts V W1Wll tll6y
are dire.ctod upwards and the compolllmUl U when they are directed
from left to right. Using cxpre~ioJls 1.3 let us determine the internal
forces .llcling over a c,ross section K of an arch represented in
Fig. 1:l.3
Q =:EV -V,I cos rp-I! A sin rp- :EP v cos W-:EP"sLn rp
, "
111 = 'f.M = V Ax-H ;,y-I.Pv (x-xll)-I.P" (y-yp)
L L [.

N =- r.c ~ 1'.\ sill ~I' .!...1f'1 cos ~r--I.P~ sin rp + 'LP" c,os q' (2.3)
, "
where J: and y = coorllina~'.':i
of point K on the centrc. Iilll~ of the
(l,rch
1j'1 = angle between the tangent to the wntre line
of tlte arch at point K and a hori7.ontal
P iI and P" = vertical ami horizontal components of force
P, respectively
xI' nnd Up = coordinates of the point of application of
forcl) P.
In the CX1)re~'$iotl$ for Q, jl;J and N the summation must comprise
the componentf: f.J~ and P" or all Lhe external loads and forces applied

v, I
Ft!!. 13.8

to the aro:h to the left of section K. In the case or the arch represented
in Fig. 13.3 only onc component of focet\ PI (P., or P u ,) will ellter
L'llo each of thesc equations. It should be noLed that the stresses
Q, M alld N could be expressed with equal success using the forces
to the right of :<cction K.
If verlic.al loads alone are applied lo the arch (Fig. 14.3a) all the
horizonlal r.ompollents P", are llqlHll to 1.ero, t.he \'erticaJ compo-
llcnLs P y equal P Ilnd~the thrust HA = H D = H, In this case ex-

"
111\

JJI'cssion;< (2,~) bt,t:oflll\

,
Q.- (V.\ - r,P) cos '4:-1I sill (I'

M =
,
V"x - ZfJ (J,-Ij,)-Hy

N = (V.\ - :L.P) Sill (P + lJ cos (p

,
Till' e.\IH'llssiOIl (V,I - r,P) ('Opl'llSl'nLs Lilo slwnt' Q" ill tho COIT{)-
,
,!lpolldillg $Cctioll of 1111 lJlHJ-SIIJlPorlod "rt!ferCIlCO" beam subjected

(al

-" ---I--
(
,-_.vp' .
~
,
8 c

H
x__

lv,,
,,
(0)

to lhe S:llllc I'):HJS as !'ltown in Fill'. 14.3b Itlld tIle t'xp .. !.\~ion
IV,\)' - 'LP (x - xl,ll-liIC bending momenL JIG ill the S<lmc scdil)fl
flf tho SlIllle b031ll.*
Wit.h t110SC rlt'.signnLioll:;; the IIJJOVU expn'ssions !lecome
Q ~01.'os(p-Ilsill(1'
1\1 ... AJo-lly
N -QGsin(f+J1cosrp (3,3)

O"lIllghl ht called 111<' he"1Il ~Iwilrjn!: f()i"t~c, and MiJ till) lIl>111f1 Imnd,ug
1lI0'fllnt.
 J.,Y. l)~t"nJi .. atro" of Slr~lItI in rhru-Hi"gro Arth~1 11i

Oll~ Lho lIlagnitudes of Q, !If and III ha\'e been deL.crminetl for
a llurflcicllt number of crO$ sections, the graphs of thc~ fuocticllIS
will 1)oJ casH)' constructed. When verlical forces alone ad Iln \,Ill!
arch, allY of the three sets of tltluations (l.3). (2.3) or (3.3) limy Ill'
used, ill otlWf ~scs use should be madc 01 exprt"ssiol\!:l (1.3) or (2.:J).
H will be noted that in the C\"tlllt of a "crtical loading eAch gmph
may be obtained by the !'!llouualioll of two other graphs. }'or inslonc:o,
the bending moment dillgl"llm /lIay be ohltlirlefl by summilll% liP

P=&t

8, '!._
H.

v, v,
1'/;:. j!; !J

tbe bomlillg monu'llt diagram MO For reference bcam with till' grtllJh
of Lb~ arch ol1:1inHWs y mllltil,li~11 by f-H), this illustrating \cry
clearly l.he extont Lo which tho Oendillg lJIolllonL<;; aft reduced in
the orrltes.
I'ruhlelll I. lIclI"if"C(1 tu df!lerminl' the rcacti'1D~ lOt lLLe ~l;Ip ....t' 0,. ,...11 (I~
lha boudinl{ !noment. shc.lIr _lid )\.. nnol fO'"Cl......chng .....-..., SOCllUn ". <If a Il, ........
hinged areh "l'l"~'nl.t'd ill fiR. 15.::S. Tbe ccnln' lille ol tile ard, follo",~ a c..."jc
p~"lIb()lll lI:ivl'lI h)' thc equal.OII
4/ I 4.<1 {12-r} ... 112-r)..,
y .... p{ -.rJ.r- I~Xl~ - !:l

The :.b~ci"-",,, "'"_ ur point K is 3 met~.

,\'oluloon 'i11l\ dl'Wrlllinc too ordinalI' Ilf poiDt K
(1~-3)3 ,
JJh" 9 - 3 pmlr!!!

The Illllgl'lIt of lIw nngl<! {onnl'd hy lht' tllngc"t to the Cf!nlrll line "f lilt!
urch and tho l.xi.~ of ~h~is.sa~ wilt ho: gh'e" b~' the rtrst dori\'<Itivll lOf Lt,l]
pnr:.lloJ..
, 12-2.1'
lll.ll<P:o .... 1I --u-
'18
For point K (.1:'<:3 metres) this tnngent will be givo" by

tllll'flt""
12-2><3
9
2
-,

Th~ (rOllctions I'll the supports will be dCI(~rlnjl1cd using ~ho lollowillg
"quatlons

V _2X 6 X 9
A-
+8 12
(0.5+0.866j3 11 ~31
= " On~

l:Y "" V ",-q6_P sin r.t ,1- V B'''' 0

Vn- 2X6+8><0.866-11..3.". 7.20 1(>1111

the..
,
!.Mc = ~'A6 -q6x3- H ...'.=0

11,.,= ,
t1.73XO-2XI8
=8.60 tOn!!

LX _11 A - I {n- - P OO~ a_O

leading to
Hn-8.60-8XO.!i_It.6U Ions
Th' bending moment in S",C\iOll K will OlUonnt to

MK=- VA3-1I..3-q3X{-_O.39 ton-mctl"l!

whilo tll(.' shellr in tbl.'_ Slllll(i .'l'?cti.,m will Intol

QK= V A cOSlI'it-H" sin tpll-q3 Cus (l'lt =0
lInd finally thu normal force !l'1{ will 1~
Nit = V A sin lplt +H A cos qJlt-q311in 'f1l--1Q.34 Ions
Problem 2. Rcql,lireJ to conSLrllcl lho diagrams of l>omding OWlncnl,~ M,
sbeus Q and normal 10m3 N fOr,)n orch rt'pl'1lS('nlcd In Fig. 1(:.& and fol-
lowing 11 conie parabola whoop rqulltion is
'I
Y=!i"(I-;t),l:

+
Their values CQul<1 also bp found directly u5ing a!ljlroprllltc t;,J)!e5.
.9..';, Determifllllilm of Slreu~$ in rhr~~H/t'/[fd Arc~,' 11~J

V'
il'"!laIIII1n~~~t~f1~i~,~P:':'lE.b"'3~ml
'0'
,I.,'" ",
, ~
"
H ' .H,-,~8:;", _ ~.!_

+
C~ ----

.f..~ IZm v.

(r. 1

Id'

("
Qgraph, t

Hgroph, tm

"J NgrrJph, t

Mgraph, tm

,Fig 76.3
 S ..I"'I<"'. L.,\ U5 Ikt~.'rluinl' fi~rt llic Il'<lctiu... ,s at 111<' SUIlllt'lrt.! V .. ami V"
I 3
!Ma_V....I_ ~ XTI-f'b-O

~I' ~V.. ;-J.n-q~-p-O

v....... ; <J/ i-Tt>~IO lUllS

I .
Vl/-Q7 t-P-V .. .. I. toilS

nl(' II,r,,~1 If will l~' ,1"TI\\,1 frorn ~lt(' "I/III1\i""

wlwllc"

TI,<" ,ud, c:arr)'iu" \'("rlitltl ltlad~ alone. t'),:)lrl09iullii FS.3) lllll) ~. u>\,,/ Inr 11...
(un~l.I"ur""'u df lh"{,, Jf alld ,\. Kralll,!' H'll'll"".
~"K. l!i 3b repro~"lli simply ~UPIl<.>rl<.>d I'('fert'llt.. 1){'<l'" I,,,,,,,,.. ill U,,, ,.,,,ne
way u~ LI... Mc/' and Fig. Il>.:k und d reproSC.-nt.:lll)(' IIl.glflln,; .. r lilt ~lw,,1"1' {.I" allll
ll('ndi'IJt 1Il'~U'"l.II MiI. .\11 h.... I,", emnpullllious :afl.' fflt.'red 110 T"ble I :~ ..."IUlltn
I ooul.:\lI,ing lIlt' "h:l(i~s J; or Ihe P<'jnt.~ ,limit lire :...<:h crul'''' lull' IlIktu "I "ne
lIlo'Ln' ,u(,rO'IOl'III:<, find tOhllnn :1 tonL'liniug lhe turrw<p..",linJ; Ul,II1I1' ........ (;,Ir\l-
hllto(! \llolIlK 1111' ('sllr,,-~'<ion
-if 12-.2"
V-l1(I-~) r--,-'
Colun'n 3 COIlI,'liIlS 11t~ "ulu,'!' of t.'ll q> onmr",tod rrolll
41 lj_;r
l.:lIl'J,-y''"'/f (1_2;1:)_2,.._

"..Ill It' lI". [,,]lu"'III.'! th"lr eoh""Jl~tJ,"'hll,'r.(','~I,l{1~' of q', ~1l11' 1'1lI1"'h". 'I'hl'
val",~~ uf Q~ nud MQ lahlll111t>11 '" cl,11l1l1119 i und 13 ut' t"k.'Il !lIr"11.\ r."1Il lho
eon'('~pmllliu~ tlj~l:nm_~ l'O.'llI'Otluccd In Fig. lr..tlr at,,1 d. Cull1mn.~ l:I lhl'uu!l:h 12
tOllllliu Ihl' 1,."dur.lIt of tIll' 1I1o{'Ilr (,0 :uld the ~hrn.~L 1/ h)' ~'!I 'f. C"~ if' ;",,1 Ih.,
,.f
v.t1illa\Il.'< u ..- (('lIlro lint' "I the ar{'h.
Thelnst tllrw e(,lull"'~ o( Table 1.3 (r"llOmn~ f<l. 15 anti 10) <,;.",I"in the \'(11-
\IllS of Q. M and.V ~r.~inR' u,'er Ih{' (,<lrrt"~I'Ollding tr!S I't'l:t,{.".. "r lht.' "who The-)'
11l\\'~ 1Mll'1I (.0<111'11100 u.cini rOl1nula! OLlj .....ili.." Il~n::< tb.1t Ih.. maltllilurl{' ...1 Q
....l\! .. hLai,ot'd by >snnunilllt Ill' dl'l.efS apl't'Mill!l' in rolurnns 9 1l0ld H'. Ih, ,'.1".. of
.tI -b~' "ullIlIliug Ill' drlll{'R flf ..IWIlIlS 12 and liI, and 11". 'al", "~I ;\' _lhQ."'I!
01 column! ~ lItul t 1.
The ~hl'ar_ Il(oudillR 1ll""'DI1t lIllU 1""''''111 (;u'({' oliagrllJus II/'I....llrllllj: ill
t'ig. 16.3<0. 1 and g hllve ~Il con~Ir\l(led USill1' Iht' dal:! tuntsdl'lf.'d III Ihl' 1lI!'1
Ihl'('(l (,,,IUIDDS of Talllo 1.:.- h, Ihese Illrff diugram" Ih; "rdinalE'!" 1.;'1.... 1.('('.11
1,1 ,,11 'rulll 1. 1"...i7.",nLal litis; in "dditlon Ih., h('J,di'lI! mUll""t di1.gnlO
NlI'r{-':it'IIU'd in lIig. W.:Vt loilS I~n con~trtlcl ..o(! by layiug (.Iff lh,'"I' {/... Iin~ll~
h,lm 11It' curv,,r '~"In-' Hili- <lr 110" arch.

- fur (Ollvoni'tlcu. ,I ilJnrcn!. >,(,,Ilh'~ loll"!"! JM:I\l1 atlnpl,,'l fur di lJl'I""lHli"g"1.lIl~.
 ~U"l .\'
'B.
1--1-=-1 '"
o o o

Stl"l (I 'o"

'~JVUI
-U", o
~1I -

."0\
~l"'II-

1--,,-.-,1.Cg=- ~~
i> "I. ,.t)

StlU1.o

lu "
122

2. GRAPUlCAL METHOD

The graphical determination of iut,ernal forces Q. M and N acting

oVer the cross sections of threehinged arches i~ carried out by con
ilLrllcting the so-called funicular polygon or polygon of pressure.
Fig. 173a represent.'! a three-hinged arch IOtlded by forces PI
and P:. Only one force acts to the right and one to the left of the
('entral hinge C and therefore we need not bother about the dewr-
mination of an:r rt!sll1tnnls. The reactions nt the supports A llnd 8
are dctcrmin('d graphically using the force polygon in Fig. 17.3b.*

,
N~~I

P, , , a", A
3
P,

__ [1 B,
0 ---- ,
B P,
8 z .' I11
B,
Ib' ''
P,

C *,

A
,,'
Fig. 17.8

Let us prucaad now with the construclion of the funicular polygon

(Fig. 17.3c) corresponding to the force polygon already montioned.
For this purpose we shall extend the diroction of reaction .4
(Fig. 17.3c) until its inwrscction at m with the direction of fOJce
PI. Through the point of interscctiOIl wc shall trace tho string Il'
par:lllol to ray If of the force polygon, this ray representing the
l"l.'SUll11Ut of the reaction A and the load PI. Let point rt bl:J the
in{.()fSl'clioll of the string IT' with the line of action of the load
P2. 'I'hcougll thiS point we shall trace the string HI' parallel to ray
11/, the latter being the resultant or reaction A and [,)ads Pt and P~.
+
*51:0 Fig. 8.3 of Art.. ~.3 for eXfllanalion.
 If all the <lpcrations were c<lrricd out correctly, the string JT'
ropre!'ellting the resultant of forces A and PI wil( pas~ through
the contrc of hinge C whilst the string HI' whoso Jirection must
coincide with the direction of the reaction at B will pass through
tbe pin 01 l.hill support.
The funicular polygon J'-lT'-flr (Fig. n.Se) is fl\)quonlly
termed polygon or line of pressure a1; each string coincides with the
direct iOIl uf the pressure exerted by onc portion of the arch on the
()th<,r.
Hence th{J$l;1 strings will coincide in diroction wilh the ('csultant
of flLl the force!> acting Oll the arch to tile le[t or to tho right of the
.section congj<lered.
This may be illustrAted by Fig. 17.3c where to the Idt or section
krk l thore is only the reaction at the support A aut! thus :;ltring
J' of the fUllicular polyg-oll will coincido with the directioll of [orce
A which is the resultant 01 all tho forces to the left of the c,roSS
:;ecLion considered. Passing to section l~t-k2 wo note that thero are
already two forC{1~ A and P 1 to its left. At tho same Lime string 11'
represents the rcslLlt-ant of these two forces. III tho caso o[ 8(Jctjon
k 3-k.1 th\~re will be already tluee forces A. PI and Pt to its leH.
their resultant passing througi( the point of int~rsQetiolL or strill~
JT ,,,ith force P2 as string II' is itself the roSUILAllt of forces A
aud Plo Thereforo, this resultant coincides with string Ill'.
Accordingly, any line tn the pressure polygon AmnB reprf!SJ'nts
tlu' direction of the resultant of all forces applied UJ the kjt (or W the
rtght) of the secttlm under consideration. The magnitude or- this resuLt-
ant may he determined with the aid of the polygon of forces.
Thus. in Fig. 17.3b tho resultant of forces A and PI will he gi"on
by l,he length of ray JI mea~lUrod to scale.
Thus, the polYgtln of fo:n:.:es and the pressure polygon permit the
determination of all the stresses in any cross seetiou of the arch.
For in"tanee. the bending momenl may be obtained by multiplying
the rcsullaut by its distance to the ccntrold of lhe ~eetion un(lor
considerAtion.
In section kl-k l (Fig. 17.3c) the bending moment M will thus
equal Ae where e is the distance to the line of action o( (orce A meas-
urad along a perpendicular dropped on this line from the cenlre
of gmvity of the cross section.
In or-dor to determine tho shear and the normal [oree acting o\"cr
section kek, Lhe resultant of all the fo~es to the left of this sec~ion
(ray J Or reaction A) must be resolved into two components. ()OO
paralle.l to the tangent to the arch centre lino at this section (rlIY
6-1) (1Jl(t the other (ray 0-6) normal to the ~ame line. It is clear that
ray 0-6 will rcpresenl the shear Q and ray 6-.1 the normal force N
in our see-lion.
'" 'J Ill' Iill~ of prtlS!!uru ptt,lvides :I. nOr)' clear picture or the work of
fill nreh. Thus, Fil? iLk shows that tho forces acliull on tIll' "rrh
telld 10 inCl't'35C the C\lrvaturc of its rigbt.-Ilfllld portion ""hl're Iho
resultant is Lolow Lho ('t'ntre IiIlC, whil('l tho CUf\'ature of the Idt.-
hallll portion will dCt'rt'lL..'O('.
When Cl JS}'slern of vortical load!' PI. P1' P3. etc., ucl~ nn It thrt'c-
hingctl :lrch. the CO/lstructiun of tbe prt'.'l9Ur<l !i,IC will bo tarried
out ill LIlO following sequcnce:
(t) fin;t find thl~ 1'('S,dt;lnt RI or nil tho Oxl4;lrllal Imllls nplllicd h,
tilL' h.'fl of tht' crown hiJJgc;
(2) nOXI lillU Lht' j'('sultant /(~ of all the eXWt'IlaJ loodfi ltl1llliorl
tu I he ri/.!:ht of till' SIIIlU' llillg'l';
1::1) L1ll'lI dchn'rnino till: rcactious A onll J) indltccd IJy !lIe rc~lIlt
all!.s ft. and If~ jllst llctermincd;
(") lillally c.OII!lLrucl the forl;t' polygnu and lhl' linl' or pro."Sllre
Illkillg illlo cOllliiileruLion nil tho ~flfU",dlJ '-OI,titlll loafl!! P.
Thero is alwnys DuI)' OilU IlOly)(tJll lor line uf prt"s.~llro ("orl't'sIKHld-
illM' 10 1I.Ily lid (lf IfI"cJs applied 1.0 a lJlrrthmb....d IIn:h. Wlvn {ill'$('
l"ocLJ art disJrlbut~ t}~ lUlt 01 pr~urt Jjom,nt a l'J1Ioofh (urvt.
H U~ t't'lItro lint! of tbe an:h were 10 ctlincidt willl 1110 rl't'~un;'
lille portailling tu allY jlnrtic.ulnr sui or IOllds. these 1u..'\(1s .....ill induce
nl\illtcr l.~lIdillS' moments nur l;hl.'nring force.~ in 1I1c ~I'O:o.'" Sl'('li<"ln
.. f IlLo arch which wilJ tben he subjected tu nllrnllll fOrt_NI Il]UlIO.
This p"I\'id~s sllb:lLllntial ad"lllltaj,tC!l t,spocially {or masonry or
l"lllcrek' llrch cs. Horeulldl.'( wo shllll designate b.r tilt' term raUcJf/.a.!
1<lIch II f;ullf'jo(lIratioll of Lilo C('IlLro Hill' l,f an arch which will ('lIill-
ddo with tJll' lille. of prel'OiWre corrcllllcmding to LII(, dcod load_
It should l)l) netod thaL Lilo lino ur prljSSuro can nlso ho (lh\.ainud
1IIIIIIylil':Jlly. rur this purposo it would ]ll' nC(,./J)o'.~m')' 10 filiI! 1.lle
nwgnitude ur tho 1~llditlg momunt At and the 110rrnHI forl:~ N in
/1 llll III 001' of ('.ross secli(ln~ and theu u('!ccllliu('. the ('('('('lItl'iuilr e'

.
'1.~lIIg
I
Lie Iorllln Ia ~ - .11 N'
IIltving l'lid 01T thm;e cc.ccntrkiti~ )Ilong the Ilormolll to lbe
(Ilnl~ line (If LilO 3~h. the line of pressllr'\' will be obtailled by sirn-
ply c:.lJllllllt:tilll; LO'.;cLlwl' '.h~ points obtairlcd. The cOIJ!lI.ructiorl uf
It line o( Pn'~urt ror all arch whose reactiolls Wl!'" doletmillC'd in
Fig. !-l,3 is illllsLrll.tod ill Fig. 18,3. Fig. UJ.3 reprt'Sl'Jltls tile delotmi-
natioll of inlcrmd forces actilrg o"er !OOtion k of lhi!l llN;h.
When vtlrLicnl loaul! ILlonc are applied to the arch. tho horizoll-
tul component (If allY I'CsultanL of forces tu the right oc 10 the Icrl.
of 11 ,c;(octioll will IIlways t'-qual the lhrll!iL If,-

-EfII:lr ray "r Ill... !,1l1~'g"n of f"rces (til!. 111.3/" has the ~"Int !Itlr;wnt/l.(
c"mpvrllml e.ll'n[ 10 1J1I~ ll,rll~t.
'0 ) 'b)
Flit. IS.!

P,

I d
(b)

1<1
FI,. 19.3

'--,
n H

Fig. 20.3
120

Therefore. if tlm result3nt of all the forces acting to the Idt of

any cross section were resolved into its vertical Anti horizOlltal
CCJloponCllts S 3m! 11 (Fif{. 20.3) the bending IllOmcnl in tlLis sec-
tion woultl be equal 10 tbe thrust 1I multiplied by the distance
/IlQasllrod verlieally from tlll! ccntroid uf this section tu thC' ljllt~
of pressure (the vortical compon~llt inducing IlO moment in t.his
~ctiun). Accordinglv. when vertical loads alorl~ ar~ applied, Iht' ('er-
lical tlistoncu from the centre line to the liru of pres.mre reprtSl'nt at
it uT/ain Ktl~ the lH>nding moments aclVig Dllt'r II~ correspollding

P,
AI
JI

P,

CV
5
(0) "
(Cl
FI,.21.3

SI'(;ti!HI.~
of du' (lrek. In ollwr words. thcso t1iS[llIlCl!~ consUtllt.c a dia-
gram of LlIu bundin:r tnomt'lIt5 ""iUI Lh\J !lolc diITl.'renCt. that in this
t;aSl till} dillgrum will be silul'Itoo on the side of thE' cQmprcsscd
lihr('s. F'i~. 21.:i t\'Iln:scnls ljlldl a diagram fl('rtaillillg to Lh~ arch
!!hoWIl in Fig. HI.:i4.
rJlJIJI~m J. It i~ rl'qui~ to (On:ILruf;t grapbkally IIle Jlr~rf' tine of the
o!'f.h ~uml}'Uld III 1'J()hl..,m :.I <see Fig. H;';11 IInd 10 delerruloo Ihe sl.l'llSl"P in ~
lion ,. illtliral..d in fill'. 22.38.
Solulllm. L.:t 11.'1 rt'plllC" 1/... ~lnHonllly dl!trilouled load IIrl,lil.'ll IQ the left
half of 11,(\ orch l.y I; (ont:('utr1l11.'d fol'C(lS IIffiounl1n!:" 10 Z 10uS uWe11 and 111:til1g nt
tIlt' G~ntrl'$ (,f (j t"IUld portlo!ls ('1Ich 1 ll,elro long. After lbat_ ll'-t liS GOII~lruct tllo
IQr(;,Q polygt,,, U,;llng the values 01 thl.' l'f'ac.li()n~ computl.'d in Problem 2 RUlI Ihe
IU;llh :1(1\1311) :1I1,,1i()<! ond 11'1 \1~ tI'/lCO Iho r..,/s llhrllugh V/lll\s in ["jll'.22.3"-
Drllwin)t la~ in fir. 22.3/1) 0 series of strings pllralld 10 lhoSG rays Wl' >hall
obtain 11 llOlygon of prll!!ur". TIl@ area helw~o tl~ f;ent~ lint' of tho anll :lIld the
hne ol p~ur(' ~11l1l1etJ \'Ilrlieally In th" fIgure jllst. mentiool'll repff'l'l'nLS tho
diagr:lln or Iwnding m<illlen~ .'if. In lOall}' rt'.!pecLll it i! analogolll' to thc.o rlia&:um
ol,tai!Wd ..u~lyli.,.lI)' in Problfom 2 and !'l'pre~hld in Fig. Ifi.M, I",t diltnQ
il)' the fIIcl l.!,at in the JUlllr c.a...~ \.he 'hstanoos bad to be IlItll~red D"'UI.J1y
to lite rcnlre line or the ordl aDd 1101 ""rlkallr (llrls ",as relll'ele(l hy a hateblnr
normal tu Ihe C(,Dtn! !inN. MI'T{'over, tI,,, diagr.m i~ loc.all'd lIut I" till' com-
JlTessed IlI..e5 in~tead of Ihe oXI(uuled fllll'l'lIlS was the usc in Fig. tn.3h. TlJl!"ether
with Ihe lITulo of lenlfLhs i1nd fol'ces IIn addi~iollAl sc.nJe 10 which the bl.'llding
 --
N N

,I
~I
" I

'" '---------
I

101'" '11
~

!---=c-,.--'!
wI;=j

-..
~
.;

1:'
",;
,
~
.:J
~: - .
~

-,. -
"
'0 ,
,
"
~

-
~

.~
~

-
~

~ ~
~
s~.~
N
:-.!- <' 3:t
,,.
,0"'"1:11\ "rdin:llI.ell mould bo 1~1l5ured In I.ho graph is iodle_I'OiI III riJ:. 22.:{.
Tills Ip~k'(" !glo is obtained by lllultiplying the 5Ult' or lengtll b) the 1II.gllil.Udu
"I tl"." UI"lsll'qual in tbls c.-~ to 6 tons.
Al l\(>inl k lht' bondiflll mOfllol:nt .'jll ~ ollUlllled j'r Tnl'.:!ur;ug the ':"("",1)011,1-
lUg "rdill'lI> in the irf"aph whi<:.h fumi~hl!!' a value nl Lh~ lonmlJot.ml;. The
~IW:lr I" 1.1,1;<; "llCliufI will be nil as the tlnltffillo Uu.> ('nlre Ii ....e v[ the ore'" is
lll'lrallel W ll~ polrr<1II 'If P/'E'!<!lUl'E'. ,...bilc tho norrlllll force N. ill fqU..t h. the
en)' IV (ng. 22.36), i.c., w 7.1. tons.

4':-1. MAX1MUM F.:CO~OlIY ARCHES

lI~
slllled llhIlVt'. wc .~IJlIU c(JlIsidtlf that n Lhreo-hingcu al'd) pro-
\'ido$ for rnnximurll CrOllolllY if its 1~lmlr'tl line COillCidu8 with tilt'
IIIIC 01 prcssuru of all the dead load~ acting 011 this al'c11. In Llllf,l

---~~

,cnSI) IILcSt, lo~ds will produce HO hl'ndillg in thlJ s~rll('lltrl'. Ll\~ y

1111<1 '1 I)e lhe orclinnh.'s o[ tho (lreh I;Olltl'll Iille and of tilu lino of prcf'-
'<UN. resllcclh'lJly. These uruillaLc:l are a certain rUllrtiun of .L
v=/(x) <llId TJ="'lJI{%)
Jr th~ ('outre lillo of Uu." :u-ch were to provide for maximum {('on-
omy il.'id('fillro shove, wc should blwe
Y='1
Let liS t'xamillll tho uS(' of all arch sllbjected to verticAl IQ.'u!s
ouly Wig. 23.3). The oquilihrium tltllll\tioll of the mltln(llll! of tlll
fOn:l'S I)'illg lo the left of nllY poillt k 011 tht< liue of pressure
will 11(."

whclICC
V",z._'tP(z_u}
11
 It will be 1IotOO that the nllmern\,or iu the last cx'lression
is 'qual to the btmdiug moment ill the correspouding section of
the re(!'rt'uce J)t;jj,m. Lu., lo .M~, and 'herefort'
.M~
T)=u
Substit.u\.ing this e..(prc.~,:~ioli ill tbo equatiun y-11 wc oLtaiu
the followillg uXllfusgioH for t.ll!' eeutro !ille of fill arch of IlHIXi
mum t;!CHILomy
A1~
Y-/T
C011SI'quelltly, in the cast' of vertical wadI; manmuln C(;OIlOmy will
be (lcht~ved tf tht ar(;h ((',Lire line flJlww~ the bendIng mOllumt diagram
of /l. simply sllppor~d beam.

rroblcm. Assume thllL a three-hinged .roll carries. '\'erticaJ load of itllcn~l)'

1 uollormly distributed (l\'er the whole of ils length, Lbe span of the arth being I.
it..o; rise I and the cenltal )Iingll being situated at Ille (ro.....n. It h required to
dou.nninc th.t" eonr~lIn.Lion for lhe conLre line (If such an .reh. whieh "lOlIld
provide for mu:imllm ooooorny.
S"I.. lio11. To ~h'(! Ih;" problem we shall \L.4il! Lilo C:lp~iOfl
.,.
Y-If
"ql ~ qz
M"-Tz-q%;r-T('-~)
,
1/_ .lft- _ 12 (l_2.)J..=~
/ 2 2 / t!,J
WhCllCl'
8
Tg< (1-1:) / 4/
u..... ql~ -T(I-z);
1.0., tile centre lino o{ the a,\:1I wu.'\t follow 11 ,,;ollic p,'lt"l.ola.

5.3. DESIGN OF THKJ,;EHINGED ARCHES SUBJI::CTED TO

MOVING LOl.DS
l. lNf"LUli.-XCE UXIlS POIt .AllUTMNT nUC'rlO.'i:S.

Le\- us assume th;\t It three-hinged llreh carries n 111IIt load P

applied a dist.all~ J: from the lefthand abutment Wig. 24..3a),
and let us writ.e. the equilibrium uquntioll of the moments of all
the ro~es 3bont the ~upport pins
~MB= V.\l-l (l-x)=O: !.M A -= - VBl+ '1.:1:_ 0
Soh'ing these equations for V A and VII wt< ohtain
l-:I' :J:
V '--,-; V=T
Jt wilt be ob~erv~l1 that tho expressions for V A. aud V IJ are the
:salll() as those for the reactions of a simplo beam obluinl;d in

,,,
,,,
r,) ,,
H~'~'H""'-1-
. ' ------- 0-------: I ; - - - i"; :-~-::-~-~1~H,;.;;H
8
------.;.>'1 ~ -1
V,
Influence for V;l

, ,,
,
lnfluNlce \Un/;,
,, roe v, ,

,,) )1
, ,
,
,
Influence
,,:Une for H ,

Id)
T"
(

k
Jilt:. 21.3

Art. ~.2. This Int.'8ns lhaL OlO influtmce lines for V A and V /1 do not
tlirfer from the influence lines for the support reactiollS of a Simple
heum: th{'so influence lines are represented in Fig. 24.3b and c.
 Since the thrust Jl is determinccl by the equation if -"-- .l~; ,
the corresponding infiuence line will have the same shape a~ that

+.
for the t)(lam moment j\'1~ differing frolll it only by a constant [actor
'fhii> influence line is shown in Fj~. 24.3d. Tn case l, = l~ --T
011,) urJiJlaw of this inllueuce line at jJ $ectioll passing througll tJl(!
I
cl'uwn equals 7;j'

2. INI'LUE:NCE LINES FOIl lNTIIDXJ\.L FOHces

A~ 11 preliminary ~tep, wc shall examine the methods of detC'r-

mining the so-called neutral points, i.e., the position of the points
of application of a load which will render t1le internal forcl) {hend-
ing moment. shear or normal force) nil at the section k llndl'r COll-
~ideratioll. DcnotifJg tIle stresses acting over this cruss suctiou

r- . . . . . . c

hy M~, Q", and Nit wc shall say Uw.t thl) loa([ is appliod lit the mlU-
tr:l1 poillt when the value of the c(lrwl:;ponding stress and tllerofore
the ordinate to the (~orresponding inlluellcc line become nil. It is
obvions lllllt w}lI:m tbe line of acUoH of n force passes throll~h ouc
of tbe abutml1nt hiugcs, all the strcsS(!s at (lny section of the (lrch
will be nil. In addition, there are uther MIII.ral points (HI the arch
which are of groat interest for us. Thus, if a load P is applied at
point Fm of the arch represcllted in Fig. 25.3 the bending moment
in section k will reduce to zero for the resultant of all tILe forces
to the left of tllis section (i.e., reaction 11) passes through its cen-
l.roid. Accordingly, point Pm will be a neutral point in rela~ion
to the bending moment acting over section k. Point Fm will lie un
the vel'tk.al 11Rssing throllgh the intersection point F of Iill':! Ak
and 8C.
lf we consider the arch shown ill Fig. 26 ..3, the bending moment
in section k would reduce to zero only if the load P were applied

"
at point F". to a special bra~ket fixed to tbe arch between sectioD
le and the CroWD hinge, for in this case the direction of reliction A
would again pass through section k. However. if no such bracket
existed. there would be no real neutral point in relation to the
bending momen& <acting over section k. III effect if the roiJlt of

Ftg.26.$

application of the load wtre transferred upwards, so that the lond

would act dirodly on the right-hand porlion of t.he arch t.Le direc-
tioll of reaction A would alter, this re3ction passillg lhrough tlllJ
hinges A and C, and therefore the bending momeot in l'Cclion k
would ItO longer equal zero.
gl
, r
,I C
I ,
A
I
I

. '.
"
fi r 8
,I"
, 't -'~

I - v~
""' I, I.

FI,.n.$

Denoling by u... the absei~ or the neutral roio& pcrt.ainiog to

the bending moment in seetioTl k (sec Fig. 27.3) <and usin: tbe si-
militlule of the triangles AFFI and BPF I we ob13in

-PP j = U", lallo.:-u".-"

--
"
(l_I'",) J
FP l "'" (I-Urn) \,an ~- /2
 S.J. Du'~n. oJ TIIr~lfjnxd Ardu'. SubjrclM to ,vol;/nf [AlId. 133

Therdore

whence
1/:'/0 (4.3)
U",= Y/o I2+%/oJ

This expression permit! the an<llytical determination of the O'bscis-

sa U", of the neutffl,l point or. in other words, 01 the point where
tha innuencc line for M Ja will pass through tero.
In nrder to determine the neulral point corresponding to Q~
(Fig. 28.3) a line AF must be drl'lwn through tho r..cntre of the hingo
l:lt t1lt1 support A (this line being parallel to the tllngcnt $-$ at
point le to the oontre line of the arch) and the intersection of this
line at point F with line BC must bll futllld. If a load P were now
applied at a point P q lying Oil the same vertical AS point F, the
shcnring force QIt. in section k would reduce to tero, for there would
be only one force acting to the left of section k and this forco would
be parnllel to the tangent through this section. At cross section
k l of the same arch (Fig. 29.3) the shear would reduee to uro only
if the load P .....ere applied to iI bncket. fixed to the arch between
this section :md the crown hinge. for the point of application of
this load falls on the vertical passing through t.he intersection of
the lilies AP and BC. From Fig. aO.3 it is dearly seen that.
PF,=u q tau lpJa
,"'F I = (I-u q ) tall f\
Thorerore
Ilq WlI tpll. = (l- uq) ~1l.1l 13
W!lClICC
11 ~ Illlnji
q- tAn p+\an '1"/0 (5.3)
This t.'Xlwl!Ssion permits the cOlupulatioll of the position of lhe neu-
t.ral point for the shearing force in section k.
The normal force N in section k will become nil when toad P
is applied :it point Pr< (Fig. 31.3) lying on the same vertical as
point P, this point being determined by t.he inwrseet.ioll of Hnc
BC wilh It line AF parallel to the normlll to tho arch centre line
at. section k and p!L'lSing through the hinge A. lo'rolO Fig. 3t.3 we
nole that
PFt=-Uncotlplt.
'nn
F1'\,"",(l-u,,)tD.ll~
'"

s
, M
c

A
Fie_ 29.H

-~-

Fig_ ,10.11

F~l
p.,-jl(~.
l
~
I

r,
whencc
- It" collpll -= (i-Un) tan ~
aud accordingly
u- lUn~ (63
n- tllnj} Wl'f/l; )

'Ibis last formula permits the determination of lIle nculrfll point

relnted 10 the normal force N in secUnn k.
V/hen the value of- the neutral point o.bscissa obtained from for-
mulas (4.3), (5.$) or (6.3) is negaU\'e it mealls that this point lies
to tho left of hinge A.
Let us now examiuo difft:renL llllJthods of r.onstrllcting' influence
lines fot" 11111 , QIt and N". As will be .~een from expression (3.ii), the
bellding moment ar.till,ll over snetion I, of the IU'th represtJl1tcd ill
.FilL". 32.3 will nmO\1I1t for any position of ll, vertical unit load 10
M .. =M~-IJY/l;
This means that the influence line for llf/l; may be obtainoo by
sllmmirl~ the influonce line for tho bending moment ftf% at the
corrosJlonding section of t.he referenco beam (Fig. 32.3b) and tlint
for the thrnst H. all the or(linatell of which have been multiplied
by n constant factcr equal t.c (-Y/I;). These two influence lines are
shown in Fig. 32.& and d while the influenco line for the bending
moment in t.he arcb obtained by their summ:.tion is represented
in Fig. 32.3e. It is clear that the IloilH of intersection d of Iin~
(lIb and ab l must lio 011 the !'ame vertieRI as the neutral poin" Pm.
this providing n rapid dleck on the accuracy of the influence line
oLtainecl. }<'ig. 32.3/ represents the same innuellce line. witll the
ollly differeuce ~hllt its Ordinates hnve been laid off directly from
tbe x-axis.
It lllfly be shown tbat the area under the influence line for M 1<
will reduce to zero for any section k of u unHormly loaded three-
hinged arch whose centre line follows a conic pflrabolll. Indeed.
lhe I,ending momon" in any section of such an arch will amount
to ZCro (see Problem in Art. 4.3). If wc were to determine tile Inag-
nitude of this bending moment using tile influence liuo we would
usc the equality M,. =- gO, but 8S .ltf,. is always zero, Lhe 1Irt'1I un
dE.'r the inDueIlCC line Q must also reduce to zero.
For tbe ('ollsLruction of tho influence line for the sllCar Q..
(Fil1. 33.311) we may use the first formula of tbe set of eJ:prc.'!Siolls
(3.3), viz.,
Q/I; = Q~ cos 'P/I;-H Siulp/l;
wllore Q~ is the shear in the corresponding section of an cnd-sup-
ported beam of tha same span l (Fig. 33.3b).
''''

Um

Pig. :12.3
 5.6. Dtlfg,. 0/ Thr__JlIIlXtd. Ard...c $lI.bJtcftd to AJouillt Lotulc ta?

l'his expression shows that the influence line Q/I may also be
oblained by the summaUon of two infiuence liues, the firsL for 0:
all the ordinates of which are multiplied by a constant factor cos 'Ill
alld the seond for Lhe thrust H tbe ordinates of which ore multi-
plied by (-sin IPA). 'l'he inl1U1mce line for Q. obtained jll tbis \\':lY
F p./
->-. c
la' "(. 'f" (" ,
k I

/,,~
S
A~ I,
, '
I '
,, : , 8

is represented in Fig. 33.3c where abk j kt4 ill the inDuence line for
Q: cos P.. aDd the triangle tu:b is the inl1uence liue for H sin lp...
Point d in Fig. 33.3c must fall on the 53me vertical a3 the neutral
point F q'
The same innuence lino Is shown in Fill_ 33.3d with the only diner-
ellce that its ordinales have been laid off directly from the x-axis.
 ,,,Id FrtJ~~
""In order to construct the inDuence line
Thru-Ilingtd Archu

(or the normal force NJ"

for cross Sf'CLion k of the arch wc shall use Lho last forlnula of e:I.-
prt'SSions (3.3)
Ha = m
sIll er.. If cos lp.. +
::iumming up graphically tho two componenL<; (01 sin 19" :Jnd
n C<QS lJl...> we obLain the inOuenco line for iV/t repre!lCnted h,

I
,,,
(iJ)
';!po k'" ! 1<"*.
,-. I ......
~/('- I ...... " .....
_ A I I
I I ~ ~ i, _ ..L--.fL----l
Id I , I I I

(bJ ~'---i";O
, - I l/nfll1t!tlCe
'0\: Unt' for NtlI
t "~. I 1
I Y, I J'"
,
'I'SUlrpi(
I 11 .... I
rI
c- b
I I ,
, I I
I I 1 6,
I l r 1 ~
I I le! Ir e'
::
I I
i
I
I
i
I
I
..:1....
I 1 I I I
I I I, I
I
I I
! I
I "'i:
1L
I I Influe!ll::e line {or Nit I
r I I I 1
I I I Cl I
I I I
, I ,
(c):, I: :I
I ,
d
u.
Fir. j/.3

(~jg. 34.3b. H",re ub".ktG is the influence Une for Q: sin ff'k and the
(,ri(lug-le abc rcpreos<>nts the influence line for H cos (Pit. Lioe-s a,b
 5.3 l)~$lgn of Thru-Hinud Arch~s SubJated to Mol""/! f>o'U!8 1351

and ab z must intersect at d in the vertical passing tlU'O'lgh the neu-

tral point P".
'l'lll~ positive ordinates to tine da l represent the values oE
0'1. sin <rh whell the unit load P is appli~d 10 a Lracket shown in
Fig'. ::l4.3a while the negalivo ordinates to line da (plotted <Ilso
ahove ab) repro!lent the values of J{ cos lpk for the same position
of thC'. load. In t,his case the normal forco N flctiug oV'r section k
will be ohtaincd by suLLral'.ting the orclinfltc y! Irom YI find will
be equaL to mlm2' A corrt'~pondillg illrLucllce line with its nnlinnlcs
bie} off directly Erom the axis of abscissas is presented in Fig. 34.x.
Preliminary determination of the neutral points would allow
direct construction of t.he influence lines M I" Ok and NI<. This meth-
oJ lIas receivt'd the Ililllle of the neutra,l poInt method. The pro-
cedure to JlO followed Illay bc cosily derived from t111~ eX<llllination
of tIll' influence lines shown ill l<'igs. 32.3/. :n.:3d (lnd 34.3c. For
illst(lJlc~. if it were l'cqllircd to use this metIlOu for I,he construc-
tion of the influence line ror MI< 'proceed os follows (sec Fig. 32.3/).
(I) Layoff along the vertical passing through the Il'lt-hand support
(provided the. sedion under consideration is in the. lelt half 0/ the arch)
the abscissa of Sl'Ction k, i.e., the distance x,\..
(2) Jfarlc the neutral point F,,, on the x-axis.
(:3) Connect lite ordinate XI< o/}(!r the left-hand support (point 0.1)
with the projection of lU'u/ral point (potnt d) on the x-axis (line. aid).
(1-) Fiend the point of intersection of this line with the vertiJ:al pass-
ing throu.g}~ section k (potnt le l ).
(5) Connect k l with the potllt 0/ zero ordinate at the le/t-IIlUld sup-
port (point a).
(6) Find UIl' point of fntl!rsection 0/ the line ald with the verUca,1
passing through the crown hinge (point Cl)'
(7) Connect point Cl with the point of zt'ro ordinate over the right-
hand support (line. Ctb).
L'fOhlclll. It is I'NJuircd to construct the. innuenco lillos for M., 'lA anti N
",;llllg o\"er '>OOtioll k of a thrw-hinged parabolic arch d(lalt wUh In Pr"hJCrtl
2 of Art. 3.a, and to determine wilh tln._ "id of these lnlluenee JiDes tbe alrcsscs
irllluccd in this section by tbe s~'~tel1L of loads indiealed in Fig. 35.3a. The param-
1'Iprs of point k are
Zp'''~h. ... 3 mt'tres: tan 'fA=-; : sin 'fk=O.5fl5; COS'Ph.=O.832
SoIlr'l'oll. Dt'tcrmine graphically t,hl: position of ncutral points 1'",. 1"1
and F" a~ weil as their ah~cissa5 u"" v q and uti ilnd chuk the "l.llIes
of tllf'S<' absei~SIls using rormula~ (1.31, (5.6) "1Il1 (6.<1).

~ 12X4/6 ,.. _!l '

u" - 4/IJ 3(l . 6 wclres
\,

1'1

(0)

le) Influellce Ufle fa'

a,
, Riflh/-hclld
- rtion!!

Fig. 35.$
 The cOnstrUf-lion nf Will innU(llIC" lin"s requ;rud may nil\\' ill' Cllnil.'ll out us
tollow1!: seal" tllf on the verticaL pa~s[nR through the Left-h:md sUJlJlorlthe l'lIl~ths
%",eo~ 'h nnd 1!in Ih asindicatell in Fig. 35.3b. cAuddandconntct the ordinates
<'Ibtaiuc(\ wiell t}l(> ptojec.tion or th'l neutral point on the ;t-Il,xis. Aftl'l' Lliat fmd
the illler~et.jon of the- "erlieal paSl;;ng thl"",gh lilo crown hing!' C with tilll lin.. ~
jU~1 obL.ained. Connect this pOilll "I intel''!t'ction with the point of ~('ro orcli"all1
at t!l<) rh,ht-lland support. [1'io,) nlso the jwint of intersect,i'lll of thl~ nhovl;' line
with the vorlicalllas:;ing t1ll'ollgl, section k. On th~ bending moment jnnlJ('I'~c
lino IhL.~ point i~ connlletcd clireocl_l)' with th" zero point at tl10 I"rt--bund support,
whit!' in Lho~ Ior tho Hhenl' Q. an,{ for Ul(' normsl fQrc,<l N.~ parllHel 10 tl,,: line
d'.'leMllil)r:o ill the fll'St place s!wlIhl be truced through tho l(~ft-hnlld support
ulIlil theil' IlIlc.,;ocUon wilh tl)(' \'('rtiC<l1 mcnLion("d &bovll. AppJring Ihl' Juws
of ~i!tlilit"dl'. to the IrillngJM i"voL""d, wo may now detennine th,' onli""",;;. 10
thn p('r~in('J1~ points nf the innnence lines, the '11',","5 und.'r lit"."" lin"s and Lhe
lnterrwl for(,e~ Indll(:l'd in ~.~'llon k 01 tI,e arch by till' j:!h'en ~r~lelll (of 10~lIls.
la) In{lIIt1IU Ih,~ for Jr.

3{4.8-3) _1 125 m('tn'.~

4.B .

-
cd_lip
.-"'f iib
'="T""'
The af('ll 'md"!' Ihe inlhll'nce lbw corrcspollding to Ill\! di~tfillllted load
Njllals
M l.t25x4.8 1).7[>(6-1.8) 225
w(l - 2 2 -. square metrl,lS

J\cc"rdinllly. tilt' hl.'nding m(lWl>nt Mk will amount to

M ~ _ qfjJ~1 + Ptl~r _ 2 X2.25- 4XO.375 _ 3.0 tOO-lIwtl'l'S

(11) fn/l"mct li"~ far QIl

_ _ ~ eosfJ'1l;
_k3k, - ll-XIl; cos ljIll;=---XO.832-
wlwn,=" k~I<~=--- 6-3 0' 0
.tlv
~.I'-"h I1 . I1 l)

~.k:; = cos 1ft - ~k, - 0, 832- 0";'16= 0.1116

I!~ _0; {"~ 00'. _ U':;I:><3 + O.41: X 3 =0

Q""",qfjJ~ +Py~ = 2xO+4XO=0
,"
(~-l {1I/1u('!U(' Ime for Nil

k6h~ __ '_Illth - ;/"/1-" ... , 3+9.6 0' 1~

Wh"IlC"/ie 3 = - - - SltllJ'h=-~9-6-X .. ;)5=0. ""
:1;h-U" -11" -l.l~ .
"
k,ka- k6kS - ~in q-II. -'=0. n8-0.:;:i~ "- 0.173

-
(', ,I-lip
"" --;r---Z,,0.451
;;To; 0.002
.\' O.lnX;i 0,128+0511)'2., ".,
)q =-2--+ :! Xv"-'2. vi'

.11,',,- qw~' + Pg;; -2X2.1l)5 +~Xll.r,51 __ 7.21 tous

Tht\ nlllgnitude~ of M",
Q.. Ilnd Nit just found coincide witb IhoSl' COlllpull~rC
III Probll'/Il 2 o[ AI'!. :i.:i ('l'ablo 1.3 and Pig. f6.3)

6.3. CORE MOMENTS AND NOHlI1AL STRESSES IN THnEE-

HIf'iGED AftCHES
In i'lny t'cccnlri~lIy loaded bar the normal unit stresses l'caeh
their maximum and tboir minimum in the outer fibres of the c:-to~s.
sections t1nd. jll'Ovidcd ~he material follows Hooke's law, th('k mag-
nitude's may be ohLained from t]tO cqUiltion

o=~~
F W

wJUJrc P = arca of- the crllSS section

W = its rcsi!;ting moment
N n IIU M = Ilormnl force and beuding moment (\cting oy!.'r thB'
SC{'LtOII, respectively.
It is assunled that both 1'1 alld M' act ill a plane passing throll:,:h
onc of tho prineipal axes of incrtia of the section alld normal to it.
,Vhen u moving. load i~ aplJlied to thc llITh, the use of th" flbove'
formula wouLd require that both the influoncc lines fur N ilnd .11
should hll used simultaneously. these influence lines ha\'illg flll
clllirdy t1if(t>rllnt tOllfiguratioll and Olle of them possessing botl!
pQ.'sitivt' alld negative p()ltions. It is therefore espedient to tl";lnS-
form the above-mentioned formula so thai, it should consist of Ollt'
term only.
'.rIds may bl\ obtained by the following procedure. Let U~ HI'S!.
rlOd tilo compouents Nand Q of the resultant n of all forces "clillg'
to the loft of the Section invol ved and passing through a IJoint ,~"
thereof (Fig. :i6.3). Let us them apply ut the ('xtreme upper point
or the c.()re of thi~ se<:tiOll (say, point k l ) two normal fOI'ces N equal
ill si le IInd opposite in direction which will b.l1an('o c3('h Olher.
As II result. we sbnll ha\'(' three forces N acting over this scclion
wllich may be fClll3.cc<! by a moment. equ"l to N (e..L Ct) 811d hy
o normal force N acting at the upper edge of the core. In this ctlSl'"
the unit sl~ at the bottom f,
fibre of the section will be /...,1.,1.
~iYell by the formllla " .<i):-I ZC
N(II'+t'jl " y~ I I
0",= 11'", ~-hll
(a) ~l'llftn I I
} 11 I I
4 '1 1
, i I
Normal forces nppliod ilt the --"1H-...... r-
uppt't limit of Lho core pro- ., IC
d' I
11'
duce no st!'psses ill the lowel' _ 101
~*,

flhres of tlle sectioll. The prod-

uct N (t + Cl) roprc:sentl:l the :2...1.1 ,,",,'
I ~In

(bJ~
,
,I''
, I
I1 I
"
1I I .'
,
,
I t 1 I .nr<.J.CfIC'e ltfJf
"''''!!Jj''>i<,J,;
- , r, I , , or
I,' ,
MA,

i'
i I I
"
' I,I,,~
'
,
(..ne
I for ,.,
f
""" ,,,, ,,
I

rd) .... "", I Influence ll.ll(J

I I for M{
R
f,
F,g_.M 3 FIg. 87.J

moment of tile nnrmal force applied III PtJiut s of the St'clioll about.
~he npper point of the core k, and will he hen'aftcr c.alled the ror~
moment. The core moment. differs from t.he ordinary ht'nding mODlent
by tht' fact. that it.<~ computation requires that Ute di"tance of
the forces (to the left or \0 the right. of the sect.ion) should lw
measUr<'d not to lhe ccntroiil of the section hut to the Uflpl!r or
the lowcr point. of its core.
ThtJ norJUal l'Itre:l..~ lit point n may he determined in a similar
way, ollly in this CAse the momenl of exlernllol forces should be
tAken ubollt tho lower core point. n Ilnd tho approprint.o rl!Sisting
moment. W" should be used in lieu o( W ...
N (t-tt)
0',,= IV
n
 rhru~Jfinged Archt. and Framn

Thus

wllero .M~, = moment of external forces (to the right or to the

left of the section) about tbe upper corB point k ,
M~, = moment of thesame forces ahout the lower COfe point 7.2.'
The above two formulas are motlomiol and tbcrefore they lead
10 H quickor and simpler determination of the maximum normal
unit stresses in tho cross sections of an an:h
carrying a moving land. As [or the in.Ouence
lines of core momenlS they aro conslructed in
oxactly tho sa me way as those for tho bllnding
;---- momsllts.
The influence lines for the coro moment:; and
" for the bending moment in.section k nI 11. tlme--
hinged arch are represenltld ill Fig. 37.:~, these
m influence lines having been c,onstmr,ted u!\i/lI,C
t1Hl neutrnl point method. The small triaTlgles
Fig. 38.:1 shndcd bluck on the inflllellce lines for the core
momllnts just next to tIle centroid arc due to
;1 vortical rise in the influencB line for the normal force at thi;; point
(.see Fig:. 34.3). In practice these areas nre usually ignored due to
their insigl\iflcanec.
Uiling the core momont influence lines, let us now solve the following
problem: which part of the three-hinged arch represented in Fig. 37.3u
should he loaded (uniformly or hy a tl'aitl of COllccnLratcd loads)
in order to obtain the maximum tensile stresses nt tllQ extrados of
section k. It is obvioTIS that thll extrados will be extended only
whon the resultant of nIL external forces (the rig'ht-hand or the IcCt.-
hand ones) passes below t.he c,orc (Fig. 38.3). In that case the momlHll
of the r('snll;.'lllt about the core point k 2 will he negative. Consl'-
quenl.ly, the lond orloadsshould be placed over the negaLive portion
of tho influcnco line for the core moment M~. The loadillg of the
positivc portion of tltis lino would cau;;e the compression of thE'
extmdos of thc arch III sec,lior] k.

7.3. ANALYSIS OF THIIEl:,;-HINGED TIED ARCHES AN))

BENTS

III the preceding articles (2.3 to 6.3) we have passed in review

tile methods of stress computation applicable lo ordinary three-
hinged arches without ties. Let us now cnvit'age the tied threc-
hiTlg1ld systems and in purticlIlar Lhree-hingcd archos and bents.
Cert.,ill p('CllliariLics of tht'~ ~Lructure8 introduce" Ilumber of
c1UlllgCS iU.lhc stro",'! computation meLhods Je.<;o.:ribcd alJuve.
Fig. 39.iia represcnts a Low!ltrillg an:h freely ~UllrlOrLcd at /J,
the tiu precluding the horizoJlMI movement of tht! abuLml'rll bin~t.I
aml thcCCr(lCU 1'1IJlladng the horizontal c,on~tl"aillt Ilt this I)uiut..
ACcot'dingl}', c.omplll'lItiocl m('lhod~ pCl'tnilllng to ordinary lhroo~
hinged nl'dll"'~ (Fig. :iU.3/J) will llccmit tllll Jd,l'l"I11illlllioll or ull

,., tb)

",.:'4--------4'6 ~ ~..,A 8
",

Fi,. 89.3
tbe stl'\'SSl'S ill thilS purticular ca<:c. Stresses in the cross scctioll~
uf botl. al'\'hes will be exa.ctly th(' .!ame alld LIte illtcrlllll roret! in
UU~ LitJ will 00 ('qual \(J Ih", hOrizOlltal thru.!L lJ IJ' The Vl'rtil'u)
"'actions \"A and VI' will al~ n'lIIain llxacUy the.' J"1I1llt.'. Thus,
ttll' iJlnlll'lll'tJ line.! fur Li,O llbutlll('llt I'\'actions nlld Lhe ."lru8.-.('s

10}
,
,., D
c
[ I! [
"0' "0'
A
8 81it
"
Iv, I"
Ft,. 40.3

acting OVer ti,e "orn's[,onding cross :<cttions or a bow.'1lrillg nrc,h

will 1l01. Iliffer in /lily respect from tllOSC of IHt MI!inucy llil'e()hill~
gl,rl llrdL
Let till now CUllllitlnr l\ t1lJ'l!e--hillgcd arcll with MI l,!h.'_\'t1lud tif'
DE a~ IIhown in Fig. 40.311:. Wl' may replace Lho lio by two hori~
zonlnl forces Nil.. applied at points D .lllld e
and equal to the h!lI~
siull in the tie (Fig. 4.0.3b). The thn'C- alllltment rC3.cliulls V,b V /I
and 11 If may then be determined as u!lual with the aid of th~
equilibrium eqllntiml~ o{ nll eltlt'fllal forces applil.!d to the arch.
Tbcsc equations do lint. contain the above mcntiollOO rocces Nf/t
w1ljch hnlnnce tHtch other; their JnlljZllitude mllY b<' obtained by
lO-U~
'" Thru.. llillfw Arch~.

equating La wro the ~um of all the /IloHlcnLs of the external forces
and Framu

flpplied to tho left (or to the right) half of the il.rch 3hout the crown
hinge C. The stresses in all the cross sectiOllS of the arch 11$ well as
the methods of constructing the corresponding innuollce lilies may he
derived frOIll the expressions (1.3).
Y! q_zt/m
In!lum,,'t' lire (1Jr Q~
aWl
~~
O~,4 a4!,'

(to)
;b,.
f"wm
AWUJlI!llll
c
y'" 8,
.'
(0
In{lu''lN:e litll/ for v.
re'"! ~
,-WiillIC lll1l!IiIIl:!In
(j) lnflue.'!Cf111rNiJ ler q/ linl"k
lnf/.JNI'/CIe Une {or v"
~~1sr~,.!f.-
. .- {(VI! _
(If J
~, ~ ,
~ - .
'.. In(//lIme/! the fqr Nt In{lw"ro
'.
Ii!:!.........
...Jj c().<'!'Ir...
= I. 2"8

-~ t.!~-U-~'ll'~-ll'lllllillillrn.."
(;;r ;;;',;";;:O\",
/;'1 I,,!lufflre iI"I! for 101*

1 (!,
-ISU"

Pig. 41.~

Problem I. Gl \'e_R the arch with surcrelevated tie (Fig. 41.3,,) foll()wlllg a c_onie
parabola dofmed ill' tho pquation
4t
y=-V{l-:>:);r;
R",qllirO?d to det('I'lTlillO tllfl roaetions V A , VB and H B thl) tens-Ion in tho lil'
NIle' the intcmal forco~ MA. QJi. And N~ find to COtlSlrllo::t tl,o influ..nce Iluos
for all thoSll !lIrce~ Ilnd strl),';!oCS.
 5(11111/(111., The reactions ne 'le_lermined rrom the eqoilihriulIl ot(oaliDn.~ of
all the &xlcrnal r<l~S ading un 110" :II'd,
~.l'Il-J.-AI-q ~ +'-1'11_0
" ,
IM"'''"T 'T+Pll-h)- Y pl..,O
~X=-JI,,_o:

Th,'''''' "qllnion~ yield

.
~ . . - a:J '1 1+-,--1f
Ph 3 <lx3
x2X 12+'""Tf""-1O 10/lS

t}J...l.. p (,
t' 11-8' ')
-7 =-,-
2Xl2+'(t -IF
") .. rt
1 I)n~

111/_')
Th,! It'nSil.'1l in tl1<' tip is OOI('rmincd from

It'c- Y
l
A 'Z-N/i.P -2'1"-0
'11 I

It 2xl2"
1 qlt) I ,u} IOXT---,-
Ntlr~ ( Y,,-y--S 7=(1- - <': ~121(l,,~

wh.,K' M~ i'" 'I.e hending moment arling over I'eC-liQJl C W a !imllle I1(ollnl ~o"'n
in tig. 'L3b.
The llugle 'h fllfTlled bv the tangenl Lo th(' (entrt.' line or t!tll 1"'l;h aljluintlc
Ilnd the ~-n:xi,. and Ihe urtlinlle y" 01 point k anI dt'lf'nnllled IIJ!' r"II",..~

t(lnT-~_~
dz dr
[2L(I-z)z]_iL(I-Ul
It J~
.,
fur .r_,l:~_3 m tanl:p"-,,t.on<rl-j
.....hul'drolll
'1'-, =u 33<12'; Sill lh'" 0.1.'15; CO! If1 _ 0.832
"d
<If -'X4
1>'1 -If" (1- ...1).r,t =""""i"21 (12 - 3) 3 - 3 metre,

~llh!lituting 11"lt"5t' vlllue.! in eJ:1're!.ions (1.3) '.-0 "bhtll the !tn>!l!ie!I

ac.Ling O\"t'f ~;on k of llHl Ilrcn
Q.. = ~v ... y .. )$'h -Nti. s;olj'l_qz.. ros '10- -3.33 ~11S
L

/011<= ~t'-= V.. f"~-N".(f,,-I+d)----;r--9,n

'.1
tIlo-llutres
1

N,,~ IV __ V.... Iiin <flJt.+ NII~ CO!'f1-qz15i" '1'1-12.20 I"n!

L
Th~' innn('nc(' lin('~ ror the allUtnU'DI, re3ctioll! ~'... Rnli V" shown
in Fiil. 41.3e 8Tl1111 will ho lhl! ~amc liS fol' nn OI'i1jll~ry lhr~e-liillgl.!d ltl'clol"he

""
 '"
Jt
lnnuell(' line r." the tie tensi'ln ... i1111(' ri"riv<ld 'rum tbe cqullliUfl Nrlt~T
t
(500 Fig. 41.3(1.
,',,(\ (on!lI'llrtion o( inJlnf'n<:r. lines for QA .4I, .nll N a wlllt"j ha.....>d on the
following 1'('11111"n~ NlIlilll.t in e\'(\ry re~pl~t W UIO,lse of (::l.:S)
Qh - 0''; (OS (j"'!l - N tit sin 'r"

;!fit ... Mi -!VI;" (HA -/-1-/1)

N", _ Q',' sin ~1.+ N j I, Cl., 11"

1'J10Sl' mnu."co Ii""s togetlll.r with Ihl' iutr.rml'di'ltl' gl'a.,hklll "Jl'-'rntio""

Ue tl'l'tt.... ,lo'll III Illg.IjI.3/.,. A, I, I .lId k.
A~ a rheck lo:t II~ find thl' $.l.ros.sl!.! in ~tiol'l " u~ng thf' h,flu~ll('e lint:'" jll"t
obl.'lincd

QIt = 2 ( --}XO.>24. 0x/).208-}X(l.4lti) -4X ~ XO. .\16 _ _ 3.33 1''''11

MA -2X~ X f .5x6_9,(1 IOlj-ffi('lrl!5

["
Na _2 2'Xfl.1.B3 ~:r(O.~85-'- O.{if.a+ ] ,
1.:'20) +4XTX U2(.... 12.20 tUlIS

TIIl-S!l v;llul'~ C"illc.itle l~.l~ct If with 'hose (oulld l)redoll~ly. A11 the <:u"f'ul,,
HtJl1$lUllr Ill! Mlo;ly It'J:llrdl\d .ll COr(~L

{.(-l us rO'lsider /lOW (hI.' lht'l'l.'-hillgt'd Oents. Thuir nbulllll'llt

"'al'liulls will be determined in exactly the SlllUIl WilY 1t.'S for till'
th~('-hill~d Ilrrlw.s. the l!llm8 applying lo llle' d~u.. rminnli(ln of
lhl' ink'rnal ftlcc.us and La tho ronslrllclion of inOUl!lII:f' lilll'''' (\\i"l'tlt-
er h~' ,l{raphictll or allalylical luethoJ...). Exception ]lltlst he IIHtdl'
for \'I'rlkAl If"ltllnbcr.:; (prtWidcd these arc prcSCIlI.) for the nl'Ulrlll
jloilll Illothod CllllllOl hu appli('d to the constrllctiol1 nf the 1w.ndiug
/II0Ill,,"I, alii! sh'~ar innmHl('l' liues for the< latler. IfIJ\\,OYUf. Ihis Illd.h-
("I rUlllnjlls tfuilll suitnlllo for horizolltnl nlld illcrilJ~,(1 llIcllll!C'r:<
"r I hi' hl'll L.
I'robl ... m 2. Oelt-rrnil)f' the lI1,uhnenL reaeLiol)lllll,d tbl) 1l~1'(''''<e5 in CrQl:5 sec-
.)(. Ull"ll III lllld n Il(l~ tbrough ~h. uprights of Ull! bp", in Pi". 1\2.311 And 'haw thl'
torre~)K>ll.lilll;" innuel\ef> linf'~ for Sl!'Cli.........
$0',<1/(11I. The lllJutmeonL reaction~ will 11(' ol!laillt,d u~llg llu, cqltilibcium
Olllllltitlus
};M. _1P. +JP:-4V0-0
!.oM J' _',PI_I':."I' -t-O
,
IM,,_ 2F-t -I,'I-t _(I

I:X .... l'j-! fI"-/!H-(1

 '4f1

(rum wlllel, Jl''( , 01 Pz~3t

V/l_+(\Pr+:iP~)_ P 'U --'e

f-i,,,zm,
,
=~,2X/'"'T3X31-".2~ IllJl~ 1~!l5m
oi .I
\ ' A-T1--.
, 'P t I- P:l- m I In
I
I": I
-"'~1-2l(i+:tl~-I.~l"n~ .'! I
I
N

, v... ...,.
{I .. ""'" - -
H, I I~t
~, -
H,
'\ "l,
"
-- - -rX l.:t"- -0.62'1
1f1l-P,+ fI,,_
'7:: u-o.I\z., . . . 1.a75 t"h!
Ri.'ganlllli ~hl' low"t l'xtrrmitf tlf tlll'l
uprifthl! a". tlK'" "'f'-ha"d on1l. "'~
rntly n"W Iin,1 lI,,' "'lN5.."S acting ""er
5('CI1,ll1' I1l :lIl<l ..
(b)
QM--f/A-II.lj2~ ton
M~,_ - 211 .. .",2XO.G2,'i _
_ t .2'l tOIl-mdt~8

N." ...... I'.. ...,.-l:!;; lon! (Cl

;I"d
Q.. -. - I"j,C''''qo.. + Ifs!in q.. _
_ -4.~'lxl).Z-"2 1-1.37SXO.9Ql=
=O.:Il11 Ill"
H,,_ ".~Vf,-:!H"...
__ O."X<'i.2.~ - :!.I1XI.37ri _ (e)
_ _ (1.1;25 ~OIHnch'('

N,,_}' If !lill q'" T If II CQ.~ q'" ... If!

oc'1,2:I,0,1./I';8 i 1.37~ l(l :H2 "'" ~.4S IOn1
Filt' '\2 31., ~ :lull d rt'1'U'-!f"~ the
illn,l<.'ocl" 1I1lt'~ rH' the alml'oent ''ell~
lions \''''' ,'" IOn,1 11" -- fl" - If
which ,I" l1'.t ,Jiff.. !" ill ~II)' rtl!pec_~
rn'ln t,hlllle- <If 1111 Hrdinnry IIrcll (roe
F.g. 2~.3)
Fill:. :t2.3r, f ao,1 G cOlltah\! 'ho FiX. 12.3
inn"ruO(' lirK'S for Q M"" and N ...
d"rh't'd from IlK' :t.:"........~lons Qm - -11 ... , AI", .... -2H.. ",1 ,\'", ,. ,'A-
Tb.. illn",,"c~ 1"1" lor .'1; ... mighl lI.1so be ublllllled using tho llool.,,1 ,,,,,nl
m~h,,,1 (~ to"lll. 3~.MI. In Ihls Ui!O llie nou~r.1 pl,in, will eoineilk> ,..iih Ihl'
trnt ...., 01 htnlt<' n, 1'lllJ Ihert'fo", 1'lIving laid oft ll, le"gth COtrf'~poo"'n" to
"in l{'", - 1 ovt>!"l'viul Awl' shollld connoct tho ordinate (I 0;01 ohtainfol[ v.ilh thl'
IIl'utml "vint. 1.0., with thl' point or 1.('ro ordinate over hillgo.: n
(FII(. ii2.3,J.
 4. THE TRUSSES

I.~, Ot;FtNlTJONS AND CLASSIFICATION OF TnUSSI!,s

The truss ii' n (rtlmed strncturo whkh will cont'LllllC tu form 1111
lloyicldillJ; cOlllbi''lllliofl ('\'('11 when all its rigid joints lIfC cOII\'on-
lionully I"t!plnccd I.ty pufl'ct hingl'5. As It rule, lru5S('S are used fUf
the &1.l1ll-' purpnscs U!l bl!3mS Rlld gird~rs, except that the spans thel'

Fig- l.I Pig. fJ.1

('O\'N arc usually much larger. In tlWEe cases solid w(lb beams
hecorllc uneconomicnl duo lo the fact that the strength of Ull" web
cnn never be utilized \0 the full t.'xtel\t (unit stresses ill the web
l>llillg lower than in the nallgl's as will be st'CIl from Fig. 1.4) and
also due lo the dan~r of web buckling which becl'lInC5 more and
IIlOrc acute with thc increa&'_ in the lK>iH:ht of the bc,;lm~.
I n framed structures such as trlls..~ (providBd the loads net at
tJlC joint"') all the members are subjocll!d oit1Ler to direct cXWIl5ion
or compre.&<iull which enJ'lllTe::i a far better utitiz.atioll of the nlak-
ri3!s, lh.. sIre.!!." diagrltlll fur ('aell of these JIl('mbt,rs being pracli-
calJy rec-langular. Thercfort> the lrusses arc alwayll much lighter
lhan solid wob ht'alll:'! of the same span and thl'saml'height. A typ-
ical cxnmplc of a IruSS is showl! ill Fig, 2.4.
Apnrt from h'o-dimensional trusses in which all the bars are
~jluotud ill OllO allt! the !laltle plaoC'. thol'O exist tllroodilr\P,flsional
 '51
or S!JllrC rramod structUN$ in which the cluments arc situated in
!lCvt>ra! plalle~ (Fig. 3.4). Huwever, ill a gN:lal numhllf or c,ases the
dcsig'll of tllN-'l.-(!illlcnsiollul framed structures may 00 reduced to
the C3~\l of scverfll plane !Iy~tcrn3.
Tho span of l\ lrlL'>.'l (Fi~. 4.4a) i!S the dist.allce between it.<! sup-
porLs. TI~ low(>r IUIlI upper longitudinal members fOtlO the upper
and !OWt:f cJwrd.'1 of the ltllSlS, while the memoors which conned

fl,. J.4

the two chunls arc called the wrb memkr. The latler may h~ !'tub-
dividl'([ illto /.It'rtica.l.~ and dlagoTUlLs or into stmU! and ties, the
struts lJcing always cOlllprussed and thl' ties cxwndcd. A cOllnter-
braet: i.!l n lllcm!:K'r dH!ligncd to resi.~t !KIth tensilo and cornpN!l'fSive
stn'SSl'3. The cnd pusts also called batter brllces connect tho upptr
chord lo the lowllr onc and R1tly I>e N!garded as belonging boLh to
tbe upper dlOn! and to the web mt'moors. Tbe dist81lcc between
two adjac,l'nt joints mensured along the horizontal is usually called
a pa,~l. llac juiUlS Lhl'omsclvl'S being frequently
reft!rr~d to as panel
poinls.
 The fulluwillt{ li~'e criterions l!Iuy kln'\.' as It b:t... i~ for th", cJus.... i-
lh:lllillll oC tru~S:
fa) the shape M thn upper and lower chords;
(b) (lin type of Ih... wuh;
(c) the cOll\liLioll!o nL Lill' support.!:
(,I) thu dC'sLillllliorl of Lhe sLructure;
(c) thl' le\'el of the fluor.
in IlCCOnlalll'C with Lllu fir.... t criterillll, t.he trusses mny hfl sub-
,Ii\'idud inlo Lfll.'i.';es with parallel "'lOrds (Fig. !I.t,a.) tllll! illlo (loly-

==m (/)

Fig, 5.4

b'MH\I l~lld lriilllb'lIlltr IrIlM{'!< (I-ig. 4Ab nll,1 r), Trus-~II with a 11'11">1-
bolic L1ppclr etlOrd (Pig. 4.4b) btIOlllf to I.he fir!'>\; o{ I.he Ia...... t tW(lldllds,
The socund uitcrioll permits to subdivide the lrUI!.'<C.!I iulO Lbose
with n Iriilll~ular pattl'fll of LIlt.' w~h lfiU. 5.<'ia). Lho~wilh II quad-
rllllgulllr pntterTl formed by verl-ielll:" alii! dingoll:'lls (Fig 5.4l')
'In lb... 1S111::1~ll!vc;kinK o:"untti"s. whl'l(' .11"
lr'ellllllltj..,il~' (.1 trll"S lyJlt'!'
tire calle,1 arL~'" thll !lam!!! 01 eogiul'i'rs whu first ;uln,dueoo Iloe-1l1 Oil II lllrge !;(':11E'_.
this Lrll'>S is knO\\"1 Il~ thQ If/Jrrtn tm.' {T~, /lot.. l.
uThe ltlo~e \\ld,I} used of no"sc arc th!! l,~(,tl lt1ld th" lfo.u II'U"~.';, Ih~'
fln;t I.o"ing ch"rllcled,tHI 1.0)' (':(tendu,1 ,Uog"nnla ,uu] cOIol,n"."...ri "e"tica!s, IUIlI th,'
".-'<:ond-hY (~tl'll~('il "(lltkll]S i\nd cor"prl!-,~\l(ld dlllj?onn].<; t1'r. ''''/rl
tflOSt~
in Wllkh Ihe wc;h mcmbl'rs fnrm a lel.lt~r K (thc sn-r~dlt~d
Klmss sllOwn ill Fig. 5.4c). lint! 1'11I1l][Y trusses. tf1(J webs of whil~h
are forllled by the sllpt'rpositioll of Lwo or rIlort'silllpll'gTit!s. illlls-
t.rakd in Fi~. !JAil. e llnd f. lIsulllly rdcrrt'd to 11.'1 thn dOli hie. or
mnJLiplt' lrlJs~s*.
TI\() Lhird c_ritcrion {It'l"mits to disLinguish Imt.wcun tfw orditHlI'Y
end-supported tru~t'S (Fig. fiAo-), the cantilcver trll~~ wil.Ji a
llllilt-ill cnd (Fig. 6.'1/1). the tr'IlSSCS (;ant,ill'vcrin~ ovor ono or bot.h
snpporl..<; (Fig, oAr. lino d, rCllpectivcly), fllld Jinlllly thcl)l"of~t"IL
lInd nrched t.rIlSi:<'." in Fig. /i.tie lIlle! f-
As regards their lI11sLination the t,rll.'<sns llllly h('_ suhdi\'hlod illto
ruof tl'USSCi> (Figs. 7A{/. llnd 4.1ir.), br'idg-e lrusses (Figs. -1.Aa HmI
8.4) alldllliscdlanoo\Js t.rU1<80S 1Isml ill CfUUC o:ollslrudioll IFig, 7Ab)
Illld in tILe eomtruc[ioll of VAriouS tOWNS. b(>_n\.S, ('.k. (Fig'. 7.4(").
III fJridg-c ('()I\~tfuclioll lhc l.rnss(.s Ilfl.~ lrc-quC'lltly ~Ilh"j\'id~'ll
into lhroug:h-bl'iclgn lrusl\CS, in whidl the 1'1lilw3Y (or rMd) is o:orr-
ried directly by tlle hottom chul'(1 joilllS (Fig. 8An), tllc rll'(',kLridgc
tl'lIsses whort~ the upper chor'ds or their joints (\!IL'ry the rolhlwHy
(Fig. k.<\b), 111111 fitll1l\y I.lw I.rllsSllOl w]wre thu cleck i.~ t;l\rried a[; ~me
illtermodirlle lovoJ (Fig, 8Ar),

:L<\. DIHECT \lETHons tW ~THESS DETEIIMINA'flOf\ I~

"lE:'.H~EHS 0)/ SDH'LE TlIUs..<;ES

\VI) have "Il't,ad)' seen (1\l"t. 2.1 llmI3.1) thnt framed 'll.I"lU~llll'l'S
(orll\Nl hy (hldil'lg ('Otl~~l."II.i\'(.dy any Ilumher of joilll.~ t.n a llillge-
c,olllwdcrt tl'illtl~lu (Hao:h joinl, hoiD!! (:(It1Uel'lN\ hy lllt'(lIlS ()( two
conellrrerll I"\l~) ,H'C !;talio:ally detcl'flliu31A\ arid form all lInyield-
ing ,'orubinalion. Two-dilllCllsiunal fralncd st.r'UClUfI'S !orlned ill
this way are \l~ually clllled simple lrusses,
.Tn Artide 3.1 it has hf'ell ~hown I_hut 2K equutions or
~Lal.io:lS
can bl) wril.lell for /lny :<hltkullr dUUlI'rniullLc trll~S (K lmillg the
number 01" itl> joints), with the lliJ of which botll tilt' f\l!Utllt~llt
l'ellc~ions Ilnd ~t.,csscs (intern"l r(jl"l~t~~) ill flll 1.11(' rni~rnbcl's o:nn b(
dt)l(Jrminc<!, IL is lIsu1l1 lO Slill"l with lhe rlelel"lIliuaLiou or tile :d"ll-
munt rtHw(.iollS for' whil;h plll'pose thrfllJ eqUilibrium iNlJ<lLiolls lIn'
writl(>1I fOI" thtl LI'Us's as II whol(l,
The slr(!~se~ ill tllll Sl'(laral.l' memhers of t.lw Iru.,*, can he deter-
mined J,y c,ollsiderirrg tho equiLihrium of ~parat.u parls or joilttl>

+
*The trllS.~ in fiR. ~,1d i~ 1I~\lall}' CUIlI'11 11'1' d(wble lI"arren Ir'IIn fur il~ w~_h
ll"'~' 1... u!llll.iw.d by lhi.' SUJX'T\IOsition of tw<> ~ill\Jlle triangular wt.h~ while till'
ItU~S in Fig. 5."~ llJlly hI' l'l~gUrt ('<I ~l~ ~I m",1 iiicatioI' 01 th.. 1'0.1 or fI[ the \fhipl'le
tru~~ tTr, 'lotL'l.
 (0)

(0'

PI,.Ii.l Fi,.7.4

(c) r
Fig. 8.'
 1:;5

()f the stfUC.tufo, t1lt'SU par~ ()f joints boing acled upon hoth by
the l'xternal forces 11lld the stresses in the i'tlctiolled bars. The total
number of int!'pendenl oquilibrium equation!> amounts to 2K-a.
it is very important to find such imaginary sec,lions which will
nllow direct determination of stresses in the separate hars, without
nl!c{'ssitating tho simultll.lUJQWI solution of i'ievera( eqnations with
:le\"eral unknowns. This simplifies very considerably all ~he compu-
tatiOlls and at the same time enlu\JIcl's their accuracy.
Tho following two methods will usually permit the dcllmnilla-
tion o[ the stl'Cl'ses in all tho members of a simple tnl.~S h~' so(Ying
in each casc one oquation with a single unknown.

'('liE ME'I'HOD 0" MOMEX'('S

'rIds method is used mainly when a sectim) Clln be passed throu~h

the truss in such a way as to cut three nonconcurront mcmoors, as
for ex.lunplo section I-I in Fig. 9,4a,

Fig. 9.'1

The axes of such members will illlerStlct by pairs at threo differ-

Wit points not lying on one anti the same straight line Wig. 9.4b).
The cqu.iliLrium equations of the moments of all forccs, both
inU.'rnal and external, acting on the cut-off portion of the truss
taken abollt each of these inLersoctioll points will reduce to one
equation with one unknown, this unknown being the internal forco
actil\g ill the bar not passing through the moment point.
Thus, ill order to determine the streSS acting in allY mcmber of
\..he truss, a section should be taken across this truss cutting tlu'ee
nonconcurreut bars, one of these bars constituting the member
ill wlJid\ it is desired to fInd the stress. In such Cl case the equation
+
*H will bE' shown later that this method can Le (lpl1li('11 als!> In c('rhiu more
('ompllcated ca~.
of nil the "l(JrIICnts llholJt tlte pointolintcrsoctioll of t.11e tlVO other
burs will yield immediotely ~ho stress in the mllmoor under consirl
()rH(iorl.
I1u' poi", of tnu'r,';'ctlOlt 0/ two nu'mbers alillut which the moml'nts
ar!' f,(lkl'tt Is IISIUtlly called the fJngtn 0/ m(lmellt,~.
Whl!II writing the equilihrium equat.ions all the $tre~es ill the
l):J.r~ art) (:onvl't1tiollIlUy wdwnetl positive whic.h, with the eOllvell-
!.ion (I[ tIll! siglls HI[Optcd, me/lns t.hat the bar... are in t,(Jll.~ioll Hlle!

'"' Pig. lOA

the strl'SSOS lll't.' diJ"(\c:!.I)rl aWIlY from the Jomts. Therefore, wh01l 11
II~'J!/ltivn !<lrt'~~ is olltlliH~ld tJli!< iIldkiltcs t.blll Iho lllcluher is COm-
t1rl:.'l"ed. l-Jm :-lrtJ,s,<;; acting- towards the joint..
Wc ,~h1lll now i[lu~trati.' the mc-thod of IllOlllcnls ius~ desnibcrl
hy S('vE'rnl exnmple~.
III tlw.<:c i'XHtnplc,~ wc shaH dcnolc by tho lett.er U the sll'esse~
ill tile. lIJlJll'r dlOrd, by the lotwl' L [he strtsws ill the lowet' Ollt'.
)lllll by tho l()[tt'~ lJ ~llld V the strc!'lSCS in the diagonals And YNU-
(:IlL~. n:;pcctively. Tlle~l' lott.ol'l< will be f\c('ompanied hy cipllNS
illdkaliujZ ilt I.'fll:h Cl!,'It' the numhers 01 the joillts to which till' b.u
ill qlltlsl ion is ('onllccl"d,
Lpt 1I~ HOW d(~l(\l"fnin(\ the stress in the ml.\lllher ;]-5 (of ti'e tl'llSS
in Fig. 10Al~. For thi ... plIrpose wo shall pass sectiun T-T (~lJLting
thl' memllOr ullder l'onsidMatioll lIull two ot.hor ml:>muct's. OHe bdollg-
in/{ 10 th,~ llpper llml the other to t.he 10w{>(' rhOI'd!!. H is nlwn)'s
mOl"l\ wlivtmicllt t.o consider that part or tIl(' t.russ ac.\.ccl I1POII by
a sm:IHel' tlllmbcr of 1"1I1'I'CS, IInd t.ht,I'i'.[ow Wt' sllall di~'lIl;s here the
Idl.-h'llld portion or (lU'I' trllSI< which must hi' ill l'qllililtl'illlll mlller
the action of the eXlN'n:tI forcps A alld P J ami (,f thl' intm'llal
str('sscs (/2'" JJ3~ 11iI(1 1: 35 , tJU.'Sll I<tres.-"es roplllcillg" the right.h:lIHI
[I<)rtioll or tIlt' trlll'''l (Fig. WAb),
[11 (lnk,r tu tll'll\rminc the 1I11knowJl stres.~ La~ lli'ill;' n i'ingll'
elluation wc ~halJ pl11t'(} th<: origin or m(1ml'Jlt..~ al point 4 whem
IIlt'nrll('~ 2-4 all\[ 3-4 COIlCur.
 Tllt1 llum of momcnt.s of all tIle rOrt~C,~ HclinJ,: olll,he IBft-llll!ld pHl'-
tion of t.ho trus~ about. point 4 is
ZJU, -,Aa,..LPIPI-La;,h.",O
whcrofrom

lIt're h is t.llc l('vcr IlTln or stn'ss L3~ about the origin of mllrncnts
(in t.his parliclllar C-Il,*, it is cqual to t.he llCight of t.!IC tflJ.~S), and
.11-1: is tllc I1lUIlW]tt of all the external forC1:s (illdnding' tile reac-
tion) applie,t1 lfl llw lefL-hand portion of t11l1 trllS!l al")lIt joint 4.

lhi,~ momt'Jlt heing l'qual to t.110 hending moment acting uvor l\ i;Cc__
tiOllll[ a sirnph' beam situawu at. the samo distll!\("(' frOIH the sUJlport
ali Iho origin of moments ill thl} truss,
I{ indeed the trus~ were rcplaet1d by a simple bealll having thc
same s\)an autL suhjected to the same loads (Fig, 11,11). the lIe1l.1-
in!? m"mt'flt IH-:ting over a section of this bc-am situated lit tlte slime
Ili,~lallce from t1ll1 lefthand support M tl1(\ vl'i~in of lI[llments
would bo l'xadly cquj\'llllll1l to the moment or all rorrl)~ lIppliBd
10 thu ldl~halld portioll or the truss ahout thi>; origin or In(Hlltmls.
ThIU, the .\'tress tn allY mf'mba of l!t-t' lower dwrd of a tru,'l8 ""ay
be flJ/tnd Il~ a quol/rnt Ilf the beam bending moment by thl' l~vt':r arm
oJ lh~' sl"~ss fLb/Jul the origlu of nwments.
Thl) bendill~ momont in a simple IJuflm ret/wining III ways positive
undor any sy~tIHl\ of verticllI IO<ld8, the ~tro!;.~ r'J~ will nl~o remain
always posilivll, whiell means that tho elCflll'uts or Ilw lowt!r chord
will hI) exLeudod as IOllg as tho loads []c.\ downwards
Let us lIOI\" deterlllille the stre!lS in mornbt~r 24 of the upper
c_hoed. In this casu the Migin of moment.'l should he ll1ken nl joinl
3 ane! the moments of all forces acting on tlw Il'ft-hallrl [lOrtinn or
15' rh, TrullU

frool which
U' = _ Ad-P1dl2 = _ A/~
n , ,
Tho nUlIIerator of the fraction which we have donolOO by Jf:
is aallill equal 1.11 tll(' beam bending mflnlClll acting on'r a Sl.lction
tho aLscilt..a of which is equal to d. As the beam moment .11; is
II1w3Yll IX'sHi\'e under lite gil'en S)'!llelll of loads 1\IId as the fr<le
lion .&;; is preceded by a 1J("~lItiv~ sign, th(> stress lJ Z4 is negative.
which monns lhat Illl'IilLcr 2-4 i!\ cOlllpl'C~d.
It muy lK> oasily shown, using the same I\':tsoning. t1H1t. all the
/ltcmliCf':'I of the up('lt'r ('hot,l 3S w~1t as the 1'Ild post.s of n lru!l.'i will
1I1\\,IIY5 remain COlllIJrcs."Cd llllder any system or vertical load~.
III orocr 10 Jctcrmillo the !:Itross D3~ iuJ.uecd in the dilllZlHlal
8-(/. let lIS l'qllaW Lo ZNO ,.hl:' slim of moments of aH thl"' forn:s
Het-iug on Lilt! lctl-hrHltl port or
the truss Ilhuut point. I. nt whit'''
1,110 dircrtion of lIars 2-1 and 3-5 inlNsed well bt'yomL IhlJ ]ll'rillll:-
l,,:r (If tllo truss (I;oe Fig. tOAb).
ZM~=-An+PI (a+4)-O.Hr~-(J
wllcrclrOlll
PI(G+~)-'1a M1
Da4 -~- r"
=
-;:;;
It \\ill be lhu!l oo:;urved UnIt in tk m~lhud "j mom,t>lIts the malllli-
Iluk oj th~ fireS!! is aiuXl-1JS ~xpr~~d by the quotit'nt (Jj the nwmr.lIl
of (,.l'~rliCIl jorc('s a.clLlIg Oil tltc kjt}umd parium (Jj W trtlM M by
11" klXT arm 0/ thr sJr.'S'J r ObOlU lhc lame p(Jillt

N=!!.... , (1.4)

Simple tru8$t'S defined ilbo\'o may havo A more intricale pattl'rll

as rt'prtSl'l1lcd in Figs. f2.1i and Ilo.li. Nc"ert.hel~. the melhud
uf IlHlIllcnb; romllins ilpplicllble for tILe determination of stresses
in their lllellloors. llldecu. if tho truss in Fig. 12.4 is ~CtiOIlt'11
;dolll: line {I, till.' IIligin uf moments may be laken at POilll6 when.
tllrt,'l,l of tllo four sectiollcd membors COIl\'llr~e (Fig. 1:'L<'i), and theft'
foro we "hnll ngain obtain one equation with one lInknown which
will yield tile streSs in tho uppcr chord mmllber 1-7
r.Ms=Ad+U"h=O
 2..1. Dirut ),frl"t,,1I Df Sire" D~I(rltlinlJti()ll 15!)

whercCrom
Un=_~=_.M~

Ir i\ is desired to find the in\erna} force acting ill mcmoor (j-!i

of the lower chord \Ill' origin of moments should ~ shifted
to point /, then
1:.ftf,=Ad-L.,h=O
wht-nce
L Ad Ill:
~--.--T
Stresses in the llllper anJ the (o....'Cr chords o( tho truss shown
in~Fig. 14.4 can also be delcrnlincd by tho method of moments.
P,

""
1
" v.,
~
z
" , '15
J zo
Lu
1 A
Fig. /2.1 Fit. /3.1

Thus, in order to find the stress ill bar 7-9, section I-I should he
pas..."Cd, cuUing in lIIddition tu thp member considnn.-'<l live mnro
J
p p p p p p p p P
J 3 7
~ .::::-. I ~~ ~

Z
"-I.I~
G
I
ID
fL ",iI"
I'fr. 16.4

bars, all converging at point 10. If this point is taken as tile origill
of IIlOlllOllLs (Fig. 15.4), the equilibriulll equation becnmes
~Mlo=A4d-4P X 2.5+U ,Dh =0
fl'HlI1 whir.h

I..et u!l lit'\\' COfl.-;idCI' nn eyen morc cOmpliCtllcd I.russ \)('opOilod

hy the cminClll 1\Il!'.'lilill clIgineur V. SllUkllOv fo\' Ofle or the Iflrg1.'-
ilpall huiJdings in Mose"\\' (Fig. H\.4),* Thi.-; trll~!;\ ('oll~LilHtcs an
unyiultliug :;!~'st(Jm Iwiuj{ composcd of two Lasic triangles 1-4-5
and z-3-ti eonllot'l.lod by th!"!!!; 1I011(".OllcurrenL 11Ins 1-2, 3-4 unli 5-6.
TIll' truSS is ISl1lLiNl11y dcl-crrnirwLo ns the number of Inu'S S satis-
I'll'S the condiLiun S = 2K - H .... 2 X ti-;{ ----' n. It is not pos~
silll" 10 lind a SCt:lioll through lhe Shukho\ lrus~ CUlling any numbor
of hMS eOIl\'erging at 11 single pOil,t with tllC o.~ccplion of onc.
p

, 7
p

,
.J",j---~. - ....
, -....-"''''"
2 ,
'd

I'll!. 1:;.4 "ig. f6. .t

lIoWt;\'C'r, the ;'SN~!ioll r~t wllich t:.uL!; hars .1-2, 3-4 nllll 5(; 011('0
and hars 1-4 I\lld .1-5 twicc pcrmil05 I,ho dl'.Ll'rmilliltioll of strl'!;StJS
udiug- in halOS 1-2, 34 find 5-(j,
As 'will (}c scen frorn Fig. 17.!i, the Stl'('S.~'$ in harli l-4 and 1-5
will bnlanl;t), the~ r>lress\)s onlering" Lhe Clluilibriulll eC(lJatiuJ} twice
with an oppusite sign, Therefore in thi~ sccLion ooly llll'!:o 1I1lkllOWIl
strc~;ses will rCJtlllill U 21 ' UJ;, Il.ud Uu which muy lJ", 'Ja",ily det,lH'-
millcd by the muthod of lllomellLs.
Thus, ill order to lilld the sLrcss ill Lar 1-2 we '!hllll lllac.o the
origin of mOlllents ut till! point. of inLcl'iloetioll of bllr.s :i-1 alltl 5-6
(point k l in ''''i~, 17.4). Thon
1:.111/,/"'" -U:1r,,-Pp-Bb,,-O
Wlrl'rdrom
I. ,Je,,~.,:,:!-,J"'f ,-
J21--'-- r"
+
"This buss cnrllloL !J(l COllJlldl;l"od (IS IHll"nging to the SillllJ11' f"IOS hili lll'\'l'r-
tlreles.~ nil tit. stre.';.,'es ill it" lllclIllwrs IIwy 1)0 determine! h:V 111<.\ method of
mO<LIonts.
 2.1. Dluet Mtlfl!)ds !)J Slrtst Dttcrmlnllll!)fl j(jl

Similarly, POint k 2 whore the bars ]2 and 5-6 mterscct will

be taken 6.8 the ongin of moments for the determination of the
stress ll~J4 and point k 3 Will form tho oog-in of moments for ::;tres.<;
U6~ (}'ig. 18.4). Thus, stre.<:scs U 2l , U 36 and U 6S are determinell
inlLependently using three equatiolls, each cOlltaini"g ()1l1y onc
unknown.
:rhe stres~s. in all. the ot~er Jllember::! witl IlOW hl' uasily oh-
talIlcd by pussmg stralgllt sectlOns lIc.ro~ allY lIl11uber of hats, Jlro-
p

,
,
Fig. 17.1

vided tllat the stresses. remain Ullknown in not more tllan three of
Lhem.
The examples just considered lead to the following conclusions:
The method 0/ moments is very expedient when a section may be
takm ctdling any number oj bars converging at a, single point, pro
lJidtd thi.~ ]XJint does not ta./l on the direction 0/ r.JuJ member
tnL'e,~ttgatcd.
This mdhod can also be used in case." when a. section cuu more ,hlln
three 1101ll"OnCUrrent bars, prodded the Slresses 111 all the bars except
threl' are already known.
The same method may be utilized when the section crosses al.y num-
bt'r 0/ bars, provtd(d each bar with the e.r:ct'ption 0/ three is sectivm:d
twice.
'Ille metbod of moments is frcC[UlJntly considered as {orllling a
partil~lllar case of tbe more general method of sections. Indeed when
two of ~he sectioned members are parallll1 it becomes impossibln
to tllkQ the origin of moments at the point of their intersection
and therefore the method of moments can no longer be applied.
But pas,<;ing a section through !'he truss will still pl.1rmit the detc'_r_
Illillatioll of the stresses required as wc may in that case use tbo
eqUilibrium equation of the vertical components of the intermll
linO. oxlcrnal forces (it is assumed that the chord.~ are horizontal).
As all example, let us consider the truss represented in Fig. t9.Li.
Sections I-I and 1111 wilt permit the computation of stres..~s
11-853
'"
fro... which
Tilt T~u ..,.

J' ~Ad - HII'd

l.;~=- 11

1...-1 us now consider an CH'n lIH1re cOl1lplieal.cd IrllSll proposed

by lul' Nnill(llll RIlSSitlll l'nginccf V. ShllkllOv for tlnl' of Llle 13rgt'-
Spall hUildilll{" ill Mosc(Jw (Fig. HUI).* This truss COIlSUtut.es an
unyiol,liug system being cOlllposed of two bn..'lir, triangles 1-4-5
811,1 :!~3-fj (',Ollllccwd IJY tbroe n'JIlClIl\curron~ Lars 1-2. 3-4 and 5-6.
'1"11(.\ truss is I'l1ltkBUy ,Icumoifloto as the Humocr .. r har., S sati!'i-
lic~ the COlHliLiolL S = 2K - 3 = 2 x U-:-I = 9. It is 1Iot pos-
8illlo Lo lilld n sCI;lillll through the Shukholl lrll~~ (',Ultilll,f allY uumbtlr
of Illlrs fOIIIlI~I-gillil' fit n single point with the u;\"c,opli'ln or OI1C.
p p
, p
J

, . ,

llowlwCf. tlw !!CCtiOIl r-s-l which ('uls bars '-2, 34 uUII 5-1.1 once
."1nl! har! 1-4 and 1--5 twice ptir/lli{.s UIll deLormilllll,j(lll of stresses
uding ill hlll~ .f-2, 9-4 lllld 5(;,
1\5 will llll Sel'1l frorll Fig. li,ll. the strCSIIt.'::l ill IJIll's 1-4 and 1-,';
will hnlllrlCe, thc:sc ~LrcSSL'S cnterinjt lhe equilibrium oquation LWico
with arr uppo.'liltl sign. Thero!orc in I,his section ullly three llllknowlI
.oslrti!l:;l\s will rem/lin U~I> [/3' u"d Ut' whid. m/lY IXl cO!lily detel'-
milieu by Lilo method of momontJ<.
Thus. ill (Jr\It>f ~o fmd the !>In's., in Imr 1-2 wt: sllHlI plal'-t! thl'
origin o! mOOltlll\.'s nL the point !I[ illtef.!lcctioll uf bnfll ,'1-4 and 5-6
(point 1>1 ill Fig. 17.4). Then
IM. , = -Uur.-Pp-Bb.. =O
whcrefrom

-This tl'U~ l'Il\lwt lit' c{ln~idr~eol a.~ bl'Jo"iill11 to tlte SIUlpl(\ on(l.~ bUl ne"'!!.....
theJeSll [Ill tht ~1reS!l('_~ ill its I!Iprlli...~ moy he detl'nnined Jor th(' method "f
lIlQmenlS.
 06'
Simi!arly, point k: whore the bars 1-2 and 5-6 intersect will
be lakcll as the origin of Inoments for the determinatiou of the
stre~s U u and point k a will form the origin of moments for sLress
U6~ {Fig. 18.4). Tbus, stresses U!!o Vat ami U 65 are dclorminod
independently using tIlI'et:\ oquatiollS, caeh cOlllaiotJlK only onc
unknown.
The stresses in all the other members will JlOW be casily ob-
tained by passiug straig)'L sectiOJlS ae-ro."6 any Humber of bars, pro-
p!-"-P-j

,
,
Fig. 17.,1

vided that the stresses remain unknown in not more than three of
them.
The examples just considered lead to the following conclusions:
The method of moments t.~ very expedient when a section may be
taken CItWllg any number oj bars converging at a single point. pro-
ui.!kd this point dfles Iwt fall Ofl the directiOn oj the member
inve.~tigaf.<,d.
Thi.'s nwlhud can also be used in ca.yrs when a section Cllts more than
thre!! II'HlCoflcurrent bars, provided the stresses in all the bGr~ except
thret are already known.
rhe s(lmc method may be utili~,!.'d when the section crosses any num-
ber OJ vllrs, provided each bar with the exception Dj three Is .';ect/.lmed
twice.
The method of moments is frequently considered IlS forminl{ 8
parLkll!Hr case of the more geiJeral method of secLions. Indeed ......hen
two of the sectioned members arn parallel it becomes impossibJu
to take' the origin of mOrncnts at the point of their intersection
and t.herefore the method of moments can no longer be applicrl.
But passing a section througll the truss will still permit the rleLcr-
mination of tho stresses required as we may in that case use tho
e-quilibrium equation or the vertical components of the interllnl
and external fOrces (it is assumed that the chords are horizontal).
,\.0; an example, let us con~idcr the truss represented in Fig. 19.4.
Sections I-I and l/-I! will permit the computation of stresSt)$
11-853
in IJlIrs ,)-6 and 6-7, respectivel)'. III eff<:ct projectillg' 011 llu;)
vurtie(l] all the forcl.1s (both external l111d internnl) acting 011 the

I 11

p p p P
, G
" 10 12 14

IJ
l'!i(J9
"
I If

Fig. }fJ"J

leH-hand portion of tho lrH,~s (Fig, 20.4,) \\l: obtain

2":Y = A-P+ 1':;c (I

whorcfrum

whom Q is lhe shl,<tr ill the. ('.orrespondillg sodion of fi simple brnm

of the same splln.

p
p
, p

Z
, ,
v~
~"

D"
'n ,
J L"
A
A
~iK. 20.'1 Fig, 21.1

The cquiHhrillfrl of UwL portion of till' truss to the left ofsflction

1l~J1 (Fig. 21.4) will agaifl fumlS}!
~y =A-P-P-Dc;Sillct=O
 2..J. Di~~cI M~lhodl 01 SI~ul O..r"rmlnolllon

D _ A-2P .... -..!L...

.1 - "in 0. l!1ll 0.

where Q is :again the sllear in lhe curn-spolHlillg :'t:~~~ioll Q( u simplu

beam, ~his shNlr being equal to (A - 2P),

Till; "110,;"1101) ClP JOINTS

III thi", method ,hi' equilihriulll of ('ndt joint is \'llllJiiclercd $)pA-

rlltet)/', th(' joinl. heillg separated frum the rc;,j~ or lh(' InlS>! ""hich
is Nltl:a"lll'l h) ~hc streSo.."t's acting in lhc scelioll(!tl Im ..... 111 the C<lk

, .y,, IY
' .. !IQ"
'/,.
,I ,
: .)~ .J.
" ,
r
-u
.,,"'------1 .;

Pig, 22.4

of simple trusses the metllo.1 of joints permits the successive deter-

mination of steesSt's acting in all tho members starting with a joint
rormed by thc meeting of two bars ouly,
As all illustration of the above. let us deLerminc the streSSl!S
in tho ban 1-2, 1-3, 2-3 aud 3-5 of tile truss represented in .Fig. 22.4,
We Mdl begin with considorinj:!" the equilibriuDl of joint 1 Ilt tho
left-band support (Fig. 23.4.). 'fhe projtlCtion of all the forces appliell
to this joint un the normal to bar 1-3 (in this CA.."e a vertical) gives
~y =A+U,1sinCl=O
from which
A
U 11 " " , -ll:1n
--
Q:

UI the prE'Sent case A is equal to ~ and therdore

p
Utl--~
The D\agnitude of tho sLres., in the 1)1'1' 1-3 will be ohtninod by
projecting all the forces on a direction perpendicular to bar 1-2,
i.e., Oil the axis Yl
:EY t = A cosa- L ta sin Cl = 0
".
'"
whercrrom
;lco~a P
L 13 = - . -a- = -;-;-cota
~rn &.

The same result could alsn }w obtained hy projecting (Ill the

forces Oll thlJ x-axis leading to
1:X = L I3 +U 12 cos a = 0
whcrerrom
L 1S = -UIZcosa
Substituting ill this expression U l2 by its ,'aluc foulld C~1"lil!r wc
ohtain onco agabl
p P
L 13 = 2sina. cosa=:r co1a
III oruer lo determine the stresses ill members 3-2 llud 3-5 \\'0
shall separntt' tho join! /1 (Fig. 24.4). Eqnl\tiug tu ~cro tILt' :-llllll HI"

Iy
I
I

l<JZ

Fig. 24.4

all the horizont.1l1 compollf'nt!; wc fillll

:EX=-[.31+L~5=O
Hemcmboring that 13 and L u denote the same stress ill bar 1-3
wc obtain

The vertical projection of all forces acting on joillt 3 j;tivcs

IY=V S2 =O
The stress in bar 3-2 would remain nil if this bar were not at-
right"'3Dgles with the lower chord.
Hence, when two out 01 three bars meeting ut a joint lie on a straight
line, the strl!ssts in these two bars will be cIJual in amount ond
 j65

In sign and the third bar will remaitt idle as long a.~ IW external force
is applied to this joint.
The eq1lilibrium of joint 2 will now permit tlle_ doterrllination
o( t.hl} stres."es in bars 2-4 and 2-5 which will be expressed in !.Crms
of tho st~sscs U 21 and Vu already known.
rt ~hOlJld bfl Hotel! however that in tho method of joints the
strossrs in <l.1L the mcmbl'r:s nIe dewrmincd cons('_cutively, ihoSll found
al a Inlet stage beillj;t expre!>5ed in terms or those found at a pre-
vious onc. Therefore, any accidenlal error <:ommitled in determin-
ing /lilY pllrl,ieular stress will he carried IIlong 1I11d will render

,a
J LLue
:'
:~;ll ,:,._
Fig. 2,').4 Fig. 26.'1

inaccuralc a number of subsequent computations. Another setback

of the method of joints resides in the fact that trigonometrical
functions enter the equilibrium equations, thus complicating the
eatcul\liS.
10 cerl.<\io ca.'>es tlte computations will be simplified if we remem
ber tll9.t tt only two bars meet at a jotnt where no external toree is
applied the stresses in both these bars will be nil. This will be read
ily confirmed by eonsidedrJg the equilibrium of joint 1 of the truss
represented in Fig. 25.4..
Iudeed the projection of all the forces acting on tllis joint on a
vertical and on a horizolltal (see Fig. 26.4) gives
~Y=UI2SirJa.=O
:EX =u I~ cos a. + 1~13= 0
whence
U I2 =L t ,=O
In the actual design of trusses all the three olotbods described
ahove arc frequently used together, prefercDce being given in each
particular case to the onc leading more ~irectly to he resll1t re
quired.
 ~
"

P.Iot /,./Ot

~
:-~.--=>Jr~'--f---t--::::;;j
L 11 .1
-
?

r,':":' "-, .'tJ1 "', ,);)1

Fit!. 2~.4

p.'Ot P.I(J/
F.fJt

P,o.!Ol p,Jtlt PI"JO! p'-JOt P,oJOt ~

_______-'-,,.JIJ""""'
.j~

Jlt,. :19.1

IVRJ I
Pf(li
P-UJt
YI P-I t

,.,
"
"
v i ill 11
YI I)"JtJl p'"JOt

A -/CCl I l/-/fX}e
 .
j

I
,
~I~~l~
<.
~HI"
,, - , 11 li
,,
I

~
,
c I
!
~
+ .=
o.
I
~
I
'ol'+ n~
~I
,..'
" ~

..

0
i
7.

'."I ~-
+ "'. ~
""I" .... -..l.. ,.....+ f..'
I - -
!;; ~ ~
~ I I
+ +
-I---f------I---+-----I

1 0
,.,I! I-
~

,.1
H

"-
:i'~l\
le ~

';';> "'l.
~

~
~ ~

~ ~

--11-;;;--=;,'----:;;--[
~ ~
~ ~

-I-~-I--;c
 I~

,
- ,.-'....
.;: o

=~ =
-
5"

~
,
<: ~I:
i
oS ,
I

"
i'

~

-
~

~
~
~
~

~
~
~

I ~
~
~
~
I I ~
~ ~
 P=!Ol P.fOI P.IOt
'"

-, , d d

If-JOt p,Jor ",Jot P,uJOt p/".JOt

lA .. ,aot 1J~'{}{}i

FiG 81.4

Fig. 32./.

Fig. a,~.4

Fig. 95.1
 Tlu Tru$~$

lN.lbl~m I. Compute the stre9.SCS in momber.'l 4-6,!J-8 and 1-8 of the tru~~
Sholl'n in Fig. 27.4-
Salulton. Pas;; h,'O sections as indicated in PJg. 27.4 and consider the equi-
IibrJ(Jm of the It>ft-hand portions of the truss. All the ca(culatiolls al'e given
in 'raM... 1.<\; column 3 contains sketehl1.'l of the portion of the t,-uss under con-
sideration, the other Cl)lumns contolnJug the corresponding equilibrium eqwltions
and t1".. jr solutioD_

Probl....m 2. C(.'npute the stresses in aU the mem bers of the trusses reprt'SC/ltt'd
ill Figs. 28..4, 29'/', 30.4 and 31.4 and draw the corresllonding diagrams. A(I
tho four trtIS.';QS carry the &1mB loads and hno idenl-ical spaM.
Solution. Tile resulLs III all the calculatlons art' reprreontf'd In the form 01
graphs iu Figs. ::12.4, 33.1\, ~I\.I, and 35.1" the width of the Iland along each truS/!
p/or p./O{ p.ru/. 1':/01 P~'Ot

,
_m
m
.' , ~

~
<
d d d d

P,-JOI 1'/-.101 P,"30t 0'JOl p,-JOt

A .I()(JI '" (j -lOOt

m v ~'~ D

'" fit:. .16. :J

rnembet" beinll: ill direct proptlrtiOll t() the mugnitude of the stress. Comp('e~5Ions
(rl'l;koncd l,elativo) are batched "'hill' tensions (reckoned positive) Hr/! lelL
1IIlilmded. (T ,e valullS 01 all the stresses arc giVl.'D In Ions.)
Computations pllrtainlng La the truss in .ig. 30.4 are (Uttered into '1'1.l>lc 2.4
froln wllith the ffctlUenco of ail the eporatlons is quit(l clear.
Tho compHison of stre..<s diagrams fOE' t,hrce trusses of equal span, carrying
tho sallle loads 1Llld having the same woh pattern shows (sec Figll. 32.4. 33.4
llnd 31\.4) that Ihe triangular trUM in Fig. 29.4 ill [~~economit,alIlS the combined
nrea of the grllrh...~ i!; the largest and therefore this truss will he the lleaviest of
the thrt~.
Problem 3. Determine tho stre~S(ls in the K-trus.s with parallel chord'; repre-
.'Ielllorl in .'iR". 3li.I,Il.
Solutio'" Examining anyone of Iha joint.ll at midheigbt of the truSl'; wher(t
two inclined bars meet with the verticel, we find from the prOjectloll of all
foo'c_es all tho horizontal that
!X _Dcos a+D' COli a'_O
wherofrom
Dcosa __ D'CQsa'
2.4. Vired Methods 0/ Stress J)tlerm;nollon 173

Ft/[. ,17./

(CJ

p
p

Id!

If)

Ftg. 38 l
 Th~
'" Trl<UU

D __ O'

whiclt ilUlllU:, lhat the Slr~e5 in the Indlllcd hlll'! of OOl!' Alld tht> !!amo IJ, ..O'I t1~
equIII ill magnllud6 but opposite in ~gn.
The dNenuin.tion or the st~SU! in all the members of the IrUM is OtlUuf'd.
l1HllCl1ll,hs of thlJi.O strf'S.."05 arc shQ"'n in Fig. 37.4
The rr-i'ltlcr i." invited to prove on hit! OWII that tIle 8trcS~'S in
all Lrll,.;! mombers marked witll a tll\sh in Fig. 38.4 arc nil.

3.'\. GRAPHICAL lfETHOD OP STHESS ANALYSIS IN SUJPLE

TRUSSES
Jl hflS ht.'(lll shown in the precedins: arLide that all stt't'''--~.s ill
a sill1pl~ t.flll:\S may be determined analyticaJly by tJIC method of
joinl!!. Ever)' trus.'l of lhi!l ty~ will cont3in at leMt one joint wJu.'rt'
only two bnrs moot alld this joint should he the slarting poillt of
the oJlcratioll.
"'le ~h311 now cxa m i no tJlU afll phienl mUlhod of str(!.~s tlllll l)'sis.
this 1I1cthO/l Loillg' ha.~ed on the resolutiun of fora's along two ",h'cn
directit'IJls. The f,)l!owillg seqllcnco should 1)1; tldopt()d.
A joillt where only two bnNl meot nHI.<jt 1)1) selected and tll~1 OX Wt
11111 force (r'Ollclion) appliod to t.his joint mU8t tholl he re80h'cll
~J(lIIg llle .linoctiolls of tht>. two UOl"1t, using oithC'l" UlC parullclo-
grunt Jlll'thod or the trian~lc of forcl:'~ met.hod. Tlu' trialllrh.\ 111I1>;t
Jll'cess/lrily rluS('. for tho joint ili in equiliLtillm. Having tints nu-
lnincd lhe stre5..<;Cs in two members Wf> may jlrocco(1 to tllC Ilext jOillt.
whor(> Lho rcsult:mt of the 8tft'Si; Ilrc\'iollsly fOUlld and of the tlXIC.'I1ClI
force allJIliud to the joint (if any) must be "gain resolved nlong
thu dinlction~ of the Jl(~xt couple of bars. Contifluiug in lhl' SDme
Wl'y WI' shnlJ complete the dl'Lermination of nil tho lltrcl!t!eS in 1111
IlK' members of the truss.
.\5 all illustration of lhe abow', let \IS IlIalyxQ lhe lr~ repre-
sented in Pi$.{. 39.4 acted upon at the upper C'!wri! joints b)' tht
uqual rnl"f'l'~.
fig. &O.4a shows the same frus:s, iL... twn SllpporL." hnvin~ oc'VTl
replaced hy th<: allpropriattl retletions, found either Ip'aphklllly
or Ilnalyticnlly. Commencing with joint}, where two baf'!t 1-2 and
1-J nU,!"I, let liS draw the corresponding forc.e polygon Wig. 40Ab
/llltl cl. The joint being in equiliLrium and nctt'tl upon by readioll
..1 = 3"T and by tile stresses Ut: and hUt wc must
<I> 1:1)' orT at some scale tlla reaction A whose magnitude aud
direction are bolh known;
(2) thru\lgh both ends of this line trace parallels 1,0 tlte directions
of bars ]2 anti 1-.9 until t.heir inl~r. mc.tioll, thus ('-omplcLiI1~ the
fnrce polygon (which in Lhis particullll' caliC reduccs 1,0 Cl I.rlnllgla).
 Fig, 39.1

,
I"

a
[Ott
,
L,
if
A S'aile of 1/)(l{J:J A
,
Q QSP ,p 'SP
,
Ib)
", lOP, , L,

re;
a

F;g_ 40.4

P p
V,
U"

Qu Qu if"
""
101 Ib)

Fig_ 41.4
176

The sides be and ca of this triangle measured to the same scale

(\8reaction A will give the magnitude of the streSBCS in bars 1-2
and 19, respectively. The direction (sign) of these stresses will
be determined remembering that in a closed force polygon allthe
forcBS follow one another.
Thus, the lXlaetion A being directed upwards, we shall filld that
the stress UI~ acts towards tbo joint which means that bar 1-2 is
compressed while stress 13 acts away trom the joint and therefore
bllr 1-3 is eXlouded.
Wc may now mark the direction of the stresses found OIl the
~,'hcmlllic drawing of the truss Wig. 40.4a) where Meows pointing

J
la) Ih)
Fig. 42.'1

Lowards Lhc joint will indicate compression and those poinLing

away from Llle joint-tension. Arrows should Le also shown at the
oUll~r extremities of bars 1-2 and 1-3, as the stresses in t.hese bars
will have to be accounted for in considering the equilibrium of
joints :2 and 3.
At joint 2 acted upon by the load P three bars, namely bars 21,
'.!4 and 2-3, meet together. The stresses U l2 and L 13 being lmown
af,l well as tho load P (Fig, 41.4a), the construction of the forel:'
polygon (Fig. 41.4b) will be carried out as follows: lay off I;tres.~
U l2 acting towards the joint and tho load P and then through tilL'
Fnlc ellds of lhese line!; draw two parallels to the dircclions of baf"~
:!-4 and 2-3 until their intersection, thus forming a closed POlYl,J"Q11.
Fig. 111.4b slluws tllat ooth stres.<res U 2 ( and Du are {~ompt\l$~ivl.
Stresses in Lars fJ-4 and 3-5 may now be obtained by cOllsidering
tho <,quilihriulll of joint 3 (sce }t~ig. 40A-a). Four hars lIleet at this
joint, namely hal's 3-1, 3-2, 3-4 and 3-5, but the stresses arc UIl-
knowll ouly in the Illst two. Henco they may be found hy COIlStl'lI-
o.:tillg a force polygon as showll in Fig. 42,4. It will be readily oh-
snrvcd that both thesc stt'Csses flOO tUllsilc.
The determination of the streS5()S III the right-hand hall ()f tlw
truss is 110l reqUired due to tbe symmelry of tbe structllre.
Tile procodm'e just doscribed permits the determination of till)
stresses in all the members 01 a trnss by constructing sllcces.~ively
forcll polygons rtllated to each joint, Each stress will appllar tWit'll
ill these polygons. allirst as RII 1l.lIknown to be found and later a~
 .~.4 Graphical i\hlhod 01 Strus Analysis ill Simple Tr"8ur 177

a given force applied to the adjacent joint where two othor unknown
stresses are ~ought. All of these polygons may be merged together
t.o Iorm Il single diagram called the ltIaxwell..cremona or stres!
diagram in which each stress will be met with only once.
Such a merger is represented in Fig. 43.4. This operation is made
possible by the fact that in the force polygons tne forces appear in
the sequence tlley are JIlot with when each joint is passed around
in the clockwise direction. (The opposite direction could be adopted
as well, but following the tradition we shall always use the one
mentioned nrst.) Thus, in joint 1 in Fig. 40.4(1. we meet flr!t the

Un
u,

I'lt. 43.4

reaction A followed by stress U l2 and then uy L 13 In joint 2 fir~t

comes stress VIZ, then the load P and stresses U Z4 and D Z3 . This
sequence is nlaintained in the force polygons in Figs. 40.4c nnd
41.4b.
]n practice the stress diagram for the whole truss is generall~'
obtained directly, ornitting lllo forc.c polygons of individual joinl.s.
This method will be explained using as an example the truss shown
in Fir.t. 44.4. The notations to be used are as follows: letters and
cipht'I'S will denote areas bounded by the truss membllls (areas a, h,
and c) or by thl::' lines of action of the loads and reactions (areas I.
H. and Ill). Each stress. load or reaction will be designated by
two indices c_orrespoDding to the two areas it separates. Hence,
the left-baud abutment reaction [orming the boundary between
IIreas I and III will be indicated by III-J (bllt not I-lIT, tILe clock-
wise direction being followed), the load P by I-lI and the right-
hand reaction by lIJJT. Similarly, the !'!tress ill bar ]2 will he
denoled by I-a wllen joint 1 is consideN.'d and by or! for join~ 2.
With these notntions the Tlumbering of joints may be compLotely
omitted.
The construction of the stress diagram will start at joint 1 o\er
tlte left-hand abutment where only two bars meet. Having laid
off the magnitude of reaction IllI along the vertical to the sc.ale
t!-R~~
selected we shall obtain the stresses in bars 1-2 antL ]-8 by tracing
through points I and III parallels to the directions of these two
bars whose intersection at point a will permit scaling oft of stresses
in the upper and lower chords I-a and a-I fl.
In order to determine the directions (signs) of these stresses it
will sufllce to remember that in a closed polygon all the forces follow
each other in one and the saml3 direction. Thus, knowing the direc-
tion of the feactionlIII in the triangle lII-I-a-IlI of the diagram
we shall readily determine the directions of the ~tresses I-a ann

o c
~=-----13;---~4o--""'::::""5
,
'~7~ ",

[~ternoL oreo~8
1lI
Pig. 1.4.4 Pig. 43.-1

a-UI, the fIrst beiog directed from I towards a, and tIle second
from a towllrds I If. Marking these directions on the sketch of the
truss (soe Fig. 44/i) we fincl immediately that the stress J-a is di-
rectorl towards joint 1 and is theroforc compressivc. while the stress
a-IIf 3C.U; away from this joint antl accordin!{ly bar 1-3 is exttmdcd.
We may now pass to joint 3 of tho lower chord Il.c_Uld upon by
the stress IJI-a just found and by two unknown stresses a-b and
b-III. These stresses will b<:> obtained by tracing through points
III and a two linos parallol to the bars b-III ami a.-b. the pOint
of int.crsec.tioTl of which shall be marked b. The sign of tIleso stresses
will lit! Jl'rived as berotorore from the direct.ion of tIle stress Ill-a
previously fOHnd (seH Pig. 45.4). Marking these dhcc~iollS all the
sketch of the truss (see Fi~. 44.4) we note thl:lt all l-hC' bars mooting"
at joint 3 are oxtonded.
The next joint to be considered is joint 2 acted UJlon by the load
I-If, two stresses already founeI b-a and a-I. and lwo unknown
 '.1. Gnpltfr/lt Jldhod /11 $treu Anlll,.,. iH $f1llpu Tr"..~. 119

s:trcsses Hoe and t-b. Returning to Fig. 45.4 we find that the dia-
gram Intains the two stresses b-a and a--J. Addini to these the
load I-If (Hne /.II) we may readily find the resultant b-I1 oC lh~
three fon::~ marked in dash line in Fig. 45,4. Hesolving this force
along two diret.;liorul parallul to the hars 2-5 and 2-4 we shall tlnd
the stresses in t1U:'50 bars given by the length of sogmentll (foe and
c-b. The forco polygon b.a-J-I1-c-b indicates that bar IIJ-c is corn-
pressed while bor cb is extender!.
Passing t.o the last joint4 wo fllld Lhut out of tlte L1tN.'c. bors meot-
ing at this joint the stress in one bar ollly rcllloins unkllown. If tILe
diagram has heen constructed accurately, Iiue c-Jll giving this
stress must. be parallel to bar 4-5 and must pass through point Ill.
in other words, the diagram shall Id be dosed.
The force polygon {or point 5 will 00 represented by 1J-IIIclI.
In the stress diagram tbe external Corees were laid 0(( in Lhe
samc order as they were encountered when passing around the
perimeter of the truss in a clo<:kwise direelion_ The force polygon
of externlll 10ll.ds and N.-actions must also be closed. the whole truSR
being ill equilibrium. 'fhe closure of the external COl'ee polygon
find of the strlls.~ diagram constitutes a ready eh<'ck on the Mcuracy
of all the operations.
The construction oC the !ltress dillgrtlm is usually commenced
by tracillg tile closed polygou of loads ancl reactions which must
00 laid 011 in the same order as they are met when passing around
the truss in a clockwise dit"l.'Ction. This being done, the stresses
in the btlrs intctsCcting at each joint. are determined grapbic.ally
com ID{'ncing with the joint where only two bars meet. These stresses
will also be laid off in the sequence they are encolllltered when
paS8.ing around each joint in a clo<:kwise dircctic)O.
The construction of the foroo polygon for each joint should he
cDrried out in such a way that the two unknown stres-<>es should come
la!'\. Thus in the example given in Fig. 46.4a force PI should comu
fir!;t in order that the unknown stresses Y and X should cOllie last
{Fig. 4.G.4b).
111 the stress diagram each line denoting all internal force he-
10l1gs to two force polygons correspol1ding to two adjaMnl joints,
and tlterefore it is not recommended to show the directions of the
!;t!'eSS{-S in the diagram, these directions being different in the two
cases just luentioned. Moreover, it is easy to determine the dircc--
lion (sign) of eaeh stress without. going aroul1d the whole of the
force polygon corresponding to the joint under consideration. In
deed, each stress in the diagram is denoted by two indice! following
l'ACh other in the !'equence they were met when passing around the
joint in a clockwise direction. This sequence will therefore be differ-
ent for two adjacent joilll.8, for instance, the stress in bar 2-3 (.'ICC
12"
 180

Fig. 44.4) should bt! denoted by a-b if referred to the lower chord.
joint 3 Mud by b-a when rnferred to the up()er chord joint 2.
y

x x

fJ

Ib}

la}
Fig.le.t

As POilll a. of the furce polygon ropro~Jlted in Fi!:. 45.4 lies below

point b lho stress lI-b will be directed nway from the lower joint
aod therefore thu corresponding bar will be extended.
Problem. Required to fAlns~rud It litres! diagrnm fQr tbe truss rllprll$ented
in Fig. 47.4/1 Ilnd to <k>terwine the stre5..'lQlI in all tbe Inemher.o or
\.bls t"llS~.
Sol"Wm. U~llg the Ilotation.s dMCrlbed aho..., indicat.a by letlel'8l1, b. ,',
etc. tile areas bounded by tbe members of the lruu nnd by 1, 11, .. " I X
(he arell5 aepan,ted by the direction! of the loads and reactions as the truss Is
pas..-etl around 11.5 perunewr in llelock..... ise. dlreetion. A force Jl'Olyg<l1l 1-1/- ..
.. . -IX-I (Fig. <li1.H) Inay ho then construeted eommeDC~ with the lo~d
aetin&' o\-er lhe lefl...-Il~nd abu(u)\mt. ruetion A (Iorc:eo IX-/) bemg l:lid off I~st.
The roree polygon must dose as the system of u:tern~1 fortes (lo.1ds and rtll'letions)
i~ bnl,oeod-,
Tb<: ~'()Il_...tnletion of the diaJT~ starU It the joint direeHy lbova the left
IUlmlabutllloo1, by lrninl{" dosed fone po1rron of all the forces IIctine: at tJ,is
Joint_ FOl'Cts IX-I and 11/ are already 1ft out. Iheir rl!..-u1tl1nt IX-II b<!ioli
.lirt'Ctf'd IIp''-ards. This force must no... be resolved along tbe diroetions of thl:'
1(,wf;<r lI1ld thl' uplK'r chords. for which Plllptllil' l'I lioo parallel III bar JJ." I~
tr:lwtl throulI'h point lI11nd a. h.o'hontlll pllrlllcl to ba.rQ.-1X through poinl/X.
tbo intel1lOl"llnn b\"ing marked by the lettN" 11. Tho sign of Ihe stl"l'5SeS will I~
t1eterudntld by tbe appl.icatioll of tbe lUll. that in a elOSlld lorea polYl::oll .11 till"
rore~ lollow on.. llnotbl'r in tbl' same dlrt'l;tien. Accordingly Iho t'treM 11-0
most be- di~\('>1 rrom rilzbt to left and do .... nwnds Ind strl!c'lS a-IX frnm I('fl to
dlllot. In ollmr ""Ords. thO stross in bar 1/+4 will be diroetod tQw.. rds 11.11- jnint
whic.lllll"Ans that 1hi;; bllr is eOlnpmllSUd Ilntl the stress In bllr ~-IX awa)' from
the joint ind[enting tll/lt this lOomber il extended.
- Iu tho {"ree polygon fonos VU I-IX (NlI.ctioLl R) ,md 'X-' (rellotion tl)
llr(l slightl)" (Iflst't towardllthc right in order to nv,-,id confusion wit,h the
....Wrmil IO/ld~.
 8.1. Craphiotll M~thod 01 Sin's Analysis I" Si"'1Jl~ 7',.,,~,,~ Hit

Points b. 0, d. ete., of the ~trel;.~ diagram will 00 found liS follo\\'!l; point b
hy tracing through point a a parallel to tlio vQrtiealab and througll POint III
a parallcl to th(' I.mr IJ l-b; point ~ bv drawlllg through point b a parallel to the
diagonal b-( ~Ild a horiwnl;ll througi, point IXi point ,I wiIJ he lormad by tho
p

I
III

," III
,
J -JX

I'
b
S.YJle of IXds VI
q f 'If JP
(b)
Yff
VII
Fig. 17..]

inl{'rileclion (.r 3 verticd passing through point ~ nnd o[ a Hnl,'. J'1lrallel to the
upper chord lllclIllJllr IY-d pa~ing thrnugh point IV. I'oints~, ,. g. h, t Md k
will be found in tho ~~me way. (t will he "otod Ih~t pollOts rand; COIIlCid~, indi-

Upper el",r11 !.O"'~r chord V~rtlears 1Ilog0nslo

." I StT~"
"," I Str~os
""' I Slr~"
""' ! Stre".

a-If -IL85f' a-IX 6.3IJP f'-I" -l.OOP b-, 1. GO!'

&-1 I [ -6.85!' r.-IX :i.O~P '-d -t.MP do, 1.951'
d-IV -5.40P r-J X 3.80P <-I 0 t-g L()5P
,-V ~5.40P 1[% 3.80P 'oh - t.5l)p h_i U~)P
1.\-"1 -6.851' h-[ ;{ 5.05P ,.k -l.OOP
k.V[ [ -li.8SP 1<-IX 6.30P
1R2 Tilt 1'r"un

eatiug Lhat thfll;l!'e!!<i iu the vl!'tlie.I,t Is nil. Tb., construction of tho lost dia-
gnllll pertaining to tho right-hllnd half "r lh., truss could he omitted u the
stre1eeS in tll@' lWo hal\'"os of a Sl'mmelrieal lnJs:! !lUbjeeLed LO' symmetrical
system of loads ,.-jll be eJ:A~tl)' the $llo.ue,
In tllo stress diagril.lD of ~ig. 47,4 duh 1iDl'~ indica.te tensions ;lnd solid
linK cutnpril55ions. It will be seen that aU tho mi'mben or the 10"'I'T ~hord and
thi' dUlil\mals .re oxtended, while tbe up~r ~bord memwr; IlIld the vO!"tICals
are eOOlp~.
The m,gmtnoo of tJII' stn...."Se!: !Calf'd ofF the diagr.m aN lahulatl'd allovl'.

4.4. DIRE(."I }UiTHOD OF STRESS DETERMINATION IX

COMPLICATED STATICALLY DETERMINATE FRAMED
STRUCTunrS

Occasionally the designer will hll.\'e to deal with framed structures

or n considerably more intricate pattern lh.alJ those formed by the
successive additi()n ()f supplementary joints to a basic lriallgle, cach
of these joint' being attached by mCtlllS of two cont:urr~ll\t bars,
Tilt\~ !!ystems remain !ltaticaHy dp,lcrmiuate and in a /lumber of
cases th~~' may be derived from the Sirol,Io systems by replacing
one or more bars by the same number of other barswitbout disturbing
tbe geometrical stability of the system as a wh()le,
As a rule. the analysis of such systoms will require simultaneous
solution of several equations with several unknowns. However,
in many cases lhll complicated systems may he reduced to UIO simple
ones, or to such systoms wh.ich call be analyzed without solving
oquntions with numerou5 unknGwns, by a ficliliGUS replacemeTlt
(substitution) of bars. Tile additional equatioILS permitting to solve
the problcln will express that the slre~"CS in all tILt! suhstitute
membe~ remain nil.
Thc follo9.ing example wiH illustrate this melhod. Assume th~t .
it is required to fllld the stres!OS in all the members of thc structure
fiIlllresented in Fig, 48.40. acted upon b~" some <:'Xtcrnal forel:, .!>l\~'.
Jo~d P applied at joint 6. It will be immediately seen that in this
structure three bars meet at each joint, hence the lOethod of joints
!>e<cmes inapplicable. At the same timc the method of mOlllents
will lead to a number of equatiolls each. coutaining .!leveral unknowns,
which is extremely undesir1lhle. III those circumstances ll't U3 trans-
forlll the structure into 11 ~imple system by replacing bar 6-3 by
bar 1-.5 8S indicated iu Fig. 48.4b. The structure so obtained forms
lln"unyielding cOJRbilla~ion liS it may be formed by the successive
nddition of joints 2, 4 and 3 to a basic hinged trianglo 1-5-8, C!ach
of these joint5 being connected by means of two concurrent hnrs.
The analysis of slIlJh 8 traJlJ/ormed system is greatly simplifIed
fol' the stresses ill all the bars may be found, SDY, by the I1\ctllOd
()f joints without tlte ~olutioll of equation!! with multiple nnknowns.
 Let us denol.a by X tbe stress induced by the load P in bar 6-3
aud let us apply the same force to joint.ll3 and 6 of the tr.!lltsformed
syslem in tne direction of bar 3-6 (H is a!5umed that this har is
tl'Xtcndcd).
It is obvious that the stresses in aH the membors of both the origi-
nal and the transformed systems will become exactly the same when
the stress in the substitute bar 1-5 reduces to tero under the combinetl
action of forecs P and X. Indeed, the two systems will be identical
for nny I!u may nlways be replaced by a force acting in thl' Sl\IIlC
J

,"~H?-~:-f-1

la' (b)

Fit. 48.4

direction and ha\-ing the same magnitude .!IS the stress in tbis bar,
and when th.e stress is zero this means that the bar IRa)' be omitted
without disturhinl: the system.
The principle of super position enables us to express the strt'ss
in Any memhl!r j of thl) transformed system (and accordingly of
the origiual one, too) by
N1=NIP+NbX (2.4)
where N,P = stn;ss in the transformed system induced b)' the load P
N,~ = salll!) stress induced by a unit load X = 1.
The !llm6 formula aPlllying to the substitute bar. we may write
thMt the streS.'!l l\'. in th.is bar equals
N.=N.p+NuX,-O
w!lerefrom
X~--
N., (3.4)
i/
Substituting the \'aluc of X thus obtained in the expression (2.4)
we shall rUld the stresses in all the mllrnbers of tbe system.
In more complicawd case~ it becomes sometimes necessary to
replace two or more bars. I'n such cases the method just (lascribed
 '84
will not dispense completely with the solution or 5e\"eral equation!!
with several unkno.....ns. The total stresses in the substitute ban
will still reduce to zero, and their expre!!Sions ",ill take the for/O
Nt =N,p+NlI X,+N"X,+Nu x,+ -0
N,=Nzp+NI,X,+NuX.+NnX.+ -0 (4.4)
Ng=Ngp+N3IX, + NszX z + N 33 X,-:- - 0
wht'rc N,. NI' iVg _total streS.M'g ill HI(' slllY.otituLe l){Ir"
1, 2, 3, elc.
X" XI. XI' ... _unknown Stress68 iD the bars whicll
h.llxe heeD Nlpla~cd
NI" Nit. NI', ... = stresses induced in substitute bar
1 by unit loads X,= l. X 1 =1, X,=
=1, ... , respectively
li'l> Nu. Nu... = same strtl!SCs in suhstitul(l bar 2, et~.
The values or the unknown stresses XI' X 2, X 3. ('le., will be
tll this case obtllined by solVing the system of equaLions (4.4).
In complicated structures the correct position of the substitute
bar is nut always clellr. However, it may be found in the following
way: baving eliminated one bar reject. OIID by one all t.he_ joint:s
connected t.o LhQ remaining structure by t.wo distinct. bars unt.il
a joint is found whose connect.ions are insufficient.. The additional
har net'ded to fix this joint wit.h respe<:t. t.o the remainder of t.he
strucl.ure will const.it.ute the fOquired substitute bar. If the struc-
ture so obtnincd still does not belong to the category of simple
(r'omed structures, another of its bars should be eliminnted and
further joints should be rejected until aDO more joint. iDad~quately
connected to the rest of the structure is found. indicating the po.~i
Lion of the second substitute bar.
Thi5 procedure may be repeated as Dlany times as necessary to
transform the structure inta a simple system.
Problem. Usinli: 'he replaeement method delermioe the stre!.Se5 ill aIL the
meroOOr' of framltll structure in Fig. ~9.-4;G for sin a _ O.G and sin ts = 0..8.
S"I..H,,,,,. Repl.cing bar 8-8 by bar 1-5 LU Mlown In Fig. 49.U we obtain
simple ."y,stem pennitting the dljterminatioo of the !llres!l .'( in the replacfd bar
by equaling 10 tero Ilto st~ in ttwl !lubstitute bar 1-5
N u - Nup+NIUX-O
wIl('flee
 185

N':r llnd NI'" being th,~ stresses induced in lbo llubstltute b.u 14 by
loo P and lb'~ unit ror~ X_I. rcspl>(:livc!v.
The stro'SSt's in aH tbo (lther illcmhers of truBlI will be found u~ing th...
fClrlTluln
Nt-Nlp+N/xX
",h('re NIJ, and Ntx arc the ~lrcs~s in the corJ't'sponding meID~r of thp Irans-
forml'd S)'SU!lll imluced by tho load P and the unit fOTee X = 1, resp~livl!l~.

.' J

z ,

5
(;l)
P ,
Fig. 119.4

ill tbis eX,",lIlpln the n1c>lllOd or joillL~ should be reLainod as Its r.onseeullVe
app1ic~lion to joint. 9. 2, 1, G and 5 will ~how ilillllediately that only bars 1-6,
Tabl~ 4 I

TOUI Urns
Stre81 lndue!'ll Siren Induced SlrclS tnd"ced In membo!ra
Bar No. by unit foree by load l' by toroe X 01 tb. orIgInal
'-,

-.
I","tem

, +~p
2-3 or 4-3 0
"
-T-U P
,
14
9
1-2 5-4 -I 0 -T P -'fp
" , -~p -~p
2-'
"' '-1 +tr 0

-,, " 14
I-d 54 +~p +45 P +~p
" 8 56 7

1-'
7 _lp +.!p
-" 8 8
0

....M<_: "he s~r~ss X In the r'plactd bar 3-0 t~uall

X _ _ ,vl~i> __ 3P H _ _ 2: p
" ii'-l~., 81 1
lB" Tlu Trusus

,~-6 ;lnd 1-5 ()f the transfonned system are stressed by the lood P, alllhc otfu>r
mem bPrs ~lIlai(Jlng idle.
All the computations ore listed In Table 4.':. E:nlriH into thH !'th and lhe
5\1. columns bave been made only after finding the stre~ X in Iho replaced bar
3-6. \'aIUt>s appeadng in oolumn 4 bavo been obtained by multIplying tllo9'
of column 2 by lhe magnitude of the stre.'llil X (!!Ile below), while tJle entries of
column 5 result ft'Om the summatioD of ftgures containpd in coJumn~ 3 on,1 !'.

5.4. STRESS DISTIIIBUTiON IN D[f'FERENT TYPES OF THUs.:>J::S

Stresses computed for trusses of tile salJle span, the same height
and the same [lUmber of panels and actoo upon by the same system
of loads, but differing in the outline or
their upper chords have
been illustrated ill "Figs. 32.4, 33.4. 34.lt. 3a,4 and 37.4 of Art. 2.4-
Examining' these flgurBS it will be noted that iu certain trusses
the chord stresses incn:asc frOm the abutments towards the centre
line Wigs. 32.4, 35.4 and 37.4), while in other trusses they decrease
(Figs. 33.4 and 34.4). In trusses of different shape but of the same
web pattern the verticals and the diagonals lllay sustain stres.'l8S
of different sign; thus, in the truss in Fig. 32.4 tho diagonals arc
extended while in the truss in Fig. 33.4 they arc compressed.
For a number of trusses the mode of stress variations in chord
members, the sign of the stress in the elements of the web as well
as certain otllOr peculiarities of their performance may be predicted
without detailed calculations.
As an example, lot us take the three trusses reproscnLed in
Fig. 50.44, band c which differ one from another only by the posi-
lion of their diagonals.
J n order to facilitate judgement regarding the sign of the stress
induc.cd in the differenl elements of these trusses by a uniformly
distributed load we shall make use of an auxiliary uniformly loaded
beflm appearing in Fig. 50.4d. The AI and Q diagrams for this beam
are represented in Fig. 50Ae and ,. The bending moment diagram
shows that in the beam the lower fibres are ext.ended and the upper
ones are compressed, indicating that ill a truss the upper chord will
be compressed and the lower one oxtendod. In the same beam the
bending InOlnont increases from the ends towards the middle and
accordingly (the height of a truS3 with parallel chords remaining
constant). the stresses in the chord members will also increase from
the abutments towards the centre line.
Section!! taken through the auxiliary bcam and the trusses (sec-
tion /./ in Fig. 50.4a, b. c, cl) will help to find the signs of the strei'lSes
in the web members. The shear in section /-1 of tbe beam being
positive tends to lift the left-hand portion of the beam with respect
to the right-hand one. HeRce tho sectioned diagonal of the truss
shown in Fig. 50Aa will be extended as ;:l1o\\'n [n Fig. 51.4a and
 III

,a)

(6,

'"
I
la) ~l ill j
I I I If! I
I

'"
(f)

~, Q gra/)h

Fig. .50.4
188 TIu TrUlI<t.I

the ~c\ioned diagonals of the t.russes of Fig. SO.4b and c will be

compressed (Fig. 51.4b and c). The same reasoning will show that
all the diagonals of the Prat.t truss represented in Fig. 50.4.4 are
\>:<lenrled, those of t.he Howetruss in Pig. 5O.4b are compressed
while in the Warren truss appearing in Fig. 50.4& extended diagonals
will alternate with compressed ones.
Fig. SO.4! shows also that the shearing forces decrease towards
the middle or the beam: similarly the st,resses in the diagonals of
the trusses will also drop to
wards midspan.
When the loads are applil,d
~o th.e upper c,hord of. tne trll~S
J..n Fig. SO.4c Its verttCllls J, .}
and 5 Me compressed and VCl'-
tieab2and 4are idle. Vice verM.
if the load is applied to the lo\\'-
,

I~ n~
".

" ".
Fit. 52.4

er chord verticals I, 3 and 5 will become idle and verticals :!

and 4 will become extended. This !nay be easily proved by coo
sidering the equilibrium of the appropriate jointll of the truss.
The direction of tho stresses in the verticals of the Pr-att and the
Howe trusses in Fig. 50.44 and b will bo readily found considering
the equilibrinm of that portion of these trusses which lies to the
right of section 11-11 (Fig. 52.4a and b). The shear acting in the
left-hand portiou being positive is directed upwards, compressing
the vertical in the Pratt. truss (Fig. 52.4a) and extending il. in the
Howe truss (Fig. 52.4b). These stresses will also decrease towardg
the centre line of the tru!.~s like the shearing forces in the simple
beam (Fig. SO.4f).
 5.4. Sir,,, /)iltri/.rlllUm In Ot6e"nl Trlper 11/ Trllr~o 189

All the above is readily confirmed by the stress diagram ill

Fil!'s. 32.4 and 35.4.
If the tfUS.-'<eS were loaded differently, the stress distribution
migM alter considerably. For instance, if a single load were applied
Ilt midspan of a beam lLs bending moment and shear diagrams would
be such II.S shown in Fig. 53.44, band t. In this case the shear
remains constallt along each half span. The same will apply to the
strcs..~s in the web members of the trusses.
When two s)mmetrical concentrated loads are IIpplied at thl!
hip joints of a truss (u in Fig. 54.44) the stresses in 11.11 the chord
members except the ond ones will remain constant as may easily be
-deducted from the bending moment diagram of the auxiliary beam
r~pr6l"ntcd in Fig . .s4.4b. At the samt! time the stres::IEls in the web
lIlembers will be nil (500 shear dil\grllm or a simple beam ill
}"ig. 54.4c).
The aualysis of stress distribution b6c0me!'; considonbly more
-compliCAted for trusses with nonparallel c!\ords such as shown in
Fig. 5.').4.a, band c. Whcm the upper chord follows exactly the beml
ing moment diagram, the stress (exten.sion) in the lower chord
members will remain constant and the compression in the upper
chord will be directly proportional to ~a where 0. i5 the angle forlOcxI
by the corresponding member of the chord with a horizont.a.L Such
will be tbe case or a uniformly loaded parabolic truss (compare the
bending momont diagram in Fig. 50Ae with truss in Fig. 54.4b)
or of n triangular truss carrying onc concentrated load applied at
its apex (compare tho bonding moment diagram ill Fig. 53.4b with
the truss in Fig. 55.4a). III these casos all the diagonals remain
idle find tIle streSStl9 in the verticals are either equal to the load
appliod at the corresponding joint (if the loads arc c.arriod by tlw
lowere-hord) or becomo nil, when the load is applied to tho t(,)/) chord.
Tho accuracy of these 5tatemCDLs is well illustrated by the stresses
computed for thc parabolic truss represent.ed in fig. 34.A.
When the outline of the truss chords does not coincide with the
bending momeut diagram. only the signs of the Slresses in th~ top
and bottom chords and the mode of thoir variation may bo still
predicted fairl)' easily. the lower chord being always tlxtlluded and
the upper one compressed as long as nnil stresses of the samo .5igll
contillue lo ('xist in the upper and lower Iihrt'S of the auxiliary simpl~
beAm.
Let us take for example a trinngular trllss llt'led upon hya ulli-
form load and let us !Uperposc the correilponding bending momenl.
dia,:rrnm in Fig. 50.4I! on the scbomatic drawing of the trus-'l as rep-
restlnted in Fig. 56.4. The scaleil should be so adjusted that mllximulI1
ordinates of both drAwings coincide.
100

"~"-,- -
r---.-'"
;::~
f'lllTIlliffillllllll!lm;"" 'i'O'" f
IIIII~IIIIIIIIY
FI,.53.4
,,

N graph
(~)~

"
(C)~
--------o~p
_

FIg_ 54.4

Fir_ SS.4
 The ordiutlte of Ul8 bending moment diagram a dislalle;e...:z: from
th~left-.lulnd abutment will be

y= hm",,- ( {I.Sl0.5l )'hmu ='1%

Z L (l-z)
13
hmu
At the samll }l!ncc the heigllt of the truss equals
n",..",
h =~.:z:= h ..
....... -,

Accordinglr the ratio "*= 2 (I - -T)

will decrea~ from ;lblll-
lIl('ul t<l ecntre lino and 50 will the stn'sses in both tlle top anrl the
graph
/ le __ M

PI,. 56.4

holtolll chords. Confmnalioll of this statemont will be found ill

the diugrltm of stresses induced in a triangular trU-S!i by a UUifOfUl
load fllprcscnted in Fill. 33.4.

6.4. ,\;"'.... L\'SIS Of' CEOiJETRIC..\ L STABILITY OF PRAMED

STRUCTURES

I.SJ:MPLE STRUCTURES

H has heen shown in Art. 2.1 that 11 framed structure may be

instantl\neollsly unstable even if the nllmber of bars in each or its
parts i,q 5uUir.ient to ensure i1.5 rigillity. Therefore, the number or
bars formiug a given sLructure C",llllOt COllfllitllte alone a criterion
of ils geometric:.l stability.
III some cases instnntanoously uns~le structures CAn be detectc!l
fairly easily. Indeed it ean be pro"ed that in separate memhers
of such structures finite loads will induce infllliteor indefl"ite stre.'li\eS.
Convt'rscly it may also be shown that if noy given load will 11ro-
duce a well defined set of finite stfCSSes in all the members of n
[ralllelI structure llnd that when the lond is ni(, all the stresses in all
192 TJu Truulll

the members of this structure will also reduce to zero, this structure
constHutes an unyielding combioation. The metltod of investigating
the rigidity of framed structures based on this property may thcrefom
be termed the zero load method.
I Lshould bll noted howover that before applying this method care
should be taken to ascertain that the number 01 bars in each part 01
tlU' strllctur" is sufficient to ensure its ~tabili.ty. Otherwise erroneous
condusiolls may be arrh'ed at as will he seen from the example of
II hinged quadrangle repr'sClltcd in Fig. 5i.4. Indeed the mcthou

o Fig. S7.4
(a,
Fig. 58.1
(b)

of JOlllts shows immediately that when no load is appLied the stresses

ill all the members are nil, but nevertheless the !:lystem is unstable.
In order to demonstrate the ac(;uracy of the statements made above
let liS considel' the following examples.
A plate connected to the ground by means of three nOli concurrent
bflrs forms as we know an IInyieldin:z combinat.ion (Fig. 58.4).
It is easily proved that under zero load the stresses in all \.he con-
IlI'CUng bars will be necessarily nil. Indeed let us replace these
bflrs by t.he corresponding ronclions ,RA' R 11, and Rc (Fig. 58.4b)
llnl! let us consider the eqlLilibrilllll of the moments of nIl t.ho forces
actin~ un the plate about the point of intersection of reflctions BA
lIud R /l (point 0 1), We ohwin
Rcrc=O
and ns the lever arm re *" 0, Lile reaction Rc is uecessarily Ilil.
The same reflsoning will show that RA and R /J are fl1$0 nil. This
~erve$ to c,onfirm the statement made abo\'c that all the member.~
01 a geometrical stable system always rematn tdle when the strtuture
carrtes no load.
Now let us investigate the case when the plate is supported by
three concurrent bars intersecting at poillt 0 (Fig. 59.4a). Roplacing
onco again the bars hy the corresponding reactions :llld equating
 f;.4 A n'lly,'/K 0/ Ge('melrlcul SIa/Ji/ily IIf F'nl1ned Struclurn 19;-1

to :tI:'.J'U the slim of all the momellls of \lx[.C'rnal Ion.'cs auoul P(,iJll
o we (.bl1dn the identity
!Mo=RAT A +HnT1J+RCTc =0
fol' TA = r /; = re = O. Accordingly, ltit' val\te!> of lho reactioll~
tl'Hl3in l1ocletermint'd, 'l'he olhl'r [,WO C'quilibri\ull eqlwtiollS ([or
ill~tanc,(>, the equfltiolHl or thc rorce Ilfojllc.tions 011 [he x and y-nxesl
will not hell) ill flllding a defillill.l ~ohllion 101' they will conta;u
lhrce ullktlowus. Thus. til.. stTessl'S in an instantaneously un/,table
.,y,~lfrn IIwy have no welt defined value e/JI.'n when 110 load i,~ applit:d,
The same rondll1iiOIl will he rNlf.hed if some arbitrary vnlllc Wl'rl.'
nltdl)llted 10 filly onc oS tlle l'earMons. It could tlH!1l he rc~olvL'r!
nlong llle directiolls of thl' other two ha I'.':, tho whole S~'SI.CIlI IwiJlg

i"ig.59.1

thus ill l'qllilihfium. Thflt mcam' that wC' call Ihld allY 1I11I11hcr of
fCllction v:dll<!.!l SllUsfyillg till' t>qllilihrinm conditions. which illdi-
c<\los lhnt tlw I'ly~tem is instontnneo\1l'lly lUlstHble.
If. Lhe same sy:-;tem is subjected 10 l'iomc flllito load P not passing
through ]loiat O. tiLe sum of IlWmCrlt.'s of all ~xtl'fllal Iurrl's IIhout
this point ]lecOlrleS
r.M o=R A O+ll Ll O+ RcO+ Pr =/: 0
as llcitllCr P nor r Mt' 7.1:1"0. That means that t11(' system is IIOL in
equilihrium and the plate will Tol(LLe about POilll, O. I'Jowc\,('L' 118
I"oon as an illfiuitpsillllll roLation will havll o(',('urrcd. the ttlJ't)e sup-
pOlLillg hars will no lung-cl' remain COIlCU1'l'llnt flnd the TtlacliollS
indllred therein by the load P will be able to bHlnllco this loan.
Al this pat'1 iculnT moment UI(1 cquilihrillln erllHlt,joll al)()ul the same
point 0 hlleOllH!S
~Mo=R_1rA + RnTn+R('rc+Pr=O
il1dic,IIUllg lltatlhu 1<!:lclioll in at leHst line of tllo bars l1lu81 he illfi
nit.e. 1(,1' tlw lover fltlllS rA, rn Iltlr! re MC illlinitely:-;ruull. Henc('.
13_1,"
'"
lM inkrnal forces deL'Y'wped in un tllst.antaneously unstablny.st.eut actro
upon by 4 fi,mte load m.ay surPQ$!I any givrR valf~ and therefore such
systems CAnnot ho u~d.
Another example may be furnished by the geomet.rically staLl\:!
stnlclure in Fig. 60.44 consisting of a plate adequately COIlOPeted
to the ground and supporting joint C III tached to it by two roncurrent

halOS lie nnd hr. If i\ lnlld P werCl ilPIJlied 10 this joil\t (Fi~. tiO.4b).
the <;lrl.'S'$e~ .Yr" aod ,V'b in these bllts will be gin-n hy

~x ""' --NC<' (losa.+Nrb ('.os r;t = 0

:EY ~ .r~" !!ill a+.vd> Sill Ct- P =1)
whArl:!rl'Om
N,~=N... __P_
"'" 2'l"IlI (l',

It rouOIws that when tile angll."s a formed by thtl 1wo bars wllll
the hl)fi7,OIlIIlI <lpprotlch zero, llle ~tre.sses in thc&' b;,rs will illcf'{'(l5{'
lndefioilt'll' pro\jng that the syslem hn:o be<:ome illsLllnl3"eoll~ly
unslaLlc. Indeed. in that. CIIo!'lP joint r will be conDPCte(i to the r~t
of the !'ltrllctll~ hy- lwo bnI1l lying on one and the SAme horiwllhll
and wc know thill su('h sysLems are un!'table.
Onc more t.\'l:amplc of instantaneously unstable s.lruc:tures is pC('-
sonl('d in Fig. 61.4. Allhougb the numlx>r o( bars ill tlai! system
IMluals 2K-3, tlte (''7.l1ninll.tion of equilibrium coIllIitions at joints
t: nod d leads l.o f'ontrJ:ldictory COllclullions. Indeed the equilibrium
of joint r requiros that the stre5:l ill bar cd should be nil. while tht:
equilibrium of joint d requires !.hat it should equal -;-P. This cont.,o-
versit.y lndiClltt.'S clearly that the system is instantaneously ullsl<lhle.
Thus, 1} a sys~ln is prollidf>d with a f1um/Mr (I} bars .uffit:lrnt to ensure
Us rigidity U will be instafltaneollslll umtable, if
(I) finite forcl'S Induce in Me or more members infinite stresses or
(2) the stress('s cannot be d"termlfll!d or C()ntrover~'ial stre" valllt'~
result from the consideration of different fJart,~ or joints of the strudure,
 Pi~, 62.4 repre.'<ents K number of frnmed structures UII~ !ll.llllilily
of which the rl':ader i!' in\'iLcd to iowslig:ale lISill" the 7.ero land
mclhod, fie should kN'11 III mind Ihat Lbi5 method tJt.oconw$ inBpph.
('-<tLlc if till' numbor o( baT'" IS inferior to (2K-3).

laJ~'dl~
("_~V

IIJ

PI::. 62.4

2. CO~PIIC""'1~:I.I ~,.n1JC'Ull[S

First, 1('t uS (>xnmine tllt'. nl.l;f' \d1l'11 Lllc Ir:ulsforIlHlli(ln Cif tilt>
complicfllcll ~ystl'm into a simplo ono requitffi tll(' T('plnr.('IIl(,1l1
of llllt onc bar,
The transformed system \\;11 rOllsi!L of an elemfl1tAty trlanglf
10 which ::I certain number of joints has ll(!('ll lidded, c(lch C(lnnectcd
by t.wo COD(urrpnl bars and accordingly thl.5 s}'Slcm will {orm all
unyielding combination; hellcc. lho stre&' N .,. indm'l'd in the substi-
tute bar by n loacl P will have a ,",'ell defilll'd 8IId finite 'ahm, H
a unit st~.,. X = J dirt"C-Ll'd along lhf\ bar that has ht't'n r('pl~n:ed
induces in the substilute bar n stl't'5.S N'1 al!'O di!'Unet IroOl :tero,
Ihon, in nccordnllre wit.h formula (3.4), the inm~r lorn' X in the
replaced memh{'r of thf' original sysl{'m will (>I]ual

X=_'!....CfJ
N"
111f;

Sine!:' Ihis stress is linite and well rlr-Iinor!' the Sl;\m1;' will tlPI>ly
to all the other stresses induced by a load'" in the original system
which, as wo know, proves that the ilystem is geometrically stable.
On the other 11I1Ild, if Nu = 0 then
N~p I)
X..::----"oo or X=o
No<
In lJtho!" w(Jrd.~, the stre8~ in the replaced brH becomes ~itht'r inli-
lIite or indelerminale indicating that the whole sy:stem is inslaTl-
tancoll!!-Iy unstllhLc.
N
Acc.ordingly, the e:.::pression X = - _~p COllSUtlltes a means
Nn:
of investig:lting the stability of complic:lted systems. Whcn ]V.'" '*' 0
Lhe systcm fotms an unyielding combinlltion, and wheu N"x = 0
it is instanllllleollsly unstable.
'fhl! abnve elln be formulatod as follows: w}u'n the stress induced
In thi' $1.tbIJHtlltll bar 0/ the transformed ,~Yl'!li!m by a unit !orcI' X = 1
II.dillg along the replaced bar of the ortginal system diQer.\ from zero.
tfU' system is geometrically slable. but whm this strClJ.,i be.comes nil.
the '~!J$tem b insfantaTwously unstable and unfit for pracUcal use.
Figs. 63.1t and 64..11 ropresent a certain number of original and
tl'tl.I1.~forml1d Sy1i;tC1l1S for which the reader is inviled ~o chock tilt'
m::eurncoy of tho value of Nu indicated, and to decide accordingly
whclher Lhe sy~tom is !'!taMo 01' not. The slIh;llitll.tl" bars arc showll
;11 .la.!'h lines.
The plus /lul! minus signs pLaced agaillst certain bars indicatt:'
the direction (.'Sign) of the stre.'Ss induced ill I.he transformed sy;;tellJ
l;y .. unit furco X = 1 ncting along' the rep13ccd b3r of the original
0Ilt'. Knowing the directioll of these stresses (the reader is invited
10 verify them) and considering the equilibrium of joint K or usiug
thl' method of shcars or that of tho mOlnelltf<. tllll readtlr will find
ill mu:h Ctl.1'O whether Ne'" is nil or possesS('S sorue defUlite valul'.
Ld 113 irr\'lls~i:zat.(', (or instanc.e, the syslem ill Fig. 63.4a. TIlt'
lqnilibrium nr joint 1 of the transformed sYlltem show!!' imml:!dillt@Ly
l,hllt bar 12 is I'xll'JIIll'd /lnd thalthe strl'~ in bar 1-6 is niL Passing
to joint 2 we sco that bar 2-3.is extended and bar 24 is cOOljJre.-"Sf.'d.
1\1orl'o\"er, the projection Oil the y()rticul or- all the st.rt'~~es actillg
on joint 4 will show that bar 4-K mu;,;t be extended in order to baJanc.l'
l_he push oxerted by bar 2-4, Hence the substitute bar [(-(i will
he wmprl'sscd, (or otherwise tho projccliolJs of all tl~e fmccs applied
to joi.nt K on the horizorll.al willllo\. balance anill,hcrefOl"o the system
i~ stable. The Ilame result could hllve been arrived Ht hy p:lSlling
ft'OIll ioint 2 to joint 3 llncl thon to joiu! 6'.
 It is sllgg~~ted thnt the reader should prc\'c that the structure
1'('!II'csentcd in Fig. Ua,4c wilt hceome "lIslable W/INI Cl. = ~.
Fvr the I<lructurc in Fit:. G3.4d he will /hld that. N~ is lC.I'O hy
tllkilll{ in :illcn,...."i(1ll 1'(.'Ctioll!; n-'t dnd m-m. For the Sy.!!ll1lI in

Qnginal Iyst~ml

'"

,<!

,,"
P.g, f!.Y.,1

Fig. IHAb it he ':-lIsiel' 10 projc'Cl 011 the hurizontal all tlte Curn'g
lIctillg ablwc st'Cl.iOll n-II.
U!ing tile same methods the rcadtr IIhould U'eJl inl'{still'll.t(' the
stability o( tbe structure ill Fig. 65.4.
When the transformation oC a complicated system into :l simple
olle l'l;'quil't"ll tile l'e!l!nc.elllflnt of more thAn onc bar, the '-'4uAlions
198

rll'llylnll the existence of a differonce between tllt' ori(l:inll.l and the

11",lll'lformlld syslem!'l ar~, as we have already sccn (Eq. 4.4)

NI =--.""11_ I NjjX j +NUX!,A'W'.::MT"'-O

Ne -/I,-~r,-iV2JXI+NnX2+YuX~+ = 0
.\'a=-N.,,-' Nalxl;-lvnx1+~.;x)-1 -,,0
et..:.

~
'bI
"
.'.'

--I

FI,. 64.4

fJw sLrcsws X,. X 2 ale" arising in this case in the substitute

bars wilt pos.<:{!,'lS cOl/crete valllGs moaning tllot the wuole system
ill stalllo only wnoll tllo detoflniltll.r1t D is different from zero. t1.g.,
 7.1. l"fl"~tW:i' UrvJ lo~ S'uua in Sl".pf~ Fro"",} SJrI.clu~U 19'J

when
'1I_tt"'i:U
D= N~linNS3 "1-0
N:uNuNu
On the con~rary......11<:'0 D =0 the Ylllues l)f strcsst'1J Xl. X 2 etc.,
become ur\l:.~rtain. whidl indicatl'S that the systelll is iustalltll,n~ously
uOl'llllJle.

Ib! le)
"

~~\gJ (dl fe) (fl

(g)

'it. 6$.4
7.4. INHlIE\"CE LI'-"ES FOR STRESSES IN SUII'LE FI\AMED
STRUCTUHrS
A'I,the loads arc gOIlBfQll)' applied to a truss;l~ panel poinl:! tlYCty-
thio!t that has be~n said in Art. 5.2 about the CQllstruction of
inOII('lIce lines for girders with floor beams and stringl'r5 rcmajll~
true for thuS(' ptlrtaining to truss~.
 The TrU,k,

All lht! II111UlOds used (or Compulillg strrsse:o iuduc.ed by rll:cl!

loads (see Arl. 2.4) viz., thc meLhod of moment'!. tlu' method of
!hears and lhl;! method o( joints lnay be clllployt!d for the COnSlrUG-
ti()ll of 1Il[hlE'.nec lillCS,
The m~thod 0/ mOln.tllu. hI ordor to cOllslrucl Ill(" illnUClll'(" lillo
for lht! stre~ ill bar 7-9 of the deck bridge truss ill Fig. (i(i.<!n we
shall poss section [.[ across three bars of t.he. cOrl'{'spolldillg I);"nd.
Whell Lhll ullit lORd P is to the right. of joint 8. it is IIlUI'C COll..,('lIicnt
10 consider lllc equilihriu/ll of tJH~ ]eC.... halld part of lhe truss llS
tlic lollor is (H~tCrl upar! ;colel)' by tll{' n],\llnltillL reaclioll (Fig. 1I'.!ib).
Plllciug tlu, (JJ'Jglll of Jllornt1nls aL l)oinL (i tlnd cqu(ll.ing lu 7,cru
~11'f of nIl I,he fore,cs tleLing Lo the it.IL of st,<CtiOI\ I-I wc ohluill
:EMt) =A3d-L,.jt=O
whel'CrOill
aAd
l..1 11 =-,-
l"hll.!l. wilt-It the load is applied to the right of joint S. 1.11(' 51 rt.'ss
in bar 7-9 equals tlte left-hand reactiult A miltiplied by a constllllt
faclOr ~, Il should be noted also that HAd is lIIuneril'ally equal
.\1:
to tile b('nditll( JIlOllll'lIt acting over the cr/)S.'! soclioll of :, "illllllc
bcalll situated i'lL LI,e same distance frol1l the suppurts ll.ii tll" ori~ill
of momenls (poilll 6) in t.he truss.
It ill clear (rom the ll!Jo\'e tlUlt flS 10llg as Lhe load n'lllnill~ ll) 1111.'
ric;:hl of point 8 tile inOuoJlce lilltl fur till! IIhM.~ L 1f1 will be till' SHIUC
(I~ (or n;nction A multiplied !Jy . HUllce the right-hllud part

of tll() inOll(wcc linu tIlay he obtainod by lllying' oH ~ Along the YUI'-

LLl',nl f'(l.ssJllg Lhrough the left-halld uLutnlOllt aMI Ly e.ollned-jllg
it with n point of zero ordiuutt' oL the right-hund olle (!illt' atb ill
Fill{. GG./td).
WhclI the lond is to the left of joint 6 thl' slrcs.c: Ll' can /'1.' dl'riwrf
frQlll (1)(. ('quiliLriullt equntioJl relativE: to the righl-hnmt 1';lrl of
Ill.... Lru!Sl! (Fig. (;fiAc)

In olher words. the Slrt'S3 in bar 7-9 equal,' ill this t'as{' Lhe riJ!;ht.-
Ilnud reaction B Illultiplied by ~. ~\'oLc that once again ;IBd is Ihe
cquiyu(tml of thc simple beam beudilla moment AI: "din!:,' o\'el"
7./. /n/fl<s"cs LilU' J..r SlrCl~r In St"'l'L. f'rtimPd SIr>/rI"ru 201

d IJ III

la,
3
A , 8
I, 9

II , OflI I ,,' It

~
46:u. :
Ibl
t A
u! n
Do
:
I
l ~
IllS 17
L
I 71
I
t
1 1 I I I I
I I 1 1 -1C8~f--;";'-F-;i' "
1
I
I :
J I
i~
OQ
,
le)
I" 8
1 I
1
" ,a
' ,,",,fr~~ I
I I I L 19 19 1
I t I I 1 I
Id} o II
I
Infllle4celi"f!
,
_...1_
"
e-
for
1_-...
u I" __ .... _-r
I
_}b'f'
ljf I --- -1".
b
QI I: tinglirie I
le,
1
:

--{---L'
I I nf{lo't'J1tlj line/or ~n
"
! !
I

01
1
~/~/~M~,~,,:;,,~,-~-,;;r-~-~~ID:F:t:F=i--i'
I I
I I
"j-_L I I
, J
--
I 'y~ : I I -~--4__ sma
(I' I"L I~" I Cmned.0g line rb,
,tS
og, !
'H1'11,
I
IjJ
-
17
,"--,11'
I/lIfll/en?
1 I
~ror VIS
I r
I
(.9' ~{~III1,jll'/l!I!I!i!"'1
~~ L \
Cf1IU.'C(ing une
PI,. fiGA
202 The Tru,u<

:I section corr('llponding to point 6. H.ellce for the load located to

th(\ left from joint 6 the influence liTle for stress L 79 may be drawn
by joining fl point over I,he right~hand ab\ltmen~ ha\'inp: for ordinal('
't with poil'lt of zero ordinate oyer the lert-hand OlllJ (lino bla
fl
III Fig. MAd). If all the operations hf\Ye been carried out ('.ou6ctly
till~ Cl-lb una bla will intersect nndel' joint 6. 'Ve may now shnde
the area bounded by these lines between jojllt~ 6-.16 and 1-6 respecti-
vely. Le.. the arefl acba in Fig. 66.4d.
Anotller way of obtaining the same influence line is based on
Ihe relation existing betweNI the stresS [,79 and the simple beam
bending moment M:
L __ J!~
a-T
This relation illdica~s that the influence line for stres.~ ill btU'
7-9 can be ohtained by dhjding ull tht' ordinat~s of [l simplt> h"'am
berlding momcnt influence line hy tbl? height of Lhe lflL~i'J h.
Incidentally. this proves once more Lhat lilies ajb and bla must
intersect at a point lying in the I)t'rUcal pauing thrQl.Igh juint 6 (point c).
'rhl' above t\xamplc leads to the cOllclusion that thostrcss inlhwllce
Hues for e-nd-sllpported trusses call he obtaiTwd u~ing the following
(JtOccdura:
1. For tlte rtght~hand portion of the tn,f[w:m:e line lay oD along
tJU' l!f'rti.t:al pa$.~ing through the kfl abutrn~lll (upwards or doll'rlUx~rds
dt'pmdlll-g cm the si.gn Of t1u'stress) an ordinale -I-
where a is the dislan("('
oj tht, origin of momenu to tM kft-hand abrttmeut, and h is tht lryer
arm of the gtrrss abrlu,t the same POirlt.
2..Connect thts ordinate with It powt of zerQ ordl:nute at ltu' righl-
Jumd abutllun/
3. On the lllle so obta-tlltd mark the intersection point Of the right-
mul ot the lttt-hand parts of tJw influenee line, this poillt lying in itu'
vertkal passtng through the origin 0/ mfllct/mU.
4. Connect this interseclfon point with the point 0/ zero ordillak
over the lelt-hand abutmmt.
5. Connect by a straight lme. l1u Iwv points 0/ mtase-clinfl 0/ the a/M,'"
llllCS with the l'(Ttlcals bou.nding the pallel which rontains the bar lI/l,dl'l
e')ltsidemtlOn.
TIle soquenr-e of ull the uperations IYOllld J'&ffil:lin l'xaclIy sinlllal"
if Illstcad of laying off *" along the nrtielll pa~ing through tht'
ahutment..1 we started hy laying off { along the one passing through
tlJt\ abutment 8 wht'.f'i! b is the distanc.t.: be-twE'en this abutment ;lJId
tllll origin of moments. Then tIle ordinate ~ should be- <,'ollnQcled
by a straight line with the point of zero ordinate OVllr the left-hand
abutment. the apex of the influence line should be found b}' proJ{'Ct-
ing on this line tbe origin of moments, and finally the right-hand
part of the illnuence line shouJd be ohtaineil by connectillg this puillt
wit.h the point of zero ordinate at tho right-hand abutment.
The method oj kars. As aIL illustration of this mctho(l. let us draw
tne influence Iioe for the strcl>S in tne dingonal 6-9 of tno ~ame truss
(see Fig. 66.4a). The equilibrium of all tho vertical projections of
fol"Ces acting on tlle left-hand porBon of the truss (I-'i((. 66.4b) wllen
the unit lond P = t travels between joints Sand IG requires that
IY ~ A- D.. sill er. = 0

D -=_A_
sin IX
t1l

When the load is situated betwtK>n JOJnts 1 and 6, the :;lIln",

cOllsideratiolls rdative to the right-hand portion of tile lnlSS (St'tl
Fig. 6ti.4c) entflil
1:Y = lJ + D 89 sin a = 0

li
Du = - - -
Sin a

fbese two expressions givil,g the stress Du 10 terms of lhe

reactions sbow that when tbe load is to \JIB right of joint X tlu'
innuen(.fl Jiue may be obtailled by multiplying the l"'ellctiol1 AllY
l'l constant factur si~ IX' and when it bu shirted lo th", lcft of joint 6

w~ rnust apply a faetor ( - Sin

-.-'-) to the innuonca line ordillateli of
IX
l"t!aetion B.
'-\c,cordingly the construction or the curresponding parL:l of Lha
influence line will consist in sotting uf[ the oroinall)s + si~a oVl:lr
tho jefl-hand abutment and - 51~a below !.he rigllt-band one and
In connecting them with the points of zuro ordinale at the ot.ller
~nd of the truss. Tbis will give u.::I the lines Q.1b and ab l in Fig. 66.4r
respectivel)'. Marking on the first lino the position of joint 8 and
011 the second that of joint 6. we obtain the right-hand (positive)
and Lhe leH-hand (negative) p.uts of the innuence line; these two
voi[l~s should be connected by a st.aight line-.
It may be observed that: in t.his ca::;e too the intersection point
.o{ the two portions of the influence line falls on the ye-rtical passing
through the origin of moments, botb points being infinitely db'tllnt,.
 The change in t.ho sign of t.he ordiua tcs to tl~ inOucnce I illt: obtained
indicates that bar 6-9 will be cUllse(~ulively comprc~d and then
ntc/lded 89 the unil load travels along the deck from joint 1 to
joillt la as rncntiOllod abo,'ej members designed to resist ~trosscs
of OPIJOsilo sign are called coullterbracc!!,
'fhe Ill~lhod uf joil\t~ may be convenierHly used for the. construc-
tioll uf the innucnce line for tho stress in the vertical 6-7 (Fig. 66.4u).
Unth the method of momellL~ and the method of sllenrs would I)t' llf
no aVllil ill this case ag any SCGtion through the troS! would cross
at I('ast four bars (sce sections 11-[[ and Ill-fIT of the :<H1l1t.!.ligllT'\l).
Eqllllting lo 1.l<ro the slim of vertical proj('i'tions of nil the fOI"Cl'!1
actillg ;It joiut 7 (Fig. 66.4j) we obtain
zy = \'1$ +Ln~il\ ~ =0
wherorrorn

:lIld thi~ is 'alid for any po"itiull or Ihe lond tllollg the lru~ as it
call lIever be applied directly to joint 7, the bridge beillg of the dock
lype. Hence the infiuence Iiuo for the stre.'<# Va ('oulll be dl'riycd
from that of lIlt: stress L u uy rnllltiplyill~ its orrlillatcs U)' (-sill ~).
As ror !llress L H it cnn be obtailloo by equating to zcro the 511111
of hori7.0nL:.tl projections of all tho forces IIdillg on thc joint IIIlller
j:oll~idurll Lioll

l 1"/9
~n= cn-p
Tl1cl'cfllrtl
"'r. = -Lr~~ill ~ - -L r8 lt'lll ~
Tho SlIlIle result can he achiC"tld direcLlr projeding nil lht" foro't!!\
npplitld to joint 7 rill a norrntll to bar 7-5.
Till' illfluence lillc ror stress Vu oblaiued by 1IllltlilJlying the
ONJiIlUlul' of tho innllonco lille fol' L u by (-hllI~) j!l n.'jl11lS011Ul,1
in Pi/{, tj().4g,
The irlnueltc_6 HnQ fM the \'t:rtkal S-!J (Fig. 67.4a) should ~lso
be ctJII!ltrllcted using the method of joilll::l for a~:lill arlY sectioll
through the trUS! cutting this bllf will cross at least th~ more bars.
Cvnsidering the equilibrium of joint 8 .....e find immooialely that
(I) whell the luad is appli.ed to Mny joilltel:wpt joint SWig. 07.411)
l:Y=-Vs ,=O
(2) whclI the load is applitod lo joint R (Fig. /.i7.4c)
1:Y= -V8~-P-O
 7.4. JII/I,,('nrt J,lnt.- 'or/)trtMtl III .'illlll!ft Pr'lIlItd Slrud"rt~ 20:;

V.. =-P~-l
Consequently when the \Ioil load is applied to lllly of the joints
J. :.t, 4. 6 or JO, H, 14 3nd J6, Iht' vertical 8~9 remains idle,
bul when lhi!.' load shifts to joiut. S the slre.<:.s V" bceomes cqmll
to 1.
Knowing the Ordillllteli lo the i'lnUlloce line 1I.t. 'he releYant (1llnd
pili 11 l.$ :UHt COllnccting thl'.'I(! by straight lines we obll1ill thlJ illnUCIICC
,
! / 10
"

Iinc f'lHlllill'd. This Iin~ rcpre~lIlccJ ill r'ig. 6i.o'Jd hI'S llto ...halk' of
a trillll~lo with a mo:dmufrt ordinate eq1l1l.1 10 -1 on,r joilll 8. Tht,
~igl1 of the ordin.'l\A.- indicII 'es tha.' tlu> "crth'al can 111' only 1'0'11111'<:.'$St.'(1
~nd thcl'('[ore eonstitull'S a strut.

l'rnhlt-m I. Dr"'" tlw innuenu lino lor llll' !lre_ ill I>~ri! ~B .nd '-'I uf
tll" Pr.U Im"S ..ho.'T1 in Fil:. 1>1:\.-'...
,,'01"11011._ Tt." i"II"I'II<'" (illt' I"r J'7~ ""i11 be olJl"illt'tl l>~ till, "1I'lhod "f m,,
mcnl.1. ad..pliuJ: joillL 8 as tit!! origin of motnl'nl~. The t'tlllilih~,u'n 01 Ih"t l>(Ir-
l,,,n <If tilt' tl"""'~ tn Il,e Ivft or I'.LiOD "-k (FIg. US.oil!) ""'ll~" th., 1011'\ is tu ilK:
r,~ht of thJ~ sertion r"'llIil"l"~
~Ma ... .A::ld -/'1.)1. - 0

A3d .lx3
l'1~""'-h-- A -,-_2.2$/1
 Tlm.... tI'll requir1ld infiucoc... lint will be obwocd by laywi oft IlII ordinate
e'I,,:!1 IJJ 2:.25 ,weT the lohbaollllbvLm<.lIl. by conD$(:ling this ordinate ..lth tho
I,'r" "rdmllll' point III the opp,,ltt end of th9 lruSll. by marking the poHtion M
tloo tlrh,:ill or Illoments (joint 8) on this hnc and finally by drawing I linl! through.

, ,
? /, (j 6' 10 f2 #I /6 .w
la)

'J~ I H
: '-}>4'1l1
1_ I I I

~
l? It;, ll) la ~8t7: l
IDJ
, ' ,
, ,I :
DJ1
I
t<01,
...
"~I I
I
'-l!J
I
I
I
I
A I I I,'..r""y.ce I: ne ((11' !.... 7P
__ I I I I 1 '
T-_I-_ I I I I
I ' '
I , ~~'~.at!~~~
,, ,, ,,
t;onnei:((fI!J Ime

I t I I I
(dJ Vjl)' I I I I I
I I I I
~-"l,,-+'-'f.r- ~i,l,I ~ r I I

(e)
A
I
If
iIKnc;'fJ/tne for V79 (rJeCll "hdge IftISo)
I I J __ +I __ j-_"" __ ....I --~ f
; 7' 8;toJiiC ;1[->;1 :I i
~ __ 1..--+-r, I I I
(~lInt''Y f i r I I I I I
I I I I _ I ,
['lI/t/rrn'l/fie forJ/78(lllroug!IIY7d.qeII"IJ,)S)
I I , , __ 1---1--11'
(,
1
' :
I
.. ,l.i1"
i
,r:k..-...l--T
/:. -sJ,il1'-IIi1,.iIii'"
! ! jJ'
'
/< _-,_ -L -/-
(;{;'1ncr.llIJ(j Ime

Fit. 6~.4

Ih~ II'm point at the left-hand abut",,,nt and the point iu..... mcntionGCI. Th.
eompklc<1 iunuenet: line- will be of lrhmgubr shllpe with Ibt apex d.i1'~ly
[Hlder }mnt 8 (loig. G8Ar).
Thj, method of sbGllra is "'-eH adapted for the construction of the Influeneo line
for tho ~Ire~ in liar 1-11. IJsinR seal0n n-n (FIg. 68.<Id) and equating 10 Iero the
pl'oiecllon or .Htht' ror('u ~cting on the !pJtllllnd portion or the !rUM wo obtoin.
 7.1. 'nil/una f.'tu!1 /pr St~tun /01 Simple F~II-mtd Sfr,utu~(I 207

\\'l1rn the load P = is to tbe n;:ht or ti,e SC'eUon ,,-n,

tt"=A+YTI_O

v7l = -A
Simll:lfly whell tllf lo,)ad 1I11it) it to the left of ~tion /I .... tllo rqullil..
rium "f tlw ri~ht-h,llId pvrt"lII ,)( thl' trll!o!l nquirn
!t=B-J'jJ_O
\\ 1",,,frul1l
l'18_ fi
It shouhl 1)(' 1I,)lerl tlH'lt, whcn the lond~ IH"~ lrUllsmiLtcO IIHOUgh
lhu 1I111ll'r chort! (as ill ,I('rk bridges) thl.' fIT.,t joint to lh", right of
~rlilln n ..n roJall\"C lH the slr{'ss V r is joint S, Lut when the loac....
arc nppliod to the lo\\'I'T chord (through bridgt>s) it will hI.' joillt 9.
The SlUno wil1 8pply to joints G and 7, the- rust being lI'll1ncdilllcly
10 the Idt ufSt."Ction It"lt in thc ('llSt' of deck Lrilll:'l'S and the Sl:Cl'Jlt.!
in thl: CAse of through hridgcs, As the equations of equilibrium QC
tho lelL- alldior the right-baud portiolls of the tru&< art' indl.'pcudcl'll
of thl.' Ic\'cl at which 1110 loads are transmitted. the IIlfiuencC' liucs
for both cn.~s will be strictly parallBI. but the posilioll of tht.\ plllld
through which soction n-n passes will \'MY, leading to a dlsplaC4'~
Jntml o[ the ponl'l points correspollcling to thl'l ~picE's of tllO hilI:'.
Thc influencl:' lil,cs ill Fig, MAt' llnd J corn>!'pond 10 th(> two J,lVsltioll"
o"tI thp floor ~aln.'s, th .... rl~t p(>rtainlng to Iltrk bridg-('s and tILe ~colld
1I1lU to through brillB'e~.

J'roblem 2. Hcquil'o(!th,' llInuonce IiJl~ fol' $tro....~ D~! (>f Ih~ tl'1I51l ropnl!'t'lltod
III ~'jg. 1i!1.4~.
SaluJl<m, T~kjng I;(ocliou .... r! 1\0,1 US!uB' the method of mOlllont.s (pOillL Ji.
loCIIl!/" t."ken (I" 1.11,' origHlI \\0 hllll llwL when the IQlll1 unity is tu tho right of QUI
el'clltln

'tI'llO'"rl'OllI
.-I"
D ~-- ,
I/.,rl' , i.~ ~h" II'Vf'( 3(111 III t"l' stre5.~ ~ n;h,hl{t> III point K. 'Dd .. tbat
"f 11n; ~ion A /l00t11 the 5l'lme point. Tb, dlslolnee .. mlly blo fwlltl fr"m
ll,~' tri:anl::le K-:i-4
a+2d_...!L..
'"."
",III.'r" h2 i... th... height of th~ vtrtitlll 4-J r>qu.,1 m.'tn.'s .nd t.::m a ...

ft-
___, T " 0.1108\.
,'"
Ht'"lIco
,,_18 m

TI... It'vrr ann I l'qllal~

r.,.(.+3d)!ill~
The .nglo:o l' will 00 .....umnined from
32i~ 32
l:m 1'--'--27-1.185
U~itlg I"bl,~s ... r lIal"r,,1 tdgoJl()lnetric functlollll 'M) f""l"
1'-4~'50' and sin P_(l.iGlo
U~i,,~ th(>$(' __..lue! wc fllld
r_(18+9)0.11>4. .. 2O.13 Ul('tl'('~

:""hSIlLn1ing Ilt\' II!KPVl,l in the formula Kivlnll' li~ ill tllrlllS 1 " lllld r we
"bI"in
"A
D~-""2'0.6- (1.8710.1

Th(> constmdin" ", till' iunuellrc line fM LJ". wi\llJEol.!in wiUt tu riltllt-hand
p"rll(\1\ which will be for"",d by the Hilt' C"III\CClilll: the ~Lg;4 or"inah' UY(Of" the

'.
,,

"
d,
,,-
"
",,
, ,

1.h-lmllllllhtJtlll~nl ... ill, tlL" 'lr.l'O <ltdlllal.. looiul:ll LJte olhrr ,'nd "r tl,e truss.
1'1,,' 1(>Il-b~II.1 roortioll will he obl"lued N1l1Cll,b,mllll that 'he dlrt>etiou, of tbe

.. 'l'hl' S.11ll1l filCurtl could llC ohtainoo. wing tloe formula
sinp_ 1111\6
Vl +\all l ~
two I'"rl.~ 1I1",,,ys illlcr~t \I1H1(', tht' odg;n u[ mOlllcnt~. Wilhin tI", plllld (on-
tnilliug sec~ion n-lI:J, IlIil'(\ lin,' wIll ,:unn"cl1hc v~l'lin'~ lying unokr' t!le [Ollllel
!,llints on butl. :o..i(I(',~ of S(,~~tiol1 n-Il. 'fll<' cnmpllllod inn"..,,,,",o ['m. is .~ '''wn
in fig. IlO. 'ob.
Prohlt,llI ,I. I\t'(luired [.h~ infiu('Jlce JillC'~ ror ~~re.l;S('~ ('~~" J),;Ij :J.lld ~'7G
m'i~jn!: in " tri""l;:ulllr roof II'u,,~ in Fig. 70.;'" wlll'tl th(' l<lIlfls:H'<.' Ujll'!i,,(] to till'
lower chord.
SQlulton. lnf1u~na lint for snus UI~' l'~I",~jng ';(ICtin!l !I-I! and 1'I,,,~i(I('ritlg
lIt<' '~Illilil,l'iultl of the lelt~hand part 0 the tru.~~ wlll'tl ["n,1 1IIlil)' J} i" 10 Itw

{Ill

Flg.70A

right uf th(' :'!(,'clion we oblain

LMe =A3d +lI,!I"_O
whcrefrorn

/'('I're~ntl.'d in [lig. 70.<\b will 'hll~ have a tr,angl,]nr .~hope

The ;nnuenr,a \in!.'
with il~
allex uir('cth' lIndpr the orijin 01 mom('n~.
{nflutnu ltn~ fM' Sin'"'' lJ~~. Using t le MmI' seetinn nnd l'I!twj;lIg Vl 1.l'ro
tlw~llm or nIl thl' mumcnls uf r"fl;ml lIet,iog un thl;1 h.rt-I"lrHl part"f tlwlruss nil",,!
jlolnt I Wl~ ulJjldn, "'hell tIll' uroillulld l' = 1 is 1.<1 tllll right or lll'ctj'm non,

D~_O
2" Th~ Trfl.n~,

'i,_ 71."

/,

, " ' _ I , , ,,
"l '/"([um,:e llllr. for I

" ' I "

l~; (/lr~,,,ncf l,~ {(>ri' ",
I ' : /1'{lbl';\.'1' lI,.".lor V,
:~ ~ IZ~(IUla': '/CfJ(r,a1fIlt'

~ '1I'{'rffifuii"".~.r~5:i""'=-~:-"""'~
~lel:lulli,.!i!!'-
I I

: r,tL~ r ,
.: ,t;"f.....
L. ---- .. :: ..J. __ ,
' :
In"lJf .....l'14~f""DI I

~: : A!!iililiili'O=rr... )'I ........:

-"!i,!GIIP' ~
- .---.-. __ I iiiiCi
 7.4. IflpufAU I./Ao IQr Slrf.u. 1'1 Simpl~ Prnm{!d SlrU~llJ.ru 211

Hence tile llrtlinatN! of Ihe InnllPnco Iille will I"('duc-<' 10 n>ro as long .~ the
uni~ load Is In tllo right of the pll"oll:ontaining hllr 5-6.
The leflhand portion of the hlnuence line Illlty be constructed using II\e
clJlIlItion of the equilibri.um ol mUUlenl~ pcrtnilllng to till' rillht.-huntl part of lhe

dtlQ'tf
:
,/lIli_V! /<he (fir v,..
I ". ' " --. -
tf~tri4~ t

,II'~
,: ,~ - fl
'/nfl!l1lMr' If."Jf!f.-'''I:(~ ,
:'c'lrl v,. lr,;ss't ;
~),
, I , I , Fig. 74.1
I I. ,
'''([!lint'i! UI'I1 ft}('
, , v,,,, ,,
,-_+_..,1=' , 2 , ! ,

I"
:,, ,,I'
.
:/nf~nt:'e U{I8lor', :
I D,H' , , A ,,

~
::I""'I' t--_: Inflll~ !.np/11r0nl
" , I

"
, 'I I j ~
ftIU . ,'
p'G. 78.4

tru~, the. IOld unity P being to lhe left 01 ~tlon A-tT,

1:."11"'" -BI-D1IIr l_O

whl'l1'rrom
D ~ . _8l

~tfflll~
'. abutmell~ 'eaetit.n n lIlultiplied hy
,:
I.e., the D$8 h &quallo the rlgM-hond
(- )
'" TIt~ rot'll'~polldillg illOlK'nCt' line /Ippcns in Fil' 7.1.4e.
iIIfluenn lint for ItrfU \ .... Using tlilllJll'lh04 uf juinB ud prujl.'fting all
tile 1Ot'tt'.~ :oc:ting On Jolul7.m " I,or;:wulal Wf' obuin

!.l.'"_ -{,nc-,% -l.'7tCOS a_O

ill.Hcating tbllt

,.
1
rL_I-!"'+_~ :<; '~ ~

~A'-t-+_-'-_---:c:1'
10

Fi,. 16.4

The prtlj("ttion or ~hl' ~amll fo~ un " vl'rliclIl gin's

wl\CrCfrom
 111,,,<,.4', IJ,,: illnu('nco lin(' fI,,' 1',. nu.}' 110 "lilall1("<1 by multipl)-iu\: ~1I Ill('
"rdlnjll,.('~ of thl' innUC'lICQ lln~ I,.r {}~.', by. con,tanl ["rIOf" {-2I"in (1). '111l' ma~,
mum ordin~t(' of tlli.~ illnu('l"M;(' !1nl' ShOWll in Pia. 7(.1.-'1 ......111 ho, equ;lll" I.
Tht' "('.'IJ!::r i~ i",ite<.1 t<l solve lilt' rnllo"'ing I"..n prnblt'l'~ on hi~ 1''''".
I'rubh'm l. Pruvo t,hl' :,rCflr:M:r u[ the innueoceli,,<.>s in fj~. ';"1.1.

I'rebh:m 2. {al Prove H.E' Iccuracy (,f Ih(' innn('nce J,"C" ill I'il. 12.0\ Ihrough
7li.'\ ;'lId
tI'lllr"", the Illnueoce liol's for 110(, ~trl\SS('S in .dditi"m,1 h;v~ l1l11rk(d llY
11 rlm,bk (!Iosh.
l/ilib. la) 11 i~ reWmUll'IlUNllo \lHl the method of joints fur thl! lllnllcncc liul)
r()r ~tross V! of Ihl' tru~. rqll'l'51'Il\.l'u in Filj. 72.4. Whl'1l 110(' I"at! uulty l' l~
IIJ'l'li,',j I" nuy juilll willo Ihlt eXCl)pti'lll of l!1o Ju.n1 O\"~f 1lle rll1:1i1hlllUI ah"l-
'ueul" 1'2 - ~B. When \he load i., u,'er lhl' right-lllltld IlllulJnl.'l1t. V~ _ Ll.
Ib) As rcg~rds lhe lru~s in Fill". 7.).'1 il i~ r"ron"nl'mled 1.0 C,j,n. hler tl'e o.:quililo-
r'Unl "f t119t. porlil'll ,,( Ihe 1."tJ~ 10 llll' right "f 'hI' !'t'eUhn, ",hl'n till' Jo~d unily
ill 1.0 th(' I('ft thefi'Qf. It i, (ll,vi""s tlllll in lhi!' (:8~1' the hllf untlt'f ~jlllSid"r.lHiu
will r"m~ill i.lI,.

8.4. INFLUEi\"CR LI:\t.:s .'Ol! STHESSES IX COMI'I.ICATtn

.'RA~IED STRUCTURg;-;

The design of eornpHcat.eJ. frallled structures a"d in particular

of ntultispan stalit:ally detorminate noes mflY ht;> carried OUI using
the I'('pltlc.emtln~ ml'lllod tl~cibt..d in Art. 1j.4, whereby the eompli.
ctltclI truss is f'onvtlrled into a ~imJllt} onc.
IU 8n exam piu let us consider the 1ru!lS represcoll'd in Fig. 77,4/1.
10 llrder to obl,nin tll(> infimmcc line for tho rl;lnctilHl C al tho in~or
Jrlodiato ~upporl when the load trtlvcl:i all,ng ~hl.' upper chord. let us
fllplnc,(,\ till.' SllVPUI'1 C by a vCl'lictll II1Enn.tll'r 6'-{; Wia. 77.4b). At
Lho jOilll G' wc mu,')t thell apllly lIlI l.'xterJwl force X e whkh will be
cqulll to the reactiull C whell Lhe !Ircss ill th<'. sub!lilllt~ har G'...(j
!x.'('l'lOlOS uil

wht'rl'Crolll

!-Ien.' A'i'G i!'O t.he 5tf('~ in b<'lf 6"-6 of llle trus.':! .!!howl1 ill !-'ig. ii.lib
when (he lotld unity lr;n'cls along tIle llpp...r chord and A'~'B is lhc
st.ress ill the Stlllll' bar induced hy tllo force X~ = I.
lIenn' the illnll<'lI{~e lino Cor thl abutment reat.tion X t may he
CJ!,laintld by rlivitlillA:" Ill... ordillaLes ~o th... illfiucllCo lilJu ror stro~~
Nd'~ by (-Nfo'~)'
 Ipo/

"
", IPoT
I

to, "
PfK77.(
"

)/
, , W
5 7
"
fO'
"

S 1a---,f
{Cl

'",,,,.J..
[[,;i-~=!IlJiO!01IITI ft[AAL..!l:
I

I" r ,

!fjCI!lill~!II:II!lljl

In"~ I~ I~ "
'

; I
J
Ptg.7$.1
 8.4. 11l/lllffJce LifUS ill Compllcltl,d Framed S'nu:lure, 215

TlIe inftuence line IGr the stress Ni. m3}' be eonstrucled using
the eqllilibrium equations regarding joint 6' (Fig. 78.4a and b).
ZX = -Ni...cosa+N,.lcosa=O
};y""" Ni . . sina+Ni1sina+Ni, =0
whorl;l[rom

Substituting Ni. in t.he expressiGD for reaction Xc we obtain

2Nfi.~. lin et
Xe = _
N .
111 Grder to obtain the influonce line for N& .... let us pass section
I I-I I (see Fig. 78.4a) and let us consider the equilibrium of the
left-hand part of the truss assuming that unit load P = i is to the
right (If the section
IM.=A.5d_N....... _,d

=0
wherelrom
Ni.,=5Asincr.
Consequently, the right-hand portion of the inftuence line [or
stress N'e's' msy be obtained by laying off the ordinates 5 sin a =
"" 52 above the loft-hand abutment and by connecting it with
the point of zero ordinate over the right-hand one.
The left-hand part of the influence line will be obtained remem-
boring that the lines always intersect nnder the origin of moments
(poillt 6).
The corre.spollding innUCllGe line for tho simple truss (Fig. iBA.a)
is represcllted in Fig. 78.4d.
Let us determine now the stress induced in bar 6'-6 by a force
X ( = 1 using for that purpose thn c(juilibrium of joint G' (Fig. 7BJic)
IY _ .1\'6"+ 1 + W" s' Silll% = 0
wbere
-N., "'" sV2
- - , - (see Fig. 7B.4d)
Collsequeutly
-N ." = ,'Vi Vi
-1 +2 ---:r- X -'-="2
3

therefore
' 2N;'.~, V2x2
siDa
X,,= 2N A'~'-_--_ 'Vi
- - 3 - N" c'S'
N.
c ~x<!
 216

. IIt'.lIce, tlac innuQ.IlCc line for reaction X~ will btl o!ltaincd hy 1lI1l1.
tlplYIrIg' allllll' orcll.~3t.l'S to tho illnuellco line for 'YQ'~' by a couslant
faelor O(I~laJ to 2l<: ,
.Thu COlTeSJ)()lldillg il1nmmco line is rt..'pre&>flle(/ ill Fi .. 784<"
with it~ aid Ih u influence liul':! for ~tro.~.s in all tht' (Jllle;bn.~ or
tIle truss can be ca~ily obtained.

!lA. TlIUSSES WITH SUBDIVIDED PANlil~

Whell th~ method uf mOments is used the stress in any /Ilemher
of a tru.:iS call be cxprcs~d by th(~ formulll

IV
it : JI,-

wllCre ill -= mO'lIent of tho fon'c:! to Ihc right or to lhu left of tIll,
section about the origill of moments
r = lever Ill'm of tho ~tl'l:lfl:-l IV IlhOll~ ,hf) salOl' point.
The nho\'e formula sho ...."::; thlll other ronditions rcmllinillg UIl
changed, the ~tr('SS LV decrease~ proporlionn\1y to tho incrt..'3-"O in
the lo\'er arm r. Accordingly, the iDcrea~ in too height of tlll'
lrll;<S .....hich n.lways Jtl.'\ds to the increase of tht\ lcver arm r wilt entail
a reduction ill tile stresses induced in ilS elcmcnt.o(.
Strnctllr<llly it b muru conv('nicllt whon thc diag<Hlals forrll all
augle c10stl to 115" ....ith the horizontal anti therdUN an incrtlllse
ill the hoight of the truss will load to lengthtming of Ihe palLcl~,
'['hug ill a tWit" with !HlraJ(1.I1 dwrrls the length nf a Illlllol will ui:lulllly
ho vory close t.u Lhe lr~ hcigllt (li'ig. 79Aff.). HOWOVN, pallols of
incfCtlSud I~llglh requil"C! the U~ of heavier noor bc"ms aml stringcr.s
whirh mllY outweigbt Ihe O('olloJUY oht~'lillod through the relltK"tinn
of !dresse." in tbe lnlll:l 11Iemlx>rll.
A rational lVIllItion of Lhe proMe,n n.<$ide~ in the :mhdid",ioll of
111U p,'lnels wiLh tho inlroduction of StlCOntJary IMlI,bcr.:S, rorlltin~
.1tuiliafY killg.po~tt'rl btlnm~, which will trnm;miL the load~ allplied
withill tllo panel Lo tllll join'-s of llw main Lru~~.
Thesc.' auxilillry systoms will jJcrnlit tile instllllnLlOIl of c,ros.~
OOlllnS :at i"ttJrmcdiaw poillls wlticlt provides for iI. eunr;:idernlll\,
f'(,l<llldion ill the wcight of till:' floor elements, TLLe.!!u SyStCll18 wiH
remain idle 3S lung 35 tllU load is outside the pancl which they rt'ill-
fOrt'-e, und will bc<:omo stre....<;O(I only while the load ill within the
limits of that panel. I" Fig, 79Ab Wtl hnve represolllcd a dec.kbrillge
trllS.", the uppor chord of which is reinfOrced liS Jt!sc,i!Jerl ulJove.
'rite bur ab i... always idle, it:! only purpost! being to ensure the sta-
bility of tlw combirwd system,
 117

If the king-posls .....ere extended downwards llnd cOIHledcd 10

tho ullI"lCr chorll mellllJcrs we would obl.aill the truss shown in
Fig. 7B.4c. It .....i Jl be readily oh!ler\'eJ that the .stre.ss~ ill till tilt!
Illt'mber.; of t.he latter t.russ 3re idelltical to tho.sc or ti,e truss in
fig. 79.4b. A gradual shortening or all t.he vert.ical mel1loors con-
rll."'lling the auxiliary king-posted beams with the upper dlllrd leads
to Lhe sysl'em fCllrolSCol.cd ill Fi~. 7!J.4d in which the hcamlj coincide

Id)

71'<.171'<.171'1::
,

Ig)

F.g. '19.4

with the upper chord members or lhl! maill t.russ. Jf we now turl.
the king-l'0sle( beams upsifle dowJI wo will oblain tho trlls., SllOWIl
ill Fig. m/if', nud ir i.D the latter the lerlgth of ks becomes nil. we
will linally obtain a dcck-IJridgc truss with suOdiyided pallt'(ll repre-
sented ill Pig. 79.41 which in the ";nglish speaking countrius is oS\lal~
Iy ("alled it .~ubdil.tdtJ Warr.-n lruu.-
+
"I'
ln nu ...~ill. tl'\l~"'-'5 or 11l:1( Iypl' ","Cro lifflt Il!led Ih,' f"mi,,('II( Ilussiall
('ll~ill('er and l'("iE'nti.~t, rmrC5.'!or J,. Proskuryakov or '11' Mo~ow JIlstlLulE' of
Railway En.ll"'"eeriuJf' A bri~il"~ of lhi.~ lYIH! !"as dcsiRned by "ion in 18~;j
ami hiUIt lien,...' ! tho river Ylllll:'el. alllhe slrllSS~ In lhlslrui'\S haYOl11i heen ,luler
minoiJ with th" nlrl of innut'nce lines, 'I'hl) rigid it} lInd thE' I'('d\lCllO wcillht or
this brillgo have I,lllccd it among the topranking r.ngineNing achievement!
or lllat tim(,'.
218 The TrU$~J

The sec,ondary elements represented in Fig. 79.4./ trallsmit the

loads IIIIplied to the upper chord to the main joints of tlte s3IDO
-chord. In other cases these elem6l1ts may transmit the loads applied
to the lower chord to tilt! joints of the upper one or vice versa as for
instance ill Fig. 79.4g.
It should bo noted tll/l.t auxiliary systems similar to that sllown
in Fig. 80.4 cannot be regarded as constituling a ~nuine trussed
beam reinIorcoment, for in addition to \,er\[c31 loads it will transmit
cqu,dly horizontal forces to the joints of the main system.
rll structures, whenl the secondary elements (subverticals and
subdillgonals, as they are frequently called) transmit the load to
the main joint.'l of thp same chord. all the mom
d a bers may he regarded as belonging to three groupS:
1. ~lcmbers belonging Lo the nlain tmss, the
stresfles in whitll are not influenced by the pres-
Cl.lee of auxiliary systems.
2. Mombers belonging entirdy to the auxiliary
systems, tho stresses in which may be obtained
in tbe same mauoer as for all isolated end-SUp-
ported lrussed ooaru.
Fit. 80.# 3. Members bclongilJg simulLaneollsly to the
main and tho auxiliary systems. Stresses in such
members will be obtained by the summation of those porLailJing
to the main and tlte 3.lIxiliarY systems considered separately.
WIllHl the secondary members transmit the load from the upper
chord to the lower one or vice verila, the truss members wHl form
four dis\.inct groups. Three of tbese have been just enumerated
while the fourth is constituted by such members for which the LTI/llterlce
lines change lkpmdin, on wluofher the load trauels alrmg onc or the
other chord as the pa/ormullu Of such nlRmbers is altered by the pre.<;eMe
0/ the St!Condary ones.
The influence lines for the stresses in memoors of the fourth group
will he obtnined as follows: first draw the influence line for the
appropriatl3 member of the main truss both for the case of a load
travelling along the upper chord and along the lower one, disregard.
iog the presence of the secondary element!!. This being done, examine
the effect of the secondary members, for which purpose shift the load
from joint to joint of the auxiliary ~ygtem, noting with care to wbich
momber of the main tross this load is transmitted.

Problem t. Draw tho innulInco lines for tllO stresses in membllr~ 2-9, 5-4'
and #'7 of the throURIl bridge truss with lIubdivJdud pa.nels rl!jlrE'OOlltod in
Fig. 81.(\(1.
SOlu/lflll. Start wi~h the construction of tllO Influence line for stress Vz:j. 1'110
member 23 bolongs to the firsl group and thl.'refore the corresllondillg influene"
 9.<1. Tru.,(H u,ith Subdil'ided Panels 2i~'

,. '
D ~'7-
--- '-
2sina I) !r

(~.I >""'::.J>'::'l!~F-+::.J.-',,,
.' 10 12 I '
.... l-,
!i
I~J ".,
" I- g~.! , '
, ,
I , I'
I , "

: '
rt'
,,
'" :

.-.",

."
'"
'"
I,,~-n

'"

Fig.81.<J Fie. 82.'1

and whon the load !hifls to tho sU[Jporb, thp slre!s D 4'1 becOU><:5 nil. The r,orre-
sponding illnUl1llCI! line is rcpruS()uted in Fig. 81.4c.
As f(lr the ~tre~s in bar 5-4' wllic.h belonll"s to the third grO\lp wo 5hnll paSS
a section I-I IInd aSl3umLng tha~ tho load unity is to the right of lhi5 soctiOll,
w{> shall obtain

.....berefrom
A
D~~, --7iiia
'l'hisllquation indicates that n~ long 811 thl! load i~ to the right n[ llCction 1-1
the influence Uno for V". may!\(l ohtlllnod by muUiplying tll~ ofllinates to lhe
:all

influence JjIlt' for tho Illllltmcllt r~actioll A by (--.-'-).

~1lI a
Having lhus olJtaiTlI't1
the l'i~h1-hll11rl portion of thu innUNLC(l line l'equjl'(!d, we may rtrww its I~ft
hand porlioll using the I'ulo thAt tlmy must inh'r~ect. in Iht' \'E'l'ticd p~~~ing
throllll'h Ihe origin of moments And that Wlll'll tlw IOlul r'ac,he~ th' l~ft-hnl\(l
"hul.mollt Ihe "rdmaw to the inn\lpnc.e lille t'"ducc~ lo ~oru. In It,,, r.~* cOJlSlll"n,d
t.1Ll' odgill ,,[ mOIlHmt, ill inli\litel~' distant, thE' tl'USS chol"d~ lloiug parallel.
Tlw illl'lornce lino will lie completed by coJlllN:ting Iloillls 1I11lld c {orl~'~IHJHL!ini:
to jolnts:i allll :i' (Yig, 81.4/). It is intl'ro"ting to note Ihat for the t,,,~s ul
Fig. 81.1,11 wo should C(lnnoe~ points.: mu] b l:<>rl'l""l,ondlng I" joint~ .'1lL,,11 7
(,]jmilloting thor0h~' tho triangle abc which roJlrt'5.mU Il'i: infitHme" li"e for Ih",
'''''ml>er ,~-4' "f (ho auxiliary I!)'~tem (~imit8r to till' I>JlU ShOWl1 ill t'i~, IHA~
for the llwmb"r 4'-7).

Problem 2. Ilequired the infiuene" line for th0 str"ss r 3, t.of tlte throlllo:l,
hdtllo:e t'IIS.~ ~hown in ~ig. 82.fJ'I.
Sob, lion. The verLic,a1l.1110er con5ideratitJ!! heloHging to tllO) fourth gn'"Jl ,,[
Utel1lhcr~, wc m\l~t bE'gin wit,h the const-rucli,)fl of llw infl\l.~nce lines relative to
this lU('[nher for loads travelling along the lIPPll!" and IOWN chords of tit" Utai"
"y,'lt,,'n, rellrC\.'\Ilnteil i" Fig. 82.4b.
For lids PlLrJ~OSl) llll liS jlaSS section I-I and wriU.' Ihat IM ob.,ut point k
for tlw lert-hand purl uf tlw lr,,~ (,qul,ls 7('fII when tilt' load IIn(ty Is to th" right
of Ihis ."Celion

wlwnce
M
V~.=O - a+2d

Ct'""OOlillg tlu. ordinate "~21/ at theleh-hand abutment witb I.h.. T.lm, ordin-
aLo lit lhe rilht-hantl une we shaH obtain the I'ilJhl-hallu p<lrtion of Lho innUonell
lTlle roquln.". Ih II.l{l.--hnn,1 portion will be deL'I\'ed from the rule lllnt tho two
hut's ;llways i"tor~~t und'r the origin of 1lI01ll('nt~ (point k). hI CUSl' Lhe load
t'avt'ltt'.:! ulo"g IllO lower chord tho ~.ompleted infiuonc{' tilll' isohlltirred tradllg
tht' o.:ollu('cting !in.., through the I/Vints ellrr('spontlill~ to jnirrt~ Sand ."i
((o';g, tl2.4r) and, i[ tho loads Wl'rt) "11I'lie<1 tt, thEl uPI"'. chord. thrtmRll the LWo
lloini~ oorrt'6ponoling to jomts 2 aud 1. (I"ig, H2Ad).
TlIC~' two ;nfllLl'nCe Hill'S ~how Ihat whell the load i!l to tile left of jf,ints
J ~Ild 2 or tu IILI> rilIht of jOillt~:; nllt] G, Lhe ~'t,ress in the vertiClll 9~4 [6 iml"1"'ud-
ent of t,ho level of load al'll!kll[ion. But whl'lI tho (oad stands Qve,' jhint$ 3'
"I' S' of thl' lower ehord Ihe sceondnry mt~l1lbers will tralJ~mit it entirely to tIll'
Joint6 of the t1pperoue, which III Ilff,~ct Is L'l:lulvalont to the tran~fcr of the lon<l
!hl'll. Ar.cordingly onlinatNl m-m and n-n will pll'voil at thew ,,,Ollli'll\S,
Nllvt'rtholl'S!l wlwn the lom! moves to joint S all tile !;Iecondary mt~mbor.'l II"eolUl'!'
id I... and it will loo t.he urdinllh~ tI-U in Fig. 82Ac that will give tilt! value of the
slr('S/j V'4'
'rhe;;(' "nlinilte6 will suffice fot' Ihe construction of the infi"",nc,e line flU' till"
IL'USS with ~"h.h\'idlld Jllln\.'I~. The reQuil'od innuI'nc(' lino IW'LI\d~ thll shadtd area
ill Jo'jg. 82.J,e.
Tlou follo"i"ll' l'rohlolll s]lOujd be solvl'd hy thll fl'ad"r Oll IJi~ own.

Pr<>htt!lll. (n) Chock the influence lines pt'rtaining to tI,n through hridgE'
trU5.."t!:l in Jo'igs. 83.4 and 84.1\,
 "

IJIJ
,~

Fig. 881

Fig. 81.#
 The Tru'so

(b) Draw the i"nuoneo llnes lor strosS05 in the members 01 tb.e same trusses
marked 11)' A "nuble dash.
Hinh. Prinr to the construetion of the influence line for StreSli Vf>9 of the trllsS
In Fig. 81,.4. eliminate all tbe 5E'eondar)' members, thuslinding the Inain system

'"
~ 11}

I :nflllcnce line far II,~ (bpper('l" I....'w/'"

chcr>1 tool/M)
Ib) ~nnm """",,,,,,,,,,,,,.,-;me>-

: IfI(I./JEnce I,I'{' /flr v.ll:!' {iJi/per er-om <1'Ql1frJ}

:I ~ .~7
Id> i__:'-Tm1rnrK::::.r;:.~.{fDrn:rn- .
I ~~
I .,.:
I {n(wC/1ce {lJ1e for lo:'\1f (lrus~' with PllblJwrdffl'
,I jI';fII'le)
,
:

i ~ i
'" ~""':
~
,
Fig .lJ5.1

r",prelll'Jlll'll in Fig. 8~.'ia. Thon uaing the mdhod of joints find the stress VI,
relative to this s)'s\'<'m
ry _ - Vl~-:W~i sin Cl: ""'-0
whl1rl'from
v:...
-2U~. sin Cl:
The 5tre.~5 in bar 8-9 of the main 5)'stem is 'llUS equal t.o that in bar 7-9~or
the Mme system multiplied hy B constant factor (_2sin 0:). The influence lino
 /0.4. Thn'$1 Dl';vtloptng Framed Str~cturcl

for the ~tl't'l;.~ U~. i., givl.'n in Fig. 85..1.1>. [t has the shape olan iroscole-s triangle
and its ol'din~t.c at 1he llpax 'lqUllls
I i8 V~ 31/37
4TX=3'.5d""~"O"~-- 4X3.5 x 3 = ---,,-

Thl' influence lino for V~. will havo tho snmo ehap<! and, provIded the !()/ld
travl'js alollll
~lll~ low",r chord, its maximum ordinate wiLl 1.'(IUal (fig. &''l.1c)

31/37 2x1 3
-,,-' V37 <%;7
Oil the othec hand, \\'hl.'n the unit 1000d travdling Illong thu upIX'r chord
It>achl's joint 9 tile equilihrlum of this joint rcqllil'l's that
I;Y_ - Vi.-2U:. sin 0:-1_0
and
,
Vf.= _2C;. sin a.-1--f
Thi.~ influence tiue is shown in Fig. S5.M.
Th(' compariOOIl of the influence lines 01 Fig. 85.4c and d ind(cat.es tlut1 when
the load is eithor to the left or joint 6 or to lhe right of joint 10 the stress is
indeplllldl.'llt of the level of load application.
At the saHIe time any load appliod to tho sccondnry joints of pllnlll~ 6-8
or 8-10 is VanslDltted to the upper chord and may be regllrdod liS acting directly
at the joints 7.9 or 11,
The corre~ponding innuence liue for tho truss with suhdivided pnncls i~
.~hown III FIg. 85 ..'\.""

1OJi. THHUST DEVELOPING FRAMbD STRUCTUIIES

1. TRUSSES WITH INCLlNED SUPI>ORTS
If tIle ..erticaI supporting har representing the roller support
of all ordinllry truss is replaced by an inclined one, the sysl.em 00-
comes a thlUSt developing truss as in addition to vertical reactions
it will be characterized also by horizontal reactions at the abutments.
Let us examil1c the ercheeI truss in Fig. 86.4a. Dl;lnoting by V A
.f! A and VD, H D the vertical and horizontal components of the abuL-
menl 'rf!ll.ctions A and B respectively alld hy x the distance from the
load unity to the left-band abutment wc shall obtain
l/A-lI B =<H
Equating to zero tbe moments of outer fortes about the hinges A
aud B wc get, 011 the othor !laud

VA =-,- 1-",
and VB=T
'"

The two latter equations are exactly th.e same as for an ordinary
simply supported truss or beam and the, corr<'sponding infiuenct'
Lines are represented in Fig. 86.4c and d.
 r\~ f'l:'l{ards the innllonoo line for ~he lhrust If i1. 111 ay he rltlrh'cd
lL~ing the relalion cxisling ootwl'cn If alld 1'1/ (Fi:;:. 86.4b)
H-Vnl"OLex
The innlll'ncc line tOl' {-( obtaiucd by lllulli[Jlyilll,! nil the oroillales
IU lIw il1nIJCIll"~ lino [Ut V IJ by col, a is relltl~Sulll('d ill FiK, 80.41'.

19
la'

, ~
H A
,
-___I..fS.._
,

I,; :::
__ :':: (b)~:
Vs Il.._a i
8
"4 , , ~
,,,, I I , HrHA"'H
ICI J~ce ll~for ~
'~!III!!Iiljjl'I"i.
~
Id!
, ,line for
,: Influence ,

, , I !
I InflllflflCl? line for If
I I ,

,
: ' , I

Inf'wence line toro;'

, irn,
.;rr, n;;,;;;:rr"'lIllW

Let 118 now draw the innuenco line for thl' stress in !'OlllC lruS!t
IIlcml!or, t'll)" ill har 5-7..For this purpose Il.'t 111; pa:-s 11 :>eclioli J-I
:md placing t.he load llllity to the right of this sed.ien, let us equate
to T.cro the mOIl)CIIl.! (flbout point k coinciding with joint 6) of all
lhl' extern,,1 furt'f'!'! acling un Ihe Icft~hllnd IlIIrtion of the trllS-Il
IAfIt = V.1xlt-llYIt +U~1hlt =0
wherefrom
 10.1. Thrill' Or"tcw"i"f[ PrllI,"rd Strurll1r~

When the unit load is tlpplicd at point p. lying ill the same "erti-
cal with tbe point of intor.it!Ction of lint's A K and BF (point F).
the stress in bar 5-7 becomes niL for the resultant of all the (Ofel'>j
applied to the ldt of ~Iiol\ {-1 pa5.'!"OS througb poinL k nnd thc
momcul.- uquatioll bocomes
'f,i\1J. =US1 /J" = 0
.\ccnrdingly point F. is a neutral point [or the :;Irc~~ U~1' At the
::ll:llIlC lime Lhe torm (1111- fly,,) cntering tho uxprcs.'liolL for L'~1
is equal to the bcntlillg moment in !'OCtion k of a tbrf't'-Itingl'd lln:ll.
'Hen,,!, the c.(ln!<lructlon of the innulJllcO Hnc Ior stress UH Itlny he
clIl'rit'll out in the ~nn1t wny Ill' Lhnt for tho bunding momllnL acUllg
ul'cr SCl't[Oll k of tllC said [lrch. provided nil the ordinatus of I his
latter:lre multipliud by (-~). CO/lscquently, havillg Ini.l off
the ordinate ( - ii) O\'cr the left-hand llbulmenl we must COlIIlCct
this nrdinatc \\;th the ncutrcll point f and tlUHl utend this lille until
liS illterscction with tbe vert.ical passing through joint H. Tile leH
part. of the influence line will be obtained bearing in mind that it
must pass through the zero ordinate at the left-ha lid abutment and
must intersect with the right-band part. in a vertical passing through
t.he origin of moments. The two lines being dra .....n. the positions
of joint 5 should be ma.rked Oil the left. ont: and that of joint; on
the right one, these two points being linally connected to form lite
completed line represented in r~ig. ~6.4/.
l...ct us now cOllsidcr a truss with supports at ditfcreot levels
(Fig. 87,1ia). We shall commcm~c by constructing the innuence
lines for the reactions. For this purpose we may resolve the right.
hOlld reaction n iutll its vertic.al Ilud hori1,ontlll compOllcnt., V1,
and IllJ:lt II point b' situated at the same level as. point A. Dcnot-
ing I\S usual the horiwutal and verlical components of roaction A
Ly l' A and If.... and plllcing the unit load 11 distance.l: fcom Lho IjJ(t
hand support, wo may then write the equilibrium cf.juatiolls o( the
11l0IllCIll.::Ilirst about point b' and then nbout the centre of thc hillgtl A
IM b = V A (1., + If)-l (1, +l:-x) = 0
IM A = -VB(l1 +If )+ 1x=0
whrllf'e

" 'fhe in8uenu line for I'll will pcrllli~ the determination (or reatUoll n tor
(Ill}" po.!ition of a vertical load using the fOMula B =- .VB 'rhe s:.me
lllnt<
"",ul~
mal' Ill.' achieved with ~he aid o( the influence line for H 11 !illt~' D _ 11" .
CO! Cl.

1~-8Ii3

'"These two expressions are represonkld graphically in
nnd d whic.h show t.h.at the
'" r
iJ'
i 'I'
I ' , :
The Tr,u,..,
Fi~. Si.4c
ver~ical reactions of the truss \':try cSllctly
in lhe AAmc way as dIOse of
a silllply supported beam with
a spa n of I = 11 -;. 1: (Fig. 87 Ab).
The horiwllLal projection of
all the force! ading on the truss
snuws that

'~'Y'1- 1":,' 1'

, lnll~t>"fP t,,,, v.. '
I...
'<J ~ :,!.J,: ,
'I~:
,~ :J
,d' :~ib:-}.-- v.
.'. , ' . ,
I

,
,
0
0
0
0
"'.
,,, ,,
,
,0
, ,,, o
o

, (8' :"\'
'"
"- --._-----~----' .-!!..
~\:
o
,~~"",
, ,

~
~1.~/,1:"':'.... : ILi ,cl",: "
:"'.f~I'"
1', : ,r, '.
if) !~b;-~11:; 0"

f'/". ,n.l Pig. aNA

Th~ rdation between Jl and VI' may he foulld b}' eqUltlill:::: ID

1.e1'n the sum of their moments about hinge C (Fig. 87Aa)
I.M c = - Vn1: +11/ = 0
wh'refrom
/1= vJJ:
I
III thi.'l cxpn>'!1<ion VDl: = .M! is the hending moment IIftiug over
soction C o( it ~imply supported beam, spanning (ll I:), wheTl +
the lo"d P jg to the left of thi~ section. Consequently, the thrust.

11 equals II~C which is exactly the samo as in the Cl'IllC o( a thrt'e-
hinged anll with n span of (it -j- 't) aod a rise C'qual to; (Fig. 87.'it').
It ig npP:lrcnt that thl;l in[]uence lino for H oblailled h)' ffi\lltiplying
 227

all tlle ontinntcs of the line for VB hy ; will coincide witl. lbllt
for t.he thrust. of an arch 8110WII ill Fig. 87.4/.
The influence line for the stroS,<; in har 24 of t.htl Slime 1.rll5."1 may
ht olJlained pll$.'!ing a. section I-I (Pig. 88.44) and writ.ing that.
T.M ",b011 I. 110illt 3 cqual~ l,()I'O when load P = 1 ill tu tilt! right, \,!r
lids S<'cliun

where[rofll

''f'lcn the Ji~lioll of load P pa~J; t.hrollgb point P (Fig. S8.4tl'.)

t.hp. !llres.<; in bill' 2-4 will reduce 1.0 zero. for in this CAse l"lOinl iJ will
fall on the line of acti(lll of the re."lIltant of V A and IJ A' Kno" i IIg
the position of the neutral point and using the above expl't'SSioll
for L~; the inOl1CIlC<l line is readily drawll. cspccilllly if WIJ ltlkC'
ht'er! of thll analogy C!xisLing between t.he expression", for L z, llllll
for the blmding mOllwnt acting over a corresponding ~clioll of
n thrcc-hingtld I1rch (see Fig. :12.3/). As the first differs from ~hl' latter'
ouly by a constant. factor 1., the influence line relative to the right
port of till) truss may be ohtainl'd hy laying off aD Ordillltl.c.!!.
, d\,er
th/' Illft SlIpport and by connl'Cting it with the projccliOl1 jl{ neutral
point 011 the horizollt:ll, Which giVl's \15 line all (Fig. 88Ab). The
line correspollding' to the ldt part of the truss will be drawn lISillV
till' wcll~knowlI rule that lhe two must intoN!e('.t in a vorticnl Jlassiulj
through t!lll origin of mOments (point .1). The inflllell('e line for D H
obtained in 3. silllilaJ:' wny iloC shown in Fig. 88.4c.
I nnllCnCO lines for \VBb members of af\;h trnsso.'S with parallel dumb
can be oblllined hy projocting Lhe !ltre~~'s nctil1g in all tllo nll;'lDhcl's
c,ut by a section on a normal to tht'_ chords, the method of ffil'mcnls
being illO[k'rativc in t.his lOa~ as the chob inlCrscet at a point illfini-
tcly distant.
FM in!"lancO, the nrdiTlntt.~ lo the innuonce lill(' for Iltrcs"l D~. or
the truS!! represcllted in .~ig. M9.4a CRII lx' found by (!IIUaling tu
7..cro tlte projections of all tho forces ncting to the Il'fl of scclinl1
1-/011 a normal to the dil"l'Ction of tht' rhord members 5-7 alld 4~6"

l~ shollld 1'0 TClflcml'crcd that J/.\ = If" 0:::. J! "nl\ that slr(l..'!.'oes in Ihe hod-
7.nnul <leek lIlembers re1{laln nil M long as tIll) IOlld8 mmnin vel'Ucnl.
228

where rp=augle between the chon\ memJ~I's ftlld the horj],outal

et =angle formed by the diagolJal 5-6 witlt t.he \"crtltnl.

.~',

(en
5
\ 'f-,
~71- ,, ",, ,
" , ,
,
,
,
,
,, ,
,,
v, "
: In{u/('(1(:f' t.ne (or I
,
, 1 'D." I
j-..., I "", '
--'._,.". I ,
,, '
COllfll/Cling line-I
,, r

,'.-,

Fig. 89 Ij

From lhis l1quation wc obtain

D~a = ~OO~,,,(~~-=o.,) (V A cos Ip-H si 11 If)

Dw = t (Q1co.~If'-1I:;illq.o)
eos{o: '1
wiwm Q~ is the shear in n simply SUppol'lC'd beam of Lilo same span.
 The tt'rm (Q1 CO!! 'P - IJ sill 'P) being identical with tho expression
of Lite sh~r acting over a CI'O.'SS section o( a three-hinged arch, tht
innuencc line relative to the right part CI( t.lu, truss can be constructed
in the same maUller a!I that for the shcnr in an art"_h (.9C<.' Fill. 33.3dI.
This means that an ordi nate equal to cost,': If' "'lover the lert a butlllellt
must be cOllnected wit.h th~ IIeutral point I dt:termined by projecting
on tlllo! x-ax.is the point of intersection of lilies b'B lInd AF (ill Lhis
pllrticular caso Iillc AF is parallel to the chord membe~ 57 and 4-/j
and Im:::.sos through point B). The lille relative to the Idt part of tht
truslI will bf.! paralll'l to the OOIl pel'Lainiog to its right part due t.o
the parallelism of thu c1\Ords.
TJw completed inflUlmcQ line for stres."i D~$ is represunted III
Fig. 89.1,.1.1 whilll anot.her influence Hue namely that for stresli D Jl
obtainc<l in 1\ simil3r way is reprosentcd in Fig. 89.4'.

2. THnBE-Ur..'GEO T'tUS<;BD ARCHES

Were the right-hand supportin~ bar of t.he truss shown ill

Fig. 87.4a replaced by some Iramed system sueh as syslem CH
C

--

Fig. 90.1

(Fig. \JOA) wc would obll:lin a three-hinged tnu!sed arch, consisLing

t!sscnlially oC two pin-connected truS!lCS with immovable hinge
supports.
Let US t\x;lmin~ a ~binged llrch with supports At the same
level represcntl'd in Fill, 9t.4a_ BeLh vertical reactions and tbrwit
for such systenlll are determined ill exaetly tho S3mc way a!l' in the
CA!'e of .solid ::Itches. TlllIs. for a load uuity situated a disLanec ;t
Crom thc left ablltment, feactiolls 'V A and V 8 will amount to
=-,- and V s =,
l-z Z
VA

whil", tht! thrllst J( will c11llal ?o~~ where All) is the bendinglllolllent
,., TIu rruu~.

r Z 'j

8 , "
~====l7'-
v.
(b) '.

le)

Id' I I In{luet"lCE' lim: fo'- h

L,
f

I I
(eI;~'
11 I I
r ~f y,-,-----I'
If)
0,10/
I I J,,!lflt!fla lw for Lt_ !
7 Q!l-otll!J~r;..r; I
=-"
Fi,. 9/.d
 10.4. Thr"" Dt~klpUtK FnulU:d S/rllrluru

Acting over Lhc corresponding t:ro~ .!lCction of 11 :<imj)ly supported

'"
~alO of tbe sam~ ~pall. cllrrying tile MIllC load.
The i1\Ollon(o 1i1lC$ for the vertical reactions ancl the thrust are
shown in Fi:. 91 Jill. r ~/ld d.
As rc:anJ!l' strossei:'! inl.!lI"I'1.! in the sepArate memher!! of tile
Sl'tlli-an>hes it is dellr LIIfIL liS IOlJg as tha 108ft is appJieu directly
to till' !;Cllli-arch Itllclc;r c,o",~iderntion the othur on(l IIllll' hl) flcti-
tiollsly rcphll;l.\(l hy all itH'litwd sUppOl'linl: rod, III uther words,
till' ~ystcm may bu rt'ducmJ tu the case of a ,osinlj,le lruss with snlll)Orls-
at tliffcrcnt level~. whiell has heen just (l.\:tlilliftCd,
Thl' t'onstrurtion of innllC'nc.Q lines for lht! 1:Itrc5..~'" ill 1JI{'.IIt1iCf.5
of ,:,iuch l~ i1:l Illroady r(lillili"r to lhe reader who willl'asil)' rol~
low that of tho innllt"lIee lint' ror 2' ShOWH in rig. !ll..'tl". II remains
to lind Ollt what happens when the l()<ld shirts to the other sel1li-
arch. In lhnt C::lse till} load may Ixl rcsolYed inlo two COtnl}Ol\clIts.
tlte lirsl of which is applied at the crown hinge and till;' ulher ~o
a joilll clirectly ovor lh(l abulment at the oppo!"itc cnd of the IIn'h.
'I'll\! urdinalcs lo lhl innuence line when uuit lond P acts over the
croWtl hin~c fllUl Uw flbulnlOllt am well known And equal U,
(Fig, 91.11CJ and 1.("1"0, rospl,t:'tively, Ar.GOl'dingly, in the ensu of lIar
2-4 wh.. . n t!lll load Lr<t\'ols. flOVlU !tinge C tOWOt'ds the riglll, lhe stI'('SS
wilt var), lioNlrly frolJl !!r \.U 0 io Ilccordonce with the lxprl'.o;,<Jioll
L /.:-; I:: 0
~l -=-,-,- Ye:-;-11
Tbo corresponding i'ln lJrllce line will be ~ presented by Lhl,.! "Lf':I ight
Iinc connectiog Ye with point b as shown in Fi.!!. 91.4/.
Several i.,Ollcnc.c lilies for sll1'sscg in IncmlJcns of diffcrent trussed
arcbes arc repre5<'ntcd ill "'ig. 1)2,4. Two of thc.'iC s)stcnl~ have their
cnd supporls tit different levels. In sYlltoms or the taller t)'P<l it is
more cOIl\'eniellt to re!WI~e the ahutmcnt reactions along n vcrtic_al
and SI line whil,;.h connec,ts tho abutment hinges (Fig. 93.4). 'fhe \'or-
tiCi'll I'cactil)llll V A and Vii will be clolermined from tho well-kllowll
equl\tions
v~ = '-;~ aud Vt,::::lI-T
'rhe compouellts Z .... and Za of tile abut"lell~ reactioll." Wlll.'n
only vertical loads are involved will he given by
Ml,
ZII=ZD=Z=,,-

where h is tht! lever aml Gf CGmpOllcllt Z about the crown hinge C.

The thrust 11 is casily round from
l/ =Zcoso:.
2"

1 11 ,I ,
-----r-"ii1r- :- ~/
"'" If7/lW~ Un,e "{)fl:"
1,1 .
,,
,
: I,
, '
I I
, I t I
I fn(lIimcl [jPt for Gp
I .
,, ,,
I I
''
f,
,
,~

It /
, " '
'bI
"
" ,

,<! 1
'+"'i>\-""~~
- , ~Q I
,,,
" ,,,
,
," "
"
,,
l... _.!!L..:....! '
I I :
; I! I
:,,,rw~,l"nr fIN" : : I

~
~t--/ f,

Fig. 92.4
 233

wh(Jrc et is the inclination to the horizont-al of tbe line passing thfOlIgh

the llboLffitlllt hillgtJS A and B.
f---~''----lP<

z
r \~ 8 ,
Gl)_-----
,
V'

1,

Fig. 99.4

'"J

FIg. 9J...4

This cIl8bles us to rewrite the expression. for the thrust as follows

M'l; M'b
H = Zcos/]. = -h- cos a= ---;;:-
cos 0:
As the term co~ a repl'Csents the length of the verticlll insert bel-
weBn the line connecting tbe llbuLment hingi.l~ {Iod the crown hing"
we may denote it by ! whereafter the expression for H will lK'e')Illl'
M'
11=_"_
/
The reader is invited to check the accuracy of the innucnec lint'"
for the tbrust H of the trussed arch represented in Fig. 94.4.
 The Truue&

t 1./i. \',\ RIANTS OF' TB USSED ARCHES

Let liS con.~idcr !hll trussed llrcll with elevalc~ tic provided with
lItH' fIxed aud onc roller support ns shown ill Fig. \):').4. This stllt.kaJly
dcu'J"lrllna!;,> arch. mar he obtairll'd by replndng" the LlIclirwd bar
of Ilw right.-haud abutment support hy the tie ub absorbing the thrust.
Thll method of stress Illlaly~is for similar tied archel! is ilhlslratcd
IwrcundCI' using liS an example the structure ropreselll{ld schomatical-
Iy in Fig. VG.tiu. The influOllw lines for reactions V.\ alld VU MC'- of
the usunJ triilllglll<lr Shlll>C WillL ordiua\..cs equnl to unity undcr the
~IIPflorls a.~ shown ill Fig. 96.4b and c. TIll! influence lino for the
{')l'(e It ill tILe tic (cquivalunt to the thrust /I) wHl be readily dOl(ll'-
milled by equating to zero the moments (about crown hinge C) of
nil the rorers to the left uf sectiun I-f wlll1n load unity P is tu the
right then'o[

,.
L:M c = v..1, -[-11/ = u
whcrC'frlJnJ
I" I MllC
J1 ... -'-~--
"'-I !
Whcll till! load is applied to the left uf the section the Clluatiol)
bcc(JnH'~

H'= Vnl = MS
2} I
Al'cMdingly, loh., influence line for the force H may be obtained
by muLtiplying tlle urdinates of th(j bellding moment M~ acting
(lvl'rseC-lion C o( a simply suppOt'Lcd beam by a constant factor
Thi:-; influence line is rcpre."'l'ntcd in ~'ig. 96.4.d.
+.
'I'he influence line for stre:>.s L~ (Fig. 96.11a) may be obtained
IHI~in!(' SUction f.{-If and writing that I:M about point k or all
rorce~ to the l('rL of this section equals zero

'f.M.. . = V.\a . . -//j -.L,.h~~ 0

where[l'om
I
L,= T(V"'u.. . -Hfj
The neutral point correspondillg tu L,. win fall 011 tlle vertical
pm;;;ing through the intergection of lines a.k aud ble. The completed
innuence line for D, is given in Fig. 9().4e.
 Fil{ 1)5.4

Ifl f

" ,
Ill:!
1 :1
I :
Il
~ :1

V~ I
,I "
" 11-8
(/J) Ilt'[[llImmII]nrU:~"~,ni~~,~'~in~,~rO~;~v.~=_Ji
, , ,
: !! : :
(,) f~fl~ll

_=m="'CIOIII~(IDIJ!IJJIj]JJJJJJljJJ
1
Id1. 1----- , 11 i

Influeff<:B line for'"

- - - .. 'I
I - ... -
I
I
I
1I
I
Zf I .n:oJlIllJll!IlU :
.~ "
d
"I,
r,)
"""

Fiff. 96'A
 The Trusses

The reader is invited to draw the influence Jines for stresses in

other m(\mbers of the structure.
Let us now consider a system consisting of two pin-eonncctlld
trusses and a multihinged arch, two variants of whie-h are sJtown
ill Fig. m.!fI/. and b. It is easily proved that such gystems constitute
lwyie-.lding combinations and remain stntically detnrminate. Methods
oE stress anaJysi.~ for these systems will be shown ulling as an example
the slt'ucture in Fig. D8.4a.
All osual the influence lilies for vertienl reactions V A Ilnd Vu
will be tri:lngnlal' in shape with orrlinates cquaUing unity 8t the

("
Fig. 97./

sUJlPorts (Fig. 98.4& and c). It is ea~y to prove that tho horizontal
components of stresses acting ill all thl! memlwrs of tJle Dlultihinged
anll ASB remain constant th~)llghoUl tJle system fur any givet).set
of vertical loads applied to the trusses AC and CB. For this purpose
consider tho equilibrium of any joint (>:ay. joint n - 1 ill Fig. 98.4d).
Projecting all the forws 011 the horizontal we get

:EX = -N"_11,;(;8 a,,_j + N" cos a" =0

wherefrom

where

and
N"cosa:,,=llll
I"

'"
'" I
ICI .~, r--

(,, ""

If I

i , i-
JI.c:: I
/ z
,/
/

",.

If' fd11 ~~[JIJ"'"'"

",1",
FIt. 98.4 Fig. 99 "
'38
Then-rore
lf n _ l =IJ.. _dl
Nn_ t = IT N = -.!!..- . etc.
oos 0';"_1' n COS: tt" '

Projectillg lhe .';lIllll) fQrct!s all t!Lt! vtlrtical we ohtain

:Y = j{ tall a,,-JJ Lan CI./l-\- V';_l =-0
WhCl'cfrorn
Y"-l = II (tall 0:" -tan an_I)
'Jlll' allOvc oxpre:'lsiolls indieatll that the influence lilLl's for"',stros.scs
ill all thl' sepal'ale links uf tllo arch as well as in all the ver'liCld>;.
ot' ~lJspellsions wilt haye the samtl shave as the infiu('l1ce line for llie
lhrll!'t H.
A.~ for the latwr, it may he obtained by passing section 1-1 (suc
FiU. 9S.4n) aull by equatillg to zero the sum of 1ll01ll11l\L'S l1hUllL
tho crown hin!l'o C or all tho forces llppJicd to the lefl of tlle S/xlioll.
lIw slres.<; N"+l ac~irlU on llinge Shaving heen JlfCviow,ly rm:o(vl~ll
into two COlllpolll'nl~ Hand Illall an+!

I.M c = VA {-+llf =0

lJ=- V.II =_ Mb
21 f
Tlll' Ill'A"l'lLi\'o v{l[uC) of f{ imliealef; lhllt all tlte liJJk~ of t1[O arch
ar(' compre,'l.'le(L The influence line for H if; a trianglo wilh its ape-x
turned downwards rlod situated cLirectly under tJJ() crown hingo
C Wig. 9RAe).
Lot U~ flOW ('OJ1:;truct the influenco ljn~ for slros.", U .... For this
pllrpo."l-l \\'(' sholl pass see-tioll JI-IJ CClllllting to 1,lll"O t.he momcuts
or all tho InrCIl!l aLout point In WltCIl tlu; load unity llet.'! to the right
of this ~('di(J[1

wlll'refrolll

{I" 7_
< Il{/",,-l! (Ym +hlj= -1'
-/itl' < .
[Ar,',,-ff (y",-h)]

Il will bll ob~rv('l1 tbat the term ill IJra(;kel.'ll'(!llrc:;(mts till' !Jt'Il(lillg
IllorlH!J1t acling ovel' sec.liolt K of a IktitiOllS lhl"ee-hingl'd HIx;h or
till: ,"-111110 l'pnll whose cruWr) hinge e(JQrdinal>s llOO equal to f 11IId
i while Ilto~l' of the l'cntroid of section K equal (I,m. am! (Ym. + h).
 11.-1. VllrlQ:IlU 0/ rr,,~..,d ;lrc!.,s

This wiU enable us to find the IIOSitioll of the neutral point pertaill-
ing to the inRllellcu line for U~. For 'hi.' purpose we shall tirst local~'
the centroid of section K along tho vertical pnssing through the oti-
"ill of moments m Wig. ~.4a) after which the lincs A K And BS
may be drawn, t.heir intcn'CCtion determining tbe ab~i.ssa ()( tile
neutral point required. The completed influence line for U" is shown
in Fig. 98.4f.
In order 1.0 COIll'trucl the inRuenoo line for dress D~ in OIXl or
the diagQoals let us equate to tero the sum of verLical projeetiOll~
of RIl the foras to the left of !'ection Tl-JI (soo Fig. 98.4a) when
the ullit load is to the right of tltis section
~y = V A-H tiln a"-D,,sin ~=O
",hellc~

D .. =~(V ",-11 tall Cl,,)

..111 I'
The lattor ~qualiotl '!hows llL~t lill' required influence lille Conn
be ohtRi/led through the summation of lhe ordinnt.cs to th~ innlll'nce
line for ~'\" with llle ordinates to the illllucllce line for the th['Il~t
lUll "

If 1ll11ItiJllierl hy ( - ~;~~,,) .
Thc lIcutral Jloint method call hll u!'>tltl for the eonslructiOIl of
D" innuoncc HlIe too. For this pllrpol;ll we mUllt !irst find the pusitioll
of the unit load for which thl! expl'\.'lsiulI (V.\ - l/ tan an) rUdUCl'$
to 1.cru. III this expression V'l /l1'lL1 If call Uc regardl'd as UIO "crLicat
reacUoll and thrust flf:l rlc_titinu~ arch of the sa 1110 span as the nctunl
structure nnd having for coordinate-Cl of the crown llingo f llntl I

(F;. 08.41).
The pollition oC the neutral point will be derh'ed from

D. =~(V
SIll t'
"'-Ht.llna,,) .... O
5110""il1l{ that
v.
7l = tan a"
The Inller eonditioll may be flllrLilod only if tho loft-hnnd 8hlll.-
ment rellCt.jOll A of tIll' thfl,'C-hinged Arch rorlllA with the hori1.01l11I1
nil allg1u tL,. TIll' 1I0\ltral point will btJ ~i1uated at the- intefSlNtiull
of this ronction witb rc<lction B or the fictitious arch. thu lat,ler Ilctill!r
1l1'c.esMrily along n line pos.",illg through tho crown nnrt tho ril(ht:-
hand abutment hinges. The complekd il1[Jllence Iille for fllrclls D n
is represelllcll ill ri!t. 98.4h.
 Th~ Truuf"

Let ItS now examine a structure in which tho two tnt~s surmouut
tllo 1JI1111ihingoo arch AS shown in Fig, 99.44. This :I)'stem is geomet-
rICICIl}, ~HaLl\J and stalically detcrmiOl1IU, it."! main PtlcuJiarity resid~
lrl!t io lhe flu:t that it takClS support Ilt four distinct points A', B',
A' anti 8-,
The following prO'dure lJlay be recOlllmelldt.'d for the determina-
tion (If thl' ahu(lRtHH renctiollJl;: the dircction!': of tht> extreme links
<If the IllUltihingod arch should be e:<tcnrlocl uutil their intersection
wHit till' 'Nli<:als dr~,,'n through lhl' c,cnlrcs of tho abutment hing4:S
A' allll il' M the trusse!!, Hero till! 1't,\llCtions arisinl:!' in thl! l\xtreme
liuk.s IlInr he rosolvod along n I'llrtiCIlI and a horiWlltnl direction
illl\l Lwu c;olllJJOMnts 1':1, H,\, flllcll'ij. Jf n. Iospccllvt'ly (Fig. !J9.4a),
A.'3 alrl.\ady shown in t.he bcginuing (If this artich~ If 11 = Ill! = If.
ll:willg denoted by V:.. nnd Vj, tho rt,nctions at the supporls A'
fUlIt /J' 1\11..-1 by VII llnd V 1) t,he lolal \...l I'tical reactions of tllll WllOle
"'ySll'1l1 Wt' IHI"\'

rill' t'tjlUltioll expressing the equilibrium of the 1Il0menL.. alxJut

the point of inll'flleCtion of V JI :llld If 1) gh'es

whC'I"Frotll
,. _ V.
1"11- Jt
+ y,- .41#1><:'
1",\==-,-

where .lIc>:1 is thc moment of all the external loads acting 011 the
slnl(~tllre about Lhe same point.
r t follows that the .~um 01 the l.It:'rltcal components Of reactions V A
(Jmt V~'" is equal to the reacti(i/O of a simply supportl.'d beam.
Tho thrust JI will be cOIl"cnitwtJy determined Ly equating to zero
IILo sum of momenls "hauL th(' cl:!lltrlll hjnge S of all the forces acting
011 Iht, It!ft (or righl) half of thp structure when Ihe (flad unity is
10 the right lnen.'Of
, L
I;Ms = l'11 ~-lff -Ms =0
wllcr{'From
-,,~
lJ~-,-

J1~ Ut'iog the bending moment acting at midspan of n simply sup-

pl,rlcll beam carrying the same load.
COll~quently. the inOllellee lino for the thrust H will have the
,,1l1lpe of nil iS05('.(>lcll triangle repJ'CStllJted ill Fig. 99.4b. The vertic<l!
 11.4. l'llrlanb o} Tr""rd Arc/,," 241

reae.Hons v:\ and Vii can be also expressed in terms of the thrust II
V:t=Htantp and V;=Htanlp
It follows that the influence lines for these two reactions will
take the shape of the triangle shown in Fig. 99.4c. TILe reaction
V~ will be deducted from

V.A= V A-V:" = V A-lItalllp

This expression shows tltat the required influence line may he
IIbtained by the summation of the ordinates of two othor iJ,flw;nct-
lines, namely, that for the abutment reaction of an end-supported
beam and tllat [or the thrust If, tho latter being multiplied by
1\ constant factor (-tan cpl. As is well known, the first of thcflC two
influl:'IIce lines is a right triangle with an ordinate equal to unil,y
over tlle left.hand support.
The influenc,e line for V~ could be also obtained by the nClIlral
pQint method. Tho position of tho neutral point is conditioned by
V~=VA-Htancp=O

SILUwillg that the ratio ;1- must be equal to tan lp. The latter condi-
tion will be fulfIlled when the resultant of V A and If (e.g. the lefL-
hand reaction of the fictitious three-hinged arch represented in
Fi.!:'. 99.4d) will be 3t an angle of lp to the Ilorizontal. Thus, the
11osition of tl1e nelltral point relative to the reaction V.A will be
del,ormined hy the intersection oC the abutment reactions A and 8
of the said fictitious arch. It follows that in order to draw the influ-
011('.(l lillo for V~ by the neutral point method, on ordinate equal to
unity should be laid off along the vertical passing through the loft
abutment; this ordinate 3hould be then connected with the neutral
point and extended until the int(lrsection with the vertical passing
through the crown hinge, the ordinate so obtained being flOallr
coullected to a point of zero ordinate at the right.hand support
(Fig. g9.4e).
I( it were required to construct the influonce line for t.ho stress
acting in some chord member of tbe truss, say, member (11 _ 1) n
wc should procood as follows. Having passed section [w} and equating
to l.{'_ro the moment about hinge k of all the forces acting on the l~rt
part or the trusll we obtain
IMk= (V.A + VA) QII-H'y,,-Lnh =0
whcreFrom
 ln this exprcssioll M~ is tho bendillg momelltllctillg oyer ~'c-lioll
k of II thrcc-hillgcd arr-h who:ic span I equals that of the i;trnctllr('
invulvcd, whil~ tbo l;{lntroid coonlinatc5 oqual ah. and Yif.. TIlt' (0111-
11[(,I(,t! influence line ohtained by thb method is roPt1.l$t'lltcd in
Fig:, H9.4j,
Let us considcr flOW the CIJlI~tructioll o[ the illnuenc.e linl' for tlK'
~lrc.o.,'l ari,~ing in 0110 or tho web tucmtmrs. say, ill lIll' dillJ!OIWI lm
uf I,'il!. nflAa. As long as the load unity J'I..'mains to tlln - rig-Ill or
!iN'liou I-I, the slrt'SS J)" will bo dctl'ftllincd by Lhl} cquntioll
~y = V'l~D" sin "~If tan If" =0
wlJCrdJ'om

J)" =-.-
, (V A~H tan 1',,)
Sill a

indicating Llllit. the neutral ]Joint will be loc-IlLed in Lhe lino r>i ndion
of a load rtllldcl'illg ~l = tll!t Ip",
As Ilas alreadr beell melltioned, Lhis hOl:Ollles pos~ib'o wlJllll lh~
I'CS1Jllnnt A ot V A and If, ill othnr worrl$, the left-hmul rc:\('lwll
of a l1ctitious thfLt(t.--hiClged arch in Fig. 9tl.4d, i~ illdined tltJ'ouJ,th
an angle!p" 1,0 the horiwntal. Hence the neutral point \yilllHJ dl)ler-
milled by tho intersection of a line plissing through the ItJl't-haml
abutment at nn auglo ql" with the horiwlIl<'l1 anrl 11 line cOlln~)ctillg
the righL-lland abutment with '.he CI'Own hingn. 'Jlw innlllHll'C Iillll
fOl' -"tress D" will he obwincd by laying 01T the ol'dinalfJ ~In -.-'-
r::t
over
the left aLutmcllt and by connecting this ordinate with the projectioll
or the neutl'al point on the x-axis.
To fll)t! that part of the inlluence Hlle nlo.Hve to the Illft pOt'liolt
of the sentistructul't', a Hne parallcl to th.e iirst should ht' (IrawlI
through the 7.1)1'0 point at tlte left ahllLmeut wlleroaftel' the posilioll
of tile joinl::>k 11 lid It shall be marketl l)tl these LWo lines and cOlllleel.ed
Logcthor, That portion of Llle influence lino rorro~ponding to Ihe
dght half of tlu~ ~lrllcllll'll will be ob!.ainccL by ronnC'r[ing Ihe III'dill-
ate at Ihe CI~!Wn hinge with the zel'O point ovel' the ri~ht-Itnlld Hhlll-
ml;'llt. Tho t,:,olllplclecl lille is rt.11lrt.'SCld-eu ill .Fi~, \J0,4R'.
Illfluollce line~ ft\[, any other web l1\c.mher 01' veltil'.al CVlllI('clilljo[
Lho ltlultihillgct!ardl wilh tlle truss can llll obtained in a similarwa)'.
 5. SPACE FRAMEWORK

1.5. GENERAl.
Itl <1 1II05t general way oC spcaking tho lerlll .qpru:e jrameWllrk ilHli-
calcs lhree-dimensional through strllctures capable. of resisting
loads ill different Illancs.
Certain of such structures mtly be l'C"dIH.'L'<l, for a given nrrang(:-
moul ol loads. to a combination of plant' slruclures (trllsses). Wllic.b
simplifios greatly tlleir design.
Thus, the llridge truss ~hOWH in I"ig. Lfil1 can be "-,durod to two
wrtic.al plll.no trusses AIJCD nnll JlfNFE WhOll the loads P nre
l'!)"lJIJ1lelrical abO\lt Lhe IOllgitudinAI I\xii'i of the strlletlltt'. l:loWl'vor.
jf lilt.! Sllmll trus.q Wl.'rc IOlldcrl unilatClrlllly, it should bo cOIl~idol'ciJ
n~ l\ space struct\lre, the ltoriwllllll trusses AA/NB and DEFC
tl'nll~llliltiTlg part or the lon.d from OIlC \'crUcal trus.~ to the "ther.
Tile three-dimensional structure of Fig. 1.5b supporting I1 wotQr
lank is ShukJlO"'S hyperlloloid which cannot be reduced to lllly
llumbor of plane struc.tures ond rnu!';~ he designed as n single ullit.
The same applies to ..he Schwotdll'f dome illustrated in Fig. 1.5c.
Tho dHforent menlhers of spoct> frarllcworks are usualJy conll(',c.k'd
together by riveted or welded joints. providing a certain degree
of rigidily. However, computation!! taking into consideratioll this
rigidity become Hcet'dillgly cumbc~mo. and thereforo in acl.lll'll
dl~ign work such strncture.s art alWAys regarded IlS articulation-
cClllnCCtE'd (differing thereby frOm three-dimensional rrnmcd beut.,
ill which nit the joinl.s are IIQ<le and re.garded rigid).
Th> articulations of spaco framed stntcLUl'l'$ mllst allow rotation
8ttlUnd tbl'' mutually perpcllclicular ans thus providing three
dt'J;IfCCS of freedom as compared to tho singlt> one of the pin joinLS
of plane trusses. Aec;ordingly, all the 1n1.'IlIbers of a space struclu('9
nlLctillg at ono joint call rotate 800ut lIlIy line passim; thrt)ugh the
point of intefSC'ction of their axt's, ....hil~t those of a plane Irus,"l /JIlIY
do ,.." only about an axis perpNlIlicular to the plane of tllu trus.....
On the other 11ll.Jul, the anO,llgement of the individual nwmhufS
of a S]lnct\ framework must be such thllt lhey sllould form an Ul1yi(>lcl-
i/lg combinntion just "'s in the c,ase of a pla/IC' onc.
10'
 Consequently. a space framework is a geometrically stable
structure. consisting of a number of bars situaLcd in diffel'('nt planes

r
p
/,' ,

(e)
A
I '
"
,,
,
,,
"
,,
,
,,,
, ,

and connected together by so-called universal or bell-and-socket

joints. Whcn such a structuro i~ subjected to a sy,tcm of 10lltlS
acting at the joints. no llexurnl stresses afC induced in any of its
membors which become directly extended or compressed.
Any system of noncoplannr forces in equilibriuTfl must comply
with six statical equilibrium equations which may be grollped
tGgether into
three oquations Gf projections
};z=o
and lhree eq\lations of moments
IM.c=O; ~.MII=O;
 2 ..5. Spare Fran~U;(Jrk SUppllrJ. 24'
In statically determinate systems these equations are always
suCflcieot for the computation of all the reactions at the supports
and of all the stresscs in the individual members.
1t must he borne in mind thllt the solution of these equations
becomos the easier, tne smaller the number of unknown!! in each
of them. Therefore, it is advisable to seek such systems of l.'qua
tions in which each contains no more than one unknown (two at
the utmost).

2,5. SPACE FRAMEWORK SUPPORTS

Spat.e frameworks are connected to their foundation or any otber
unyielding system using three dHferent tylWs of supports:
(1) the spherical movable support (Fig, 2.5),
(2) the spherical roller suppor.t (Fig. 3.5),
(3) the spherical fixed support (Fig. 4.5).
The first e.onsists of two :Dat parallel slabs with a ball in lH>_tween.
This lype of support allows rotation about all the three axes x,

la) Cb)

y and =. as well as the displaccm~nt along any direction lying' in

th., xy plnne. Only the displacoment.-; atong the ..-axis (both upward
nn(l downward) are prevented. (The arrangement precluding upward
displac~n1l'l\t is not shown in Fig. 2.5). Thus only one constraint
is imposed by a supporL of that type, a vertical reaction R. being
developed along the direction of this ~constraint. The conventional
schernatic representation of a support .of the first type is shown in
Fig. 2.5b.
The second type of support consists in principle of two rockers,
the upper and the lower, with El ball inserted in their sockets; the
lower rocker bearing on rollers which lie on a slab provided with
Interal ribs. Similar ribs existing' on the lower surfaco of the rocker
make allY lateral displacement of the two impossible.
This t.ype of support permits free rotation about any axis pass-
ing through the centre of the ball and a longitudinal displacement
in a direction perpendicular to the roller axes. It prevents displace-
24.-;

1II1Wt. along t.wo directions. one being perpendicular to the plalle

o[ the roller axes alld the other pnrllUtll to their axes. thus imllosing
two constroinLs 0,1 the body it. carries. Two ~ac1.ioD8. R s !tnd R: or
U, and le (depending 011 thp position of t.he rollers) will develop
at. a support or thQt type. Its conventional rep~suntation is shown
in FIg. 3.5b.
The fIXed l'phtlrical support (Fig. 4.50), occasionally rtlrerrcd
to ~illlply as l'pherical support. consists of a pair of silllilar rockers
willl a balL 11Ilt no rollers, f:0 that the ullpcr rocker ciln only roLaLe
ah\lut allY Dxis passing throllgh the CtJlItro or the ball. Lut cannot
movc in any direction. A support of this type will impose thrctl
COllstl'aint.3, nonce. three roactions R"" Rv and R: may develop.
SchclllllLically Lhls 5upport is represonted in Fig. 4.5b.
Tho minimum number of constraint! necessary to maintain 0 houy
in a fIxed position is always equal to the llumber of equilibrium
cquations. Therefore, in the case unrler consideration this number
"ill ctjllol ~ix alll.! the simplest comhiuation of such constrain Is is
:<hOWll in Fig. 5.5.
The hod)' I is proVided with a fixpd spherical support At ()Oint C
111\(1 a roller suppor~ a.t point B which leaves the body free to rolato
only aoout tbe uxis BC. Tbis lost deJ:tlle of freedom wilJ be
eliminated if a lIlo\'.ble spherica.l support is added at a third point
A, provided poiu1. A does Dot fall on the line BC.
l{ tbe structure proper does not constitute an unyiolding combi-
nation the number of constraints at the supports should be i1lcrcasl'd
(lccordingly. As 00 example. let us consider the hinged qundrnngle
}),1J2B~IJ~ ill Fig. 6.Da. If it were nUllcbed to the ground nl. three.
cor-llors lIsing flS heretofore three sUPllori..'> of the different types
described. it woulrl conserve two degrees of freedom, for its shape
could he altol'cd io its own plane, and furlhermore it I;ould fohl
around one uf the dioionals. The system could be mado immovable
by adding two constraints and efftlCth'el)'. four supports of the roller
type as shown in fie:. 6.5/1 ....i ll provide the required. stahility.
IndL'Od. point B I can move neither along the vertical. nor alollg
the dil\."'Ction B,B: tlue to the constrainLs developed by tllo support
at this same point; at the same t.ime the displacemeut along BIB t
is luade impn:'!sible due to the pregeoCtl oC a borizontal constraint
al point B . Accordingly, joint Ht is fully immobilized. Too joints
1J:, JJ 3 and B. are ('onnected to the first onc and to the ground using
a sufficient num.oor of bars (constraints) to make tbe whole s)"stl'm
completely $lable.
The position of the supports must be judi('iously choscn, for other
wi.'Ic it may Ilappen that one part of the structure will havu redundant
constraints alld will become static.ally indelcrminate. while the other
part will relain one or more degrees of !l'cedom. All example of
 i.,s . .spar~ F rtJm~wurk S 247

Pig. 9.~

'0'
Fi;. 4.$

Fi;:. S,S

lO'
Fill G.:; '"
 Splice Framework

a faulty distribution of support constraints is given in Fig. 6.56.

The direction of the horizontal constraints at joints B, and B 2 coin-
cides with that of point C. these two constraints become redundant,
whereas both joints B I and B 2 are free to move towards A. This
could be corrected by shifting the constraints marked with ft cros.s
to new positions indicated in dash lines.

3.5. THE FORMATION OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE SPACG

FRAMEWOHK

The simplest unyielding pIano system is constituted by a triangJO'

ACB shown in 'Fig. 7.5a. Let us add joint D using two bars AD
and CD as indicated in Fig. 7.5b. The system obtained will be
ulIstallll'" rot' lriallgle ADC can rotale IlhOlll AC. Tu order to obtllin

(",
Fig. 7.(,

all unyielding combination, a third bar not lying in the plall~ IIf
ADC shouLd be introduced. say bar BD (Fig. 7.5c).
Tho pyramid so obtained is the simplest three-dimensional framod
structure; additional joints, each connectcd to the alrea((y existing
system by thrco separate ooncoplanar bars, may he introduced
to form now structulCs, which will remain stRtically (leterminato
allfl unyielding.
Let us now examine the relation existing in a space nlloework
<18 described above between thc number of joints, the number of Lars
311d the numbllr of eonstraint.~ at the support.s. Let S be the numbL'r
of bars, SQ tIle number of constraints and K the number of articulat-
ed joints. The total number of tno unknown stresses and reactions
will then equal (8 + So) and the total numher of equllibriuffi equa-
tions which may be used to fmd these unknowns is 3K, for at each
joint we may equate to zero th.e x. y and:: projections of all forces
(internal and external) applied to this joint.
 3.5. The FQrmoWm 01 St<llically Del~rmi"alc Space Frameu'ork 249

Hence the number or reduuclant members a.nd/IH' support con-

straints t will be gh'cn by
t=S+So-3K (1.5)
When i > 0, the system is statically indllterminate, whon i < 0,
the system is unstahle, llnd only when i = 0 the system may remain
stiltically determinate and form an utlyielding combination.
However, this condition though necessary is 1I0t sufficient, for
the equation
S+So-3K=0
pt'rmils the determination only of the number of bars and support
COTlstrainLs required. but furnishes no information on their mutual
position. The latter must be known in order to determine whethor
the systom is l'itotically determinate or not.
In the case of the simplest structure shown in l<~ig. 7.5e we llave:
S = 6: So = 6; K = Ii, the expression (1.5) showing that in this
case t = (j + 6 - 3 X 4 "" 0 and therefore the requirement stip-
ulated above is satisfied assuming that the constraints at the sup-
ports (Jlot shown in F'ig. 7.5) are the same as in Fig. 5.5. However,
the same results could be obtained for the structure given iaFig. 8.5
which differs from the one just mentioned by the fact that bars AI),
BD and CD lie in one aJJd the same plane, thus making the whole
structure iru;tantaneously uIIstahle, for joint D can move along
a lIorroal to the plane ABC.
Accordingly, having made sura that t = 0, tila stability of the
syst~m Olust be examined by the method of zero load described for
plane :;tructures in Art. 6.4. As will be remembered, this method
consists in the computation of stresses in all the members of thu
system at zero load; when these Slres.<;tJs arc nil, the system is gcm-
metrically stable. but when they are indeterminate and may differ
from 'lero, the system is instantaneously unstable.
In the case of the structure shown in Fig. 7.5e it is easy to prow:
that at zt.'ro load all its members remain idle. Indeed, S(lparatillg
joint D and projecting the stresses NI, N 2 and N 3 acting in ruerubt'r8
AD. BD and CD respoctively on a normal to plane ADC (Fig. 9.5)
we obtaiu J.V 2 cos ~ = O. whercfrom J1i 2 = O. The same reasoning
shows that the stresses in all the other members of the system afll
also nil, which mc-ans that the structure forms an unyielding combi-
nation.
Blit if WlI apply this reasoning to joint D of the syst<lm shown In
Fig. 8.;) we obtain
NI xO+N 2 X O+N~ X 0=0
whieh is an identity satisfied for any values of N Io N~ and N J
The rOlnuining two equilibrium equations which )may be written
for Utis joiot will contaio thrre unkn()wnll whoSt! "alues there(ort:
remain indoterminate. This indicates clearly tbat the system is
inst.antanL-<lus[y unstable.
Let us 1101'1' t'umine the structure nlpnoscnt.cd in Pig. 10.5. Wo
have ill Lhis case
So=8; 8=16; K=8; i=8+16-3x8_0
afld thus tho !jyswm may be slnticaUy clcLellIlillaw. Applying again
tILL' zero load JIltlLbod we shall start by sllparating joiJlt A and by

Plg.8.S Pig. 9.5

prnjecting stresses N" .V 1, N J amI N, on 8 normal to plane A GBzB 1

This leads immediately to tV, = O. Proceeding now to joint E wc
mAy easily prove that all the bars mccting at this joint runlain idle.
Plt~ing consecutively w points D, G. B h B z and B, and considtlr-
iog their equilibrium, wc shall rllld tbat all the other bars of our
structure remain unstre!Seu, which proves that this structul'O is both
stntic.'llly determinate and geometric.ally stable.
The system which wo havl;! jUi'it examined d~s not bulollg to tho
category of simple structures for it is impossible to dismantLe it by
~htl successive elimination of joints, each connected to tho rClnailldor
of ~ho sysl.cm with the nid of three bars only.
Such sysloms are termed complicated and may be oMained by
nlplncillK ono or more bars of a simple system by a con't'sl"lOnding
nlllllher of differentl)" situaled ml"mool'8. }'or in.<;tance, if in Olll"
s)'slolll wo tCplace the diagonal AB: by /l diagonal BIG (shown by
n doth..-d line) we shall be able to take Ihe structure down by elim
ioatill(l' !luccessivoly joints A, E, D and C, oach with three con
lIN'.tin(:: bars. Thus the complicated systom shown in Fig. 10.5 ill
solid linos cau be ubtained by altering the positiun of only one
bar in u simple system.
 2~1

In conclusion 1~1- us examiue tllc plalli' tru~'" rcl'l't'$Clllcd in

Fig 11.5, all the joinLs of which are of tho IIni\'crS:'l1 t.YI1U. if we
D

, t,"m"-"~/2le'_..,(1V
fI I /Y; 'IJI

Fit. 10.5 F,t:. 115

aSSIlIllt' tha~ the central triangle of this trusfi i!o' rigidly ctmntlctod
to tht' !:found by means CJ( 6 .!Iupport constraints we till-VC
S=l1; So=6; [(=7; i:= 1-l"'76-3X 7=-4
Th\l!J thu .~)slclTl is Ilnstabll' lInd has (our dogrci's of freedom;
ind{'ed, it. may fold along lines I-I, l/-ll, IIf-lll and IV-IV.

4.5. STlIESS A;\'ALYSIS IN SP.",CI1: FRAMEWORK

The fullowing three lIIothous 31'tl in U~ for stcc::!S dctl'l'lIIinatiOll
in Shtlically determinal.e spaCC framewurks:
(A) I he method of St<ctiOllfi.
(h) \.he method uf bar replacement,
(c) the mtlthod of red'lc.ing the space structure to a seri{'s of plane
01l~".
Wc shall examine each of these methods in tunl.
(0) The m~thod af st'clian$. This method is used for the COmjlUla
tion of stres,..es in l.he members of simple framed strudures and
cOIl'iists essentially in passinG" a section through a certain DllIllber
of lJars in which the stresses are sought. The portion of the struc-
lU~ l'E.'JnOvc(\ is replaced by the internal forces acting along the
SCCLiOlll'd bar.-, the::e forces being then determined wilh thl' aid
of equilibrium equations. In general six eltUations of shtirs lllay
00 ""fltten fot each .section alld therefore the number of unknown
stl'C5.'!es d~hmuincd for a single section mal not exceed six.
Oepe,.nlJil1g on the equilibrium equations used ami till lhu ptllli.
tion of the section itself this method may !.le subdividt:d into:
(1) the mothod of moments,
(2) the method of shears,
(3) the TIIothod of joints.
 Spau P""..tll'Ork

III the !irst (I( these thnle methods the equilibrium equations are
(lbtaincd by expre..'<Sing that. the sum of moments of all ext~rnal
forces acting on a oody in equilibrium about some pre~I~lt'd
axis is always nil. As its name implies, this method is "ery similar
to t.he met.hod of moments described in Art. 2.4 for plane structllN'~.
."" an illustration of this method, let us determine streMeS N,
and N: acting in the legs of an elevated tank appearing in Fig. 12.5.
Having passed the section m.-m W~
may equat.e to zero IJl{ o( all t.he
w forces acting OD. t.he upper pottion or
the st.ructure about the axis 1-/. The
stresses NI nnd N: arc rogarded ilS
applied at point A, where their I'osul-
m-"7'-_I--+-'\-\-I_m lant is resolved into a vertical amI
, a hori1.Ontal component. This leads
to tho following equation
f
IM, = Wlf-Qa-(N) +N,) c sin a-=-O
where thc angle a is gi\'Cll hy

tan a=T
Owing to the sylnll\etry of th{'
loading, Nj=N, and therefore
, ,V -N _lVll_Q4
-1- '-2csina.
F", 12,5 The second method is 8nalogolls
to the mcth.od of shears used ill tlw
I.lnnJYl;is of piano struct.ut'Cs, In this case the equilibriulU cqua-
tiolls express that tho sum of projections of an external forces 011
~U1ll0 conveniently chosen axis is nil. TJlis method will be mod"
quite clear if wc consider the cantilever truss represellted in
Fig. 13.5. 10inLs A, 8 and C of this truss are rigidly fixed by mean:"
of si.x lluppor~ constraints (not shown in the drawing). Using expres-
sion (1.5) we find that
t=S+S.-3K=15+6-3 X i=O
and since under l.{'ro load all the bars will remain idle, which lK>-
come!! immediately apparent if joints 1. 2, 9 and 4 are isolated ill
succel:l5ion, the system is statically det.crminate and forms au un-
yielding combination.
In ordcr to det.ermine tho stresses NI and N 2 acting in tbe diago-
md~ let us pass section Rand assumc that the projection Oil the
z-oxis of all forces applied to the right-hand portion of tbo t.russ
 253

is nil
~z = -P+(N I +i.V 2)sin ~"""O
Taking the moments of NI and N 2 ahout the x-fods we ohtain
~M" = N la sin (J. -N!ll.sin Cl: =U
811d therefol ()
NI=N:
111 this cnse th~ solution of ~Z=O yield~

NI-N. =2-
2sma
When tile section passed separat~s only ono joint wo obtlliu the
method of joints. The equilibrium equations uscd in thill case do
not differ in principllJ from those u.'!ed in the previous olle.

p
y

FIg. 13.$

Wo shall uso lhis method to determine the stress N a acting in

hllr 1-:1 of the Sllllle truss (scc Fig. 13.5).
Separating jOillt 1 and equating to zero the sum of forces pro-
jected ou the z-axis we obtain
~Z=-P+Nasill~=O
whcrefrom

The method of joints is particularly well suited iu the following

(~ases:

L \Vheu tltree hars m~t at an unloaded joint. In this case as

previousl)' Jlumlioncd (sce Fig. 9.5) aH tltree hars are idle.
254 Spart: Fr(Jmtll'ork

2. When all the bars me-eting ot a joint. with the exception of

onc, lit} in the same plane. If no load is applied 10 such a joint or
H I.his load acts in the said plane, the stress in the member which
is olll-si.le this planc will be nil.
(b) The method of bar replacem.ent. The method can he 3dvanta
(rl.!ously used ror complicated space systems when it is impossible
to pass a set'lion cutting six bfl,rs only, thus making the metllod
or Si.'clions praet.kally inappliCAble. The basic prindple of this
mcthod dorives from thl] fact that any complicated staticall;y deter-
IIlinnltJ sy,sl.t}1\l call be reduced to tl simple one by replacing' one
or' more hal's.
Let U~ take liP the casa of 3 complicated !'iYiltllm which cun be
converted into a simple one by the replacement of one bar only.
l.et X be I.he stress ill the b,u to be replaced_ H~lVjng introduced
the substitute bar. let us consider tho simple structure so obtained
\lItdl'r tlte netion of the gi\-cn set of loads and of the load X applied
~dollg till' direction of t.he bar replaced. Denoting by ~Vl'" .V.T
11lHI .\r_T thl' stresses induced in the sllbstil.llw liar by the loads
..ctllally applied. the force X and by a ]mHI unity acting ill the
ilircClion of X, respectivelJ. we may write
N% = XiV"
Tlw ('omhiJlt'd stress ill the substitute har may Le t.hen eXjlressE'{]
b~'J.Vp-+-XN". As in the I\etllal structure this hat' is ahsent.
we must equale thi.') stress to zero
Np+XNx=O
which lead~ immedilltely La

(2.5)

Once the '-l\hH.' of X is known. the stre::s in anr memher of

tILt.' st'"Uc-tUI>f' will be easilr fOHlld nsing the formula
1,'" =/"'-"P+ N"",X (.':L5~
wlwrc N'q, ~.sl.l\lss iuduced in member k of the simple SLrUc-tllrt.'
hy lhu !Ictual set of load;l fJ
s,,~_ c= stl'ess in the same member inducl'd hy tho load uni-
ty X = 1.
The saillt' pr(!{~odllrc can he followed when the ('.()llversion of Llw
ghl)1! sysLem to n simple one reql1ireil the replacement of sc\'('ral
bnrs. lu t.he lalter (.ase the del.ormination of ~tresse~ ill the buril
whit.:h nre /xoing repla('_ed will require the solution o( several equa-
tions with s<'\'eral unknowns equal in IImnber to that of tbe bal'$
 -1,5. Stress Analysis in Space Framework 255

just mentioned. It ,vill be readily seen that in this respect there

is no dilTerence between space frameworks and plane structures
(see Art. 4.4).
[n order (.0 illustrate the use of the above method, let us com-
pute the stresses in the structure shown in Fig. 14.5a Onc.idelltal-

p J J X I P

~.$L ~B ':!l-"?C;<- ~B

ra)
Fig_ 14..';

Iy thcsp stresses could be ohtained direetly by the method ot' see-

tiolls).
As usual let us check Ilrst whether thp system is statically detcI'-
minnLe and stable. [n the ease under consideration S = 12, So = !i
and K .., G, WhCI'cfl'Otll
i=12+6-B X u=o
v'<'llielt shows that at least one of the basic requirements is satislit"d.
The demonstration that under zero load all the hars remain idlt,
will be given later.
Hepladng har 1-8 by Lllr A-:2 (Fig. 14.5b) we obtain n si III plc\
structure for which tJlC stress in the substitute bar lllay be found
by the method of joints.
Starting with joint 1 we 11nd the stress pmdneed in bar 1-:2 by
the load P; passing to joint :-J we see that unde!' the action of Ods
load bar 2-:-J remains idle; separating then joint .'2 wc shall easily
obtain the stress in har A-2.
This being don8 let liS examine the stress arising in the same bars
from the applicatioll or the unit load X.
This slrt'ss may bl' reprcsented by
X-x 7' N~+N:
whct,f' N.~ = stress in bar A-2 induced hy the load IJllily llpplied
at joint: 1
;V~C = st.rw;;s in the same bar ineluced by the sallJe load applied
ai, joint 3.
256 Spacp, Framework

Owing to the symmetry of the structure

.and accordingly
Nx=2N~
As will he readily observed from Fig. 14.5b, the stress N~ is oppo-
site in sign to the stress N p and P times smaller than the latter.
Hence
_ _ 2N
p
Nx=2N~=--p-

Substituting this value in expression (2.5) we obtain

NI' NpP 1
x=- if" =2l{p =T P

Once X is known, the stresses in all the members of the struc-

ture arc found with HO difficulty.
Heturning to the demonstration that under 7,et'0 load all bars
of the structure remain idle we call now state that foT' fJ = 0 the
force X = 0 and accordingly har 1-3 is idle. Separating joint~ 1, 3
and:2 in succession wc shall find immediately that the same applies
to all the other bars.
The method of bar replaeemllllt can be of considerable help \vhen
investigating the geoillotrical stability of the structure.
Determining the stress N x induced in the substitute bar by a
load unity ,ve may meet with two eases:
1. The stress IV", = O. Then X becomes indeterminate being
expressed by ~ which indieates that the system is instantaneously
unstable.
2. The stress N x * 0. Then in the absence of external loads
X = 0, and both terms of the expression

Nk=Nlll'+XN/>.x
reduce to zero indicating that the I'y~tem Iorms an unyielding com-
bination.
(e) The method of reducing the ,~pace structure to a series of plane
ones. This method becomes applicable when the structure is com-
posed of distinct groups of coplanar members. In such cases all
the external loads should be resolved along planes coinciding with
those of the groups of bars just mentioned, whereafter each oI these
(',ophTlar groups may be analY1,Od separately.
 ii.5. "ram,/fez DJ Slr~z~ AII'Ilyzilr in Space rrl>mt>lIork 257

Lel us l.'_oTl:-litler, (or lllslancc, the system rclln..:iCHtcd III

Fig. 15.5. Tbl} 11l1mher of snpport consl.rllints Se::"" fl X ;:! "- 10, lhu
1I1II1lher of bars S = 3.') and thl' nllmber or joil1t.') K - 1S, gidl1g
i"....-1O+35-3x 15=0
SCpM<4ling cOllse(;Ulively joints 6. 7. s. 9. 10, J, 2, :-J. 4 llllll 5
i1 is ~lIS}' to Jlnwe that whun P -= 0 aH the bars I"l:.\main idl('.
Acrordingly, the ~lrllcture is hOlh sti\tically del.l~rtlliIlIlL( illHI l,,'Co-
lllotrioJlly ~tabll\, In order to Jhlcl the stress()~ indllcer! hy load P

P
.9

Fig. 1:;'(;

Itlt 111' [(sohc this 10MI into three componcnLc; N,. N':. llUtl :\'~ as in-
dicaled ill Fig. 15.5.
Isolating thcreafter joints 7, <'i, 2 and 3 we find tlWl hars I-S, 2.J
;wd :1-B 3 re-main idle. Similarl)', isolating joi.nts 9. 10, 6 alld ~
Wo slwll pro\'c Lhat t.he. same_ applies tobani .')-10, 10-4. 4-.5 and
5-8 5 , Alone two pli4l1o trusses B~4i-7-B3 and 8 1-]0-6-8 2 wHJ lake
up the entire load. Thf'sc trusses lllay he designed ill tho usu~1 way,
compOllent NI bcing applied to the first one. componCHt N 3 to the
.!'c('.oud, and component N':. being divided between lhc two in ,lny
arbilrllr~r proporl.ion.

5.5. EXAMPLES OF STRESS ANlILYSIS TN SPllCI~ FH;\MEWOnK

Lotus determine thl! strl'.. ."":" in Ltw mQmhers of tIll' n'lltrlll plllld nf tlll' ('Ilnti
lever stl'\!cturl' 1'l'preS('n~ed ill Fig. 11\.5 !,olh hy thl'_ method 01 SCi~I-ioll aud Il~'
r;,.(!lll:illg tbe structure to oil 51ril'.'" of plllno lru>;!;('s.
(n) Mt'thad oj lIuliollZ, Start by I)I.. viIlR thnt all 'he \\'Ih m(llJlbers III th(' pia lit'
truJ!-ii .~--8-12-9 remain il!l('. For this l"wPO!e iStllale JOInt fl; rUllr hal'" 1llC'C1 at
17_853
258 SpdC(! Fra~v.;rJrk

thisjoillt but thr~e (1-9. 2--Yand lO-II) lio in lilt' s..1Ule pl3no. and tlS no e:xtt>rUlIl
loud Is <I"lllil,,'<Ito the joint the stross in har S-Y 111115\ he nil. For tht> Sllme rea;;HD
hars !/-10. lO-n 6-11, 11-7 and 7-12 will rmnalli idle.
Thi" being known. PlI!lS SI.>etiOII n cllttinp: all ~h(! JJlcmhf'fl! of LIle pand ulldt'r
consideration.
-'iA---,

~17L,Lr--\-->""
R
~~;~l __-----J

Fig. 16.5

Oewrmine :-:trl.'SS U2,.1 by equating Lt> tOI"(. Ihe slim of mumt'lI(.S of 811 foref'S
ac,ling On Ihe I('(t part of the truss ab"ut ~he x-axis coinciding with the diroc1ion
of bur 6-10

whcr('from

tll order to determine lItre!s~ D l alltl

project th" JIII"Cl'S IIcLing in Iho len ptIrt of truss on the
2 ill diltgoOllls J.(j and J-IO
;t- and :-Ax(>s

rX=2P+(D\-D:) e(l~a=O

~z,..... D t sin lS+ Dzsin p=o

D 1= -lJz
Illld hy ~ubslillltillg ill l:X WI.1 lind
P
D,---
cos Cl.
to'rollt t.tinngle 10-1,')-3

"
cns 0 ; - S:o=O.li8
 s.,'). E~nmpln ol S'rt:f~ A ntl[,Jllr in SI'~t Frnm('Nmrk i5t1

Therefore
2.')
n=
j -12 P
p 25
D! ..... OA8 ---O+12 P

III or,l,'r to JHllrmint' slft'SS(':; L. pml c',. of 1he lower churd elcment~
6_7 lI.nd 10/1 WTlle rAJ~, =0 about :In axis 71 ;IJarallcl to the ",,-pxis but
passing through the rfulfll of joint 3

This heillg known, wt'itt, IM1_O abollt the z-axis pllsslng thr~}ugh the
same IJoIlillt

whtlrefrom
9P t5
1='-. --a p,
.,.
!b) Mtlhnd nf rtduclion IQ plllnt Iru~_\'rs.
::,tart by resnldng the loads along llll) planes of the two inclilll'ol laLeral
trusses. Tho corrE'sponding compnnellts (l"ill. t7.:i) will c1lunl

~ow rOllSil1er th(' lfUJ;S 1-4-/2-11 shown in Fig. 18.5 oml detA:!rmwe stre$
Vi lO Ihe upper chord m('rrtber 2-3. A!I thl'" SlIllle member h.'longs I\I~, 10 tf'US:S

Pig. J7..~ Fig. 1$.5

S-.l-1-8 \~(l Fig. WoO'i), HTllltlter stress U't wdllw.- induCl'i1 in it at tho ~nme Urnl1
OwiILg 1(1 lhe fact that till' \'"rtical pTojl;ctions ul loads P j lin(\ 1'2 are of
f\ppo~it-f' )l.igll
Ui=-U~

ami Lheroiorc the rl'!'ulling swss will be nil.

".
 Tile .!;M"~ D,! ill the Jingollal will be oblllil){'() lIy IlrOJ(IoGtlllg all tbe
forc\'s acting OIL till,' I"ft JXlrt of tlll'_ trrl~ 'JlJ a n1.ll"mal to lite c1lonls
~)' = -21'1 . J- n~ cos l; =U

.'\S"L=~!' ilml cose.,.....I).8

"= 25 P

Ob\-j'fU3Iv l!t(' ~tr('ss

"
Dt ill lI,,: cOrrt'Sll'OuJing i1iltgouaJ of the olher Iruss
will E'<lual -

Finally l"lllullllg to 7,1'1'0 !..If about puijlt J giVl'9

wlt"rdrolll
 6. KINEMATIC METHOO
OF INFLUENCE LINE
CONSTRUCTION

t .H. GENEHAL

Tl,e killclllalic. method of iUnllcncc line c-ollslrtll'tion fOl' :lIly giv-

I'll function (shear, bending mOIDent. normal fllrt'.e, l'l1.ulmenL
ruflcLiOlI. 5Ln'ss ill n mf'm hor of a truss:) is based 011 1)116 of the JIl0~t
gt.nel'lll principles of thooretical meclHmic-s-tJH.' pruu:ipl'J 01 vir-
IIwl ai,;plac('mflll.~.
III lICcordnllc.e \vith this jlriflcip!J, the total work pe.rformed by any
it-efl '~'ysteTll of foro's along otrlual di.~placemenfs of n, body in equilibri-
IU1/. m.ust hI! nil. Suell. displnctlllwn\.s arc reckoned jnfinill~ly small

\
J
I

, , ,/ --/
---- /

amI thCf{'forc they may he accomplished withollt disturlJillJ; ,lilY

of Lilo existing inh>roaI 01: oXlernal cOlIslrnints. At the S:UllC hUll,'
the illsignificanec of those displnccmenLs permits I.he int['(ullll'liull
uf the following- simplir1t.atiofl$ when plate f slwwn ill Fig. 1.1;
rotntes an inlinitcsimal angle drp a.bout point 0, any vl,twr point fl.
)o{'lIl.ed a dist"nee r from point 0 will shift to (l2 I\long a drclll;u ,,,....-;
hOWf'Vrlr, !<inee the angle of rot<ltion is very sffiHll, wc nHlY eOllsidc,r
thot point a moves along tho tangent to the arc 81l([ not t.he arc
it.St,Jr. noglceting completely the distanc.e (tjaZ_ For tlw SHme reason
we may also neglec.t the diffofllllCO between dIp and tall (dffl) whj{'h
!o!iHlplill()s very conRidcrably the constrnction of the vil'tuftl dis-
plar,ament RTnphs.
2(;2 Kintmlllir Mellwd 'pI (f~Jlu~nu {,Ine COllslrucllofl

The kinematic theory (also culled the strain energy or clastic

energy theory) eD3b1e~ the construction or inDucnc.e lines for all
tYllCS of structures: beams, archos or trusses, statically determinate
or redundant. The methods based on this theory arc particularly
well fit for certain compliCllterl cases where they lead La quicker
nul! more reliaLle rcsulkl~ they arc also very useful for checking
innucncc lin('s constructed IJy other mo_thods.
Hereunder we shall describe only one of the met}LOds derived
from the above theory. This metbod might be termed the instan-
taneous centre of rotation method and is extremely simple and
casy to grasp.

2.(;. DASIC PRINCIPI.ES OF THE KInEMATIC METHOD

Let us consider a plate rigid Iy CQnnccwd to the ground by means
of three constraints represented by three supporting bars (Fig. 2.Ga).
p

a
1
(a)

.'\S~lIll\/J t.hat it is reqnired to construet the innuorl('.(\ line rOl' the

stress in onc of these b8.r~, SflY, bar B. when a uniL load P, remain-
ing nlways parallel to itst'lf (Fig. 2,6b) travels along the plate.
Unlike thl\ stattcal method~. whith require that a ~CtiOIl be
passed :)el'OSS 5C,'eral bars, ~ISlllllly scparating the whole structure
 2.6. Basic Pruu.pl"6 of t~ Kt~matlc M~thod 163

or parl thereof from tht'- :::rounJ. lhtl- method dcsr,ribed involves

the elimination of OI1l~ bitr (or J;Ollstraint) unl)' <llld it!'J replace_lllen\.
by l\ fOrC'e X equal to the stress acting therein.
r11 the ease under eonsid<,ralion the system 80 obtal ned c.an rotate
Creely about poinl .-I ~IIHI is maintained in equilibrium by LILO load
P, the force X and tlte I"cadions acting along the relllaining sup-
pOI'l-ing hars.
Let us apply lo this s,\'slelll tllB pl'illciple of \'irtuul displaccmcnts.
A.':' point A is rigidly cOlllwded to the gr'oull(! it will constitute
tlw contre of rotation of the plate. the only possibJo llLoHolI of which
will consist ill a l'otlltion about this point, SuPPOst\ that the plate
has turned clockwise an iniillite.c:,inlal angle dep (Fi~, 2.f:ib) causing
the load point to shift fl"1Jln a to 4j alld the poiut of ltpplieatiolt of
t.he foree X from b to b t
Dt'uoting by 6p thl' c.umpollout of the displac.enwnt a-at directed
nloll,e- the forc_!:' P aud by {j~. thf') component of the displacement b-b l
dirl'dcd along the force X we may wril-c
Pol' + XO;r: =0
whicll expresses tha.t the work perronncd by the exturnal ron'cs
netillg 011 a hotly ill cqlliUhrium remains nil. 'fhe load P beillg
Cunl to unity, we dl'aw immediately from the ahove

X 0= - . -0"- (1.6)

wldc.h reprcsp,nts the equation

'.
for the
required intl\lcnc.e ]jlto ill
its most general form,
Analyr.ing this cx.prc&sion we lUlW that frllm triangle (121111j
(F;g. 3.6)

wh('re aa t = All dq:.

J 1. follow8 that
61' = Aa cos Bdlf'
Aacm~~ lJeing equal 10 the lc\'er Mm oC the load P about
point A, let us denote it by ,r wluch gi\'cS
{,p -= xdq.
Ht'I'calter any di~j)Jacclllent at~t'.olllplisllt'd by some point or the
plate in the direction of the load will be reekoned positive and allY
displacemeTlt l)ct~onrplishcd in the uppol>ile direction-negative.
1t is clear thaL the displacemllnt5 of different. points will dcpl'nd
on the position of load P, this displacement being proportional to
the lever arm x, 01" ill olht.r \...ords, to the distanco of the load point
to the t'ellt~ of rolatioll A.
2M Kt/ll'tllatic Method 0/ It1fllMtl'!' '.itU CO'lSirucfff>l1

Iltlying deLermincd tho displac.ements o[ all the possihl~ poillts

of application of the lu~d P wc lUuy reJlrt'scnt these displae-cmeDl.s
I;rnphically obtaining the so-called diagram oj virtual dlsplacenu.>nts
or tli.~plllct'mmt graph aj the system,
Let. liS examine the term 6..... Using Lhe same reasoning as 3bov~
wc obtain from Fig. 4.l>
6.: = bb, cos V = Ab cos \' dqJ = r dip
A.s both the point of applicdion of the force X and its ~Iircction
rNnaill constant, the fli~placcmellt 6", is a constnnt independent
fmm the position of the load e,
and lllay therefore be "tcgardNI liS
roprc:-:cntiug the I'cale to which the virtual displac.cmcnts have been
dr:l\\'Il.
I nd~'ed, Lhe shape of tho illnuence line will dcpellll solely nil
Lilo numorator 6p of Lilo cxprt'sl'!ion (1.t)) JJUt the determination of

Ak:::..-----L---J,~, ,
Fig. 9.6 Fig. 4.6

nUllH'rie.u1 values or tho ordinales to this line requires that. dll'

Vllbll' of lhc dl!IlOmillalor 6 11 be cxac_tly known.
Thus, the ordinates to the influence line for allY function are equal
tn rhoSt' Of the 1!raph of uirtllal. dil>'plaullU'nts oj the system made pos~
sib/(, by /.he eluninalion aj the correspondiltg constraint divieu.'Cl by
the .W:(JU factor (j;r:.
Tlu~ SC(llJeIlCl' ill which the I;onslrnetioll of the innucnc.e lines
hy Ihe method of the illst:lfltaneous centre of l'Qt.atioll should be
ClHriOl1 nul is IlS follows;
(1) e.lilllillale the ~'ollslraitll corresponding- to th" ,hlHeliofl under
tllll~i\I()l"atioll aUll rl.'plaee it by the force X,
(2) draw the graph of virtllal di~plaremonls for the H\cc]latlislll
ohtuilll:d upon elimination of the said cOTll'trnint,
(H) u()Lcrmine the scale factOr pertaining to this grnph,
(>'J) determine the signs of Lhe ordinates to the illflmmce line.
A" nu illut'tratlon of the oboye. let liS consider thl:\ example of
a c,llItihwer beam appearing ill Fig . .".i.ua for which it is required
III t;oul'!trud the inflnenc.c line for rellction n.
 2.6. H(l.~i(: l'nnripll';; of the J(illl'matir ]Het!lod

The diminaf,ioll of the ['ight-hand support leaves the hL'HIrI rn~e

to pivot abollt the I'emaining one (point A), 'which will thl'r'(\fOfL>
constitute the centre of rotalion of the sy,<;Lem, If t1l0 henm is llll'll!)(1
cormterl'loekwise through all angle dtp about this centre tht""

r--"-'-- P=J

FiK' ;),r;

disJllaeements of all tlw points will be r'ep['esented by a straight

line intersecling thl' beam axis at A (where the displaeeHlcnl is
nil). The ol'dinatL~s La this line will he reckoned positive to LlIL' Idt
of A (all tl10 points bciTlg displaced downwards, e,g" along tlw
(lit'Cdion of foree P) and negative tu the ['ight of it.
The displacement Ox is positive and equal to the ordinate (:01:-
respondill~' to point B. 1 in our drawing we put Ox = 1, expre:;sioll
(1.6) will give

x-~~-~
-bx-t-
01J ---,_0
P

In order to obtain the influence line for readion B all that ,'ellwius
tu be done is to change the sign of all the ordinalel:l to the displaeL>-
lllent graph as shown in Fig. 5.6c.
lu the following nrtieles wo shall consider moT"O cOTllplicated
case.",
2(-\6 Kinematic :Method of Influence Lin~ Constrndion

3.6. HEPLACEMENT OF CONSTRAIKTS BY CORRESPONDING

FOnCES
As already stated, the construction of an influence line for any
Junction st.arts wit.h the elimination of tlH! corresponding constraint
'whit'h must be replaced by a ron~().

le) It)

Fig. GJJ Fig. 7. G

LPi. us consider in detail some of the more typical cases o[ ('on-

str"int elimination.
(a) R liminahon of the constraint corresponding to the vertical re-
flction. In this case the lixed support should be represented by two
-COJlcurrent bars one of which is horizontal and the other vertical

Fig. 8. 6

HS shown in Fig. 6.6a. The vert.ieal supporting bar is then eliminat-

ed and replaced _by forces X = V A directed t.owards the hinges as
shown in Fig. l3.lib, which corresponds to a positive reaction induc-
ing a eompressive stress in the eliminated bar.
(b) Elimination of the constraint corresponding to a thrust. In this
case the hori7.0ntal bar is removed (Fig-. 7.6) and replae-ed by
i'orccs X = If A again directed towards the hinges, this direetion
coinciding with the direction of the thrust reckoned positive.
(c) Elimination of constraints corresponding to .~tre.~'.,>l'.~' in truss
members. It is the member for which the influence line is required
that should be t'emoved. The forces X should be directed away from
LlIL' joints thus indicating that tcnsile I:ltresses are reckoned po:oi-
live (Fig. 8'{-)).
 .1.6. /tr/,lotfmtIl1 of CO>llflralnh by Corrt'srolldinf! P<lrf:C~ 267

(d) Elimination of tOnstraints correspQnding to shroring foues. AllY

crllS3 section of a bt!am, an arrh, or 1\ bent capable of r<.'sisting the
action of a bending mOment, a shearing or a normal forct: may 1('
schematically rcplacpd by a connection con:-;isting or thrtc bars a,'l
indicated in Fig. g.li/,.
The mutual po~iLioll of thcso bars may bt varicd at will but
thu)' must always Qll!>ure the rigidity of the c-onncc.tinll whic_h irn~

0
M/ C ..... 1.1 M/ (l J ....... M
IN
N
l- N N , ,.
, -\
c 10' (c)
"0 1:-'

Fig. 96

plies tbat t.hesc three- (Jars may never have a common l)oint of
intnrscl'tion.
In the arrangement appearing in Fig. 9.Gb the force acting in tho
\'~rtical bar is ~~qunl to the shear. which follows from t.he equili~
brillm of vertical components o( all forces acLing to the 1L,f[ (01' to
the ri~ht) of section I~I

whence
X_Q
COIl&'_quently, the construt"tion of the influence Iille [or the ~llI'ar
acting over .sCt~tion CC reduces to the construction of that Tor the
stress X ip the vcrlica I ha r.
Upon removal of the vertical bnr the two parts of the beam will
have a mobile connection represented schematicolly in Fig. 9.6c.
(c) EliminaliOlt of the conslraint co,'m;pondinK U> it normal force.
Adopting for till) t',onnection bars a pattern roprcsl.mted ill Fig. to,Ha
and projecting l.lll the forces acting to the left (or to the right) ()f
section I-Ion n horizontal we obtflill

where(rom
X=N
 [(im?malir Afl'llwd "/ InfluI!IlCI! fA,/.(' ('on.<lrucliorl

In other words, the stress in the horizontal bar is equal to dw

normal 10re8 N acLing- in the member under consideration,
UpOll removal of the horizontal bar HlC two par-L.. of the member'
will have a mobile eonnection represented sehernaticaHy ill
Fig. 1O.Gb.
(f) Elimination of the constmint corresponding to a bending moment.
Tlw connecting bars may be placed as indicated in Fig'. 11.60.,

0
__ q I "~ ! "U

" V ~M N I~
- +-
""
r"" 'If!---
!/
N (01

"I "- X
! Q
" I 1--
,/

Fig. w.e Fig.11.1i'

Passiug section I-I and equating to Zl'l'O ~M ahout point f( at the

inter.seetion or the vertical rod with the OHC coinciding with the
Il(JUl.ru( axis of the member we obtain

whcrcfmItl
X=~
,
If r--~1. the force X In Uw connecting I'od will he Ilumerically
equal to thl' momcnl:
X=~=M
. I

lllld thllS, inslnad of constrllcting tho influence line for the ]wJlding
moment acting o Vet' till' cros:,; sedion Wl' may construct the iJlfJuenc('
line for till' strcss X in(l\leed in the lower bar of Fig. 1LI). Upon
elimillatioll o[ Lhis har the COIIll(wtion between the Lwo parts of t1w
member will ronHi.~t of two bars intor,<;eding in its neutral axi,,,
which is eqllivalcnt to a hing-l' . Sdwrnatically this eonrlecLion i:o>
I'opresl'llted in Fig. l1.f\lJ, '
All the abovc shows that tlw COllHtrnction o[ inl1l1ence lillf'H for
the usual stl'C<!S functions mav he reduced to the COl\stl'llctiOH of
thOSl\ for a normal force acting in a hal',
 /j.6. CON~TRUCTlON OF THE DISPLACE,\mNT GHAPHS

The virtual displaccmellt graph determiuos completely the shape

of the influence linos, their ordinates dirrerin~ by a constant factor
only. For this reason it may bc said that when tllO displacenwnt
graph is comploted the maitl bulk of work has been dOl\o. Lot u"
examine the COllst['llCtioll of displacemcnt graphs in the case of onc,
two <lnd four hingc-conTloeted plates.
(al Displaceml'nt gmph for a single plate. i\SSlLllll1 that plate I
with onc iJxed point 0 is acted upon by onc moving IOlld P "cc 1
r~\

Fig. 12.fJ

Hnd a fn::od force X, the diroetion of the former TIlay be arhitrary.

Let plate I tUl'n an angle drp about point 0 in a clockwise t!ir(,'dioll
(on the choic,e of direction see Art. !'i.G).
The .'r-axis of the graph may be dlOSCll at will oxeepting paral-
lels to the direction of force P. 'rhus, in Fig. 12.6b the x-axis is
llormal to the line of action of force P while in Fig. 12.t\c it has
been chosen horizontal. The axis of ordinates mUi>t be ahvays tllken
para Ill' I to force P. The p8l'tinent poin Ls 0 f the system will be deno t-
crI on the graphs by the same letllll's \vith a prime index.
The displacement of point m along tho direction of P will cqll<\l
(soo Art. 2.G)
81'=xdrp
whel'r) ,r is tlte distance of the line of nctioll of the rOI'Ce to the centre
or totllLioll (always measHred along a normal to this line, regardless
or t.ho dimction <ldopted for the x-<lxis o( the graph).
270 Kinl'Malk J'(rlhod of IllflUl'''c~ Lint CtHulnul.on

Till' :lbove expression show~ dearly that in the case under C.(),l-
fiidcralioll the clisplnc-t!mcl\t graph will form a straight (ille inter-
s('ct.ing the x-a:..:is at point 0' whcro ;r reduces 10 zero.
To th(\ right of point 0' the ordinates of tho ~raph are positive.
as tho direction of the di!lp(Acement 6p coincides with the direction

IIIJillJJllilllijjjJ]Jl>7r "lJ:lf8 (;fof11

Fig. 13.6

of lilt' forr.e P, whilo to thE' left or t,rus same point the ordinateS
will be llegative. for this portion or the plate will mo\'e in an 0Ppo-
sile I]in.'cliofl.
The scale fne!,or \yill be obtninl:'d rCIlll'mbering I.hl1t

o:<= rd'l1
It fllllows (hat for x= r
t\t ---.,.{),..
In other words. tIll' sc-alt: factor is equal to the clispla....clIlent. graph
ortJillnto ffl('a~nrcrl a distonc.c r from I)oint 0' (Fig. 12.Gb antl c).
(b) Displacement graph for tu:o pin-connected plates. Let, llS {'(In-
st.ruct lllll displllcemcnt graph for two plat('~ .r and 11 flxcd at.
points at and O2 And COllncc.ted to onc anot.her by mean!'! of hinge .l
loc.fllt~d ill lillc \... nh poinl'l 0, and O2 (Fig. lB. H). AR. we kno\y, :-5uch
11 syslelll will be instnnt:lneollsly unstable, hinge 1 heing able tu
sUSl::lin inlinilt'!l;illl:ll di~placeJllents along a normal to line 0,-0 2 ,
its motion involving inflTlitcl.r small rotatiolls of plate I aLouL
 1.,R. Cons/rllciill/! of thl! Di6plfU:emctlt Grapht 1H

point Oj and of plntt' 11 about point Oz. HnvinR' choscn the x-axis.
oC thc displaccJn(,llt graph :md having fOlmd lohe projection~ o(
0 1 O2 and hinge J on this axis we may procecd with the construcLiOll
of the graph iU;ctr. which will C-OIl!'list of HntlS Oil' and Oi)' inter-
secting at point l' (Fig. B.Gb).
'fhe scnle fncl.or can be found nssnming either that the displun'-
ml!llt of point 1. ,-=Olnlllon to both plates. i~ (.8used by the rotation
of plat.e I about point Dj, or by the rotation of plate If about pojnl
0=, In the first cn:w the scale factor will be given by the length of'
the illSel'l bet.ween the line bounding the grnph a.nd the x-axi.c;,
meAsured along- 11 parallel to the rlirccHoll or [or(.(\ P a distonee ,"'
from point Oi, allll in the sueond by thc length of a similar inSf't't
but measured a disl.ll11ce r2, from point Oz. J[ Hlcasurcd correctly,
both ~ca.lc faC-tOl:li will bc cxactly the some.
Thus far we have admiU.ed thAI. plates / 'lnd f[ llrc lhed to lhc
ground at. points 0, and 0,. which rcmain immobile. thcreby impli-
c.1ting t.he presence of a third unmoved platc eon~tiLutcd by the
ground itself,
(n this respect it is quite important to note that from the view-
point of theoretie.11 meclJanics all o( these three plate!': ;If(' pcr[ect-
Iy equivalent. Tltl!refore. it is ab~lllt('ly immaterial which or th('
tl,rce will be rel'koned immovable and }la chango whatsoever will
occur in the outlhw of the disp!ncclllclll graph wherl the Jab",1
"imlllobilc" is shHtl\d from one plale 1,0 Hrlolher.
Indeed, if it were assumed thHt phlle 11 is tlte immovable one,
line 7'-0 2 shoulrl be adopted as t.ho axis of the disJllac.erncnl graph
nnn. nothing except l:he hatching of the graph arca weuld alter as
ShOWll ill Fig. 13.6c.
'fhc importanl'e of the abo\"c remark resides in the filet that. in
Il numher oE C;lSes thc construction of I.he virtualllisplacemcnt grapl,
may In: l'.ollsiderobly simplilied by an appropriate choice of that
pnrt or the structurc whic-h will be rec.tolled immovilble.
(c) Displacemfflt graph {or a system IIf four plates. Let us consider
a system of plates 1. IT , III and J V connected by means of hingl's
1. Z. 3 and 4- (Fi~. 14.6a). such systems being frequently encouotl....
red in practice. If we assume thnt plato I is the imltlOvable, poinls 1
and 4 will lie on the axis of t.he graph (points l' and 4' in Fig. 14.fib).
Imparting to platc 1I an inflOitcsimal rotat.ion about point 1 ill
Il clockwise dircc,tion we shall obt~in a disploc.cmcnt graph repn....
st!nleo by the line .1'-2'.
In order to complete the displacemcllt graph for plate III the
displacement of (lllly one extra point. is required as t.he displac.e~'
ment of point 2 is fl.lrcady known (point 2'). It is very convenil'nl
to adopt as such the instant3neOlls centre of rotation (ot.herwise
called the instantancous centre of 1.e,"o velocity) of th.is plate with
 KI~m(lIic Atrl1wd of Inllucl'lt'<" I~inr COIllJlruG//(m

rcferctlce to plale I, [or Oil lite graph this point will necessllrily
lie Oil the axis uf zero displacc.mclIt.s. In orde-l' to lind this centre
Itlt us eXU>_lld thl) lille 1-2 until iLs inltlrsectioll with the lille :J-4
at point 01'
I t is t'asy to provo that point 0, constilul-es tilt' required ccntrtl
of rotalioll. Indeed. licLiLiou:sly enlnrgillg' pLalE' /If until indu-
:'lion o[ point al' aud lixing this poillt we oLlllin two lllstantnne-
.'Il.':lly unstable systems [ormed: the lirsL, by plnLl\.-; 11 and 111,

...
....... --..., ,
0, \
,, ,
-'
\

,, ,,,
I ,

to!

J'
Src h
0/

"
Ftg 1<1.6

e:lclt ha\cillg ulle lb:cd puiuL (poilll."l .1 and all respcctively) Klltl
hiJlj{l'-COllllccLcd lit point 2. and the second by platf:!..'l HI amI 1\"
)1\l\(1 at POillls 0J and 4 and hilt{;e-collllcclerl at. point 3, I~adl or
tll('."ll' two Sy:'!tClilS is in every rcS)lCr,t similar to the Sy~tl'lH o(
Fig. 13.60..
,\S thiug thc point 0 1 doe:'! Ilot prcvent, inflllite.'1imal disrlac,e~
UI/'ul.'l of plale.<t fJ, III and IV with respect to pJalC -' reckoned
illJlllOYahlc, it is clear that this POillL is in eiloct the instantancous
t't'lltrl' o[ t'oLat.ioll of pia Le 11.1, It follows llull: t.he projecLioll o[
point 0 1 on the lIxis of the gt'aph will provide tlte oxtra poin!' re-
quircd and thereforo line 2'-0'-3' will c.onstilule the displac.omcl1t
l!l'nph for the "late IJI. Hepoaling' the same reasoning for plate IV
Wt' [oOhalllilld thnt lino 4'-3'-0' fOl'llls the displace-mont graph (01' the
laLler,
 Thus the broken line 1'~2'-3'-4' constitutes the entire displaeewcnt
gtaph o[ the systl'm forml'd by four hinge-connected plates.
If, IOI' instance, plate IY were regarded as the rofererwe one, line
3'-4' wOHld eotlstitnte the axis of the g'1'aph from which all the
dispJacollwnts should be measured, The instantaneons celltl'e of
rot,lI,ion o[ plnle If would be located a.t point 02 formed by the
inLersef'tioll of lines .1-4 and 2-3. 011 the displaeement graph the
corresponding point should lie on tlw axis of the graph (line /1'-4'),
its disp];wcnwnt being nil. POilll.S ]'. 2' and O2 JIlust also lie Oil
onc and tltl' same straight line, for all the three helonl{ to plate /1.

S.Ii. DETEIHIlNATION 01<' THE SCALE FACTOR

As already known (Art. 2.6), the displaeemellt irl the direction

u[ the foree X equals
ox=rd<p
whCl"eas the displaeement of any point of the plate along the
(Jir'oction parallel to the load P amounts to
bp = X dlp
II follows that for x= r
ox=op
Thus, the sca1e factor may be obtained by measuring the ordinate
10 the displacl!mmt graph lIt a distance r from the projection of the
cenlre of rotation, where r is the lever arm of the force X about this
ceJllrr'. On the graph distance r must be always measured along
H normal to the direction of the mobile load, l'egardh'ss of the angle
formed by the axis of the graph and the direction of the load (see
I 'lg.
"~ 1')_.le.
(' )
Exumpll's of scale factor determination, whon the Systl'Tll con-
sists of 0110 or two plates, \\'(~re given in Arl. 4.U.
Tltele aTe several ways of obtaining the value of the scale factor
when three or more plates are in\'olved. It is obvious that regardless
of the procedure ndopted we must always obtain the same rosull.s,
hill rwve(theloss for the sake of clarity we shall denote by 6 Jx ,
oz,,,, ole., the values at the scale factors detl~rmined ill JiffereHt
ways.
Assume tlw.t in Fig. 15.0a plate I is rtxed in which case Hlle 1'-4'
in Fig. 15.Gb will constitute the axis of the graph. The displace-
menL Ob; will bo conditioned solely by the motion of hinl-{o 2, point
S heJonp:iHg' to plate I which is regarded as immovable,
Assume that the entire force X is applied to plate iI in which
ease the COI'I'l'sponding lever arm will equal r J The scale factor
18-85J
 27!i Kin~malic llIelhod of In!lutnre Lint! CO/lslrudifJ/I

6 lx will then be equal to ordinate to line 1'+2' measured n distance rl

either to the left or to the right of point 1'.
If, on the other hand, the force X were applied to plate Ill, the-
lever arm r'l should be measured from point 0 1 amI the scale factor
0,

I 100u
I
I la
I I"
(c' I I 8;~
>- I
8"
,
I I
"
18Jx aj. +8,;;
FIg. 15.1J

Oz." would he given by t.he ordinate to the line 2'-3' mea:-:;url'd a

distance r2 from point 0 1.
Let us determine the scale factor 83,~ assuming thnt plate IV is
rendered immovable. In this case both points 2 Ilnd ;J \vill acquire
a certain displacement and therefore the required senle factor will
be represented by the algebraic sum
03X = csx +63x
where 6 3x is the displacement of point 2 and 63x trwt of point 5.
 7.6. Exam/,/f, of lnflutnre Line Con81rllc/ion 275

In ordel' to determine6~x let foree X act solely on plate III. In that

case the lever arm equals r~ and the insert between the axi5l
of the graph (line 3'-4' in this case) and the line corresJlonding to
the displacement of plate III (line 2'-3') measured a distance r 3
from point .1' will represent 6'3:1:. It must he reekoiled positive, for
point 2 moves along the direction of the force X. Afll'or8 3x itf5 valuo
will be found by applying force X to plate I, the lever arm in
that case equalling r 4
The insert between the graph axis and line 1'-4' (representing
the displacement of plate f with reference to plate IV) measlll'cd
a distance r" from point 4' will yield the value required. This displace-
ment is negative and thereforo the value of 83" will be found by
subtracting the length of 63>: from that of 6~x' A comparison of the
three scale factors obtained appears in Fig. i5.6c. If all the Opel'i\-
hons were carried out correctly all the seaIe factors ohtained will
be in f5trict coincidence.

6.6. THE SIGN CONVENTION

The correct det.ermination of signs will be greatly simplified

if the rotations of the plates were such as to ensure in every case
a pOf;itive displacement along the line of action of the force X,
for in thi.c; case the scale factor 6", will he always positive.
This will be fulfilled if the motion imparted to the plates coin-
cides with the direction of X. All the ordinates to the inflllenee
line in that case will he opposite in sign as compared with the ordi-
nates to the displacement graph, since X is equal in amount and
opposit.e in sign to ~P [see expression (L6)l.
"
If t.he load P is directed downwards (in whic.h case positive dis-
placements 6 p are laid of[ below the graph axis and the negative
ones above the axis), those of the ordinates t.o t.he influence line
which are above the x-axis will be positive, and those below the
same axis negative. Vice versa, when the load is directed upwards,
positivo influence line ordinates will be helow the x-axis and negn-
tive ones above it.

7.6. EXAMLPES OF INFLUENCE LINE CONSTRUCTION

Problem 1. Hcquil'cd the iJlfluence line for reaction at B of a mullispan sta-
tically determinate beam shl)wn in Fig. H1.6a.
Solution. Eliminato tho. constrai'!-t at the. sup~ort!J a~d replace it h} a fo~ce
X. Impart an upward motIOn to pomt 1 COInCiding In dll'cctlOn and sIgn With
force X and construct the displac,ement graph for plate/which will be represent-
ed by the line O'A]'2' of Fig. iB.fib. Line 2'-9'-4' will correspond to the dis-
placements of plato / / and line 11' -5'-6' to those of plate Il/. The lever arm nf X
18"
271i Kinematic lllelhod of Influence Line Con.~trurtioTl

uhou! point 0 is {'qual to 1. The value of scale fador Ox will be given by the ordi-
uat,e to the displac.emellt graph at point 1. If tlH' latter is adopted fol' unity the
influence lino will merge with the displacem{'nt grajlh.

(",
A
0

;:-:;;
I I
B
, r J 11
C
, III 5
D
5

'bI 0'

Fig_ 16.6

The ordinates at points 2,1 and (j will be fOlmd from the similitllde of tri-
angles

Po~iti\'(' hrdinates ar{' abovo the x-axis. nogative oneslJclow. The ~amo infJn-
enco liue was obtained previously using statics (s(j() Fig. 57.2r).

l'rolllem 2. Hequired the illfluence lhw for the shear in c.ross wetion m-n
of tile hOHn! represented in Fig. 17,6a.
Solution, Introduce a movable connection as shown in Fig. 17.lib hetwoen the
two Piu'ts of tho beam separated by section m-n and two force,s X = Om1\ replac-
ing tho vertical constraint at this cross section. Select a graph axis, ,say, line
1'-.J.l' and mark on it all tho fIxed points of tho lJCum (points 1,3, 9 and 11).
Impnl't it dodtwise rotation to plate I about point A and a similar rotation to
piaLI' 11 Il.hOllt point B. The two displacement~ will he represented in the graph
h~' the lines 2'-tr-m' and n'-9'-10', respectively, theS!! two lines being parallel
a~ hoth llill't!l of the ileam am l'otaterl tlmlllgh the same infmHesimal angle dq;.
!\-tal'k points {j' uTHlf,' on tho eoncsponding lint'_s of t.he grallh,
Line }'-2' will c,onst.itute the graph fo!' plate Ill, line 5'~1I' [or v1ate IV
and liTle 10'-11' that for plate V, the wholo graph consisting of the bl'okenline
l' -2'-5' -11' -1 0' -11' .
In ol'lIer to detol'[oine tlw ~:,ale faeto]' il%Tlffie that pllite T is fixed. Then
6" will IX' equal to m'n' whic,h will be regarded il~ Imity
ox=m'n' ~"" 1
It is madiLy seen that b x is the SlIm of ('~ Ilnd b:. The 5anw influence lin{' lwtl
heen ohtained jlrevioTls]y using statics (.~we Fig. 55.2CJ.
 7.6. Examples of rnllll""r~ Line CrJl/strllcfio/l '1.77

Problem 3. Hequired the influence line {or the stress U lG of a deek-bl'idgl'

truss of Fig. IS.lia.

1 , , ;'
(C)
fi! {If I
c
t
"
I
{
If" I I
8
I I I" "!1lJ.
,
A
" 11 B

'"
}
%
" (bJ

""
,'----- ----.T -~ i' x;Q"",

- ~
, - ~,
,
I1T'h 7'
2' V I~I
, IIlnTn Hl
le,
J'
,
~I
" ,'D' n'
" ,,,,,,"
, . ,,-1.
S m'
Fig, 17.6

Solniion. I10place llJlpel' chord memher 4-(j by the stress X = U.a, It should
he noted that the elimination of bat' 4-6 does not entail that of the c,orrespomlillg
stringer.

Stringers

cJ.1
I"

l' 12'
0' n'
IS)

s'
"
Fig.lS.(j

The force X will cause a cloc_kwise rotation of plate I and COll!lt~'rc,I{H'k\viS(l

{lJl{\ nf plate 11. TIle corresponding displacement gt'aphs will be represented hy
278

IillO.~ 1'-5' and 5'-12' (Fig. is.Ob). ProJocting on lhe5e lines Iloints 4' and 6'
we nhtaifl the dbplaccment of joints 4. lI.nd (j 01 the upper chonl.
The scale factor is found assuming that plate f is rendered iuunobill:!. plate / /
"otatiog aoout point S. Tho lever arm r of stress X llbout this point oquals
h"", '" DJ and. accordingly, tho 5c.lIle 'lldor will be given b)' tile insert between
IiJle~J'-5' and .5'J2' Illllasured \'ortic<lLlyadistanoo of -4mfrom point S' lassum
ill plate, 1 lixod, line 1'-5' lK-c.omes tbe j:traph axis). I{nowing the value of
tills inSl'rt and reckoning it equal to unity, It is easy to determine tho inDuence
line "rdi1tate Yo at tho abutment A. Ind~d, from the similitude of triangles.
110:.>1- 3. Tho same illl1u~!U:e line had been obtained provlousl}' (sefl..iFig. 71.4).

Prublem/1. fil)l(l/il'O,j the inl1ueucu lino rOl' the stress in diagunal 5-6 of a
[,!trough bridge truss ~hOWIl in .Fig.19.t'.
Soluliun. Eliminate the dingonal unbar consideration and replace it 1ly two
lorcos X =D~8' The system will be thllS hllllslormed into two plah':s I IIll;) 1/

"il\>!..;l'"'

(b.l

".
Fig. 19.6

(hat.ehed on thtl dJ'awing) COllIlcc,ttld loll une another by two bars 5-7 nnd 4-a the
uirecLiolls ()[ wldeh Illlll['sect at point K.
Let plate If he fixed. Hs displac,Qwents llOingin thatco~ nil, the corrospond~
illg displaceilll;nt graph 6'-12' will morge with the x-axis (fo'ig. 19.Gb) alld the
Instantaneous 1:IHltl'l! 01 rotation of plate I will be at point K. The fOl'r.(' X
will ilJlpurt a rlockwi:;e I'Otalion to pInto / about tlliscentl"e, line K'-4' rep~senL
ing its displa~ment grnph while tho IinQs 4'-6' <lnd S'7' will reprl'Sl'nt that o(
hars 'Ni and 5-7.
 7.6 examples 01 Iltflutncf: Liru Conslruetion 279

.'\ctlwlly it is lIoL the plALe / I but the ground. i .1' . poinLs 1 alld 12. thaL ~hOlllcl
lie 1'C'garded AS fixed. Tberdore trafe line 1'-12' and adopt it a~ Lhe fUl~1 81is of
th(' t:r&ph.
The l'nf.iro displaccm(,nt graph will Lhl'll he reprcsonlod by tbe broken line
"-4'-G'-1;:'. thc sign cOIl\'ention stipulahm in the provious sKtien remaining
ill force,
TherenhN' pwCt'cd with the rlctermin.otion of the scale factor. A.!Suming that
pinto TT i~ imlUobile_ and that fO('co X acts on plate I, the lever Ilrm T of this
101'('1' n11(,"t point K will equal 20.6 mptrcs (see Problem 2 in Art, 7 A), The ill5l'rt
hl!twOO'1l Lhe Itraph axis 6'-12' and the line representing tho dlsplllcemt'nt o(
plllL<> I Cline l ' -I') mcasnrod at a di!!tance of 20.6 ID from point K' will provide
tI,O valll!' ..., ~x = t.
lJl'illg Ltlll l'illlililudc of Lri~l1glcs obtain ordinllt.e tl untieI' tho left-hand
Almllllont

W/U:rl,rrOtll

III =2~~6 = 0.87/l

1'110 inflnence bile thus obtnlnod coincide.'! fully with thnt of Fig. HV.4 ton-
titrUfwd IIsing statics.

Prohlem J. H....quued the 1I1f1uence lino for the bendiult lIloml'nt lifting ovor
cro;;,~.<:()Ctlllll f( of a parabohc tJlloo-hlng<ld spalldrel arch of Fig. :W.Ca .
, .1 , .< 7
m
I
IJ
(a)
)J)
!O
1/
11

.' ~I

~
15

)V
IG

(b) ,

z'
"
" /J'
"
8' 7

Ftg, 20.6

Solr~ll()n. flltrmluce all extra llinge ut cross sootion [( which l&Ods to the
formal inn of fUlH' phHes T, Jr, III !\lId TV connected together h)' mellus of four
hinges 9. K, 1J and 17.
280 [(inmwtic klethod oj influ.ence Line COllstruc/ion

Cllllstruct tho displaeemfHlt gl'aph of this syS[.eIIl of plates using the imlilJll.a-
noous ecnt,r(' of rotation of plato 1 If with reference to plate [ (point m) wlliclt will
be l'epn'slJuted by the brokoll lille 9'-K'-13'-17' (Fig. :W.tib).
Poinls l' and 8' are plotted on tho graph u-'Lis. Points 2' and 3' arc l,hen
marked on Lho displacement graph for Plate I1, Jloint 4' on that for plalp 111,
and points 5',6' and 7' 011 that fo/' plate J V. COlllllWUng all thcSl)!lOints togl'lh('l"
the displacement graph of all thl) panel points of the deck will he oblaiupd.
Itl urder to dotcHmillo tho scale factor lIx 1)lato If lllld let fOI'(;(1 X act Oil
plate I JI causing it to rota to with reference to v1ate J I about till) hinge K.
Thl' lever Mm of fone X may be taken equal to 1 metl't'.
The ~al(l factor Ox will be given by the length or the seglll(lll. hetweeu l.Iw
graph llxis 9'-K' and the line representing Uw ilisplal'('ment of plllte i i l (!in('o
i('~].'J') measured one metre away from point J(',
Knowing the vaLuo of this SC'gmolll the Ol'diua!,{' to HI(' influence line fOJ'
the IHJrlding moment lit the ahutmellt hinge !i will 110 found hum

wlwrofrom
Yo"",oxX/<= 1Xk- 7
All the other ordinates to the illl1uenc.e line will hl' rO;H!ily found t.l,onalll'l'.
 7. RETAINING WALLS AND EARTH
PRESSURE CDMPUTATIDN

1.7. CENERAL

Helaining walls are structures intended to prevent the slidtng dIJwrr.

of slopes too steep to remain standing on their own. Fig'. 1.7 shows
[wo different types of retaining walls and a sheet pile-wall whieh
in TlUrnerOllS cases may serve the sallle purpose.
The retaining wall shown in Fig. 1.7a is a massive eOllslrllclioll,
its main dimensions band h being of the same order. Walls of I,his.

, A ,,",'
,, ,
A
, ,
,
0
E, ''
,
,
c
"
",,Q,
'
,
,
",
D'
E ,
, !a!,, E,
, 1;',
t,
G ,
:
E,
f,

,,
E, f,
,- E,
t ,D
It B
'j I
--- b
(" (8)

Fig. 1.7
a, PlU17m
(c)

type al'e usually huilt of ruhble or flIass concrete. They are sllujf'ctcd'
to their dead weight Q, the aetive and passive pressure of the ('al,th
El lll1d E 2 developed over the roar and front faces AB and CD and
the reaction CB voting over the foundation. Retaining walls of-
H1ueh lighLer construction showlI in Fig. 1.7b arc usually built of
reillforced cone-reLe and consist of a foundaLion slab CD Ilnd a ver-
tieal wall AB. The fore-es acting on a wall of this type consist of'
the dead weight Qb Qz, ... , etc., of the weight G of thl] column
of earth resting on the foundation slab, the active and passive-
preflsure of Lhe earLh Eh E z , _ _, Ilnd the reactive forces distri-
buted over the lower surface of Lhe fOllndation slab. The reduced
...'{eight of thefle walls renders it possible to make use of prc[ahl'iea-
tion tl]chniquefl.
:J!'l;! Rejalnlng Wall" alllI Earth PU$$url" Ca/TlfltdatiDn

Sheet pilewalls arc built up of separate wooden, reinforced COII-

'Crutc, or st.eel sheet piles which artl sunk into the ground sido b}'
.. idc using spooio.l equipment. The dead weight. of shoet piles llnd
the vertical reaction applied t.o their points artl so small that t.bey
lire always neglected. Ae_cordingly, the only rorees that must be
eOllsidered are the ne.livo and tlu.! passi\'e pressures o[ the earth
El. E1.' E 3 , " etc., which must balance each other.
In all computlltions pertaining Lo retaining Willis the depth of
the structure in the direction normal to the surface of the drawin"
wiJ( be always taken equal to onc metre. The design of retai[Jin~
wlllls and of shoot piling must Le always preceded by the deterHli-
lllltioll of the toads and forces acting on these sLructul'CS induding
tho earth pressure E. \Vithout committin" any serious error, both
the ae-tive and the passive earth pressufCS may be computed on the
.l.lsslIlIIpLion that the earth constitutes u granular material.

2.7. PHYSICAL PHOPERTIES OF GRANULAH MATEHIALS

Gnlllular materials COIlSiSl at very small solid rounded particles

~lIld thererore the only iuternal stresses that. (;3n develop in such
materials are friction and compression. Dry sand and grains of Cerc-
.llls in large quantities constitute granular materials which arC! liS
dose as possible to the definition given above. III t.he actual design
-of rotaining walls cohesivo soils art:! frequenlly met with but the
fOfcus of cohe.~ion are usually neglected and lhe soil is regarded as
.a granular mm;~.
In ortIer to dotermine the pressure excrLed by 0 granular mate
dill Oil a retain"lflg wall the following physical properties of this
Illllterial lllust bo known:
t. Its weight per cubic metre -y usually given in tonS. This \wight
vurivs from 1.6 tons per cubic metre for dry sand to 2.0 lons per
-cuhic metro for water :mturaLcd materials.
2. Its porosil.y TJ given in pcr cent and representillg the ratio of
.:111 the inwJl,rranular voids to the total volumo of the material. 'i"or
-compacted sand '1 :::::: 30 per cent, for loose sand it is close to 50 per
'ConL nlld for dry clay it may vary from 25 La 40 pel' cent.
;$. The wl'ighL of the maLerial suspended in woter YIJ also given
in tons per cubic metre. As oue cubic metro of the material con
!,(!illfll1 per C(lIIl or voids, the loss in weight due to iLs immersion will
hll O(IUal to the weight of lhe water displaced or, ill other words. t.o

where Yoo is the deDsif.y of the water.

 2,7. Pltv~iclll ProjlerHu of Granular Ma/erlall 283

CVllscquen tly
Yo=Y-Yw (1-t~) (1.7)
4. The ~Ilgll' of repose cp which is the steepest nngla to the Iwri-
'Zolltnl ut wWe.h 3 heap of this material will stand 011 its own
(Fig. 2.i). This angle is c.harllclcristic of the fric.Hon developed

fa)
Fig. 2.7

uetweeJl the particles nt the surface of the granular material (all

forces of cohesion heing neglected).
The JllNgnitude of the angle of ropose qJ depends greatly all the
degree of humidity of the material. Thus
for dry sand q>~= 30-35~
fpf humid !aud q> = 40"
rOf wel sand tp = 25~
for dl'y clay ip - 4()..Jj5'"
fOF wet clay lfl = 20-25'"
5. The angle of jnternnl friction p characterizing Lite frictioll
beLw{,c!l I-he inner particles of 0. large volume of Ule /Ilalcrinl. The
Illll!!'llilude of this 311g1e can be determined experilllentally using
a device schematically reprt>i1ented in Fig. 2.7b. 'l'hill devkc con-
sists of a metal cylinder separated horizontally in two parls (.1 and
2), a plunger die 3 and a dial indicator 4. The lower p:lrt of tLte
cylinder (part 1) is fixed whilst t.he upper oDe (part 2) C,HI move
horizontally under t.he action of a force T. The specimen of the
granular lII.. terial 5 contained in the cylinder is l$ubjeclcd to a
constant vertical pressure N, trallsmitted through the plunger die
4, :lnd to a gradually incrc<lsing shearing force T. Tho ma~l\ilul]e
of this force is registered at the precise moment WhOl1 ~ho Slate or-
limit eqllilibrium is reached, in other words, at the moment when
the flrSl. sigil of sliding of tho upper part of the cylindt\r along the
pIano a-li is detected by the dial indicator 4.
At this moment the compressiYe stress er acting nc-I'oss section
ab is equal to ~ while the shearing stress 't equals ~:, F hcillg
tho orea of the cross scclioll ab.
284 Retaining Walls and Earth Pre.~sllrl' Computation

When thl:' stllte of limit equilibrium is reached, the msulting'

stress p is deviated from the normal to the plane along which the
slidiug occurs by an angle equal lo the angle of internal friction
given hy
tanp"'''''-
,
G

whCl'efrom
T=otan p
'rlw U.S.S.R. Building Codes usually stipulate the follovl'ing
values fo!' the angle of the internal friction:
for fino sHnd p = 20-30 0
for modiulll sund />= 30-!iO
fo[' ['0111'80 sand, gravel
Hnt! rounded pebb1e3 p = IrO_'J:l
U

for sandy loam P= 13_3()O

for o)'{linat'y" loalJl r= 10-:10"

The value of tlte angle of inLel'llal friction in sandy soils lIlay

he c.onsidered appt'oximately equal to ils angle of repose 'P. Lo .
I' ~ lp.
G. The aUl{11:' of fliction between the material alld the faeo of the-
walll5, which depends mainly on the condition of the sutface alon~
which the contact occurs. When the surface is very smooth l5 almost
equals 0, and for very eOluse surfaees l5 may approach the angle
of ittternal friction p. In actual design work l5 is frequently taken
equal lo zero. Olherwise it may be expl'eSSt'd as a fraetion of tho
augle of internal friction
3
l5~~rup to - P ,
7. The eohesion C whieh is usually expressed in kg pel' sq em
01' in tOilS per sq rn. In dry granular materials, sueh as sand or
graill, C is practieally nil. In other llsual soils the cohesion will
amount only to a fraction of a ton pet "qnat'o metre and therefore
it may be safely negleeted. A device similar to the one dosc.ribed
ahove can he llsed for the determination of the c.ohesion C which
is related 10 the normal and shearing :;tresses hy Coulomb':; fOI'-
nllda
T=C+O tan p

3.7, ACTIVE PRESSURE OF GRANULAR l'IIATERJALS

The active pressure of a granu.lar material is the force whic.h it.
will develop on SOTlle slll'face when the latter moves over a vOI'y
small distance away.
 ,1.7. Adil'B Pre;;sure of Cranrdllr ,VII/erillls :!85

As the surface AB of Fig. 3.7a shi[ts La a !lew position AIB I a

vart of the granular material contained in the wedge ABC slnl!,.S
rtlovinq dowll\vards. The surfllce which separatcs Lhe moving pad
from the olle remaining immovable is called the cleavage or slip
plane (surface) and its projection on the pIano of the dnn'ling-
the cle'avage or slip line. The paths of the partielcs containcd in
the wedge ABC arc very intricaLe and depend both on the chllra-
ctl'l' and the magnitude of the displacement of the sllrfacl' AB. The
C

,
(0) I
'-'---~

re)

Fig. S.7

(Jircctions of the pressures E and n exerted hy the gl'anular mate-

rial cannot he determined ,vith certainty, fot, the state of limit
-equilibriuTll will never he reached simultaneously at all poinls
along the ~mrfaces concerned alld therefore tho stress will not be
deviated everywhore from the normal hy all angle equal to the
angle of friction.
The correct det.ermination of the pressU!'e developed by the eflrth
against some surface is therefore extremely eomplicated and has
as yet not found a comprehensive solution. The simplified wl'dge
theory given hy Coulomh (1736-180G) is based on the following
assumptionI'.;
1. The curved eleavilge surface is replaced by a plane wherohy
its Ill'ojl'dion all the plane of thCl drawing becomes a straight
line JJe.
2. The granulat materials contained within the wedge are con-
sirlerell solid.
;:1. The wedge itseH is ill a stat.e of unstable equilihriuJIl, Le.,
in a state preceding' im rnodiately its sliding dOWll. The ];ltt:et' assump-
tion permits to determine the directions of the resultant pres-
281; Ucltflnlng Walls alld enrill f>r~s~ur~ Computatton

SUn'S EandR. When the surface AB moves ~way, the wClige ADC
~tnrts sliding down and the forces of friction which develop alollg
the surfaces AB and BC within the mnterial will he also directed
downwards. H t.he limit. equilibrium is rcachE'd l'IimuHaneollsly at
every point. nlong tho surfnce A8 the resultant stress will be deviat-
ed everywhere from the normal to this surfflCO by flU anglC! cqUfll
to the nogic of friction l) and therefore the rcsultl'lnt pressurt will
also make an angle () with the normal U. Similarly the pressure R
will be deviateu from tILe normal V by an angle equal to tlte angle
or internal friction p.
Let us determine the pressure E q developed against the surface
AB (Fig. 3.7b) when an arbitmry surcharge is applied to the sur-
(nee (I[ the earth.
As!'lIlne that G = dead weight of the wedge ABC (G = Mea,
A BCy)
Q = resultant of the sure.harge acting on t.he wedge
GIJ = resultant of the force-s G tlnd Q; G'I = G+Q.
Knowing the magnitude of Gq and the dirl'C.tion!l or the prt'$.,>un.'s
EL and R wo may construct the triangle of forceJ'l abc.
The angles of this triangle are
Labc~ll-p; Lcab~90o-.-b=,/>
L acb~ 18O"-(1l-p +'1
From this triangle we ohtain

wherefrom
E-G sin (i}-pl (2-)
q- 0 Sih(O+'t p) .-

This expression cannot be used as yet for the determination of

the active pressure E q for il contains the 3nglctt made by the ch'av-
age plane with the horizontal which remains unknown 'lS well
ns the dead weight of tho wedge G and the magnitude of lhe StIr
charge Q. both depending on the angle just mentioned.
Whcn the angle '0 made by the cleavage planc with tile horizon-
tal varies it entails a corresponding varialion in the value of the
pl'essure E , this variation, if ropresented gro.phlcally, having
1
the shape 0 a c.ur\'c shown in Fig. 3.7c. When il' =p, sin (il' - p) =
+
= 0 und EIJ = 0; for {l- = 90 8 the deavage plane BC will
coincide with tho back of the wall AB and both H/i and the result-
Dill Gq will olso reduce to zero.
H is obvions thnt the maximum value of t.he active pressuro
E q will correspond to some intermediate \'alue of ~ = '0 0
 4]. Gmphicld f)l'f~rm;lltlf;oll Qf A/orimu". Active Pr~uu.r" 2f>7

\Vhen desiguil.g <l retaining w/l1I 111is maximUIll vahw of the-

active pressure should be takcn into consideration, ror if the strength
and stability of tho wnll are insured under these most advt"r.it' ('on
ditions, the wall will remain standing for any other direclion of thOt
c1e~l\'age plane. The value of the nuglt! "'0
corresponding to the ma:..i-
mum o[ E q may be determined from the equation
dB,
"""Ja = 0
The sign of the ~ccond derivative shows that the pressure thus oh-
tnined by Coulomb's wedge theory is indeed the maximum onc. IT...
octual pracLicCl the maximum a.ctive pressure developed hy tll()
earth against the back of a retaining wall may be somewhat small-
er than E q mn% determined as abovo. However, in cerUlin C<lses whclI
the displacement of the wall becomes extremely small (ror instmlee.
when the wnll is founded on solid rock) the preS8\.lrc il. will sustain
may exceed substantially the maximum pressure computed on I.he-
basis of the aforesaid theory.
\Vhcn the surface of the earth is of irregular shape, the equation
~ = 0 IIlny be solved only by graphical methods. Ir the surfaCQ
is plane. dil'<'ct computation becomes possible.

4.7. GIIAPHICAL DETEHMINATION OF MAXllItU.M ACTIVE

PRESSURE
Lot us determine the direction of the cleavage plane correspondiHg'
to t.he maximum prCSSllte developed against the hock of a retainill/.t
wnll AB whcll the sul'face of the eart.h is irregulllr in sbape but
no ~urcharge is applied thereto. Adopting 11II oblique system of
coordinates JIBD wc shall first construct the graph of the varialioll
of the active pre!!Surc En in terms of the direction of the cJeavag('
plane (Fig. 4.7). For this purpose let us measure to some scale tJH~
dead weight of the wedges along the nxis BD and the pressun'S
En along the axis BH. It may be shown that the length of the lillc-
KnF" wiLL rt>pl'(l5lent the amount of the pressure corresponding lo
thc direction of cleavage line BCn . Indccd, the weight Gn of the
corresponding ABCII will equal
G~::o 'Y '< (area of triangle AHC n )
Assume that BF n represents to sca.le this weight. The line FnK n
parallel to the axis of coordinates .aH will meet tho line Ben at.
point K n .
The angles of the triangleBFn{(n arc l!qual to
L KnBFn =o6'n-P
L KnF..B =(1.= (OO~-e) .Lp_(p "H~,)=90o-e_6=",
2{:1B Ul'taining Wall' and Earth Pr('~sur(' COmplJtlltion

Let liS no\Vcoustruct the Lriauglo of forces abc ill which the my
(I.b = Gn = BF.. alld the 1<lY tU; = E n - Comparin~ tile lrianglt"'s
obr llnd F"flK n we remark immcdillLely thut they 11I"t' idenlical
.lIld t1wrerore
E n = KnFn
Thus. in order to determine the prp..5Sure dO"clopr.d by (I granu-
hll' Jntltcrial againsL the face AB for allY given direclion of lhtl den,,-
:Il.{C Jlhlllc BC.. we must lily off along the axis BD tilt' dead wt'ight
or the wl'dge ABCIl {represented by Lhe length BF..} and then traee
l!trough L1lc point F.. a line p.\rallel to the olher axis BII unt.il its

C C, c., 0
Cn ~".,
C,
.,
a

c
en
H
a, ,I 2, 3, n, 5 'm b
Scole fVr 6 and E

Pig. 4. 7

iuter:iCction with the corni'spondillg cll'avagc Hne Belt. at ruinl K".

Tlw Icngth or tho line K .. Jl n IHcn~ured to scnli;< will rcpl'l'S<lllt lIll'
UHllotuiLude uf the pressure Er>'
11 we repeat the constructi(Jn just described for It number of ('UII-
vCllicntly chosen direction.s or: lhe cleavage planes BC" lJC 3 etc.,
we shall lind a series of poilllS K" K 3 , etc., Conll(lcLing the!'.c lloillL~
by l\ smooth curvc we 811;111 ohtain tlw required grap" sJlowill~ lh'
vllrintiou or Ell in tenus of the llnglc (t exactly in the snllll:l way as
the gmph sc.hcmal.il.ally repl'esellted in Fig. 3.7c. In order to lilld
lhe maxilllum of It" wc may rlow I race a t<lllgellt. to t.he C\II"Ve paral-
It~1 to the axis BD and through t.he point of taIJgt,lll(:y K w~ mu.',\.
trace the linl' RF parallel tl) the oLher coordinate lIxis EH. The
length or Lhis liue (always measured to scale) will gh~ liS the maxi-
mUlll value o[ the active prl,>~sllre E which will bll developed
against the hacko[the wnllAB while the line BKe will indicate the
inclination o[ the c1e:lVugc plIlIlC.
Tilt! graphic~l method de.~rihed above rClllllill!" valid when
.(j snrcharge is applicd to the surf;lce or the earth. I.. thAt c<\Se lht
 1.7. Graphical Ddcrmflllll/Q/l o} Mazimum Adl~ PrUIu.rt 289

dt:ild wt'ight of carh wedge should be increased by the amount of

111(' load which it carries.
Probll"ll). Delennine graphically tba maximum active pressuro dov('loged by
a granulllr milt~rilll against tbe surfaee AB (Fig. 5.7). pro'dded p =- 40, -= 5"
Itnd l' - I.G tOll~ per cubic wetre.
Solutio".
1. 8t,ut with trac_ing the coordinatt> au! BD and EH.
2, Adollt a number of l'ieavllge plane directions givon by BC t BC 2. etc.
For lhis pllrpo~ divide the Hne A Cl'! into five segmen~ 6flch ono metre long and
S!lecl )KIITlI';' Ct.. Ci ... , GIO equally at onc metre IDtl'rvals.

S, 10
:
IS
: .
20 Ut
H Scale {or G ond E

3. CompuU>. the dead weight. of the wedges. For the wedgf' ABCI Ulis weight
61I UlIls
Cl""" ~ X 5.3Sx I X 1.6=:4.28 tons
Tho wClghLo; of the other wedgl"! abulling to the line AC li will he ellllctl)' the
~lIme.

The weight fir till' wedge C~Ct. and of all the olhor wedg('~ ahulling to the
h,wholltal CliC jO will be equal to
I
Ga -Gli =;rX7.SX I XL6=6.24 tons

4: Sel out to scale along the axi~ BD the dead wl'lghls of the wCldB"{)~
Gl G2, . , GIO "'hich are 8.9 foil OWl!
lIF j =C j =4.28 tons BF e ... Ce =27.6!i tons
BF 2=G2=8.56 tons DF7 =G7 ,,-33.88 hms
BF a=G 3=t2.B4 tons 1]F8 = G8 -=40.12 tons
nF4=C~;<ot7,12 tons 8F II =G o-46.36 tllOS
BF !>-Gli - 21.40 tons 8F lo =G IO =52.60 tons
290 RetairtiTlg ~V,db /ll/ll Earth I'reSSll-rf' CDtttpulllti/l1l

5. Through the points F I , F.., .., F,o trace tbe lines FIK" PtK! . .
" ., F,oK ID pilrallel to tha uis iJlI.
6, Cunnect the points B, K I , . . " KID by 8 smooth CllP'~' lhu~ oblaiDing
the graph !!howing the variation of till.' pr~sure E developer! against the sur
faee AB.
7. Trace the lino TT tangent tll the graph and parallel to the UIS HD.
8. Conn~l. the point of tangency K and the foot of the wall B b~' a ~trlllght
lino BKe which will constitute the c1ea\'age lino.
!). Through tho same point of tangency trace a line Kf parallel to the axis
B H lInd mellSure to se.ale the length of thb fine which will repr('f'{'nt thil DJu:im!lnl
active prel;'5Ure developed against the surface AB
e--KF=13 luns

5.7. PONCEL~T'S METHOD

III all C;lses when the !jurfuce uf the granular !ll~lCrial and the
surfMt'c AB are jllane, tho dt1tcrminalioll of the TrlaXitnllffi aclive
prc:'J!:itll'(1 may be carried out by a graphical method <1cvi~ed by
hlllColet.
Withoul l'lItering into tho theoretical dernon.<;l.ration of this
nw~hod (based equally on Coulomb's wedge theory) Wt' shrill describf'
he!'l'Ullllcr the proGcdure to be followed when a 1I1liforrnly dist.l'ib-
uLeb surcharge q acts 011 th~ surface of the earth.
Start with rerlac.in~ this surcharge hy all equhlllent. layer of
ea"Lh, the Ihic-kness of .....hich is given by
ho =.!!....
y
This being done, the positiou of the cleavage plane corresponding
lo the maximum of the acti\'C pressure E q is dcLermiucd as follows.
The line AB is eontinllerl until its intersection at point Al with
~hc uppcr surface of the cqui,'alent layer (Fig, 6.7). 'fhE'rl'afler:
(1) thruugh the point n
trace a line BL I making an angle fl with
tho horizonlal and meeting the upper surL'l.ce of the equivalent
layer at L,;
(2) through the point Al trace the line AI''11 making an aog-II:'
(p,.6) with the surface AIB nntil its intersection with the line
8!~, lit point M;
(:-~) using Oil' line BL I a:'J a diameter, trace a scmicirc.le;
(4) at point ~\f erect n pel'pendicular lo the line BL I unlit it~
inLel'section at point N with the semicircle just mentioned;
(5) from point B swing an arc with a radius equal to.8N (',ut.ting
the line B /.." at point 0 (BN = BO);
(G) from point 0 traco tille GCI parallel to Atl'!'! Hlllil its in~er
section at point Cl with AIL l :
(7) the line BC I connecting the foot of the wall with poilll C t
constitutes ~he projection OH the paper of the cleavago plalle.
 This being done, procl'ed witb the determination of the mag-ni-
tude of the preMllre E q developed against the surface AB;
(/:) from point 0 trl'l.ce an are using GCI as radius until its inler-
section wiLh line BL I at point P;

Hvlt()ll(.a{ line

------ --- --
--- -- N

FI,. &.1

(9) conned poillL<J Cl Ilnd P by a straight line thUj obllliwlIg tllll

tria.nJ.;:le OCjP;
(to) through point C draw the line cns parallel lo HL,.
TJu ar~a 0/ tN trapnoid PRSO multiplW by ] and by tJ.~ dm-
.sity (1/ tJu granular mauriat y will gwe tM magnituth oj E q ....'" d~
~IoJNd against. th~ surfau AB.
H lho surcharge q were uil. il would suffice to lake h o = 0 ;11
\\'hich case toe line A1C.L I of Fig. 6.7 would coincide wit.h the
line IlCL all,] thp point Cl would coincide wilh the point C. Tile
direclioll of the cleavage plane will ~mllin unchanged, all ror the
rangnitude of t.!le maximum flretlSuro il will he given by Hie aren
or I.riangle POC (see Fig. ;.7) multiplied by 1 and by y
E =-Y X (area of triangle POC)
I'rllblem. noquir~c1 to determIne gr:aphiully the aetive r.rc5:iure de\'clope,l
1I!:_illSL the b~ek 0' the wall AO (Frg. 7.7), provided h = a mOLrt'3. p" <IN,
~ = :;~, t _ 20~, tI': = tO~, l' "'" 1.6 I,OIlS pllr,cubie motre.
to'
 Sill"ttvn. I. DeI.CnDinc at; just eJ(pl~iuod [ha puSil iOll of the points A, ,If,
N, 0, C, P,
2, Determine the pOSitiOD of the cleavage pl/lne BC,
i:!. :lfcasurc to SGale the bllse and the- height of the trlllu!tl~ POC equlIl. "'''PI'\"'-
tinlly. 10 3.1i metres IInd 3.08 llletr'c~.

Fig. 7.7

<\. C(\Il1Jml(' Ihe llrea of the triangle POC

F_ ~ 3.1i x3.08=5.24 sq\l!lre m<:tres

5. D<.>tt'.rmillc tllC magnitudt' of the ~letl'e Ilrl'Uuro rerl"irad

b'=1.6x:J.24=8.38 tont;

11.7. ME'l'1I0D OF DiRECT COMPUTATION OF THE EARTH

l'HESSUHi';

III on!('r to comput~ directly thE" earth pressuflJ wc must fir.-t

r('ell1te- COlllomh's formulfl (2.7) to the following Form
E, -Cf (a)
when' C is a ctwtaill ractor independent, of {loo ThercnHer using the
(')illre.'!-~ion d:~Q providing for the maximum of E" determine the
Jlosilioll or the dCllvage plane (angle 6- 0 ), Havillg fOllnd this angle,
:<Ilbstitnte Us vrlh.1e in the expression of E q thus ohtaining tile maxi-
mum pressure rcqllirl!'rl
 C.l. ,utthed cl Dinet Cemputet/un uf /h~ Bar/It Prr.....r" 293

Due to purely ffiatlHlrnaticlll difficulties, this method wny hl'

npplicd only in some particular cases.
Let us Lake up the most simple case wll>n it is required lo find
the jJre!SUft> exerted against a smooth vertical surface AB showl! ill
Fig. $.7 (ll = 0 ancl B = 0), wheo the surface of the granular JJlllSS
il; horizonllll and loaded with a lUliformly distributed surchalg-e q
lOnS per square metrlJ.
LC't BC reprcscnt the direclion of some cleavage plane. In tl1I\t
c,(I~e the dead weight of the wedge ABC will be given h)' G =
A

= 0.,) AllAC1 .y <HId Lb.e fljsultant of tlte sllrcharJ,!(' ae-ting on

'.his wedgt' hy Q = A C1 .q. The resultant of G alld Q will be
Gq=G+Q =-}AB.AC .y+ACq=-} AC.)' (AB+ 2 f)
Substitutillg ill this expres~ion h (01" AB, by h cott) for AC anti
110 fOl'f (Whcle 11 0 is the thickness of tile equivalent layer) wc
obtaill
Cq =+ "rh(h+ 211 0 ) cot t}
Rever~ing to the expression (2.7)and replacing '$=9(f'~t-c3 l)y
OO~, the Iractiollrd part of this expression becomes equal to
!Iin(" pI sin ('It-p) =t.[lJl(~~p)
si" (-I) : ; p) cos (" p)
Aftet' the Ilhove tnlflsformations, the expression (2.7) becomes
Eq = 4- "rh (h+ 2~) cot t}. tan (fJ-p) = C t ({})
Whl?'l'C

C =.;- yh (h+ 2h o); f ('fr) =cot fJ tan (tl-- p)

29/, R~tai.dnl! Wall. and Earllt f>r~uun CompUlat/<>TI

The anglE'. of the cleavage ]Jlane and the hOl'i~ontal will be deter-
millt'd using the equation

~; = 0 or ddll-!CI (-fr)J-

=c [ -sln~tJotall(\t-p)+cot\}CQS!("
I 1 p) ] = 0
Reducing both tC['IIlS in brackets to the same denomiuator and
dividing- the equutiun by
c
we obtain
Sill tl--cos {} = sill ("6--1') cos ("-p)

sin 2t'J-= sin 2 ({)-p)

The roots of this equation are
a~n 90"+ (-1)" la-e)
whorf) = 0, t, 2, 3, .. _
It
If n = 0, we ohtain 1'} = tt - pleading 1.0 p = O. This solution

rials for which we always have p O. '*

i~ incompatible with the physical proporties of the granular mate-

Whcll n == 1, we obtain {} = 9(f - (f} - p) leading to ao =

= 45"+-r'
Fnr \:dlll!S of n greaLtlf than one we obtain again a sel'ies of solu-
tions ineompatible with the tllrffiS of the problem. Therefore, the
ouly root of tbe equation to be retained wrresponds Lo n = i in
which ('Hse the angle formed by the cleavage plane with the horizon
eqllfll.;l
{}o=-4J"+ ~ (3.7)
Substituting this value of {}-o in tile expression of the pressure
wo.olJtnin
E q __ {:. f (fro) =C ('.ot (1.0) tall ({l-~-p) = C cot (45" +7) X
X tan (45_ n
Heplacing in this expression cot (45" +t)
by tan (45- ~) and
slIhslHuting its value for C we finally obtain
Eq =7'1'h(h+2ho)ta1l 1 (/lso _t)
(4.7)
 6.7. M""od 0/ Dlr~d C"mputal/(l" o/IM Earlh. Prtll.. r~ 295

If the surface AJJ had a batter (e + 0) and were rough (6 + 0)

llllll the sur(aco of the earth sloped toward!; the wall (Fig. 9.7),
the lIIagnitnde 01 the active pressure would be given by the foLlow-
Ing formula
Eq = ~ Vh (h+2ho K 'l)K (5.7)
wlll'ru
JIfj=!L ,
K _ COY.l COY.I Cl
q - cos(e a)
K sill (p-a}
1 - Cf,S {e Cl) (6.7)

K 0-- V/~';~"~"~''J'~'=~~I'~.'
fOS(t-rO)lln(p 0.) J
K [ COlI (p E)]' ,
- (I+KoJ(l)c(lU cos(e+6)
The posiLioll or the cleavage plane .....ouldjbe det.enuil1oo IJ}'
. r,=Kohl (7.7)
where hi = cus. ~ (sec Fi~. 9.7)-
The determillalion of the point of application of the active pres-
sure requin!s that the distrihutiOI1 or the unit pressures along the
surfllce of the wall be known.
In order to obtain this distri-
but ion let us first consider tile
\"l"lriation o( the acLive pressure E q
in terms of the depthy (Fig. to. 7a). q
FM this purpose we may use
expression (5.7) replacing in the
b,tter h by the ordinate y, thus a
obtaining
Eq,=+yy(y+2~'l)K
This el:pression permits us to
oonstruct the lll'll.plt just mentioned
(shown in Fig. 10.7b) which
represents the increase of the 8
pressure Eq~ with the increase FIg. 9.7
of the depth of the foot of the
w",ll. It is eastly 50011 that this graph is n conic psrabola.
Wllen tile depth. y is increased by dy the active pressure E qV is
increased by dEq/l' This increment dE qv is distributed over nn
eleJllllIltary area, the vertical projeclioll of which is equal to dg
multiplied by 1 {as the depth ()f the structure in the direction nor
loal to the surface nf the drawing i~ considered equal to nnity) .

fawl pr~lSUre

'"' '7't
Fl6. 10.'1

1'hu1l. the unit p~urc referred to the .vcrUcal projpction of the

'iurfac.e it acts upon equals
dE,.
p,.=t1V
or, in other words, iL equals the first d<,rjvative of the resultant
prc.ssure in terms of /I.
Differentiating E qll as indicated we obtain
Pqll=y(y+hoKq)K (8.7)
This expression shows that the unit preSSUNl v/tries olong the SLlr-
faCt! AB linearly. In order to construct the corresponding graph
it will suffice therefore to dotermine the unit pressure!:' at any t.Wll
points. say, at A and at B (Fig. 10.7c)
PA=yhoKqK; PB=y(h+h.J(q)K
Let us now detenninc the vertical distance from the centroid
of this graph to the foot of the wall, using for this purpose the
well-known expression giving the position of the ('elltft' of gr:nily
of a trapezoid
h 2P A +Pa (9.7)
Zo=3' p.. +P B
If wc now trace a horizollLallino through the cclltroirl of tlte graJlh
until iWl intersection at point 0 wit.b the rear face of the wall AB
we sball. find the point of application of the acti\'(' pressure E q
 6.7. iH~thod oJ Dtu~t Computation of tht Earth Prtnurt 297

(Fig. 10.7a). The direction along which the pressure E'1 acts will
forln with the normal to the surface AB an angle equal to the angle
of iriction 6.
Tbufl. t}u; magnitude oj the active pressure developed by a gramtlllr
mattrial against some surface may be raleulated using expression
(5.7); Us point of application wLll be situated at the same level a~~ the
rmtrold of the nntt preullre graph, the position of the point may be
cakulo.ted using expnssion (9.7), fInd the direction of the active pres-
Slat will forJn an angle 6 with the normal to the surface IIndt~r ('ollw,d-
tration.
The lUngnil,ude of the ll(',f,i'ic pressure mny also be detl:.'rulilllld
with the aid of the unit pressure graph. Indeed, from P", = dJ/I'LI! f!J
it followl! that dEq~ = Pqvdy. Upon integration of both pill'\." of
this ctjlul\.ion we ohtnin

The right.hand part of this equation represents the aren or the

IHlit pressure graph Fig. (10.7c). In other words

The laUer expressioll is more convenient for aclllal COffi()llt:llioll

than the eXJlrcssiol1 (5.7).

l'roblem.lt i~ I'l3quired to eomru\a lloo aeth-e llrCSSUrB. deVeloped against t,he

IDw~r part BC of the rear b.CD 0 a r9tRining wall AB (Fig. 11.7) if p ... 35 0 ,
6 _ 8 (J. ~ 20, e = 100. Y = 1.6 tons per cubic metre and q - 0.8 tOil PCI'
~qul'lre metre. All the dhTll~nsions Mo indicated in the figure.
So/utlon. llsing formulu (6.7) detmmino he as well as the hclou of the K
group

K . / gill 43 " / 0.682 V2 "') (;5

~-V coSlsoXlI.263-V 0.95txO.263- 01 _ _ 1.

. [ (1+I.B5xO.
Ii. '""-
00,25' ]' 1 (0.906)"
2B3)coS1(l' C()!I1So= 1.431lXO.984 ll.95t-
ll. ,
34
 This being done, determillO Ihl! vlllu" of the unit Pf~U~ at points D
lu,,1 C using lormuttl (8.7)
PB_L6l2.11+0.5XO.IM)O.4;{4..-2.u6 ton~ pllr sq m
Pc""t.6(6.5+0.5xO.94)O.434_'.84 tong PIll 811 m
Theroafler comrUle the In'ea of the graph corraponding to the lower
porlilm 0{ tbe "si face BC, this ....,8. representing thf. In.golhuln "I the

active p~ure required

1
1i-2'(2.06+4.8Io)4-13.8 tons

rsi<:lnThe19.7)ordlllate:of
l tbo contraill of tho grnllb will be giv~n by the expres-

4. 2X2.06+4.84
:C-T X 2.06+4..8' I. 73imetrl!S

The point of applic.lotion 01 E will lie .t Lhe int~.Uon of the horiwD.ul

pa~.nl: thrOUih Ibis eenlrold.nd the JIlC9 of the .....11 AC. The direelion of e
'",ilI form an Ingll! 6 = S- with the normal U to Ihls ilUrfilee.

7.7. PARTiCULAR I CASESIOF PRESSURE COMPUTATION

(a) Pressure developed by an unsurcharged granuktr m4krial

(Fij;!'. 12.7). Subgtituting h. = 0 in tile llxpreSl'Jions (5.7). (tU).
(8.7) nnd (9.7) \\'e obtain
t
E""'TyhIK (11.7)

P,=yyK; P,,=O; PB=yhK; I (12.7)

:0-3
 7.7. Port/.tular Clf"tt, 01 Pru,tlrl ComputoHo,.

The diret;tioll of the cleavage plane will remain unaJtered as the

faclor Ko is independent of the intensity of the surcharge q acting
on the 5urrace of tile ear~h.
(b) Pressure developed agaLnst a wrtical SIWXJl.h sur/ace by a uni-
formly surch4rged granular material IuwJng a horwmtal surJ~.
This case was already considered above (see expre..""ion (4.7)1.
D

8 P,
F'K. 12.1 Fig. lJ.7

11l:!l"'6under we shall u.. .e the more :;:eneral expressions (S.7) and

(6.;) lor the same case. Putting e = 6 _ et = 0 (Fig. 13.7) in the
C'_'tpfCssions (5.7) and (6.7) we obtain
A=sin(p-a) sinp' K.",COS8eoSGL_1
I eos tt-a) ," eo! (t a.)
K _ .. /siu{p+Olcos(8-a)
0- V eO!l~+blsin{p-a)
/{ "'" [ eos{p_t)]2 t _ Cu.~'(' _ l-sll1~jl _
(i+K OKt lc03t C08(8+0) (i+'linp)~ (I+sinp)~-
I-sin!" ta' (45~
=1+slnp= 11 -z'"')
With these values (If the K faetors, the expressions (5.7), (8.7)
llnd (9.7) become
E,,=-}Vh(h+2ho)tan (45-1')
l
(U)
PI/IJ=y(y+h.)tan' (45--t) '\
I
p.-v"'an' (45-t) 1 (1:t7)

PB=l(h+ho)tanl(45-~) J
h h+311 0
:O-3'~ (14.1)
3lXl R"<lllItnt 1V<lIl6 gild Earth Pruw.rt Cl1mpUfll.tl,1I

Th.e position of 'he eleavage plane will be determined by laying off

hfretofonl the length r. along the .:r-uis (see expression (i.i)J
fUJ
where
zt=Koh,,-tXh
The liru' poiDt D with the fout o( the wall reple-
COJlu~till~
:sollls the cleavage line required. The angle 6-0 made hy this line

Pig_H.7 Ftr15.7

with Ihe horizonlal is equal to

0
6- 0 _90_ L ABD_ 90"- 180 - L.8AD
Z
_ 90"
- -
o
18O"-(90 +JI)
2
45+'"2
which coincides wilh Ha value given by the eltprt>Ssion (3.7) found
previously.
(c) The same case as ill (b) but wtthout surcharge (Fig. t4.7). Sub-
.!'titolinK in tbe e:rpressions obtained Above no
= 0 wE' obtaill
E=~ yh2 Ian 2 (45_f) (15.7)
P._yytan 2 (45-t); P,,=O; P.e=yhtau 2 (4S"-f) (t6.7)

z,'""3'
The position of the cleavage plane remains the same as in CilStl'
(b) when a uniform load was acting on the surface of the earth.
i. c.,
.A
,'o .... 'tv
,-..
+2'P
 30'
(d) Prasun d~ww~ 4gaHlst a polllgcmally shapJ ;ur/act'
(Fig. 15.7).
The pressure E q de\'cloped again!!\. the upper partion AB 01 the
polygonal sluface ABS, will he determined as heretofore using for-
"1Ilbs (5.7) tbrOllgh (10.7).
'fhe Ilre5Sul-e developM ngainst t.he lower portion BB. lhll)' be
colI\putt"d approximately assuming that this pressure will he the
SSlIllC DS that acting on an equivalent portion of il phlne s\lrfacc
A:8fJ l III order lo comllut.e this pressure. lrate lhrou'lll point. B
111(' lille BD lHll'/llIel to the surface 01 the earth and cOlIsider the
\\'ciglll of the oVforlnying !lortioll of the muterial as a ulliformly
flilll,ributt'd surcharge of intensity q = oyhiJ. The derlh 01 this tRYot'
h" will btl laket. equlll to the sum of the thickness of the lnyor h~,
till' \'crl.it'al projection of AA' equal to h" and the vertical l)rojcr~
tiOIl (Jf A IJ cqnal to h. Computing as usual the {arLonl of the K
-group sl1ld slIbstituting them in the usual rormulas in which 1"(.\
h1\llcr of the wall is taken equal to 1 we obLain
E;- f yh' (h' +2h;K.l K
+
P;l'=jI (y h~K.) K
P'a=jlh;KqK
PR, .,. 'I (h' + h;K.) K
, Jr.' h' +3h:'K q
%,="3 h'+2Jl;;k"
The unit pressure araph (or tho Ca&' under consideration ill repre-
sented in Fig. 15.7b.
Fig. 16.7a represents a more complicated case which mny ho met
with in the design of reinforced concrete retaining walls provided
with n spur.
The pressure developed against a wllll of this type will be deter--
mined separately for each of the plane surfaces constituting its rear
face. Thus, the I)ressures exerted ag3.inst the portions AB and CO
will be compuU>d using expressions (12.7) In which the ordinAtes
.IIs AlId Ye (corresponding to points Band C, respectively) will be
takcn equ.al to h and the ordinll.w Ht> of the point 0 equal to (h+
+ hi)' The factors of the K group will be computed using formu-
las (6.7) in whkh a = ~ = 0; the unit pressure graph for both Pllft...
will be .ghcn by one common straight line ab (Fig. 16.7b).
Tbe magnitude of the pressures de\'eloped against AB And CD
will be provided by the corresponding areas ef the above graph
t
E1=ZhP"
t
E2 ="2 h\(Pc +P,,)
31>:.! Re/at"t", WaU. and E~rlh Pr~~,ure CampulaJ.lo"

The horizontal surface BC is !!uhjected to the action of a verti-

~l load G equal to the dead weight of the material contained in
the prism ABCC. and equa.l to
G_hby
There is no load applied to the horizontal surface EO.
As for the portion PH it should be subdivided into t.wo IM.rts
FG Aod GH. point G being determined by the intersection with

Fig. 16.7

the: face of the woll of l\ line parellel to the cleRvage plane Ilnd
pll~illg through point D. The position of the cleavage Jllan~ ill deler-
milll'd llsing' formula (7.7)
zo=FK=CFKo
The fac:tor K. tlIlteriog this expression will be computed usiug
formulag (6.7) putting IX = 0 and t =a - ~h p. 8. The portion PO
will he subjeeLed to the pressure developed by t.he Layer hI (Fig. 16.7)
alone. lhi!'l pressure being independent of the weight of the overlay-
ing InllteriaJ. Tho eorrespondinq- uflit pressure graph will be rellre-
SOllte<! hy a straill'ht line cd. the slope of which is stcepar than that
of lifle ob. At point G the uuit pressure will be computed uIOing
formula (12.'i) for YG = k z The pre.'l.'Jure Rcting on tbe portion
of the wull considC'red will equal
t
E3 =T h t PO
 7,1. Pt"l/r~l"r CUt', 01 /'rr"urr r.omp~llltio..

As for the pressure sustained by the wall below G it is [Ilrt"ady

dept!lluent Oil t.he weight of the whole granular ma!S. Thereforo.
when UJli~ pressures aro determined at points G :Llld H we must 3dol1t
Ya"",h+h1+!l,; Ytl=h-i-hl+k,+11-a
Th~ corrt"spondillg graph win COllsist of 11 straight line et paral
lel to cd and intersecting t.he gl'nph axis at. point u. The resultAnt.
rlrt"~<lure sustained hy portion CH will therefore be

E.={-hs(pa+p n )
(e) Preuurl' th,;eloPfil by waler IJQturaUd earth (Fig. I j. 7). III the
case under r..ousideration the rear fnee or the wall AB IIIl1y be rt'gard

Pig. 17.7

ed as subjert.ed St"pnratcly to the hydrostatic prtlSSurc W alld to

tlU'_ prcsslUe or t.he earth whose wt!ight is reduced by 1I1C nmoullt of
.....ater expelled.
'fhe hydrost:llic p~urt' lV ellll be round Wling e"(pressiol\~ (6.7)
through (10.7) on the as.... umption that
p=o:=6=O and ho-O
We obtaifl
K __'_
=,
W="!'1,JP-'-
2 cos~

The indeterrnillate value of factor Ko indicates that the hydros~lI L-

ic pressure is completely independent of the ptJsitioll of the c1eavago
.surface.
RoferNd to the vertical projeclion of lhe rear farc of the wall.
Lhe hydrostat.ic pressure at point.B will equal
w=yDH--
<
cos l:
 l'he point of application of W will Le at the same leveL with
the cenLroid of the uuit pressure graph
. II
:'=T
In L11ll computations relative,to the acliv(' pressure of the earth
1t_"oH. it.~ weight per Nlbir. metre mll~t be tllk(!u equal to Yo instead

Flf. 18,7

of y fsee E'XpreSSiOll (1.7)J owing to the presence or water. III that

case expressiolU' (11.7) alld (12.7) will give
,
E=7'V()h~K

P~=YoyK
PB1=O
PB=yrfiK
Zo=T
The total pressure sustained by tllll wall will be thus composed
by the hydrostatic pressure Wand the earth prl:'~ure E computed
wult due l'tlgard to the alteratioll of its weight per cubic mcl.re
e!lul>e(] by the water.
(f) Pressure aerted by a layer of impervious SQil surmounted by
water (Fig. 18.7).
Pressure computations are very approximate in this case and arc
carried out asst1rning that the water acts on the upper part of the
wall siLull.ted llbove the surface of the soil alone. whilo the lower
part of the wall is subjected to the pressllre of t.he earth on which
the water act'! llS a !':urcharge.
The hydrostatic pressure W will be computed AS heretofore and
will a mount to
,
lV=Z'VB(H-h)' cose
,
 8,7, PaJ$i!'~ Preuurr 0/ Granular Malerials JU5

H;s point of aJlpliclItion being given hy

, Tf-h
z~=-,-

The 'ertic.lll l)re,~Surc dc\elopcd by the taYN' of water OIl the

surface of the earth amounts to
q=yu(11-h)
the del'th ho of t!le- cquh'3lellt lnyel' of CiHth heing
hI) -= l'l! (lf~h)
Y
:\.~ tho sUI'Fncc I)F tllC earth is aSSUill('<! horizontal (a ",,0)
K =CU5~C05Ct=1
q C05 1,e <x)
The valtl[\ of the llctLVt' pf(!SSUrU Eq , thll values or the 11lliL
pressures a"d t1w point of application of E q may be now found
using clrpre~1'ioJ1s (;i,7) Lo (9.7)

E'l-~+Yh(h+2ho)K
P'l~=Y(Y+}IfJ)K
Pr' yhoK
PI! y (h + hu)](
_ h 21'111+1'/1
"l)'''':r' PIh+P lt

~.7. PASSIVE J'HES8UIIF; OF' GHANUJ.AH MATERIALS

Tlle tel'Hl passive pri'ssnre refers to the r('sultant Jll'e~ure duve!

oped by a gmnular material agaills~ somo SUrfllCC ""hell the latter
l<hiIls U\'cr a very small di~tll11{'oo towafd~ this mlllcria!.
Tire magnitude of lhe pll.s.~ive pn'ssur(' lIlay bo dotel'llliJlcu llsillf!
"he SlUM wedge tlwvt"y or COlllomb (scc Art. 3.7), all the il.s.'iUmp-
tions ffifl(]e in tlte (h'\'t'loprnent. of this theory rem/lining v:did.
When the slll'fllCC All of Fig. 1\l.7a III fOl'Cnd towards the gr;lnubr
malerill! <\ wedge AIlC ili forme-d again, this W("]b't" bclwvillg as H
solid body MId slidiu~ upwilrc!s ::l!Ollg the Sllrf3ce All nnd till> dea-
vllge prnn~' BC. The forces of fricLion whiclt develoll within the
wedge along the two slll'faccs just Illonlioned arc dircclCl1 upward:;.
It will be rellwllILued that in the case of lhe llclil-e pressure lhc
weul-re IIIO\'<:'S r1ownwards, and the {orlJl's of (riction lwl in tlw slImc
20-8~3
306 Rctalllfllg WallR arld Earth PrC$$1.lrc Ctl>rlputatlorl

direction. When a state of limit equilibrium is reached the passive

pressure E~ (which is the resultant of the normal earth pressure
aod of the forces of friction) will bo deviated clockwise from the
normal U to the surface of tho wall by alt angle &. Similarly, the
resultant pressure R q is deviated from the normal V to the cleavage
plane BC counterclockwistl through an angle p equal to the flngle

n,
la) (0)

Fig. 19.7

of internal friction of the material. The resultant of the two pres-

sures E~ and R q will be equal to the dead weight G" of the wedge
ABC.
Thl;! triangle of forces abc' for the case of the passive pressure
is represented in Fig. t9.7b. For comparison the tl'iangle of forces
corresponding to the case of active jltcssure is represented in the
same figure in dash lines. It is clearly soon thaL for one and the
Silmo position of the cleavage plane the pas~ive pressure is {~ollJ.,id
ernbly greater than th.e active pressure.
From the triilngle abc' wc can detormine the magnitude of tbe
passivo pressure Eq
(17.7)
where
'$'=90_8+0
ComparJng expressions (t7.7) Ilnd (2.7), wc come to the conclu-
!>ion thllt the magnitude of the passive pressure can he computed
using' the expression for the active pressure, proVided tue angles
p /lnd 6 are replaced by (-p) and (-6). which is ellsily understood
if we remember that the forces of friction act in the two cases in
opposite directions.
 ''''
The anglo 'I} of the clc-avll~e plane BC with the horiwll~lll will
be Itqllil1 lIclcrmiltcd using t.he expression
de'
'ii- O
The sign of the second lIerh'alivc illdicates that the value o[ t.he
p8!':!!iv8 pre.'lSUTe obtained with t.he aid of the ubove expression
eurrC'!lponds to a minimum.
'rhe Renctal expressioms (or the cOlnPlllAtion of the passive pr~~
sure obtained by replacing p Iltld 6 in expressions (5.7) .... nd (G.7)
by (-p) and (-6) are
E~ =i Vh(h + 2h,K'1) A-' (18.7)
P~,=,,(h+lttlKq) K' (19.7)
The factor!' of the K group clllcrjnl!C these t'xprcl'SiulIs arc
K,_l!inl-p-al
1- cos to: a)
K _ coseC05a
a- (~OSle a)

K,_ .. /5ill(P+Mc<lSlt 0.)

1 (20.7)
.- V cos(t
/\"=( tt;-Ko"i)
COS{r+t)
(Oh
J'
SjJill(p+a)
I
c~(;~)'
I
'JllI:l ordinate of tbe lJoint ur applic8tiun uf the passive prc!!Sure
will be deriwd from
Z=~. 2Pj,+Plt (21.7)
:s PA+PU
lu ('{\!le the tE'fl.f fMe of the wall ill vertical and smooth Mid the
surf(l.ce of the c.lltlh is horiwnlal. the lnagllitude of the pnssi\'~
prf!s,!mre can be calculated usiJlg formwll.!i {4.7}. (13.7) /lilt! (14.7)
aHC!t rC!plllcing in these furmulas p by (_p)
E~ = ~ "h(h + 2h.) tan l (45 G
, ~) (22.7)

P~q=l'(y+Jt.)talll(4!',<>+~) 1
Jl~=Yhetllnl(45-)+n ) (23.7)

Pil=y(h+ho)tltllt
h
(45~+t)
hHih~
! 7
J~ = 3"' h+~ho (24. )
20'
 In the above expross;olls h. is liS lIslIal tlle Uucknt!SS of tIIO layer
of earth llQuivall:'l1L to the surcharge of inlellsity 1].
The currcsponding position (If th\l cleavage plane will ho ob-
tailled l)y tr:10ing Lhrougll Lho lop of
o I.ho wl\lI A n'ig. 20.7) LllO I\xis
x' making nn angle -fl wilil tIlt'
IwrizoOLlll am!. by laying off ,,!(Hl:::
lid!" line '" length AD' =.r~ =
... KDh=h. The line HO' will rUl'-
resent the projection of tlm 1:1(,3vage
t,lf slip I,lane on the plane of the
drawing. Por the s.lkc nf COmlJarisoll
if' Wtl gh'c again in till! samo rtguttl
I,htl positillll of the clcl\vl'lge plallcBD
B eorrcsponding 10 tho CUSts o( artjve
presl'ure.
The lritlugle .4BD' IlCtmilll Um
dl'turminalioll or Ihe allJrlc it'
fl1CIllLod by tht! c1e.. va~e plall" BD' with the horizon
..
v =4"0
:l-TP <," ')
~.

In f':onclusion it is worth mentioning 'hat nil tlH~gf;lphkal II1c~h

nds p~frnitting the dl'tCfnlinllliOIl uf ~he lIcLivo Ilfl!SSUfC remain

",
-<

o
Rpplieahlo to t1lt~ case of the' pall."iVll pressure, Ilrovidl..,(\ the allgl~
p and cS nre repb.ced e'vcrywhcre by (-f.) lInt! (-6).
Problem. It. i~ required t,o dclenoloo R:nl'hM-~lIy lhe pa~iv(\ l'1l'!>!Ilre devl:o!-
Ofl('(! .gain5l. t.he surbceAP orFilt. 21.7, Hit. - ,; en, p "--- ~OG.lI - r.,-, f; - 2(1-,
Cl - lo,y - LG 10n'5 ppr ~.ubie melrt>.
S...tllll4... I. St.art. whh determining the putitioll or poinl.1l A, M, N, 0, D,
C and Pin 11. 'l\"ay ouc:tl}> ~i[llil.r to Ih. onc 1151."'- d ....\'c l_ Fig. (;.7) but. re-
plachl$t fc'fe,.,.....hcre Ihe aJlRl~ 1I and ,. by -lIlnd -po
2. Doh;nl1inc the po.;ition ,,r tlltl r.)(!IV'Jl: plloe HDC.
3. M('~sur. tAl :;cal.. the b/lsc .nd l!to bel~hl of thollriangle OPC, .... hich Ire
equlll, re:!p('ethely. to Il.O IU and 10.7 m.
4. Compute Uw ~rca of triauil:le OPC
1
1"-TII.OxtO.7-=511.H5 Sll m

5. 0 . . \('1111;110 Ilm paS3ive pressoN OXilrled 1I.g.imlt the surr;lCO AD

E'=t.6x5B.85_!I~.2 tons

6. CoDlfllrD tIll' \'1I.lull of the ))SMive pn'Slluro t1lUS uhlllinoo wIth thllt
of llu! act \'01 pr~ssllrc computed [or an identlc.,1 ealo in Art. 5.7.
E' IM.2 112
7f':a.3l:I- .
 8. STRAIN ENERGY THEORY
AND BENERAL METHODS
OF DISPLACEMENT COMPUTATION

1.8. GENERAL
The stress analysis or redundant structures l'tquires that use
should be made of displacement equat.ions in adlliLion to the usual
equilibrium oquations. It Lecomes therefore nCccS&lry to delermiue
the deforrnlltioll~ and strains in differont parts of the structure.
Moroover, the deflections or stalicdly determinate structures must
he also frequently determined, such SLrucLufllS having to fulfil ccr~
tain requiremllllts concerning both their strength and thoir rigid-
ity, in order to avoill excessh'c dcformatiolLs under service loads.
For this reason the study of val'iulls methods of strain ~nd deflection
eompullltiou for clastic systems acquit!!! the greatest irnporlnnce
in the tht'Ory of structures.
This chllpter will be devoted to the study of general mothod~
permitting the detcrmil1ation of tilt! strains aud deflections of
"lItious framed structures. arches, rigid frames, otc. \\'e shall start
with rcdcwing certain questions concerning the work accomplished
by the exll"mal f(U'{:es and the potential or strain 6nl"rgy nccumu-
lated in various elastic systems during their deformation.

5.8. '.';OIIK or t'XTERX.\L FOncl::S

During tile loading of any system its elements aro put into mo-
tiOll, :acquiring certain velocities and accelef"3.tions. 11. is clcllr that
the rate of growth of the deformations will increase proportionally
to the rate of loading. alld if the latter becomes "ery small, tlie
momentum acquired by the system when passing from one state to
another will become quite negligihLl!. Hereafter th~ latter type
of IOllding will be referroo to FlS ltaticalloadiTlg.
In order to d.elcrmine the work of any eJ:ternal load P Il(lplied
gradually tu any elastic systom (Fig. 1.8) we shall mnke use of
MaxweU's lldnciple of superpositioll. provided. the material fol-
lows Hooktls law. Consequently, the dispLacements suffered by
differenL poinls o( an elM lie. syslcm will be ill direct proportion
 2.8. Work of R:J;/~r"d Foroes 'H
to the loads which have caused them. In its most general form this
may be expressed by the following equation
6~u.P (1.8)
In this cxpres.'iion II is the doformation sustoined by the system
along the line of Rction of force P, and a. is a factor depending on
the ml\terial itself. on the pattern and the dimensions of the struc-
tItre and orl the point of application of the load P.
Let force P increase by dP; this will immediately cause a cor-
responding increase of 6 by d6. The work performed by the load

Ptg. 1.8

P alollj;\' the ilisplacement d6, neglecting as usuul the infinitesimals

of the higher orders, will he
dA~(P+dP) d;- P d;

Replacing dll by its value adP (1.8) we obtain

dA = P dJj. =a.P dP
Integrating this expression from zero to the final value of tho
external load, we obtain the expression of the work accompli~hcd
by this load during HI> statical application
p
uP'
A=a. So PdP=T
As /1=a.P, this may be equally written
1
A=2" P/1
It should be lloted that the direction of the displacement caused
by a load P may differ [rom that of the load. As the work accom-
plished by 3 load is always expressed by the product of 3 force by
the length o( the displactlment measured along the line of action
of this force, the dU/placement /1 will always represent the projection
of the total displacement of the load point on the direction of t}w load.
Thus, lor instance, if a load P acts at an angle r.
to the axis of a
312 Str/ll" T?rttrCII TUDfll "rId ltltthod' 0/ Dt'pl/lNl,r!t'1l1 Comp"lolUln

I.eMlt Wig. 2.8), the displacemeut A will be gin:ll by Llle lelll:th

of UU,l Iille ab, tltis IClIgUI being equal to t.he projection of the tOlal
duflocliun aa. on the line of action or load P.
TIle work accompli.'lhed by It couple or moment. 3l? can be found
in the samu way provided the displaccmellt a corrwponds lo thot

~==---I 0,

Fir. 2.8

typo of loading. It will be readily seell that in this casu ~ must

rl'pru.'Wnt thll angular rotntion of the cross section to whir." the
nforcsoid momunt is llflplied.

~m ,.
"
Fi:.1.8

'fl.us, the work acC()mplis)led by a mOlllent m llop(llied stntiClllly

to lhe beam of Fig. 3.8 will be e:iven by
t
A-,lll~
wlllH'1,l {t is t.he augular rotation (in radians) of the cross sectiOll lo
which the momcnt ~ is directly applied. Thus, Jlu. IOOrk accom-
pllsh.t-d by any ~.r~rrlQl force appUtd gradually to an d4Stic 'yskm will
iN ulway;o; giIXIl by lullf tM product of this torce by lhe kngth of t.k
dilplacemmt n~asured in th~ directloll of this force. The It'tfll for~e
31lplies in tbis cn5e to allY extorllll.l action including momCIl\s,
distribullld loads, etc.
A., for the term displacement, it will mean Lhe deformation cor-
responding to the type of action whose work is lM>ing studiod. Thus,
it linear displacement will correspond to a concolltrated loa.d P,
an angular rotation to tl moment m~ and thll llrea of the displaooment
graph of a loaded strctc.h to distributed louds.
Wlum a system of loads Is gradually applied to a structure, Jh~ work
accomplished by rach of these load., will equal half the product of ib'
 2.8. Work 0/ Erlrr""l Fora~ 313

magniturk by till' dil1placemp.Tll clJrresportding to this load bat CGUSNt

by r/.ll the load.~ in qlu.~tion. 'Jhu!1, in tho casllllf the beam of Fig. 4.1;1
which carries two concentrflted loads PI and P z alld which i~ suh-
jected l:It the some timo to the lIcLion of two moments rol, Rlld IDl t
the work of tILe Qxtt.lrnal force:; will eqmJt
A = P1t>1....;.- 1'2-\2 ---'_ ~R,tt,_ ~262
2 . 2 '2 2

Tlw nt'gativll sigil of the last term of litis equlltion inJir.n.tos that
the fLlLgu[flr rolalion of till' CfOSS section to whidl IllUlIll'llt ml~

.r
m
r
(l ,., _-6-=~
, t
./--- ..!---
rn,

""l'
I N
H
Q

f-----1
a
N

S-'6 j
d'

Fit. 1.S fig. ,'j.8

i!1 avplioo is opposite in direction to tho said mUffll:loL Thus.

A = 1: I'~{j,i + 1: 1)Jf~(J! (2.8)'

The work llcrformed by the oxternal forces along tho displRce-

mellls caused by these forces can he equally expressed ill terms
of the stre,c;scs (bending moments, normal forces and shears) which
are developed in the cross sections of the slructure ullder cOnsid-
erntion. Let us take the bar repl'l~sentcd in Fig. 5.8 and let us con
sidl'lr an infinitely f:mal1 lcugLh dx bounded by two planos normal
to t.he bar axis. The whole bar will comprise fill infinite number
of such sections. If all the loads act in the plane of the bar axis,
the eIl'Ill(lnt dx will be subjected to Il normal force /ll. a belHling
moment M' and a shearillg force Q.
For a lIar as a whole thl'se actions constit\lte internal forces while-
for the element ckt they may be regarded as external loads whose
work will then be expressed by the products of N, M and Q by the
cerrcspondiTlg displacements sustained by the said demeDt.
Horeunder Jet liS study separately the work pl'rformed by each,
of those Rctions.
An element dx subjected solely tu a normal force N appear>i in
Fig. 6.8., If we admit that its left extremity is held fast, the right
hand ono will move along the direction of force N towards the
,314 Strain Enugv Theury alld 1If~lhlH1s ,,/ DlIpla~me"t C"mputa!ifm

righ.t over a longth equal to

.. _ Nd'l:
U",- EF

where EP is the tensile or compressive rigidity of the har under

-consideration.
The work performed by the stress N along the displacement t..",
will be therefore expressed by
f 1 N dz
dA,\'=:rNt..'>:=TNET
An element dx acted upon solely by a bending moment is repre-
sented in Fig. 7.8. Once again let us assumo that its Ieft.-hand o:-:tre-

%~----r-' ,,
'N
,,
------1--;-"-
,
aI---d'"",-+-.--"l
Fig. C.8 FIg. 'l.S

mHy remains fixed in which case the angular rotation of tno right-
hand one will bo given by
.. Mdx
U&= El

.EI being the nexnral rigidity of tue b.'lr section under cODsidora-
lion. During its statical application the hending moment will
therefore accomplish tho work given hy
f 1 M dJ:
dAM =TM6o=TM"""""ET

Let us further cnmine the elemout dx of Fig. 8.& acted lIPOU

by a shearing force Q. If we fix again the left end face (Fig. 8.8b)
'we must apply to the right-haud face transversal stresses -rdF of
~'hich the shearing force Q is the resultant. In the case of pure hend
ing these transversal stresses will be give.n by Zhuravsky's formula
QS
-rdF= J/} dF
'where dP is the area of a horizontal elementary strip situated a
(Jistance y from the neutral axis, while S is the statical moment
 2.8. Work 0/ Ezf<>rnlill Forcu

of that part. of thc cross secLion above (or below) this strip about
the sam!! axis (Fig. 8.Bc). The magnitude of the mutual displace-
ment of two identical strips, one belonging to the left ond face
and tile other to the right one, will be equal to the displacement
y.
,.
---- frdF

~Q
Q I
f-_.-

d< di--
(a) (bl (C)
FfK8.8

.... dz of the right end (the leCt ona lJeing assumed fixed) and will
therefore be given by tbe expression
,
1'dz=7Jd:r
where l' is tbe angle of shear.
AClnce, the work of Dn elementary trl'msvcrsal stress '[ dF along
the displac-ement y d% will be given by

,
..!..dP"dx
'
Integrating this expression over the whole area of the cross
sec-.lion F we obtain tbe work of all tbtl shearing stresses acting
across this section
~ I , ( " Tld~ r QI 8 1 dz
dA q = J 2: Tyd:r df = ,) """iG dF = J J1bl"2GdF=
p p p
Qldz(" S I , Q1dz
= 2IJ)'J J bY dF = 11 2GF
p

In this expression GP is the tMlnsversal rigidity 01 the cross

section cOru5ide~d, while" = :I~~ dF is Dondimensional factor
p
depending solei}' on the shape and sizc of the cross scelion.
Denoting 11 ~~ by 6~, the elementary work d.4 q will be ex
pressed by
 In this expression .1, m3Y bo regarded as the lllulual \'ct~ical
llbsplaccmcnt of the two cro~ sections bounding the element dr
(see rig. B.Sb). For rectangular cross sections the value of factor
Tj will be obtained replacing in tbe corresponding tlJ:pression F

bA' Itnd S by ~ 4" - yl

by bh. J bY12' (b' ) which luads to 1'\ = 1.2. For a

drcular SCGlion the !aIDe procedure will yield 1') = ~ whilst for

I~.!'hnped section the approximAte "alue of 11 = "

H- or for
1)lJ adoflted. Ftp being the cross scelion of the web. If the elCI1l6nts
undf'r consideration are Deted upon Simultaneously by Cl normlll
'. IllAy

sire!.'! N, a bendin[l: moment il1 and a shear Q. the work oceom-

pli!lhcd by {'nch of these actions along the displaccmcllts ClI.ustld by the
twu utller DlIe!! will remain nil. COllSCtluently, tllo total work will
be expressed by
dA ",..v = I (NNd~+~1~+QOdZ
dA +dA M +dA Q"2 ElT " 1 GF '1 )

Intograting the expressioll of dA ovor the whole length 1 uf each

bnr con!ltitllting the structure nnd SUffim i ag u~) the result.!, we obtnin
thu following expression which permits the computation of the
work of external forces expre1lSed in terms of tho internal onos 10r
the whole structure
, , ,

whicb
A ---'-("~"f~

1111\)'
2 ~ J El + ...
, j'

00 writlen as follows
.
.~N!!.!!!.+"'QQdZ)
,} F.F ... j GF 'I ,
(3,8)

In the expression (3.8) tllO IOtlers Af, N. and Q represent tIle inter
nal forces 3.cting ovar n cross section situated a distance z froUl
., "
,.Jl6 (mglO 0' dcoor'mates, Wu. ..,rros ,\Idol
"U a th e . Ndz llll d Odz
El' EF BC 11
are tho etJm'sp<onding displllcomelllS of t110 clement d;,; of the bar.
The aoovo two expressions permit the computation of the work
8l;complishtld by the Joad~ in terms of the internal stresses devtll-
oped under the Hction of these londs. Expression (4.8) wows that
tho work or the exterllal 101\d~ will be always po.~itivll.
 3.8. Slrat" I~"crgy

3.8, STHAIN ENEnGY

During the loadillg of a body the l:lxternal {MU'S 'CC()lI1fllish
.a certain amount of work part or whieh may he mllu to overc.omo
the inte_l'llal frkl.ioll. to altor 1.1\(~ l,cmperaturll or the rnagneLic
properties of thtl mlltetial, de. 111 tlte materials lJ.'!ultlly consid-
ered as el:lstic this part or the work i~ negligible and therefofP.- wo
mllY allmit thal all '.hC'. work uf external Iorcc~ is tran$rol'ull'd ill
tklt case inlo potential or "t.rain {\Ilergy. The laLter is aCGlllllulat-
,cd in tll(.' hod}' uuder cOllsider.:ltioll during the period of inereHfl-
ing strains and d(lformatiuns callS<ld by Ihc!;(1 rorces. Whcn the
body is unlond\ld, this &llel'gy is n~slitutcd as work accomplished
by lhe internal st.re~seil. Ai> no enel'gy is elVer lost, we lllay say lhat
all tlLe work A IlcGomplished hy the extl:lrll1l1 rOr{~{\S is tl'lln.~forJlH)(1
illto stl'ain onergy If' or, ill other \\'oJ'(!f;, that
A=W
SubstHuting ill this cqllatioll the value of A givell hy llw
expressiou (4.8) we obtaiu
, ,
W -~~~, '<'~
- ... J 2EJ T~ J (5.8)
o " 0
The analysis [)f L1lis exprc!\Sion leads to the following cOllclusion~:
1. 'rho strain elll:'r~y is always positive, for the above I:'xproliSioll
'Colltains tho values of thl:l internal forces !rI, Nand Q in the second
powt:r.
2. The strain energy is oxpres.sod hy II homogoneous rUIlC_lion or
the stresses or strains in Lht,) s(lC.ond power, the strains being directly
proportiollill to the Stl'CSS{'5.
3. The straill energy ,l\;CullluJatcd under the action of 11 certain
syslem of fOrCt\5 is 1I0t cqUld to the SUU! or
strain ellergics dUll Lo
<t!ach of Lhesc fOI'Ct's scjlaratcly nud therefore tbe principle of supcr-
position is rlO longcr valid. This follows from 111(\ fact I,hat t1w st.rnin
energy is a fOllction of Lhe second power of the stre..~s ,M, N ,lIltl
Q alld l.haL Lho sq\laro of a sum is never cl]unl to tlw Slllll of t.he
sqoaru~.

4. Tho slt'lIin energy Ilcculllulated in 1'1 hody i~ illl!epllll1lollt of

ltw scqm'lIcl' ill which Ihe l:Ixtol'naL forces are applil!d, tlte final
>'nllles of the stresses Af, Nand Q being illdependent of this ~qllollce.
'COIl&lqU('Utly, '.he :slraill energy Ilepcmls only Oil the flllal litate
~'Jr an elastic hody.
Stalelll(HII. ;3 elln Le C(lllfirnwd hy lho following example. LeL
liS eonshlCI' L1U'Cll differenL ways of load application tu the l)lllstic
bar slwwlI ill filt. U.&, viz.:
 (1) loading by a single force PI (l'''ig. 0.8b).
(2) luading by II singlo force Pt (Fig. 9.&).
(~l simultaneous loading by boUt forces Pt and P a (Fig. 9.8d).
Tho strain energy accumulated in the rust two cases as given by
OXPf\!ssiOIl (5.8) alnounts to

W P:l W
1=2FF;
.!l'. 1-ZEF

In tho third cast' it will be given by

W ..... (Pl+P2)t I.". PlI +~+I~lP21
a 2EJI 2EF 2EF El'
Comparing lV 3 with the sum (W l +
W~) wc note that the sum
of strain ~nergics due to each of the forces separately is not equal
, I/, , I

F"
TTIW (cl
I
P,
(bl (cl
., (.,
P,
P,
Fie. 9.8

1.11 tho straiu (lnergy due to the simultaneous action of the same
forco.'I. Indeed
w -W
3- t
+W +P1Pzl
'--er
For It beUer understanding of the above equation lot us imagine
that ot first load PI is increased gradually from zero to its linal
valuo aud then remains constant while load P a slowly reaches its
full value in the same way. It is clear that tlte application of load
P'l will eause the end of the bar to move downwards an amount
~~ , and that during that time the load PI (assumed consLanl) will
PIPil
perform the work equal to"'"JJF'
Thll!l, tbe last term of the expreslsion for W 3 gh1(l!l the value of
tho work performed by the load PI when its point of application is
shiIled by force P,: (or vico versa, if the sequence of lORding is in-
verted).
Tho above example shows clearly thnt the principle of superpo
sitioll does nol, apply to the COnlJlutation of the strain energy nccu-
 8.8. Slr4;'" ElW'trll ~t9

mulated ill all elas~ie body for otherwise the terms of the oquatiol1.
taking cart! of the work accomplished by one part of ti,e loads along
the displacement caused by tile other part of the loads, would be
conlplotely lost.
Prroblem l. Required to dett!rrnlne Ibe str.in energy IICCwnulaled bYolllllnd-
!IUpporled btam of reet.angulu &I'OM SlCtlou (Its width aud lkpth equalling:

m:\
(a) f~-:---,-------t
,
I !'f ymp" I

~m
IbI

: Q graph I

icJ
ffiIIIIlIIillIl ':'
b .ntl A. respectiv@ly). tho beam being IGllded by. couplo Wl aeting al its de"t-
band ll3:lremily(Fig. 10.&).
$01,,11011. Draw the bl!nding moment ,nd the shearing force dl.~.ms as

..
M""'T~ and Qs-,
.
shown in Fi,. 1O.8b and, (norroal slre!MS in this particul.r ease hamg nil).
The magllltude or these stNl5..oes in any ero!loS !eIltion will be given by

Introducing 11,.- vallJe!I iD the u:presslon for tho strain flM'rgy (5.11) Yo'to
obtaIn
"
l;"Jr1tl:s: I,"Qltl:s: gt (' I,
W-j~+J2GJP~=~j:s:h+
,
... TI r.) tlz:. ""{"
+2lfGF 21t "') ""21
m+ GF ""("SE; + (ff
")

Let us oompuo MW the magnltudes of lho .trdn energies due. on '.he one
hsnd. la IlIe she.rlng fol't('s and, on the Olher. to the bending mOlllont._. For
this purpo'll let us replaco G. F, J and I] by their v.lues correllpOndlng to emS/!:
section or reetangular !hapc
F_bh, J_I,,.s and 1]-1.2

"
.320 Strain Energy Thf'Ol'Y and MrtllOrf, 01 TJ"plac"",rut Computatlo"

'rltls leads to
OR' ( / , 1.2 ) ")/'/ [ 3 (" )']
LV=2T iJE:t +(i;/'jEbh = e/;"~ l+:r T
TIlt' :!ot'\.'ur,,1 tt'rru in hrackHs !'t'I'I1.'8('utj! till' 11.ll,tivt' \'01 Ir".' M tllo sbain l'Ul'l'gy
,ltll' Lu the shoarillll f"r""s. This turm is dir~l'tly IIl'ul'urLlo1l8L 10 the rat,,, .!f
wJU!rc h is tllll depth ~r the l'I'OSS ~CtlOll and I is I,Lte Spllll of tho btam.
I[lmcu, lhl'lnfltwnce of Lilo sboMing forces will lIN[1 rapldi~' with till) <1,)l'n~",;c
..f tllis ratio. When tlll' ratio
m"t l
i.~ I'qmll to +
, (beams with n llrenlel" raU" ~re !'CIlium

H fll1l0W~ thnt in th" CU>;l' 'mder cun~irlluatj"!l th{' str'"in ''Ilorgr r1rL(\ to the
.,.h"arin~ forc('.. . cvnstil,ull''; aa"ut 3 Jler ('('lit uf tlll' tut"l un"'lO' aocum,t!alerl.
111 1111' cm,(! "f h<'llm! lIlot wltl, ill actllal prllc1.iclI for which the ral ill -T i~ lI'.'lI"lly
much ~mull(',', 1,1,0 i,,01l<'lIcu ul tilt, slu'M'ing fO:<.'5 1011oom''5 quite Mgligihle.

t>roblclu2. I\el[uirt'll W d,'t(mlliulJ thQ str"in mwrgy ac.eoullu!l1[.l'd in the truss

()I Fir{_ 11.11. !Ill tllO l,l,nut'nl$ ut this truS.'! lIavill~ t[w samco c,ru"-S ~,lion F.

1 6

~--;b---*c-_*_--"iB,~.l
J ~ 7

1.._'''"""'_-1-._"''"""'_+_"''00.-+-"'""'-~
0

SQI,di~n. A~ tllo honding fIlnUl'l'HI~ 1111'1 shC'aring fOrl:l'S I'lJJllain nil ill all tho
b.11'S of tho trlJ~ aroll as lhe norm,l! s~r('.<~_~ N (,nu tll(\ l"igidjlJ('~ EF l"l'main con-
st;mt O\,'r lhe whole length of I-'ac.h hl,r, cxprl1ssion (5.8\ ll"h'ing till) oUluurrL 01
tho Slrain <:IlCfl\'Y aC-l'uffi'llatc,l he<;olll'~
,
."N2~ ;\'21 t6.8)
II ="U~/" J (/:r=~ 'lEF
,
In this UIJreSSlOn N- l"tnl dirl'd str'ns in each vf lire barE cau~d hj' lhe
S~'Sto'lU of 10llds llPI'IiE"l1
1 _ l"nl\'th of the b",.
 :.s. Tlitonm 0/ /IN:il'lHdl IVDrh (ThtDrem 0/ Belfll) 32t

Tho silrn l: SltoWll that the summation of the energieJ! ,\Just be (,a1fil'd ov!:r
all thl) I~f'!! of tlto tnl~. Of course. tbO!ll btIrs ....bich rllmain idle may be neglect.-
~. llt~ product NSI rPIDnining .Iwafs ull ~-ben N - O.
III th(' GI!Ie nl tn'....~ .and aimilar strueturu strain ~ergy cornputation.
bould lit! carried oul in to>bular fOIlD till indicated hereunder.
Tllf/I, 1.8

Oar No. ,. m

J-Z; C-R ,
-~p ~pt
4
5 125 pt
4

24; /-fi -~f'

3 ,
~pt 5 ,
12'" J"-

J.J;:J..() 2P ~/'2 4 tf,,02

0-7; 7-11
2-3; /;-1 0 0 3

2-&; 6(j _!!..p ~1'1 5 ~PI

"
,., P
" &i
J" G
311
f-,Jn

The Ja~t column or the Tabl" c,mtains l,he Vllluf'.! of N 1 l for ellch bllr "I lhe
lru@~. Summing U\' all these Hllul.-s "nt! di\'iding the result by 'J.EFJE bllinl!

*;;
exprc~ in tons)lCl" ~q m and F in sq m) wo Mall ol,taln the valu(! ,)f Icstr"ilt
l'iK"fIlY ~CfUDlllllllt'd in th.e ",hole of the truu

w_ (z 1;'5 p2+ 2 1;5 P2+tl.lpl X4+0X 2+2; P2+6P2) 2~,f'''83

4.8. THEOREM OF RECIPROCAL WORKS (THEOR~.I Of" 8~TTYI

Lt>t us consider two di[erent stales of the same elastic S)'stom
in eqnilibrium and let us a.5Sume that in the lirst slate the systcm
is acted upon by a single stnticall)' l'Ipplit'd load P, and in the Stl-
c;flnd hy a SlatiCAlly applied load PI (l"ig. t2.8).
W~ shall dCllOt.c by j .... the deOeetion susLnin~d by any point
of the system. the first of the index letlers m. indic.ating th.~ dircc
ti()ll uf the deRcction and t.hc socond 1l the number of the load which
has caused this dC'f1ection. Thus, .1.,u will indicllt.e the ck~tlOrt
nlrJng the line "j at:.!iQ/t oj lood m ClJl~ by tJu: Wad Tl. When the hod)'
is acted upon by a mOment, 6"", will roprescnt an angular rota-
tion ~:tpl'I,.'.ssed ill radinns. TJle action 11 mtty consist alSl) of sevC'nl
concentratud loads. momcnl!l or combinations of distrihute,l load.s .

-Th,j compUl.i\tioll of ~tres...<oS Pi has not llCen include,l in I,he 81>0\'0 T~hlo.

21_8~3
822 Slral" EauKII TMtiry ami Mttlt....b of Displaununt Conl1,wlat/(1fI

JII tile case under consideration the various displnccmen~ .1~...

ore:
.1. 11 = deflection along the direction of load PI due to the same
load
.1 u = deflection along the direction of load PI duo lo the. load P1.
.1!1 -=- del1cction along Ule direuion of load P1. due to the load PI
~~ = deflN:lion 3.lon:;: the direction of load 1'2 duo to the .'!ame
load.
These rour dofleetiolls are deorly shown in Fig. 12.$.
L<ll All he tho work poriormcd by lood PI IlI,)ng tho din!clion
of this ~'\1lI0 101111 (in other words, lhl;l work corrcl'l)lolulillg lo

(aJ~
,,
J,,<
I ~"
Staft! 1

f<4 u
,,
I '+
,, ,, ,,
,, ,, ,,
,, ,,
, , , P,
,
Stau"

'" ,
4" '"
Fir. n.s

state I). Lulalso A zz be the work performed by the load P2 along the
dcfluctions com~sponding to slate ll.
J~x:pl'\'ssiofl (2.8) leads to the following values of the worl, oor-
respolldin~ la each of these !ltates, provided the loads are applied
il'9dually
- P~~::;
A =~--,-

This work could also be expressed in terms of the int('rnal

rOfl"eS aClillg in the Ll:!llm (set! expression (4.8)1

Il
I I I ,
1 _ .... ~Midz+I:(' ,Vfdz+~~ (?,dz
rl!_~~ 21U ~"""2RF ~2CFt)
I I I (7.8)
r1=.- ~ ~ J~i.~" T! ~ ,~~.~r + Z S~~~., 11
u 0 0 I
 Let us assume that the .same sy.slem is ]Olltled in tho following
sequence: firitl, lond PI (t'ig, '13.8) is i'lcroa~d gradually froln zero
lo its fillol vldue; the IlencctiollS sustained by t.he_ syswm ond the
stres...c;es devdoped in that. calla will 00 eXllctly the &'I1I1e as t!lose
corresponding La state I of Fig. J2.8a, In particular. lILo Ilcncclioll
Ull{h~r load PI will equnl.<..\u and the work performed by this load
during its applicllLion will I\ffiount lo A u = P1i'U, Afltr (Ito.l let
ItI:HL P2 increASI;l in lht.' samo Wlly. This win cll~ail Lilo dc\'clolllllCllt
()( adctitioJUtI slrrSSl:lS and dcflcI'tinns, lhese 5tn'sscs autl tleneclions
bf,illg cquol to lhose susll\illed by the g)'slem in 1l1ate II of Fig. t2}~b;
p.
P,

,.."_"_::-----1:.,-
_,- --
-.>::::--
flITJ'U: ('.JIYe due
.------
~a-=-~=-~- t --*
.Ju--
El aN le eurvf
~,
to P, 'md P2 dut to P,

thlL" tbe >tdtlitiOltla( d('flL,,\ioll at Lhl' point III allp!ica~ioll o( load PI

willl.'qunl ~\I~' As LLw load PI llill not \'ury during the t1(lpIiCoLion oC
lua~1 P.,. it will travel downwnNt~ n dist.allce equnl to thl,\ ntldilional
dc'necHon .11~ performing L1w work An = PI.1I~; at the same tim&
lond P.,. will perform tlte wnrk Az:!; = 1'2:2:. It follow5thnt thu total
work ac~olTlplishc<l during the IO:ldill/o: u( tho s}'slem first by load
PI nnll next hy load P.,. will equal
A = JI tiT'A IV A !2=~
J'l \1l+p,+P2;\r-
L

1-'12----z-= (8.8)

;\1 thD Sllme time the work pc..rMl1Ied by 10;)d5 PI tlnd P, may
be expl'essed (SeA Eq, 2.8) by half Lhe product of ~ach of Lho.~ loads
hy the lotal dllfiectioll alon!" the dirootion of this load (Fig. VI.S).
A= PI(.lI}+~d + P:(J.212....L..\~1

l::qlltltiUg tilt' ahow 1\1:0 eXIl~iolls we obtain

",.12 11 + P" + P~2:=
I 2
11:
P. f.111+.\!2l + P: (.1:\ +At:!)
2 2
wherefrllln

".
324 S/rtt/" f;.urglj TlIt!J/JrrJ Ilnd Mtthods of nlsplltufl'lNd C""I/ll.IlaJ'Oll

Tile product Pt.1. n I"l'proscnls the work Aa performed by load

PI (,:orresponding lo stale t nf Pig. i2.8a) along the deflecHoll
call~d by load P2 following the direction of lnad PI (stale 11 of

Ftt. 11.R

Fig, 12.8/1). In lh~ :samu Wtly P Z.1 21 rcpn'50nt" th(' work A ZI per-
formt.'fll.y load p! or state IJ along thudcflcctioll foHowing' thl' Iille
or actif'n of this lond ca\l~d by loael 1', of sLaw I.
Collscquonliy

'I'lu, Sllllle \'~811H would ho n!Jtilin<o<l if tho body lIrlller COlIsidl'ra

lion WI'l'l' (lct{)d UPOIl hy lHl)' uumhcr of conCClItrntcd 01' fli.~lrjh~
ulud I":lds or monwnts.
Thus, l!~ work pl!r/ol"rned by lM fictions Ilj slale J along I/w dl'fl"c~
lions cflW'lt>d by flit: fIctions c(Jrr('~pondillg to state Ills I'fjufll I'! tJu work
pcrlorml'd b/l the actions 11/ slaU I1 along the deflccliOru dll.t' to th"
Qctions 0/ stuit' /. all the dejll'ctiO/l.S being measllred ilt lhr direction
Dj the saul odwm.
Let us e-"pn'ss now the work At: in terms of the bcnfl.ng mOlllcllt.~,
normal ~lrcsses and shears devc1ol'<'d in the first nod ill the second
s~aU!,
From l'AjlfCssiun t8.8) Wt' obtnill
A I1 = A-A Il -A"1 (1U.H)
lIere A rCI)rllM'lIL.'1 ~he totAl wurk produced lJy loads 1'1 and
P1 alont; the displacement..'1 due lO ~h('se same load"_ Ui!illg eXI!(1'<\-
SiOl1 (1,.8), this work may he expres.'1cd by
, , ,
A=-~~IMI-j .\J!\1d:r+>SINI, N 1)'l<lz ,~\ {Ql+Q!11dz ('11.8)
~ cl , 2F./ 2l::F
, , ......\ 2GP '1
,
In this expression M . N. alln 01 are rl'spectively I,he hellrlillg
mOllllJuls, the normal .'llr('~('s and the shears dlwl'luI'ud in Lho'l
m~mhl<r,<; of the sy!.'tcm llHdor cl1nsideration (lite t.o the 1l11plic<lliMI
or !t)(1(1 PI' while M~, IV: :lnt! Q2 lire those due to Iho lIflplicllUon
or June! P~.
 5.$. Th~~m 0/ n~lproe,d DUplllum~,.I,

The 511111S (.1'. :-M,,). (NI + N:.) and (Q.+Q~) rupresent the
tOlal t'Csl.l1tant sl~s.ses ill cro~ sections due to the CClmbioed Rclion
of both load!l PI ond Pt.
Illt-rodu('ing the value of.4 give.n by oxprcs:sion (11.8) inlo exp~s
S\l)1l (10.8) alld u!:Iing the \'a1ues of /1 11 lIod A ~2 deri..-ed fro to equa-
tiOn (7.8) we obtain
,
1 _ ",{'{.lI 1+,u:)2 Mj NJ d:r+
111-~J
, '1.l'.'J

, , ,
~~. &1 ,tl,dx "'\' V Ntdz "'\'Q Q:dz
I
"I:=~,}J> I EJ +~jl I-U-+~,} l----cr'l (12.8)
, " ,
In this expression ('I\ch of t.be terms pre<;ecloo by the inltlgral llign
may be ron~idcrt'd as the product of a total stress (say. the bendillg
lIlomont At l ) due to t.he actions of stale 1 and the total st.rnins of
thu elclllcllt dJ. !lay, .,~)z. due to the AcUons of ::ILatc [I.

5.8. THEOHEM OF nECll'ROCAL OISPL.\CEMENTS (THEO",,:.\!

OF MAXWELL)

Let us take up 011~ again two diffel'ellt 8Lntcs of 011(' 1lI1l1 the
!!aTlH) sysl.em, Lhe first Iltate corresponding to the npplicntiotl of 11
uuit load PI and the second to that or a ullit lUrid P~ (fig. 15)S).
Hortlltflcr we shall use the sign 6 to indicate tho disp!IIC(lllltlllls
(lStraill1l, fllllj:u]ar rotatiulIs or dencctlons) cau~d by unit IOtld:l
p.- 1 or unit mOlnt!llts jV} = 1, in ord!!r to distinguish them from
lho<:tl due to loatl:l or mOments of arbitrnry ma~nitlldcs which shalt
be d('llo1l,d by .1. Thus. 5 2l will indicaLu the displacemollt dHu lo
the unit load PI uloll(( Lho direction of load P: whiht 611 will indi-
cale Lhe t1isplacclllt!nt along lobe line of action of load PI due to the
application of 10aLl UI,ity P'l'
Tu the precediujt article Wc have show.l that
P.6 1: = PJ. 21
As PI CC< P,= I t this cXprl!l!SiOll bi.'tome8
= bt l al"
GCllcralizillg we lrlay writo for allY 11nity fictions
o5 mn =6"m (Lt8)
 Tho tfxpre-"Sion \.htl~ ubt:lined is the algebraic expression of
MartDt"Il'6 thnJrt'm which row as follows: in any dastlc SflsU'm the
~l(fW 1

~="'~p~;J"
, , , ,
Stole II I
I

~-)~,
- lfn ~
n,_ 15.S

d~pl~m~nl$ caustd by a. load lutttg ul(JII~ /Ju line uf aclton 0/ another

lll(ld unity au a1WiJ!lI tq/Ull to tk dL~plaamml dIU to this smmd food
wItty aloug IN lint' of tulwn 01 the first 0I1r.
Equation (13.8) will oh"ious!y remain "rile CYI!II wllen londs PI
.and 1'2 havl' arbill:lry hut ('quaL \-alu('s. In thi8- case tIle said expres-
sion will bc-co/lle
"\IS:.a SI (14.8)
An illustratioll of 1IlnK,well's thl!orl,ll\l is afforded by the example
of Fig. 1u.8. III sLnlo I the boam with a IJUiltin cnd is ltctRu upon
by SI unit load PI while in tJw ~ocond 0110 by II unit lllUOII:'.nt jJf/.
Tile rotation 1;" duo to tlLe unit lond P j mu~t be lllllllllricaHy
oqllol lo the doflt'Clioll 1/1 due tu the mOnJent W, i,t'., 6" = Yl-
Lf.'t us compute. now the '-a)uE'-s or~ .. and of YI u!iut: 0111,;. (If tllO
prooodurcs developed ill tilt' treatiscs on the strength of matt:rials.
In !Stale I Wig_ iQ.Ra)
0.. = )., (-Pla+ P;Z) = -i~ (l-1-)
and in sLale IJ \Fi:::. 16.Bb)
Yl= ~J( -!)} ~ +m (l-;."]= -~j (1-;)
Siu('c ID"I-J'= 1
O,,=--;,(/-f) and Yl-=-;, (l--r)
which connrJllS llml
 :121

Tho strain.!! and displacenlcnts caused by nondiml!n.!'ional unit

loads P = f and momtlnt.~ m
= 1 differ in their dimension
frum ~he usual strains and deflections.
Indeed, tile dimension of a diilplllcemenc ca\l!lCU by 11. unit
load is given by the ratio of 3 displacement to the action which
has caused it. Thus. in the previous pX3.mple the angle of rottllioll
(tG produced by a nondimensioual load unity P = 1 (which is en-
tirel)l dilleronl Irom a load equal 1.0 1 ton or 1 kg) will be el:preS!Cd

(a) Stalq 1 P'I

a
--
[

(6) SllJtrt /1

~: -: - ,~;;------f2
Fi,. 16. 8

in ka- l Silllilarly the dllOcetio" produced by the unit moment

lm = 1 will also be expressed in cm per kg-cm or kg-I; in other
word!, it.s dimonsionality wiU be 6n&11y the same as tbat of all
an:uJ3f rotatiou due to a :unit load.

6.8..\On'HODS OF DISPLACEMENT COMPUTATION

Let us conf:ider two different. staws of one nnd the Sllme system.
J[J it., first ~Ultc the system is Mtl!d upon by any number of loads
and Illoment.'l who:"e values may be chosen at wiJI (Fig. f 7.8a) and
in the second stato by OIlC single load unity p~ (Fig. 17.Sb).
Let us compute the work A 21 produced by the load unity Pt along
the displacement 621 due to aH the actions of state I
 This Slllne work is expr(!!.~ iD terms of the illlcrrlnl strcsst'g
lIsiug formulas (9.8) aud (12.8) bornes
, , ,
j
IIt =1: I.'J M~ ~~-=-+:EI.'N
EJ
j"ldz+"~Q- G'l dr.
~!/'["iT"'" ,) 2 GP 1]
(15.8)
0 0
(The dashes plDc~d over M t , N! llnd Q: inoicIle that thn~ streSSCS
are due to a load unity.)
Thus the displacement caused by any combination of loads 1113.)'
be 6l:prossed in terms of the stresses develolX'd by tho said comLi-
nntiolt cllld by those due to a load unit)', The line of action or lids
(0/ Af'tunl :UJU: {SCOW I J

~"III~
,I,
,
I

Fit. 11.8

load unity must coincide with the direction of the displact<Dlent

under consideratioll.
When a linear dlsptac.elllcnt. is required (say. a denection ilL ::lny
point of 1110 systom) tIle load unity mUlIt be a concentrated llondi-
mOll.!:iioll/t1 load acting at this particulllr point. If, on the other
haud, it is required to fInd thc angular nHntion of 11 cerlaill cross
.section, the uflit action JOust be a nondimonsiona[ collt'eulrtlwd
JnODlilllt applied to this .section.
Hereafter we s!ltlll refer to that stalO when 11 single load unity
is applied to tho s>,stern as the imagiruuy or unity stale, while the
(';8!'e whon the MOle system is acted upon by tho combination of
action!! eHcctively applied will be referred to as: the rNl or actual
state. In the 1!arne way the term unit groph or un.it diagram will
refer to tho graphs of the !ltres~S devl'lopl'u ullrlcr tht! action of 11
 ".,

lotld unity, these stresses being denoted by M, iYaDd Q.Wllill'

tho diagrams of stresses due to the actiof13 effectively applied will
be termed actU4l or flal graphs Illld the corresponding stresses will
be d~ignated by .Mp, N p and Qp.
In certain ca..;es it heromes more convenient to u~ aJphabclicar
indir<'s in expression (15.S) inskad of tbe numerical OIlCS (501)': m
and 11, or p and k). The expl1'ssion becomes in tMs case
, , ,
.1 1>lI, =Z\'KT
,
.~'~d,r+'SN
J m.~
,
IQ
~",d!+,tQ-
EF
.
J IQ Q"d.o:
GP 11

whero 0",,, is the disp!RC-emont aJOIlg t]lC line of action of load

(l Q.... .S"J

unity P'" due to the actions applied in relllHy and b~lollgill{; le>
tht;! group n.
Whcn the crO$.'l ~cti(loS of all the members remain CouJltant, the
eXJ)l"'ssion lB.8 may be rewritten as rollows
, , ,
.1"", -,,:E ;, ~ M,..I\,.. dz+ I;1' ~ N...N.. dz+Z G~ ~ QmQII dz (tHI}
The

three 8xpreasiolUl

(15.8), (16.8) and (17.8) are frequelltly
referred to as the Ctn~ral displattment tquaiions or lI!olir's rqualiQIU.
For t.htl c.amputat.ion of displacements wilh t.he help of th~
expressions the following sequence will be adopt.ed:
1. ill the flrst plaoo delermine the stresses M n , N" and Q" due
to the aJlP]i('d load!! for an arhitrary cross section in terms of its
abscissa x.
2. Apply a unity action at the cross section whose dellection or
lIngular rotlltiOIl is required, a COllcentrllwu load c;orl1lsponding
to a dcnectioll or any other translntion <lIld 1i moment to an ongular
rotation.
3. Computo the stresses ft7"" Nm. and (j", due to this ulllt nction
for the same cros.~ section sHual.<!d a distance. from the origin of
coordintl.t('s.
4. Introduce the values of tllo stressell Ill... N.. and Q.. AS well
as thoSt' of ltJ .... N ... and (j,.. in one of the three expression. (15.8),
(l6.S) or (17.8) aud iutegn.le along all tho elements of the t'ntire
structUN!. When the displacemcnt ~ ..... thus obtained is po..itive..
it.! direction coincides with that adopted for the unit actiou and
when it is ncgath'c, it is opposite to th6 onc adopted for the
unit a(:tion.
In the design of the redundant structure it is sometimes required
to nnd the mutuol displacement of two preselectcd points. In that
ca~ /I. system of two unit loacls of opposite direction should be
applied along UIO direction of tlll.l displllc,llment roquirod, tlu,'so
:'130 SIr",,, I:nu!lY 'l'''~r.'l and ,lfelhod& "/ Di'plaumenl Camp"l"ll"n

Illlil lauds being rO(llaced by unit mome/IW:; when the dispklcl'lllent

in quc.<::tiofl is an angular rotation. Thus, if it were required, fat
instnnce, to lind the increnS(l in the dilltallcc between points C aud
D of the portal frame appearing in Fig. 18.Ba" unit loads acting along
tlw [ilic CD r-;llOUld 00 applied to hoth of these points as indicated
in Fig. 18.8b. All the cumpulations will be carrlld Ollt thorca[t{'r
"
,
'#
"
D
, , , .,"","'0
DJ
,,
,,

r c a
l'i
'c
ri5
IT
",'-' , " , "
.~,
(m (b) IC)
Fig. 18.8

using Mohr's formula in the sequence mentioned abovo, keeping

in mind that the stresses Mill' IV", and <1", will be t.hose developed
undm' tho simult.ancuos action of both load unities jusL mentioned.
If tho displacement obtained is positive, its direction coincides
with thu one adopted for Lhe load unitics, in other words, the dis-
tance between points C a.nd D will increase. If, on the contrary, the
displacement obtained were negative, It would mean tha.t points C
and D are brought closer together,
The relativc arlgulnr rotation of two eta':'il sccl,ion!'; (If some struc-
tut'e may bll calculated in exactly the same way, In tile example
just lllolltionod two unit 1ll0ments should be applil.d ill that case
to points C and D, thesc moments acting in opposite directions
as showII in Fig. 18.8c, As for the computations Lhemsclves, they
will not differ in auy respect from those just described for the case
of a linear translation.
ln the lllajority of cascs, ouly one lerm of Mohr':; formula has
to 00 retained. Thus, if the structure works mainly in hellding
(thi" heing generally the case for rectilinear beams, portal and
huilllillg frallleil as well as for flat arches) it will suffice to use only
the term containing hending momonLs. Similarly whell the members
of the stl'ltctUtO wot'k mainly in direct tension or COU1p('es~ion, as
is the rase for all the hinged syslems. both terms depending on the
bonding' moments and shoal'S may be lIeglcr,led without any apllre-
 6.8. M~/ItQd~ DJ Di~pllJCllmenl ClI1f!PUtlJtiCl'l 33\

eiahle rcrtmtioll in the nc~ufflcy of the results olJlllirwd. I n all

Un'lt follows, with the f:lx{,l:'plion of a fow specified CIlSt'!'i. 1IJ(' .~half
a.lways neglect the infiue7U'e of normal ,~tresscs and shRanion the lkf/t,C-
timt of rectill/tear beams and rigid frame,~.
If Lhe clcment Ulldl'f consideration is a curved buc' whosl' radius
or ('UrV"I,llre is at leas!. t.en lirnes as great as the clepl,h or its noss
~clioll. Mohr's formula for reetilinCflr bars may blJ lIslJd. !Jro\'idl'd
the le[l~lh of the straight clement. dx is replnced by tlU) lenglh or
the Ilrc.h w;. The influenc.", o[ normal SLI'CSSCS and shoRrs lUay he>
11.~\1al1y llt!gleclcd.

rroblcm I. DeU.>rIlli"e tho donec_~ion of nn en,l-slll'porlod bQllm ()[ CQn.~tanl

<Cr<lSS ~~clion acted "pOll by II conc~ntraled load P n at mi<1sp,~u (t'i~.19.8,,).
/\11 th(! tllr(lI) wnn~ of ~]ohr's [onnulll !!hould he used.
Solution. rh" imaginary stat,e of this hOI,m will cfltre5pcIIld to lho lIpplJca-
Ij(}n 01 a cOIlCl'ulratl'd load ullity in tho dirrn~H(>1l ,,[ tiro ddll"ctinn n.>qlllrfd
(Fig. 19.8b). 'I'll<! normal stres..."('." will rOllls;n ,wllsUntly nil Illrd lherefort'
,
"s-,
.\lohr's formuln will become

ll~-
O'm" .... 2: 7JI MmM/I dz+I GF .\ Qn.O" d.z:.,.~\~"
It Q
TA",n
,
"
ll.;.",,_1: 1
EJ r-
J M",Mlld.z:

is Ill!' d"necLion in puto belldill~ (I. l'. dU(l soll'ly 10 llll) h~ndinll" trlOlt\')I!~)
whll~t
,
Q
lIm",=:I: "
GF r-
J Q,nQ" d:r

b the llart of thl' t(,ta] deflection caused 1lOloh' by the siJeadng forces.
rolr all Ilw UOSIJ sections of the b~am to the Jl'rt of point C IILe i)~noJing
moments Mn and ,U", and tho shcmring force!! On lInd Om ltro given loy
P" I - 1
M<lQOT Mm~TJ:

P"
Q11-2 -Q 1
I>l-~

Tlw corresjl(mding gnpllS are giv('n in Fig, 19.81', d, ~ nn,] f. lntroduci,,~

lhnsc H,lues ,,,to the expressions givin~ the two dif[cfo;nt par~ of Llw lowl
delleclion, we obtain
 Ti,e beatll beinl: s)'nlmetrieal abwt a vertiClll uis. we lIIar
intcgrilt.e
olll( along out! haU or !I.a ll!ng~b, $I)', the II'll UOt. The loUI dcD<--<lior;
.....i1 be gi\'"t'D by
JI Q P".l' p.. T}l
'O'...,,""'O'_+O'..."-48V+ 4GP

(0)
---
, ---- , ' ...

,, ,
,,, ,
Un,t rIots

, r"-/
lbi
J;.. c,
,, +.
,

\
le)
,,
, ,
,,
,I
I ill l!
I '! \ /'f:

i:~:
Id'

,,
l1lll1lllrrrmn::orrrm' p.

,,
,
fUUllOJJ!llllJ~
,
IfI :, ,' .
i 1III1I1W'IIIII~ '. 'COP" 1,
,,,
,
I'! ill e! l~ 2 j

Pig. 19. a
 \\"hen the value of this ,ll,nl,<:lio/l is positivI'. its directi"" will cOlIlci'lo w,th
tha~ \>1 the lnarlurlil)' (if 8 llrlr"l i\'o \'allll.' were ohtainrd, it "-<l1Ilrt indic'lW that
the h01l1D is dl.'nl,<;l<~d ill the opposite dlroction),
Let liS now ,l('t<:rrni"o the relRUve importance of I..nh pnrt-~ of 11".. tulal
donecli"n, 11", ll"'~ dUl' to the bending moml'nt and the other dH" to Ih" 5Iu,ars.
IA't tho cros.~S(!{'tional diUlen~ion~ of the beam be 1J and h with h - 0.1 I.

Ht-plac_lUg ill tll(' aboyo exprl!J!."ioll J, F, 11 ami G l>~' the following ,'sluos
Ith3 bl 3 bt
J=~=12,OOO' F .... bk .... 1ij, '1,,01.2 and G_O.I,E

~~" 12 x 1.2 x 1>'/'/3 x 111 :J

7-12,000 X ," X UJ.~ul-= 100
m"
It follows that Ihe denection produced hy the shear.~ amountsl-'! BileI' cent onb'
of that part of the defleetion produced by the bending moment~.
l1'l~ influence of
I
the ~hear., will ,Iecreaw together with tho mtio +' ",,,I for

h - 2f1 Wc )mve already

It is obvious Ihnt in the great majol'ity of cases lhe U:rtO j.~" 101l~' be
...
cnmplelE'ly l1('gll'"t(>ll by p,omparison with t\lQ tllrm c\~: Thus wt' ohtain
Ill.' well-known cxpn'ssioll
?of P,,{3
"'m" ... "'..... -48EJ
".nhl('m 2. Complll.o tIll' vprliOlll clefle<'lion <\c of point C of n unirormly loa<l-
(,11 I>(>"m built-ill lIt its ldL ..,nd (Fig. 20.8a).
Solu!lan. The hl'ndin~ m'lmcnt curve r1uo t\l tl,o Ilnlfo'mly distrihutl~l load
i. rrJlr(L~ntcd in Fig. 20 b, Th!.' m"gnitude of th,} bending rnj)mt,n~ <It "11)' C"(lSS
81,,,,lon 8. dish"co:r from Iherighl,hand elld oflhe boalll equals _ '1~ . Tlui.imllgi-
Ilary ~tate will c,orre~pOlld tn the application of a conr-entrllled 10ao1 utlity al
point C, its rlil'ection coinciding with that of the denl'ction re'111irl',l. i.e., l>I'inlj:
verLienl (Fig. 20.S.l. The diagram of the bending moments M") iluluCl'd h}' 1,11("
I""d unity p ... B l'npN:lS!lAtl'd ill tOig. 20.8d. It is .lear that till, moment will
dilTer f"om zero onl)' III the CI"O~S sec,lioos of tho bc-~m ~jtu~ted to tIlt' tdt IJf
p"int C (at ~ ~ '" <, whc-I'C its Ilmounl, will he givpn hl' Mm - _ (~_{)
I)
Nej{lecting the ~heafs and int.egrating thl' term depending on ~hc hl'lIdiug
1I\Olllent..~ from Ttc l (.4T",remaininl:: constant I)' Hil L.O IIIl' righl, or ~i'climl Ci
 Q

"
.
f
raj
~---~

x~ grJph

,
Ill%

Ihl

I'm"
~
/

(,;0)

1ffillIDIDnnm..._ _
Id)
Pig. 20. ,~

__,J'__ ;\
((i I I"

,--------~.
(({I I

Fig. 21. 8
 6.8. Jlclhoas of {}Is/ll"cf'menl COIll/lIlI<lllc71

\..)p l'rnlllcm a. J)eterullne the maximum tr~lll~l:>ti"n or point A IIrlonging Ul the

a.'Cj~ oI a l'urn,d h'wm 1I~ \l'dl a.~ tlHlllugu!ur rotation of t!J~ l:I'(I,~~ Sl>rt'OIl
rfeut,raJ
pa~~ing throul,ln thi~ ~me point (fiK. 2UI"j.
Soj~tto". TI"l il\.!lu~lIl\e or the sb~drs aud llorulo~1 forces beIng uel:JilClbl~ ,tUU
the dirl"Ctioll of the tran~latioll l'l.'mllining unknowu,wu ~llllllC<JlIlpute:;ejJllrllh~
Iy its horiwntllLI and vertical c.ompunents iudllcQd by 1,110) 1J('llding moments.
Th~ t"tnl ..-:<1.", "f [,Ill! displHccmenl will be found lhere8fLer JIl lh,' u~"llL WllY
T!w lIlagnitude of the bending moment induce,l at any >;ectioll by tile 10;ld J'
Is givcn h)'
lI-f p ."PR sin qJ

(n order I'l dotl'I1HillQ tllo hOriWlltal COIIIIIOfWllt'..\,p of the tot.a! dlspla('('ul('lIt

Let us apply lit pOint A ;1 hodumtal lo:.d uniLy liS indlcall'ditl ~'ig_ 21.~b.
'J'llo v"luo of lho b""dillg mt>ll1<'ut induced in lhi~ caSll h)' the load u"it), ",ill.
<;,o"stituto for HUy sectloll
Af l = t ,R sinql_Rsin qJ
Rememhering Ihat d., .. n ,ftp, :\Iollr's formula. (1&.81 hOCOTllt>S
<P"":t - :t

.
~ MpMjds (' pnsin'l'RsilllfRdrp
~'1'- j El - J El -
-' n
e.
pn 3 PH'
-- El jS11l2~I'JfJ'_ Rl
(!f..2----'-
sin Z,,')1t rrPIf~
D-'t.Er

Tho value of tho di~pl>1,,(>ml!-nt thus obtained being po~itIVC, Its direelioll will
coincide ~'ilh that odopted for the Ivad Itnity in FIg. 2\.811.
Let us compul-t no\\' the nrticul di~)llac,l'lD('nt 1~j:I (If thiS ~llmo point A.
For this pllrJl<l'lO ...e l!hall upply 11 v{'rlic,,1 hlad \lnitr as iT"llra.tl><1 in t'ig. 21.8c.
In that C""l' tl'e bending momOllts induced by r.tm 100ld unity hc<:ofTIl'
J12~ -1.H (1- cos 'l')- - a (t-COsqol
USI"g OllCll again exprcssion (1(;.8) Wll obl-ain

_ .....~ " Ml'M2ds_\,RI'!ji"'Pl-R.(!-ro~l(')IRd'1'

- ""
~21' - j El - J El
,..0 "
 Thi~ i1isplacl'ment bl'lng nE'gath'l', point A must Ir:ln'l ;n a dirL'~liou
()1)JlO~ito to the ono sell!dpd for thl' IOlll] unity, i.t'., upw:ml.... Tht, toLal
(\lsl'!M"Jmcn(. of "oint ~1 will be gi\'cn by

V .~lp+L\2,,- ~ /(rt.?R3)' ( 1.IJHJ)~ Jlf3 .. /;r-

~A""
i
V 2ET +- - EJ -ET V 1"+1,
The angular rotation A,p of cross ~clion A will h<J obtained npplyin~ to the
1",i,] &ros.o l;OOtion en imaginnry unit moment j\4, (Fill, 21.8d). In that caS<' the
hending moments indueed in the beam wlll r('/'lain

_ ,~]]IIT]]LITlJ~q COflSl:lllt 8l1(I equol tt> unity. C'ln~qucnlly, tho

angula,' rotation of cro.'lS section A will ho giwm by
C
a _~"M"M3d' ~
Asp -
.-. J F.J
""j'"'PRSill'fh,.Rd'
El -

ThE'. IlirNltion of lliis rotation will c,oindde

with that of tlit' unit moment, which meam that
RJ

Lho crO$ Sl.'cUon wiU turn cOllnt.erdockwise.

Problem t;. Determino t1l0 :onilu!or rotation 01

the freo ,)nd C of II k"Ull fra"", ltpPCllring in
Fig. 22.8 Fig. 22.8.
So/ut/fm. Apply to Sl'Clioll C of Lhl' kn~ frnmo
a unit moml'nt M tPnlHnl In turn thi ... ~tion in
thl.' ,1irNltion of the rolati'm rcqulrOll. In thllt ClII1e t le normal forcl'S and the
she~r.~ lhro\\ghou~ the structure will It'11lain eon~t.QntJ" nil llnd Mohr',,- lor,
" ...101 'I'll! r,mnpt'ioo ooe l('rm onl)' dl']K'ud.ing on tILl) l)(lnitin~ ",nnH~>ll.$ ,ncon if
il wero dcsirud IQ account for 0.\1 Lhe stre~5 induced III the structure.
t;lrJte Imagif1(lry .lo/(
Mm
H.

, C

,
, C ,.M
,
<0 El
,, fa) (tJ}

Fig. 2.1.8

Draw the t\\'o bending momenl e,"r\"('.~. Ont' for the distl'ibllted loa(l~ q effec-
lively apI'Jie'! and one for the imaginarv unilmonu'lIt M. 1'loe_<e two r.un'e~ nN'
Il"i\'cn In ~ig. 1..'\.8,. and b. l'csl'ertive!>': Analytlcal!y tI,, \',II""s or till' lxonding
m"m"tlL' for I"llh C:I;:e-s will he gin" hy:
lur Iht' upright
q1l2 _
llf
n_ -T Md M,,, __ l
 7.$. T~",pcrll.tu,.t! $,,.,,Ins

(or the lJorhoJlla.1 bearu

""
M.--'Izl -
and M __ l
T
!1I1"l(!ucioll theose valul."!l in CJ.:~iOD (16.8) c oblJlill

(f-6",.. -

J~ 7
I 'l.1 1 q41 *
2q.1
EJ dz+ "2' Itl dz + 3EJ /,

7.~. TEMPEIlATURE STnAI~S

f,lohl"s formula (\G.8)

, lUuy oc
, wrilwlI liS follows
,
A~-I"SM.4.+tSN.A.. +I
Q ~
SQ.A,.
0
(l8.8)

\\"11('ro Oi. n = J~;~.t = muLu.1lll.lIgular roLalion 01 the two cnd (:lces

of clement dJ; induced by UIC applied 10:lds
~zn = N:;z = mutual linear displacement of the sarne
(aces along tbe AXis of the dernellL
6,... = Q~~z l'l-= LhlM mutnal displacoment in the dirccLiou
Ilorlllal to the axis of the mt'mbcr (see
Art. 2.8).
In lids tr:lllscription Mollr's formula lIlay he utilized uot only
whell the displac('ment.s Il. n d,," 1\1Id 6 .. n of all element dx arc
inotlced by streSie!! tlll.'mselvcs due to Il. systom of external IOHus.
I,ut also in the even!. the stmins uro dllC to n chango in ternpel'a-
!,mt!. COll.'Se_qUClltly. this &xprf'ssion lnuy serve for the solution or
IH'oblenls connected with thermal expallsions ltlld contractions,
Assume that the tentper-oltuN o[ the top flbres o[ elemellt d.z has
b~.l raist'd by t. lino thnt o( the bottom ones by t:. (Fig. 24.8). As-
HUIU' IIlso th~ L wit hill the body ils('1f the temperalure \'arie! Iiut.!arly.
The expan~ioll of the t()P fibres of tbe element dx will equlll al,d%
IInd that of the bottom flbrel5 at'Jfi.% where et is the codfu:ient of
thermal eX'palision. In the CAse of 11 symmetrical cross S<'eLion the
lxpmu;ion at mid height ,"ill equal bdf the sum of !be e.'_pans-ions
o( the eX'LrCIllC r.br~
.. lJ.(ll+I:)d
u",,= 2 %

'Ihe mutual angular rotation of tllO tWQ cross sections bound-

ing this clement will be given hy
.. ... _(1(11- 12)d
U,n=<->q-l- h %

2~_853
 As the rise of temperature will lead to no vortical displaeemclIl.S
of the element d:e: Lhtl term &~ .. will romain nil.
Introducing the above values into {ormuln (t8.8) wc shall (Jbtai.l
the I'xpression pcrmitLillg direct c.ompntatioll of strains and rill-
flocUous arising fWIn lcmpernturo chnngtl!:l"
, ,
( A".1=Iarl~t: SM.. . dx+L%.fSiV... dz J (HL8)
o 0
(.. thi., e.'cpressi(lll tho sign 1: iodicalc5 tbat. the summatiolL must
be carried over all the rnembers of the system.

dx. f4f'dx.
~- - - / . /. - - 7
~r-"
~
\., z ~
~
, 0"
Z
,,
d, / ~,
, ,
"
,,
~/.
,,
'~ '=.d
a'~dA"

21.8

(t is nbvious that only those members which have been submit--

wd w a temperaturo cha',ge must be taken into CfHlsit!l'rtll.iOIl.
For recLilinear Of polygonal bars of constant cross section the ('or~
~l1mltling intl'grals nlaY be comlluted a~ the areas hounded by
the diagrams of unit stresses. which permits t.o reduce the nbO\tl
('xrns.~iOll to the fnllowing [urm which i!l e:dromoly convellient
for prarlic:ll d~iJ:;n
t,-I......
~"'l = :Eo; ~ ~''J + ...'" a --r-
tl+l zQ
~ (20.8)

I-Iere Oii flud 0;= inc'licate tilt! MellS ooundec'l b~' I.he M nnd N
curn'S. Whell tho truss section is Ilonsymmetrical "bo\ll its neuLntl
1.+'" I _I
axi~ the l\!rlll be replaced b~' t~+y wherey iJ<
lflllSl
u>
Llle

lli"lnnce of the lower fihro to the gravity axis.

+
-This npre5iliOfl will be valid 1>I.ly if the chang... in tomper~lllre and thp
I,,,ighl of Ih" cr(>~s :'\('Cllon do not vary within lho Icol!th l'lI each particular
Ill~mh...r (ormlng Ill(> S(TlIClurB.
 7.S. Ttlfl~rd",rll Slral,u 339

The sign~ of all Lho terms appoaring' ill the :lbovc formula will be
ohtained :IS follows: when the strains of elemcnl d.z; illdtlced both
by the variation in tf'mperatllre aud by the load unity arc of tIte
s..1mo di~tion the forre.o;:jlOoding k'tm or t114~ cqultnoll will be
posiLh'o; if it were oLhl'rwi:!e, tbe L.ctm would be rll~gilLi\~.
In thu wOlputlltion of thermal di~ptaCt'nH'nls lJ~ !o1rouu and
dP/lt.dIQ/U produCf!d by the warinj! force'S may no longer Ix 'k'gkcttd
for their rdQliue /.."Qlul! nw.1I k 'lw-le Qpprillbk.

Problem. TlcquinlI ~h& vcrtiCJlI di51,h,cernen1 of pnint C of lhe kl1t~, !rume

1l1'1'MI'inl: ill \-'Jg. 22.1l, Wht'll the lndou.' lNl)I't'fOLUfll rises br IIl c.C, IIII~ outduor
temperdurc l'''lUnlning con~tllut (Fig. 25.8/J}.

~
1 ~1
-
, +i '0
IO C

T ,al
a

0
f~
(6) , ,
Fie. 2~.S

Svl"tlun. Apply 11 IUIIIl ullit} along tbe llirceUnu (If tlw displact'nlenl requi-
red And drllw the eorn,lSI)OlllHnJ,: M 81ld N cu,vu (Fig. 25-'~/.I ~nd r). Tlou Il~a~
bounded h~' ~h('!lIJ ClJrvc~ will amount lo

.."
n_=l./J_a

g--~+jl(j-I.s..1
M _

Ut U5 al:'<l rlllnpute the terms dopelldlng Ilircc:~h on till' INIl\H'rlllure

chlnge
'1+t:;_U+IO_ 5
2 2
1,,-lzl=10-101_10
It sholll.1 he ob...."'ed that tbo la."! t<'nn I'l'llfCl/('nlillg llJll wtlll change
in t\lmperlllure mU.~1 be a1wlys tlllen in ab!olult' value rl'gaf(Ilt"!'1: of its sign.
It llllOuJrl 1Ilfo be nott',1 Ihat 811 inert'll&" in Ih\.' hllloor ltnlJll'rlll'"'(l leads \<1
lIn Ilxt.<:nsill[l of tho inner fibres o( till) kn<l8 "'lme while tht' Hnit 1".,1 ~O\ll"
In Fig. 25.8 e8ust'! tbeir contraction. COrtSt'II1lelltly, L1HI~ 1l.'l'IlI 01 lhu ollulltiOn
which accounts fUf 1110 1Jt'llr)ing mOlllcnls wHl Ill' Mgat;\'{!. Tht ~1Il0 wilt apply
22
to the tl'nll &ccOWl\ing fur the normal !lreSS(l5. for an in(J'I'aile ill 1.C00po:taturc

6",l--Saa- 15cx

.
If!ad5 10 811 utension of 1.he upright ....hile the load unit" adol'te,] enUil, iU
eonll'~ctlon. Gon5l:-quently

T'

8.8. DISI'T.ACEMENT COMPUTATION TECHNIQUES

In It IHlIllher nf C.Il5e!S displacement comput-ations lllny be sim

plified \'cr-y cOl\Sid~tnbly by the introduction o[ a special tC!C.llIlique
_~ ,~ I

[or lh~ calcull:ltion of the intt'gro.ls IJolonging to the type ~ Ji,,,M,,dx-.

,
We Shall mOllO "hi! tcchniq\le the graph multiplication method
for it is hnlled <)11 tl\o rllct th.o.t tbo expro.'lSion IJrecedcrl by the sign
of tbc illh:gral I;olltl'\in., lIIe product uf two ordinates to the ;fi",
nod M" CIlf\'l!S. This techniquo will apply. pro\'jdetl :It least olle
of the cun'ts (say. th"t uf .11...) reduoes to a strnightline. The other
diagram Inay be hounded by any cur~'e or broken Hne. The ordi-
nale to any straight line may be always expressed by 1ft". =
= z t.:l.n ; the ID.caning of z Dod ex ht-ing clearly shown in
'Fig. 26.8.
Introducing this value of Kt", into the integral \lnder cOlIside-
ration, we outail1
, , ,
\ MItlM... dz=tanex ~zM"dz=ztana Szan"
t I
where .i\f"dL = dQ" rl.'prl'scllts the differential of the areft Q"
bouuded by thl: M" CIIr\"C (Pig. 26.8), ,
COn~(l'lelltly, t!le e."ptcSsion ~:rdP.n repffiSents the stntical
mOnlOl1\ o[ the graph Mea about the 0-0' axis (Fig, 2(;.8).
m well
It
,
knQwl1 \hnl this :oltatical momenL may be expressed by

SzdQ" = Qn Z..


" TIlt ~tJIf> 'l"C_hnlqu~ ,\"ill
, ,
appl)' tA 'imilar inl.C(l:rl'b

~ l~ItlNn dz llnd S(j",QIl dz

 8.8. Dupl<tmi!nl Compllltll/on Ttrltnl'l"U 341

~he ~Illroid.
,
%e representing abscissa of the graJlIl It follows that

~M...M"dz=%gtallaQ", but sim-.e %cLaIlCX-Ye we obtllin finally

,
~MmA1l1dx-QftYe (21.8)
,
Hence, the product of the multiplicat!QIl .,/ two graplL~. om' /J/ which
at If:(Mt u; botwded by 11 straight lirn:. equals the area bounded by the
graph 0/ arbitrary ol~Ili'le multiplied by the ordinate Yr tu thrJ first

I ".
~
0'

, 'd.<
Mm graph ,,, ,,
,,
Y, M~
- ---ii[-- __
, ---- ---_=:: .. 0
,
"
Fig. 26.8

graph mea.~ured along tJu urrtical panlng Jhrough Ute rrmlroid of the
Ift:ofld olle. This produd will he reckoned positive when the grnph
of arbitrary outline Bud the ordinate to tho rN-tiliupnr grnph are
both of the same sigil lInd negative when the two aro or opposite
sign. This proct"duro has been suggested ill 1925 by Pror. A. Vere-
shchtljl'ill wben Ill' wos still 11 8tuden~ of the ;\{()S("ow Raihvny Trons-
port Insti~ute and lherefore in tho U.S.S.R. this method is known
lllso as Vtrt'Shchngin'. method.
It should bo lIoted that the left part of expression (21.8) diRE'rs
from Mohr's integral by tho ab!>ellce of the f",cwr ~J' Hence the
result of the graph multiplication c.nrried out by Vel'e'<hchagin's
method mllst be later divided by EJ.
It should be always kept in mind that the ordinat/! Y~ must be
measured on the graph bounded by a straight tiTW. If both of tile
grnl,hs were bounded by straight lines the ordinate y, <:ould be
m~a~ured on any olle of the two. Thus, if it were rcquir'(1d lo rind
the product of t!le grnphs for .\1, and M" of Fig. 27.& one could
tlitlll~r muhiply the area Cb boulldcd by thc lIf j ~ur"'l!, by the urili-
!late y" measun'd all)llg the \'crtical ptl!'8ing lhrQugh lhe cclllroid

O
-- , ,
Q;J --,
T ~I- ....

(b)
,
:
,
\

'~d
---7---
- .... _~. 1
1 '-""-_

Fir. 27.8

o( I_his llrea to the /If" curvt', or else Olll:l could multiply the area
a", bounilt'd by the /If, curve, by the urdinate Ni measured lo lhe
lift Cllr\'C along the vertical passing through the!h t(:ntroid.
When R lrapezoidal graph has to be nlUltiplied by another graph
(If Ihe g.'Hlli' shape, it is collyenient. lQ suhdivide olle of the two
into Iwn lrilttlg-Ios as indiClllod in Fig. 27.8b Md to multiply there~
After ~ht :trl!ll of ench of lhese lrinngh.s hy the urdinat.c to tht'
otht'r gl1lph lnE'asllred along thll vertical pllsRing through the c,cu-
troid or l,!adl or these trillngle.'l.
TIIIIS, in Ihe CII.!1C just llll;'ntioned wc would ohtaill
 8.8. Dhplfltl"unt COntPlllldllH! TtcllnlqJl~S

The same procedure uould be followed if each of the two w:rllphs

""
cunsisted vf twv triangles of opposite Sigl\ (Fig. 27.&). One of the
two grtllJhs could be replaced by lwo triangles ADC and ABD the
ordinalcs Lo which would remain of the same sign along tIle whole
length of the j:!raph. 'I he introduction 01 two additional tri3nflM
CDK alld AKD would have 110 errcct Oil the linal r05ul1.5 for their
ordin3tes are eqWl.1 in value ~nd opposite in sign.
Multiplying the graphs of Fig. 27.& we would obtain
.1 YO
2 + (-"2
") cl
(-lIb)="2 hi
Y"+2 Yb
Wilen onc of tho grdph."1 is bounded by a conie parahola, t}lI~ nren
of this gr3ph should be subdivided into two triangles nnd a parll-
bolic SC):Cment. It will he remembered that a parabolic grnph is

(O)~t /CJ~J
~~t:
,,
,
,,' I : I
, " ,
IQ) ~z /d}~J
Q,

peculiar to lIle uniformly distributed loads 30d that the ordinate

to the centra of the pilrabolic gegmellt is always llquaJ to !/i
It mAl" hJlppell that both l:raphs are irregular in ,,!Jape but one
of the two is bo1ll1ded by n broken linc. In this ca~ bot}. graphs
should Le subdivided into a number of portions so that in each 01
them at least one of 1.he grllophs should be bounded by Cl straight
line. Thus, if it were lIecessAry to multiply the two graphs repre-
scnled ill Fig. 28.& and b. both should be subdivided into two
parL!l. thE' relfolt of their Dlultiplica.1.ion being given by Ul(! sum
Q.y. + nd':.
Ontl could Also subdivide t!lese graphs ill three portions liS indi
Gnted in Fig. 28.& and d. In thAt case the result of their multipli-
GAlion ""(IllId be given by n'YI + Qt.Y: + QJY3'
Vcrcshchagin's method requires the rapid evaluation of graph
areas of different shnpe And the determination of the position of
their cenlroid. Tnble 2.8 represents the nreas and the een1.l"oid
positions for various graphs and is intonded to fncili1.l:lte these
complllAtiolls.
3t,4 $tra/fl R"er/W Theorv and M~thod. <)f f)1.(llaUI1l~llj COmflUlallorl

T4bl~ 28

""m
.Area
No. Shal'" M the graph

"

..,l I, r
hi .,, .,,
L .

, ,
~
hi 21
-,
{~
T

, ., ,
;~
hi 31

~
4" T

" '.
T'~ laiW5/Klroldll
...
hi
T ,-I .",
lll~
-~ ...
lJ
5 p-pg<ro:kOft"k
{-
...
rttk i

~~
In-(/ldepm!
:
i
'

6
-'T
t l'
""Cl'mc
,
-,-
2h1
"
8"
<] III!~"'"

Table 3.8 gives the values of i\fohr's iJlle~rllls S

/''vT1,lflld;x com-
puted for vurious graphs of different outline. This table will be
of considemble help in the computalion of displacemellts.
Vereshcbagin's method is particularly well tiL for the compula-
tion of the deflections of beams and framod structures. the different
spans or members of which do not vary in their l'igidity. Should
this rigidity vary along an element, the product El would IHIY(\
 9.8. E",ampl~" (>/ Di.'plarl'ml'nt Compulation

to remain uoder Lhc illlegr1l1 sign which would make Vel'cshch<\-

gill'S method inapplicahlt'. It wOllid then bccnme ner,{'~sary to cal-
culate analytically Mohr's iJltcgrnls or, if IHI approximate solu-
tion were deemed .9ufflCienl. all the member.:: of the structure cuuld
be rlctitiuusly replaced by othBr Olles whose rigidity would vary
by increments.
TIlt, deneetions of hinged strnctllrcs are computed using ouly
that term of Mohr's equation which lakes into account the normal
stresses. It will he rememhered that hending mome.llts and !lhellfS
remain Jlil ill all the memhers of this class of structures. COIlS('
quelltly, i\lohr's formula ream,cs to
,
t.I -:E~V N"dx
mn - J' m EF

Tlte integrals must be calclliated separately for the whole length
of each member of the structure whl;!reafter all of tho values of these-
integrals must be summed up. In the great majority of cases t11l~
normal sLt~lles j"It N n , tlle cross-sectional area F and Young's
modulllS E will remain COllSlflnl within the limits of each member
in which case the nbove expressioil hecomes

fi
1nl>
=1:N,,,N,,~ .J~_~
Er' ~ <=- ~
NmN n I
El'
(22.8)

'rhus the computation of the deflections oC" trusses aud silfliLur

structures reduces t(j the summing up of tlle products N~:" l calcu
Jated sepllrah,ly for ('aell bar. These comp"LaliOllg should be car-
ried oul in tabular form.

9.8. EXAMPLES OF DISPLACEMEXT COMPUTATION USING

VEnESHCHACIN'S METHOD
Problem 1. Require<.! the deilection of point C of lilt! he~m appearing ill
FIg. 19.8.:. TI,o effecl of botb bl!nding roomenl;J and 5hl,$I'$ Slllltlld bo account-
ed for. \ _" ,~" "i ," ')
Solution, The imaiiinu'1'tatll 01 the hrn,m liS well as thlt graphs or t,ho strl'S-
ws induce"- by the loall P" and by lhe unit 101111. Pp> are .opr~'nted in Fig. to,Hb,
t, d, ~ allrl /. Using Verellhchllgin's method wo hnd
2 F"l I j 2 1 2'1 P" j t P"ls Pllr,1
t>.mll""'-El-:r ;r-rS'4"+ GF '2'2'2- 4SEJ+ 4G1'
'I'his result coinddes exactly wilh tho one obtained in Art. 6.8 h~' dinlC.t
integration.
Problem 2. I\rqll.irod the horitnntal r1ispl8C(1lllcnt of ['oint C of Lhll porllll
frame shown In Fig. 29.&. The mom(lnlS of in('rtill of all the members of the
 \'nlue of Muhr's lotegrals S M'~ 11... d.i< {the

.\1"1 lI't~Ph
J.f gr~ph
h ..-'--"':-}, ".,g=J
.... 7
11
0'

~h, - ,
1I'1},2 IIl l
U (2h o+f'bl

h,e--------..... Ihi
+"'2(2h 5 +11 0)

"
' 0--t 1
::j
h * h:d2h l +"3)
I
6 12 (I,:;,;, + h,h o)+
+ 11 3h o+ h~h~J

,~"
I I
{fhz (2c z- c l) G 12 (-clh~+ '2 ho1-

,- -clho+'z1I~l

i,'(In'c pora/xJlo 111 h z

--r:r- 'f.
l'2 \3/1~+ho)
r,b------_
(;..; i ..~-d./../

--==--Jr, -,-
If ll
zz I" 3h
1"2'" \ o +h~)

C;",,' t-_"'1~",1 Llhz If

,- "3 (h~+h6)
~
.Cmic jIOriJoo!iJ .J. -&- hz (2k' -+ ).) ~ (h~k+4,h' +ho")

.r" '~t"--l,1
r-t--l .
 -

O~4 I--~'
G;n'c pnro/dl1 ~~~~-~
f'b=-.
I~ "hP\'
- .,
Ih,
T(1r,-e,) I 'ft"J
..."
Wit,
-3- I~l l2hij ,-1..')

I
,
~~(-tc,+cd ~ , -,-
Wilt
b "': (,I,;' ;-:lh,l

I lh (3hI +11)~ If'

-[2(-Il,c,+
r. """'iT T(h3+h~1 *(11'" -;-tihlto+
+h~CI)+h,fC4- +11,;"')
-h'hl

if' .
+,12lcl('!+r~,- 12
Il,
(-3r l + <'2) 3(-('1+('11 .!..{-r,k'
r, f.
r
-OYs-clcdl -f ' .. ,h.+rtJ.')

lf,
T:T(- :x.. +e,1 -,-
1M2
-,-
Iltl'
~ la(3k'+
+'-')1 12:'\
li~ ll~
12 (:k,-tt)
w
1121'
-,- ~ f!i (3;" +k')..l.

+12'1

If
3{-c3+ c,1 -,-
lff:
!-11J' :~ I!ll/r' +;.')+

" .J.&"

{1-c,k+4..th' + ~~ 15 (3k +).H if'

1S'Slk+AJ ...... i-1 2 U:'+2H' +
+c,).) +12.:1 +8:1 +k): +i..k' +2: X
xi/r'+).',+
,2" (k+i.)+
+ 3.2:;' J
Ffillmc MU indic.INI in tile $me Iigure. Young', modulo.!! E Te!Ullining eonmnt.
throughout.
.<;"I..tlolI. Th~ IlC<ltling moment di"gram corresponding: tAl the IColual IOllding
is given ill Fig. 2!1.8b. The imAginary loatlillg elln~i~t5 of <lilt' horizontul loail
uuily acting lit point C. 'rho Jrrcsflondiug bending momont ,raph ia Ifiven
in t'ig. 29.l:lr. 'fh' signs" the IIImding
p )z V, ffiOlllcnls '!.ptaring in th~se II:rll.i'h~ Illlly 1Iu
omitted If eslred for Ihest> graphs are 1I1\\'OY5
drawn 011 Ihe sido 01 the euendl'd fibres.
The displacemont or polll! C "'-ill beobt/lined
by mul1iplylng .11 the ordinall!S 10 the
J, ~.<:: bending m\lOttlll gl'llph t.rJtluspo:mding LO Ihlt

a
(a'

~a5Pl @....;111azpl
QJPr(llPP
1'1

~

.. I
.; , I
-:

QS!
(c)

@
~I
(c' Id'

Fill. 29.~

~dulJl I~ding h}' tho onlioltlt"s to the V_ph due 10 the f1rliti<>".q load unity.
Using Vllff'Shebagin's muthod ud taking into account the d ill\'r('nt rigttlili.,! or
thr c:ohlllln ~ntl or the r!'M.'\ heam we find
 The dlsplaucment Lhus found will be negative for the Mp and M g,'Aphs are
situAted on dilTerellL sides of each memher of the fl'RIlW thus iudicJltiug lhal
the lJen,ling moments},f~ luu1 M M'l' of opposite signs. Ill'nee lho ad.. :,l di~l'lllCl"
ml'ut, uf ]loinl C will IIGClJr in a direction opposit(l to th(l uUI) ild(>l't(~(\ for tho
loud unilr, I.e., towards the right.
,
J{ !:'rablem 3. Requir",1 tll" dl,nection .1l., and tb" l\llgular rot<>U,," l!.~ ur the
Jlf.'am with a huilt-in end 1l1'I'9aring in }'ig. 30.8a. theSl' two displacem"nl...~ I'l'ing
due rllSpec.tivdy tu lhe nppIJclIion of a concentrated load P and of a UlOHll.'lIl
9Jl. The bending moment grapJls corresponding to thl' actual loading are illdic,at-
,~d iu Fig. ilO.!!/>.
Solution.. AJlply alollg tho dire<:::tiong 01 the displacemi!uts tequirl.'d a uuiL
load (~'ig. 30.8~) nnd 11 unit momont (Flg. 30.Bd) lIud trace the c<lrr",~polldillg
bending mOlllcul dillwam~ (t'ig. 30.& and dj. Thl' dent>etions Hud angular ,'oLa-
lions will be cOUlput~d using Mvhr's lormula tOgl."thl.'r with Verl'sbchagin's
m'1thud. Thn.up graph will be fi~t multiplied by thl.' liT,Il"I'Ollh 8:11111hen h)' till'
M2 grllph.

Ai '"" )'J [O.5Fl x 0.5/ X -} X f X 0.5/ + e51 X

Pt'
X (-2 X 0.::11'1 X 0.51+2 X 0.2PI X I-O.:lPI X 1 +0.21'1 X 0.5t) ] - 30EI

tl2-J
'( O..'lPIXO,5IX2"X
, t -O.2PlxO.5lXT')1'/:
x1 -"Of.'J

)fPrnblcm 4, Bequired the hori?ontal disl,lacmnlmt I>f point, D hclongiug to

1)le structure repre~nt{1I1 in Fig. a1.Ba.
Solllflo.... Tlu,) bendin~ UlOment graph c,orrl'$p<lnding 10 1.110 actual IOllding
,!,pe8rS In }'ig. 31.8/>. Let us apply II JO<ld l1nit~ along the direction of the dis-
I' 1ICl!,nent requirl'd. Thl' graph of the hending moments induCl!d by thi~ load
;~ given in Fig. 31.&:, i\lllltipJ~'ing tho two graplts one hy another using Vt'rl.'sli-
.,hagin'll method and rememh{",illg thal the .separate membl'r.s of 1.111' ~tr\lrtllre
~Il'e of dilll'Tont rigidity, we obtain

The arlla of llle Mp graph pertaining to element cn is oounded by a CQn-

C;,\Vl' pUllbolic curv", and therefore it!! area i!! equal to oue third of tho I'rodllct
(If its base lengt.h by the Tnllxlmum ordinate. I.e.,
1 qat qa3
QCD-g'Z,a""T
TbI' centroid of this graph is situated a distance
"4 as mea~llred from )1'<Iint

- gra\lh {'(jURis
C (500 Table 2.8). I'Tencu the correspondlng ordinato to the M '"T'
 o
8 J,

, J, ,
D
fo)

,4 ql
,
t.y
."
I
,
I

f~
I l,l I "-I
-;r~ I :if
fd' d~Q=1I,j ~
~')
Ii'll
-q!
1'4-,
~,,""'"
't
f.' , 11
I I
... !~ I I
I
",,
,,'
-
" ,
o
"I
Fig. 31.8
 9.,v. E.uC1Iplt, of DUpIQcC/fWnl CompuLQl/(1I1 35'
Pn:tblem 5. l\\lll.ulrelllhc deneetion.!l.c c.f I beam built In &l ill hjft cnTl,lfTlit),
.nd elrrying:. uUlfonnly dlSkibuu-d lo~d (Fii. 32.&).
S'Il"tWn. Hlying drawn lhe M, gl'llpb (Fig. 32.81J) apply I 'Blital load
unit}' .t p"int C and dr.w the corrt5JlODdina beJlding mO'lllf'nt ding'''lll
("'i" 32,&). 1"he \'aJoo of the delleetioD /le "'ill be obtaintd wulliplying lM
Ofdm.tus to the pv.bohc gr.ph by thesp of lhe ODe bounded by a t'tuight line.
This ollenltion may be tarried out in two diffwl!Dt way&:
I. Thu Mp l,:raflb: ror the lelt-hand part of the beam will bereprdlld Mron-
alsllng of 11 u:.pcwid /2-(;-3--4-1 with nf.'1Pti'ilc ordinl!lt~ Ind. parabolle ~,gllll'nt
2-{;-3-5-2 with po~tive ordinall'!l jFig, 32.8b).
Thf' m'Ximllll\ ordillalc to the Ilarabolk graph will eqllll]

t )'
q( 2 ql~
--,---32"
Multiplying t],c Mp graph by tllO :u graph wo obbin

Ac- ;, [~ .~. -} (j. q~'+-r.q~S) -,. T ~. ~ f] -;;'q~)

2. (!alate tll('. ~lt half of the hoam I'tplaei~ Lilo II(;llon C.l:l'rt...-d b}' th" right-
hut! part hy bending mOlll&l.t !of = <Ji
I"d a sbe.riog foree Q _ ;t
(fig. 32.84). 'lbl' graph of LIte bl!-ndillg lUomt.'nl Mp acling aeT0S5 t.loo sretion!'
of the lelt-hand Ilurtlol1 of the. hoam Is MJo...n In Fig. 3.2.&.
As will 0., ",adl!r Sl'en Ihis graph .nd the gnpll 1-2-:;-6-4-1 ur Fig. 3~_8t.
IU'C .b!'()llIuIS idpQtlt.L It ".IlIt bP 1iI1bdiyilkd iDLO three parts as in<licated
in Fig. 92.&, f'ach of thc5e part!' !(,prC!eI.tlng fl!spcetinlly:
(a) a rf'tlan1f\l1ll.r 8r/l1.1I haYing for nrdlll't.f' ": dUl> 10 lhe bending morol'nt
,t
M "" Sllpplil!d to rectil'lII C;

(b) a lriaugular gl(l.]lh due to tho shclldng force Q - ~I l'qual1y gppli('tl 10

'11 3
!CCtlon C. The n'lI.~imum ordl"ale In this graph l!ljuuls 4 :
(cl II paraholir. gl'llph due to tho uniformly di~lrillllled loal15 oPJ.licd 10 thf'
lofl hoH of the 1x-'lln, 'fho lIlaximl,m "nfinate to this graph In\.llt~ q~S .
'\luJtiplying Plleh of Ihese three If'"~l'los by the 1l0nJing IDOml'1l1 gfllpll <IUI'
10 the I03d unity Wt ohtain
..!..+ qtl. ..!..--i-_~+ qll . .!.....!...~) _ I1ql'
A(, ... ...!... (qIS . .:. .
. El 8 ~" "2 ~ ~ ~ z 3 8 3SoIeJ

J1. Pn:tbltmt 6. Required tb(' dd(~tion of tho .structure appeoaring in Fill' 3:J.&
.t load point. Tho left end of tho hori!on~a1 bu is binge-$\lpported whlll! ib
rliht f';'l:trcmity 1'1 suspended to a flexible wire. Th" moment of inertia of the
hHID ol(lI.ls J. dIe Cto"" section of tb" .....ire 1', YOung's modulus or lb'" malcrilll
of both being E.
,'ial"lIan. In the struelure under consideratien the boam wlll work only in
hending and the wire in direet teMion. Hent'e :\tohr's ronnlll~ lor the bf'arn will
reduce to one t .. rm which contains ttle produc~ 01 handing lllomf'llts. For till' Yiilll
3:i~ Sef"ln ElU'ffY T~fPJ .,.d /Jltl!wIJ. pJ Dllplllumtnt ComplIllltlon

\I"h"~ lormula wilt coo!lS\ of IIwl I""m Intaining oonnal stm3eS. 1'110 tOl31
di~lae('illen'olllu, load point ",.ill he therefore given by
I - " -
~ MpMd:r. ~NpIVd.J:
~\-j
, EJ + ~

Ll't us apply to the beam a unit Il,MId ae'ing along Ihe di~etiou 01 Ib('
~hsplaf..rnenL rtquirN. 1'ho eO~fMlllding bending moment gTlph appears in

fa) A

,
r " ,p
,~ ,-

_~_IN
,,
FI,.33.8

t'ig. 33.ab. COlllputing the lint tenn 01 the expl'6lion given above by Vtftsheha-
gin'" ule\hod Wo ..lttllin
I -
M"Md:r. _2.... 2 (.!..~ ..!.-) 1...2._ PI'
S
, tU El 2 't 2 3 4 iBA'1

Thl' lCILaI).Lllsile elr"_ N If and N in t.his buger Jue to load P and to the
llOll load ...iIl :nnOUnl to ; Ind i-, rcspl.uively. The corresponding: graphs
are gin'IJ in Fig. 33.Sa :l.Rd b. The multiplication of t.}lOS& grllphs givl'3

" N"NdZ P i t (>11

S
" -gr-=T''''2'V-4EF'
 9.8. E.anlpln a/ Di8pllJ,~mc"t ClJmpufo.liOrl

The total deflection will be given by

pp PII
A,. 481+ 4.EF

Pc"blclD 7. R~uirl1d the augular rotlltiOll of cro~s SClCtion 6 11 or the tliree-

hingllll frame llppNlrillg in Fig. ~.8n. '1'11(1 Oexurlll rigidity El of all tho ele,'
ments of tllj~ rrlllllO rClllllins cvnstanl and equal 10 25 X 1u~ t"n~ sq Ul.

f I
,
'<

"A "G'>"
~'VA'GI'I
B ._~
,
(a,!

Pig. !hl.,~

Sol"lI()n. 'rho ,oll(:tion~ at th~ supp"rts of lhis rramn will ho ,1eri\'~d from
till) u-"ual cquilibrium l'llunl-iol1~ n'lg. 'K8/,}.
/
~Mc=U"X4-V... x ~ =I,H.... -I.5V,.-iX"X-
, 1.::'-I1x4x
" 2
, =0

whereFrom
411... -1.5V,,~UI (a)

~Ml1""" _!lA X2- V" X3+q Xl, ( ; -~6-1,) = -2H", -3VA +2x 4XI,~O
wL.crofrolll
2fI A +3V... _32 tb}
~y ...
-V.... +I'n-=O le)
:EX"" -If,\ - I f n+q X 4." - I {.... -[{1I+2 X 4_0
wherefrom
fIjJ=8-fJ ... (d)
From equDtions (11) lint! (bl wc ohtilin IT", = fiA tOll~ and HA = 6.4 t(}n~.
EI[Ull.tiOJl (t.) ~ives V 1I ~ 6.4. tons and equHiun (d) givcs If 11 = 1.6 tons.
Knowing Ih,-,"ll reacllOlIS WI.' c..an draw the bonding mOffil.'nt diagram nPlIll;,rinl:
in. ~ig. 34.l!~. Thi~ bei.ng donc: let .us apply aunit moment. III S('(.t[lln n which
11-"111 lurn tillS scelwn III Ihl! 1!lT('c.1lon nf the lingula!" rotllllOn I'eqllirod.
U_~;1
 354 Strlli" Enug!l Tht/lry /lull Utthud' 0/ DfsplllwlUnl Compu/llliQn

The reaction ~t the suppoct~ induced bS this action will be obtalnod as folll>ws
(Fig. ~4.8r):
J:.MC_fl"X!,_V"XI.5_U (e)
"
~M.8=-1I,\XZ-VAX3+I-=O (I)
IY=-V... +VI/=O (g)
r.X-.o-HA+HJ'-O (11)
Eq1/~tioll~ (el nod (0 }'ield I'.... = l~ illld HA = ~ while eqllM,ioll8 (11') and (hI
. . 4 1
gIve III - 15 KIlll H 11 = ili
Knowing \hel'e reactions we lllay draw the bl.'utlin!\" moment graph duI' to
llw unit mnllll'llt (Fig. 31j.Sr).

,
,}t' ?
"

,
2

'----*'--5*"--;,1---";6

Fig. 35.8

Thl) valllt" or tht angular rotation will hll obtaillN] mlillipll,jng thl' flr~t of
tau ll:r"l'l,s "ht"inod a~ '!ellr.rilJ.ed abo~'o by Lho ~"fld one
'[H.eXIt 2 :! 4x4x2 I 2
.'\/l-"eJ --2-X~X~+ 3 XTXr;+
+ ~l.l;xi.5
2
2 2 2 9.6x6 (2 2 I )J
X3"Y"5 X +-2- T X :; +1\X I '2
, (76.8+32 57.1J 2.')9.2) 113 10-" Jj
=~ ~ i5+15""+---YS =. X fa ans

'< resented
'",hl,m " R",'''d "" ,",,1,-,1 d"n~"oo " 01 j",o' 5 o' , ""I,,,,,, "I"
in Fig. 35.811. TIle cross $\!clions 01 llll the memhcr$ "f tllis c..main tcu".~
conSUII~ lllld equal to F _ 125 SlI em Itnd Y"ung's llwduhl$ K..,. 2 xIQ8
kll"JlIq cm.
 Salrdi!.'". TIll' dl,nl.'Ctioll tl. 5 will 1>", given b~' the expl1lssiun
N,,"IV
~5" .. 2;EF 1

All the n('l:l'~f;arr computations am tahlllaled lIlll'Nmtl"r ($Co 'hhle .1,6).

The enlries III t"!w Ja~t column of this labl" giv" thi' "!due.' or thr product
N~Nj f"r (',1('h bar ill t"n melre~. SUUlming lip nJllhe~ l'll\l'j,,~ And rli'o'j,Jjng the
told hy t:F we shall ohtaon Ihn ,li'iJllacenwlll m,[u;rl.',l

<l.;; - 'J JO'l Ofll'" (l:i6.Z5X2+104.17X2+80X4-~-()OXI)""

-x X._'"
=-,3.72 X IO~ Hl=;I.72 mm
T"bl~ 01,8

su-...."" dill" I"

,. "'
liar l\"o~'11l -
I,'a-
I
DI' :;;-~. "CI,,~I N".\l,
tlln Np, I!,ntl ~"Jtl' trm IMtrt~
tM'
"
1-2; r,~~ ,
;
--31.5 -0.833 156.25
21; ,I-I) -25 -O.llll3 10/,.17

1-3: .'-,1 , ;-\0 ().'~;7

I
J-7; 7-8
I '"
2-3; 6-7
2-5; 0-6 "5 0
-12.5 "" U

1-5 6 15 I 90 "
to.8. STRAIN EI\'EHGY METHOD OF DISPLACEMEI'H
COMPVTA']'ION

The strain tlllt'rgy fuot.hod of lIisp]lIc,emcnt computatioll is llased

Oll Ca#illiano's thet/rem which slat.t'll lhal the partial derivative of
tlll' .~lr{/in energy Ln terms of the unit action is equal to !he displace-
mC/It Luduced by the a.ctual loading alon/[ the direction of the said
unit acti01t.
In orde-r t.o simplify the demonstration or this Lheoren\ we shall
rcL;lin in l\!ohr's formula only one term which cOllt,ains thl:' bCJlding
mnments (~ee Art. 3.8)
,
W=~~Mldz
J 2/1
23'
356 SUtl'" En~r,~ Th~r1J "nd Mtlltod, of Dupll1umn.t Compull1l1on

Let us l'Xpre58 the IJcndillg moment as [Qllo.....s

M =MIPI+M:Pd- ... + AfltP/I + .. _+Kl"p.
In lMs expression M,. Mz, ...;;flt, . . . , .u" afe the bending
rnomt!nls due to unit forces PI = 1, I), = t. .... 1)/1 = 1. p. = 1
whose lint'S of acLion coindde with those of ..be corresponding ap-
plied 100000d~.
The pl'lrtial derh'ali\'e o[ W in l~'rms of P/I will he
j I aM
()I.l.' iJ (SAJtdZ) ('Ma1'ldZ
..JPIt = ill'. I.
, 2~J = 1: j
, EJ

,Hr -
t.ut{)j'lt -MIt :llld Cl.>llscquelltly SPit =I j-~
aw ~ r,-hh.M dz

A~

!'howlL ill ArL. u.l-I, lilt) right-hand part o[ litis {"qlfession
r{'!lrt':)(1Jlts .::.\j", :lnd lhl:'rllfore
illl'
ill',,- = .1l1p

III flctllal ot>:-;iJ,tn pr:lctico Cllll;tilliIlOO'S thUQrBffi i~ s<lldolilly US<ld,

its i!,tt,Jn':<t being mainly theOl-etic. It it were rlesired however lo
IL'W H lhe sequence o( t1peratiolls would be <1.5 follows:
1. A corllliu action should bo applied Lo Ule syf:lem Ullller con-
sideraliflo along the diftl{'.lion of the di~plaoomenL requirod.
2. The strain energy due to the 8('tual loading find Lo this unit
nctiutl should be calculated.
3. The t'Jqncssioll of tlll~ slrllin en<lrgy should be differentiated
ill terms of lilt" ll..'tid unit at.lioll. rho m~nitudc ol tne displacement
will lxl thPn obtained from this expression ret.lucin~ to I:ero the
mn.gllitllllo o[ the uuit ;'Ictioll [or il\ re~\Iity thi... action is nOlle.:<i:-;U"nt.
In the plllltcnl;lr (.ase when (1110 n[ tho load points coincides with
tho cruS! S-tiou the dcijoctioll o[ which is S()u~ht, it will 1,,0 the
value or this IlartiC'.lllar load that will be i,,~roduced into the Imf-
tial dcrivoti\e.

"rublcm. nl.."t'!uir,.d the InRU!llr n'tatlon pr Lbe (rro end Q( a unilonnly 1000rlcd
beam with 11 l.... ilt.-m ('oll (Fii:'. ad.ll<I).
Sol",I/<JII. Ltol us apply 10 the free OI.rI of lhc beam 11 coupl\! 1ll 115 !lhown
In fig. $Jib. Thr ,,oIut' of lite ben' ling mOlllonl1lt a crossN.'etion siwlIled u lI.,...
I:lllce:r fr'uln thl.'. Iree t'od will be Ilicon by

/l1--('1~+'JR)
 J1.8. Th~ Eladi~ Loads Mcllwc!

Tho corrt'sponding strain enl'rgy will aml/unt to

,
W_~M2d:c"",~ q2"+1'?
,(X')' d.r
J 2lU .) 2EJ
, "
which giv('s nfWr inlA.'gnUolI
'I _J.... (q~l~ '1 l3 ?t)1 g}/~I)
V - El 1,0 + ij + 2

Djf{er~Jlliuting IV in terms of 1J( and reduciug ther('afll'J its valuo to zero

wc obt.,in

('W)
'f'-= tml m?_o - eJ
1 (",
T+!IRJ
) .,.
""'6El
As a\rt'mly .~tll.te.d, when onc <If the l'l/\ds is aetuall}' applied at the point
the displacClIlellt or which is d('~ircd to dewnnillC tuefl' i~ n,) llHd to apply imag
inory loall~. A1l.'!IlUle, fm' inshnel', that it is (equi.'ell tt. IJQt()tmhw the maximum

d"ncetion of a lJNlm huilt In at one cnd and e,arrying a c"ncl'lltnlled [",ad at

thil other. In II,at care

c
,
M=-P:r

P~zt
\' p213
If = .) 2EJ dz_ 61J
ilW Pl~
.1._ {JP =31

11.8. THE ELASTIC LOADS METHOD

'fho method described hereunder permits the determination of

deflections and angnlar rotat.iolls at a certain Tlumber of ilrolated
points of the structure. Increasing their nUlltber, tbe clastic curve
of the clellectcd syste:rn will be obtained witll It precision increasing
1158 Strain Ellerg~ Theory and Metbods ut TJlspltlul'/ulIt CUrII/Jularlon

ill direct proportion to the numher of point$ cOI1!'=id('l'ed. 'rIll' curve

:<0 rlblililled mighl he also termed the IHsplncemelll graph l)f Oil'
~y.-;tOHl,
Inl1l1cl!. if the valllcll oJ the (lencctiolls delenllilJE'd fit n cel'1flin
number of pnil\ts Wl'rc .Wl ont 310ng the \'I;I'tk~11" pas..~in~ thl"Ough
these points, tllc broken lino connccting the ordinate:! so obtained
would cOllstilutp an tlPfleo~im:Jtioll of the elastic curve, Ihl.' delltJ(~
Lioll.'; of all th,) inl,errncdi/l.le poinls might be ohL:dned wilh a (',er-
tuilt rlcgrC'c of aplHoximntioll hy mf'n~lll'illf,f the ol'dillatl's 1.0 thi.~
,'.'

y~_, y" YtJo/

Vtr(._m: (J;spluremt~':I~ prapl1

Fir; .'fl,1I

J)f(lken line, for hI rcnliLy Lbe elastic HUll 01 a mernber will bll H
I'llwoth curve. The Ilho\'(l does not apply to hinged slmclufcs such
flfi lrusses, for as IUllg :\s the loads llct at lhe joints all lho bars
l'O/ll:lill fitraighl [\lid cousequQlltly the dl;\formed axis of the Jowel'
(or upper) chord will follow n broken Hlle connecting tho deflected
joinls. H lhe axis of the t1ispla<,.cul(Hlt graph is normal to the Jir't1c-
lion of tht.l deflections, surh a graph will resemble very elo,~cly
fl !)Cntllllg moment Clltl'"e of all elld-su!)por~ed beam acted UIJOn by
...Cycrfll collc.erd,rf\ted loadfi. It ifi this frs('rnblance which forms tlw
lJasis of the tneth(,d descrihed hereunder.
fig. 37.~ repreSt'llts a pfJrt of some Slfllctllre for Wlli{',h it 'is 1"("-
({uired 10 find tile dcl]ecUolts (It Cl ('orL,lill nlunber of pl)ints, ASSllllW
that the broken lino of l"ig. 38,8a l'opre~ellts the bending moment
l.!nlllh, EilclL ,lllex of lIJis gr'ullh will. lie in tho vertical pi1fl!ling
lnrorrgh ono of I.he lond points. Let IlS t'tnd the magJlitudcs of thes,,"
lond~, For Uti::! purpose we shall compute the shearing forces Qn
and Qn+1 acting at llle ex:LremiLies of the stretches h n anrl ~.,,+J.
U::;illg the theorem or ZhunlVsky w,," may write
Q _ .Hn-Mn_t Q _Mn,.l-Mn
.. - In ' MI- An,.!
 3"
Let us pass two sections through the bellm one immediaLcly to
the right and tho other immediately lo th~ leH of point /J. The
eloment isolated by these two sections is represented in Fig. 38.8b.
The cnd faces of this tllcment aro acted upon by the sl,eering rorc~s

Q,. 1111.\\ Q~+I l'eckoned positive. Projecting all the forces applied
to this element on a vorticlll we obtain
IY -Q,,-P"-Q".... l =0
\\hcrcffloln
P.. = Q,.-Q,....
1'hc latter cxpn:>lision shows that the lond acting Ilt point n ,s
eqllal to l'llQ diIleTElllce between the shearillf: forc4:J$ On and O,,+t.
It, is clflar therefore thnt tlte concentrateu loads lloting at points
(n +I) and (n -1) will also amount to

P"-l =Q"_I-Q,.
p.... t = Q",,",-Q...,
Introduciog into theso expressions tbtl "alues of the sheariog
forces in terms of the bending moments we obtaiu

- f'.n1+
) Mn-Mn_l M ..H-M n
=-M ~
J ,,"" X~
""tl 1-

+Mn ( ...--+.- " ) -M_ n -t -

"..' ,.".,.1 "'1"\
(23.8)

It follows ~hnt if the beam i5 subjected to the aetion of the con-

centrated Loads P" ealculaLcd os above. its bonding moment graph
will eoincidtl eXllctly .....itll the do[Jcctioll l:rtlph of the strUclure
under consideration. Since tiltl two curves given in Figs. 37.8 and
38.8a are identical. let us replace in the expression of P,. the val-
ues ut M~_h M.. and M...... by tbe corresponding deflection.!! YII~I'
Y~ and {/.H
We shall thus obtain the e-xprossion of Lhe so-called elastic loads
W.. which will indll~ in an {"nd~supportcd bEoam a bendin:- mo-
ment curve c-oinciding with the tlpproximatc deflection ltraph of
tho actual strllc_ture. The vtllue of tbese elastiG lOllds will he thus
given by
W ,,= -Yn-I-;::;,Yn
I, ( "')
T,;"'~ - Y.... IA
, (24.8)
otl
At fll'st sight this expression appoArs tlloronghly unfit tor prnc-
tkol 11;;1'. Illdced the vulues of the elostic loads give!, by this
('xpressiOll dl!pcud on the unlBlOwn
" --";'c-' defler.tiolll!.
n-I 1. Howe\'er, it is possible to obtain nn
L An., exprC$"ion of the ebstic 100Ids in terms
A.
of thtl external forces actint:: on the
"trncture. The procedure is M follows.
Let us designate by tho term artual udk
la) the s(aL.e of the structure charllcleritcd
"-I n by the actllal or existing IOlldina and
let 11" apply at points (n - 1), n 1I11d
(n +1) two oouples bot-h equ:d to ulIity
but of opposile sigil. Let. \15 Al".'Sumc alSO
that each of t.he~ couples is COllllLil.llted
/b) by two vertical forces RIllounting to
Ft" 1J9.~ +- for the ftl'S~ one llnd to .,!-.
An An.l
for HIl'
second.
The corresponding state of tho struOll,lrB (Fig. 39.8a) will hI)
dt'Sillnllted by tho term imo,glnary slate. ]'akillg up cxprl!ssion
(2/1.8) W1.I note tlllll, its fig-hl.-hand pl,rt. represents the work per~
formoo by ~ho imagimlry loads along the deflectionS c:luscd by the
ncLu.. l ones.
Indood, the product of tho "ertical load T;
acting at paill L(n - t)
by the deOection Y._I Wig. 39.& and b) rcprtlSents tIle work accom-
plished by tllis load along the dcfleoctioll or this pnint Cllusod by
the .IIctual loading. The lIegative value of this Lerm is due to the
fact thnt the fot'('o 1;
is directl.'d upw:lrds whilst t.hc dent'Ction of
poiut (n - 1) is directed dowllwardll. Similarly, tlie product
Y. (~+,!-)
An ~Q+l
represents 1.1\0 work produced by the roret's ~
~o
and
.-!-- Or
"n+1
the imaginary slato acting at point n along the donectioll
 11.8. Tht Ela<tic Laad. M~lhod 361

..,
y" due to the actllal loads. The third term of expression (24.8) IS
again eqrl31 to the work performed by the forco =1 along the deflec-
tion Y,,+h tho minus sign showing that the dit'ectiolls of tile forcG
and of this deflection are dircctly opposcd.
Lilt us now tlxpress the work flccOJoplislled by the forces which
form tlle imaginary couples along the aetuol displacernents ill
terms of the Slresses M, Nand Q induced l)y these unit couple~
and of the ,';lre.~es Jlf p , N p and Qp due. to the applied loads. Using
expre&lion (12.8) wc may write
I (1 1, 1
--U"-I+- -
i. n+;'''11
- ) Yo--'Y"+l=
A" i'n+1
, _MpdI S,NpdI, , ,~_Qpd;r:
= Z SAI -----er + ~ l'oi OF + 'l~ J Q-----er
o , ,
and consequently
, _Mpd;r: S_Nj,dI
, ,
.
~_Qpdz
W,,=~.M-EJS +:E NEP+,,:E.~Q------cF (25.8)

This latter
"
expression
"
constituttlS the gUlNal equation giving
tIre elastic loads in terms of the internal strrsscs. When used for
tire computation o[ denoctionli of beams and rigid frames. this
expression is oollsidera.bly simplified as only tlle tenn containing
the hending moments must be reta.ined. In th~ c,ase of nat arc,hes,
the lIot1n81 stresses must be olso accounted for. while tlte shellt'inl;
forces are taken into consideration only in a few particular case....
The deflections of trusses and other hinge-connected structuns nr&
computed using only the term containing direct !>tr~.sses.
The vahles of the elastic londs oorrespot,dinj{ to dilTerent points
of the structure arc obtained through the application of imaginary
unit couples sucr.essively to two llllighbouring elClOollts of tlw-
struclure. Once the values of thcso elast.ic loads: are known. tho
deflections are readily calculated using the following procedure.
The loads just montioned fire applied to an imaginary beHlll of
appropriate length and rigidity and the bending mOtHCllt curve
is drawn in tIle usual way. The ordinates to this curVE:< will he llU-
merically equal la the deflections required. The ehoiC{l 01 tho heanr
mtmtioned above is governed by the following considerations:
1. To each point of tire reol structure which remains lixed tlwre-
musl c(\l'rcspolld a point in tlto be;l.m wllere tire bending moment
induced by the elfl.Stic loads j.~ niL On the other hand, to any de-
nected poir\t of tile structure there must correspond a cross suction
of the beam wht"re tILe bending moment differs from zero.
 2. Wherever the slope of the defloc.ted axis of the real strllct.ure
~'arit's or. in other word~, wherever two adjacent cross sections of
Iha heam rotate one with refer('Jlce to tho othe,r. tho corresponding
cl'o,"" sections of tho imaginary helllll must lIe acled upon by s!te[\T-
i rt):t force.~ ind lice" by the c1nstie loads.
Thus, in th.e eMU of a bcam built ill at Que of its enn!'. (Ya = 0
rlnrJ if" = 0) aod free ....t the other end (Yb =1= 0, (Pb "1": 0) we nwst
ha Vl' in t1l0 i lOagi Jlill'y IWll.ln
ftf~=O alld Q~=O
At the ollte!' cnd of tht! imaginary bean, tho vaJU('S of L!w bend-
in~ momont M~ anI] of the shoal'ing force Ob mus!. be Oll the con-
lrary iJifferenl from zero.
Table 5.8 cont~ins tho sehomatic drawiJlg:s of eOJljllgate iUlagi-
nnry hellllls corresponding to tile ('ItruC~llre.'; represcnted in the h"rt-
hllnd column.
Table 5.8

Real ~truclure

.A; ;}",._._
,
J

, ,A; ,J" ;}",. "l;i; ;}",.

._--_. ._---_.-
s ;A;; J;; j t
-I- ---
,. "A;;*
.
;:J;;J"
,
..J; ;;Z;; ;h
Tile follOWIng sequence should lie Ildoplod for the const.ruction
~)f tho dlsplocemclIl graphs Hsiul( the mcthod llfl(lt'r cOllsirleratiou;
L Begin witll the determination of the ",VI" NI' and Q" grnphs
induced in \.he real strllClllre by the actual JoMliog.
2. Chooso slwh points of thc stl'lIctllrt' whose deflE\Ctions will
be characteristic for the structure lIS a wllOle.
;1. Apply slIcccoSsively to the adjacent poinL<: eho:sen liS abovo
two uniL couplo..., the direction of forcos constitutillg these couplefl
'being parallel to those of the deflections required.
 4. Draw lhe M, ,r; and Q graphs induced by lite !i.lid ullit couples
(Fig. 39.8).
5. Compntc the v<lIUeS of tlle elastic loads ciLller hy !lirtlel inte-
gr<lUOIl l)f u~iJlg Vcrcshchagin's meUlOd descrillt.d pnwiou~ly.
6. Choose all itllagilHlry l,eam in c.ollformity with the ('Jlllfildor
of tilt< deformations of the real strllcture.
7. Trace tlw (1ia~rams of the beuding moments in(luced in thh
heam by the clastic 101lds. These loads will be rcckolwd po.~itiv{'
when Llwy nm of the same direction as tlw adjncent faeces forming
two Ilcighboul'ing unit couples Hno tho bOlldillj.:; moment gruph will
he al ways traced fln the side of ~he t!Xtended flbres.
The orditl1lles t.o the hending moment fling-ram thus ohtained
will L~ equal bol.h in amoullt and in oiree-tion to tho i1cncction,~ or
tllC relll slructure.
The oIastk loads aeting 011 the imaginary beam at its Sllpports
h"vl! 110 lllflul'IIl'.fJ on thl! corrcsponding hendiug momcllt graph
nnd tht>rdorc their computatioh becomE'S UIlMccssnry.

12.8. snlPLIFIED EXPRESSION OF ELASTIC LOADS FOR

HE:AMS AND BlGIO FflAMES
The dctl:'wduatioll or the deflection line for solid wcb structural
mcmbc-rs is canied out by subdividing the totlll length of slle],
memhers in a serie.'l of short stretr,hes, for which iL muy he admitted
that tIle unit stresses remain conslant..
Let us consider two adjaeent stretches meeting lit p(}tnt n
(Fig. 40.8a). The heniling morlHwt curves due to the applied IOllt!s
nre as \l~lIal drawn on the side of the extended fibres. Normal
strt'9."'ll-S are considered constllnt llnd positive within the boundarilJs
of each stretch.
In order to find the elastic load W n let us apply to the system two
eouples consis\.ing or vertical Iorce>! _,I aDd.-!- (Fig. 4U.8b). Inci-
'n "n'l
dentally this means t!tat tbe elastic IOfld will be also directed vel'
Lieally. The dime-tion in which Mch of the two couples tends lo
rotate the corresponding stretch must produce 111l oxtension in till!
member on the SlIllI!! side as produc.cil by th.e actrlal luadiug. The
forces c,ollstituting I,hese unit couples will lead to tire appearanet'
in each strot('h of Ilormal fon/Os equal to:
(1) within the stretch between points (n --,-1) and It
- I.
Nn=-'I;Sln~"
where
:J64 Slrain Energy TheorYl1-nd Me/had. 0/ Djapltu:uMnI Compulllliall

and cOllscquclIlly
N _ $in~n _ ton a"
n- - S" 001I IIn - ----s;;-
(2) withiJl till! stretch between points nand (n+l)
- I.
N 111"1 =:;-- Sin ~1l"'1
"/1+\

wheref.rom
NllH = _ Slll~Il+1 = tllll 11"... ,
SIH' eos~"+1 .... 1It!
The multiplication of the bending moment graph due to th!>
actual loading (Fig. 40.&) by the Lending moment graph due Iv

Actual state

(a'

/maginory state

I
~II

An.,

Flf. ~Q.8

the unit couples (Fig. 40.8b) carried out Ly Vereshchagin's method

provides the following expressioll for the elastic loads

W~f = ~ ~ MM ~~ = 6#;" (M'I-! + 2M,,) + 6;J:: 1 (2M" +M n+l)(26.8)
,
 12.8. Simpllfl~d Ezpruli{>11 of Elasllc L",ad, for J1"lJ.nu illiS

'The above c.:rprC'SSiulI accoun~ onl}" for bending momellts.

In order to take CllJ't! of Iohe normal stresses Jet us compute the
-"'alue of the integral

X v,
"'n+lS"",
'" ".1
N"
., n
N,,+,
=- - "p tan t''' + -SF loan t'n+I--"'
p.
"'+1
P.

= -ell. tan p" -rtn~lltln ~_I

In this expres!\ion en and 11,,-+, Ilf{\ the unit strains of elelUenl,s
S. Ilud Sn-+l cauilcd by the Ilormlll force~ N n and N"+I'
Thus, the total vnhll' of the olastic lond 1akirl~ into 1\.(:(:,011111
both bending moments Iwd normal stresses will be /{iven hy

W,,='" 6;;.. (M"~1+2Mn)+Ij:;::, (2M.. +J1'f"tl)- ~V;" tlln~+

I~ will be observed that it is much easier to compute the (liltS'

..
+ BN,""., tan f3"... (27.8)

tic load using expression (27.8) as it hoc.onlrs po~ible to disll{'I1SC

with a number of intermcdinte opt'ratiolls. Thus. tlll.'ru will be
110 101lger any need to apply Lo the IItrllcture the unit cauples. to
traCl:' the diagraOlS of the corrcsponding !'!tre!'SCS :11111 to carry Ollt
tht! multiplication of the graphs duo 10 the actual loading ulld ~o
lhe said unit collples.
The elastic load wlllputed as ju.~t described wilt have tll{' slime
direction fill the ndjucent forces of two neighbouring unit cUllplml
OS long as the value of this load rcml'lins positive. If the normal
.'!trosse!l may be neJ:lected and Jlrovided the bending momcnt grnph
due la tlle actual loading does not change sign within the ICrll:!lIl
or eleflleuls S" and S" the e13stic lond W R will be dirreh:d
towards the hending moment COf\e.

P....blem. ncquired th.e dl'necti"n Iin!! 01 tbe c"nlilever 1~'ln of .'Ig. oil.S
supporting at its frH E'fId toncenLraloo 1000d P.
SoZ...Uon. 5ubdivitlo IlIe bt-am in t",o IMIUJlI puts chocmng poinu D. 1 "lid ~
.lit the ellds or th...3C\ p.tU. Trace_ tho bending mOOIl!'Ilt gl'llpb duo \1> the .etual
Ilndilli liD I.lte side of the exteudod rlbn:~. USl-ll~ uprvsil.n (2li.l:ll determine the
magnilude of the tlastic loal!!.t pnlotsO Ind I. It "..ill ~nc nil useful pufpGl.'(' It..
determine th" etll'<tie load.t point 2, thi~ load h-Iug 00 inDuence on tbe st",5a.'S
or
in the imaginary boam. In COIIlpllting the' mllKoiludc the ela.otic load all-"-lint
/Jit i~ lIsillme,1 that the bUltt-in tlld is r&pl~r.~d by. streteh of illfinitc rigldUy.

WO-ti;~. (M_ t -!-2Mo \+ ~~1 (2.. I M l l - : (M_I I 2,l1 BI I

' ( 2Pl.;'"2
+"'i'2RT "') .... lJJI
;'P12
,'160 Slrlllll 1:.'lIerg!l ThwrV and Methods of Dilplaeemetlt Computation

.The \'alut's (If thc l'la~t'c loail;; lil.'lng clllrulall.'iI. apply thcH' two lo.,ils at
1'0llltS 0 and 1 of tilt' lllllllin/lr~' heam built in et liS rigllHwod extr'('mit.r
IF,~. I,l.8) /lIlli construct t LO correSJl"nding b'Ilding moment diagnLm. 'rho
orillJl~te~ of this diagram will be roe,koned positive wlllm ::;ituatcd on the side

Flg.ll.iJ Fig. 12.8

of the ('xt~"dcd frbres. The elasLie Jvads are dirccted upwar<b, in otlLcr word~.
WWlIr,ls the bending roomen1 curve dill.' to the act\lal loading. ,1nd tlwreloTe
the bendiUI: moments at points 0, 1 and 2 HI the imaginary b..urn will have the
followIng values
, 'J e
.11._1; II-Wo"I-4aIU; 5J'13 ll't - "..0'+ IV 1:r-:--lIzX
I PI'
0 ""':JEj"

The gl'uph of the bending moments induC<1I1 in tlm imaginary beum by tiro
clastic loods IS Ri\'~ In Fig. 42.8. It r"presen1s at the SlIm!' time Ihe .leJlection
grlll'h of the real beam. At points 0, 1 and Z lho dofiectious o[ the L"()a[ heam will
coillc.itll' t'X;ullly with thl) deflections repreEelltcd hy tbe Ol'dinate~ 10 t.be abovo
gn'llh, wh\l$l. at il\lcrowdiate jloinH then will he a slight diflerell<:l) between
tlro two. J[ lho Telll l.t:aw wer" 51lbdivide,d into 'I grelller numh"r of partl'. 1.11&
denllCli"n c.ur\'<l "f t.hi~ bClln] W{)U/(l hovll been obtllin\Jtl with grcater JlM!oisi"n.

ta.oS. SIMPJ.lFIED EXPRESSION OF ELASTIC LO.o\DS FOR

HINCn;-CONl'IECTED Sl'nUCTUllES
Whell <lpplil.'d Lo hillge-COnnoclcd slructurl'S e.xIJressioll (25,8)
"ecom~

(28.8)

III tills expression N J"l\prCSCJll~ the normal slrc~s due to the unit
couples llpplied 10 Lite bars ml.'eting al the joint. n. for which the
'Valuo of the elllslic load is sought. whih: I1l" ~presellts the lotal
strAin of th~ bars cam;ed by the actulII loading. The applicalion
of the CIASLic loads mcthou lo the dencclioD computation (or a tru..."
is illustrtlled in the following example.
Let us assume that it is ~quired 1.0 determinc the dt'flcction
lille of tht! lower chord of II tru...oos represenled ill Fig. 43.&. 1'ho-
truss is actod upon by a singlo "ertical 101ld P = t tOil ading at
Joint 8 and dirt'Ct.OO upwllrds. The cross sections of all the members
of the truss aJ"O lhe same. Let lIS compul.c the values of tile clastic.
" 2' 3' 'i' 5'

o, 6
(h) .1

Pit. 48.8

loads which must he apllt!('d to tile imtlginary bcam at points cor-

responding to joints 1, 2, 9. 4. and 5 of the low('r chord. For this
purpose let us apply unit couples suC('c!'Sively La cIoch two ba~
of the Io\\"Cr chord meeting aL a joint.
If it were desirffi to find the defloctioll line of the upper chord
thp nnit couples should be applied la the IJus of this chord. Simi
larly, the constrUClion 0 a displacement graph for points siluatPd
along the broken line 0-1'-2-3' 4-5' ~ would J1(!(:essilatc the deter-
minAlion of the elaslic luads actin!: lit jnints 1'. 2, !J'. 4 and $'_
Let us proceed with tile determination of elastic 101ld Wt. Inci-
denlally, this load rcpr(,8ents tbe AngnlAr rotation of bar 0-] with
reference to bar 1-2. In order 10 find the magnitude of lbis load
let us apvly 10 b",rs 0-1 and 1-2 unit couples consi~ting of fol"l.:OS
{=f (Fig. 4:l.8b) and compute tho norlllal slre.sses indun'd in
the bars by thesc conples. It is rtndlly seen that all the bars l'xct!p-
ling bars 0-.1, U-.1', 1'-2, 1-2 and to]' will remain idle. TIle reactions
at the end.'! of lhl! truss will also remain lIil. Strt'sscs ill tile! IOllucd
bars ara givell ill Table 6.8.
 Tabl~ 6.8

B:lr No, TOWl St"".. DU NCl, TOUlI &lro

0_1 1
-7, l' -2
,
+12
1-2 -,,, J-1 ' -,,
O.J'
+12

Stresses in all the members of the t~uss due to the application

of thL' load P arc given in Table 7.8. This table contains also all
the nece~sary infurmlltion rogarding the length and the c.roSS-seCtiOll~
a1 areas of the liars.
Table 1.8

I"~"
u_"I;"t1I ero.. L~ngth CrOSl
I~r NiL

I '" I
01 Ut. ""~.llo,.,.

1'' ' '1

!Cl'"
BM NO. M bar.
I s~ctlon.
l""S

-.
"I In
'" ~'"

0-1: {jG , F
, 2'..0' ; , ,
, -,,
F -1-"7'"
, ,
S' -iJ'
J-2, 1-6 , 2-$'; 3'-4 , ,. ,-g-
"

, ,. +~, ,
OJ' : J'-I;

J'_2, 1-5'
l ' -2';
,)'-5'
,
3
F

F +-
,
,, -. 2-3; 3-4
3-8' ;
1_1'; ';_6'
2-2': 4-4.'
,,
"
,.
P
,.
P
-,
_1

"
0
9

The data con(:i\ined in UH~C two tables perlllits thl:' computation

of ~Iw clastic- load W1
- l 1 - - -
w\ = r.NN p UP =7!F(NCI N G\lOl + N l:A'J2 l U +No\Nol,Ncl +
+R!,~,yI'2l1'2--i-NlIKII'lJl'= I;,~ [-+( -f) X3+( -+.-)(
X (-f) xH+~xix5+1~(- ~) x5+ (-4) X
XO)(4]=+ t(j~1},
 13.R. SlItll'll{t.td !;~pru$io" of 1"$llr f,oo,lr lor Slrurlurd 3G'J

SillCll the sysh.'1II is compleLt.'ly s)'lllmetricAI, e-Iastic loud J-F ~

will han' tile !tame valull

lI')=W I = + tUEP
Thll "111116 of the ehlstic load IlClillr.: at joint 2 will he olJt:'lined
IlIII,lying the unit ('Oil pies lo bnrs 1-2 alld 2-3 (Fig. /j4,&).

" z' J' ~' 5'

,

,
-,
" .' S'

"

n , ,, ,, ,, ,, , 5 J. 6
,,,
Fig.U.$

III lids c-ase sl.r'e!l!:'-e'il will be devl'loped in hilrs ]'-2'. 2'-3', 1'-2.
2;]'. '.]' Hlld 3-:1'. all tl\(' I)lhcr lJ;lI'!l I"l.'mnilling idll'.
Tilt' . . . "luc~ or tiles, slrcsse.~ are givC!lI ill TahlC' R.8.
T"II/e S.d

11"" '"'0.1 s~,~u 1'llIt 1'01 Slrtll l}la' N,,I S~rt ..

1 '",
,
-12 !'-J' +i, 1-1' +"3
I

1'Z' +i 2-3' -12 '",' -"~

:<

All the wmpuLllotions relative to c1astie load W 2 nre CMried out

ill Titble 9.8 IIsing d:-.l:-. wntained ill Tables 7.8 alld 8.8.
The nllal vahle u[ W t will be obtained by summing up all t.ho
2~_R~3
370 Str~tn Elrug'l f!uorlJ olld M~tI,~ds vt Dllplaummt Compllla/iM!

Tabl~ 9,$

I , Stru~~8 N
Ill<luc<-'lI by
S~r'~," NJ>
lndue'"<! by NN,,'
liar "". EF actual --;:;r
I unit coupk"
loadinG"

]'.2
EJ
5
-12
5
-, 5 12.';
+7jifjff
1'-2'
EF
a
,
+~
'. +~ , +- ",
HIE F
, 3
2' -3'
EP
+~
4 -"'"'4 +-----
l(~EF

5 5 5 12.~
2-.Y'
Er
, -n, +, -1iiiW
3-3'
Er --T -, -
4
3EP
I
enlt'ies of lllC' last c.rlLumn of 'ruul(l 9,B
5
W 2 =-Z4F
Owillg to the symmetry oE the system, the lJla~lic hJild W, will
the SlIllle value. Ncgalive valuos of Lhcsc two loa~ls illdkllto
h('l1;e
that tile lllulua[ rolntion of bars 1-2 and 2-3 occurs in a <\iri.'{'I.i"J)
OPPOSitll to the onc (If the unit (~ouples, I'll other words, 1)[\, ./-2
will folDlc c.Jockwise wilh respect to bar 2-3,
T"blt 10.1:!

liar No,
, Sll... ~n~ N
lnouct'd
Stt~~ .. ,s
lnd"c"d by
''''1'
N_-~f}
7F "nit CQ"I'It'1
" >le_IOW I
loadlllll
--;:r

2_3'
5 5 5 ,,'
1''-
77 +1'2 +"8 " ~
5 5 5 IZfo
4-3'
HI' +12 8- + '.}tjEf"
2-3
:;
,
RP -, I
-if " 27
+~
,r
:1-<1
7!F -7. -8" " + ;l~-~l'
,
3-9' '.
/;"f' -~
2
-, .!
- 3"
 M.S. Slmpllfird E;t;prr.uio1l III Ela.lic L(!ad~ lar Slr"duru 37t

Tt rcm~in5 If) find lhll valuc of the Int;t elnstic loorl W,]. To th~s
end ll\t U~ aPl1ly U1dt C.olllll('S to bars 2-3 and 39- Wig. 44.S/I) re-
pcaliJlg all the computation!'!' ill the :mme order as hcrHoforc. These
l.'omplltlltions appear in the nppropriatu columns 01 Tllule 10.8.
Adding up all the uJ:tries of the last coluJIln of tlli8 labl' we
obtain
W Hi7
3=24E'F
Ela~lic Joadll Wj, W J and W~ being Jlo~ili\'c, Lhese load~ will
be directed upwards, that i~ in the sanlC direction 115 111(' ':l(ljan'llL

(a! Ar:ll/(Jl "U/Jc("n'

" 7' ,7' ,,' .\ '

A'

Fig. 1.~.8

force.'l of ncigllbouring unit cOII]llus. The negative eInstic loads W~

IlIld W" will be dir('{;teJ downwards.
The coojugate imaginary be/lm corrf:lsponding Lo I.he truss ulltler
considernLmn aplleul's ill 1"ig. 45.8b. 'Lt represent..'> a JlOriwnt;d
end-supported beam carrying [i symmetric_,,} load.~. 'rite ahnlrnellt
reRe-LionS -produced by these lOllds wiH be directed dOWllW{Il'ds and
will nnlount to
r Br 1 1 (0 5 167 5, 9) _ 2:i
A = =2 X 7fP m-N+""2i:'"'-N'iTI .... r,p,p

The'deflt>ction line of the lower chord will he given by the \>ulues

of the bending mOments at th!) point of appltcat.ion of the elastic
".
 loads \v lhis ima.gill3ry IK'llnl
r I 2;i 23
Ml=YI-AfJ=!I~--6Iil X3=-2tF
11' ,/1
j'.=Y.=", =Y~= -lfUXu
23" +!l ., 3'.1
"'i"6E'7X.:>--"'i6E"F
1 23
M a =!/3 .. - ODF x,9 +'"iF.EF
9 6
X -
.~
2;lt;1' X
3
=-7;jff
127

ThcR' dllla hcinK lllllnincd. wc may lrtlc~ the dial:rHm of t.ilt.> OOIlU-
jnlt rnom!!llt produCt'd by Lilo clllstic IOlld!;. Tho urtlilllllcs lfl ll.jJli
diil~r:lm 1,lott.l'd on ~hc !>oid", or extended fibres wHl rOfl'U>'flOlld
CSllclly hoth ill IIlJlOIIl11. and direction to those or the lower chord
denl.'t.'lioll lilll' uf the truss. Tit! IOlld twillt:' directed IIpwarlls, nil
the joints ()f the 1(1\\'L'r dlor(! will defloct in UlC saml' direc_ti(lll. All
the llbo\,(l l'O!1llIII(lliumi Illlly he c1l1;!ckcd hy d\!!.cI'lllinillg willi I.hl_'
aid of Mohr',!l flll'llI11la lite rlcl1<'clion or joint 3 illdll()cl! hy tbe lIjlllli-
NIlioll <"If Ilw y('rlil'lI! lond fJ = I ~Oll. 'rho v;llll(' ()[ lhi~ d... nt'l'liulI
wi 11 hI' !rhcll by
.VN,. N~I
.'i 1''' - JZ"iI" = 7!r
N IMJillg flIll1wrieltlly equal in lhis pArticular l.'nso In Kt.. for (Ill'
load l' il~H oqual! 1 ~Oll, ..\11 f.1lt~ dlltll IICCIl~~ury for th\,sll COIllPlltQ-
tioHs will he found in Tahlll 7.8 gh"cll l\ho\'('

.1 1'J'- 61'1,,,:0 '/1' [(ff x 3x -'l + (ff X ;14- ({ r A

X.) x" + {if x. 3 x 2+ 11 x .4] = E~' x

lllEl '-7!i(l+4:i2 I ~8i)+2-"'; 12,
X M -7;jff

It is III~I" lhat OH! dent'diull of point. :J l.'VlllpUlcd hy thc mothod

of e!;I'\lic IOHjl.~ i.... eS"HcUy th(' !l.n,t' a:i thnt l'~lIlplltl!d uSil1g "fohr'~
Jornwll1.

1o'J.8. UEt'OIlMATIONS 011 STATIl:ALLY DETIiIlMINATE

STHUCTUIlES CAUSED BY THP. AlQVgMEN1' OF SUPPOIITS

No sLrCSS('51 reslllt from n di!'plac(,lnMI of Olll' or morl' supports

of a stnLiclLlly dcll:'rmillale structnre provided till:' supporl'S Im\'cl
alon: tile .lireetiull of lbe CfJrrcspoILding reactions,
Let us tlxamille, for illstalJce. thl:' fr:tme of }'ig, ~G.8. Assume thllt
t.he right-hand support scttlt!5I \ertically All amount !J. due to under-
mininl: or any olher cause. Such a soUlelllcnt will produce no bend-
ing momcntf: or 1I0rmal stre.sse.g in lhe mombers of the structure.
 14.S. f)~for"'/llloll of Sl(lti,~llll n~urmi"alt! Str~clurrJ 373

In OI'dlW to doterllliuc tllQ displacement or prliut. k alollg IIH~ dil'l;lC,-

tion i-I illwlrine that a ulli1 load X, = 1 acts on tht;l t:rosshcam ilL
point I. alollg tho dir~c.t.ion of tne diilplacemllut rcquirllcl Wig. 4.7.8),
Let II be the reaction caused by t.llis unit load lit the support which.
has seltled .
.F or tllo two states repl"I),'lt!llted in Fig:s. 4U.S flnd 47.8 in Olil.' of
whic.h (tht netnal stfltl') tlte structurc t:arric::; no load at all. wc In<'ly
Imagirra:y slate
,. ,,
tlf'llJo[ ",Ioi"
D
C
,
I\,
U

,
,,,
u --
"-. ,, Xi-I

, , ,
,,
,(.
,,,
... A' 8 , A 8
~
R
8

Fig. flC,8 F,g, 111.8

wdl!:' Oil the hltsis of 'Iax:well's theorelll 01 f(lt:ip['f)(~l1 I\'<ll'ks thnt

IIlId, !<illce X = I
L\u-RtJ.=O
Itllt!. rOJlseqllently
.1u = R~
meaning" b!lut tho di~I,Jnteme[)t elt allY poillt or the sLatktllly dctcl'-
IIdllale ~Y:itclll cllu~d by th(' settlement (or IIlly other 1I10VCIllf.'tll.)
01 H HIII!lort is equal Lo Llw ()roduct 01 the amollnt of tl,is seltll,'.~
mcul- hy thtl ,'eat,lion 11 at thc corre~(londing ,~upport indue.t'd by
11 unit 11);1.(1 aeling nlollg' tltlJ Ilirectioll or Lhe displ:lCcmcnt ~t.udied,
Thi!; di~r)laccmenl wiJl 1)0 red;:oned po:o>itive whol\ thc directions
or reaction R and of the disjJLac....ment tJ. Ilrc opposel] "lid nl'Jwtivc
when their direcl.i(Jns coincide.
Tlte S<lffie result. could be obtailled from till' strtlin clll~rgy Cl!lJa-
tion
+X,O/l +X'~U- RtJ. ={XiO/ I
Till' left pnrt of 11lis ol]ualion I'CPI'CSOllts the work accomplished
by nil the oxLel'rlal rorells (reactions included) HUng on the sl-ali-
eally {leterlllillate. system of Fig. ',8.Sa in case Lilo seltJemcnt of
suppurt B takes place after the applkation of th~ load unity XI.
and the right part or the ~:\lno equation reprcsenls the work pro-
duced by tht!se same forces in Cllse the settlement would Nlaeh its
final "fllue blJlore tlw application of this load (Fig. 48.8b). The two
>:i~ I

,,, -- ------ , ,,-

~ I
, ,,
I
I

,,
I ,
R ,,
,
I

, , I

fa) ~ ., ,. 'l
, v- ~

Fig. 18.8

!Jllrls of this 04uation lllust have l,xaclly tho SalOl;! vahm becauso
in both cases the total deformation uf the ilystelll remains the SallllJ.
It follows thflt the strain clleq~y accumulated io the first case (r<!-
presl'ul.<>d by the left part of the equatiOll) must be eXllctly Ihe Same
(0) Actual 5"tate

", --,-,:!---- _ ..0... ........

"
(b} Imaginary state
i!--'_.,_', l Xi"
~
I as
Fig. 4!1.8

ilS the ::;tmill encrgy Il.cquired by the structure ill the second case
ami represontcr! by the ril{ht-halld part of the equatioll. As Xl = I,
this ('qllaUlHl leads immediately tt)
':'\it. =R!i
whicll coillcides with lhe result obLained on tlte basis of Lhe theo
rem or reciprocal works.
Let liS take IIp 11 beam provided with an intermediate hinge a~
rejlresonted in Fig. 49.8a. It is required to determine the verticil I
 J-J.8. D~/ormdlilln III Stdtirlllly D~lermjnat~ Slrudur~. 375

displuC\'I)lCllt Il~ of point C of tlLis beam whell the Jlxed elld is

rotated through the angle D.qo. This may be done llpplying a unit.
Lond Xi = t at. point C (Fig. <i9.8b). On tile basis of Maxw~Jl's
Lheorem we may writll

whererr01l1
Uu+O.5l,~,,=-O
Ily = ~ O.Slld",
The negative valoe obtained for tho displacemont indic_atcs t.ha~
point C will shift upwards in a direcLion opposit.e t..o the ono arloplild
for lllc unit load Xl.
Let liS considcr now the more general case wllen several support
con.<>traints of n sLatically determinate structure yield simulta-
ncrlllsly. As nn example, we shall study the framo appearing in
(<l! Acluul stute (0/ lm(]ginary stul.c
o
ID"
c
C'
[

f.<3,~
r--"--~x.-I
O

,,,
I
I E'
I I
~I

,,
I
! ,
A, , ..3..'bl'-cT A 8
-~ -- z ---,-- z
-0

Ftl/. 50.8

Fig. 50.8a. 'fhe deformations or t.his frame are due lo a horizontal

displflcement. and a vertie.al settlement of the right-hand Support,
nt tbC'_ oute,orne of which the system will occupy tIle po.<;ition indi-
ca rod ill dolled lill~.
III oro!}\, to find the angular rotation oE joint. E let us apply lit
Litis point a unit moment Xl acting in the direction of the rotation
required (Fig. 50.8b). At the right-hand support this unit moment

equal to +
will give rise to H reac-tion whose vertical component RI will be
and t.he horizontal one R~ to ~. Equating the work
~cc_olUplishod by the external forces ill t.he case of t.he actual displace-
mcnt (Fig. 50.8a) and in t.he imaginary one (Fig. 50.8b) we obtain
XI.1f6, -R1a+ R 2b=O
 ;'1'16 Slrllin li:n~rKY Theory ond Mtthod.~ of Di.'pllw,menl Coml'!J/"Uon

unrl t since X,_1

8.l o =R,a-R,b
Jllll'oducing in this expression the valu~ of reactiulls RI and R 2
we Gnd
,
.:.\B=T-2il
,
TIIll~, in order 10 determioQ the llispl3t:cmenls induce.] Ht <lily
poinl of 11 slatienlty ueLerminate sLt'1Jclllre by lha rnovallll!nl of its
sup]Jorls (lhe::ro supports being shifted aloug tho dit'crLiun!; or the
existing- eonstmint.s) we must:
1. Choose nn imagillary st.ate of the slrudnre for 'which the :mp-
port in question remains tixl!d.
:L APllly 10 Lilo fl!.rllct.ure a unit ;IcLioll XI = J coincidillg ill
dirucLion wiLh t.iLt'. displacerneul required.
:t I)clcrlrlintl the rCiu;tions produced by the sllid unit actiun
along those orthe eonstrainLs which rellulilling sLI:lLionnry ill the
imngillllry sLulc yield in the aeLual (1IIe.
4, Form 1111 uquatiol\ expressing lhnt the work accomplished by
the luads and reactions of thil imaginary slate 1l1on~ the displacc-
illC:>llts of thl;l renl onc equals ~ero.
~,. Obtaill the value of tho displaceTrlent requil'cd solving the
aforesaill equnlion,

15.8. DEFOIUIAl'IONS OF A KINEM.\TIC CHMN CAUSED I3Y

THE MUTUAL ROTATION OF TWO NEIGHBOUJ'IING LINKS

Hereunder the lerm kilU'matir- chain shaLl apply to nllY system

consisting of a number of hinge-connected rediliuear t'lemellls,
fur'mill\: a bl'okilt\ line,
Ce~ Ill; l;1xamine the displacement of llllY ]1Olllt C of Sllch a sysl,em
along Llto directiou i-i wheu the angle formed by two neighLJourillg
links n - J, nand n, n +
1 .is modifu:ld (<~ig, S1.t\). As.':'lllllo that
this llngle hus ehallgt'd an IlmounL !lIp" nnd that the pnrt of tlllJ
SySt,Olll sil.ualed to the left of joillt n romaills JlXl'rl. Tho unguJul"
ro~alioll /lIp" will cause a displacemenl of point C which will OC(;\!-
py 3 nuw position C'. It is clear tllat the angle C'nC will h~ ~tjual
to 6\{l1l aud sinca tho rotation is supposed to be v~ry SIlIl:lll, the
circulllr tlrc CC' may I.JIl replaccd by the normal to ne.
Lot I'i , be I he projection ef CC' on t.he dircctioJl i-I and y the
angle formeo by line ne with Cd normal to i-L (Fig, 51.8). Tho sim-
ilarity or
trL'ltll::lcs CC'C I ano CnC' yields
C'C 1 = ~, = C'C cos y = IlCAlpll CQS Y
As
nC cos y ~ Cd = r
wc obtain finally
,31 = dtpnr
Thus, the displ1l.cernellt L\f or /lny point of tho sysl.l'f!l produced
Lya change Il[ illlgll'!p" by an al1l0unl, &,p" is equal \.0 thu prod\ld of

fIg. 51.8

~IPn hy tho length r, which re!Jre~llt'" I,he projcclioll of the tiC

seltlllCllt on 11 normal to tht' di~JlJac,cJnellt requil'cd.
Should wc rcpJ1.'s{'ut the angular rotation ~IP" hy a veclol' <lP-
plied at poinl. 11 llnd directed pnrallcl to thl' di.~p'llC(HnClll ~I re-
quired Wig. 51.8), l.his displnecmullt
will be JllIlIll'ric4I.l'ly equal \0 the IlIO-
ment of Lhis vec.ttn nllOllt the IlOin" C
I
, , - -- -
,
w]lof;e displacement is studied. Thus,
the displaCl'mtllll 6 1 of sume point of
I
1 ,
the kinematic chain along a direction 'I 0/, iJ<p
i-i c:wscd by n chnngc of tile angle IV"
formed by two lIcighbouring links and
' "
" tJ/f','
.l ,, -
amounting to L\!p" may be fOllrld as
, L1?~1 I , ,
follows:
1. Hepre~ellt the IIngulnr rotation 6lf"
l -- ,, , ,
hy II v('c1or.
2. Apply this vKtor at point. n of
th(ll:ystem lllong the din"Clioll of the Fig. 52.8
di.~placemeul required.
3. Compute the moment of llli~ vector abollt the point wllosc
displllcement it is desired to obtain.
The displacement 6[ of any point of n kinBlflatk chain resullill.l{
from the alteration of son-ral angles will bo givon by the expression

.if = .1.lpjrl -+ .11P2rl + ... + ~\IPmrm = L, .1lpr (29.8)
 Problem.. Dtltermill& tbo horizonLal and \ert.ical di.splacomoot5 01 point C
oolonging to the knee rl"lJ:lW of Fig. 52.8 ....hun the lounduion "' this f'-'u)e is
mtat~ about point .. dock'll'ise through In angle I1cp...
Slll"tlc". Apply :lot polllt <l hOl';wnl.a1 vector AI/'G' !U mOOlent about point
C _ill gh'e i..lnJnOOinoly the bDrlUlnllll displaconll'nt roquired
6~-Af.h

Th. vertical djaplacement of point C ..... ilI be olJtaiP8d in enttly the same W1IY
A:-MIII
The tou.1 dIsplacement or point C (the dista/lCo CC') will be given by
CC'_ V(Ai}IT(t>~)1_M.. V"I+/2
The same rosult could he obtalnod [vllowina: the procedure outHned in the
provious article.

16.8. DEFLECTIONS OF THREEDIMENSIONAL FRAMeD

STRUCTURES
In the most general case three different ~tres..~ M, N nnd Q ad
a<:rflss 11 sQClion pnssed through a member of any plane system,
and lher~fore the general expression ~iving the deformat.ions of
such sy:!!t.cms will contain thtt'e term:!!. eBeh of which character-
Ize:!! Ibe displacement due to one of the t.hree sl,resses nlentioned.
Ir& three-dilAertsion~1 framed structure the eros!! seclions of any
rllCIll~r will he acted upon by six stresses; two bending moments
M ~ !llltl M, about the principal u.cs of inertia y and z of t.he sec-
lion under considerntioll. one torque moment Af, about the 10ngi-
tllrliJw~ axis x of tho bar. one normnl streSS N x and two shearing
forcl!'S Qu Hud Q, parallel to the aforementioned axes y and z. Con-
!;Cqut'lltly. in thi! case the general expre!\.'iion of tne displacements
will consist of six terms. eal,;h of which will represent the displace-
ment due to one or the afort'Sairl stresscs.
Following exactly the same procedutC as in Art. 6.8. we shall
obtain the c:'I"pression given hereunder permitting the displacement
cOlllputation for thrtJe-dimensional framed structures
, ,
- 6f,.dz S-
.
d".,. = 1: SM,,,, ~ + 1: M -
"
, ,
M ... u
----n;- +

+ 1:: ~ M/RI MJ~:~ +I: \ N~... N~/z +1:: ~ Q,... x

,
! ,
X
Q.. ~ dr
G r 'lv +1:
S"".'''---er'};
7i Q", rk
(30.8)
"
 16.8. De/led/llll$ 0/ Thru-Dim~I\,;orull Fratllf.d Slrurlurr~ 379

Tn this exprcs..qiOll ;U"", Dod Ki:", represent Ihe hcndin!!, IIloment...'l

due to II unit actioll (collcclItraced load, when li1tl~al' displacements
arl.' studied. ond \Jnit morrlC'Ot.s in the CflEe of Ilngulllr rotations)
whose din,ction cohldllcs with that of the displacemcnt. Tn the same
way M/m represents the torquc produced hy Lhe same unit action,
and N~,n., Q.", find Q.", IIrc tile normal Slress I\nd the sh('ars pro-
{Iu{~cd thereby. At the slime lime I't1/1n, ,""l%~, M rn , M~". Q"n ;lull Qm
will indicat.c the st.res.<:es induced by the actual JO:lding.
CoeftidellLs '111 and '1. will be determined in relJlt.ion with the
$hape of the cross section (see Art. 2.8). The 1Il1lgnilude or J/ ap-
pe"ring ill the expression of t.he torque rigidity may he approxiluately
taken eqlllll to:
for a squlIro cros.... s!'ction
J t =O.143a4
for an elollgllted rectangular CfOSS sec.lion (al a> b)
b'
J t ="'3 (u-O.63h)
for cross f:C'CtiOllS consist.1I1g of sevC'ral rectangles of small wiot.h
(s\lch as the cross sectIons of T-bcams. H-bt.'l\lIls. etc.)~

J/=t Id3l
(l heing t.he Icngth and a the width of tllC rectfH,gle)
for a cirClllar cross sectioJl
J1d~ nr 4
J,=J p = 3<: =--y
and for all anlJular crOS$ section
J t = :i~ (D4_d 4)= ~ (R~-r')

(wllel'e D and R iudicate the externol nnd d and r lhe inlcrnol di-
nmeh;'I'S and mdii of the dug).
When the cross sE'.ctions of all the bars rOlllain conslant, the ri-
giditiE'l! EJ~. EJ OJ 1 EF and GF as wt:'!l (IS lllO coefl\cient~ '1rl
alld llz appearinl<' in OXprt~.....ion (30.8) may he plm~ed ill front of
thl: illLl:!'gral signs.
The compul.alion of displilct'mellls is carried oul wit.h 1110 ilid
()f expl'eRsiOll (30.8) ill e.~acUy the same way as in the CIIS, of phlllc
sl,rn()l.ures described in Art. G.8. When compuling tho clisplat'llInenls
of three-dimensional structures with rigid joints only tb:" fir5t three
terms of the expre.'!sioll (:-ID.S) will be ret.aiued, while the illnUCllCO
(If the normal find f;hearin~ stresses may be nc~lccted. On LIte I'on-
lrary, if it were desired to determine the dcllectiol'.. . of a thrI;Jr-
dimensional hillg(,-(;~lnllccled SlfllctUrc olleshould take into tor15id-
oration solely the normal i'!tresses.

.xk~Prol"tm L Ilequlred Ihl' \'ortical ddloetion of tbe fr'ff- cnd C ..r 11 bori70nl..1
In,"u, aJII~aring III ~-jlf. 53.&. Tbe fUlna is loaded Willl one v('f'Ueal Ion:lI
P. il~ er........ scdwn is drc:uhtr in shape Mild romain.1 C'Oll!L/IonL IllnlUlflll)UI. TIIIl-
VIlut' of G 511811 ho t,.kE>lI equal to 0.4 E.
SI1/ulll1l1. Fig. 53.Bb rol,re!lJnL~ the diagr"m Ivt LIlI' bendiDR rnon'll'IlU 1If~
IICtinll'lIl Mvl'rOcal pl.,w n"nnlllly 10 the .XI'~ "f LIlI' fralllE' lIlemIPCf"', tlw.'!U

~
o / rUI

I,

nU~llO""l~ I'eing illlluct'd by th.. IIflualllld". !lnd ~il:. ~l.& rt'_lll'c."t'nl! the 10rtlue
rnrY,1;;. No horiwlIul hen,linl: mOIllE'n15 wlll ~ induced by tbe ,'('rtleall();lll
P M'"'! at point C.
Allll Y :0 '-erlic:d unit load IS indicaled ill fig. ~.~ ltnd tr.re tbl" gral,h.- of
th" lo(!lIdiug moml.'llt 'M:'AJld<l(lh.. lorqup M1 indlK'l'd "1
thi~ "nit !vod 1I:" ~,o",n
in .... ig. 53.Se and l, 'nl" dllnl'('tion A of vainl C ... ill lit! ol>llliDl'd lIIpplyllllC \.....,...
5hf"h.gin's melhod 10 ('",Irl'<;siun (30.l:I)
I, 2 z... 2
II'T x 3"'1 PI:"tX"i l : PI:/ll:
A- J::J + I;'J +----c:r;;-
J':ac:h lerm or rj~hl-hw"d part of Lhi~ cXltrolill-i"" wJ"'l'l;('nl, c.II8 tl( lIlt' totllllO'
nl'nL.~ or the tolal v"rli(1I1lli~p'acl!n)(mL.'I.r""int C. Tllll~, the fll1!t l<.lnlt ;;} i~
In Flg~. 5:~.~ allJ $.'1.& lift l~ d('!!ignat"d 0)' MI,-T r
tll,' \'crlic;11 dCO'lCli"n or lluinllJ {,;t~ fig. ;;a.R~l r:,u,;,,.J \,y llw l"~lIjlillg or 1I11;JIl-
her All. '1'hi~de-nt'eti()n ('utsils an idenlkal ddkd;uJI uf puirol. C. The ~"tl)1lflll'l''''
;~~~ is the v('rlicalrlen('Ctionof point C whkh results {mill Ih" !>"u<ling of the
c!em"nl DC. Tlw torque !oft = Pl 2 'lauscd in r.1"!lwIll All hy tll" I":ld I'rnl"Ws
M,l, PI211
t'r()~~ ~~dioll J) ahout the h"ri%OIII"\ axis through iW al>gll.. 'I' ~ r:-J =r.-J .
" I' 'T>
This rnlll!iOl1 will C,aIl3l~ point C to Irav,1 vllrtkllll)' o\'pr n slrcl,dl '1"I~ = ~~l:~ .

[ulmduciJlg ill 11,,1 ah",', CXI"1.\:<>;;UIl {"t A th" vnloll'~ of I, '" anrl G ('(to;,]
'ld~ lld~
to '!Y. ']"I om) 0." E, ro~pocl.iv..,]y, we "bt,;(in f'n"lly
(HI' (l~ If f1li)
1-~ 3+;-\ +liJj

"robkm 2. Be\juired the IlnriullIlal di:-pbcl:'Illl'lll ~ .dullg nxi~ /le "I crnss
~tion K of a pol~.':"oJlAI hellJlI avpearin~ in Fj~. JI,.~~ liS \H'[[ ;l~ [IU' IIllgular
""lnl;OU "f 11", ~llmo c,!"o"'" ~'I:"jo" in [,Ill' I'IB"u U('D. 1'hl' huam j~ !>uill in at
pOinl .4 (uld j~ </f dr<':ulur cros.s .... '(:Ii"" whidl T(')Ilains (:"",,11l1lt Illr I,ll or it~
,,1<rrwIIL~.
Sol"tI(Hl. The j:l1'IlI,hJ; Ilr thl' hell(ling moments Mf (act.ing ill 11 vrrlir,11 1,laIHil
aTHI of M~ (ncti,,!:" ill U 1'<\riwlIl,,1 plane) n~ wl,]1 al,; lhe grll]Jh of tllll lor(lul' AI I
indllc.ed 1' the actnal loads art' shown ill f"ig. 510.$1>. t alld cl. Tl'l'W gral,hJ; Ill'\)
drawlI <1\\ t.lle .ioe of the e~h,,,,led fihre'! of eadllllembt'r of till' l",mll. T\;l' ~;(l.ll (Of
lIw tOrlPHl i!! indir"~ll(l in r.ll<' gl'nllh. this t"'"\ll"
h.ill!!" J'('CkOllM p"~itiy,, when
~ell frulIl th"t, Ilart ,'f lhll J;lrur.lllm I"hich hK!; Jl'Cll rutnft'. it lerlll~ to r"tl,lll till'
1"('lJ\lllll;ng- pari clockwi!;.
III 0(,.11'" to (letel'miuo the horizontal di.placement c\ a unit lo"d rllTull,'1 to
cll''''''nlUC Hl\wt he al']llil'<l at I'"iot l\. (Fig. 5~.llt). 'rho corr(lSIlOIllflllg gl'al,h~
uf the hl'nding moments Mf. M~l llnd of the tonpll' MI Ill'" l'cprelSeutl'tl in
Fig. r,~.flf. l'~jng "nro again ('xprcs..~iQJJ r::I0.8)llnd rllTl'yillg ('ut the graph ,,<1,1-
lipll('oti"n by the ml'th'ld pl'ol'O:"ed b)' "el'e~hchagill, W(~ "btnin
~~ (~ ----'--~ 7) _'_' IX'lxlo
to. -
2 2 X Ij 3 X EJ' -r E JW + 22XX:-J
2! _'_ lX2Xi
X <\ X liJ + HJ p
Thl' lw" lirs! terms of thiS I'xpressiml account fm th" hl'nding 1lI01ll{'llt~
ading in tile vertic,al plalJc~, thn tblrd for tlwsa acting in Illiriwll\;l1
plfUl'~ and the la~t ,'"e take. cure of tbe torque. All lhe J'r(lrll)ct~ ill"(! JI'I~ili\'e
b('f"u,;(' the graphs of the. bending momcnts wl,ich an> being rnnltipli,'<J one hy lhe
otl"", rcmnin all th" time on oue snd th{lo 8ame ~ide or t-Iu: corr(~~t)l,ndinl: Illembers,
and I]", I<)r'l"(>'~ nl'l' also of Iho !<:Jnll' ~ign. Replacing jll Iho "1",,,<, l"I,rm;,~i"n
Jp h.v"21 (whm1) J - ~:~.~) we "htain finally "
, ('0 I. 16) 15
tJ.~ET "3+3+ 1+""3+1, - IU
The angul,,, "ut.ati'lll <r' of t.he CTfJ$~ !reCtiQIl K will ha dl!ll'lnliuu.1 ~Pl'l}'iflg
at. this point a unit benilinll Inument ll~.ting ill lhe plane Ben (Fig. ,11.1\",,1.
The C"l'respollding grllp!lJ; of the bending lllOllleuts M~ and M~ and or the l!lrqll\)
Ml IIfQ showo In Fig. fllo.8h. It will he noLf.d lhal tllll heoding moments f1eting
ill the ho['i7.on181 plane will remain consllln~l}' nil.
 EXl't"PMiou IJU.8) .:h"@:5
24-4 I 4X1Xt 4xZxt 1 ,11
~---r-X I X I X i77+~+~= 1:'1 l3+4+'fl-Tf
The magnitude vf lhe l<..dS.DU lhe leugr.h of 010 beam melDlx-rs IlCiDgt!.~II~
in kills and in mf'tros. I'C"'Jlf'Ctively, the ".lnll 01 Young's moooh.. ! F. mu.'!t

, <

':J A
'" ,.
[

K
~ ~:r
@,m
0

0
I.J In
A , ,

~~;r
[ c
K
,
D
fo) (K)
FI,;. 51.S

ho c:.:prcs5Ol1 in tons prr 5lIUllro Inctro and tbi'll of J [0 lDelrc-! in the fourth po'ft1.'r.
"fl" \'1I1\1c hf the horiwntal di~pl8cemont d ....iIl be then obtained In metll!! and
thlll of the angular rot.lltlon <;' III radians. Botb tbe.'le \a1ues being positive, Ihe
dlreelions of '" uul 'I' will (;Qinddll with tho,'!O eh<)!,(,ll for the !lulL jund (,<,('0
Fig. 5!o.8tlllnd for th~ unit moment seD fig. (54.8gl.
 9. ANAL VS IS OF THE SIMPLER
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
STRUCTURES BY THE METHOD
OF FORCES'

1.9. Gf::NERAL

While taking his r,om'so jn the strength of material!;, thl\ reader

hns all'fHluy met with slructurC!:l whklt C<lllnot be ulllllyzcd usiul;'
sololy equilihrium equations. The eomputnUon of stNlsses ~et 1I1J
in theso structUl'os requires the use of uddilional equAtions, 1l11111Cly
deformation equations. Such "true-Lures :lre called stQtically inde-
terminate or redundant.
TIn! 1\\01111 lliffertmce hel-wcclI the redundant strucl,ul'es and tl1l'
stalkally determiuale ones resides in tho fact that the sires;.; dis-
tribution dOllcnils for tlll:- fll'sllJllcS Jlot only on the loading but 3150
on the relal.ivc llimellsions or their members. If these memhers
are made of differellt materillls the stress distributioll wiH equally
depend on the e-Iaslie properties of these materials. Stalically illUll-
terminate slTllctnrl;)$ arc also very sensible ~o such factors as the
setllement of their supporls, temp(Jl'3tllre variation, mrlnufucturin!.:
and erection dcfec~, etc., whic.h give ris(\ 10 additional strl.'.~ges,
while the same faclors would have no influence. whatsoever on stili-
kally delerminate sLl"Uctures. At prescnt redundant structures arc
Widely used in numerou~ branches of engineering activities. Tlleir
analysis must always stllr! with a close oxamination of arrangemelll
of their membel's, the primary gonl of this examiualion being the
determination of the degree of redllndancy .

The nJl'thod of nnalysis dl!5Cribed ill the pr~t>nt Chapter is referred 10 hy
vllrious aUlhors eitJ)('r as the Ulethod of denecUons or th ... method ollt>llst wOl'k,
dependillg on the proeedure adopted rur thp deunnIDat.i1m of the (,oplficieDts 10
the \Ill];nowll~.
We prefer to trll11slllt... literally its n~m .... .frOUl lllJssian Rnd to cllll it mIlk-
ed at forces. lodeod, in thllt way we M.... sur.... to avoid confuses with the slop"
and dtfitcclion mtlkod (!'ll'9 Chnpter 13) Rnd moreover hoth methi>ds will hl' C,OD
sist....nt!:l, naUled in confolTDity with 11\e nRture of the unknowns.
 Thi.~ w.'gree 0/
redundancy is equ,(il to the nnmber of redundant CUll
strainl~'" ldwse elimination would tram/orm the giv,m systf'flt into
/j stattcally determinate one without impelling its gt'(Imetrica.l stability.
In lhe pl'eviou!l arlides it hllS been already explained that get)
melril:ally stable systems are such systems whose shl/pe cannot be altered
without It de/ormatl(Jn 0/ thdr demelltll,
Thcm IIrc flU l'edundUllL cUIL~traitll,s ill Il !llllLiclIllv determinato
.~ystcm lInd the oliminat.ioJl of a single cunslraint will alwnys (raus-
fur'Jll llteso !lysUlms in mecllUJlisms whu~(' l:!c!tHuellts al'e elldo\\'cd
with :1 certain freedom o[ mflvclrlcril,.
'1'111' beam llppenring in l~ig, I.na cOf)~Lituh':-! II strllctUl'C, wllosu
(If)g-r(!l' of redlllldllrlcy is equal 10 Olll', for onc of tire sllppurlill!l'

"'q I: J"
(c,

~
rb.!

I'I
J"

J" HQ, {(1 J (tJ)

Pig. I.' Fig. 2,9

bHfS clllIslitlrles a redundant C01Ull'ction with lite grollud, This heam

will hecollle SLllticnlJy determinate ns SOOIl ns one flf tht'se bars i:-;
diminalcd (as ill Fig. 1.9b) or tllro~lgh tile irrtrodlldiC1ll (lr all inler-
mediate hillgc (u:,: in Fig, '1.9c).
TIH;~ [rame Ilppeal'illg in Fig. 2.9a. COII!llitulcs a ~11'llclnre rl'dnn-
d:lIlt to lhe UtiI'd degroo, itg tram;formation into a stalicall~' de-
tel'lninlllll systom requiring that llt lea~t one of il_~ me.rnh(JI's should
hc cuI. ill Lwo Wig, 2,9b). We have sccn previollsly that this opel'-
nliflll is t:'l.!uiY1\]elll tu lhe elimiulIlioll ui three internal C.Qnstrrdnts
chrJ'es)louding to three inlerna] forces acting across the SectiUll.
1l:11ncly, the hendillg moment, the. shellr :llld the lIormal stress,
'rho Cl]uilihriulll equations alulll~ do not pel'mit 1h~ dcler"rillfltion
of thesc InLlwnal forces.
AllY tlUl('r c1ost'd frnmo with rigid jOiJlts lying in onc plllne will
frlSO forTU Cl syslem with u degl'et> or
retlurrdllllcy equlll to three.

Ilcre_und(lr lhe It'ml nmslra;nt will ~i"n;r) E'\'cT}'tlliog t_apllblo of )lJ'(wcnl-
iug tht> mutual di~plaCI>JIlCnl "f clilfl'l'Cnt )ll)int~ or CI'OSS SlJCli"ns orCl structurE'.
"flll' lliljectivtl rtidundllnt ~h<l11Jl'I n~'Vl'r t~ rl'!:nril"d ('IS SYllO".I'0)lJIIS to super-
f/llt"" 01' f<$~ltsi.
 1.9. Ge1leral

'.I'll" IwO [mmed b"l\t~ appearing ill Fig. ~.!J a.rc typical cXRrnple~
of similar SltllctllCt'S. III tile frame ill Fig. 3.9b wllo$c lIjlr;ghts U1~
dgidly Jixcd in Lhe ~rolLnd. the IaUer fllily he rega~dl'd as constitul-
ing RIl additiolllll member of inflnile rigidity.
T]le sttllcturo Rj,peming in Fig. 4.9(/ is pro\jded wiLh II hinge
at midsp<U1 of Ule Lop girder. If we PilSS a section lllrougll this
hluge. this section would lie acted Ilj,on by two slresses N anti Q only
(Fig. 4.9b). Coll$cqllcIILly, the llpper hame has two degrees or tcdUll-
d:H1ry while the wholc strncturc is redlmdant lo Lhe lilth degree,
,
E.I.E

",
Fig. 3.9 Fig. 4.9

fOI tilt' lower rrallll~ 1!J (~om(Jll,tely closed and thert'[OIc Us dtll/:rce of
rt'dHlldallcy equals thr~. Tb\.' eliminatiOI\ of all Llle redlllldanl (~on~
stminl.s \',0111d rtlduce this system IQ two tolumn~ built. in n\. tllCir
lower {'lids and provided nt thl\ir llpper parts with \.wo horizontal
bra... h~s as illdir.ntcd in FiR. 4.9b.
Th... total lIumber or redundant con:;trnints could also he (,h-
tnined in the following way. The top frallle beillg provided with
a hil\lol"c i" redundant in the sccollil degree; in addilion n buill-ill
l'nd L'l nlway!; equi\'nltmt to Lhree cons~rll.ints fllt(! therefore two
fIxed snpporl.s of tIll' {nune rtlpreSetlt a totll1 of six constraints.
lll! UlC equilibrilltll ellUll.tions will permit the determination of
three rllac.liollS only, the otllcr three r.onstraints are redununnt.
Thcl"c{urt' lhe whole sy:;lcm will hnvc n dllgreo of redundancy equal
Lo fl \'e.
It should be noLed that there are usual,ly sevcrlll wily::: of elim-
inal.illl; the redundnnt cOlIstraints ill order to COI\Velt the given
sLructure into a !'tll.l.ically determinate onc. hut the number of
eliminated wllstl'aints will always rem,lin \.he same. Thll~, the
simple stntirally determinate sLrllclur('s appearing in Fig. l.Hb
and c have betlll derh'cd from one alld tIle snme redundant struc-
Lure of Fig. 1.9a, tho firsL OIlC by the elimination of the iJllermediate
~lUprot't and t.he seco\l(l onll by the introduc.tioll of a hinge. The laUl'r
2~-8~3
eHmiulltt's the constraint preventing mut.ual rotation 01 two (.'1'0$11
sections, one situated to its right and 0110 1,0 its left.
J'he introdu.ction of a hinge into om' 0/ 011' lII~mberll 0/ a rt,du.udan!
structure or the replacement of a rigid joint fomled by the /IIi.'eting
of tu-'O barlS by a hinge is always equi/mlen! to the elimination of one
constraint and will therrfore lowrr by one degree the redundancy of
the whole structure.
Ilemmder hinges of this type shall be rt'll'rred [(I us ordinary hinges.
ln climillatiug the redundant constraints of some strut.tun' !jllre
should 1)(' taken not to disturb its slaIJilily. From this point of
view the eLimination o( one o( the vloH'tic,,1 suppMling" bar!' of I,he
frllmed bent shown ill Fig. 5.9b would be IJllat~Celltahle, for tile

ra) ,,) (c)

FIg. 5.9

three romulIung bars would concur at point A and, consequently.

the80 bars would bo uncapllble of preventing tlte rotation or the
whole system abont this point. The correct way of eliminl1ting tIle
redundant c.onstraint of this s1.rudure is shown in Fig. 5.9..:.
The degree of rodulldanc.y of complic.ll.ted structures may be
determined r~membering that eac.h hinge illtl'oduceu instead of
a rigid joint formed by the meeting of K hars reduces the dogree
of redllndnnc.y o[ the system by (K - t), for such a hinge replaces
(K _ 1) ordil1ary hinges (Fig. 6.9a). Hence tlte degree of redundancy
of a st-rllctme can be ohtained multiplying by '.hrce the numhel'
of 1;.lost'd 1"0lltourfl forming this strucf,llre (l'ogardles~ of any hillgOS.
whether within the strudure itslllf or at the supports) and then
reducing the numher so obtained by tile 1L\lmber of 1111 the ordinary
hinges l'xiflting ill tho systt'm.
Hinges common to f{ hnrs meeting lit OIlC point should be regard-
ed as ~qllivlllont to (K - 1) ordinary hinges.
Jlntht'flluticntly this rule TTHly h.. eXjlreSSCll by the foltOl\'lllg" for-
mula
n=3m-H (1.9)
In this expre5SiOll n i.~ the degree of rtldlllldallcy. m is tile. nUlllhor
o[ do.~(!d contours Wllich form the slructure, and 11 is the numbor
 1,9. Gtllalll

of ordinary hinges. It will be rememhl'red that we hllVe agreed to

use the term ordinary hinge for a hinge placed at the meeting of
two luus, tile tl:lrm doubl(' hinge meaning a hinge introduf,ed at the
meeting of lhree bars and so forth.
The structure appearing in Fig. 6.9b consists of eight closed COll-
tours (marked with Roman flgU~S) and against each joint wo havl:/
entered the equivalent nUHl ber of ordinal'Y hinges. The horizOllta I and
CommfJ/I hlnfJc

Ordinary Irillgt.'s JI III

~. Ordinary hinge
J
IV
CanlOlir 1

4 V 21
3

V
') 1 Vlll
Ordi/1(1ry hinge
la)
Fig. 6.9
",
vertiClI1 bars meetillg at the outer joints of the system are regard-
ed as a single knee s}laped member, these hars being rigidly conne-
cted together, Comequt'ntly. m. = 8; H = 3 3 +3+4+1 + +
+ j + 1 + 1 + 'J + 1 = 20 alld 11 = 3 X 8-20 = 4, meaning
that Ule strllr,lllre is stal:lcally indeterminl\le in the fourth dllgree.
As already mentioned, lhe elimination of /lny 0111:1 of the COIl~
!ltraints or a statically deh'-l'minat-e system transforms immediately
tlJi~ syi'ltem into a mechanism. showiug thereby tllat the llurnbel'
of constraints in such systems constit\ltes the ab~olute minimum
requir(lc! l~) ellsure lheir stability. Any additional constraint in
excess of this mi"imum transforms the system into a r(ldWldant
one.
It is dear t.hat. in such n system there is at least onc constrnillt
t1H1t can be eliminated without pn~jlldice to its stability. However,
there may exist such rClllstr"int!:! which cunnol be exd1lded with-
out interfering- wilh the st"bility of 11Il! structure. Hereunder we
shall dcsignate fllldl constraints llY the term necessary constraints.
It is interesting to hote tllat the stresses curresponding to the IlCCe.5-
Sll.ry const.raints CIlIl be alway!\ determinlld wilh the aid of stati~
alone. All examplo (\f 11 necessary constraint is afforded by the ver-
tical supporting Lnl's of the framed l!ent I'epre.c;ented ill Fig. 5.9a
".
 N~ithor of thl?SC t ..... o bar:s call bel Nlnoved without rendering the
sy!l~em IIllSLabl~.
Tb~ COllstrainUl which Ciln be elimill3ted without prejudicing
~he shlbility or the system form lhe ordinary r~dlJ.ndan1 l:on.rtraillls.
The stresse'> corresponding to these COIlJillrainls c..annol he ue-rin!d
fronl llle equations of equilibrium alone. The horizontal sUPIJUrting
bal1l or tlu~ portal frame just mentiOllcd (see Fig. 5.9a) con~titlllc
311 example of the latter lypo of COHstrllints. We knolY that for
('nch system or coplllnnr forces ill equilibrinm stntics provillcs tlll'Cl:'
inl1cpl'lldent cquntiuns, Honet'. if some sys\t'!U is c,onnectell to tllC
grollnd by lII~allS of three ~upporLing hal"S. the streSSt!!l ill tllt,,~e
IJars mny be \'ompnL('d usillg eqllillbrhllll eq\la-
tions alone irrl.'speCLively of the degree of redun-

n
dAncy of the whole l'ystl'llI. A similar !<LrlJ\~\.llre
may be tllOre[ore rt.'gurded as i,derfUllly red/m
dont.
. EXltrfUllly tM! strut'tltrt' is statically detumillaU
for the abut mt'nt reaction!' and thc cxlernal loads
eonstitut", a bAlanced system of fuf('cS nil of
which can be complctdy determined with thc_
Fi,. 7.9 aid of staLks alone. For sllch 5ystt'ms all t.he
external (support) constraluLs heloIll:' to tll", eate--
gllr)' of nuessaryones. If, on tho contrary. a structure is cndowed
with more than three eXWtllill consLraints such /I, structure can
m.ually be considered hoth as c..-.:terually or intl.'rn!llly redun-
dant. Indeed. one can choo~ nt will those of the constraints
which will he t'egarded as tho redundallt ones. Thus. tile frame
l)f Fig. 5.9a may he regarded as eXlernallyccdunl1ant if one
dec.ide!l to oliminaLe ono of the hol'izontal supports in ordtlr to trailS-
form it into the ~tatically del,crminnte ~Y!lt.em showlI in FiJ::'. 5.9c.
011 tho other haud, if olle ilecidl's lo consider liS redundant the COIl~
gLraint which prevents the roLation of one part of tilt! crossbar about
Ihe otber. ill other words. if olle dpddes lo trt"lnSfOfm Lhe frame inll)
a .!ltalicaUy determinate structure by tht' introduction of a hiuge
ns shown in ~ig. 7.9. this same mllle I'hO\lld be cousidercd as all
IIllerrwlly redundllnt Ollt'. TlIe frame of F'i~. 8.9a. wbose deg'rt'C of
rcdulldancy l'q1l:\ls six m..y be considered:
(a) as being Lhrce limcs internatly and t1lree times e:twfIlal1y
redund~lIt. H ils conversion into n silllple stalically determinate
!<Lrucllln! appparing ill Fig. 8.9b is corriell out by lite removal of
Ihret' t',:derllal conslrainls (for which. purpose on" "uilt~in end is
set free) ~Illd nf thr"e internal rOllstrainlSj
(b) l1S bl'ing fnur times intemally alld twice externally redundallt.
if it is decided to tl'anl'furm the gh'en sysLom into fI stlllically dl!ter-
minato onc Il.S indicoted in "'ig. 8.Qc;
 le) tinlllly the Silml' {rallle may he regarded itS being six times
illternally rcduudilllt. if its COllvllr.;lioJl iuto two S('para~o sLAtic:ally
delt>rlllinate pllrl..'l Is carried Oll~ 0:; shnwlI in Fig. 8.9d.
The same rr.... m~ canllot .be rCgllllll'd tlS s~atically indeterminatl'
ol1ly from till! point of "i('w of its exll'rlllll constraints. I ndlX"d ,
the syslt'1ll is rlldlllldant ill Ih{'. 5ixth degret' while 11 lIlaXirlllllll of

, '
rb/ .1.. rdl

Fig. ~.9

thr{'c cxtt'rll<ll con:ll-raints ('un he relllo\'od wilhout dL"rupling its

stability. Lt Ifl. clellr therdOl1l thut this s}'~lenl cnnnot btl converted
into 1\ sl.alicAlJy delerlllinatt' one hy Ihe elimination or extern.:).)
cnnstrnillL.<l aJ(llIt'.

2.9. C..\ NONICAL EQIJA'fIONS DBDUCED BY THE ,\tETROD OF

FOnCES
In thll pl"e\'iou:s article it WaS SllOWll thllt the str~o: amdysis of
redundant slruetores rt'(luircs the \1St!- or IIddilitJllal equations based
011 the strains llnd dt,nec.tiQlIs suffert'd Ly these strllctul1'S. In tllll
mllthod nf forct'J'! l.heS{' equntiol1:'! afO ohlllin~d throllgll lhe Lranr;.
formatioll of the gillt'l~ structure redlHld.wt to the nth degrl!(; Into a
sImple stntically determinate /lIU':.
The elimiulItiolL or lllly constrnints will iil~roduC6 aILeralions
IleitlH'r ill lhe stress di.o;triblltioll nor in the straiu!> and rlunediuns
if in the pla~ ur con~tr/l.illls.ro removed wo introduce rorf;('5* t-"qui-
"atent to the rellclion;;: da\'t,lopcd by thttSe CllrlsLraints. Coloscqucnt-
Iy, if tht' :<implc strllc.turt: is ~ctcd UpolI both. by the actual Io.'l.d::l
and the nddiliQlIlll actioll!! which replace the eliminated constraint."
lht' straiAs llnd deneclioM or such a syslem as well 115 tht! l'tresSC's
illduC'u therein will be exactly the same 11." in tlLl~ original onl' and
therefore lhe two becomo l'qllivale/lt.
+
As previou~l}" (~CC Art. 2.8), lhe term roru ..... illllllply equally to m(llncnW!.
390 Atlalll,~/$ of /k~ Simpler Sta/icallll hdcterllll1l/,lU Strllcturtl

Sinctl 110 dislllacement of the given redlmdant slru(',lure alofll1

the reactions at the supports is possibl~, the displac,ementf< or the
conjugate simple stnLiwlly doterminate stxllcture along the same
directions must also equal zero, evell if somo of these supports
wt~('e eLiminated wheu converting the former to the lattet', This
mc~ns that the rruetitl/IS devdoped by the redundant constraints wtll
U" slIch as Ls necessary to render nil the deformatiofls of the si,mpk stat-
ically determinme structllre aloni; the direction of tMse reactions.
The equation translatinil" the ahove statement illlo lfIathelll~ticlI.l
symbols will he as follows,
6, = 6,1 + ~i:+ ... + ~I.'l-l + ~'n + ~fP= 0 (2.9)
In tM:c> expressinn the fIrst of tile two indices followiug the Icltcr
6 shows the dil'eclioll of tll(' displacement (the latter r,oinciclinl!
with the ~limjllated cOllstrllint) and the sewnd one the <lction CUU!;-
ing this displacement. Thus t.," indicate~ a displacement along
the direction 1 caused by th~ reaction of the constraint k. fn the
$l\rne way, 6/ 11 will indicate th('. displacement alotlg tlle direction
Ilf conslrlliut i caused by the applied loads.
Let us indicate by X k the magnitude of the reaction developed by
the constraint k (lhis rl'acliOl\ being eilll~r a moment or a direct
strcs!;). At the slime time let liS designate by 6 a the ui~placelllent
(;au~ed hy a unit action. In that case we can l'eplace 6 1h by X~611l
and the expression (2.9) will becomlJ
61 =X I 6,1 +X:6j~+ ... +Xn- t 6i,n_t +X"OI" +.1./ p =O (3,9)
In this WAy the eqrlival~Jtce of the original ~tl'l)ctl1l"e and of tile
simple slatir,nlLy deLermillate one will be mathematically inter-
prcwd by a system o[ n linear equations

"
/ X,OIl
MOin" x , .
/ , ./
~ ~z3T?
" / ':<"8 :,,,/ t./P"'O
~. /~ .... 1
//
diugonal /.........
,
~,Ot,+
" ,"
':<z8zz
,
,.
/

,':,+xnll~ .. t.1.p"O
/
/

/,.
+ ... (4.9)
" ,. "'y/ ,
,." , //
'
.;/ /
/,,/
/
;' ....
,X/lint + .X2 0n t + .. / ...... Xn 8Qt1 .. .Il np .O
<Secondorf~dirlganal/ " ' ..........

Equations (4.9) constitute the additional expressions based 011

the deformations of tIle system which permH complete determina-
tion of all the support reactioDs IlDd of all the stresses induced by
 2.9. C..nonk<ll EqlJo.lIolU D~dllt:~d h /.At Mt:lluld of forUJ 391

the giv['n system of loads in the original redundant structure. The

first of these equation!! I'Xpresse.s the idea that the displacl!Ulen~ of
the simple structure alollg the direction of the first eliminnted coo-
l!!traillt (that is along the direction of force or moment X,) is aqua!
to zertl. the second, thlll the di$plaecment of this same s~ruc.turo
along the direction of the sooond constraint which has boon re-
mOYl:!ll is also equal to U"ro. and so forth.
The- system of simultllnoou5 linear expressions surh a'l (4.9) form
thl'l socallcd canollicaJ equations ot the m~thod ot torc~s. lhi~ name
indicating Hun thcse equations are of standard form ono that tile
unkllowlL~ nre the fi'<lclivo forces doveloped by the uliminlllcd
constraint.s. The number of those oquations is alwaYfI oqulll to the
llllmht'r of the ('onstraints tCmoved, wllich means that it corresponds
to the o.egl'C'C of reduntiancy of the given strllcture. It is importllllt
to no!.l' that both tht) /lumber of term., ill cadl of the SCpllfllte
equlltions ftud the tolnl numoor of these equations deptlud 1'101(1)'
on the degree of rodundalll"}' of tbe structure and are ill no respoct
inOllenced by any of its other pec.uliariti!:s.
Th" coefficients to tlte unkllcwns of equation!: (oi.9) rcprcS('nt
the dl'neclions of the simple structure obtained by elimination of
the redundant membens. tllese deOectioDs bfling dllo to unit loads
and mOmt>ots acting along the direction of the eliminated con-
strl1ints. .:\umerically tho values of these coefficients def":nd On Lhe
layout of the structure and UII tbe cross-s:tional t1imcn1'lion~ of
its IllC'mbors. Should these members be mado of different mall'rials,
Lhose rocfrIciollts will also dept.llld 011 tlte elastic prol~rlic,~ o[ the
.llllt(ol'.
Thu.." coefficient B1h enleriug the above equations will represent
tllll !If.on"ctioll along the direction i induced by a unit actioll (moment
or 101'ld) aeting nlong the direction k. 'flte unit dispJaCCllll!nt 6"
s.ituatcd in the main diagonal of the canOnical equations /lnd char-
aclerizC'd by two hlenticnl indices will be termed hC'roafter prin-
cJpal tkjlecltOIl whereas the d('nections such as 6 jh standing in the
secondary diagonals of the aforesaid equatiollS will be lermed ~
cl1ldary rkjle&tiOtl$. On the basis of f!.Iaxwell's theorem of reciprocal
displaeC'ments. the secondArY deIJections situated symmetricallr
about t.he main diagenal will J)C always equal between themselves
6t.. =6...1-

It mould be tenlo,nllt:red that the dimensionality of a unit deflection ls that
o( I "U<;J of a denection 10 the action which bu caulil!d it. Conscquenll)', a unit
translation dUll to a concllItralcd load will be glyen in CHllkg wlllle that due tu
unit couple in cm/kgem or in kg-I, In tbe.5&.llle way a unit :m~IBr rotation duI.'
'to a unit load will De givoll in kg- l and an angulnr rotation due to unit coupll"
in kgem- I,
 This reduces considerably the volume I,f work lLl:lcessary to detl'r-
Illinf!. !]Ie c_oeffldenti> to the unknowns. These are usually ohtained
by computing the deflections of the sirllple structure p('(ldUCl'd by
lInit actions applied along tlte directiolls uf the elimillatcd con-
1:>traints.lt is recommended to carry out these c.omputations using
the pl'Oc,cdures dcveloped in the prcccdinJ,t chapter.
The diagrams of bending moments indllced in the conjugate
simpllJ structure by each of the unit actions (Xi = 1) will be
traced separately, each of thellc graphs bearing the llumlwr of the
eliminated constraints, the samC applying to tll!' actual loading
(the M l , graph).
Till' ulIit deflections 6 11l_ will be obtained thr'ough the TIlnlt.ipJi.
cation of the corresponding unit grapfl M! by the unit gnqJh M It
whereas the deflection due to tile applied loads ~IP throllgh tilo
mulliplieatioll of the unit grnph M'! by the graph ol the act_lIllf
bending momont Mp.'"
The "win or principal ckftections will be always positiut' whils/'
the S(\condary OJl~S as well as t]IOSC due to the applied loads might
bl' both j)()sitivl1 and negative. When ~II tllo coefficients to 1.11(' lllJ-
1000WlIS E:Jltering the systom of simultoncous eqllation~ (unit llis-
p]{H:elllcnts) as well as tIle deflections cluE: l,{) the applied loads are
known. onc may proocer[ with the solutioll o[ the snid equations.
Tile routs of thc~ equations wiII furnish t.he values of the unknown
stresses <lcting ill the redundant memhers, These will permit !.he
c-Onstflu:tiQll of the bending moment diagr'arns induced by XI>
X~, ... , ;e, ete" in all the necessary mllmbe~ of the stmc-
tUl'(lo r't is eOllvlmient 1.0 use for this pllrJlIIso the nuit g(oa.phs tracod
pfi.lviouslr. The operation consists in the multiplkntion of all
the orctinall's to cach of these graphs by 1\ constaut fllctor equnl
to the magnitude of the action just oblained. The pertinent ordi
\lotes 10 the diagram of the htcluding moments acting in the ('('dun-
d;1I1t strul'turo wilt be obtained through thl'_ sUlllmation of the ordi-
nates to tllo graphs illdul'cd by the stn)sSt's X and by tllo /H:lllal
luading in tllC IIrorulJl('ntiolled simple statically dctcfHliuate strllc-
f,lll'C.
The saJJW result will be achieved if tJI(' ,,;imple stnl{'tufC: obtai/led
by eliminal.illll' nU the rcduucJallt members W(lrc subjl~ct.ed Silllu(-
talll'Ollsly to lhl' applied loads and to all till' stl'C5,!j(.'S acting in the
e1imiuatcd members dctC-rlllined as dc&;rioo,] above.
The bn"dillg 1lI0lllCnl graph due to the coulbination of aJJ t1IC.sC
ncdom, may be l;ollstructed using any of the well-known procedures.
+
~'or simplicity we have lwglected t1w inUuenco of nonna! and ~hearing
forcl)s. J fl were 11e.~jrc<l to account for Lbose, onc should (race the c.orrcsponding
dilllfrllrns m,d cumpllte tIll' corrcspullrling produCls.
 2.9. C.uuJtlftlll &qufl.tlll"~ J)~dlt.ttd by tht> Mdhod of Furru 393

It is worth noting that se\"crnl different simple :.lructlll"CS may

be used for the computation of the samc redundant "'trlletuN.'. those
different structures being obtained hy thc elimination of difrort"nt
members regarded as redundant. Jt i'l very iUlportant UI dlOOse
the one (<lading to the grcatl:St possible simplifl(:ation or the com-
pllttltiOIl through the reduction to 7.ero of a maximum nlllllber of
secondary defloctions. OIIC should also cndcvour tu oLlniu hendinl.!
moment graphs of the simple!:t Ilossible cOllflguraUon fur the lIlCIn-
bers o[ the simple slructure.
To make clear the "hove statement. let us tnkll as IUl l,lXAtnplll

'{, .',
tile portlll frame :ll1pell.ring in f'ig, 9.9a And It:t us eXAmino the \'ur-
iou!'; sim'ple strllctUl'e~ which mllY ho derived thererl'OlIl. To hcgin

lIedulldqnt Simple
.rtnJ(;tllrl strvctUr?

(QJ -, Ib>
Y ,, ""

Ic)
FIt:. 9.9

with let us elilllillo.te the three cnnstlninl.s which prevent ltot.ll tile
horizonlftl and the vllrtir,al movemonls find tho angular l'Otatioll
of tho lower IlKtrolllity of the loft-hand COl!UUll. The simple .~Lrllc
lure ubtaillod ill thuL casu appears in Fig. 9.9b. Tho I1nklluwlIs
X I' X ~ Rrld X ~ will roP~CJlt the reactions developed by tho l,llimi-
lIated constraint., and tlte simultaneous equations will express llw
idell thnt the dcllcctions and rotatiollS along the directions thl< or
eliminaled constraints remain nil.
Let \IS choose another way uf I'Cndcring the redundant structures
sltltically determinate, namely, by cuttiug ill two the top !Jar itS
indicated in Fig. 9.9t'. This is equinlcnt to tho elimillalion or
thn!tJ cOllstraint!i preventillg mutual displacement of the two laces
or UIO crossbar situated to the right and to thtl left of the cut.
Hence, each of the unknown:; XI' Xl and X~ will repre.~lIt ill
this care a group of two opposite forces or coupltlS actin!: UVl;\f I-Ill.'
two cro~s ;;ec\iOIlS just mentioned.
A'i 10 the systern of canonical equRtions. it will always r(lm:lin
of the same form regArdless of Lhe way in wlrich the simple stati-
colly dett'rmillat.e structure has ~~11 uL1lI.incd.
 In the first of the two cases considered abo\-e these t:quatioll.S
would expross t.he idea that the 1lI0VCIlll.mts of the lower cnd of
the left-hand column remain nil. In the l!~olld case the salne equa-
tions would mean lhll~ the t'l\"O adjacent sections ~hrougb the cross-
bar remain motionless with reference to each otller. However.
these equalions du lIot exclude the possibility of tho two sections
moving or rotating together.
Tn the case of the simple l;tructure of Fig. 9.9b tile coofficient
6 12 represent.'! tho horizontal motion of the lower end of the left
COIIlHUI ('.nused by the vertical unit load X z = 1. As for the ~iml)lc
1l1rlldum of }<'ig. 9.9c. the (',ocfllcient 6 12 represent,s Illt.eralioll of
till) vertic.al distanctl betwoon two Qdjnc~nt cross JS('ctions of the
top "oall! induced by two horizontal unit Iorce'i Kz = 1.

3.9. !\N,\LYSIS OF THE SnlPLEn REDUNDANT STRUCTUHES

Ll.lt liS examine the sequence o( operation.'! lea..ting to the dett'r-
millotioJl uf all stresses in reduudant structuf\'s takinq as an exam-
pl~ a beam buil~ in at one e.nd aud freely supported ~t th~ other
Wig. 1O.9a). The simple statically d~termil\ate Slttlchlf'C cau be

J~ri"ed from the above by llliminating the right-haud support thus

obtaining the beam appearing ill Fig. 10.9b. A single constraint
hllS to be t'!liminated for this porpollC (that correspondinl: to 8. roller
support) aud therefore the gin:ll struct.u~ is statically indetermi-
nate in the fir.;t degree. Apply now the unknown reaction X. to the
cantile,'er beam a1. its free end together with the uniform 'Ioad oC
q kg per unit length as sbown in Fig. 10.9b. The equation. express-
ing tbat the deflections of the simple statically determinate .strllC-
ture and those oC tile given redundant beam am identical. bocomcs
X1t'ill+.lI'l-O (5.!})
More precisely this equation shows that the deflection a}Gng the
direction of the eliminated reaction is nil. The determination of
 .1.9. .4~"'/l'i' ~I rh<- Sim"l~r Htdu"dilnl Slruct"r., 395

X t require!:' t.hat tlle values of the coefficient Oil antI (If thu tel'lll
:"\1<1 should be previously calculnted, tlte flr~t of the two repre-
senting the defiecLion of the right-hand extnlmity of the cantilever
beam along the reaction Xl caused by a unit load acting in the
same direction (Fig. 10.!;Ic), flnd the secoud-l.hl' dcnection alollg
the slime direction due to the loads applied. The c,oClffJcient 6 u

Fie. 11.9 Fig. 129

will be found raising to the second powel' the unit !>cuding moment
graph M, (Fig, 10,9c). As for the term .1 IQ it will be obtainod hy
multiplying the area of the sallle unit bending moment graph ,l1,
by the Mq diagram due to the actual loading (Fig. to.gd).
H('nce
l 2 l /3
bit -l'-r'"3' EJ = 3eJ
lql231 ql~
~tq= -11'-2-,1.:[, ISJ = -MU

Suhslituting tbe~e values in equation (.'),9) and solyiJlg thi~ l'qulI-

tiou with respect to XI wo obtailJ
.1.'<1 3
X l = --O;;=gql
Thu diagram of the resulting bending moments acting at tho
cross sections of the given redundant beam will be found sUlllfning
up the ordinates to the M q (Fig. 10.9d) graph with tho:le to the .fi 1
graph all the ordinates to which have been previousty multiplied
by tll(l magnitude of Xl (Fig. 11.9), The diagrarn so obtained i'lj)-
pears in Fig. 12.9. Thus the ordinate to the resulting bcndi ng llIom('nt
Cllrvll will equal
at midspan
- 3 q/2 q/2
.41 = M1X l + Mq=1ijql2_T=""T6
aud at the wall
- 3 ql2 qlt
M='utXI+Mq=sQlt-T= - 8
aHl) At/(Ell/t/" "/ ,hi! Simpler SI~fitall!J {lldclcrmillale StrUclu.re.'

The maximum and minimum values of the resulting hending

mumcnts can be easily uerivcll from tho diagram (lf the resulting'
~llCars Q lor, as it is well known, the 'l.em ordinnte points of this
dillgr'arrl always correspund to the cx~remnl \'nlues o[ the bending
mornents.
This samo bmull (Figs. 1O.9a- and 13.9a) could be analyzed using
for simple static.ally ttetermillate structUl'C the olle obtained clim-
hinting tile constraint whir.h prevents the rotation o( the buiH-
in elld. The simlllc cnd-supported beam obtainod In Lhis way ap~
pears ill to'ig. 13.9b. The grnph of the bending mOTllent~ produced in

re} 0
,0>
IJir..! H", Ij illl'''l

rO} ~
'" Fig. 13,9

tbio; Ill'W syskm by a \Iuit t'ouple acting' aGtOf;,':l the sectloll at the
wall Uppl'/l."S in ~~ill'. 13.9c, whiLe tlte graph of the bonding lllomcnLs
dlle tu tho afl~lied ,loads is given in Fig. I::t~ld.
Haising to the scGond power tile orea or
Lhe ,111 graph we ob~l\irl
1 2 I
6 11 = t.l 7 -3E7 '-'0 MJ
1hJI~iplyjrlg till' SlIme gUlph by the ar(><l of tht" .ilfq one we g()~
ql2 2 I qt~
jlq=Sl-"r 21:J ~ 2',eJ
Thu iutrodudiOIl or these values ill {'xpri'SSlOn (5.0) gi\'l!.'!
01'1 ql1
X'=-~"----T
 .'.9. Analllll, al tM .'ilmpl~r Htd.. fIdalll Slruduu, 397

This shows that the simple static:\lIy determinate system ill acl.cll
"IJUIl iJy a moment XI = - '1:
applied to the left enll ltr the beam
lIIul by a unifornlly distriLllled l(){ld of q kg per mtltru (Fil:. 13.!k).
TIle no:"lllting bending OIomellt diagrftm induced ill the ~iml)le
slructure JI}' tha5(} two actions will f'Cllrusen\ the beuding lllumcIlt
diagrnm for the gh'en rtlduntlant st-ntcturo (Fig. 13.9/). It is readily
R'I'1I that lhis diagram coiucidcs ('.tactty with t.hat of fig. 12.9
ohtained previously llsing n diftcrelll simpltl struc~ure (st'c .~ig.10.9b).
Thr 111)(we oxample llhows Lhat the fl/lIowing sequonco of opl'ra-
ljon.~ may be cOIl\'tlnie_lltly adopted for Lilt' :<lreSf; Rnalysis of i't.'dUII-
d:lIlL structures by the mtlthod of forCtlS;
1. Choose a simple statically dCU)TIllillaw strud.urO oblaillCld
IJy eliminating all the redUlldallt cOllstrainlf; of the gj\'clI one.
2. Beplace lhc eliminllwll constraints Ly Illlknown forces adillg
in ,ll{> slime direction.
:-S. Form t.he c:l.llonical equations (4..9) expres!'ing that the displace-
1lIl'O~ of the simple structure alnng- the llireetions of the c1imi
IHlI.tld constraints under the combined action of th~ 1000ds applied
:11111 of the unklLown moments and fOl''5 replacing tbC!lle cOllstrainls
un' equal to zero.
4. Apply sucrcssh'",ly 10 the simple strtlcture the Illlit. actions
Xl -: 1. X~ = 1. X 3 = 1. . . . , X.. = I and trace the diagram~
(or the correspoudillg Lcndinf: moments !If/. Traoo equally too dia-
g.. ~m o( the bcndi,,~ moments ill" duc to th", applied loads.
.;. Calcltlatc 1111 tILl' cllerikients 61~ to the IlllknoWIl.., muhiplying
onc IJY the other the IIllit J:traphs lIIentioned in ilem 4.
~;. Cllkldal:e by tile llillllll pmccdU!"ll till;! free terms :1/1" Fur Illis
PIl!"[)USl\ tILe unit J:trapll..~ must be multiplied by tho Mp grnph dllIJ
10 L!w applied loads.
7. 50lvo the syslem of sirnulLaneolls llquillions with refl'l'cllC(l W
tl... unkuowlI action!!! XI' X~ . ... , X ...
X. Compule the OroiIlKt.e.'i to lhe re.sullillg lJending momont C'lrve
lly summing up the ordinates to the uniL graphs illultiplied lire-
viutlsly by the mll~nitltdo o( t.he corl"e>;ponlling acUoll u with the
onlinlltes to the bending mOlnent curve due w the actual loading.
0110 may Also apply to the simrle sI4tkally dell'rmill.\w slruc
ture all the redundant f'ClIcliOIlS l'lld stresses just dctl!rmilted lUb't'th~
+
-All the above r('ler~ t.<1 structure!. deformations of which rem"in l,r~li
c/llly nnafl"eded by dir('C.t :lod m,ltring force-. If it on'... e othl)l"'ll"ik'. it1t'<mld ha
11l'C('lO!Illry to trace <'fIually the dilgratlU for the shear! :tnd nunual st.tl'!!:!CS duo
both to the IIni~ nctJons till and NI) and to the nPl'lied Icwd, lQp nud Nil"
It i! ~tr<Jngly lIdvl!!'ll W ~rlle() new oon,liltg mvment dipgrnuHI ;lllluc{'d I,y
the rN!lmd"nl rmll,t1oo! and not to IIlter tho lIl;:lh.. o( tllu "/lit grallhs ll'ilCl){]
IU'N'!cusJ.v, for the- Jatl-e. procedure is U S<"lurcc of frequcnt errors.
 or with the actual lollds. traciJlg thereafter the combined bending
II\UIlll'Hl diagram. This diagram will cuindde wiU~ that of the
gb'clI redundant I"tructure.
LC't liS proceed now with tbe solution of a few probloms.
Problem I. Trace the hendiDg moment diagram lor Ibe porl.1 frallle of
Fig. 14.94. ThE' ruoment "f Inllrtia of the el'OS-~lIJ\ 1$ t1lrice as large O! lliat 01
Ihl' uprlguts.
SolutJ/nt. The portal 'rame uJll!l'r cOI1!ideruion being redUlI!bnt to lhe fi~
riegl't'e. the !imp1e statitally dNtmlin'~ ~rnt.t.ure may be obtained elinllnallng
tllC hl.rimn"1 conJ<uaint at the rigM-bllnd 5lIpport i Fig. 14.9h).

flf'IIoJl/lb1 ~lmp/r
Itr1.Ifl/H't'::: 'u"iter.....
4. J,", 'li
;---L.j
(a) (6,

Fig. 14.9 Ftg.13.9

Tile bending moment graphs dU(lI-o the applied In~lh and 1(1 a lITlit lOAd acting
/llolllllhe dlrt'cliul1 of the llliminatcrl tonstrllint;llaVQ l>(>eIl give." in ~ig. 29.8b
ilnr! (" "f Art. 9.8. The equation ('xpre!isinR lhllt ,he horizontal dent'ttiou !Jl lhe
lllwer ')Ild of Ihe silnple mrudure b nil becomes
X,6 11 +4 Ip _O
Th<> coefflcienl 6 11 ""ill be given by
ill') I 'Hlh i1!
6 n =2 2 .:; i1. Ell "2/, = UE/ (,"+300)
I
"IM- de'lIlloll d~ \0 ,~ Ilpplil"d load has been comp..tf'd In l'rohlem 2
of Art. 9.8

);1---,--...,..

" -
P ~ll'

Till.' r"!luhillg J,.mrlilLg ffllJln'nt graph will be ohlllinl"d by mllltiJlI)jng /Ill

11J(' ol'dillal.('~ 10 IhPc ullit graph b)- f Illll by Adding them thel't'II!t('r to tb<> ordi

.r_r.
MiC! to lh(' bl.'nding motlll'lIl diagram due to
in Fig. 15.9.
th~ Ilpplil'd l(>lld~. Ttlisgr",.h ap-

~ Prnbl('1Il 2. Trato th' bending mQmenl dhrgram for the rl.dlllldallt 'kIlOIl frllml'
repl"l''''-'lIled in Fig. 16.9a.
 SolllltDn. This Mructurf> i~ staticlllly lndlltlrwinole 10 tbE- MeOntl dC(Tr.t>_
Let ll! cHlllinate tile constraints lit tile lower ~IPport obtaining th(>l"Cloy tlHo sin.-

- -I'

"" '/<!i.l.. .="~ ';""~"

J l.-r-,.N,,"" tr4. f",-r

1
(;/i
, "
FIr:. 16.9

pIe "llllk./llly delt:nnlnlle litruttu~_ of Fili" Itl.9b_ Tho corre~ponding S)''''I.f'D')

of equation'" (-'_VI bP.tOmt'S
XI61l+X~lt+4Iq-O

XI6t,+X*=:+4J/2-0
The gtaph! af th. !lendini moments induced by unit loads Klin&: .Iong
the eliminated tonjtr-.iuts Q .... ell il.! by the loads .pplitd .ppe.ar in fIg_ ti.9.

, , ,," ~"t

rJ'
11J"
~
, ,11 Ir

";:, @' .~
'-'
, S
(: i

Fie. 17.9

Tile eoelfic:il'nl b u will b." ohlained raising \0 the second po..-er the MI gralll.

611 - ET '("%2
T';rll+/z%" )'" -w-
Ti,e c<lefticil'llt 6.: it g,'-oll hy tht' product 01 Ule iV I anJ .IT: 1'1".1'1\1
I .. 1I~
bll-6:1=~ tJ "-<t"T--ZEJ

Ihislng ID 11t(> MComl power the jii! graph, wc obtain

II~ 2 1,3
6:a-J:;J "2-'3 11 -3J
4011 AII"lv,f, 0/ f1t~ S'lftl'kr SI"Ue"Uy IlIdettrminwle $irweil.lrt'

'rho fr. U'rms 01 both t'quatinns..-iIl ~ obtaine..l mulliv1yillg Lilo if,

."Id ~ Mz craph~ by the M q grAph.

41,,= r.J
, (qDZ 11
2':\'T"+T d 'Q -SET
~ qAZ ) Sq._
t '1"12" qlf~
6:q- -V'T'0""i--7;j[]"
InLrodncing the ,'a]u():! 50 obtaillcd into LIlI! ~ystl'm of equaUOlls nnd Jh'idini
I\(lLh of theS(' equations by ISJ
", \','<.J ohta in
4. I r.
T '~I-:r X~+1i qo_1I

I X I. I 0
-l" '+3'\~-Tqa-
The 50Iuliun 01 these t.wo tqUAlion, yil'ld,
3 3
X, __ ,-qlf: X z ... 28 q..
III ord.'r 10 obla;n thl' bend;nil' 1lI00lU.'nl diagram for lhe /'('dUlldNlOL !lrurlur"
apllly !;lllullIOlloously I.<J lho slrnpl{' KL;lt.iclltly dehllm;\llltc "Ill' bolh lhl' actud
loads all(l lh~ nnkullwn r"llr.tl"n.~ just dl'wnnined. H"Hrtinlt X, m\l~t ht, ,Iil,t>t:,tcd

8 1/
C
q " 1/

f f
.- p p

-I'" he-a R....rv-'tir;r.l

./""ct~1'
1I
I
fa> + fl
=-1
J
fig. UJ.9 FI:;. J9f~

lo.....ards thll Jell.. its valull heing negalivu (Fill', 1~.9u). '1'101' exprt:!~i"'lI~ of lilt'
h()ndi1>~ IllomelllS ncUng In ",ri, memhcr "f tI".
~In,cture win he obla;Il",llI.s 11"11-
1'1 COll~Hlcring th(' lower cnLl or the column ll! its Icrt-h::>Iull'.l:tr't'ulILy lIn,1 ... "rking
thi~ l'nd with tin ltsl..... i~l(.
Surr.o" {.{
.lJ
l.s ,zf
-"7qu1-.,-
for I ..... O :'11 1 "'0
rorzl~2 1
.\1 ~TqnT-T-
3 ",,,z5
56 q"Z
1 3 qn l quI
lurzj=" M -Tq~II-2--lT
 H..9. Aflallfl'i; of thr S;mpl~r R~d,md(flJl Slrurt"u~

Tbe lIl&'>':lllJUm va{ul' of 1H Z \\ill be fount! I'<.luating tu 7.NO I_Itu first. ;!CTl\
a1i.p {.f Ill.. "ho.,!' eXf>,..,s~iOll \\ilh Tofcrl'nce to zl

S~r!iOIl lI-lI
11 3 3 902
M .... :l8' qdzz+T q"~-T

\/If _ _ ~
.
If 3
" 3 qat qat
.11 = 2llq~"+Tqll~-2=28

'l"h(' rC"lllting honding moment graph for the rcdlllldnnt strucLure is shown
in Fi!:. IS.Ob.

l'rohlelu 3. Tntr-t' Iht' bt''l<1ing mmllcnt diaRTam for the p\,rta! fr,une 1,1
Fig. 19.1J.
S"/" tin". Tltis Sln'clur.. i, r'I'llundanl to the thil,1 ,ICgl"'l'. I,~t us r.olUlfnl\' Ihe
tlll'l'\.' ~iIllJllt' ~lalic.(lllr dekrlllinatl> StfllrlUI'CS shown in fig. 20.9 wil.h a view "f

ehu(~,iug nor onc which will {'('duce to a millimum the-- amounl "f C(JIuputation.
Frolll Ihis Vie--W-Pllillt ptdNC"C~ SllOUld IJ(> ~iI'en l(I sy(llme--trical systcms. for
ill that case it I"",omus possible-- to ~ace umt bendiug Illoment graplJs "nd to
"om pule lheir pJ~,ducls only for one half of th(' structufC.
011 thusc grOlJlld~ tho simple struc_turo apJ)(!nrillg in fig. 20.!llJ sh"uJel ],('
rdl,elt-d fOrlhwllh. n"eh strllC_I_llrc~ of Fig. 20.!lb llnd ~ are syllln>l'trir.i,1 hut it
will b(, 1'~5i"J' to trae(! all Iho ncc"s-o.:J,rr he--udiJlg mOl1lcnl !raphs for till' orl<: appl'Rr-
inK In fig. 20.9~. Hence-- our choice will faU on the alter. The-- c,(>.-respond'ng
helJ(lill~ mnl1lellt graphs are l"('presentcd in Fig. 21.9.

26-8~J
 Li't u!' form th. NlUUiUIIS uprC':JSi,.g thu llll,l mutual ,li!fplaC"1'1Itf'1l1" \,If lhf!
two I...n-. of 11l1' tru!<'!bl.'l111l un holh sid ... ~ (,r the 1',,1 Iln' ml.

Xl"JI"t'".\'r'Jl:~ Xj),~ A1/,-O

X,l1~1 '-.\'21)2~-1 .\.,b~~ LI.~I'"",'J
XIO.1r-X:O~-}(J"I~~,-.1,l/J .~(l

lk>i",e l,.."IIl". .
,_1",.\1,1 Il(l,
....,dill g wlih th... CU'''I'"lallull ,,' ,,11 lit", coclf,(i"",,,, alllllllioll
I" tl,,- fact UU'lllllll", """I,h, c"n Ill' ""bdi\'uJcd ;111" ~}'III11"'t
rit;al (>ue" {M, ~,rnIAhl :lut! lluLi!'}'ltlllt... Lrit:nl un~ lXf~ a",1 M~I. The urdi-
1131.... I" IJ~ I,.(t-Iumrl and to llll' riahkhallll hlllw'!' of Ill(' I"n.:, :t"':l equal ill
a""'''1I1 '1I1L "III"",I\.(' il' ~jlln, hl'iug silulItNl "H dlll"... nlll ,j,lt"" or tb., C:I'r'~llOlld~
iug nl"lUl~ l,f Ihl' lJourul {".,Oll'. H "lOll II(' l'uil)' Ilru\N! that'" flit' dr(if'CIIII".

Fit. 21.9

CQ!II1'~lrd mulli{'lvl'll: $iI"'"'~lt'ic,,1 t:m{'fl.~ by 'InU~ynll"drlr~l 0"",0 11'/11 I'f nl-

,&IIy,lIl1. ~'"r lhi~ r";I~lIn allI"II"..... ;,,!> ,kn~~>ti"l> nl'''~nring ill till.' nll'w,< "'1IW-
tinH" will r~,lu(e t .. Z""U
012. 6z1'O,. ba:! .11,< "lit.! .lJI'
Con'"'lu('1ttly. till' cqUil~i'"L~ thl-'f1I,;'h'cs llKOlll\'
XI6 11 -' XJlI~-"
X."'JI-Xh ,11
'Y~1!-' .llr.~1l

Ill" fltllL 1\\0 leading inulletlil<lely Iv

XJ-n :lilt! X; ~O

"'''11(0' ,,'e nHd ulculJlte OILly 'lie d(lnl'Clifll'~ .1:/. amI ~

21'111 ", Phi"
,\:,,--'" ~~. 7' ',j ~-7T

lilt)
 G/'h~
X~_ Il(II+(,n
"'

Th(' limllllillgl"llm <:11 tl", lM'nding momenl! Aclill in U,I' rcdundont ~bllf'lurl'
mo)' be Ilmv ohtained Olllltiplyillg Ih" ordinal..,; 10 IIll! M~ graph 1,y U,e nlo(:.Ju-
tude of X ~ and ~.mill'K thl'lII up ...jtb the onli""l" to thl' /of,. llrllpb duo tu the
actual loading. TI.'s 1~lldin!l ftlOluent ,hagrllUl b rt'IJrt'~nled in Fie. 22.\1.

J'n,llll'm Il. ONenllim.' 11<., ll,r\lot d(\'II"I~" 1.1 11,, Ilhulm('nl'l of Ihl' i ......
loilll):1'11 i1nh IIJlpl:'llth,1l' III rig. 23.9(1, The ll(>ulrl,llill(' of t.!oi, an:h [OIlO\\.o.1l 1)1l1'~
holJr ('IUTl,l gin'" liy

The ria' of \.bi. orr" i~ 1<'''5 Ih,," "Ill' Mtll ,,( 11 ... sp.', lI,ut the .stiflie'lSl! uf '!J< C"'l'-.-'1
!:iIlCliOll'l ",'DUll"! rOnl'lnllt alln
l'<Jual III t'J.
1'ol",'lon. I.A:!I oS rt'gani .~redundant the 1."'llon"'l C""I'I'!1l'fl~ (thm$!.) u(
th" ""Il(liull cl"'-eloperl at tl,e [e(HuII,,1 !UI'I)urt ,fiR. 23.1'-"). TI,i>; Il'IIds to
Xj 6 1l +4,,._0 (G.~I)
SCI'ihi,:thal tl,.. 1I1'Hlralli,,(, "I thl' ~n;h i. n ('ur\"(', Vel(,J!;hrhaRIlI'~ llHltlwd 1,(,-
t()1I1'~~ ;1l<I!>l'rativ" ll11ft tlwrrf"Fl' ~1"'hr'8 iUh'!Il'alg will hllve to IJ<~ cflml"Il<',1
nJlal)tirlllly. t'or nal al'ches rhi~ r"(,hh./I1 j~ ,lot ve''Y Cflllll,liull:d fur ",ilhollt
I'PI'rc<:illhh' l'tr<lr d. mar Iw I'l'placed by d.r an,l Co,! If' 1Il1l)' he l4ik..1l ('(Ilia! Ul t.

:y
,
3PIr'Z. j IiII11 I1111 Ill!!l illlllllr q
o_6/J , ,

~
p ' ------L--r
1
:r.::;" , '
--:------- '
_.'"',L x_
, .
_.l--+.-_1._-f
,: l. (0/ 2. ,I
X, ~:
_~:-~~~
, ;
,
--....
'
tbJ
-

FiR. 22. !J 1'1. 29. 9

rhl' illlo1;...,tion ..... i11 hi' clHtied out htl,"......" 7: ~ U /lnd :f' = t. 'J'hl,1llngle 'P jll~~
,ncflljonl'd i" tile angle fonnl'(l bJ Ihl' tallgl.'nl to thl' Iltlllral !lnt' anti the
.r-8."i,. n .!hfl1l1d 110 l'E'lnE'UlI..-n-.1 Ih"t U\Mmfll :!tl'l'''"l'''' mu~t be laktn inlo c<ln!t!t.,...
ntion ....1u.. c-omputl"i Ihe hndxollllll di;qJlncf'lllf'llt of flltt al"l;h1ll! due 10 hnri-
7.ontal loaf1'l. Hence lht cntfClcll'nt 6 11 "'ilI ht elt.kullltcd Ir"illg "be t:Jllf~ill"
 .....her...

and

Ileplacing.u b)' dr and puttlnll: tosq._1 we obtalll

The displaetlll... nt dt,. due 10 verlical lood~ "'Ill h<l dHennined 11.~1"1l tloe
fonnula
Xi 1.Il,. d.
<'J

" hel'\'
qL .t.2 IJ:
M!'-.2 Z-9T-'1;r(l-:r)

Th;, J~d! to

, ,
X ~ (1_..,)2..,2,].., .... -I~~'J ~ (12.r~_21x3-;-,rI),I.l:_
2qf ( /3 . I~ l~ ) 'iI/3
--7fi[J IIT- 21 T+T =-151
The )<)llllion of equation (6.:1) yieJ,ls immt.'(Ij"I..ly II,e \'.hw of the tleslll',j
tholSt X,

.t, ",
8f +T15 ,y
J

1 Ptolll"m 5. 1\t'(luired the ~'tl.'~~S in /Il1ltu, dell~uls ',f thl.' (rllm<'d Hruclure
;"p}M'arillg in File, 2<S,901. All the members of Ihi~ str"('_t,,~ are u( the 50Ilue Cf0$5
SIll:lioo. DlInS and li 1111"0 no COln!lklll hinge at midltnglh.
SoIl.. I'''''' Siocc I],.. ~ruelure is redundant tu 11'1" f,ut dl1ttet! _ 11111)' oht:un
lite simple !'latieall)' dtt.enninatt' or.e by tunin.':" diagQltal G {Fig. 2'i.9bl. The
("urnsllUudilllf l"quUlon will be or 1100 Sllltldard form
 3.9. ,jr,.lv,11 of 111<: $impkr HtduntirH1t Strutlunl

The- ,!"nectll.tl!I "u anJ :11 p may !K. obt:llnt'fJ lI.!'lIljt tho e.xpre.iIlDS 'leYt'lojX'J
pl1'v;'lIl~ly for through ~lt"f!llln...

, ~. 1\;1
11 .... -
t
-r:iT - f:'F -",
... ifI',
li,N,,1 I _
~1""'!~-7!T~.\'I_\/>1

111 th ..!t' I':Iprt'~~I(l1\li X/ "n.' th ... ~tl'C)*!1 indul:t:!<1 in LJl ... tlilf~rent bllr~ h)' th~
llnil l!)lu[ X, ~ I. :lnd _'I',. are the 5~re~"t'.!' dllt' v. 11ll' oPlllied 10a,ls.

(0) I<t~f.JnJ'i1,1 'lmNu~ (IJ)S"'IP('~,I'lrtld'ln'

\--+
r
p

J'' '<,---;;.-"!

All thl' D('f"~'rr ul('l1l/1li{oJt.~ .~ rh'l'n in T.bl... 1.11. Tho e<>llInlll ....bil:oh
<.I"'t1ld DDrmall)' f:Ont.ill 110(' l'n,)c"",,>,Uonal arYlS of 1111 tho bars bu he"lI o,"it-
le,1. thesc IIrea!': rl'IU.ininr ('onsl... nl throu,h(lul lhe ...truet,!",.
TlIlJlt ).9

lwr:"io .1,
, I
I'
P, ,
1
-172 -1/2 T
, " -Vi
I
P
-1/2
p,
T"
, -Vi
I
0
"P. T

,
1 -Vi! j>
-1/2 7
, 4)12 -P~ -lPg -Vi
, -V1
I
I 0 0 '1/2
---
I'.
1"1:,1 --(3+2 ViJ (2+2 V2)-
1/2
 Using Ihe dllt;:, contaill('{J III till' Il],OVC lllhll' w.... rnay easily COU11Iut-e_ the
v:,hlcs uf ~\,,, and 011

Stn.'~S<!g in 1111 the dlffofeul lJlcml){'rs 01 th' givCll ~If" ....tur(> will 00 r~adil)
ulotai,uKl ..n
ll~illg e~J'r<-,ssi

NI~Nlr,+2i{IXl
. 'nC' fl.rl>t tl'rHl of llll' rJ~hl_.hand part of 'his .ol"llrc~~;on r<'llI'('~nts 11,t> stte_,s
lllllucc,l III 11,1) eorrespoudlllg metnlJcr "I the ~llllldf) structure by ti,e alll'lted
loads. :UIIJ the !;cc.QIIII the stlW~ in.lul'CfI in thc sallle member t>y the- nmnihll "I
lhe l'l.",l""d""t cuMt .. a;nl.. 'M,is ll~ !lro..~.~i"'l e"nstil.lJk~ lhus OllC' or the 1l1'IJlicati",,~
of I]", p,incilllu of sUI'C!I'posili"" Fur I",, 2. lhl! tolal strc....~ will '>llunl

I'rohlcrn 6. Ill"quired ~lol' slresS('s ill a tnl~11 bealll appl'<lrillg ill Fig. :!.1.!J'l.
Tht, I7Irlflllua'" who~ lellglh is rllual 10 !Iw t<ltllf span of the strur.tUft' "',,,ks
ill he_lllltllg. wlllfe the r~'lIfQ'dIlB m~",I.>C"f woo'k ill dire!;t tI'H_~I<l1l ,ll' <;'Jrnprll,,~ion

(aJ fJ~JII"'lc"t ~"r""',,,n'

p p
_JL -I-..lL .L-
a J
a 5

Fig. 2J.9 Fig. 26.9

just as lhosc 01 an ordinary truss. W(\ shall a:ssulOC Ihal the CI'C."S >:'Cli,m~ "f nil
Ih& reihf"'dng ffiomhors remain constant. T!Jt> dispbr.l'menl of lhe two rliffcren~
l'nrls of the strnc.lul'(> will he c.akul/llcd using expcl'_o.ions pec."liaf lu the type
"f stress deveJor,ed in ellelt of lhcS(l pMlS.
Salldlon. T le simple ~laticall) dl\lenninllte ~~rue'ur'" will 10", Ohlllilll',l
hy cutting har 1-2 1\5 indicatod in Flg. 25.911. The l'qlllltion will Lo of tlw slulldnru
f "1111
X l 6 u '--.lII,=(I

'11Ie v~IIJl.~s ()f Ihl' r"u'rflr.i'"l Il Il Ifl llw IlUkUOWlI X, HIlll "I Ih,' ftc" tertII
tow will I'r nhtailwd usillg Io,,"di"g Illnlllo;,n~ grall!l lm' Ihe m:lill h~,.m (FiR. ;':1;.\1/
<HId till' values or 1])<) 1I1lrmaI ~Il'e~~~ de""lopcd in thl' ruinloreinJ:: 1Il1mnrrs.
1'1", unit ~t.rc~s X, arl iug ,,[oug tll<' h("'i~,o,,lllJ I,nt ]-:: WIll l,rrnlllce a r,("llpl'e~~i<l1l
ill ""th tloe 'tll~cn 1"'Sls, Lhe Irlilft!lillld~' (,I this r:Olllllr1"~~ju,, HI this I!arlirlllar
r.fl.:ie hCI1l~ "]~'J 1'.\u,,1 10 unIty, J h",,- 5lr"sses will 'l' tl':lIl~lJlll.lc,1 dlrertly tu
the m"i" I..."m, 'I'h... 1(,1Io""i,,>: lable gins L1", aluoullls of str,,~'" III all tll" har.
"I lh.. ;lll~iJiur !'~'!'l.eUl.

,,.

"" "Vi 0 , Vi
]-2
" L L) "0 2"
"
2-;; "Vi 112 u 2" V2
]1
2"
, -L
_L "
0
""
0
,
,
"
1',,1,,1 - I
I
- I
I
-
I " I
il\:~ ,-\ 1/2)

Th(' \',dlles Ilr di~l'lur('llle\lts 0" anl! .1 lp am olotail",d as rllllows

L ((12 : I . ) I , .;") 5a 3 "(' . ,"7

{,Il- EJ Ta":I+Jl2,, 'T'" HP ,,(~+'o.1-:I '.. . . Hf I- liT ,I-~ l~)

~jl'= I.~J [ ";2 (_;) ".2- PIl2 1l ] '0" _ ~:~3

lntl'o,lm~illg tll ... l'-lll~r val,l<'s iutn trIO ~tllmJ:,rd C<jUlltion all,l ,.ohOll~ it for
X I Wc "blain

Tlil' ,liagrams "f tilt> IH:lldill,l:( 1lI01llents acting in the main liellm aud "r Ihe
(JMlJJal str('ESilS ill tht! lw.xiliary memlK-]'s of the redundfJOt ~trur,tul1' will bl'
"btllill... d ;<s ""md b)' till' SlIlmnuOnll "I 1,ho ordinatos 10 tll" strlL"Il llrll'\'(' due tt>
UUl 9l,pli... d loads with tIll,' </nlinaLes Lo the unit r.nrves multiplied by tho nwg-
uillld(' (,f Xl'

Hofo1'rlng to the JiITllft'ut slrllctUte:s apPllllring ill Fig. :n.9 Lltc

t.ildellt will
(1) dctt,rmillo their degree o{ fcdllndallC_Y;
 (2) find appropriale simple statically determinato structures and
dl(lUSll the bctLer ones;
0) form the corresponding systems of r-anonical l'qualions;
(4) trace thl:! diagram uf the unit stre~ses;
(S) ('_ompute oue of the unit displacenHHlts oS for coach of thosu
stl'uetur-(!s.

F,g. 27,9

li,9. STTlBSSES IN REDUNDAi\'T STHlJCTUIlI~S DUG TO

TJ-:MPERATURB CHANGES

III till;! event 01 temperature cJlll.uges the f;tandard equlllions

used in the method of forces become

X l 6u +X2SI~ +X~bI3+ + X"OIt< +.1.11 =01

XIO~1 -+ X!Q22 +X6 323 + +Xn 6:" + ~:t = 0 t (i .9)

i;6~1 ~:i2~~ii3~t<~~: ..:. :+:i"b,,~ ~i~t ~~ J

In lIH.~SC cquations the coeffic.ients bill 6j2 , ... , 6"" IlllVil t.he IOUIIlU
mcaning as hcrotofol"c, while the tl.\rrns ~jl' .1 21 , . , ~"t nre
the deflections of the c,onjugate simple strllcturt~ along thc redull-
dant c()uslrain!.s Xl' X 2 , , X" caused hy thil tile-fInal
gl"ldient.
 -J.9. Slruui I1I nrulmdaut Slrllclllr(s

TheS() dcnccliolls may be ohtaillcd u.sing cx.prcssion$ (HI.S) and

(20.S) developed ill Art. 7.8"

(19.8)

(20.8)

EqUAtions (7.9) oxpre.'iS as usual the idea that t!le del1crlioll.~ or

thtl ~illlIJle determinate sll'lll,;luro along the dirt'ct;ons of tho clill\~
inntcd C(/lIstl'ninLs rCULitin nil.

I 0pr,
Simple rtrucwre

_0 ... -1
4:
/ FIt:. 28. 9 Fig. 29. [)

I'n,h)l''''. D"l.<.'rmino till' sll'OS;l('~ induced i" 8 <luo-lime rt>dund"nt Slructu(l>

nppl~arillg in fjg. :::b.9 ~lld Lrnce tho c,lIrrl>Sponding h(>ndillg IIlCtUlen~ curyt>s
aS~lImillg that the indoor It'ml,,-,rutllrl> rj~s by lOoe while th" outdoor onc ''t'm8ius
unchangorl.
Sollll/lIn. Adl>pt Ihe sirnpll' struet\ll'e nI'Jlc",ing ill Fig, 29.~1 fClr which the
~t~utlar'r1 l'qll"lion h~oe()u)(>s
X I 6 w j-L\u=O
tlsi"g l'J.:Jlw;sio" (21),8) just citl'd \\Q oblaiu
10-0 ( ) 10+0 ,,~
.:I.u""'-a:-,- aO+T -~-2-a--ts...T-5a,'

As f'lr 6 11 j~ v:llue will h(' !uund raising to the ~(llld power Ihe llrt'<'l of ~Ill'
;U I !l"raph (FIg. 34,).\1)
.__a...:..,,3 1 4 a 3_
taa:.!
3 ... __
11 El 2 a . El SE}

Ire> shall allmit that tll(' C.l'l'SS Sl!lllions of ~ll tlHI el"ments involved ~(e :lym-
motl'irnl ~b"ul tho IHlriwnl81 R(avily ll'(j~. Were it olht'rwise It~12 sbould he
replaced by l~+ ~ Y where y is the di~lancc {mm thl' fibre hl'alcd to l~ 10
the C,l'Jll,'oid of thl! cross sections.
<1111 A"lllg~l~ 01 l~ Slmpltr SIIlIUtlll!! /ntUk!rminale S'rurlur~.

Introducing tlK'30: vllltK'! h.t<J "lluallUlI (1S.9) Ilnd solvmg the lIllnMl ... t> obtam

. ""'(;+1)3F.J I~EJ(~+\)
~JI
X I ~ -~- ~ .. s - ---+'i---'-
.\Ql
Tho lK'ndlllg mornenl dillK"'m induced in thf'gi...n redundant ~ructurt' hy
11... giwn tt>,npNIl(uru c11~lIl;e call 1lI1'" he III,uint>d Ulultiplying all 1nl' ordiHllle~
tu the']i, curn- l:Iy X" Tlli~ di"ll'r:,m ,'" rep.......uled in Fig. 31.9.

5.!). STIlt:SSP.S IN REDUNDANT SrnUCTURES CA.USED .bY TUE

MO\"lCllto:NT 011 Slll'l'OIlTS

All alreauy mell~iuned. SLatically illdelenninate strllC'lnres 1JI11~

I:x>cOIOlC !!tln'rely sl~!$Cd 1101. unly due to II~ application or jxlcr-
IInl Jo<lds or due to ICnllK'ratu!'C chang('~ but also in the {went when

'" ,.---,

fn (d'
Si-'l;-'tl'
J''''''I,,~

~~ \.
If'
1:1
Fit. J~.9

(JhC or mort: or Uleir :rupports stirrer 8 lincnr trJlnsla~ion. all tlngul3r

rot.atiun or ho~h.
Let us study t-his problem using as An exalllple the porl~1 fr.-me
of Fi~. 32.9/1. The slll.ptl takeu by this frame afLer t.he righl-hand
~upport has shiflcd from 8 to B' is i/ldicated in the Same fignre
lly dash lines. Thl' horizonLal and \'crlicol t1illplacol1H'llts of thc
 '011

snp port will ht, taken equal to 11 and b respectively HJld its angular
rotation to ([.
The influence exercised by the simple structure adopted on the
forrnHtion of the standard equiltions will he investigated llsing
tho examplc[' or Fig, 32.gb, c and d. In the Hrst cHse (Fig. :~2.$lb)
the rlirec[ions of lhe redulldHnt cOllstraints coincide exactly wit,h
those o[ the support displacements. I'hus, the unknown ]'e<lction
X j follows the dit'8clioll of the horizontal displaceTllellt, tlte I't'1\C-
tion X 2 that of the vertical one (though being opposite ill sign)
while the mompnt X 3 ads along the direction of the rotation suf-
fered by the eros.'> section at the support. The magnitudes 01' these
reactions must he sneh as to renoer the displacements of the I:!imple
statieally determinate structure exactly equal to those stipulated
in the problem. Hence the canonical equations expressing this
idea will he of tile following form
Xj0I1+X20j2+X3013=a }
Xt02j+X2022+X:1023 = ~b
X1031 -+ X26~2 + X 3633 = If'
Thl' negative Yllllle o[ Lho Jast term of the see-ond equation is dnl'
tu tho ract: that reaction X 2 is directed upwIllds whilo the SIJPPOI"l
TIlOVPS dowIlwards.
On Ihe other hand, if the :o;imple stnJetul"e o[ Fig, :~2.!lc were iHlopt-
ell it would hoc-ollle necessary to regat'{j the displacornents of Lhe
SUppOl"t B as a system of external loads. This would Le refJeeted
by the inLr'odlH:tiorl into the canonical eqnations of free terJlls
corn'sponding to the said loads, these terms being designated as
usual hy aL'>,' a2~ and a3!,' Tt is clear that these terms will 11Ilv(l
the following v<llues (see Art. -H,8)
2.1~ = a;
Consequently, the e-anonical equal:ions will take the followillg shape

Xj6Ji+X2012+X.~OI3+a=O }
X j 021 +X 2022 + X3023~b + lcp = 0 (10.(1)
X j 631 -'- X232 +- X 3033 -+ <f' = 0
ror the simple j,;trueture of Fig. 32.9d these same equations would
uecome
X1011+X26J2---;-X36t3T~\I<l =0 }
X t 021 +X 2022 + X3023 + ':'\26. = <p (11 9)
X 1631 --r X 2032 + X 3033 + ').3'" = 0
 Here L\.lt>' L\.zt> and 6 3", are the displaeements of the e,olljugflle
l!impIL. strue.luro along the directiolls of Xj, X z Ilnd X s due to the
vcrlical Ilud horizontal movcme_llts of the ri~ht-ll'Jlld support.'"
11; W(lS shown in Art. 1.'J.8 that thelie dispLac_l'ml'_lltl:< are fl.'adily
COlUjlllll'd using expression
XI~\Ll '1- :ER~ = 0
in which the ltlrt part represents tile work accomplished by Lhe-
forces nf tlte imuginary stale nlong the displacement:;: of tlul Sillll)l~
struClure due 10 tlltl motion of the !lUJlllorL".
III this CIISC lhe imagirllHY stale of I,lit!'
siITlflle slf1Jclllr~ IIl'rmittinlf the determiua-
tion of the angular rotation along Xl dul'
to the displacements of the right-luHld SllP-
l)Ort is that of Fig. 3:i.9u. Ifence the wl\rk
ilccornplishccl hy the fvrl~es or
the imagi-
nary ~t.atl' along- the di<;placements of tIll'
simple structure wlwtl its right-lul1ld :<1I1'-
port is moved botlt vQrticlIUy und !lori
20ntally will be ('xpresscu hy

,,' wheNlfrom

Similal'ly, tlll; work acc.omplished by

Fig. 339 thll forces of the second i l\1flginllrr sllllc
~howl1 in Fig. :13.9b alollg the displacE!lIl\'IIIl'
of th()~imple strucllll'l' dUll to Du; movements of the ~ame ~l1pror~
will be given IJy
1 1
X,.l~j. +"Ihtl.-T b=O
WIII,'J'drnffi

As for Ihe displacl'll1t'ul .:.\.v. it will be o!ll.ail1l,.'(1 from Lho l'l:jU(lliulI

l'orre:<pol1ding to Fig. 33.~Jc.

Xa_\J.\-+a=lJ

Th" ,1nglllnl' l'oLation of tbl' righ~-balLd .!upporl ",ill Jllodlll'C no di~l'l~cl"
lIlell~ of
the ~imple ~trur.turt' along the dlr...etions of X j, Xz :'Ild X 3'
 5.9. S(f'tUU III Rerfullddllt Sln.uluu~ (,13

wherefrom

6u=T
Intl'Oducing t,bc:se values into ellllatiuns (11.9) wc ohtain

ll
X\b +X t 6n:+ X abl.-(;'++)=O)
I
Xlh:,+XA:+XJ!u-(;' - ~)=cp t (l2.!J)

XI~I..J,..X:611:+XJi~1I+: -0 J
It shnuld bto reffil'mbl'red tllllt l'ach term of HIt'. lert pnrt of 1I1cso
('(lIlrlljOIl~
rt'preSl'nts till' deflection of thl' :<imllle stalicnlly deler-

'" r--,

Fit. 81.9

llIilWW structure along the directioll of a redundanL reaction III

dllccd ('ithl'r by tlli!" same reliction or by the mo\'pm('ut o( tho
support at B.
All the equations of the prl'st'nt article ha\'t' been. tliu~ bll-':l4!r1: (Ill
the principle of supcrposition. It may be casily shown that thp~"l'
SAme t'qulI.tlon!'i may be hased on the theorem of reciprocal work~.
llIl.lC<'d let U~ c.onsider two different states of the !!Ilme simple
l"talicnlly detcrmill.'l.te .structure. namely thoSE" rcpresel1tC'd ill
Fig. 34.00. alld b. Using the Ilbo\'e theorem we obt;lil1 imrn('diatl'ly
X,6U+X:6'I+XAI=1a (lit.9)
The It'tt-hand part of this equalion represents the work Accom-
plished by the ll.pplied load!! of Fig. 34.9a Illong the d<!fledinns of
the illlaginary Hate of "~ig. 34.9b while the righL~hand parl_that
done by the unit load XI =- 1 of the rll'l't imaginary slate 810111{
thp llctUIlI displllccml'lIt Nfual to Q.
1';xl\~lly the S:'Imc rl'llsoninl:' will lead to tilt' formi'llion or till'
two (ollowing equation!\ (Fig. 35.9a Dnd b)
Xllllzi"Xz62~-I-X36:J2- -1b 1
X I< ' -I- X~633 ,: 1(f r
Ul3 +X,t'-'Z3 ('K~I)
 The I",rt parls of theso equaliollfol repr4Jsent the work :lceomplished
Ly Iht' aj11llied loads 1I1011g th~ itlH1Kinnry l1ispltlccments iltchleed
by lilt' unil, loads of lll{' second flfld third iml\l:iuilry Slo.h!~ of
rig. as.9a IlUcI b while the right-hand purt5-1hQill:' aceomp1i5hed
hy tlte imaginary Ullit londs of th~ two Inlter slal~ alollg the giv~n
displflQ('ml'IIIS of tlte support.
CompatiulC t'qllaliollS (9.9) obtain{'d previously using tbe simple
S\rudul't' of Fig. 32.9b with Ihose bast'rl on tilt tlteorom of rCt;ip-
roent wurk" (equations (lH.9) llnd (14.9)1. it !'cmmes immcdilllC'ly

,"' ,--,

llplJlIl'Cltl \hal the twu systems llrtJ absolutely idC'lI!klll fUI' 6 12 =

= 6 2 " {jl~ = 6 31 lllld 6~J = 6 32.
~1!vcrtJ,elcss IIL~ basic i,teas cOI\\,cyod by tho.....oe Iwn sysl{'lIIs of
CljllllliulI.'!I art' cllhrt>ly diITert'nt, Indeed, Lhe cqllnliolls hllllCd un the
I'rillcillle of SIIPt'rposiliUIl t'xpress IIUtt the !!um of di.~placemenLsalon.l{
lhe diroc.tiol1S of the redundant constraints are t'ithcr nil or 6!qual
to prt'tlet.cnnill",d l\mo'J1It.:~; (IS fllr L1,ose boscd 011 lhf' thQllrem of
rl'tipr(J(:1l1 "'"rk!l, t.hey tlx,pr{'SS lllflt till' work on the simllle stati-
t~"lly dOlermiuate ,~lructllre accomplislLed by HIe :lpplied JOllds
~llolllC tilt.' di~pllti,;I'menl.l' o( this snlllO structure r.ItU~l'rl by Slily ono
o( tht:' imng-ilillry unit load,~ is aquul to the wOI'k produectl by the
said uuit load (togethll-r witl, lilt" support reaclirlllS due to ~his Juad)
l.ln.." the displllcll-melll c,auscd by Ibe llchlal IOlldina.
Fur c)('l'('i.sc let lL'l lISC Oll('e alfaill the Iht'Orl"llI of rl'l"iprocal ~orks
for 1I10 rh'lcrmillaLitlll (,r :!trcsses in the &"II11tl pOI'lnl frame, Hdopt-
illg for CUUjllgfllt' !Oimplc structure Lht, Olll' :lpPC;lrin~ ill Fig. :~li.9a.
The wIT('!\I)Olldinj:t im:lg-illary slall'S M{' givCll ill Fig'. 3G,fJb, C
~1Il<1 d,
The si illld:trd ('qoalioJlll 11I1.~ed on the pl'illCiplo of reciprocal works
ht'COlII I'

+Xs6=,+XJ1~'-+T ~
X j 6,1 1
,I
Xtll,~+XA2+X/Jl~=IP+ 2~'-{. (t5.!)

XI613+X2623+X~1'3a= - ~ J
 '"
Comparin~ the Inner set of equations willt lIwse tlerh'oo TrOlll
the Ilrinciple of "Upe'l'OSilion [N(ll3LinIlS (12.9)J wc St'e ouce again
UtllL Uley are ahsolutely identical.
In actual d~ill" pClltlicl' it is mor" COIl\'t'llienl. 10 hll~ Ilm fH1U:l-
tiolls on the prilldptc of rl'Ciprocal works when S(Jlvilll{ prohlcll1~
conncrlE'd wi LII the setlll'lIIl'nl or l;upporl." tll(' equations ~ obllliol'd

'''~-~
11IIU1Jl1Wry
Iluit' /

, -,
'I fi 'fii, 1
r ~J" +r
". ,d!

L
21>"
,, ,,
"
Fi,. 3S.9

a.lfordirlR' n c1eart'f picture of the physit"al reality. The s.'llllolllcth

od r.oultl he Wlt,ld for Slrl'5.'> analysis of reJundllllt sLrllcLIJrcS sl1b-
jected 10 a system of l'xLerfllll lORds, but it would Jos" till! auvulI-
tfl~O just mentioJled. fOl' in L!UJ taller cnsC' t.he prillciplu o( sUllcr
po~ilion give.~ 1\ helLor rcpresent!l[ioll of the phrllOrnCllOJl.

6.1l. DIAGRAMS 1-'01\ SHEAllINC ANI) I)IH.ECT STIlf.SSES.

CHECKING OF DIACI\."""S

OtlCIl >Ill tLt> rOOlllu'l;Utt stfCS.S(>5 "nd reac~ion~ XI. X, .... X"
1111\'(' hl"ell ruund. 011(' mllY llrocccd with the dewfminalion or sllcar-
ing "lid normal fnrc:t'~ acting ill the 5tfuC~lIre UOd('f cOIlI'id('fntiOIl.
Tnt'5e will be (,'xactly the &101(,' ItS those arising in the !'impl(' .'<tati-
tally determinate structure uuder the combined actinll nf tilt' I\P-
plied lo~uls And or the said f('dundllllt s~regs;es IIIld l\'aclious.
Tile SlImc rl'SlIIL~ nllly Ilt' arbie..ed u.qing tile bellding mument
cur...es obtained fnr the gh'en renllndllnt structure as describl'd in
till' Im'\'ioll~ IlrLic!es. Indtloo let liS isolate fmm thc rcsl or thili
structure 11 rectilint'M har All and 16\ l be iL'l lengtlL {Fig. ;~7.1JaJ.
In the IllOst generlll l,;a.~e this bar will be arled upon:
 (Il) by tbe loads actually applied within its limits;
(b) Ly t.h~ bending morn(ml~ At., 11 and .M ItA /l;t the ulul sections.
th~ magnitlldcs of these bending moments may be scaled DU di~
rt'cLly from tho corresponding diagram:
(cl by I.b.e shearing forces QiI. Band Q lA as """C1l as by the normal
,gtl'US!\t!S NAB and N /lA developed at Ihe Ilame cross secholls.
lLero and .aftllr tho first of the two indicos will indicate tJw.. posi~
tion of tlw ('.r058 section. while hoth of these indic~ t.ogother will

.4.......... l....,;s
.
~ Fig. tT.,
dc-signata thl' moml>t:r containing this !lCction. Thus. M A, B will
muan the bending mOment acting at section A of bar A8.
Since the bar AB i.~ in oquilibrium the stresses QA,ll' Q'I,\ and
IV IIA may be regarded as the 'I.ortical and Iwd:.:ontal reactions of
on cnd-supported beom apPllaring ill Fig. 37.9b. which we :shall
('tlll 3S be{ore the referellcc beam. It follows that t11e Iltrc:<o.'!l;'r-
acting lit any cross F.t;ctiOll of the sald reference heom and lho~e
~:d8tillg iu the corresponding ;'lCctiOll of the given strucl\ll'Q will be
Ilbsolllt('.Iy idenlie;tl. Hence the bending nlOlllen~ at any cross ~ctioll
~ of the bar A B will equal lhe !!Um of the bending moments iudutoo
in lhe c.orrespDllding section of the rof~rel1ce heam by all the acliOllS
shown in Fig. 37.9c t1lld d
111 = 111' + 1I1.HI + 111 s" -;-<If"It z

where jI,J' rellrescllls the hcndillg llHlment produced in the rer~rence

~am by the ('xtBrnal loads of Fig. 37.9c while M A /j +M It" -;.ll"s ,r
is tho 1Il0nlcllt ari,;i1,g from the Elllplicatioll of mOments Ilf;\ B alld
/1-1 tlA to it!> end scc.lion!' (Fig. 37.9d).
TilL' thoorem of Zhurll\':;'Iky stating that tho first dech'l1tivl' of
ttll' bC-riding moment raprt!sents th~ ~hell.r ill tlte S3mo cross section
wc lIIay wril.l:l

Q -_.!!!.-
d.t
=~ ...... 111 s ... -Al AII _ nt'l- Jl n.\ -.lI ... "
Ik' t -" i
( 16.9)

Hen' (tJ i:< the shear illduecd ill the corrcsllomlilll: rr<l::S ~'C.
lion or tile reference bC:lJll by tlle loads flirectly applied thereto
(Fi,a:. 37.\)c).
Tho abovo oxpr<ls.~iol1 p.:rmits tho clctl,'l'mirlatiull of I,ho hunlling
IllOmcnLs and !lhnal'l' in allY Sl)('l.ion of a roetilllll'llr llIomber belong-
ing to <l rctlunJant fmmed Iltruc_lnr<l IlrQvitlud the loads dlf'Cl'lly
<lppliud to lhill mt.'lnb~r 3ud t.he IJendillg momont:< acting 31 tho
l'lld St'dioll::l arc known.
Whl'll the bending moment curv~s are trQCt..'<I ()fl ~hc !!litl0 of lhe
c>.lcndod Ilbn'S. the sign of the shenring forces may 00 3S(l'rlaillcd
as follows: flu> NIRar will fJ, r~CklJltffl' prnlli~ if l/~ ari/l of Uw n~rn
bfr must /)(' rolaltd dodw;i.$e in ortkr la COrM in ~otne"kllre with the
latl!ll'nl to (h,. bc-nding nUmUtlt cur~. prmJkkd lilt! ang", 0/ roJalilJn
j.,~ snwlkr than 90". NllfflKrrrally lh~ mt'or ill dirl'CtlJl proplJrtuma{
to tJu. valu~ 0/ the no.tural t(lI/gm! 0/ this angle. This rule jJroSl'lIltd
in ArL. 1.2 permits tho illl111~Ji,,(o dolerminul,ion of the shell!' sign
for any (,I'os., ~('.1ion of bar AI).
Thc dirc('.tioll or the hhcII.rillg f.. reo wjll be oblailll!fl remember-
ill~ tllal n jJosiHve !Jlca.r will nlwlI}'!l tend lo rolale elockwi!!'C tll{'.
&lCtio\l it is llding upon about the far cnd or that 511.1110 pll.rt of the
mcmber.
Normal 51rc..<;..."C1! will be dclcrminC(1 isolating in sUCce&:iiOfl each
joint of tile struclur('. nnd applyillg thereto ootb. the a('llllt! IO;ltls
Rod the slll'arillg' forces obhlinud as d{'scribt'd above. One could
also use t111~ procedure ootlined ;It. thc IJcgiflning of thi.q article.

Problem. 1'rA, the Q and tilt' N tun'c~ r"r tile potul frllme 8pllt':IrinR
ill fig. :'1)1.9 \t>golh('r ,.. ilh thli rlillgl'lIm'" or Ix-mling mumt'u[t llCUll1I in Ill! "f it~
lnt'Tllbcrs.
S()lulfun.. t'ir!lt lrlll:l' ~h(\ ~h~_fIr rli!gram f.lt eolumn J-2. Nu oxternal l(>I\!1
bdng a:rpiillrl III [llis 1D<!Illl.o~r, the hending moment rliagum lonns fI straight
line 1\n Iherefore the sho:II' will I'Omain constant. It will Ill' rttkonmJ nt'!l"lltlve
In, 11,,' rolulnn U"i~ mu:>! Ix- ffllllllld counlA!rdoekwiM' l.O cume in t.nlnClllellcII
wilh the tanllfflt 10 th.. tM>ndillg ,"oment dillll:tllm (the two coincidills;r in that
,,"rlicul.r e-g,,). Numerically tht shOllring fOl'C1l will t'qllal Ihu JlDtl1rl11 la"gt1nt
01 tht afor0!5.id .ngulllr rotation, .... iz..
10.11+5.4 , 1
Q1:<- Q:1- - 6 --. I~

Thc SlIme rt!Iults wllllld 11<1\'0 beeu obtained through ~he appliclltion or
llto fOrulUb Rh'cn III tile boQ:innlng or
tilt' IIrt,stnl Ilrtide
n<l M:I-M,~
QI~-Q21"\(!I+ I

"
 &!"ing that nn load i~ dirtt~ly applied to the column in quC!stion, the
shear Ott will reJuC(' to zero ond thcNlfortl
-!of.: -lO.8-f of SA) 2 7
Q12= Q !,- .rill!
lit l> - - \.Onl;

When CoOlllputlull' tho !hl'lrine forus I'llCb of tlte moonbers !OJhOl,lld bEo pl.ted
meutallr ill 11 horizOQul pot'llron; the beonding moments n>ckoned po~itive
will tlll'n protluGC an utension of the lower IIbtes of \.his Ulmlbef" and 1h~
reckoned ncgtltivo-.n extension of il.s upper flbr(ll!.
q~Z41/m

ta.t
J
01iJjiiITiIIIfLUITII1UIHITI~I

Fig. $9 9

TIll' shening fon:::e In lUll rljl:ht-band column ll.'i11 be dtl.ennio..' " in 'netl)'
Iho saml' ...Py eml ""Ill equal ...... 2.7 lUOI.
As rOt IlIu !hl'ltr in the C_l"Osshtam, its vlluo at l"lY secholl sillluted a distllnce
r !r'um jUlut 2 will be II:IV(.JL Ly

Q- Cl"+ MB-M~
ID
L 2Ax9 2' + -10.8-(~l(Ul)
- T-----z--- . z 9
+'08
...z. -
2'
.,or
WI,en 1_0 (that is, immeJlawly to the right of joint ZJ
Ou-..+IO.8 tous
/llld when z_9 InotNs i'hat is, illlnln.lill'ely to the Idt "f Joint 3)
Qn--f-10,8-2.4X9--tO.8 tOllS
Tloc diagra", of shcariUl\: forces IhuJII oLtairn.od ill tellr...!'entcd in Fig. 39.9.
'J1l~' diagraJJl of 'ho normal stressn cen be derived dther from that 10l' the
.!ihou.s or altcrnativtly its "dinates m::ly be r~lcuhlt<>d knowing !h.. rIlM:tions
01 aU the redundant conlitralnb.
Ll!l \I' delermine lhe llOtlnaJ $tI"~Sf5 \l~ing t.lio equilibriUlU of join,",. At Am
we may lsolale joint 2 (Fig. 40.9) &Cte<1 upon by the she;lt Qu = - 10.8 tnu!
dovd0JK'd at t!Lt' l~t oxlremUy of thn cro""bcam and directed down ....ards
th" slteat 021 - ~ 2.7 lons ,Iovulopod at the lop of the column .lId diroct<>d
Irul1l [eft tu right t'lnd lIy tho norllwt ~ltfo!Se1l N 23 nnd N Zl (hoth "Ild;on"d pOJlli
Live if eutlliling comptes.~iol\) and acting alouR tho eroSlibl'ttnl "lid the (,olumn.
rIl:"flrel i,ely.
I::quihbrium c('IfIsiderations yield immedilltcly
N f3 - +2.7 toM and N~ - 10.8 lOllS +
The norm.15t~ltGtingintberight-hand column will be obtained '50IilLi"l
joint :I and will amount to +10.8 tons.
The comlllele diagram of normal stre~s is given In ~'i~. 41.9.
 "'
A convenient method of checking the M. Q and N diaW'am~
consists in the .'Juc.ccs/sivu i501ation of different parlS or join Is of the
structure which must always remain in equilibrium. Tlms, tho
projection on the vortieal of all the support ruUClions of any framed
strw:t\lru must always equal till;! vortical COlllponent of tJH~ rcsultarlt
of all the flllplied I01'ld;l. Similllrly, the sum of moment., or all the
reactions about :lily point of the slruclurc must nlwlly!" oqual the
moment about the samo lloillt of tho result.ant of tile applied loads.
and so forth.
A rapid check of the diagTllln o( the sht'arilll: fnfCl'S mny bE:' hlken
compari/l,2 this diagram with \hal of the bendilll: momellt.!: ind~.1

2 I 1<19
_
foat
27/ fOst

2,7. r )\',.>J

tA?}
Ylg. 40!}

when tl,o mOmo/lt curve btlcoml'S purallel to the bcalll a.xi~, the sllt!or
must equal zero; when the tangent to the Ilendlng momont curvu
rtlmains inclined towards tho same side, tho ::;h('!lr may 1I0t Chlltll;'1J
sign; its magnitllde will be greater for thot section for which thc,
slope of the tongl'nt to the bending momenl curve ill the steeflCr.
When two bars rorm a joint, the ordinates to their bending mOItlOllt
rllrves at this joint must ahvass haye numoricolly tbo same \oluc.,
'provided no ollt5ido mom'nLs ;lct at this joint} since tho ~nding
moments mllst ;llways balance. In the same case direct aud shearing
fOrce!" considered separately will not blllllnce, hul considered
\.OiC"'ther the}' must lorm a system or COu('urnmt fon;('s in equilibrium.
Howover, tlte control of stress curves bast'd on statics alone does
not provide comr1e1e gllllrantee of the exnclitudo or all the COOl
putotiOllS for equilihrium conditions may bo satisficd even if orrors
wero committed when calculating the rt'dundallt reactions. Indeed,
the bending momellt curve for any relJundant IItructure always results
from the .summation of the ordinaL.es to the curve induced in the
simple .stnticaUy dewrminatc strllcture by th~ applioo loads with
those to the cun'Clj duu to the redundant rf'actiorn: and streS&'..$..
If all of these cu.rves Wilf'(l constructed correcUy. equilibrium condi-
tions will remaiu s:ltisflod even if the values of thoso reactions and
stresses aro completely wrong.
In the majority nf ca~C'!'I any errors commit~d whcn computing
the reactions of the redundant con5traint~ wU! be dewcted checking'
".
that the defkct;on$ oC ccrtaiu points Rrt' con~istl'llt .....ith the stip-
ulations or the problom. Thc Cl'lIo.....inl: l'umpltl will SCr\'C lo ill us--
tr:Jtc the nhove.
Fig. 42.9/1. reprc!lClll.s a knee frame Iltatically illdtltermiu:Jlc tu
tile St.!cond degree. 'rhe computel} bonding moment diagram is shown

---'- 'll/
J '" ,,-,jJ-'''''''~''' - W
li!'~ I1Cf"lf"'fI l-fyriAi'"
" > " -Ii=l~.
., iM

'/r
.. "

I R. -
~ ,Cl
,
I,
'dO
'

le'

in l~iK. 42.!lb. This dill,ltram will remaiu nllall.E'red sllould wc trans-

Curlll the t:in:1I slructure into II sLaliodly detcrmin3la UllC, Sl'y. Ly
Clilllill8tiOll or the two lIUpport constraints at thE! lo....'cr end of lhe
colulIlII l"'i~. 42.*) provided tneso constraints are rtlllacoo lor lhcir
rca,tions.
Let liS no..... I;ompuw tilt! vertical dl,ncctioll .1.\' uf th(' luwer cnd
oC lhe column in order to make sure Lhnt this deDectiun remain!! nil.
For lids IlItrJ)Ol>O wo shlllL firsl (race the diagr:ull of lILe bending
momont indllced hy Il vorticill load unity actine at point iI
(Fig. 42.9(1) wlU'tf'.afLcr wc shall multiply this dillgr:1m by t.he M
dingrm lX!rlainillg 10 the givon :;lrllt'lurc (Fig. 42.Ub). The ~ull is
v
.1 = :J a.a-i ('7~~ --4-- ~t .;) ~O
Let us check also In,,! the ll<lriz()lIt1l1 di::llllael'l1lenl ut lhu same
point rullloins uqllltlly uil. For that. ptlrpol'C "'u mny 11lulliply thl'
hl'fllling mOilll'nt graph due to a hllrhon ...,1 load ullily appliod at
this point hy lht, an'a of lhe same !JCllllillg "IClncnt diaq:ram as in
llll' 'Il\Jl"cdillJ;!' IJIlmgrlllJh (Fig. 42.f.1b).
" I (q~~ t 24 qll~ 2 11 q"t 1 '1,,2 I )
.\ -EJ 1'T,""T'a-~8a'-<l-'2 1\T,t.ya- 18 (lT I1 ...

11'"
=7tT
(11 lIt) = 0
42-V;TU-~

Thus. till! ahove lIIethud of chockiJlg the compuwd slre!l..~:lll.ctillg

ill mOlllbers of rodulldltllt slructures t'oll~ist'l ill the fnllowinl::
1. Trnnsftorm the given rcdlmdalll :;lructllf'C iulo a simple staL-
kaHy dl'lt'rminaw ono.
2. Roplaoo succcsst\'cly (':l".h of Lilo. elillliuated couslftlinls by
n unil load or a unit momcnt as the CftS(: may be.
3. Trace (or l>D.ch of these llllit aclions a bending mOUll'nl diagnlm.
4. Compute the deflcclioll of 1110 simple struct.ure along Ihe
directiUll of eOlch of tbuse unit. actions. The amount u[ Ihi!f dencclion
will be given by IItl' prodnct of t.he olllillnt.cs to Ule O<>l1dillg mOIUl'nt.
CIll'VC due to t.he lluiL act.ioll by thosc to Hlo diagram inducetl in t.he
given rcdull(lnnt s~ructllrO hy the 31Jplicd londs.
5. If thQSC lh:,nQclions arc cOllsillWllt wilh till;'> slipulotions uf tlm
pro!Jlcm (uil in tilt.! mlljorHy of ,a'lSl'~) onc may 1)0 rl'n:;onably sure
t1ult al[ tile compllLatiOll!; were carl"illd out c_orwctly.
"l'lw simple stnLically d('llerminOltc strLlcturt' Ilsed in that ca~
lIl'e.'d nnL eoillcid~ noceSl!lIrily with tnu 0110 11.'1(,,'( for tllo dcwcmilHl-
lion of tho n.dumllllll IllreSl!l'S aud reactions. DiITcrtlllt simple st.ruc-
tures mny bo used for the C(Jmputatioll of different denectiolls of
olle llnd the same redlmdant structure. Thus, for instance. the result-
illg bt!udilll:t mOIUt-'nt dill.!:ram or Fig. ~2.9b could be ch{\Ckcfl u~ing
tbt-' simple stcllclurt of "~j~. 1i3.9a for the COlUputation of th~ nuri-
wll!.a1 deflection of tne right cnd of the crossbeam find that of
fig. 43.9b for the compllLat.ion of the aJlKUlllf rot.ntion lit the :same
point.
Ono C<ill also use ror Lhe :inDIt' purpose tbe graphs of the bCI'ldiug
11l0m~lll~ due to inulgiuflry unit actiollS uLilized ill lht-' original
COInPlltOllioIlS. III rllo hitter CAS(' all tltat Ill..-ed be do lie tu control
thl) {ll'l',llrncy of the t(':mlting fliallram is to multiply this diagram
by the former grllpll~ Bu{l to muk~ sure tlllll their product rem3il'.~
eqUAl lo zero.
422 A'l('[gfis QI Ihr Simpkr Slatlcnlly J"MtumlllaJe Str"d"res

The control just de.~cril>cd i::; p:uticu[arly simplitied for .~tfllclllres

forming closed C()lltours (>r tho$C with built-in ends (which theorct-
iC(llly is one and the same).
A!;SuJlle that it is required to control the accuracy of all till) roru-
putatiolls pertaining 10 llll;: mullii;pan frame with built-in colulUJls

'r
r--l (b'

FII!.48.9

(Fig. 'VI.9a). Let liS isnlate a sil1gle !lent applying at the cutsextcrllal
moments and forces cquivll.l('nt to 1.he Jnt-emal ones acting at t.hese
cro!'!,'; sections. OIH'iouo:ly tllC bending moment diagram rcl:tl,ing
to th(' isolated part of the frallle will undergo no challg(l whahO<Jver.
Now let us pass Rny arbitrary section through one of the members
of the isolated bent. applying once again at the C,llt external actions

I,;
-tM+ff1j
"
,-~I-I-
(!;l
,
,"I~- I ",.,:-.::.

re)
-~-

Fig. 44.9

lJquivall.nt to the stressef: wllich existed at this section (Fig. 1i1J.91J).

Ther~ will hfl .. gain no dlan,;re in tho bondill~ moment curves pertain-
ing (,0 the two portions of thb frame. It nlllY be easily shown that
tho ~C-\io[ls adjaccnl. to the Cllt will undlirgo no mutllal rolation.
IIlJocd, Jut liS lflultipJy the 're:;uJling bending mOlllt\l\t grapll by
th/>. ~raph duo to a unit moment flcting at the cnt (l"ig. 44.9t). As
the onlihalNI to the latter grnpll will bl;: constant and equal to unily,
tho above mflntionC!d multiplication will reduce to n simple sUTlllnillg
lip of gr3ph ar<'lIS bounded by the resulting bending moment Cllrv13.
Thcoo lIlIISt be naturl'llly taken with due considcr3tion to tlleil' sign!!
amI the slim .~o obtained mlL~t equal wro.
1 the dilTewnt mambl\rs of the structure differ ill stiffne~~, the
arl\8S of each graph must be pfliviously divided by lbi! stWlless
 '1.9. Strai,., GAd J)tflf:dll1... 01 StatU'allr Jruhttrm'Jlde Str"dlfTU 423

of the corrcspondilli member. 1'hur, for any structure jorming

a c~d contollT tJu algebraic sum. of bmding mo~nl graph surfaces
must reduce to zero, thue $UTfa.cu bdng prrotously dMckd by EJ
wlun TILCe~ry. A5 for tbo sign of the grapb areas, those situated
within tbe contour will be taken wiUl one .!!ign and lhoso situated
outside with the <Jpposite onc.
This mcLhod of controlling the accuracy of computations is the
simple.!!t. If the results obtained are satisfactory, one may be rc8son-
<lbl)' sure that all tho computations were carried out correctly.
It should be Tloted however that this metbod is inapplicable to
fllulled structures with hinged joints or paris thereof.
Compl~te certilutk that no error has been committed lit any of the
contpUlatlo/1$ cal~ be gained only if the number of control operatlon
carried out is eq/uzl to the number 01 r!!dundant constraints, provkUd
the~ operations do not repeat One anct.her. Thus, for instance, if
the graph areu for two contiguous paris of a structure have heeD
summed up, the same procedure mllY not be applied to the same two
par~ taken as 11 whole, for this would simply repeat Lho controls
already carried out and could therefore fumish no new data.

7.9. STIlIIINS AND DEFLBCT(ONS OF STATICALLY

INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

Expressions (15.8) through (17.8) developed in Art. 6.8 were

hasod on the assumptions that the lIlaterial of tbo structure follows
Houkl"S law and that the straills and deflections of the structure
are very small cOJllparod to its dimensions. Hence, these expro89
SiOll!l os well as the corresponding computation techniques can bc
apl)!if'd to all framed structures regardless of whether they aIll strlti-
cally deterulinato or not.
Let Wl therefore use ODe of these exphlssions fur the deter.ninatioll
of the vertical dcflet.:tion .6. t of point C located along tbe neutral
axis of a knee frame subjected to a uuiiormly distributed horizon-
tal load of q kg per unit length as shown in Fig. 4$.9a. This [rame
Will! llllnlyzed in Problem 2 of Art. 3.9 (506 Fig. 16.9a). The result.-
ing bell.ding moment graph is represented in Fig. 45.9b (500 also
Fig. 18.9b). In order to find the desired deflection let us apply at
point C a vertical unit load, which will give rise to the bending
1II0mont curve or Fill. <1.5.9c.
+
*Tlu.'se operalifln~ lnR}' etlnsist either in the multiplicnlion or graphs Of in Ihr
summlllion of their llnll'!'.
*"TIIU corresponding calculations are omItted hoT't'
 Multiplying the two gnljlhs appearing in Fig. 45.Qb onJ r one
by the uthN we ohtain
.},. = [~.~.~.~_ 'l"~ '';'0 .1:!.- . .!..+~. ~x
U2354; 8., sr.2 26

X(~ . ";'4~ .2-';-. ~ _2-L; .~ _ ~ . 'I;..'. ) + ~ . ~ x

11 .,,,,1 tit. . 4 ' 2 ' " ql1.'.,L9d
X ( -7"W 2 -~.~ T..,.." 56' 5t;
""')J Ej-'
I ,.'
-448P.J
The llegalive. ,-alue found r(a t.IlA JenC{'~iOll 6. 0 indieate.'" that
point C mllVIlS llpwards, for the load unity Wll,,s direr_led downwards.
'I'he pl"QC(>duro d~rjbtld remains I1\ther cumpli\'&tt-d sinoo it
requires th3t :all l.he slrossell in the redundant :;lrucluro sbollltl
110 COII'lPII1Cd twice: once for the c8so of applied loads and oow for
tho casu of the imaginary load llnity. This procedure will be groat,..
Iy simplilied if wo remember tbat the deformations of the siUlI)le
statically deumninato structure Ilcted upou both hy Lhe applied
Jonrl:l nnd Lho redundant stre!iSCS und reactions will Ix: cxoctly the
.'JUmo as those of t1U.1 given indeterminate structure. Honec. ill the
casC' under cunsidcrntiolt the ut<flcctioll ~a mny be l;ornputed with
()qllol success eithor for th~ rlldundant Slructure of Fig. 45.9a or
for the simple static.ally determinatc ono of Fig. 45.!Jd.
foL't us apply at point C of the latter structure 11 unit IO<lu fol-
]Ilwing t.hu direction of the I1llluired deflecUoJl and let us trace tho
currusponding bending moment diagrAm (Fig. 45.9~). i\lultiplyir1lf
this dillgram by the resulting bending mOJJlent graph gi\"fm in
Fig-. '.I5.9b wu obtain
I (~~ I qn: 2) 1 1',1
~=2~2 5t\"3-28"3 EJ~-""IJU
AllY Slaticdly dcterminalo structure durived from the gi\"llll only
by the elirnination of redundunt constrainl.!l can be used for deflec-
tiOn CUllIputatien. It is in no way necessary tha.t. this simple struc~
ture should be the ~DlC a:o thu olle lL"ed for stress arHJlysis. Thus.
tho deRect.ion of poiut C of the knee fraJnC' could be o!Jwillcd just
tlll ~"C11 using for auxiliary simple structUJ'(' the onc wown in
Fill:. 45.9/. The <lpplication to this slrul:ture of a verliclll lund uui
ty at point C would Icad to a bending moment diagram shown ill
the samo figure. The subsequl'nt multiplication of this diagram
by thal bounded by the curvu of the l't'Sulling bfonding momenls
givon in Fig. 45.9b It-ads to
qa 2 a 2 tI '1111 2 a t a ..
!c - [ "14T:r2--'-Tf1z;rI~TTX
1('1111 2 '1,,: I)J I '1114
X 2 14"3+"""'56'3 77- -mu
 7.9. Sir/un, ud /Jdl~tlrnt' 0/ S/Ilttullll /ndtler"unflll! Slrwtlurel 1\:::5

The choice of t.he Auxiliary simple structure should he governed

by tho following cO/lsidtlr<ILiollS: Lhe bending lltOIlll'Dt curve duo
let Lhe load unity must be as sirllple IlS possible. this curve must
.be obta.ined with Lhe minimum of cumplltation!l amI ,he ordinattlS
" ,.
.:: HI'1v,,j'J,,t
;, Ir""t~.,;

CR

r
I'
A'
_tit'7

,+
th(!C Id!

0)- (el
1
' B

(~'I

,'fl
q rc'
FIg. 4.5.9

to this l.'une shonld reduce to zero wherever tho outline of the rosuH
ing honding momollt diagram for the given redundant structure
becomes too complicatBd. BeIlCfI, in lhe example dealt with prd-
croucc should 00 /liven to the simple slructure of Fig. 45.9~ as com-
pared to I,hat of Fig. 45.9/.
-126 A""lyM/' "I lilt Slmpla Slallct:lIl1 /"dtltrml"aJt Slrrulures

The necessity might arise to determine the deflection sustained

by A redundant structurc under 11 given set of loads without being
jnLel"cstcd in the corresponding stresses. In that case one mAy corn
pllW only the stresses indu~d in the structure by a unH load acting
in WO direction of the desired dencelion, disregarding entirely those
UIIC to the applied loads. The deflection will be then obtained mul
tiplying the bending moment graph due to the unit load and per-
taining to the given redundant structure by the diagram of bending
moments induced in the auxiliary simple stracturc by the actual
loading, In the previous example the deflection &c could be thus
-obtained multiplying tile Af gl'aph of Fig, 45,9c by that appearing
in Fig, <l:5.9g
, [qa~IJ.~3.qa1a(;j1J
.\c= T'T'5'6'TTT'T 5(;-T,2-1- 56 2' X
a 9a)'J'
1 qat
X EJ=--:mEJ
Thus, it may he statBG that the deflections ot a redundant slmctur..
,ma'l be determined using only ant bMdlng moment diagram pl'rtatnlng
to the gtven structure, eilhrr that induced by the applied loads or eL~e
that due to a load unity acting along the destred ckflectiOlt, The second
graph may be traced for any simple sl.rw:turc derived from the first
II/U' by elimination Of redundant conlltraints,
The deflections and dilitortions of statically indeterminate trussl'S
-and otlter hinge-conn(\ctcd structures will be obtained in cxactly
the same W(ly with the only difference that thE' beltding momcnt
~;Ul'\'()S IJlld graph areas rnllst be in that C[l~' replaced by Utose relat-
ing to the normal ~treS~K'S,

8.!l. TUE ELASTIC CENTllE lIlETHOD

As a rule, stI't'~S anaLysis of redundant structul-es requires the
simultaneous solution of several equations with sevt'ral unknowns,
'rho Itigher the degree of indeterminancy the great.er thl' number
of these equations, the. hanlor their solution and the lower the accu-
rary of tho lil1ul re,suIts, It is quite natural therefore that attewpLs
UfO frcquMUy mado to form tlte ahovC' equations in surh a WilY
lhat oach or them should contain on(l unknown ouly, or, uHcrua-
lively, that the sy:;::lo," of tlwS(! eqnations ~hould fall irtto 5Cpll.ratc
~roups each c.ontllining a reduced number of unknown::; not cnl.oring
the other groups.
The system of equations pertailliug to a structure redundant
in the second degree is so ,;illlplc that it i$ obviollSly senseLess lo
:,;eel>. ,1[1Y further simp!ilications e.WJ[} if suc,h wore possible.
 Passing to structures indeterminate in the third degroo let \1$
'"
investigate tlle possibilities of simplifying the analysis of a closed
contour of aruitra('y configuration such as shown, for instance,
in Fig. 46.S/a. Having eliminated tho constraints at the Jeft-Jland
abutment and having replaced them with threo unknown reactions
Xl' X 2 and X 3 as indicated ill Fig. 46.9b, we should normally form
three standard equations witll threo unknowns.
Tn order to avoid the simultaneous solution of these equations
let liS fiX to the frcl! end of tllo simple ::;tructure an inflnitllly stiff

\'

If,,du'Idant titr<JCt.urf'
,
'"
SimplP struC'tJirf'
-', r;)

Fir:. (fl.9 Fig. n.9

bracket ab, both the h'nglh and the direction of which remain as
yet unknown (Fig. 47.9).
At the free (md b of this br3ckct lot W'J apply at right anglc$ two
forc.es Zl and Z2 (t.ho direction of these rocclIs coirlciding wilh l.haL
of 11 new SE't of coordinate axes u and v) and a mornt:nl Z~.
If the magnitude of these nctions wore s\lch that they would
immobilize completely the cnd b of the brac,ket, llreventin!Z' h(.th
it.'; rolation and lraDslnt.ion, the lo[t extremity of the simple struc-
turn (point a) would also become nxctl Illlrl thus from thlJ view-
'point of thl:lir rL{.nedions the given roduudant sl.ructure and tho
simple siructum of r'ig. 47.9 would be in the samo c,onditions.
In other words, the siructun' of Fig. 4IU)a and I.hat uf Fig. !17.~
aded llpOn both by load P. the forCl.g Zl alld Zz an~J t.he moment
ZJ wouM he cquh'alollL
The system of l:'quatiom: l'xprcssing tllat tile elld b I!r th" bracket
is held fast is as follows
Z ll5 11 I-Z 2Bu +Z~I3I.'J+j,jP=O }
2 1621 + ~2132t + Z~62.'J + 6. 2P = 0 (17. f1)
Zle,,! + Z2032 -+ Zli 33 + 1 3 /l = 0
 It will be rt'mcndMll"Cd that the cooftidenl::! lllA cutcrin~ these
t'qualion!l ropl't!1;6nl Ule displacements or the frt'C cnd of hracket.
ob illduClod by load unities following the din'Ction of the 11llknowns
Z,. Z1 ami Z,.
The magnHude of the..e:e displacl'.ments depends, of course. both.
00 lJlC "ite of the bracket and on the direttioll of the tlXClI u and v.
Let II~ ('/IOOse the~ )h'l.f:lllleters in such a way as to render nil all
the seeonclar)' displacemt'nt.<: of point b. lit that ('(ISOl encIL of till<
aooyt\ three l.qualions will contain only ono unknowll, these eqUA-
tions reducing to
Z ~'1'
'l=-~

Z~= _=o.2P (18.9)

~

Z,= >"
---r--
'"
Let us expn.$ mnthemaUcally the conditions governinl: our
choice of the tlfOreS3id parameters. llcnoting by U :\nd tI the coor-
dina\.es of an elemont d.~ of the Riven Slruclure (seoe Fig. 47.9) \!roe
may write
I _ _ f

6I t-- SM-U- ds .... S"'''41- 0

1,\!:
~-
o
,__ I
6 ~M\N'a ("1/.1d,_0
1'= J ---gr 5= ,) J -
0
,_- I
6 _("/lf2J1l~d;=~".ldl .... O
23 - . ) 1'.'1 ~ 8J
o
Dh'iding each of these Ihret' o:quatiolls hy E we obt:tin
,
~ U ~ -,,0
,
Sv ~ =0
,
~ vu ~ =0
It is fairly ensy to lind a

gtlom~trir-Ill iuI(.'rpretntion to the con-
ditions thus l!xpressed. IJldced, let us subdivide tll~ whole of OUl'
slructure into l'lellll'lll./l ds l:lnd let liS Ilpply al thl) wnln' of gravily
of each oI lilQ~ elCllll'ltts an imaginary load ~~. In lhul caR' tll('
fll'lit two of Lhc abo~c iJ\[cloCrals will ml'<H1 that lhc st"ti'~Il[ HlOUK'II[.-l
()f thes() imngilHu'y loads "bollt Ull\ coordinaLe axl'S U 111111 v ll(\vill!l'
fOk' origin poillt b arc nil. That willlHlJlpon only Wlll'1l poiut b coin-
l'idl'S with the centre of gravity of loads d; .
'fhl1 third 01 tho integrals

IIWflllS thut tlm Jlolur JIloment of the.~l' Jo;tlJllU loads ULUlll. puint "

FI/:. 18. [/

is equtll!y nil, tllis hl.'comin~ p0fi..'1il,1e only whell tht< c;oordilla[o :;IXOII
coineidn with tllC lll'illcillal fl::WS hf intlrlia of th,: !lystem.
It follows that all till' Sl'condury displace.menb' of a ~tructltl(' reduN-
dant in flu., tJtird d"gr('e oil/I forming (l closed contour will rr;d!l~c tll
zero provided l.he lieU' origin Of cflordlllaw aJ:e.~ i.~ brought in coirt(It/-i.'IIC(
with W (entre of gnwtly of the Imaginary /,oo.d.~ d; , and llu' (llrl'cUon
Of llu'se (lxcs-with that Of the principal (I.t<'.~ of inerlia (If tlte.'>4.' .Wl/n.e
l(lUIls. If the If/ven struclure Is sym.m~trlcal. thr; principal a.re.~ of ;1lI:rl/a
will colncidl' with the a:ws oj symme.try.
The origin of the Ilt'W {'ootdinah' >l.Xl1S IIlny ])(' dl'll;ll'loirUld usillg
forrnulns l)ro"id~d by tllcorej.ical mechanics: ~hll6', usi/lg ~hl.' JlOla-
tinns (If fig. 48.\1 ~l\e position of the centre u[ gravity of thl' 101\ds
~f will Lt, giVl"1 hy
, ,
Sz~~ ~y~.
.(0= ,I 110--,-- " (W.D)

I, ~ J" ~
10 each ca!!C the IlIJrlleraLor feproSlHlls till< !1um of the SLllticnl
Illomcnt.g of tho irnuginary loads d;
about some axis uf cuonlilllll118
(tho summation boingcarri~d over the whol(, length oJ the Cfll1tollr).
and the dl'llomillator l'qUtl[s the lotal o( these same loads.
t,:w A"al~fJ,' QI the Sfml'lu Sta/ic4IUy Ind~l ..mtlla(e Structures

1'11.0 angle formed. hy the principal axes of inertiu with the xaxis
is given by the following formula developed in tIu:: treatises on the
strength of material$

tan (20.9)
where

J~c~c= ~
\'
:r"VcJ I
d.)

J ~ I ds I
(21.9)
" ~ y:~
; J'
J lIe=8:z'<T

The irllllginary loads ~ arc soml'times caned Lho dO$/U: loads

or ma~ses find thc centro nf gravity of thesc ('-la~tit. rnaAANI-the
('IQstic T('llirl' 0/ gravity or simply the elQstic eel/tre.
It is 1I0t alway'<\ arlvillahle to resort to tJle method just dt:'sr.ribt'd.
Thus, for unsYlnmetric,fl1 systC'_ms ~he amount, of work requite'!l 1.0

fig. 19.9 f'it :;0.9

dctcrfllllW the p(j~il.ioll of Lhe nt'IV coordinate axef! may become 80

impuTlant that it will olll.weight. r,ompll'tely the advantages gainetl
frolll the ~implification of equations.
However. if t1w 8ll'ueture is endowed with AI, lellst 011(> axis uf
symmetry it may b~ stated ofT l.nnd that the method of the elastic
centre will yield tangible results. Somo examp!fls of such "tructul'CS
:11'0 given ill Fig. 119.9.
 9.9. /"(tu.n,u ~IMI Jor tM Si... ,.kr Rtdu.ndrwt ,';Jru.tlu.r,. 431

l'ruhlrm. Detfol'll'lino tbe po~ili<ln oJ Ihe ellstlf cenlre lor thp 1iJl,"l!t1 0",1 1I,~,b
of rig. foll.9. The neul....1 hoo 01 this arch f"lIo'A"l! .a fonie paralll.11I gi\en
or 11 """ ;:. (l - ".) rand H-ll ero~ljoDal Il1Ollll'nl.5 ut inertia vu)' fn\~ly
to f(\. If's
J _-.!..L
eo! Ifs
:< -

wllcrc J. -= m,IfOl'''~ of inortia of an arMtrsrr er05/! 5OCtion ".-ht,,!o al.sci""'ll

l'quals .t
J ....,. 0I0ltot of intrtia of rhl' rffiS4; 5e(tioll III Ihe crll1l'n of thl' 3r.-l.
't.. - ~ngJlI 'ot'med hy Iho tlUlgcul to the oN,tra] lille or lhe arrh pt poi"l
". with the axi~ of ahsei~~.
Soll,tlon. Start. wHh. o;lPtorrnining the r(,~i\ion (If the elll~tif, C,l'nln' wllh
rclereut\(' to thll COOro.lll/lto ue5 iZOV (Fig. 50.!!). Owing t<J the sYlIlmdl)' (,1111{'
strUT,ture bOlh as rPgMd~ it! dim('nsion! lInd the sliffMs.! of ils ero~, !'('('1l>lIlS.
one of thl' (oordinate l.XU is knnwn off haDll; it ill vort-icrd in dirl'Cthm ,mf!
ll:'s.-...' ll"oUl;h du;crown. 1'hHdo~. the- ahl;Ci!l!l u'lhe- el.:>!;tic cl'ntl'll:r, l'<Juflls.
~. As for tbll "rdin.te it ,... iIl be found using OIprl'!S.ion t19.9) nod remcullll!rillg

"'"
,
J .--- J
= ..
( 'I ..
J li"V-r)z7;"
I
_.!,
a
( d.
,
" J;

9.9. INFLUENCE LINES FOR THE SIMPLEH IIEDUf\'OAjI,T

STRUCfUHES
The eOllstrllcUon of inftuence lines ror redundanl structures may
Le ClI,rti\ld out u~ing bOLh the stat~lJl and the kinematic fOethod::.

n~. 51.9

Lel us compare both thc:!C methods using as all llnmple thu L(!aJO
of constant cross scetion ap~aring in "~ig. St.9a. The influence line
for the righthand abutment reaction will be obtained using as simple
stll:tically de:wrminate structure thll onl' shown in Fig. St.Ob. Till'
IItA nda rd equation ex prc~sillg that the denection of the la lI.~r IILrllchlre
.olong Xl ill Flil becomell

whcrcfl'mn

Xl ,-- - <\J' (22.!I)

0"
The dl,nl'diollS 6\1 and 6 tp will L(l derin'd froll! [,be M I aud tho
M" din!("rnm ... the first of thef;O di8gralJJ!i bf'ing duo to t.hfl al''P1ieal,ioJ)

of a lorHL unity along the direr-Lion of XI Hlld the ~ctlnd - to tho

1I11plicalion of load P = 1 a distance z from the wall.
Th('sc diagralllfl. appear in Fig. 52.~la and b.
Hence I i
",2(:~I_.rl
101

]nl,rodllC'ing lhl:~e valUN. in exprl;~sion (22.0) we nlltain

_ _ blf' ,%2 (31.-x)3RJ x~(31-"'1
X
1- b ll HElP 2P
TIll! abo"(l expl'1.'S'iiOII gives the "uluo of reactioll Xl fnl' any rosi-
tion or Ill\) load unity P alollg the beam and tlwrefnru the grltphkal
rcprt~scnLatioll of this f'xprcssion will con
stilnlt! the illnucme JiM for tho said rt'ac
tiolJ.
Tabl!:' 3.9 gives the ordinates 1.0 this
innncllCc line nt qURrler:;pan inerf'menl,s
CQmpulcd Ilsiug the i1bove cxprel'.'iiOI\ for X t.
The inl1111'I1CC Iinu il.sel[ is fl\prc:;ClLt~d in
Fig. 5.':J.tl.
Nuxt, ll't. liS take Ujl the illl1ucllcC line
Fig. 53.9 for lilt'- ~he"r Q(' acting at midspal1 of the
saint' bl'am. Bnscf] on the principle or
slJpurpositioll tllll magnitude of Lhis Shell!' will lIe
Qc=Qi:+QCXI (2:~.9)
 9.9. '''fluence Line! Jor the Simpler Redundant Slrudurn '33
Tabk 3_9

< 31_x X,
"
0 0 31 0
I

,
7,
j'

,.
16 ,
.!.!.l 128",
-".,
"2 T 2 16
,
~,
'"
Trf
i, l 81
128
,
I I'
"
wllcrc
Qt = shear at midspan oi the simple cantilever beam due to load
unity P
Qc = shear at the sam" cross section due to the abutment reaction
XI = 1. The value of Qc remains constant and eCIual te
-, (Qc ~ - 'j.
As for Qc wl10lI the load unity P is to the right of section C
Q&~1
and when i~ bas shirted to the 11lfL of this section
Q&~O
TIll.! influence line for Q~ is shown in Fig. 54.9.
The valu!:! of tho last term of expression (23.9) for any position
of load unity P is equal to the abutment reaction X t multiplied

j:: L..;...J....j..~LLt.(1
C
(, to " .,

Fig. !i4.9 Fig. 55.9

by (-1). The grapltical representation of this rdation is given in

Fig . .'55.9. Adding the ordinates to the influence lines for Q~ and
{or OcX I we obtain tIle inflllence line for tho filII shearing force
Qc actiJlg across section C of the redundant bell m (Fig. Sll,9).
'-8_8~3
 The influcnte lino for the bcndiug mO/llenl, <11. milJsplloll of Ihe sam@
OOlllll will be obtained in a similar W3Y. Indood, this bending rllUrttCll1.
is cqual to

when.'
Mc = hCllding IUOlncllt at ero",", sccLion C of the simple cll.IlLilc\'l.lr
heam illLlu(cd by tile 10:'111 lIuity P

, ..
~f.+ !,-ilL -4
~
'" !q{l= r",t! f(H' M~

. ...!.. ./ - ~ -"
~
~i
'"~~'
/,;~ ~ .: .: '::-'A
/lrfflR''lC('~

:;1..1l~
151' ,]1. 1 ,~
.'.~ t
FI,. SG.' Ff~. $~.9

Mc = oomling moment at the san,,; (;.ro~ J;l~tion IJut induced

by It unit I~d tiding along lite dirnc:tiou of Xl: lho ,'allle
of t1lis IX'm.lilrg /Iloment is cOllsttlnlly equal to f.
The. i"lllll\/lN) lilll1S for JIlt. {IS Wl,1I as for. M eX I aru n.rl'\'Sl'rll!~d
in fjg. ['7.!J. AdcUllK lheir ordinALcs tngclher \Ve obtain Lhe irrnUl'lICC
lino ror Mc Wig. 58. D).
The IIlcLho,1 jusL <Inscribed i" bll~'d 011 cOlllJirlcralion,,. or equilihri-
Ulllalone ~Illd \.Iwroforo iL lllay he Lermed IItllticnl.

Fig. $'.'
Let us replace now the del';eetion 61~ in exprcs:~ion (22.9) lJy bpl
as proviut'd for by the thcof('_m of reciprocal denl'ctiolls, Wc obtain

Xl = ',.
--r-
0"
(24.9)
 Though o,p ll.lId 6 p1 ore always Itl,lmericaUy equal they convey
vcry different ideas. Indet'd, o,p is the dcncction of a lixed point
oC applicolion of the force X I due to :) unit load P tra"clling along
the beam; at the samo tiwl' 6"1 is t.ho dencclion at the point of appli
catiun of a load P lrnvellillg along the beam. caused by a load unh)'
acting along the dimelion of X" Hence. the variation of 6p1 rep~
!entod grllphically will constitute at n certain scalc- til(' c1Mlic curve
of the beam subjected to the action of a load unity applil."d alolll:
tho direction oC X,_ However, if we divide all t.he ordiJlatcs to this
curve by It cunslant facloft'.quall.o (--6 j ,) we sll:!11 olllain the ordi-
nates to a grollh reprcscuUng the varintion oC X, wileu load unity
P travel" along the beam. 8y dcflnitiull this cOIl!<tihlt~ tho innUcrlC-b
line fur XI.
It foll\lw!llhat thc influence Iiru~ for XI will have thu same ~hnpc
as tho elastic curve of tlte simple stllticnlly determirlal,o strllcture
loadl'd by n lInit action following tllO direction of tlull unkllown.
In that case (-all) hceomt:s a sea III fllcLor permitting tho ('c)Over-
si on of tllo ordillat~s lo tllll doncctioll curvo to those of the desirod
illnUl'OCO line.
This pllrticular method or iuftuence linos construction shall bo
lormcd hercaflcr the kinematic rnethod.
For comparisoll, let liS lake up again the bealll of Fig. fi1.9a
lInd construct tlto inflncnce line for thl:l abutment reacLion X" usio~
the kinematie nleLhod based on equation (24.9).
The dencetion curve &pI will be obtained by t!lll graph-analytical
method of nwmcnts, which is usually dcscrilJtod in all the trclltiscs
on the streog~h of materials. In l\'lSt!nCe this method J)(lrmits to
replncll dencetioll c.olllputa~iQns by those of bending moments Mi~
ing in an imaginary beam cnrr}'irlg all imaginary IGad distributed
ill accordnnce wHh the diagram or the bendillg memenl!l eXistillg
in the rotal beam. The ordinali'll to the inulginary bending moment
curve arc tllen divided hy El. Such all imaginary beam with a load
dislribution corresponding to X t -= 1 is I1!ptCl'ellled in Fig. 59.9.
The magnitude of the bending mOltlont (divided by EJI in nny
cru~ st'ctioll ll[ tlte imaginnr)' !x-'l.In situated a distance r fro III ills
Jeft 1'Ild will 00
6 = _(..!!-!.
PI 23.
+ (I-.r.l~
237fT
I) I

whl.'rorrom
z'l
&1'1 =- - 6EJ (3l-x)
Tlle value ef t5 j >l obtainetl by tho kitlemntic method coincides ox-
actly with lhat of &t/> dedved from statical considerfltious. The
m:{:ut.ivc sign indicates thltt the rorco Xl will COlll;C Lhe boom 'or
28'
IjJG Anallllt' of the Simpler Stalically IlUu~rmlnale Structure,

Fig. 5t.9b to deflect upwards, whereas we have convened to reckon

the defloctions positive when their direction coincides with that
of their cause, Le., load P whic,h is directed downwards.
The valtle of Oil will he obtained raising' to the second power
M l graph (sce Fig. 52.9b)

Oil =3ET "

Hence the equation of the inRuence line for reaction Xl })(ocoroes
6 p1 ZZ (31 -z)
Xl - -~= 2!Z
This equation is exactly the same as the one obtained previously
by the statical method.
The kinematic method may be used with good results for the
construction of infiuC!nC6 lines for internal stresses acting in the

~
~
t--"!--,--'!--i .

Ftg.60.9 FIC. (;1.9

melllbers of redundant structures and in plll'ticular for the con~

struction of influcnce lines fOl' honding moments und shearing forces.
'rhus the influenco line for the bending moment could be obtained
by the method just described adopting for redundant reaction the
bending moment Mc acting at midspan of the simple staticaUy
determinate strllcture of Fig. 60.9. Tho equation expressing that
the mutual rotation of two contiguous sections to the right and
to the left of the hinge remains nil becomes
X,oll+6 IP =O or X I611 +6 pl =O
whcrefrom
X,= - - - '"'H
Consequently, in that case tbe- influence line for the bending-
moment ut midspan will have tho same shupe as the deDectioll line

- The vullle of 6 11 m,,)' ha dcrh"ed [rom that of <lp! st1b~tituti!lR I for Z !lnll
changing tho sign, for the load unit'05 X, and P ,1Te directly opposed,
 9.9. lllf!uqllr.e Lille' for the Simpler Re,bmdu"l $trw:.luru 437

of the simple strllcture adopted when acted upon by a unit momoot

applied at this same cross section.
The kinematic llillthod permits the easy determination of the
shape of the influence line for any action, this shape being tho same
as that of the elastic curve of the corresponding simple structure
loaded by a unit force or moment. This allalogy can be of consider-
able value both in checking the accuracy of innuence Hnes obtained

Pig. 62,9

by .some other method and in seeking those parl'! of the structure

which must be loaded in order to provide for maximum or minimum
values o[ the desired stress.
When using the kinematic method fOr the constrnction of shear
influence line the connection betw.'en tile right-hand and tIle left~
hand portions of the beam may bll represented by three bars as
shown in Fig, 61.9. The stress developed in the vertical bar will
have exactly tlte snme vnlue as the "hearing force at Lhe same cross
section.
The simplo staticallr determinate structure loaded with unit
forces X I pel'mitting the construction of the Qc infiueocc line ap-
pears in Fig, 62,9, and the (Iquations negating the existence of
a mutual displacement of two cross sections contiguous t.o C along
the line of action of X I arc of the form
X l l)ll+6 IP =O
wherefrom
Xj = "'Ip Of' XI=-~
6 1l 6 11
Thus, the influence line [or the sheac at sectiOll C will again fol~
low the shape of the deflection curve of the simple structure acted
upon by the load unity X t.
At points immediately to the right and to the left of section C
both branches of this curve will have parallel tangents, for the
horizontal connection bars preclucte the possibility of a mutual
rotation of the sections in question.
438 An"lv,j, "j I"t. Simpler SllJlle"lIv Itldtlumi''''I~ SttuclluO

'fbe rigbt-band part of t.bo beanl (see 'f"ig_ 62.9) is subjeeted to the
action of a load unity Xl tending to rollltc it ill a clockwise direc-
tion (Fig. 63.9a). '1'0 maintain it in equilibrium the moment dll"c-
loped by the horirontal bars must act in an opposito direction
and therefore t.he top bar will be extended "'nd the lower onc cum-
pressed (Fig. 63.9a). The same reasoning applying to the ler~-hand
portion of tho beam (Fig. 63.9b), iu top fihres will also be extended
and the lower compressed.
The deflection graphs 6"1 neces...~ry for the coustructiun of inOu-
",net! lines by the kinemalie method may be obtained using any

" Z' 3' " s'

of the procedures described allovc and ill particular the one wo have
Clllled the methoo of elastic loads (SCiJ, Arts. 11.8 10 13.8).
Tho kinom3tic method may be convtmiently uscd for thll c,onstruc-
lion of influence lines for stre.'lSCS or roactiol\.~ at thc supports of
staLically indeterminate lrussc.!t. As an example. let us tako tlte trH."S
redundant in thc llrst dcgroo appeario.g in Fig. 04.9. The ClO:'I.!t-
sectional areas of all the members of this truss are the same. The
corresponding simple sl8tically dewrminate structure is given ill
Fig. 65.9.
Tbe standard equation showing ~hat the displacement along t.he
line of actioll of the redundant oonstraillt Xl is nillakcs the shape
;'(.611 +6 u'-0
",Iu~r('rrotn
ll.p llpt
XI"" - - .It- - - - ,11-
Tho variation of 6 I whell load ullity P travl'ls alollg tile lower
chord of the truss .....n(coincidc with the denl'Ctioll cu.rve of tile :same
chord of the simplo strncture subjected to the actiOlI of II unit load
X . The nrdinates to tllis curve at. all the joints haye been complLtcd
ill Art. 13.8 using the elastic loads method, and th" curve itself
is represented in Fig. 45.8. All these ordinate~ are negative ror under
the action of X. the lower chord tends to move upwards whil" load
IInil.V P is directed downward!:!. Tho infiucnoo tine for X I obtained
by dividiflg the ordillnlcs to the 0"1 curve by (-/)11) is repr~slllllcd
in Fi\:. G6.!.1. Thus, t.hi~ infi"enCQ line will diITer from the IlcflCClion
curve 01 "I~ silllple structure only by a con:stnnt factor equal to
( - 6:.) . As lor t.he value of t.his radar. it will be ea"i1y found by
$.~l)li"g off the value of 6j11 aL the poillt of application or the IO;ld XI_

I",~;' ': :
{"~ii
,, " ..l.x/,I
., I ."
I Influence line {or X, :

~
j:l:il
,
I I , I
,'
43ft. a.m 1 am am 3311.1
i 1" 6 t 6
F~. 66.9 Pi,_ 6;.9
Ollce Lhe influence lille 101' Lho reaction at the rodundnnt Support
btl:s been found. the stresses in all the members of tho trui'lS will
be I'l'xulily obtained Ilsing the well~known exprcS5ion based on the
prillripl{' of supcrpositiOIl
Nj=Nf+N,X t
where Nf = streS:l ill bar i resulting from the application to the
simpl" structure of the actual load
NI -= stress ill the same member rosulting from tho appli-
cation to thu same structure of the unit lond Xl-

l"f~ linr (Qr Lu'~,

'~G
~ JllfWenc,:'Unt!(DrLu"j'

~
"t.>
~
40Jt OOJZ
1'1&_ (Jl( 9 FI,.69. 9

h_ r,,!lows that the inOueDce liDO for the stress N, lOa)' be olltajn~
by the !il1rnmdiulI of tha ordinates to the two other i1lnuencc Iinlls.
tltAt for Nf antt that for N,}(to
To illustrate the abov{'. le~ UJl constrllct the influence Jil1e for
Stf1lS5 L Z3 acting in one (If the lOwer dlOrtt members or Llll,! same
lruSiI (see Fig. (j4.9).
 U!ing the cxpf'OS!Iion just. mentioned we may wrile
Lu=Li.+luXl
In order to obtain thc infiuCllte line Cor both terms of the ril!ht.-
hand part. of thit; equation let us pass SPetion I-I as in Fig. G7.9.
Assuming t.hat. load u.llHy P is tll
the right of this section, the cqlli-
libriUlll of the left portion of t1u.~
t.russ rcquiros that
l:M3' =A-3d-Lf.h=O
whl!rcrroIU
l' A3d 9
LU=-h--T A
The right-hand part of t.he in-
Ducnce linc for L~ will be obt...lincd
set.t.ing off along t.he vert.ical }>ass-
ing through the left. support an
ordinate equal t.o -= i and con-
nect.ing this point wit.h thc point
of %eto ordinate over the right
abut.nulnt. The ltlft-hand portion
Ft,. 70.9 of the same inRuence line will be
drawn remembC'Iing t.hat the tWI)
a1ways intersect. in t.be vertiea! passing through tbe origi n of roo meIlL,'!.
The completod influence line for Lf. pertaining to t.he silllpl",
strneture of Fig. 07.9a is given in Fig. 67.9b.
This same influence IilJe shows that the stress induccd in bar 2-3
by tho unit load X I will equal - i.
Multiplying by this facLor all the ordinates to the inRutmce line
for X I given ill Fig. 66.9, wc obtain a graphical inl.crpretation
of t.bo variation of l,-,x l or, in other words, the infiuenee linc for
thl.' Sl.'Cond l.crm of our eCfUat.ion (Fig. 68.9). Summing up the ordi-
nates to t.he influence Iioc for Lfa with those t.o the influencl.' line
for LuX , we obUin the influence line fnr the stress developed in
bar 2-3 o[ the redundant truss. Tbis influence line appears in
fig. 69.9.
The influence lino for the stress D3~ obtained by the sanu~ proce-
dure is shown in Fig. 70.9.
 10. CONTINUOUS BEAMS

1.10. THEOIlEM OF THREE MOAHiN1'S

A cOntinuous beam il a statically tndtterrnl.nau multlspan be(/m

on hinged supports. The cnd spans may be cantilever, may be In.'Clr
supportad or built ill. At least one of tho supports of a cont.illuoll..~
beam must be able to develop a reaction along the beam axis.
Fig. 1.1Oa represents several spans of a continuous beam carry-
illg an arbitrary s)''''\em of vertical loads. The supports will !Je IlUlll-
bered from leCl. to right 0.1.2.3, .. " n -1, It. n + 1. ole.
and the iocluded spans will be designated by lh 12 13 . . . . _, t R _I> I...
l~." olc., the index of each span coinciding with that 01 its righl-
band support. It will be assumed that the mOloon!. of inertia rcmaillt;
COnstSllt within each span. hut may vary from one 8pnn tu the olItN.
A conjugate statically determinate system for a continuous heUlu
may be obtained by elimination of constrllints considorcd as'1}dull-
daat which prevent mutual rotation of two contiguous soctiulls
oYer the supports or puttlng it otherwise, by the introduction of
a hinge at each of these supports as Indicated iu Fig. 1.101,..
The equation, expressing mathematically that the an~lcs of
rotation or the aforementioned SC'CtiOIlS o\'er the supports one With
I"{'s()e(~t to the other remain nil. will be of the following form

'" X_,6".n_~+Xn_la... _1 +X..6..... +X~t16" ...t1 +

+X".. :6... "H+ ... --7.1."p"'O (1.10)

The COOffiCiCnt.5 to all tho unknown!! as well as the fret terlll will
he calculated with the aid of diagram.5 of the oonding mOfllcllLs
induced by unit couples acting along the direction of each redun
dant constraint (Fig. LiCe, d, 1:, I, g) and of that due to tile 8ctual
loads Wig. 1.IOh). all rererred to the system of cnd-supported Call'
jugale beams.
Thus, the coefficients 6~. h-2, 6", ~-l. 6". ", On. n+It 6", ,,+~ will
be ol,ltlillt.'d multiplying the M" dillgrlllll (Pig. 1.tOc) Ly t1l051"
("

, ~,

,"

i,j I

I. ,

,"

r.!

,w
'"~
~~ It,, '"
t~.,~-1J.. , ,,"'btJ

Fig. 1.10
 1.10. 1'1",orNn of TIlrn J,fOr1ltnl&

for l1f"_2' !dIP_I> ,if,,, jlf"+l Hud !1{n+z (sell Fig. 1.10r, d, e. f, g)
&n,,,_z=O
1
6n.'I-I= 8~n .1. ; '+.1=~~~"
A
'-'1,.,,= '(1
El"
'0 2 1)
"2';1'
+ EI"+1
' (1 I,,+-!
'-,-'S'
2 1) 21 n
=61"
+ 1;IU,,+1
21"+1
, 1 (1 Infl 1) 1,,+,
V",Il~l= t:1"H . 2X3' = 1ie'/n+1
O",IIU=O
IT{l.llct', all till:' coefficienls Lo Llw unkul.IwlIs ill l'quaLioll (1.10)
wilh Lhe c:xcepl-ioll of the coeml'ie"ts 6n."~I' iJ"'/l' Hud f',,,."+l re-
duce to zero.
'I'h:'_ mullipUc8tion of the .1,1'" graph (Fig. LiOe) by LIlO Mp I-\rUllh
(Fig, 1.1Oh) yil\lds lhe following value ror the freo tl'rrn of tho ,dJOVll
oqllatioll
, ,
8 np = 1" ~2"y,,+ /.... 1 Q""'IY'lil
In this expression On and Q nH tire the Hrl!-IlS of the M" diagram
ov<!'C the In llnd the 1"+1 spans (see Fig. 1.10h), while Yn lllld Y,O+I
;'n' the ordinates t.o the llf" graph measured over Uw ccnlroicls
or ~2n HUrl n,,+l, respectively,
From Fig. 1.10/1 and h we draw

and accordillgly

<,'."1" SM
8,. =~+ ,,+I.fI+1
P EI"ln EI"+ll"H
where S;~r',,_j = static moment of On about the n'rtic,,! }lassillg
throu&,h the loft-hand support of span l"
S: +1. ,,+1 = sLntiG moment of 0"+1 abollt Lho \-"crltcnl Pll~sillg
through the right-halld support of spnll in+l'
The signs of these static moments will be Lho .'lame
liS tholi't\ of the corresponding graph arcus.
SubstiLuting the value-oS thus found in equation (1.10) and co1-
Jccli ng L1u;, terms we find
GS M G1'\/
X '0
"-1'7;;
+2X ( In + IMj ) .
"-:r;; 1"+1 T
X I".,.. ~
n+L I,,+-! - -
~
l"J" -
L"+I ..... I
f'l+IJn+L
 Cotlli'WUU3 Beams

As the unknowns X n_" X n and X n+ l repl'esent the bending mo-

rncnLs at the supports oj the redundant beam M .._b M n and "'1"+1>
respectiveLy, the ahove equation, universally known as tho oquation
of Ulree momonts, will take the followiull form

M
. . .-I
~+2M
In n
(..!.!L.+~)
In J".<I
+.M"~l ...!..2..:tL=
'''tl

tiS~."_1 (j' \/
II-tl.>t-tl
=-~- (2.10)
ill"', n rl
J[ the cross-!<cctiOllal areas of fill tlw SI};UIS of tJw beam remain
constant, Lo., if 1"_1= 1 n_1 =J,,=1"+I =1,,+:, olc., the equation
of t hroo momen ts bel',QJncs
l\S~-t'. " .. ,
(3.10)
1"_1

The rigllt-hand part o( equlltion (3.10) is equal to six times the

imaJ;inary reaction Rn which would arise al the nth supput't of
the conjugate system oE eJld~supporteJ beams if the SPilUS colltig-
1I01U1 to that support were Joad~~d with t1,e ilreas of the bending
moment diagrams due to the actual loads acting over these same
spans (see Fig. 1.10h). This reactioll will be reckoned positive whon
the loads just mentiollcd cause nn extension of the lower ftIJres of
tllO beams. Equation (3.10) becomes then
(,'1.10)
whem JU I,. ;lIe. ,HId .lfn stand for the 1ll0lfU.'.III.s ,l\'('r the left-hand,
llw central and the right-halld supports, l" anu lR for the ]onjZth
of the spans to the left and to the right of the contra I support. and
RL for the ima~inary reaction of t.he cenlral support. All thl' three
equations (2.10), (3.10) nnd (4.10) are known undl'r the nallle of
equatiOl/s of Ihree nl()ments. Ellch of them expresses the idea that
the mutual angular rotation of two adjacent cross sections over
the nth support is lliL Therefore the equatiolls relate pllrticularly
to this nth support.
At the same time each of these eqnations establishes tlte relation
between the IJl'-nding moments acting ovor three consecutive sup-
ports o~ the GOlltinllOlls beam. 'file number of such equations that
C.;lll be written for a beam, all the supports of which are hinged,
will be exactly equal to the number o[ the intermediate supports.
The simuHaneolls solutioll of these equations will yield all the values
of the unknown bending moments a~ tbese supports.
The system formed by all die equatiofls of three moments cOlIsti-
tutes a particular form of the system of canonical equations. Its
 01
1.10. ThMJrtm Thrtt Monunts

great advantage residl.'s in the fact that it necessitates neither the

'"
construction of unit moment grapbs nor tlte computation of the
displacemellts caused hy the unit actions and the actual loads,
simplifying thereby very considerably the analysis of continuous
beams.
When all the moments at the supports are known one may proceed
with tbe determination of bending moments within the spans,
of the shears and of the reactions developed at each support. These
computations will be carried out assuming that eaeh span is simply
supported at its ends and is acted upon
both lly the applied loads I'od the moments
at t110 supporls just determined. Thl! fol- 0r;n-I
lowing expressions will be used
dx
M=Mo+M n_1 + AI" j~~J"_l x (5,10)
D"
Q = Q~ + 'U n 1~\J"_1 (6.10) I

where x is the distance from the left-band

~llpport DE tltis span. These same expres-
sions may be used for the coustrucLion of
the corresponding dingrams.
TIle support reactions D" will be deter
mined as follows; isolating 3n infinitely
FIg. 2.10
sm3ll element ovel' the support under con-
sideration from the rest of the beam wo
see that the left face of this element is actod upon by the she:lf Qn. n-l
while its right face by the shear Qn.n+l' Such an clement iil rep-
rescnted in Fig. 2.10a. Projecting on tha.1vertiC31 all the rore.e!:!
acting on this element we obtain
Q",n-l+ D,,-Qn.n+t =0
whcrefrom
Dn=Q",n+l-Qn,n-, (7.10)
In tho above expressions reactions D" Me reckoned positive when
directed upwards.
Thus, in a continuous beam the react/on at allY support is equal
to the ditfere1u:e between the shears acting ouer two contiguous cross
sectiolls l~atp.d both sides 0/ the support under consideratiol~. Hence
the numerical value 0/ this reaction will be equal to the rise or to the
fall in the shear diagram over the corresponding support (Fig. 2.10b).
The Same reaction D" may be obtained if both spans meeting
over the support in question are regarded a~ simple end-supported
beams (Fig. 3.10), these beams being acted upon hoth hy the actual
loads and the momellLs al. tlie !mpports already determined. In
this case reaction D... will be givoll by thl:! l'lum of D... " de\'eloped
al lIle right end of tile lefl-hand beam and of D"n de\'l:!loped at tht!
le(t ond o( the right.hand beam or, ill other words
D... =D.~L+D.n (8.10)
in this l!J.:pn.'5Sion
D,,1.-
-D'"I. +M"_t- M,, }
lIt
IV.tO)
- nR + MMt-
ltf
D nn -D" I"-+-I
"

WhN'C D~, D~'L l\ntl O:n are the reactions at the common supports
or bulh hell Ins due solely lo the action ot ncLual lonrls, the lll.'i1ding
IUlJlIIcnls at Lhe snpports hcillg disrcgnrded,"

(;:', ===j=~~:='==~~;~;irI~;;':::'===:;,.:.;, ====;t~~1

.1';-'
r-t ... _~,"~

Fir. 1.10

Inll'ndll('illg tho "nInes givcn by expr~sions (RIO) in equation

(M.10) w(' uhlnill
D" +.0:nn +il1,,_t-
D.........1. In
M,,+,U""1 ,11"
Ill+!
(to. 10)

Dot" r.muul:l,.!t (7.10) and (to.10) permit. the COI1lPUtlllioll of all

the Sllpport rencLin"s of the continuous hcam when lht! monu.'lll:s
nt the l'upports ArC known. The renclioll at Lhe support of n r.anti-
!lwCN'nd spau will bo determined using expression (7.10) or, in
other words, cornpulinJ: !.he differenetl between the shears actillJ;:'
on both sidi'.'5 of this support.. It will he remembered that the shearing
force tIC_ting at the snpport of a canli!c.\'cr "ea m is 8!WtlyS equnl
to thE' projec1ion of all forces acting 011 "hi:;. benm in tile direction
normal 10 iL." axis.

'Tlro magnilutl~ of n~f' lint! D"R could AI.'loO 11(\ deducl"l 'rum the equilib
dUIlI (" lire end-!UPllOrtol benm~ just rnijnlihnt'll,
 TI'~()r~m Thr~~ M()m~"t~
1.10. of

Let us now exumine tllO l'OnlillllOml bE:'am npPclHing ill lcjg. 4.1011-
""
when the kngth of the lert-end spun of this boom reauC('s grilClIli'llly
to zero. In this C;lse the. t~nge,nt to t.he elast.ic curve at. the- lcfl,
hand snppOtl will also lend towards the axis of the beam (Fig. !i.tOb)"
which indicalE'S that tilt" aoss section over supporL .I will SHiTC;I'
no rotilUnll whatsoc\'N. This means that the end of the heam Ilpp1'1l1'-
inl! ill ,Fig. 4..lOrl Jlt1COIll{'S flxeo when the length II or its clld spall
teillls towards zel"o (Fig . .".10c).
lL fol1ow:s th;ll the anaL!lsis of continuous beam.~ with fixed ends
nWoy be ca.rried out using the same equation 01 three moments, pruvidrrr

a built-in "'Id is rf:'pwed by (UI nddltiona.L freely supported ,~pan (iF

Zl'TfJ lmgth.
Coll('1mlinl! we lllay recomml'llil 1,lll' lolltlwing sequel Ice or 0l){'!'-
at.ions for t1l0_ analysis of ("olltinu(}us bcams:
1. Trac.o It schemal.ic drawing of tlte be.'lm iI1dicating nil the
npplied loads. Jf one of the cnd spans or the beam i!j built in, rt'plilc~
the huilt-in end by Ml aMlitiOllill simply supported Sp:UI of zero
length.
2. Nllmbcr from le(t lo right all the supports as well as 1111 HIt"
Sp;U1S.
3. 'Write (or each intermediate supporl 01 tho heam an cquntioll
of three momentS.
4. Pruceea with thc simultanoous solution of all these equation,':
obtainiug thus tho magnitude of all the b(lllding moments at the
supports (except the end ones wJlich remain zero),
5. Dute-rrninc the bl'ndiug moments and the shears along till'
spalls uSill:' expressions (,'dO) and (0.10) thus obtaining aU Lhe dalu
nece!lsary for the construction of stress diagrams.
4"

5. Compute all ~he support reactions using expressions (7.iO)

or (to. to).
7. The accuncy of the diagrams obtained will he checked using
one.of tbe methods described io Art. 6.9.
!'nlblem I. Trace Lhe M ...ad Q d~(I',ams for a eontiDllOUS ba_m or connant
Cro:!S ~tion r(l~n~d in Fig. a.UN.

~
'" - l!iil'!I~~'I'

1\1'=
o .t:raph

'"'="9!fcd
(d, '4QI!"JJi&
" !
,.i"
- !
~
ill" I ,11" ...,

Fit_ S.10

$01,,'1011. Construct tho M, diararn ~garding @/lob ~pan U I uparate

cad-supported bum (Fig. 5.t06) an form for support 1 tbe equation of three
1n000l!nls. Expr~ion (4.10) loads to
MoJl+2I\1 (11+12)+M sI1"" _6R~
The lie_m IlCllng symmetrical and symmltricll1r Juadcd, thC' momllnU over
supports 1 and 2 will hBve the MinD V.lll~. which means that M, - /lfz
In nddillon wo hnvG MD - 0 and I, '"" 11. - t.
 lIence
'"

wh~rerroOl

SPI
M t =M'lr=-""1O

B(l~h l.x!mling mOmW1U Al, and ,ut tl.l1..., obtained being negativo. ~he top
libre~ r,yer ~he supports will be extended and thl" botlom Ol\~ c01llpreSBfd.
III order to construet the bending moment di3~ram let us determino /lO\',' tho
moment III load ]loint P using formula (5.10)

SPI ( SPI)
M I ... !2_~+ -----;w- -471 ...!..", 71'1
.! 4 'RI I 2.w
Knowing the \'altlCS o( tho bending lllOlDtnts at the suppot"ts as '!I'tll as Ihat
of t"'"
U'.... lumt illl the middle of the t<t'Dtr:a1 Span ."0 un proceed ...ith lhe ('In-
~trmti'ln of !hI' bMding mOlDf..Dt .Jiagram rot
tho whole beam (Fig. 5 Ilkl.
,H the !>IImf limf' oxpression (6.10) permil$ the calculation of '!hurl"g foreM
lit nil the Ctm<!i ~o:('llons of the beam.
Th\l~. for tlte !Pllll 01 \lie find
'PI 0
-"40- 3P
Q,,_O+ I ---;w
HId f." tbe span 1-2 W(l hevll bcLw"olJ support J alld tbe hl1ld 1!(llIlt
-3PI ( SPI)
Q_~+ 40"- -'""4U .... !.-
, I ,
'rh" IllxH"lJ d/lll are 5Uffieiont for tlle constn.etion Ilf lhe lefL half 01 the shur
,1;'1:1"'11 apIl('lIring in Fig. 5.10.1. Thill diagram bcing 5}'mmetrieal. it~ rigllL
half will Iw 01lt1l.inf'd immCdill.!!ly. The n:oac.lllins al the supports .....ill I.oc gl\'(~n
1,) e][pt~<)n l.i .10\
3P 3P
D,_ ~""'--:w-O---W
Dl-lJ.a=;-(-~)-z:.:
Fig. 5.11U represonlS the given beam toge'h8l'" with all the load' IIAd rexllou~
ocUlIg Lhereupon. It is ohvlOll5 lbat the wholo sy5tem is iD equilibrium.
Let USChKk the aur.ef III tbe M di3gram which must provide for dellections
r.onsistt>nt with the aUpulnlons or 'he problem. Since the boam ud tbe load
distributiun lire symmetrieal, the angular roution "11 of the cross !lee1ion lit IOlld
point must equll tero. The value of this r01ntion can be obuinoo eliminating
supporb 2 and a and npplying to the simple !tlllieally dotenninate ~yltem thus
29_5~.1
 450 Conllnuou, Blom,

obtained a unit 1l10men~ at loall p()int P. The btmding OlOlOent diagl'l:lm duo
to ~hi5 unit moment appears in Fig. 5.tOf. :\Iultiplying this graph hy tho l>.)lIlllng
mom..lI! graph due to the Mtual loads nod reactions (Pig. 5.10c) we ol,tllin

l'p_ ;J [- 3':;/ 'I~'-} '+ (7:01- 3;/ ) ~ -{.IJ-

= "~~~J (-I+f-~)-o
which indicales II,at aU the computations were carriel[ oul llccurately.

Problem 2. Construct the At and Q diagrams for Iha contiuuous beam appear-
jog in Fig. I}.lOo; the cross-se<:Uond areas or this oo.1ffi \'nry from span to spnn.
SoluUon. The schematic drawing of the beam wit]\ Its built-ill end Toplnel'd
b~' an additional span of zero length and all the supports and spans duly num-
bered from left to right appears in Fig. 6.10b. The !.elms of tbe right-haml part
of the equation of tllrre moments wilL be derived from the diagrams of the bend-
ing momeDt~ dUll to tllll actual loading, considering each spaD 8S 8 lIoe]Jarate
end-supported beam (Pig. 6.10r). The diagram for the cantilevering cnd will
h~ coMtrllcl,;d in the same way as for a simple caoUlever beam,
The bending moment M f heing equal to -5 ton-metres (sell .'ig. 6.tO~),
the only two unknown moments are those at the lirst and second SUI,porls
(lIf l and Mz). The equations of three moments for these two supports are
/of '_1
__ I +:!M
J
I
(_. +_')
l
+M~ _,
I 65'\( Moll
~_---2.L:.
I, . I, 12 Iz Ill] IZl z
M
if I I I I 65 65.\1
-~+2M2 (_2 +...l...)+Ma_J =_~_....:...ii2

.~'l'illg
13~1
.12 12

that Mo=O: M a =-:> ton-metJ't)s; ll=O;

and 5':0=11 we fllll!
la J~ 12 /
~_!lm;
2 la/3
h~4m;
'
1 2 =2/;

s~~ 2=< _5i 3(3+}) + 5; 3,f.3= _1$

\/ 5x3 2
S~:I---2-33+--;r--
5X3( 3+ ' ) ~15
7
Sll 3'(" 4 3 I, 2, 3
.1, 3-""""2'"2+"2' 2T~7,=18
CLms0'1lU'lltl~'
2Ml;+ltI 6 6(-15)
"'IT :y""-(;x'U
Ml 2M: (6 ti+
+-"-)_5X4=_I'Xt5_liX18
U 2J J J !iV 41
Upon collection of krms and other sfmplilications th('S4) two Olllluljo)lS
b(~l'm<l

4MI +2M2=S and 6M 1+28M:=-2!1

these two a'1~aUons yield M j = 1.98 ton-mottOs nnd /If: = -IAG ton-melr'.'s.
The bendmg moments acting along the spans may now be easily founrl usinR
t>xprcssiOIl (5.10), those acting nlong lhe cantilevar span are already known.
 '.,
Span 1-2
fur O...;.x"";:im
lor x,.. 31U M_J.\I8_2.24x3 __ ol.74 tOll_mE.'ll'<'s

fur 3 JIl ---"'''''- (; III M= 10-1- x+ 1.98+ - 1.4~-I.!)S %=11.98-2.24%

for x_:-I m M =11.98-2.21, X 3_5.26 lon-mctn:'~
fot' z=6 m M ... II.98-2.VixG __ t.46 t!)n~lllltn:S
Span 2J

for V .... x<2 ill

= -1.46-:-3.615;,;-1.5;,.1
Cor %",,2 m )[ _ -1.46+3.fH5 X 2-1.5 X 21 ... -0. 23 Ion_metra
for 2 m...;;(....;4 III M=<4,5z-3X2(.r-l)-1.4G+

+ -5+1.46
" , 2'"
z_ .54- .<>05.1'
for %-2 m M =4.54-2.385 X 2... -O.:t3 ton-metro
for x=4 m M_4.54_2.38,'lX/.= -5.00 ton-metres
The cOlllplelc>d henuing moment diagtlUll is l1~pre'letllcd in Fig. 6.101.
The rnHgniturle of th{\ ~hearing forces acting within the spans will 00 given
IJy thl.'_ first derivative of tbe expressions Obl-Bine,d fo," thE.' bending lIloml.',nt.
Span 12
Q_ _ 2.2,s tons
S f>ll" 2';;
for O"';:x~2 m Q_3.GI5_3.z
for ..,,,,,0 Q=-3.Gla LOllS
ror :I:=>2 m Q-3.6t5-SX2"" -2.385 tons
T11" sh,;o!"ing [ore" will ooeom.) 1.ero aL tb~.' rrOss eoctiOll determln'.'d by
Q_3.615_3%_0
\\'herdrom
3.f>l5
___ ,_=I.Gv,'
rJ\" ml'trt's

At ll,is cross ~.".::t;OIl the lK'lId;llg moment will rt'ach its DlRximum ~
lIJ m"x": - t ,l,li+3. 6t;, X 1. 2{l5- t.5 X 1.205~ _ O. 72 tun.metre
2 JI1 ~z<4 m Q= -2.385 tons
Y'be ~bearillg force diagram constructed using the abo,-e dato ;~ reflre-
~ented in Fig. 6.t~.

+
~ By Illa:dnlum we mean here any point corresponding to a horizontaL t&n-
~nl loO the bending moment curve.
 COlltillu.oUS lJ~I"'"

The. rtnctionsaL t.he~PJlOl"1will be obwiDed as pre"jllusy u!.lng formula (1.10)

JJ, __ 2.2-i tons; Dz ... 3.61S-(-2.21,,,,,S.tiSS t.<>n~
1l3_S_{_2.385)_7.38.'i WIlS

L,l
"
/,
,, ,,
, ,,
,,
'JI~

,: ,I
.,.,.
~
,
,::u.. I ,,
I S~"I1

~~~ ,,,
.' e).. ~

~ I
J,'!, $; ,
1
", -,
,,
.-,
f---t'~<~'-"-_:."~'
J
'.'
':';"'~"'~'----'ifIIT't'['i'['\--_-"f----1

F,&. 6.10
l--i~ r'.WI rt'plfI.."ents OK' ~am ""i1h all till! IMds and rl'K1ious llc1illg
thi'l'('tJn. 1..[ 1I~ dU'ck whctbu tho I'lluilibriUD:I e.)ndition~ a'" lIlltilifx><l
1:)' ... -20.24+5.855 +7.385-3 X 2-5_13.24_13.24 ..... 0
I:M I = 1.~~+I{'l-5.833 X IJ -7.385 X 10+3X 2x 7..;
+5Xll-t08 9Il-I08.!lS._O
 2,10. 1'i". 1'00,,1 PuirtU M~thud

Let us coLl~I'ol al~ tho :l\:Cur~cy o( the M diagrarn using the mellro",l IJn"od
on the con~istelle~' of deflections. For Ihis purpo:iQlet us eompute thQ dIlO\.etion
of the scetion siLuated directly over support 9. ThIs defloot,lon mu~ be IJl'l;l!&'!lI,r-
ily nH. the support pr('t,\nllilll:l any vertical movement of tho hc~"j. 1'110
bendinlli mOIDlIllt dingrolll indu~d by (t vertical unl~ load acting n,t HII.' cm'ru-
spondiog seclion of 1\ simple statlollly de.terminate bealIJ {oblaillcll IN elimi-
nation or supports It and 9) is repre!!Cnted in Fig. u.IOg, MultiplyiJlg the \,rdi-
nnlos to the. ClIHO of the 1'l;\~11It3nl m<>IDl'uts M by th\! Ili,,-!:r3m c,f Fill_ IdOg
we ob~ain

C)s=-f t- 2 X 10 X 1.\l8+2X i X 4. 74+10 Xl,. 7/j-7 X I 981 J'.

X 2~J+~{-~XiX5.26+2X4X1.46+7'<1 !itl-!.)<'5 26)

x 2~J ..,...~-~2X4XJ.4C.+2X2XO.23+4XO.23+~.x1 .\{il/)j-

. ~ 4+2 1 2X2 ( . 2 1) 1
-lx5X2: X ::r X -,-XEl+--r- X O. 23X :r!-$X"3 J;;J~

_ -'-, \15.075-t8.t95 +5.48-6 +3.(1) =0

E
whkh in,lica\.(;s that all I,he computation,g were carried out corn'Ct1r

2.tO. THE FOCAL POINTS METHOD

The method described in the present art.icle becomes particularly
illtl:!rllsting whell continuous beams with 1\ very large lLUmber of spans
must be dealt with 01' when only a few of Lhe spans carry Lhe loads.

Fig. 7.1rJ

Let us examiuE.' the beam o( collstant cross section appeariog' ill

Fig. 7.10a assuming tllat only the nth span is loaded. We may
eliminate all the redundant constrainLs opposing mutunl rotation
of adjacent cross sections at the supports, provided 1\"0 replace
these coru;traint! by the corresponding bendin~ JlI0mCIIL'l which
are as yet unknnwn. In order to find these momenlS let U3 write
consecutivel}' the cqullti(lllS (If three Inoments for each uf the l:lUp
porLs.
(a) Support 1
The equatioll of thrc(' momQIlL" becoJl\('s
M ol,+2M,(II+I,) IM;lz=O
hut since Mo-O

hence
Mz 2(l,I-I;l K
"JT;" = - It :so - ~

The latter rel:'Ition shows thal

(t) tlte bending mom('nts ftf l nnd M,! at two .. ei~hbouring supports
are of opposite signs;
(2) the ralio ~:: depends solely un spall I~ngth~ L1 AlId L2 , bul
i~ completely tlninfluenced by the magnitude of lhe moments and
loads acting along lhe spans furtJler to the right.
In the P1lrticulllr CAse wilen L1 = L1 lhe (lIelm Kt hecome." equal
to 4, or. in other words. the hending moment ,1f z is ill ah.~lllttl value
four timcs 31'1 large as the bending moment Af!.
The hClldiug rIlom(lnt diagram for span lz has the shape indical
od in Fig. 7.tOb. This diagram shows that in the I('lt hi4lf of the
spall there L" a point wltere the bending moment Lecomt:\s zero.
This point i~ kliQwn :I!I the Ieft-fumd focal point of the second span
and will be hereaftur d('signa~ed by P~. 'fhe location of this point
alollg the :opan depends on the value of Kz which we llhall call the
kft-hnnd f0(;4I factor for the secood Spall. The location of the focal
point rernaill~ unillnmmced by the len~ths o( the !'pnlLS f(ll'ther to
the right, nor by the J03.ds these span.s may carry. The bending
IIlQOIf'llts at the first ;'Ind second supporL.ct may vary ill terms b4Jth
of the amount :lIld of Lhe distribution of the loads, IJIlt the rotio
betwCt'1l Lhe.~ moments will remain constant as long as tllt:l spans
Il :lnd 11 remain unloaded_ Consequently, the bending momml at
tk focal point Pt will rnnain aIway$ ml w1un the lat~r condition is
fut(ilkd.
Tile dist:ulr,eu; between the focal point F z and the llearest support
to tlle left i~ given by

u'=t+K~---"-
 2.JO. Tit, Focal Poilll. M,lllod

alld in the p:\rticular case whco 11 = 1s = 1

'"
ut=sl
(b) Su.pport 2
The equntiOIl of three moments becornl;lS
M 1l z + 2M2 (1.+I 3 ) + M,l~ ... 0
SlllJ~lituting in tlds equation M 1 = -4:;- we find
- ~: 1:+ 2M, (1:+l,)..I-.1I,1,=0
wherefrom
~=-[2+~ (2-;!)]=-K,
It is clear that the ratio ;~~ is again independent of the length
of the spans /ttrtMr to the right as well as of tho loads applied to
these spans. The shape of the bending moment diagram along the
third span will he as shown in Fig. 7.tOc. Within the Idt half of
this span there will again exist a focal point where the bending
mOlllent will remBin zero as long as three spans 110 l. and I, remain
unlOAded.
Cc) Support 3
The f.'quatioll of three moments will be in this case
;\[.1:.+ 2.1\1. (1,+ '1)+ M4l i IC 0
Substituting in this equation -~ lorTM. we oLtain as pre~
., .
\'iously

z: =-[2+7;-(2-i)J= -K 4
Thus, the foelll factor for span 4 will he given by exactly the
!',."lme expression as the one for span 9 with the only difference thnt
nil t}le intervening indices are increased hy one. Consoquently,
tht' general cxpression for the focal factor Kit relative to the left~
hlOnd focal 110int of span n will be
K._[2+''
1;"
(2--')]
K._
__ M._
-"-'-1 1
(tLtO)
Tilt! above expression permits the computation of all the focal
factors ooe "Hl.'r tbll other. 'l'hus, for the first span of a simply
5uppurtcd ('ontinuous beam we have
M,
M~= O a.nd K I=-M~--OQ
which indicatl'S that the left~hand focal point of the lirs~ span
coincides witb. the left-end support. For the sl"cond span wo
obtain as already illt'Htioned
K3=2+~
Iz
(2-..!.)
00
=2(ll+I~)
1z
It should be alwuys remembered that the le/t-hulld local pomt
is a point situo.ted along the axis 01 a continuous !J,'am at which the
bending moment rmwins ml as long as the spa,~ under consideration
(lnd all the other spans to its left rcmai'l unloaded.
Let us now investigate those spans of the same continuous Iwum
whit'b are lOCated to the right from the loaded OMS. Hcasoning
ill cxnclly the same way. we shall obtain an expression giving the
value of the right-hand focal factor. TIle bending moment diagram
for the unloaded right-band spans will have the s]lapc indicated
in Fig. 'i.-lOd. This diagram shows clearly that in the right lLalf
of each spaR there exists equally a certain point where the hending
moment remains nil as long as the span under consideration and the
spans located further to the right carry no loads. These poiu!.s are
the right-hand local points and the expression giving the value of
Lhe right-hand focal factor which we shall indicate by K~ will he
derived from that for the left-hand focal factor keeping in milld
thllt the numbers allotted to the supports and SpeWs decrease from
right to left
(12.10)

When the right-haud extremity of a continuous beillll is hillge-

supporwd tile focal factor becomes intinil.ely great just as in the
case of a hinge-supported left end. All the other right-haud fOCll!
f[\cto~ will be de_termined in succession witlt the aid of equatioH
(12.\0).
The expressiolls (U.10) and (12.10) lUny be used for the detC'r-
minntion of focal factors pertaining to continuous hcami'l with
f1xerl ends if these ends arc replaced by additional spans of zero
length. Thus, for 0 continuous beam with a built-in IdL end the'-
valuc of the focal factor K! will be given by

K,=2+~{2-~J
where Ko = 00 fot' the left eod if the a.dditiona,l span is hinge-
supported. As lo = 0 we obtain K l = 2 which means that the
foeal point will be situated one third of the span to the right from
the wall. It is worth mentioning that this is the lllaximum distance
which ean separate the focal point from the corrcspollding supJ)orl.
 2.10. The Focal Pahtll Melhod

As for the' minimum distanet', it is equal to wro as W~

'"
have alreAdy
""""Let. us apply the focal
points method 1,.0 the determination of lhe
btnding moments at t.he supports 01 a continuous hum Il.flJxarinl;
in Fig. 8.10, assuming tl'Lat only one span of this beam (fl;ar, sp.m
,
------
M.
'"
",
""..... , " , AI""
,,
-% --
I .. 1",..
~
"
Fig, 8,H)
l~) is loade-d, Tile equations Ol three moments for eao.:h of tll(' tWI'
supports limiting the londed span heeome:
(or support. 11 - 1
M...... t 4.....l +2M_ t (l"_1 + I..) +M..l..... -6R~,= -6A~
for support n
M,,_t1.. +2M.. (1,. +111+1) +M..ul..u = -6R~-6B~
In these expressiol\ll A~ and B~ are the imaginary reactions of
thl'! lefl- and of the right-band supporls of the nth span respccthely.
Replacing t.he bending moments at sllpports ftf,,~t and .M"+I lJy
their values expl'i'ssed in terms of tho focal Iactors
I M"_I
-~n_t= - ~ tin
d ltl,'''I=
01 M"
--K'-
n_1 "1-1
wt\ obtain '

M,,_, [2(1,,_1 +1,,)- ~:~'J +M"l,,= -6A~

M ......tl" + M .. [2(l,,+I"'I)-k~:IJ- -6B~
DividinG' both parts of these expres!lions by I"
M~,[2+~
'..
(2--'-)]
K .._1
+M.~ _6A:
l ..

.. . .. ['+''''
7;; (2 -K;'+I
./U"_tTj./,,_ I)] =-~ 58:
allll kt"eping in mind ~xpressions (11.10) and (12,10) we finally
oLlain
4,. CORtin,,",,' Btam,

Soh'ing these equations for M"_I aud M" ....c find

G(A:tK;'-O~) }
M,,_, = - l" (K"K n !) (13.10)
6(n~K,,_A~)
,11" = - l" (K"K" 1)
If the loads (lfe located over one of the end spans, say, the left
0110, and provided the left-end support is hinged, the value of the
focal factor for this spau will become infinitely great. The bending
moment at the leftvcnd support becomes nil and the value of the
bonding moment at the other support of the span hccomes indeter-
minate. This indetormination will be eliminated dividing both
the numerator and the denominator of the expression by K". 'Vhen
K" increases indeflllitely we obtain

6 (B , -0;
n
A~)
6l/~
M"=-ln (K;,-~) = -ZnK;,

Having thus determined the bending moments at the SUPIlQrls

of the loaded span, the bending moments at all the other supports
witl be found easily using the expressions for the focal (actors.
When several spans of a continuous beum are loaded directly
tho pt'Oulem will be solved using the principle of superposilion.
PrOblem 1. Oewrmlne tltl) bonding mement~ M, anu "'2 ilL Ihe supporLs
III span ]-2 l)arr~'ing a load unity P sUuatM a distan~ % fr<lnt support]
(Fig. !UOa).
Solulfoll Using expression (H. to) deU!rmin~' the l('ft-hand focal factors
fo!' SIJllI1S I, an,l /2

KI--;:~""-OO; " ( 2-~

K z -2+-
"
I ) =4
00
DOlerllline in Lhe same way the right-hand focal factors 101' spans I., l~
ami lz using formula (12.10)
K'
. _ -M,
- _ _ 00
M,
K;~2+"1 (2-'!') ~4
3 00

Ki""'2+~ (2-{-) _3.75

The bending moments at the supports of Ihe loaded span will be f(lun,]
using expr6&'!iOll (13.10)

M =_(j(A~Ki-lJ~).
1 12 (K 2K, 1)'
 2.10. Tu Focd POiAl6 /lit/hod ",\9

in _bic.h
4.'_~ ..!..~_ (l_z)(Z1_z)z
. 1231 61
z(l-.:r) J (z+l) %(1'_'1")
o!,---,-Z----y-- ID
(~ the bending moment graph repte.'!ented in rig. 9.ICtb). lsinjl: Ihf'SE'
.xllr~oll.!l we find

6[(!-z)~II-.r)Z X3.75 z(lfll~Z')]

Mj __ t(4x3.75 i) "'"
(/-%) (;11-"'1 1 X 3. 75-1 (I~-.tfi
-- f4~
,[Z(lf_Zf) 4. (I-.r) (21-.),z]
01 X 01 4.((J-Z:J-(I-..t)t21-z}.r
M2- Ut 14Is
Problem 2. Required the complete analy:<ill of a Sl.l.;-!pllll Ip~in"ou, hl-am
uniformly loaded o\u the whole length of !J'IlI" 4 (fig. 10.-10.).

,
A,,
M graph

Sol",UoII. Begiu ... i~h eomputing the left-hlllld foul fa(w~ lJ!iug upres-
J;j('n (I Lt 0)
 There is no need to compute the (oul faetor~ lor the lollowlug Ipans.
The righ ....hllld fOl;1I.1 factors will be computl'd beginning ~-ilh ~I,e rfgl:.tend
sl.all of thll burn. AU ~he !ofl'.1UI of the bNm tielng of tbf'. SlIme length.
We ha~e
K~-Kl--CO
Ki- X1_ 4
Kl.-K,_3.75
Tltl! bNlding mllU1enl diagram indl,leod ID \he COl1Jugat.e stuleall)' ,Ioler--
IIlIn~te boa," by the given loadl"l Is repl'e'l!nled iD Fig. 10. lOb.

, , "

ralA
0
I ~ :fIDi
"
, J;: I
5

I
i!
j

,.:'I
.,
q,~
,,,
,
,,,
.... ,,

-- ',; . ,,
,c)~i
~
"~ 'ii! "
;~ e~
~'

(i) (i)

Fi,. 10./0

Using this dillgl'alU a.s tbt lInaginu)' load diagram "". !blllllintl Ih, {"IIIl\\'-
inp: \'a!uu fO'r tbe support reactions
l,qI12t~
A.-D ... T T '2'-24
FOfll\u!. ,n.10) yields immediately the bendiog moments .1 tbf' stlPf'Or~
J all,1 <I
 3.10. Bending Mo"""I. Enwlopt Curwa

Knowing ~he magni~ude o[ these. mQmCIl~S and Lh0 .. ~I\1es of \he focal
'"
fac.IOTS all the ot-her bending moments, at the supporU of \he heam are
obtaincd witll no difficulty
M z 11 4 11
;\[2"'" - Kz -200'112i5-780ql~
M~ 11 t 11
M\= - K;= -7su'1/ z T= -g,12l1 '1 12 ; M~_I)
M 41 I 4t
M~_ -Ki-780 '11~ 1"'-3 ,120 '112; M&_U
Tilo data so ohtailloo Ita,'c permiUed the cOl\. lnlCtion of the diagram appearing
In Fig. to.l0c.

3.10. BENDING MOMENT ENVELOPE C\JIWES

'J'he control of fibre strOSSe5 in COJltinuous beallls and tIle choke
of their rross-sectional dimensions w.i1J frequently require Lhe know-
ledge of the extreme values the bending moments may aUnin ul
dHler('nt points under dWC'fCnt loading conditions. The dend 1011(18
" -;.- -+' J
'0' A ;;t; ;;t; k

N
", -
" 0,
N ,
~,
.,~

"
I
"
"
Fir;IlUO

wHl be usunlly considered uniformly distrihuled hut the position

of tile live loads may vary quite considerably. If at every cms,';
section of the beam we sel orr two ordinates-ulle representilll,;'
the maximum ....alue of the LendioA' moment (J"fm~:t) and the uUwt'
its minimum value (M""II) and if we connect theso ordinaLesby
two smooth C\lfVes Wtl shall obtnin what is usually referred to ;I ....
'he bending moment envelope curves.
The construction of such curves can be best explained usiul,:
:IS 1\11 example the throo-spnn continuous beam represcnted in
fig. 11.11)/1. Let q be the uniformly distributed dead load per unit
46'
ICllgLh. or the beam, aud p the live load also uniformly dis-
trihllled, which occupies l'ither the whole length of the beam or

(n;

,
(6; ;':!;; IJ;J7Wm

o'!'CC::~~~~>:"L-=L,~~+,JljJJlIJirr;'IjT':';LJL~:::::""
~ ~
~ Si

'0
'<:'
~

"I
Prg. ]2.10

is sJuend o\'pr rert.a.in sJlan Icngths only, or is c.ompletely absent.

Burpose q = 2 lOllS per melte and p = ::1.75 tons per metre.
 C/l.~'
3.10. Bud/nl Motunl Envelop.
'"
The bendil\g moments Ilt the sup()Ort.s may be del('rlllined lLSing
either the equations of three moments alternatively or elln be
deduced from the positicm uf focal puints.
The diagr:Ull of the be/lding moments due to the uf'ad load ii~
given in Fig. tl.tOb. Fig. 12.10a, band c repres6uls the hl'nding

fir. 13.10

mOIlHmt diagrams due to the live load Occ\\pying s\lccessivdy Lhe

first. the ~nd ond the tbirr! spans.
u-t, II~ proccccl now wiLh the construction of the envelope Clln't.
For tbis purflOsc we shall first take at each soctiou tho slim of all
posilive ordinat~ duE' to the li"e loads and add it 10 the urdinltle
at this same c~ seclion due to the de~d load. We !Shall thus obl-.'lill
fur each croS! section the ordinale representing the maxinlllln bend-
ing moment lIf.. u that call be produced by the given loads. Th.ere-
alter wc must pick 01lt for earh of the cro!J~ sections under consider-
ation all thll negative ordinlltes that may ari~ under the eITect of
thll live loads, slim them liP and then acid th~m algobroically to
the oroill<lte induced at the same S4!clion by tlU' d~ad !OIl.(L. Tho
""
~:lulting ordinate will represent the minimum bending moment
M Ittl. possible under the given loading condition.s.
Tbu:<, for instance, the M ....,. and M"'lll ordinates for section 1
owr the first support will ho
M",a;r=1.0+(-3.2)= -2.2 too-mt'tr~'$
M"",,= -4 +( - 3)+< -3.2)= -10.2 tlJnm~trc~

HClJoaling the $lme operatioll for a sufficient number of sodions

we shall find the M ... GO: and M "'lit ordinnWs w!lic;h, CQlll1tlcled tog~th.
~r. "'ill form the two cuvc)ope curves desired (Fig. 1.3.10). 'fhe
sh!'ariog fo~ CllveloJltl eur"Vc~ elln be olJwined in exactly the
sam\' way.
Envelope curves for wntinuous beams of constant cross section
and ('vun IIpau lengths am usually cOiUtructl'd u~ing appropriate
table.; which Jlimplify the operation "cry considerably. 'fhese tables
COl,win data permitting the computation of the. Ai and Q ordinates
due hoth to dead and live loads. Hcreunder wc p~sont such a lablu
l'fablc 1.10) for a two-span bcam simply suppor~d at its clld!j.
rabf~ 1.10

D~ndlng mo~c. M SIlurlf\l 10re<,1 iJ

,
II ... I ,
J>. L

I
D. L D. L L. L.

, +. I
0.' 0 0 0 +0.375 0.4175 0_0625
0' ~\I.0325 (u.'387:> 0.00625 ...,..-U.275 !I.3431 O.Od8i
0.2 +0.0&t0 0.00750 U.iJt~ +11.175 0.2fl24 O.~7'
0.3 +(1.(1675 0.08625 0.01875 ...!..O.O75 0.1932 0.1182
u.3'5 +".0703 O.W375 O.02:W. 0 0.1491 0.1491
t .\ +O.O'iOC1 0.09500 0.02500 -0.025 ll.1359 (1.1609
0.' ~O.()f.25 0.0ll375 0.03125 _0.125 0.(18\)8 0.2148
n.6 +O.(M~ 0.08250 0.037:;0 _0.225 O.1JM4 0.27%
\,.1.7 +(l.Omi 0.00125 0.04.375 -0.325 0.0287 0.3537
f"I.75
0.8

-0.0200
0.04688
0.03000
O.MI18S
0.05000
-0.375
-0.415
O.l'Jl93
O.OIl!>
u.S9i3
0.4369
11.85 _C).o.J25 0.01523 0.05773 -OA15 0._ 0.4814
0.' -0.0675 O.OOGtt 0.07361 -0.525 O.{)J27 0.5217
('.95 -0.0950 0.00138 0."""" _0.575 0.00)7 0.5757
1.0 -0.1250 0 0.12500 -0.625 0 (1.6250

Support reaction 11 , - I. '-'" i 12500 I o

 The belldillg moments and the shearing foroos arc calculated lliling
tho following relations
.M=(aq+~P)l'l
Q~(l"1+6p) I (14.10)
whcl1l q = dead l(}ad per unit, length
p = jjvt: load JX"r u/llL lenith
u, Pt l' aud li ~ coerru~icllt.'l whose values are dra.....n frtlm the
uforesl'liJ. lnulos.
Moximtlm ht'nding Ill(}nlellf$ are obtained using the values of
('ocffit;ient ~ conlained in the +~ column, minimum bonding lllO-
mctlL..t; Hsing those in the -fl column. In tlxactly the SllnlO way if it
ht desirtld tl) Jllld the maximum shcnc, tho coemcient 6 sllould be
sdCClt'<l in LhtJ -rli column, nnd if it is tlttl minimum val1tt' of the
SI.CIH that is Iltlcded this Sallle c()('iliciont shall be lakell from the
_6 column.
The same tabll' permiLs also lIu:~ determi1lation of the support
f('~ctinns due to tht! application of hoth dead aDd live lomh. The
fnftllu)a to be woad is the ume as ror Q.
Table! !luch Il"~ Tablu 1.tO contained in handbooks usuall)' take
Cllre of partial loadings of different spans Whl'D such partial luad-
iugs mill' INld to ereater (or smallrr) values of bendina mumonts,
sht'nrs and .suppurt reactions 3!1 compared to thOse uue to thl,l loading
of cOlnplew !'pan lengths. For this reason the envelope curves ob-
l"inN with the use of ~uclt tables arc even more accurate than those
constrllCkrl as ('xplained ahovc.
Prol.lleJl1. A reilJIo~ COl\crelll doublo-~pan ceiling beam curries the weight
of 1.110 ceiling it.'!C1f mnoullting 10 000 kg per motre of bl!atn IOl\glh. 'fhl! c~_Hlng
may by C\'l'lllllnlLy I,>adcd with a layer of Insulating matorial at thl! ralo

Fi,.1I.10

.,f tOO kg JM!r JJli!tre of Ihe bl'am. Tbb insulation may be applied to any part.
olllle ct'iling (Fill'. 14.10). Required tho most unfavourable values of the hendlng
IUOllll'llt llnd of the shen at a section situated a din'nee % . . 0041 from tho
It'fl",*lld support and or the reaction A. at the intflnnooialo !Upport.
Solution. Detflrmlno the bending moment utdng the first. of the expre&5fona
(14.10\. 11115 cl[pr(l~ion may be rewritlen u follows
M _aqll+~pll_.Mq+Mp
80_8~3
 COIlUnUOu. B~am.

lI"rll Wll! l\'pr~*<,IlI.'J the lM'ndillg mOffilmt irlduelld b)' tho (\"nlllood of 6\."I(l k~/1JI
81'1111'. Jo'rom Tabl\!- 1.10 Ihl) eooHiell'ut Cot eorl'l'!sjHmtliug La ",,_0.4 Il'quub
0.0700 dlld thcrl'loro
M'l_qll_O.lJ700x r.oo X I(P .. ,f,,200 k~.m
T~ t.erm .HI' = j\pll rtpl'C$Cnl~ the bending mOUltnt lnducl'd by tltt l,,~d
" whO/!e :!Itlllllioll along thf """Ill i~ smh that it It,;U provide fitherl"r a mUI-
mum or 1,,1' a mimrnlllD value or lhe moment.
III thl) pt'fllOnt (l~~rot the section undor ron~idt'l'lltioll the ':.Ine or fll("fJidtnt
~ torrospondlnll Lo Mm"" equnl! +0.09500 and Lo M ml " -0.02jl,"'1. Tlu-"rt[url>
M'"".u ",~pll_0,O!l500X200XJO~_I,900 kgm
and
Mp ...,,, ...... ppl=_ -0.02500 X ZOO X to::._ -~ kg.m
Hl'I\W tl", '"Ml unlilorouubll' ,aln<.' of th" bending moml'nt at a .'Wdion
t1i!tanL OA 1 IfflID dw lurt-.:n,1 :lllpp"rL IImountl Lo
JI"",,,_'l..200+I,OOO=6,IOO kgm
If W() Illl! Ih" ,'nl'Il' ur M/,,,,,,, lllOl rl'$ultIHIl' locruling ITl()IIll'nt lit L11l' give"
tro~. !!<'CLion will hu ennsidur1'lhl)' Imlllkr
,u"'f,,_4,2()()_54X/_3.100 k~.m
,nd lhe",f"n ."11"11''' the two values (lbhincd are \If lhl.' ~me ~gn, thl' fU'!It onl!
.1,,,.. . will he rot.inl'd [or furthl'r l'omput.'l~in"l'-
AI fur thf .IK.r. tl..... "se or till' SfoCOllll dn", of thl' eSllr&o"lUu, 1!oi.\O) tQRoth.. r
with Tablf.' 1.10 yield~
Q",,,,,""" \-OJ)'l5 x liOl)+fl.I3.'i9 X 200) x 11)_ - 15lI +271 = 12 1 kg
Q""ft -~ -~\(}2$ X 6OO-U.1609 X 2lJO) X 10_ -1~-321.,... -471 kg
'fhf' W"-al.~t "lIlut uf Ib... l'l,,,r.tion "I thl! ilU.('rllle<lial<~ Stllt[lVrl ""ill be
given I~'
A, -11.2.itJv+ 1.2:iOp) t = (1.200 X Ill\)+ i.:zr..o X 2001 W.... IO,roo kg_ to LQnI

t. IO. l:\,fLUF.XCE LINES FOIl CONTINUOUS IlAilfS

CoIIsidOr a COllli!Il1111tS lX.'l'IlIl a.cl,cl[ upon by a lIIo\'ing unit loud

P tra\'elling alnng th~ spall In (l"iJ:. 15.'104) and assume thul ll,c
dblanl'(' of this load to support (It - I) i~ t!ivl'lI by .r = 11/..
(f'i~. is. lOb). In ortler to lind tho value!' of thll ix-ndillK' momc"L<c
M .. and M .. _1 ilL till! suppnrls lot us Iil:St dctcrrllilllJ the irOl:tgilnlr)'
rcar'ion~ III Lhl'~ ~mllllUIlPorL1

/ 1 ( I"--g-
\1-111 '11~''lln''T , tll.. ) -(1-'1)1]1"1"
A.. = _
'. 1 .,
(1-'1)-:[" iI" 11-1]) 2-1
--+ 1. =(1-'1)11r;.~
n' = ( J - 'I) '1111
''ll "
n ""2 - ~1" """
(I
-11 ) Il{,,""'ll"
tl-I-II
 <I,U'. h'f/''''''u Li"tl fur CrmU"ul}/u IJN,ml <0'

(1!i,tO)
",herl'

With ltlll aid or lht. Ifltter exprt'....~ijlll let liS 1'I'\'!HIl'" il lul,lll ,llh'ill{:
till' \'"lllc!< III ,U~ _t and M" ror t1i1lerenl IJo>:iti,)IlS or Illu ruOVllll::
101'1(1 P (at 0,1 ill illo'C-llwnts) .

orllllll~. tol I", ".\"1",1,,'<1

"

"
". I
"
-rI1l.17IK,,_u lJ',~.'1 "
- t " . j~~'An _ I t . (71)
01.2 _ r 1".288K',~ _Il.l~r~1 -rC') II'.lK~-I' 28l'I)
n,'" _r (O.~1Kn _''.27;S1 _r 1".:!j:1K.. -11 :J,,~7J
11.1 -c{ll.3MK'.. -v.X;Il:) _t' ,ll, 'i3tlA .. -I), ::lS.1J
t' ~ -c{I'.3i5K' n _tt.,"!)l _ r lil.31~K.. -".31:1)
",I; - r (". :l.:1GK' .. -0.38-'01 - r IIJ :'i84K.. _0. 33tl.
"
" IS
, _ t ' tll. :li3K' .. -H.a.i1)

-c I". I:I2K'" -fo,':8lh

- t 11'. :<07/1.. -11,:;'31
- ( (1l.:tXl3K.. -". Ilr~)
I' ~, _r ill,looK ',,-(l.17Il - r 11', HIK.. -\J.... rJI

" "

Klluwinl: the valll~S or th{' bellding Illlllll('nts al tile sUPl>orls

(St.'C Table 2.10) .llld till.! valul'S of till< 10l.;al rll('.lor.< Kt!. llml K.. we
may I,!t,"'ily ohtain lht. JltUmcnls at all tho oL.IJl.'r SlIjllJol'1s ur llle
Ilt'ltm for allY l'usiLioJl of Lhu moving lond n[ollj.( allY of tho spans.
TI,i~ ht.jng done, w~ ffilly pru"~d wil,11 I.ho 1.;1I11sLrllcliml ur tho
jufll1{'tlco lin('1\ <.Jil.lll'r for the hClldin!I mnl1lUlll.~ or ror Lilu shenring
:il)
".
forc,es ut-ling at allY section of span l" as well as of the influence
line~ for any of the Sllpport reactions.
Let liS take lip, for instance, the continuous beam appearing
in Fig. 1li.10 and let us construct the influence lines fOr the Lending
moments ill all the supports as well as the innllcnce lines lor the

FiJi_ 1$.10

bending moment and shear <It section I = 1 of the second spuu and
for tile reaction Do_
At first wo shall r.;alculate all the focal distances whereafter wc
shall constrllct the irlfiuencc lines for the hending mOillents at the

Fig. Ui./O

supports o[ the span under consideration 011 the assumption thlll

the unit load 'P travels lllong this spun.
Hel't\aftor we shall denote the bending moments at the :-iupport
by M with two jndiet!s, the nrst giving the number of the support
and the second the number o( the span along which the mobile
load is tra\'elliTlg. Thus. for iUl;tanoo. M 22 will mean the bonding
moment at support 2 due to a load travelling along the second
span; in the same way Mu will indh",ate the bending moment pro-
duced by tho salOe load travelling along the same span but acting
over support 1.
 ,1.10. /nf/.u('nce fAn'" for Contln,~ou' n((Im~
'"
Utlll~nd tOO~l lactots IIlgM-band t<l~al faClors

Kl"=oo K;=3.733
K 2 -Ii K;~3.75
... 15 ,
31 "
"3--:r .....
" Sij 3 133
"4-15=-

The values of all focal factor>! obt.ained with lIw aid of cxpres~
sions (11.10) and (12.10) are given in Table 3.10.
Table 4.10 contains the values o[ llf ll , }''112 aud ftf 22 computed
using data given in Tables 2.10 and ;;uO. For a symmetrical l!ellm
the \'lOlues of Ma". ftf 33 and M Z3 appearing in the same table require
no c,akulatioDs.
The expressions for the bending njoment~ at tbe inner supports
or the end spans (in the caS() under consideration Mu and hi 310)
contain both in the numerator and in the denominator focal values
which become innnitely great when tlle cnd sllpports are hinged.
In ol'der to overcome this diff1culty both the numerator and the
denominator should be divided by the said focal factor. Thus,
Tabl. 4.10

B~odllL~ lllOnL""S al_ th~ "~p~'~ru

Load point
Mu ),'12 .\Jr.

.~O
",_(1.11" "
- n. 026!l2/ 1
'-'
-11. 03a1M e
0
-IJ.lJl W 2
'
",_(1.21" -(1.051,),1.'1 -0.')ltH11 2 -').(':if,2l;12
:r=0.31" -0.073t2l 1 -1l.07i it2/ 2 -,-,O:,\:!,,(lIZ
.r=u.41" -O.(l9t))OII -O.u7881l1 2 -u.(MIi!;,sIZ
.r~(l.5l" -0. tOO-1l)I, -0.1)73;;[i/2 -IJ,l!&J,')lj/2
.l:=O.tll" -0.1028(;1, -O.II6~I"2 -U.tlK,721 2
:.=0.7/" -u.O'J,')rilil l -11.tl--1i62J~ -(1.t~5012
.r=O.!>J" -O.On141 1 - O. O::lQ&;J2 -').01)&''i8I z
%=>0.01" -O.M~OlI -0.011,31)/2 -O.'l!' 17812
= I"
:I: 0 0 0
470

rabIc 4.10 (canluwh1}

wMd INI.l

z_V
'"
0
-.
l:l<.'fIdlnc ''''JfI1cnu at the tMf'I""U

I
0
I -.
0
.., ... 0. If. -O.IJ.f.38W, -O.I.lIU')ts -\l.l~~178J3
..r_O.4!I" -11.0771.\1 1 -(UeJ"l86l t -U.(lIi&otU,
z_U.31" -lI,W..,G.U\ -O.QoHr.21.1 -O.08::!5O/,
z_o.41.. -ll.I()2llU. -Q.OO2lS6/ J -O.CltSiZl:
z_Il.r./" -O.IClU'llI'1 -0.013661 3 -11.(m03tl1 J
~_O.ij/ .. -(l.~f, -O,(178&ils -O.Ill08."lts1 1
z_I'.71" -0.07312/ 4 -0.07liJ21, -O.ua2~ol,
..1"-'0.&" -O.O!iIoiI\/, -tJ.OO:M2I J -0.00428/,
z_O.'JI" -0.0:6\521, _n,ll.lo!I7M 3 -~).II11iOBJJ
~-,lN 0
,.,
"

Lilu hCIlLllIIg momenl Mu ror load !l()int givell hy:J,: a.il l - O.1l
OC('OfllCS

~ _ U.''lfJI. _ -0 o26~')l
- 3.7a:i -
. 'w
The IIlllgltiludl' of M II for lllly other posiliulI or LIlO lOAd poinL
wiLhiu the liulils or the iil'll.l SptlU will be obtained ill tlxn,'lIy tho
91l1C Wll)'. Tile values or tll\\ bending moment:' .U n alld Mu rut
l'l 10lld IKJillt silllat.od at X".: O.tl 2 will bo ohl~jm'(l lIsillg thu rlll-
luwi tlg c.'fpn.-ssiul1s (Sft' Tabll' 2.10)
1
A1,,= - KzK : I (O.17IA-;-O.OH9)_ - 4X/~5 IX
X (0.171 X 3.15-0.l1.J9) = -O.u38iM

lII u - -';tK~Z I (O.lJl.J9Kz-O.t71)_-4X:/i5_t x

X(O.099X4-0.171)= -O.OlG08l
Tlw lJlngniludc of these mnmtlnls for otJH~_r posiliolls of the load
alo/llo! the .';,'\Ille span will bo complltctl in till:" :;ilmo way.
The gl"illlhicnl Illterpretation of Mu. M I1 !vI n . M". M3~ IUllJ
.1I1"u uIJttlinod wit.h tilo Slid of Table 4.10 is givt'1I in Fig. 17.10.
Eoc,ll pltir (If o:olltiguou:; ellr\'E1~, those rOI" llfl\ nnd Mu. for' 11t H
 1011

and M 22 for Mu nlld M:u cOl\SliLule the influence line (or bendiog
mOllLl'nls ill\IlICOO at the support separating Lhl' two spans 11)' a
unit load siluated alung onc of these two spans.
TIIU.!S. rQr instance. the two curve!! fQr .Mu and M I2 censUlllLe
the illflucll(:c Iinl! fOr the bending moment induced at the cross
suction over support 1 J)y a unit load lravelHng along the rtrst
two spans of the beam. In tbe event tbe unit load Irav(.!ls along

more distant spall" tllo ordinates to thtl innuence lilltl for the same
bl!uding momollL'! at the supports Olay btl obtaioed using the focal
point n\Othod.
Thus. tbe ordinates to tbe innu(lrlce line ror the bcndillg moment
ov(.!r support due to 11 UIlit load loe,llted ovor span :J will be llasily
obtained IIsing the following expression
'I
J' 13=
M:.l
-K ; = !Il~
-'
Thil magnitude of tlie bendillg moment actillg at the same sup-
port when the mo\'ing load has passed to span 4 will be given by
Mu
k114 = -""K;
but since

Wtl obtaiu finally

M=-+ M)4 = /11)4 = M3~
14 K,K t ~ ta
The ordinates to the influence lines for M I3 and M are givtln
in 1'aLle 5,10; this table contains the ordillaLcS tu the influence
Hnt!s for Mu and Mu deduced from
If! Mu Mu
:1=- Ki =>-rn
'f M 1Io AI~
.. U = -Jr;""-rn
The influence linus for the bending moments M t , 111: and ill!
are represenled in Fig. 18.10. These inl1uencc lines may be used
Tllblr 5.10
B<!ndl"K tnDmtnll n tile 5upporll
Load polnl
~
M.. M .. _ , .\tu .'It. __ J."j"f;
M"
'\/11---,- Mll--3_7~

z_.
... _0.11" "
+O.OIM45l
0
-0,003153/
0
+0.0I17U72I "
+0.0122131
1' . . 0.21" +0.01714$1 -0.0051431 +0.0137111 +O.oonsl11
1'...>0.31" +O.{t,!OO~ -O.00Ci37lil +O.OI94O'JI + U. OO.'>5();;/
.1:_0.4/" 4-0.021<1301 -0.006S571 + o. 024tXXll +v.<mt,2'!11
%_0.$/" +O.01ll&.Wll -O.OOJ6971 +0 .lrlti7891 +0.0'..'671\91
..,_0.61" +0,0171451 - o.oor..oool +O.027~291 +4). (i24(.(()l
z_0.71" +O.OI3t~ -O.QU.i875/ +O.~l TO.UI~9!ll
.1'_0.81" + O. 0Cl8.S7Ql -O.OQ?-42'Jl +0.0205711 +O.OI37lil
%_O.~ln +O.~I -0.0011681 +0.0122131 +O.OO70T,U
I._I" 0 0 0 0

1'101." 'l'IHl nluc 01 ltlll~r ... pp""rln~ III the /lrn e<>lulnn nIQ,t J>e la~"'l equal It>
the oecond h,(\u allotted to.M.

for the der.ig'rl of continuous beams consisting of fom spnns of equal

length with freely supported ends. lnfluance lines for bending mo-
ments at the supports of the continuous beam with unevt'n spans
and any arbitrary number of supports can be oblailled ill t''uc\ly
the sa me way.
Let us con...it.ler now the influence lines for the bend in!: moments
and shearing forces at a cross section of the second ~pan located
a distance x = 0.41 tu the right of :rupport I (Fig. "19.lOa). For
this purpose we shall use expressions (5.10) and (6.10)
Q=Q:+ Mf-;M 1

/11 = MG+ Ms-;M l 0.4.1 + Jlf, =- A!o+ 0.4..M: + O.GM,

whore QO and Mo reprosent tb.e ordinates to the corre~ponding
influence lines for an endsupported beam of the same spnn. These
 :'1:f.173
a~JID"O
~.~' D.'Ct'OC
~mtl" ff~$;Jri
l.e:t'tlJJ 6:,,,:GC
.'\NiI'" 'Ji}$;ZiJl1
nli'1'V': 1~ff)Un'
O~W"
:t~C-.."...t:'iJ
l,ll,QC
.'
.'
IV
S-':,1roi"ll
::'U:J ilfi'C:J
.;,.r.~'l/'
~
f, .1t':J
l'I'.\'<.:'3
,......,:".;J ,
~

.,.
."
)~rZI"
),<13;)
.....).~:J "
,~
,""
i'~
,.,
~
-, , :Ji"tIJr
... ,rl1 -. ..... .c~

,"-'1;/1 ~
~
Q

~
)'e"fIJJ
_"-\'~ U:WP
~,
!
~
';dC~
..a~lOU
"" J_
CPJ:UJ~
r",IR,) ,1
St:Ltl! r
;!'[':Q:J
<lL;"n:! ;;
- 6t9:C,I '::_"'N;)q
:- (JJ:J -x<'
"'"
.'
tllZtC't: .~"
":,IL
flSIllO e t~::;(XJ1J
,,,fiX
""""
,r'f$'k'l)
. ,"St,VS
'~'C0 GZ'llCt' .>'J(J1)
.~ ;;/9..10 f~:~iJ(}lJ
.J.;;C ;)
.
!i1r.fiJ
~ .. - GGtGl(J 0
lll(';S iJ
<D OtXJS'.J!Jil
.r.i"'CiJ
n,ztrJ.'
'lJtI '<= UCt~1) j!lt,'eo l'
~ VD

", n'r'
. ";;,'XV
iJ~ :;.)lo<JiIMJ m'
"
 Cotllt/WOY, IJ~o.m~

innucllcc lines are of triallf!lIlut shapo as indicatoo ill Fi~. 19.10b

Slud c. The values of the ordinates to t1tese inOucncc lines at O.2l
illcrcmenl..!i appear in Lhc appropriate columns or Table 6.10.

~ ~
~

~ &

-
~

~

"'F

,
~ i ~
~

~ ~ ;j
'" ,
" '
~
~

~e,
"
f?~J""<,
~ ~

(j)
~

~ ~ ~~ ~ it ~
~ t ~ ~
~ ,

~

Fit. /9.10

The 8(\100 Lablc cooLains lhc vahlEl8 o+ (M 1 - M,), OAM a nnd

O.t\M, as Wt,lI as tl16 computed ordinates Lo the Q and AT inDuence
,
o

"
o

=-=-0000 c .;, .:;. ;. <:>

-".

-I-
""~,*, .... ",,
0000=0 00000 00000 00000
I 1-++

00
1+ ",,-oo<r.:o
""..".'.1' :>CO '" ...",,. '" c:o 0 ~...,.<Cooo

00000"': 0000=_ 00;0"': ,: :; C~.:: 0";

11 11 .I I ! I' ~ 11 ~ :1 I: !I I' 11 I I I: I 11 11 I1 11
~;:"i='"~;:";:O ;:-=-'1='=-;:";:" ;="!=':::-:=-:=- =-=-=-=-=-
Z ulldS t UlltlS ~' ulldS
". CO"Ullllrlll' Bu"..,

lines desired. A graphical representation of Lhcse ~wo inlluenct

lines appear-! in Fig. 19.tOd and e.
Let us examine nex~ the construction of the influence line for
the reaction of the left~nd suppod. The magnitude of this reaction
may be detcrminoo using expression
rY> /lf l
D '=><"+T
where 0:1 represents the lcfl-end rtmclion of a simply supported
beam corresponding to the fir.<l !IrAn, The illnuclIw lilll;l for <n.
o I 7 ,J I,

A, ;z;:
j,.fI,,~"I.f' ~"'"
:;s:;; :ox; J-
ffi:tJh:.~_:' _
(.,

S a '2~
~
~
~ ~ S
e S
e"
~ ~
~

,
~

i
~
~ ~ ~
~ ~

Fir. '"
ZO./V

appcars in Fig. 20.10a. AI! the calcullltion.~ necessary lo obtain the

ordinates to the. infiuonce lino for Do arc tabulated hereuuder.
1'111.\ completed iflfiuellce lino for Do is given in Fig. 20.tOb. Tile
influence linos for all the other support reactions of a continuous
beam can be obtl\ilJtJd using exactly the same procedure.
Influence lines porrnit e:uj' and rapid determination ()f mllXimUlrt
and minimum v::aIUC!l of support reactions, shcars and bclldin~
rnomcnls due to the combinoo action of moving loads Rnd dead
loads (it is frequently assumed that moving loads are unj(orml~
distributed over wholtl span lengths). Thus, for inslanCtl, reaction
D. will att.a.in its dt.sign value when in addition to the dead loads
of q kif per motre the beam will be acttld upon by m()bile loads of
p kg pt'r metre distributc.d along the w.hoLe length of the fIrst anti
third span!!. The ordina~s to the correspooding inlluence line over
the!l8 spallS heing Ilositivc, the valuo of reaction DOm<l% will be
gi\'en by
 1,10. In/luena Llntl for Conllnueut llramt 1,77

III the latter expreS1liOll 00\, w 2 ' Walllld w. nlllrO~lll thllllrea~ hOUrlfled
by thl' influence line [or De uver tho corresponding SPil.Il~. These
areas may be ~asi1y calculated using tILe numericaL v"lues of the
Tablr 7.10

L<lad ~oj"l -,-

M, OrdlDDtel to the
Intl,,~nc~ IIM
f"e v.

li:~'
+1.0 +1.11
+U.8 -0.11511,4 +(I.7-l85C
! '14=(1.4 +0.(; - ,). ro)((t +U.5Iooo
S]litll
1]-0.(; +0.4 -0. 102MB +O.2!'171't
,,-0.8 +0.2 -O.07i14 +U.l22lS6
l1)= 1 0 0
"
j
f1)=I\2 0 -0.(lI)3"2 -(I.Uli31,2
"_0.' 0 -0.\>7886 -1),07881;
Span 2 11 ... 0.6 0 -0.(16236 _ L I, Ot;281~

-0,03080 -O.030..Q,ji
'1- 0 .8
l '1= I "
0
" "
1 1 1- 0 . 2 0 +0.01714 +(l0.711i

SJlIIIl J
111_ 11 . 4
~ I'[=(l.l1
I '1=0.8
""
0
+0.0211,3
+O.OI71~
+0.00857
+CI,l i 211i3
-1-0.01714
+0,OCIl357
Lll=1 0 0 0

r rt-0.2 0 -0.005'14. -0.00514

Spon 4:
1"_0'
114=0.6
0
,)
-0.00080
-0.00600
-0.00Ii86
-0.001;0(1
11- 0 .8 0 _0.0024.3 -0.00243
LT]'"" I 0
" 0

ordinates gh'en tn Fig. 20.10b and assuming that the segll'lCnts

of the curve between two neighbouring ordinatfls can bo replaced
by straight lines. These areas will be reckoned positive or negative
dependiilg Oil the sign of tbe ordinates.
Tbo minimum value of reaction Do will be given by the ronowing
e).pression
 REDUNDANT ARCHES
11.

1.11. DEF'INITIO~:;. CJJOICJ:: OF' THE NfWTfl.\J. I.JNE

,-lrrNI< as tli<;lillgui:o<hod from SiDlllly IlU(JJXJfkd SY1i~1Il5 are Ihro!-l.

clu",":!(Jpill!: slrUt:Lm't's whosu b'l.'ncral rorm j~ that or ;I CUf\'O. Cll's
sil'itd with rt'fl'rcllc.e to t!le n1lmhor (If hil1gt'~ ilrch('~ full into 1110
followillg caLc"(lril.~; Ihrtt'-hillgro nrd..., l' Wig. t.lln), lu"O-MIIC.'d

~
~:~
. Ib) -

/T\ le)
~ id)

!"C. J n

tlr(h",s (Fil{. i.llb). artht" uf onc hillgt (rig:. i.tic) IInd hing"leS1l
or (IItd mu arches (Fi~. 1.1td). All tho arches willl the c~ception
uf the thn.-e-Itilll,rod 01105 lire statiCI'll)' indelC-rminnlc. III bridgo
collslrnclioll. t!8pN'ially ill railroad britlge-i. l.ilo more frequently
",...,d arthe.. am lne two..hj"gcd :lnll the fixed end one!!.
In all calculations in !'(llid ma~Ollry or reinforced C:Ulltrcte arcltOs
it is customary 10 consider Sl.riV~ of uuit width separated in imagi-
Ilalillll (r()Jll llu) rcsl hy two parallol planes as shown ill Fig. 2.11.
'J'ho w1l"ll' strudure becomes I.hns replaced by n scrios of llarnlIul
nI1:hfJ~. llie d('n('ctinll.~ or which relOAin slrir_tly idollticnL llS lon!ot
 .I,ll, Deflnitfan~. ChDlre '1J th~ Ne"tr~l Li"~

as eac.h one of them carries the same load. In tbis way the stress
analysis remains exactly tile same for all the arched structures of
thl' same type irrespective of thcil' depth. Arcll ribs are frequently
loaded at certain points only, as ill tlte case of trusses ol'j plate
girders suppurting floor beams.
Whcn designing an arch great care should he taken la rouch as
cl()~ coincidence as pOS$iblo between the outline of tht! axis (also
c<llled thfl neutral or Lhe centre line) of the ard. and tlte pres:;uro
Hlle (or equilibrium polygon), As previously stated, BUt'.I! a coinci-
dence would provide an arc,h of maximum ecorwmy. However, COIll-
plete coincidenr.{l call be ac,hicvecJ auly in tllc case of thrcc-hingc(l
arches. A.'l for the statically indoterminate arcl~cs. it i.'j impossiblt)
to obtain full cu1nt:,idence of the arch axi8 with thc pre!l~lJre lino,
for hending moments in -"uch flrdlCs al'fl
ah.~()luLely unavoidable. 'L'llercfonJ tllf.)
most economical design or an arch will
be the onc providing fOl' minimum fIbre
strcs...~g in tile aNh.
1110 pre~!;ut'C lille Ior staticfllty illde-
torminate arches call be obtained ,only
if nll the redundant roactions lll'() atrcally
dllh\rmined. Bowevor. these reactions
dC~lld on the lIo[ornuitions of arc_h and
for this rellSOIl it hecomes extremoly difficult to Hnd t.ho mo,~t
ccunolllicol cunliguratioll of an f\li:h (,f this Lype llvcrt whell dead
loaus alone art' invohcd. ".I.'he problem can be solved only by
a series of successive approximatilltls. This llIay he Jonc by selecl,-
iug first 1;Mlle arbitrary curvc (usually 1'1 parabola) [or tho arch
neutral line which is then corr'C~'Led 011 the grounds of compari'iOll
witli lite pre.'>Sure Iille ubluilled fur tltat particnlar areh. A!leru:ltivl1-
Iy, the centre line of tho arc,h llllly. in tho lirst npproxilllntion,
follow the pressure lille of <:I three-hinged ardi of 1hc same span
nnd ri~e. Upon corrcctioll of lhl1 flt'Ch nuutral lillc a ncw l!rc.'tSllrc
polygon is constructed '[or the corructctl arch. The operation is f('-
pClItelL as many times as neceS:;ary to olltain a satis[actMY coinl'i-
denctl l)( llll.! two lioes.
For arches t:flrrying moving loads the dwico of 11111 llc>utr'al Iinll
bocomes evon lll(j['C complicated. In actual Ilractkc this dlOico
is Illost frequently ba~od on the simple comparison of so\'cral archc~
differing both in ollLlino ane! in et'os.~-soctional dimensions.
The conliguratioll of masonry ardlt's must bo s()\eclcd wilh the
view of maintaining tl~tl pressure lino for all possihle Iliad combina-
tions a~ c1oso Ml possible to tIll' ~ntl"al COt'c houndaries. IIll1wnry
being ullcajlable of rl)si.~Ul\g tensile streMCS of any aPPI'O(;iablc mag-
nitndo.
 2.1t. ARCHES W[TH VAHIADLE CROSS-5ECTION.U..
DIMENSIONS
The coefficients to the unknowns and tht! free turms of the silOul-
tautlous equations used for purposes of streM analysis of redundant
arches del)(JIld on the c.ross-scctional dimensions and the moments
or inertia of the structure. As a rl1le, neither of those two r8lnain
consLant th.rough the wh.ole length of the aocll. Thus, for instance.
in fixed end arches the height of t,he section and consequently its
moment of inertia increare very frequently from crown to abutments
because the bending moments arc as a rull! much smaller at mid-
span than in the immediate neighbolJrllOod ef thll supports. On the
otlwr hand, the tnickness of tw(}-hinged arc.hes decreases usually
from ,tho crown to the abutrrlent~ following the bending moment
diagram.
Direct complltation of the cOlJflkients to the unknowns and of
the free terms of the simultaneolls equations requires the integra-
tion of expressions containing the values of F and J and therefore
it becomes necessary to expre~ mathelllatically the variation of
the~ quantities along the arch. The following equation has been
[ound very useful in prac_lical design
J _ le
.,- [1-(1-11) I: ] cos,,,

where x = abscissa of the neutral line referred to a coordinate origin

coinciding with the centroid of the crown section
le = moment of inertia of the ~ame section
1" = moment of inertia of a section situated a distance x
from the origin of coordinates
qJ", = angle the tangent forms with the neutral line. of the
arch alld the horir.ontal
lj = one llalf of the areh span.
As for 11 its value i8 givell by
n- -ci/~'c;;;:
- loc(ls!f'o

1 0 and lJIo correspond to the section at. the support.

Modifying the value of n we modify at the same time tile law gO\'~
erning' the variation of cross-sectional dimensions along the arch.
Frequently n is taken equal to unity in which case the expression
for J", becomes
J _---!.L.
'" - cOSlJI"
 3.11. /;on;ugale St".I~allll Determinate :it""elures 48l

For D rectangular arch of constant width b, J" may be repLaced by

d1b d'b
12<1IIU le LY1f' whOre d", and de roprosent tllo thickness of thll
arch at UIQ Grown and aL all arbitrary section a distance z from
the (~Ilordinal.e origin. When n = 1
d~b d~l,
1:f = 12 cos Ijl"
wht'!'rfr01l1
'" ---'- d'
" ' - cOSq'",

The eruss-slh:tional areas Fe and ]I", Dccomo ill this cnsc

F" = bd" aJld Pc = bdc
It followS that

whercfruTll
F _ Fe
"-VCQSIj1",

For ",impljcity this expression is very frequent!)' rL'placeil"loy

p
"
=-f..s-
cos Ij)"
It has ul'eu proved that this simplificatioll ~ntails all error in
the hellding /llOnW[lt and thrust values which does (Jot exceed 1
per cent,
Whcn th('! rise of all arch i~ less than 1/8 of its span (flat atdws)
the vall!t1 of cos qJ" for all the cros.~ SCCtiOIl~ will remain VCI'Y cluSlJ
to unity, t.h\lS pt'.rmitting us to adopt a constant thickness of tho
~rch thrOughout ;lnd therefore
Fo: = Fe = const
In t!Jl;l design of nat arches the length of the clemelltary SCgllltlllt
ds is also usually fClllactld by tho Itlugth of. its horiwlllal PfO)t!C
HOII cLr..

3.11. CONJUGATE S'TATrC:ALLY DETEIlMIN.-\TE STrlUCnmES

USED FOH STI\S8 ANAr.YS1S O}' FIXED ENIJ An(;Ht~S

.~ fixed Qnd arc,h (Fig. 3.t1a) cunstitutes always 11 dosed contour

and is therefore redundant in the third dogr{'c. It follows that the
simple. staticaIJy dotermiJlaf.c structure call ho ohtairlfld by elim-
ination of three redundant constraints which mllst be roplll~d
:11-8~3
46' Redundant ArcheI

by th.ree unknown actions Xl> X: and X 3 Sevt!nd of such stati-

cally determioate structures are shown in Fig. a.l1b, c, d, e flnd f.
'fhlo) staW",ally chltCnninate struct.ure of Fig. 3.11b is formed by
a curved har bllilt in at its left end. The three unknowns rcprc&J/It
in thL~ cose tho reactive forces developed by the right-band abut~
mont. The struc1.Urc of Fig. 3.11,; consisting of two curved bal's
fixed at DlLe of their ends has lw.en obtained hy cutting the arch
ill two. In this ClIse the unknowns will represent tho hending mo-
Illtmt, the shear and the normal streJ'lS actiug across the cut. If the
simple fltructurc is constituted by (l three-hinged ardl, tho un-
knowns will represent the llcnding mOments at the crown Ilud at
Lhl;\ nbulmonts.
The simllltaneous llqllations 1lSCd for s~ress (',(Imputation or /J.
ti:wd cnd arch will take the follOWing shape
X\6'i+Xlif2 + Xl>t3"'i--.6. lp =0 }
X16~l + Xll n + X 3623 +OIP =0 (1.11)
X\6 31 + X 2632 +X~<S33 +.:.\w = 0
provided that in these COffilJUto.tiOllS Nsort is made W Qlle of th.)
simple structures appearing in Fig. 3.11b, c or d.
In Art. 8.9 it has bctln shown that aU thll scc"'lllary eocIlici.wts
of tnl! simu!tJlTleOUS equations ma)' be reduced to ~I)ro by an approp-
Ijate choiw of tho simple structuro. In this cuse the simllltallrous
equations mClltiullcd auove Uecome
X 1<Su +AfP=O }
X2B32+d2P=0 (2.11 )
X 3 6 33 7- A31'=O
Il'Rding' immodiutely to lItO following values of thb redundant
reilctiollS

X,= -~;"
AlP X2=-~'
,/'1:>.2'
X 3 = _ d 31'
63 , (:Ul)
'I'he simple staticaUy determinate structures will be oMained
if) tl\1\t case by the addition to the free ends of the curved built-in
bors of ono or twu infinitely stiff brackets as indicated in Fig-. :~.He
and f. The unknown actions will he applied to the free encl$ of tlu;l
said brackets, these ends coinciding with the elastic centre o[ the
structure. The directions of these actiofls will coincide with those
of the principal axes of inertia of the elastic loads rJ; .
V,1hen a fixed
end arch is symmotrical about a vertical axis t.he I;llastic centre o[
the strllcture will always tic in this vertiCil I. one of the principal
axes of inertia being hori7.0otal Ilnd the other vortical. 1n thal eaSll
 9.11. Con;ugalt Stati~ally Dttuminau Strut/urn
'"

~
" -<'}
Fig . .1/f

rd} x,
x,
"

~~~ "I~
-::~ X7'~X3
X, ~
Xz Xz ~:]X'"' ),;
. to)

~:~
If}

~ ~:: ~.
IcJ
PlC. 9.11 file. .U 1

31'
""tho Rt'd""dllnl Archil.

cOlljugate slructutcs of Fig. 3.UI' ami / will 00 replaced Ly those

lIr~arjn~ in Fig. 4.tta lInd b.
Sinco all the secondary disph1temenl!l due to the unknown (ort't's
acting at. the clastic cOlltre Ilf(' nil. it. becomes very easy to dcle"r-
mine the nature of the displacclDlllllo: of toe brackets prodllcf!J by
thesc "Ilknown actio liS.
Let 115 examine first the !!implc struet.ure of FiG'_ 5.l1a i')nbjccted
to two uuit ilOri'Ullltd rorc~ XI = I. Sint;(' 631 = 0, bolh brack4
cts will remain vQ.rUral and parallt!1 to oue nnother. 'fhpir lIe-
noetion in the vertical dinK'tion will depend on the dinM:lion of the
lIuit forces XI but tbe amount of this deflection will bt' exactly the
sall\O for both I"racket.s Sill('1l otherwise 6 21 would be different [rum
zero. In thf' IlOrir.onlal direction U1C mutual displacement. uf two
brackets will equal 6 11 ,
Whon tho !'[Il1\O system is suhjcctpd to two vertical unit forces
X~ (to'i~.'i.Bb) the two brackets will rotate to~ether remainillj.J
Illlfnllol tu 0110 tlnotilcr (for othcrwise the di~placcrncllt 6.1% would
he different fwm zero). will :;hift tUitlther along the ilori:tOntnl and
suslllin a nJlIWal vertical displacl'ment equal to 6l~'
The unit couples X 3 showll in Fi,lt.."i.Hc will ontAiI a mutu:d
rotation of the two brnckllts. eaoh bracket becomin~ ifl(;[illod lo the
vflrtictll at 11,11 angle equal to ~ 633 , The tot.al mutllo[ displncement
of the two brackets will equal 6.". The free ends of these hrackets
will remnin at the same distoTlce: frem olle another, 6 13 being nil.
'fhey Illny shift vertically upwards or downwards depeudillg on the
direction of thl! unit couplet! but both must shift tho ~llle amOunt,
for otl1l'r\Vi~ 6 u v.ill differ from wro.

'.11. APPIlOXIMATE :METHODS OF DESIGN ANU AKALYSIS

01' FIXED END /dIClfES
The dl'signer is frequently ~a1led upon to dMI with aM,;hes whose
neutrlll line and law of cross-~lionll.1 variation cannot bu cxp~~d
by 811:llytil'1I1 c.quations fit for practical use. In such ~:l~ tho exact
811Bly~is of the denection~ of the conjugate simplll structure ooconu's
impossible for this analysis is haSt!-d on integral calclllw. Resort
must be then made to approximllte methods. t .... o of whid\ will he
descri bl '(1 herellnder.
fn the liftt 0/ tMM methodll the neutral line of the arch is roplnecd
by a pOlygOll of from 8 to 20 sides (fig. 6.11). In additiOll it i~
aSS,lnJorl that cro-ss-scetional areas remaill constant :llolll;l' l'nch or
these sid!!!!, thoic dimellsions being equal to tho!;l' of the givQl\ Qrrh
as meRsured ovor the Cl)ntre of thRt pllrticular side. /111 thll IOad~
applicll to the arch are replaced by conccntcntcd loaus ncting ot
the <Ipil;cS of the polygon. Tlte magnilulle or t.hese load:o; is laken
p-q\lal to the combined support reaction of two conti!t'llollS ~ill1ple
beams can-ying- the same londs and having the same length all the
r.orrcsllOnding 'portion of tIle arc.b. The polygon of structure oh-
taincd in this way can be annLyzcd by one of the method~ dll5cribcd
in Art. 3.9. 1"or the analysis, any of the structures !lllOWIt in
rigs. 3.11 and 4.11 lUlIy be adopted to he conjugate witll Or withollt
traw'ifer of tho redundant constraints to the elastic centre. AllY
other s\.aLic'lLly dotcrminato systom eould bo equally used i[ th3t
Wl'rc f(IIllld expedient. All the dene_cLiolls aHI! rollllions 4:,Hn be

FI/!_ 6.11

easily ca!c-ll!3ted USing Vercshchagin's metllOd or grllph multipli-

cation. The stl'es.'!Cs obtained by this procedure are prnc_tically equal
to those induced in the curved arch. H.ereunder in Problem 1 01
the -prcscnt article we shall give an example of ~tross analysis by
the method just dese-riLed.
l'Iw second of lke approximate methods consists ill the subdivision
n[ ,lle arch into 9. numoor of segments generally comprised betwecn
8 and 20. Having chosen tlwreaft.er an appropdat.e simple structure
eithf'r from tbus!'> apP<'-aring in Figs. 3.11 MId 4.11 or any other
deemod betler fit for thi~ purpOSE', one ShOllld proceed with the
c(lllstruc_lioll or tbe stress diagrams due to the actual ami to tbe
llnit lo<\rts. This bc-ing done, the Co.Jclllntit.lns of the coerlicicnt!l and
free terms or the !;imultaneous equation!: are carried out :lssuming
that within the limits of each segment the expressions under the
inUlgral sign vary linearly. Consequently, tIle correspondillg" inlegral
will be ~qllal to the length of thc segment multiplied by h3H the
sum of the values of the expression under tIle integral sign clIkulated
for the ~ections limiting this particular segment. Thus. for inst.ance,
tho displacement 6 12 will be taken equal lo
__ i=n _ _
6 =l,'MtM Zd '"-' ~ ~(MI.'~IM2.1~1+
\2 J Hr S- LJ :I. HI, 1
o 4_1
 where If= I'ngth of the segment j limited by secLiol1.'l (i-t)
laud I (Fig. 7.ft)
M I 1 and M~./ - bending moments indue<'d at ::lection f by the
unknowns Xl and X a
J, = mOlll&nt of inertia of the same J;8ctiOI\
n = nllInber of segments into which. the arch has
heen subdivided.

....
The nbove c;(pres~ion can nlso be written af! rollows

6 11 = ~ MI.IMt'/I;~~1 (.(i.1t)
.-"
where " is hlllf the slim of the &'groent leng1.hs contiguou~ to
section i
- '/+'IH
s/= __, _

Thus, in order to del.i:!rminc onc of tILl' di:;plac<-,mclL~ 6 or ,1, pro~

ceed as follows:
1. Compute the values or Llle expres~ions nnder the integrnl
sign corresponding to each !!8('.tiOll situ/l.ted at the boundaries of
the segments forming t!le nrch.
2. Multiply ear.h of the va-Iut's ohtnincd in thi!! way by half the
Slim of the contiguous segment lengths.
:i. Calculate tllC ~lIm of all the values obtained as explained 8oo\'e.

J
, i ./
z r. / t; i./
3",
" ,. "
FIg.7.11

All suhl!Cqnont. computllLiun/S (solution of .-simultaneous equations,

cou:;truction tlf stress diagrams, et.c.) will he c.'t8ctly the same as
for any uthcr statiOllly indct{'_rminale structure.
Problem 2 presented at the end of this article will give an example
of st".~ o.llilly~is of a fllred end arch using t.he latter method.
Rl!ganlless or lhe method of allalysi~ selected the displacomenl.S
6 and .1 may be QbtailWd usillg the method of elastic loads described
ill Art. 11.8. Hcc()urse to this method is stron.':ly advised ""hen it
is desired to oblflin the innuoncc lillt>s ror illternal ~lros..lI()s illdntl'd
in tbe arch. for ill this ca!lC it becomes lIoc.essary lo eUllstrllct whulu
deflection graphs and fi()L only to detorrnine the deflection or par
ticullll' poinL~_ The construction of inDucllce lines for redundAnt.
ardll's is shown in detail in ProLlem 3 of the present artick
When t.he ri5e of the Il.rch is grealcr than ooe rif1.h of it! span,
the cakulatioD of the dcnections and angnlar mUlLions lhay be
y I,m

~!l~
~~l _
L----. ~~U'T'
,0>

X, x,
x,"-lt A ,
Xr x:

'"
Fi:.8.li

carried out neglecting the inDuence of :ohcars and normal streS&'s.

This does not apply to Oat arches whu~ ri~ is smallor than -k- of
the span. For those unit dil;placcmenL~ 6 11 along the diroclioll of the
t11fU!L ""lSt 00 carried ouL taking due account of the corresponding
uuknown XI - 1 lIS well as the normal stresses n'sultiJlg from tho
thrust. However, the other di.olplaccments due both to the unit
IlcLions and to the Applied loads Tnay be ngain calculated ncgll.'dillS
normal stresses rind sh~llrs.
I'~"blt'm I. U':Iingthe fil1lt of the moUlods do.-ocriblld nhovl' wmpulE' thp
~tl'\"'II'S ;lIduc(I(1 ill tho
nrt,h 01 Fig. 8.111), 'fho neutral Uno 01 this nrch fulJnw~
n cOllie paraho]". ;lnd Ill.. erolj..~~lional morncnts of inertla vllry In lleroroJonre
'<Il',tb the e:lP~c'ln I. - TbI!' AJ, Q alld l~ dlltgralll~ will be cvn:;l.rutlcd
-..!.L... .
COd lp"
a.58tlming Ihat!.bo left !ernlll'ch eanil's 11 uniformly distributed 10)11.<1 'I _ 2 lOlls
IX't mell"l.'.
Sollltion. Subdivide the arch ~ptln into 8 equal puts tlUl.'l .doptiug " "" is
11",1 11 - ::I moll?s. InKt,be into lh.e given .rch a V01rguoal one.., md,ral....
in Pig. 8.llb. The equlltion 01 a conic parabola in the coordinate ~y~em '10i,
"'bo!o; origin eolnc:idf5 ...ith Iho (,l'ntmid of the !'fctioD at the leh-b.n,) support
IIocOQIl".'I

41(1
lJ-Il~
~ 'ix6
-" ... ~ 2~x24
<".-r,.,",= 2<\-~.
2" ;
Tt.. VIIllles of I} a~ the boundaries uf all t!.le dlffel"l.'nt ~lIlmollts lire lnrliratcd
in lhe ~~ll\C
1';\':"'0. As.'Itulle that tho oonjullate ~jmlilc ~tttlchm' is obtailled
by cutting tlw arr!l at the crown as indicated in t"ig. S.Ue with tJ'IlII.$I'er <If the
rodllndllnt e<lrl~tr.jnts to the elastic centl'~"
COffi"ule tho ordillllle 11. of Ulis elllstic centro III the coordinate ~.\'IlI.cTll %JI
~ d.
1: .) "7
fI,- th

Slneo J. is I!sumed eotIStotnt fur e:lch

"\7 ~i~ or tb<- pt)IYfO~1 .reh Iha
ellpl't."Miou for I. hclmes

where SJ repr(Ol;c"ls lhlllelll!'th is tho onlinato to the cen

tre or this ~i,lll,
In Ihe case under c<lnsiderntion wo h~vc Ij .. --!.e-where 'PI Is thQ Incli~
cos If.
lI:1UOIl of ~ide I of tho polYI:0ll 10 tho llOrlzont.81 and thorefore

~O
-----
'I
II
.leo~q:1

I,

le

11,- -
. +
oJ" ~ (lIi_1
---"-""7---
11
111)

--
-"'-02',--;;;-_
~
-0
J,
or "',Ih due l'l.'gard to the .!Iymmctry of tbe arch
l_/~

'_0
V.-_C'~-"''''o;:-----* h (11/-1+111)
,-,
whe)'('from

Y, -i (6+ Wx 2+ ~ X:l I-i- '( :.! 1 O) _2.0615 mdN!~

11,<, entt "oillull of 11, for a pan.bolle lu-cb wboS(l 1110fH('D" of inl'f"lill vilry
1
is ~a1 lO -3 t ..ilieb in llll: Preleol ('ii~
In ace..rdam:e with Ih. J", =
=....!..E..-

is slIl:lllf'r than thl' value O!Jt"illl',l l!J.ovP I.)' 6.25 em. Thl,. difFch'/lCB Cilll be rur-
tlwr !'('d,,,~ed inn('lIsinlZ tho numh.er of sid('~ of .tlll' Im!c~ibcd pol~'gonnl :lr~h.
Pig. !.l.11 rOiln':>Cu(S tho ben,ltng m01nent .hograms IJjduce(l III [he .~lT"pJ,)
lItrowlUt't by UIlIl lletllllls applilld lit Ill<' cll\~Ue (';('1111'9, llnd Fif' to.ll tho.-;e-
due Wlhe aclUl11 load!' euucentrakod at Ulo apices of the left haU 0 the pO]nI<lllal
arch. At oo\h l'nd.~ uf Ihillarch (pO;IlU 0 Dlld '1) lJl~ load~ .re ~ - :'1.00....
and at tho inlc....Dedialc p<)int.s (poiMS t, 2 and J) th_ loads amount to fll ~
... 6 WU:'!. TllO tc"ction ur the unkno....-n con~trll'nts will be givell by

A"
):1---, ' X~ ..
.
--'"
lIa.l
(3.11)

Di!'placl'lIIl'nts lIand A "

~III bo ()btained nlu!tipl)'ing the graphs of Fill:. 9.tl
by thro,,- of Fig. tu.11 using Veres.hch.gin', method. It shoold be f'ftIlt'Illl;erod
that t.hl' ralil> ltut"'HD the length of lOach sld" of tho polygDII and the mClrlWut.
oC illt'rti;o of the co~spondiDK crog .~tlon ",mains constant Dnt! oqual to

The unit dhlplacemont! ...'ill br. .It>tormitll'd u5inll lormub", I'cculiar to,
traJl'l'zoidal 5tfl:l$ll .liagnms (see Art. 8.8). Thus, ro.i$illg to t~ !!t'CC>lIU l,oll.":r
ttM. M, graph (Fig. 9.lh) ~"l' obtain

Th" ,-allies of 6ze and 6u .... iII bl. obwlncd in tho !llm(" "'.y, I. ("" raisin!!"
to the secoDd "o.....n tile M 2 ;lnd M 3 gnphs (fig. 1l.llb lInJ e)

6u -
2
6S
i: (2 X t2 X 12+2 X 9x 9+2 X 12 X 'J)+
+(2 x!lx 9+2: X6 x(i+ZX 9 x 61+
+(2X(iX6+2XJXJ+2x6X3H2XJX 3]- 1~~:2
'~

.
rUe
x8 _ _
"
El.
"'0 I1~dulldanl Arch,.,

'0 )

-- --+-----

Fig. 9. 11

F/{!.. 10.1,1
 Tbt> displawm(\DLil A,q. <.\2<1 Ind tr.~ dllt' 10 the .tWilI 100ding ..:iIL ~
given by l~ product of tbe "'1. "'I Ind /t1J graphs 1Iy the Iofq graph
(Pig_ to.11)

"[('~
.4.IQ-6EJq " 6 3 "X 144
-2xffiXH/t-2xTIix81-mx81-m ) +-
21 ~. 21 9 )
+ ( -2Xi6xIH+2xWX:36-rnx36+iGx81 +
2 9 36..1 2 27 X 9-1.-!l , 27 X3. r)
j- ( X 16)( t" Xrn 'lijX +i6 , +
+ ( -Xii
" X ,33 x9 )]
+i6 7.3"
--SElt

4tq -6:1" 1\2 '>( 12 X 144+2 X 9 X 81 ....... 1~ x 8t +9 x 14~)-I-

+(2 X!I X81 +2 X 6 x 36+9 X 36+8XSI\+l2 Xli x J(i+
-r2 X3 X9+ 6x 9+3 x 361+2 x::l X 91 '" 5E~'J,,2

" ('44
A~-l'" El , 7+ 81 +31. ) - - '"
,+9 El,

Introduci"g ttHl:vnlu(l~ of lht'S(> dislJlllCClnlmls in 1.'lIuDtilln~ (:,I.ll) ",. nht.'1ill

, . b 1q 7.371X32 12to
'\=-,6 11 - RX2.457'" "5
~..\:'l -5.292
Xl~-b;-~--,U9410llSl

.1~ 59~
X 3- -~--v:-:M.7S lunmet"'",

TIlt'. 1tI, Q /tnt! N tlil\Rrams lIlay now he olllainp<1 appl}'llli tll tho l'la'illll
teulrn of thQ c"nj\'1!lItl' ~truclure two j(lKOS XI -
12 tvn" an~ X2 -- --Li?4
tons snd a eoulllu X. ---= 2<\.75 ton-met",' log1t ,~'r whh I,hl' umform lo~d" ,h~
trlbulN.I OVH tloe lert I'l'llliarch.
'I'h", following {,,,mul,,.~ may bll ued provldod thl' urdinate" pa" UIl'('ugh
llllice:l of the polygonal "reh: .
(al rOf the left Slllllilln;h (Pill- \1.tl,,)
M~X"v-V.)+X:z .'
I- X J-'1 2"
Q= -XI "i" '1'+;'(: CO f-'1.TCOSq>
N -x I cosqt+X: sia. f-qr sinqt

(b) for the right romian:h (fig. It.llb)

.u",X I {V-v.)+Xtz- X J
:r -Xl ~i[) q,+X:cvs'f
N _ XI r.u~ ,!,+X:sin '1'
 In tIle llUoVC O,'\"!,~E'!Sions :r Ilnd 1/ lire thE" (oordjnllt~ of the Ill}utrlll Iln&
of 11", 31'(,h . I"JeoIUJI1Il n('llllti\'~ tu ll1f\ !Ift c.r till' axis of ~},mlletl'Y (Sf.'e
fill 8,\1 bl. wllll" 11' i. tilt an~Jo IlQIWQCn lloll lauK"nl to llds nelllrnl lil1t' ..nd
tl". 1",,,,.,,"taJ. T!,I' Vllh,t'l! of Ihis allgle arl! "o,silivo fqr Ill.. 11'H holl of thl"
n"'I, and negoth'l' for thl' tight ulIe.
Non",,) st~ ,",'Ill ~ rt:.. kOlll'd po.slti'l'l' ""hell they cau..oe cOlllJK'l'~ion
of tl.., lIrtlt. t'<w the bcllilillg mOfllelltl!! and !lbllllring fon:es the usual ~Itfl coon
v"l\lI('ln Kin'" in AI't. 1.2 will Le maintained. 11 is l'uJly ~n that all thee

I
I
I
I
I
o .--t---..f.- -,--1
I
30 30 I 30 :.10

'al

o'

Pi,:. 11.11

CXI"~OJ'" fur the stl'(l!.qS indllceo1 in the ].eft h.1r of the 'l'(Ch di1l'l:!'I" from I.h05U
tor In r;!l"h\ hllll ,onl}' by thl' pl't'5l'oce of tc!l"ll1S tlue to the d~ulbutcd Io-ds q. The
val,uoS of lhe angle ..... m bl' ~hlCed (""\I tbl' equation nf \h.. noouol line

wh(~rdr(llll
"
lJ=- I~(I-~H

Tilt stre.'~ diagrams must bto conslnloCU!od fnr the real arch llnd not (ne
Lho imllll:'hlar)' I'olygonal one adopted ~,lely with Lho view of simplir)'iDg \he
eoml'ututions.
 ~ v.l!ll~,,1 or. 11 anll If CQrrE'!'[lOndJllg tQ dilfl'l'Cllt r~ 5l'diQII~ III lhl' arth
..,ppt'ar in Tahla 1.11.
r~/11l' 1.11

S~tl<ln
No.
I.". I .m ,m

Q
, ,
0 4."1 0 0.707 0.701 _12
I f,
J
Z
3
R
9
0.15
0.5
025
36~:'i2'

26"3.i'
14002'
O.tiOO
o.-~n
1).2-~25
O.l!'.-o
O.tl'l-i
0.970
-.
-"
-,
3.37a
La
O.37~
<,
$'
J'
"lr, 0
-1 1.25
,)'
-Ho02'
0
-0.2 /,25
I
0.070 ,
9 0
O.37{i

"'l' -O.~ -26"34' _u.li47 0.t!!)4 t.~

"" -,
1\
-0.7:i _3652' --0.600 :,_37~,

""
0,'"
-4{i<' _0. ;1l7 1\
'" "
O.7Q1

The ordinate.'1 to lliIl M. Q andN dlagr:lln.5 tlJgelher \nlh .11 Ih"corn,,~pollll

ing c"mp",l.:nIQII~ are entered inl" 'r.bl~ 2.11. 3.11 all'1 "11.

r"M'! ;t.J/
Orlllni\tes 1<1 Ih,~ .tf Illugri\lll

,,~
NO.
..
" x, U -11.
Ix, "-+. x... .
.'
_Q'"
-
,_ _ _ .-.t l""<lt"",..

r.... t!lf'
~>DlIrCll
1~1t
tll tl, .. '"
"1,,11.'"''''
lQOOmrl,~

-
Q 3.9.'17,'; t,7.zr. -12.00 55.1.1 -11'100 --IG.ll.1
J 1.312-'> 15.75 -9.00 41.3."1 -lll.<rt 0.85
2
3
4; '1' ~
-0.a6~
-I M75
-2_062.'i
_ 6.75
-211.25 -
.,
"
-6.00
-3.00
0
21.:'"16
1:'-71$
0
'0
<-
-36.(10
-\1.00
~.M
~.28

J'
2'
-" -I.tl87:'i
-0.562.'>
-24.75
-20.2;'
-G.75
~
I ',00
li.OO
-nus
-27.r..:;
~
-
-
0
"
-11.2.&
-".ill;
J'
0'
1.:'\125
3.1137':'
t:,.15
l,i.2."I
!1.OO
12.00
-41.35
-5{,.13
-
-
-O.K.
HI.FI'

The dilll"rarns given ill Fig. 12.1'1 IIi\VC bH<1 con~nJ(:tlPd o~ing thl:' d.b
Wntaim;ld in tilL' aoo\"e 131111'~.
Let liS chock tllll ,If tlilgram or .'ig. 12..11 'lsing tll.. Jl1('lhotl hllSl!<1 un Ihl!
cOllsi~t.cnc)" uf den'''olinns ["E"P. AIt.Ii.!'!'J. Thi~ con b(\ dune mulliJ11ylllg tl", 1l.1ill
 T(Jbl~ 3.J1

. -1
Ordinalf'S IAI tlle;' Q Diagram

....... x,
11011 1111 'f
_ .T"I
sin ~ x, ~. x. tol
.,,~ """~'H
tor to 110. Q
Irlt u-
u~
dlllt'....
lI'Il'ro:-h lonl

0 U.7(17 -8./oM O.iU1 -3248 -~_OOO Hi.968 ~.24.

/ O.fro -7.200 0.800 _3.675 -18.000 14 AOO 3.53
X
O.Hi
O.24:t5
-5.3ti4
-2.910 "$.
O.a.~
0.970
-4.109
-4.457
-12.(((1
_6.000
to.728
5.S)
1.26
_1.5.'".

,
~
1;4' 0 0 ~
1.0 -4,S'J.~ 0 0 -4.59
,. "
S' _ O.2i2r. 2.9W u.9'70 ->\.457 - - _1.55
._lJ."'7 5.364 '1.89-\ _".m.1 - - 1.2f.
I'
0'
_0.6IJP
IJ.7f'7
7.200
8.4M
0.""
o. ,07
_s.ms
-3.:M~
-.. -
-
3.~13
!> 2-1
r
Tolde 4.11
Otdin~les l<l 11", N [lillgnlm

-q".llllf ()rdl~ntel
So'''
(Ion
:>;0
.\"1 c.,, ~ ."
ens ~ X, ~in If X, Iln 'I' 'I~
I'" !l,t
IM'
'"I1.I.,eil
\'1 lilr \'
dll\~t~ ....
(on.
--
0 0.71"17 8..... O,7ff7 -3.24& -:t4.0no Hi.0G8 2:!.21
,,
J tl .llO.1
1I.:::t!H
~1.liOO
10.728
...,
,),lIiX)
H.'H'
-2,7~
-2.(t,~
-t8.Otj()
-12.1100
IO.kt\l
5.364
17.04
H.~
_1.11(, _r. OCt.I
, 0.!l70
~ Il.f....,CJ ~ ').Vi2!J 1.131 IUtS
4, I' I.l) 12.000 <
, 0 ,) 0
--
0
--
12.110
S'
" u.~~ O.~l~
It.MO -0.24~ 1.114
2.05-t
12.76

"O'
/' fl.~f('
0.71H
111.7'28
!IOW
IUS,;
_lJ.417
_(I. M
-O,7tr.
:.756
3.2'18
-
-
-
-
12.7'J
f2 3(j
I1.i3

11;;'II,'TflUl by, .'lily. tho unit IIIUllll'll~ dlaerall1 .iTt (Fig. 9.lIb).

,~oJ f{2x 12x \1'.81-2x 9 X u,85-I!X (I.SS +!JX 1fi,87)-

" ,
-{2 x!l X (1.8!l+ 2)( 6x 9.50+!l.56 X 9+(; X 0.85)-

,
-(2 X (l X \1.51; +2 X 3 X 9.28+6 X fI.28+3 X 9.56)-

-2 x3 X 9.28/ ': J?/~ (556.7 -557.\) ..... u

4.11. Appr,,;(/ml;1l~ Metlwd5 (1f Du/gn alld Analy&f5 (1/ Anhe~' /005-

J
,, J'
," ,.
~
~

"- o
f'-'",,+--+---:-.zllc~"~m--j- --=-}"
M grapl!,tm I
i

Q grapIJ,t

,"
~

i
N gropn,t
I
4
~
I~N
I I ! 'I ~

Flg.J2.11
 #~---------"
E

I'll; fj {.I

::==.J - J~JG.QliL~ -I
Fig. 1111

' ,
t
- --- ----
So. 3.0 ,}.!J }-1!J-0
i---------I-'=""''----~
y
Ftg. 1;'. Jl
 Problem 2. ll"q'Jiredlhe M, (lalld. ,y "i~R"rams for the pal'(>bolie Melt ""rrring
u ll<Jrizont~1 IUiHl of q '- :.: Ions pl.'r ~q metr!.' (Fig.13.11). Comllre"'~lw~ ~trL':!!ffiS
arising in till! ",d, wHI be ~ceounted Jor. The "pan o[ lhe at"{;h I - ;11\ HI. ils
rioo f = ill Ill. AL lh" crOWI< llie Udl i~ 1.2 Ul thick and :It the aJHl(lIlelJ~~
1.8 III tllkk. At intermedHltE' I'I)cti<m$o thE' tlllrkoE'''N "f the llrch l~ 1/."l\'l1I hy
u" _u,
d~ ""'rJ~+----uv. J:r I
wher(' I'" I i~ (Ill> h'Jri~(l,,( ...1 <1i~t~nce of Lhe cro~s ~tiOfl "lld,.,' C(lIl..;,!t:,H;i,"
to till' crown C"'ig. 1;>.11.1. The wi.ltll of tlm ;,rch (in till' dHt"C~lI)H nurmal It> thl;
plant>. ,If 1110 Ilr.lwint:r1 WIll he Il,~umetl equal to 1.0 m.
S,>/ull,m. Ttlt' cnnjng",,.. ~imJ"(' "trurl.ut with ,,11 Ilu' r<-(llIolIl""t rl'm'li"lI~
(.rnu"rt'rr"d to the el~~ti(: centre Jlllpeur~ in fig. H.t f. The "!i .... ,~I'<lruli,,g "u,"'-
lli~~1 c(!u<lli')lls h"C('llle

(2.11}

whence

I :m
a=T2=12=3.0 m
The Clrllillnllls 10 the neulr:ll IlH~ lIr th" 1\reh rcpf('senll'd in n,. 15.11
arc, fAl1nputcd l\~ing l'xprNt~ivn
10' Iox 18 :r.2
!J -1i;r2 -""""3if'I ",,2- 18
.1\11 ~b(,' dala llcce!'~ary for furthcr calcUlations are glv('1l in Tablt> 5.1t.
Th,' angle- q; botWC(oD till' tang"nl to the nj)ulral line 01 lh.. arch and th~
!I"rir.onl.lll has Ix't'n comput<>t! u~lng exp,..,~slon
dl, 22: %
UIU'I'=a~-I8"'9

Fnr the riFlhL Mmillreh t(ln ~ (lnt! ,."msequoJlLl~ the angles 11' thl'\TlS('lvt'S ilTe
positiv' alid fol' tile lelt ~(omillrch thoy are n~ative. Tho mean vllh",~ o[ segmt'llL
lengths cODtiguou~ to section subdiViding the arc.h hJl\'e been ca!culal~ llsing
+
* I'l thi~ ca.'ll J = O..'H (i. 0.. f > -} I) and consequon~l)' dirl.'ct ~tre.o;<;e~
~llOuld be llegl~c.I(,(l.
In Ihi~ problem Ule}' will be con~id('rI~d '!-Olely in order
10 ar.qllsint the reader with ~htJ corresponding cQlIlputatiQII !tochnlqu('!!.
~2-SH
 4.11. Appro:rlmate Method' 01 Dt.'tn ond Analyti' 01 Areht. 1099

thl! Itpproxilllah. rtlatioll S, - - " - witb I.he exception or ~tions 0 IInd 6

ellS q>1
for \lbicli
-~ __
, " 1:; m
~ COlllfo

"
~--,--- . eoe,.
03 W'5
2 x. j~
_3.3J In

,'.... _reil Ihieknl.'ss at diffc'rt'ot l;T~ !E'Ctioo~ h...s 1ll'<'n l;IIll;ulated nsin;
the- ",Iallon SJIl'CUled abo\'?
d . . .I. ...,..\..1.811- 1.20 I I I ...,..!-M
0,1. tS :r - .UJ. 30

,.-hilo Ill" nl\JUlcn~ of i~Ttid are ~i\'e-n by J-1i.

The COOTdinatl'~ of thl' ~1Dstie cenlre \I"jlh mr!'TllDCC t'l the .doplcd ~Xl'!
(~ Fig, I~ tt) .....iIl be! %. __ 0 nnd

'\> d. '<' '

-117 "'V7 <\00.7 r.
~'''''''--d-~-----~t
,_, ,
,_a.<\Om
lJL.~'

"'7 '7
TllU vulll~ of thll numerator and the deMminator of thl' latler e!"pre~sion
hllve been taken from 'fable 5.t I.
Let u., now eOlnput.E> lhe ""U dl.plcumtllf,. Displacement ~" ...... ill he oh-
tninod \l~ioll the r(>Joti(\o
- -
EIl Il ",,2 (!Ml; +EN~:)
""I,ieh t3kes duI.' ctIT\' of the OOTIOIII slr('!!l.'!. In thl.' allov!'_ exprt'505ion
Mf-l (11'-)1.); 8._1 COSqJ: F""",1d
and then'furt"
- -
0" ....2 [~(V-".)L7+seos"rp ~, ]
10 t~ )lIl\(or u~S!ilon ,~ term in brackuJ iJ multiplil.'d by 2 for the
$Ummlltion is U1Tried along ball the uch only. All ealcll)di,mM relalll'('
t ... R6 u aTf' I'ot.ered Into Table tUL Using \00 data tbus obl.:liol.'d 10''11 find
E611 _2 (2702.41+ 9.02) _ 5422.8
'hll di!plaecment O:t! "..ill be comp"'tl"] n!'glccling tlol.'" inDlIl,'DCe of Iba
nOTmal lftreSfll'S. c:on!ll'qu~ntly

E6~-2IMIJ
-,
Since 'ut _Iz, this npres!ir>n reduC('! to

E6=_2~zt ;
Thn eorrl.'"sponding cnlcl.Ilati(lna lire ... nll'T{'d inlo T~hlo 1.11
-
' ';
,. :~
.,
o

,~

1-----------1--

'. '"
1------------1--

,
';

! o o

.,
';''' ,s-
~

~
I

"
 T~/,{e 7.11

"~~II"n
:-;<.0 ". '" , ~.
,
.!...-

,-
0

,., ", u 1tI. !,

17. :i 15lj
1

"
"
3(; 15./\ 5611
1U3
,,I " 81
14,i
I ~1, I
H.!I llO~
"
H> 22;; 11
" ~i55
22::11;
" " ;l..!1 GU

1'.~illJ;!: lhn lotal >;),'l\\"rl ;It lIw (o')l vi llle lilsl Cfllomll WQ ,:,I'('1I1l
FfI:l1- ::'<'8JHI .._17,882
Ilj,'I'I'ICtJU"'Ill 6.1., will IJe OI,t.a'''L'd III Qx"ctly lh,' ,'l.;]lno: WilY

"I"'T<' TIJ-J. 1,',uHng to EIl;JJ=2~-)-

1'~ilH~ the" vlllm' or till' 1.0:>1.,,1 <li '1',\"1, ;'.11 w" gc,t
1:'\31-2 x !)1.U= j~:i ~

7'1l~ d'~/)l"r~me"18 of IIIr ~i",,,k ~'~lut"u dur I" Ih~ "p"t'Qd I~i"is \~1I1
l.I<! Qbl,IiUl,,1 usin!; (,he f\)Ho\\'iu~ .,xpr(~~SlnH,'

\\1,,'1'" Ml=y-y.; j\12-.; M~_I. M'I

(JIl"lItl~',

E\ ,,~
':!q-- .. :rY 7

' ~' " s

E'''>'~'1'''''--,'rT
 Rt'dundl1.r1t Arc/u,

In ,,11 th(' Ihret' of lilo..'l' UprE'''-''iODS lhe 5umnJalion wiU Lf l:Irril'd over
Ihe right semianJ. (1111)'. lhe bending l:COl\I('I\l." In the Jeh !t:DIlllrcb rmlaining
c(\tlCla.nlly nil. Furllll.'T uleulation" art' ('lVtied out m l..i.bulllT form <sce Ta-
1,le 8.111.

.... r. ", r11

I
~. _t''!! '"
",,,1-:'

I
,,~ 11' -
T 1\<1 ;

"
-5.':'u 0
0 0 0 lOA
" 0 0

,, ,,
3 0,5 4.3
I
2 2
17.3
15.8
-4.~i()
-3.JiO
u.25
4 63.2
-ll
-215 "
37!l
4.5 t5.1 -0.90 2025 .')0::'.8 -2705 2752

,, " 15
8
12.5
Ifl.l;
11.8
2.60
1.10 "
1~.25
934 4
IS~3.11
2'.2Sl
13001
11213
27G57
:t! 40241
l8 18
" 12.00 Z23:iG 2816'3

Tutilll I r>387.1 I ,(3178 I ~:t5

l ~mg tll., 1,,!.Ulb of th_ ukulalionll " . Il"l
IU h1 - -43,178: 1:.lt j --b2.2SS; E.1,~~-~11
llllnx!.ul'ins UltM! ullJC!. lul" UIH'>"""IOD5 l3 11) ';Iil. pllwin t/lo(l magnilu,Jts
of \II(' uUkn':'wD f'1'dul\,Jan~ 1t'''r1tJOU!I
, -'Iq ~1l.1;8 _
Xt-
...,..... 8 =- . ':ItS
-...-----"'.",.,..
ou 1,.CIIlS

.12.): 82,2,)5
Xt~" -"'6';"'- J7.&l2-"OO ~ons

X~ .... - ~~: ~ 51: "SI_ ZU,3l toD-welrS

'fbl.oc forco~ are "p'plled at lhu e1a~lic centre 01 lhe sUltically dct(ll'ruinnte
conJugale stroctUnl. 10gpther with tht uniform loads applJed 10 lho arch, tloey
(lll..",U1ule Ihe CoOruplele s)'1itern 01 )oods purmiUmg tbe eompULatJOII of ",11 tho
Mt'\'~~ and ",actions (Fii. H.I1J.
Tilt! ordinates to !.be jf. Q and N graphs will 00 obtained using the following
oqu:O\l""":
{Ill for the leh SNnlll.:h
M_Xl~/I_'.)+X~+X,
Q_X I ~in ,,+XSCOS'f
Ne: XI cos ... -X z sin er
(M lor the right !lemiueb
'71/2
ill-Xl (/I-.v~)+Xz~+X'-T
Q=X I sin qI+Xz~ lJ'-qV sin 'f
N -X I cos q;-Xtsin If-q!l oos Cl'
 [\ wlll loo noted that the ~xpr~ssiolls for the I~ft ;;ewiaTch dilier from those
fUl' the right one ~olcly by tho ab~lmco of the term accounting for 'ile uTlilonnly
dis~rihllwd ]o:ul 1
.' Ill the clllt'ul,l.llons relati\"{. (0 till' ordin8.ll's to the M, Nand Q diagr:mls
an, rnrriUl! out in Tablt'_~ 9.11, 1{I,l1 llnd 11.11.
Tollle 9.11
Ordinak-s tu thl" 111" O[Rgram

&c
(~_I'.) X,
-,--qUi
-~. OrdlnMel
to tb,- M
11O" X, V-t'. X. .'1:3
" X.' (Ior tile dlnll1\n,
N .... "lijllt lo,,_metr~
emia",!

0 _flAO -42
" 0 0 -- _13.67

" ,
<'
t.
1
2
J
_4.~11J

-3.1,(1
-O.~HJ
_30.00
-n,OIl
-';,16
-3
-0
-,
-1380
_27.00
-41 11)
-
-
_23A9
-25.35
-lil.25

-, ,
~

~
6
;! 60
... 111
12.00
2(1 70
5Ii. 52
l00.llO
-12
-15
-18
-55.2v
-t:l9, 00
-82.8u
-
-
-
_;;,1'1
lG Ki
....V;lI
--< 'i! S ;;
0 ,- -5 ,:'u ,1,2.98 ~ (, 0 ~ 0 - 13.67

,
~
~

.~
1 _4.!~-'

-S.W
-39.(10
_~1 06 ,,
J 13.tW
27.60
-u< 25
-, :Um
25.b5
"~.
H _1.1.nl) _7. If) 41. ....0 --20.25 1,;'\.30

- 1 2.i:ilJ 20.7(1 12 55.20 -lVt 41_~1

~
= "I
f> 7.HI
j,2.(\l1
5v.52
1011.30
15

"
H!J.OO
82.80
-1':'(;.25
- 32< . -I.W
-\I1.5~

The diagrams ~h"Wll ill Fig. 16.tl have !Jl1'('1l plotted u~lng \.ho ol'dim.tl>!!
~nlcu.l8tlld in t!tu aho~e tables.
"1'0 ('hock the <leGUT3G}" of the M diagram (et us multIply llLls diagram !J~'
Ihu M t , ;~h au,l MJ.. graphs. In o~hor words. we Shall obtain the values
of );jT,M ~ ,~Jf2M-j. and ~MJM-j both for the l.... ft- and tLe rigllt-hand
semiarches. H{)membering that }.[. - !I - Y., M2 "," % ~nd M3 =0 1, the-o.e
e;O;:l'r{'~~iOl\s ~ill1plify lInd bceomo
, ...JIf..!..
~:rMJ IInd
- J
The llecess.11Y caleulation~ Me ent.e-red into Table 12.1t.
It ""lit be llhserved that the totals of the entries in the last t.hreo eolumnl!
of Ta.ble 12.1 L differ very litHo from 1.ero, which confirms the aCllllTaey or tilo
du.guuu. Tho slight dlscrt:lpancies, which rl~D1aln below t P{'I" cont. are due 10 thE'-
[act that wo neglected the normal stresses whon ohocklng this diagram whereas
in computing 0ll those stresses we,u takon into conslderQtion.
Pruhlem 3. Hequlred the influen~-6 Hnes for the reduntant reactions X I' X 2
anti X ~ as well as for the stre.%eS ilIA, N A and Qh acting at $Gtion K of tho aroh
~I.V. lI,d"",lmu i1 rr!u"

T'lble Jl.U!
Ordina(~s
,,, the q J)ingrlllll

-~1! 01" If' O,dl""I,.

r:;"c-
unn
~" x1, .it, Of' X, $i",<, X, M" X. Cu. 'I' "q!,~
.' -2~
(f<,f th~
rl::llt ."
t!W 'J
djno:ra,,, .
"l'mlnrth) t'Jn~

,
",
I,ll
~, I "
,).;;:1(,
0
-2.,,2
-, 1I.!l'tU "0('
4.37 1;(:)

5
; ,
2 --0 :)35
-ll.7('7
(,2
_~5.li3
O.8~2
0.71"'7 """fi:\ -"
-~ :I'l
5(1

-
~
I
,'.
,-11 1'lI.~1

~'),R.1S
_(~)l,

-(\.83
(t.f)!))
0.511,
2. ,I)
2.311
_3.111
-U7

--," ,-.- ~ -".89'.

r."
-7.\1
~ ,
0.1,1,7 2.~;
1,.1;0 U , :)l~';

\ 6i\

;; J ~'.:> I(j
"2 ~)2
~

1),949 >\.g7 -, _O,:~:,: ~,7

'i ,,
2

J
.,
n.!\~/i

,. .,.
7117
'1.lt2
:,.r,;:C
H.:>7
0..'132
O.7()i
IJ. f_.)
<I.~~
'3.2.';
:UtJ -11,
-\
-, -2 22
.,
- (;, :-'.4.
12 .-
"
2

"
-.
ILI,fl
".
1,7

fc , (U:63
(J.SfJ,\
1.83
7.\1
0.51/,
(lA!.7
2,:~I;

2.0li
_2:,
-:~Ij
_::!1.1,5
-32,18
_It ;.!I'
_~3-'11

T'lbJ~ JJ ..l1
Ordjoatc~ 1" lhe N Diagn'm

5'", -<,,,-
-q"
,f~t
cr'~'"
l.IW
O"j;",,(..
l"lI,., il'
\I,," Xl ~v_ ~. X,(N;'I' -X, .11\ 'I' -X, >in q>
~-211 rll(t,t dm.:rmn,
1\(1. ~~",i;l('CI,) t,m.

, VIr, i . ~)IO
,
"f "
.1 D ',Il,!) 7. [,!",
,1
-''>..~lCi " 1.(,.'"' (I ((I

.- , ,
2 0.&1:1. ',.63 -0.55:'> 2.r,,'j
9
; 11.7'.'17 f,.I);) _1l.707 :it,
"
$.Hl>"
-' ,"
J
"
'1.5M
tiI(J
,'. "
, O~
_1).~Xl
_lU~'.t\
i\.l%
3 !la
8.;'1,

,
1".h4

--- .:;,.
11.4'\7 all g
~
,
-').~~14
". " lii

" 7. ()I;
-, . -,,
0 0 0 7 ~.l
(r
~

J (I. 'J!itl 7 :15 0.310 ~~) - -'.'.9~ 5.15

.::;
," 2
J
{I.~
O. iC!7 " 1~'1
5.6.1
V.55;;
1),7(Ji
-2.55
-;1.25-, _Hi
-:~.33
-6.3(; -3.il8
('. i~,

J (1,(;00 I,. 7~ 0.800 -3.613 _:,l.f~.1 _$.lj'.1

~ 0.::'14 4.0:1 '!.8~..-t _:>.(15 -25 -12.:x. _I~, 71
= G 0.1,1,7 i}.56 0.891 -4 _,m, _11)'(1'J -IQ.IV.
"
rt'I'I,-!t.,.,lo'd ill ..'ill:.l$.lt ....i l... ,hl('lll l. The /Ol~'i"",l "f l]u;,o.ocli,," "'1111,. ... h,,,
""IURI , .. Ih,' qu"rt.lI' :;1),110 ()[ 111(' 'I"(h, 1.('., I" 1\ "'. Tlt<> f~m ...lrueli'1I1 cor IIInUtlO<:...

IItg. 111.11

lines \l,JIIIJ\." f;Jrrj,~1 \Jul tl-mlllhe mtUlOd or ola~lk lfl;\i!!. Tilt, flr>'t,,1 theaPJlr,,~~
imaUl ",,,thud,, lll'.'"eribf.'ti ill the pro!ol;'l\t arlicle' will I,.,. u~,.l Ihrougb"lIt '"10.1
in all<lill'm ~11O' i"fi,\('It<'l) li"l' for the unkllo....-n X" ~'11I lIe dl'l4.!rmillcd us)ng
lltt> >-efontl of till' 'Ilpro.~jlllllle m~thod!, -
 Solutlan. The eoordlnol,.O~ of the inlc'Cribed polygon IlpjC<J~ (lS well as the
ordinate !I. of the elastic t\~ntr" uf thl" arch wen) calculatod in Prubl(,Dl 1. The!'o&
cn(>l'dinat~ aro glv!'n '." Fig~. 8.11 and 9 11 wl,i~h I't'pre~nt e'l.uallr tb~ 51rnple
~lructure llsed in 1111.'> proble-rh IInd the lWJldlllg moment dIagrams mdueed
Tublc 12 11

'"''''
~"
,,
," l ,"h-
e
-;'.40 0 10.4 _5i;.t(j o 768
]~
-13.67 L _11.2

E 2
_4.90 -3 17.3 -810.77
_;~AfI -Ii 158 _53.72
_SU.'
-94.S
_23.~['
_2:L:1;)
,""
1 362
1219
2'W3
_f,Oil
_1j('l
;,. 3 -O.~) -(I 15.1 -13.59 -13~ !) -1~.2'-' 2(;2 2 (,16 -2:11
~ .f 2.00 A-J~ 14.6 37.!)6 -17::i.2 -5l9 -19~ (l(Jt) _76
~ S 7.tO-t5t111 S:1.7li 1').~3 _2()7U
(, 12.60 _18 I).a Bij.W.
-177.0
1,1.:.81
1410 L'"
-t:<!k2 4 (170 -.'i81', J~3

-5.40 o _
" -56 16 _13.1i7 708
"
J.\'~

""
~
~
.;
-;:: -1
-4
-3J.O
-O.W
2.61)
~.-) -84. Ti
-5:J.i2
-1:J.:i9
:17 \,1(;
5U
Wt.8
1:15.!1
1i~:d
386
::5.$.">
43.30
11.21
-327
-13!l'J
-5&!
I 5r....
2
2(J11
,,:it
5 SS'
71:.'1)
.''".
651,
,m
.':!' ,s 7 10 83. ,8 177.0 -U2 -11\1 -2~1 _17
", 11.UU 86. !l4 124.2 -Ht 59 -'J802 -1::105'J _77(1

Tob! f- l21
-12422
'J51 +22 oo::{ 'I +2 U>.'l
-23 003 -2245
227 I Ill) I ,,"8
by unrt nctloll' X" X 2 and X 3 appl,ed aloug tho I'Gdll.ndaM oonstraln~s. The
slmpl1fJ(>d c_"pres;<WlJ for the cLustic loads was given in Art. 12.8
,
11,,= Sn ""ntl 11 ...
uEI" (Mn_l +2Mnl+ tiEI + (2M" +ll-l'H!l-e" Uln I'n+tn..l tan I"H-'
I1 1
Nl.glectlng the Lougitudind strains of the arch and rememberm;:: that
tlw 1-.
rat;illl remain consl.llnt and equal 10-;",
, this l\XPn!SSiOll is lurth<:r
simplified and beci,lm~s

IV"-t>;J (M,,_t"1-4.V,,+M"+J) (~.1J)

c
,tt the crown anu at !.he abutmonts 8,,_0 and S"~I"'''-O. and therofore
tho clastic hMds wd] l'qual
,
W O-6FT(2AIo+1vl,) (6.11)
,
,
n\""" 610 (M3+2,1f~) (7.11)
c
 :1.11. A/lprozimat~ Methods of DOig1l and 1111111y.fjs of ArrlJ~' .'-.(}7

Let us computl' the ordiUl:ltc ~, (If the eJllstic centre using th~ cqll~tion
0 12 O. For this Ilurpose Jet us dotennine the eltl~Uc loads cnrre~pOlldillg t.<J the
_
bending momont diagram induced ill the conjugatE' simple structur~ II}' 11 \Iuit
couple X. = t n'ig, 9.1tc).
Usin~ exprtssioll~ {.'i.H) through (7.11) we find

Wo = '6;l<, (1X 1+ 1)- ~Je

IV I -lVt -W3",," (;1:.~/e (1+4.X 1+ j)- .e'~e

W~ .... 6;J e (I +2 X i)-=> 2;/ e.

The now imaginal'y structure will consist (11 two Sl'millrchlls held fll~t ut the
ebstie eenLro M inllieatl1'd iD Fig. 17 .11. The IlDaginary bending lDODwnt at t1u~
fLXtd ends 01 thE>SO sornial'chcs 10lld"d by a ~)'l!tem of elMtic loads parallel [0 [b(\

required diq"lacemenl,Oj' and arli"g lit poinls 0.1,2, elc., must bo ml, th,,~
permitting till' delermln3tion of u.

Wo U... -6) + 11'1 (v.-) +JI'2 (o.-~) +11'3 (jll-~) +W',!f._O

;lIe [(v.- G)+ 2 (v.-) +2 (If.-f) ~,2 (1"-{) :'Y,] ",,0
wh('relNm

and
33
III -"[6 = 2.00:1.5 metrr$

Tho value, of.vI obtained in this Wil}' coincide~ e:Kl:lctly 1,(itb the one mputiODed
ill Pmblem 1 though the two were calculat.ed by ontirely dilferent mclhv.h,
Tile simllltaneous equationll perrnittin~ WC det('rmlnation of the redundant
r9llctious dUl' to l:l moving loan unity P become
X j oS u +6 tp .",Oj X2~+~2I>-'O

XsO:J3+ oap=O
 Rer!r,/,d<ll,t Arches

.\'2

6.11'
X;:
- ....JJ
." . ,'il'! t-, ~ ,. 6 13
II ~-_. ~\~"'--' AJ--- (1)111
- toll ' S2~ ,)>>
TIll) 0(1 i1l'h~ "r bp,. 6"3 i,ll,l ,'i.,. f'lr \'ariull~ I,(,~ition~ of (li~ 1,.~,1 Ilnll)' P nlil-
Slilu'" tll(' d"n,:rll"1l gl'lI]lh.~ of Ih~ sH"pl" ."lL"uelure ,JUl' I" lh~ al'l)lie~lL'Ju
,,' (.h" "l"\"lJ(I""I. rNld-jlin~ Xl _ 1, X 2 _. 1 <lud.\:, -: J, "('''I'~~.livd)'. Di\'jll,,l
I,)' -6". -b2~ :'ml -Ih~ Ihe ordiJHII('~ to 11111% !F"I'hi' willl,,,preoenl Ut(' ,,,",I,~
nat./!~ tf, tlL.. lunll,'nee lln.._~ for X .. Xo ~]H! X,.
l'1'(wirlll'-ly w(' 11']\"(! ~~I'('('r1 1-0 eall Ihi';- llletlwd of cu",~rlldiOll or the t1l,I'II'{"-
li(,,, gral'l,~ induced h\ ",u~ 1011,1~ 11)' ll,e kltrI kin'ml'lle "'I'tl.ad. TI", .'!,""l"
d"~,','li"" gt'II,h~ wulrl he> aL~ ohtl.'j]]l:ul Ity th" (\lu."li,' J,)(,-d.~m{',hnll. If 11",1,
",. rl' <l,'-",~<1, lll)(\ ~hflnlrl ~tart fly con~ln,c,til1g thE< Mt , Kf" !tllll ,IT, R"~J)hl' ,I""
III 1111,1 .h,,,,IR X" X ~ ",,,I X 3 ~.~kul~'iHg t.hl),,-,~rl('I'~ Ih,' ;;"I'r~sp~'n<ling pb;',l'"
h:"llls ""h . 1,~ ",,1 "f ('~pre1:>~IOI\~ 1".11) thl"{'Ullh (J.lt) (a~ FIR. 9.11. lip'
1';Il<l'-'~ uT ltw"C ,'la~lic l"a,l~ multil'lie,' hy El, ~rt' ll'i\'(n III Taille 13.11. TIIII~_

1able 19,71
\'"lu,,~ . [ Eln~li,' L"ad~ lmulttplh-d h~' 1-:.',.1
UOJI~ rl}lee.
L,;,,. 1"d"l
X, .1:, X,

i3 , -3:i "

" ------rc;-
~,'.1
--y
,>I ,
T
J
1(i -,- -~(

J
-:]1
---ril- l
;il,
,If
, ,- 7.'i
IH
-tll
:r-- ",
-::I
-1,1\.5
~ -:c "
T

11,, ,lu"II(. ["a,l I~'z I"t J),)j"l ::'.1 wllt'n Iht ~irnlllt, ~'l"lu~tUte" h'd'h'.l 11)' .\, ... - (
I,'.,~ ~"!J !J.II"'I i~ j:(h'"" by

W! "Ut:J
1/
(M l II,M1+M~)r"6EJe
J (21W-4. X j6!I - m
27) =- Wl,.;}e
"
r
;(nJ ll~l:I H"~ \,,1 pI)inl,j) duI.' (0 the apI)ljr,Hion of r(jrt.e~ X2~ 1 to I Ill.'
~i,"!,I,' ~lrltcIUl'l' (SI'" fig 9.11/1 ami I~L[ 7111 \\ill amollM t'J

11', - \;:J c IM J 1.2.\f,l..,- GJ7J, (-;{j-2 x 0) .. - 2;J c

 I" order 10 r,olain tllO dOOt'Clioll di~gr..m Opt wo mu~\ ~'!'J,ly In Ih,' Idl-hal"l
"m'l of 11". imaginary ~1,ructllrl' OIl' rlaslic loa,!s rOrl'l''';I,l1l1llillg tu 11,, nnil
Mti"lI K I . T],eSlI (lla~Lic load~ mu~L I,., jJarallrl (.() tht> 11j~I'I""~Il''''LI jJl '1",.,11('"

fa)

, 1$
_. ",
7;'j
c
.,. r
-.,{
,
'{S
il rJ:.
$
~_ i }.

u
.L
UJ

;JJld m,,~t I", ,li,','~l,J tQwards the \llQTe CX! .."dl'd tihr(:'1 (If tho ~ill1l'k ~tl'llr_
Itll'O (Fig, 11l.llll).
Sinc(' I,h, rigid bracket f,--~,'d ICl tlw simple Slnldlll'l' Ill")' nol I,e l'<)(,alt,d
hv Iht> uniL 100000a X" the algeh""i" sum of all tIlt ela~ic loads npllliod lu tlH.'
~~--~h'''' of Fig. 18.11a must ')fjual ~ero
, 13.O'J till 21 7f> 4tJ:.~
:tl~ ~ 16J e -I- WE] c' ~ 11;/0- 1t3F:l c - !liEl r =0

'l",i~ rl,htion will bu utilized for a check OIl lite Ilccur3c~' of lhe eoltlll"t<t!
('la.~tir IOi\d~.
'1'h.\ vertic,al (lisplacement~ ~1" of the_ simple structure dul' \.(, the unit uclH>!1
X, will (lql1al tll(' urdinates to the dillgr~1Jl 01 I~nding lUomenh indnc,,,<1 in the
im"gilllll-y ~truclure by the pl"slic load8. Let us tl"I""'mi'16 tho vah,,~ "f tl'''"e
<ord(fla\e.~ ilt different cros~ i'C('.liotls, the po~ition of the>;t1 c,mss "l~,ti""5 l'l'in!r
j"dicate;l Ioy til" uppel' index in parentheses
m 73.~X3 220.5
~l= tBEI. "" 11;81.
~1 .. _13.5XG+69X3_ M~
"PI \liEI. \!iEJ~
fJ'~1 73.5X!l+69X6-21 x3 [012.5
,,~--- iGlU. =tIJEl.
6w, 73.5X12+li9x9-2Ixii-75x:i 1,152
,,,= 16EI. =t6EI.
 Redundant ArWI

The 6" diagr&nl nJlJlelIring in Fig. HI.llb h:l$ Woen obl",ined ~elt.ing off
tho urdill.llll('~ ealu.llted as just. d*<:ribtd on the sJde of tho more exlt'nded
flbJ'H 01 the simple ~truGture (Fig. IS.lts).

,,
,,, , , " "

'.
J
, (J.,1 JO .~,7 JJ ,10 ""
,-/" ('m

Fig. 19.11

This dialj:ram !hows tJl~1 forces X I "" t move the neutral line of the arch
uJlward!. Thl! movomont wUl be reckoTleod negative, the posilh'e dirl'CtiOIl

The ordin~tM DJlpearing in Fig. 19.1111 are multiplied, hy 16F.J c'
 4.11. Appro~im~te M~I/IO<I$ 01 D~$tgn ~nd Analllll$ 01 Arc",", 511

coinciding :IS conv~ned with Ihe direction of tlte unit load P, ,llat means dowu-
wards. ConS('quently, the wbolo arM of the diagram will alsu be rockoned nega-
tive.
The di$placomllnt 6u will be ohtain..d rOlating the imaginary loade LhrOlll(h
Hn angle o[ 9(1 until thoy becomollJori7.011tal as Inilic.a1ed In Fig. IS.Ub. l'bl~
being ,10nl.', eakulaLe Ihe monlenl of th&..<e loads about the olMtic eenlro and
lI"ubl.. it~ valuo. for the displacemont 6 u repro.~llnt~ the total changl.' in till!
dlstllTlCO I",twee" the lowllr cnd!' of the brac-kei3 along the lllrection of the hori-
ZOllt.(.! unll. loalls Xl
, _ [~(,.8
11 2 H\EI ,
8 ,
_16.5)
_L~
r t6EJ 8 8 ,
(.32._16.5) +
+~ (1ti.5_~) +~ (16.5 _~) -I- <l6.!)
JBtil e 8 8 16EI" 8 8 "6E)" X

x lr~:iJ = 8X l~EJc (73.5 X 31.5+09 XIQ.S---'--21 X 4.3

-t-7(ix 1:~.5+<l6.5X H:;'5)_{~~j:

TIll' valuo of 611 obtained ahoYo coincides exactl)" with the oue computed
In Problem i uSLng an elltlrl.'ly djlf~rent procedure. Dividing all the or(1lnalO'
to tl,O to p1 graph ily (-Oil) we obtain tile ordinatl1s to thC\ influence line for
X,. Thl" influence line will show the variation of X, when tllo unit loat! p trav-
els along the arch (Fig. 20.11b).
Following tJ\e same procodure, we shall find the displacement ~~2' The
ola~ic loads will be appht>d once more to tbe imaginary structure and tht> Cor-
responding bending moml'nt will bl) detenntned. In this caS\! the e.~lelld"d
fibres of lha simple ~tructure ac,led upon by the force X z wlll be sitllllwd at th,.'
oxtrado~ (see Pil.9.ltb) and therefore the elastic loads must be dir~,ted upw.~t(ls
(Fig. 18.1 tel. T 1(1 values of the bending momentlllnduced by tbese loads In the
imll>:in(lry structuro will fU"n;llh \ho yallles of the ordinates to the deflect_i'Hl
graph for the simple structure undor c,onslderation
(I) 33x3 !l9
,'2
co 2EJ e- = 2EJ c
33x6-r 5<lx3
O(:ll- 3ijO
,>2 - 2EJ 0 '-'t2EJ 0
O(~l 33X 9 +5I,xG-j-36x3 729
pZ- 2El c ". 21 0
6(~) 33xt2+54X9-j-3tlxu+J8X3 "l.lfl2
P2 = 2El e ... 2t:J~,
Sotlil'lg olf th~se ordlI!ale~ on the sirle or the \ll:wndod lihre.! 01 tho simph'
~tr\lr.Lure w~ obtaIn the dJngr.am rl.'Jlre511.lI.lGll ill Fig. 19.11(. II will ha oLserv",d
that the dIagram t!IUS ohtalllorl IS nnt!s\'mmolrical. ..
Tho di~placement o!I~z ropresomillg tllO mutual tral'lslalion of tho fre<' ",nrls
of lh" hrark~ts along the rlil'QCtiolL of X 2' thl~ displaeemunt must he tho douhlo
of ~1~

+
All the ordinates indicatod in Fig. f9.J It: have ~cn multiplied by 2EI".
~1? RNJu"dIfJlI Arr/,n

Thi~ v:llu" roindde~ "'gain ....i tb Ihat n!'lalllN in Pwbll."lll t. IIll1lLrplying

the ll('niling.,"!~n"~lt.d!"gl1l"'~_11,1' ordill.. 11'S 10 the innul"nu line rn, X~ mllr
11"'" I "ILL.."'...... dn'!lhng Ih~ I.n hf.' 6"l grill'" hy l-6,. The rc.".'....""ling
lnn,,~ ~ Ihlt ;;Ippear ,,\ Pill:_ .,1.11... -

~
.C)
~
~

'.,"
c~
,:;

/rfll.1'ffl'
"~ r~ >,

{d'

,-
~
~
~
'" ~ ''"" '"
~
~

Fig. ~O.l1

III ortl", 10 flOll the displlll:cmenl graph 6"s Ihe elllstic loads W\l5t be IIopr1ied
nncu again to the imaginur structure (Fig. tS.ltd'). th'?'Sl: load~ ll(i"g: IlIrl'l:ted
M uSllal1.owards the elL'l(llIded flhrf.'s. that mean! Ilowuwards. 'The desin!d di~p(llce
men!S will be furnished b)' the values of tht bend inK mO!llent~ ueting at the
ee.rre~JX'ndinp: J!('CUOIIS of ti,e imnginary ~lruct,ure
b{U_3X3=_'_'_ ~t2l_3xt;+6X3
p3 :!.F.J~ '!.EJ( p;I '!.El c
6,3\ 3x9+ fi X6+Gx3 81
r3- 21::/, --2El c'"
b(U .... 3,<: 1::--,,-f,X!l+lJXG+fix 3=~
r3 U::J r 2EJ c
",~ f.rdi"'l~l mn~l be ~~ uti above the .b~i_ a.:d~ for tlu;' cxtf'ndCil
f'b11''' 01 rh.. !impl.. stmcturc Irt' at fhe extr.dus. TIll' diJ"plllCt.'fllelll grllpl. lor
6" Il",~ obtained is repn'J'('lltNl 11l FIR. J9.lla.'-
The dl!plaeemellt b u rtJl]'('<,('IlLiug the mulull angular rolation v! LIle Ilr"rkct~
\;11 oth('f "'urdll. '!lain! (1tCt'$ 1110<14' of fhe iltmiareDM). il'l "aloo ... ill II(' C'lual
tu j,hp '"m of Iho I'lastie loads, i.1: ,
3X2 6X3) 2-i
63:;--2 ( UU. TZET; - El.
TIt<: same I'.lue has OOcu ob\;lioo<l previously by tile method or gtllllh mu 1-
IiJ,lliCIILlon. The ordinau'>s to the ;nnUl'nu line for X, (fig. 20.1 Id) well'! 'lh-
(BIlled diyjdiu!l' the ordinal.:! \0 the Gp, graph by (-b n ).
O'Wf' thl! innuenee-lines fur nlllbl' redllndllnt rl'actioll~ X,. X: on,1 X J h~\''l
hl'eTl found. WE' lna)' procoell with Ihe (',onslrllction or the innu('llc, l'nr~ fOT
I)(,JlIling moroe'll!, sheAring force.!o find normal SIN'S~ lit an~' crollS ~c,tl(>lI
01 lh~ ~I'('h,
T,tt u, C'IIlt/ruel lhue rhr~c Infl"~"CI ZInn 101' ucl/on K l>itunled 6 nu:tru
to the rlKht Irom th., left-hand abutment (!5llCtlon 2 of Pig. 8.t1b).
'I'll(> unglc 'I'~ betwt'l'1l the tlInll"'nt to the neulral lin(' of thl' II~I, llnll Thl!
1",Tilt-IIUI clJnnl~ [or thb ~tion 21134', sin 1'1. - 0.447 and cos'rz - u.l'91
(lICl' T~bl(' 1.1\ III P~""I,,m li, The lever anll of Ih... J"TCll X, with r,re,'cncll
10 MlctiuTl K "q"ll!l>
33 ;I ':l
IIs-II:=16-'2-1ti metre
1I00d Un> 1e \'eT ~ml 01 ["N't' X~ '/l:ilh rererern;E' to the same Sl!eli{IlI Cl.l1I~h (j metrH.
TI,e wllln.. t", to.> the innut'ncl' li~ lor M Q. and N. ,..111 bl; ukulaled using
the following rXlIr..:$ions: ..
(3) ",,11('11 Iltf' tlllU lo,ad P is belwl!Cn the Illh-hand abullP('nl and !lCc:liun
K UT .... l....n it h:lS Yiihed la Ib... right-hand Sl.'O'darth

-"J,I~ -Xl ,9 -Xz'l+X,

6
0,,= -%1 sin ,,~+.r:~slf':- _X 10.7 J-XzO~
N. = X I cos Ih+X: sin 1ft-X 1,894+ XtO447
lbl whon the unit load P is betwoen &Oetion K lInd the ero...o
9
MIt'- -Xl 16-Xt6+X,-tl'
wheN' I' ill tho I..,.. r ann or Ihe unit 10lld J> about aeetioll K and
Oh= -Xt 0.447+ XtJ,89<\+ I X 0,89'1
-X IO.894+X:zO-'47 +1. X 0.447
A"II_
The nrdilll\ls to Lhis grllllh 1,lv\' hl"tln onte Again multiplie-d h)' ~EJ c'
.. N..,rmlll "lrc~s wHl be rllcko",d positivl! ""hen they eau5(' c<'mI'I'N.<live
,~trt)~ro.~ in the AJ'('b. 'th0 u~ual $illn cenveJllion being maiflllllnl!d for bl'!lIlinll
lUomentol! /lnd shens,
33-~b3
 01llinltteli tu the ;ll k Illllucnec tine

"~,, .""I
'.lr'lr".t~5
t.,
-,,
tll~ .M ...
x, -X'1G " x, -X,6 -, lllfl"~",,,,
Un".
"J.tr

Q 1011. 17{fj -
" I
Q 0 Q -
J -0.101 -0,0100 O.l~tl 0.187 - O.;;V;.j
2 O.~1275 -0.297 -----{/.1:i62 u.937 V,7SO 0 1,390

,
J O.82!.2 -0.1,114
-0.528
-0.31/)4
-0.5000
1.&1is 1.1>87
3.000
-3
-<;
(1.12'0

,- O.!l..'l7i
O.!I.'>77 -0.528 Q.5000
:1.1)<)"1
-3.00( 3.000 -
-u.;;2~
-fl,,'.28
.,-,. 0.8242 -O./Ill." 0.3164 -1.8.l)l's l.ti87 - _0,675
O.~75 _().~17 0.1562 -!l.1l37 0,750 - --l'I.~8Ia
l' V.17US -0.101 0.(1.130 -0.258 0.187 - .
-('.112.
O' 0 -
"
(j 0 0

Ordillates IQ the (h Inlhu,"ncc> 'Line

(1"1i",,L~~
Lnarl poJllll SI -X, n.4U X, XtO.~04 ').8(1.\ I'J "JP l~k
1"(I,,~,,c,'
!in"

0 C,
I "
(1.17% "
--1),00) -l).\JIi<lU
l'
-O.O:W
-

- -ll, " 11~

,,,
Imlll"liawly
the left
O .l:n;, -0.236 -U.lj(;~ -O.HIl - -u.376

"r ~{'et!<lll 2
Immcfli:llfly 0 ..);:75 -C1.2311 -0.1562 -1.1.11,0 (I.8!l4 u.;;Il:\

, ,
to tl".. riR:lJt

'" "I:ctioll

-1
D.8:H2
O.!l377
-1l.3UR
-OAW
-<).3H\/.
_O.~lIlO(\
-lJ.28;~
_1).41,7
0.8%
O.8!J.\
".2"3
1.1.(128
l'
,-,. (!.t1377 _O..{I(I (I.SlXlI.' ".,Vi' - 0.0'28
0.8V.2 _(I.3M (UHM ('.2fl;~ - -'.'.\!l!J
O.a:ns -U.2::\I; Cl.I!j(;:,< [1.1.1<) - -'Ul!lt.i
]' 0.1795 -0.080 0.043() ('.030 - -O.t"'>!
0- 0 0 0 0 - 0
 4.11. Appruxlmale Methud. uf {hMg'l a"d /llialusis u/ Archu 51~

Taf;le }(J.l1

Oro.liulltes to the ;r.' I. lufi"enl'C Line

OtdJMI~'
L""d potnt x, Xl B.8U X, .Y.U_H7 0,H7 to the NI<
Inllu~nc~
Ii,,~

0 -
" 0 0
(I (I
I 0.17\15 0.160 _n,(I,'.30 -O.OH) - O.\~t
lmmp(llllt<)ly
tlJ(l leH
0.1>275 O.lt7t _0. i;;62 -0.070 - O.40t

'""fIIl'ction 2
Imrnodi"t<-]> (1.5275 0.47\ -O.I~Il3:l -0.070 (1.1,-'<7 0.&18

'"
,[
t!lo riglJt
section l!

,
3 0.8242 0.737 -0.BtU1 -0. i4\ OA tt7 LlJl:1

.'"
0.9377 0.838 -0.5000 -0.223 O.4H I.Ulil
0.11:171 0.838 (J.5000 (1.223 - 1.061
3' 0.82A2 0.737 0.31'>1 0.141 - o.S7R.
0.527[, 0.471 O.I5U2 0.070 - O,MI
I' 0.179,; 0.16-) 0.01130 O.QU! - O. \7ii
-
W
" " " " 0

It will be ob:;ernd thllt the (>xpl'(>~si"lls ubtained fOl' caN.> (b) differ from
rho</.! for "'Rse (a) onl)' by the prt'Sl:llce of ;) terll! aCllllllJlling for the nniformly
,lislribull'<l lond. The ol'<iiMle~ to the illfiut'nce lineR ror /If'... Q~ ~nd .N.. wilt
he obtAined intl'oducillg in Ihe abovo cq",,',ion~ t!t(' >'lIIues <11 Xl' X 2 aJllI X,
.!'CIII<:'I\ ulf the ~ort'l~SJlollding inDlI<:,nce 1[1I~,~ given ill Fig. 20,11.
It i~ ildd",~l to carry out all till! cillClllll(i"n$ in t~hular foml :IS indj~a~(r
ill T;,LIl!~ t4.Ii, 15.11 and 16.11. The entries in Ihe Illst ~<lrllmn of NlCh of lll(~"'l
thre.' Lahl.-.s have heen uS<:'<! for the con~lJ'ulll[on of infhll'nc~ lines llJlllenriul'
In }ig. :ll.B.
ll$iH~ the&' inflllenc~ IinC-.i k_t liB ji/ld tilt ma~~lt/ldn of M~, (I. olld /1\
;mluted by urriJrnml!1 dttlributtd loodsl1dilifJ 01:1':/ thc whult af lht ItJ/ gem/arch,
Ol~ '"IC/18//!/ of Ihi.~ l{}fldi", bt;/1g i!IIUill tu Z 10"8 "tr mtlrt (S<?'l:'_ Fig.~.l1,,). t'<lr
this Jlurpose VIIC ~hllll replace tile 'wHom.ly di~lriLulcd IOIH!s by concfllltl'llteoJ
'lIU'~ ac:tinf{ at puinbO, 1.:!..9 lIud '1 of the p<)lrgollall'l~h. Tlu'!;(lCOnCl'llln,tcd
IQlld~ will UlII(!unt, to
a 2x3
PO""" 1\-QT--,--3 tons
Pl=P2=PS=qa=2x3=ti If>n~

3J'
!'it6

TI,o ll~sired \.. Lul'~ of ltJ".

Q~ "nd N~ will h", obtam..d multiplying thomog-
Ilitude$ l)f tb('!i(' cOllccntl'~tod loads by the corrt'$llon,jiuR ()rdinal,(!~ to the
innllN1C.e (jne~, which are tbl'n sumu1l'd up
,pz l
, as indi~atcd hcl",~
,1Ih ",,3 X O+fI X O. 344+fi X 1.300+6 X
2';,..L'f3_','j'r'-<_ 2'
,. 0'
X 11.12',-3 X O.f>28=9.5tY. tOll-mcLro~
Qh=3X:O-GxO.119+Gy
X _O.3711+0.r.Hl
2 J-G x . 2~'a..,..'a X Cl . 0"
' . 00 ~,...

= 1,25-\ tOllS
N.h-3x 0+ (;XO.114+6 x
X 0.';01 +0.848
2 " I 0'" "
+,x."~-"Xl.lll.'I_.,,

= 14.03<1 tOUl';
l'h~~ vahlcs are Ilranieally the sarn\!
liS tho~e givrli ill Table6 2.11. 3.11 and 1i.11
alld ill Fig. 12.11 of Problem 1.
'fite inJ\lll.'nce lillO$ flJr the redllnd~llt
('<lnsttajnt~ X (. Xl arod X J J'cn"it Njl/nlly
thl' c,,"struct.i"T1 0 ~trt)ss ,1iflgJ'o'ns inrlncl'd
in tll!' nrdl by vorticd 10,Ills, For that
lufJlOse the utIJll1 loadinR will be replacetl
j'i" n s~'stl'''' 01 equi I'alent cOllc.l'ntl'alA!d 10Ild.
flcting at t.lll' apices of the polygl1l1al arch.
The ltlagnitude~ of X, ."(2 <lJul X J torres~
llc>ndillg t<l eacb of tho conclmlt:l!.(>d load~
Will h.' l'ilsily [ollllll 'Ising the s.,id infiuonee
liuc~. Tht' diagrams of the !treM<'~ induced
in tbe different S('etion~ <If tho "ITh will
tben ht> llhtailled in tlot! usulll way applying
t.<> tl)(' CllJljugltl'! simple struetUl"<) both
actuaL 1011d~ alltl redundant rl)IlCti"IlS.
Let liS cnllsider an <.'xlIlnplo u( tloo <M-
MrMHon of the jnflutn~e line j()r X 2 using
the ~nd of the npllroxhuato mothods
Ftg. 2].11 tl(,Sl:rih"d in the fil"St part 01 the pl"('S('nl
llrtioLe. *
NfglOOling compre~ion ~trllins. the expret"iion for the da$tie lOIHh will
this ea.'le
hOC(llTIl' III
6"
Wn_M" El"
wheN) S,,= S"+/1I+t is the melln of thc segment lengths contiguous to
~tion n. 'rh!' ,'al11"'~ o{ S, may be allProximately tak!.'ll l'quat to

S0-- --'--'
2c"sqlo'
S _ --'--'
I COg",\'
~2 - -CO~~
- ' - ' S -=--'--
3 c.oS'il3
$. '_
2 C<lS 't'4

The S3.TI'IC method was used in Problem 2.
 1.11. AppT"fI:l'lmlll.. :\!dh"d, ~I DUI,,, 'lIla Anlll!l'i' 01 Arcil.e, 517

011,1 ~incc JI"~' couH'QuE'ntly

COS",
SGS~1l 3 S.:r~~:l1l3
7;"-7;:= 2J~ "'" U~; ~-~-J;"""'J;-7;
The l'lllstic loo,ls corr"'~l'onding to tlte 0Plllicallon 01 unit forces .1'": to
tI" !oimfllo stroctu~ will Ix: lj"it"E'll by 1_ Fig. 9. tlb)
,..lL 318
"0-. 110 El o ",,-12:, 2El "'- El.
c
SI 3 27
n 1-,uJ---
Ell
-9, -::-r-'" - - -
EJ Elt c
I
"~--iI1"-EJ
Sz --6--
3 18_
~ -: EJ c Elt
W H y~ ;I 3 9
3=' 3"7!J";-- "~Ut - - EJ.

, \ ",J"'I 4
H , ..... ;J~Jl"J-O, 3 _0
--
U;J c
TIIIl "enecti"ll~ 6n will hI? "bUillt'(! 1I1'lllyillg Llie,,"' loads to lilt' hUllgl_
nary sU'\lcllll'c. "f Fig. n.l'l Drill computinG ttlC bfnJing momcnts induced

"
[J
'""
z
,..,"
."

o
1'1:. 2!.11

h(jI~18X3..,,~
"t El c I!:J c
,,(~I_ 18'(6' 2';X3 IftP
pt EJ, 1.1,
b{3l= t8X9+21X6+18)(3_~
P: El, El,
6(')= 18xt2' 27xIJ+18x6' 9x3= S<J.i
Jl2 Eh /.
ScUing off the bt>mling moment Vllhw5 thu~ obtained nn tllc ~idc (If the
uxtE'ndi'l1 fihrtlS of thp lm~ginl\I'Y ~trllclure, we shall ohttl;n the dlJn(ICtl'lIll:'rn/,h
for 6~1' "fll'Nlring In Fi!:. 2:'1. IJ ,
518 Redu"Jant Arch..

'rhe lIisplac.ellll'nt6 22 is the L1ouLleof b;:~. TIJU~, 0 22 equals 2:~: or 1L~;:'

TIll) influence line for X: will he obtained dividillll all the oroinil.te.!' to the
6 V2 graph b~' (-6::1 l.er,au.;e .Y z = - ~2. This illnUl'IlCO Hno apllcars in
Fig. 24.1 \.
It is vructic.8lly the same as till' ont' oLtained by tilE' lkst o[ the llll'thoo.!'
dl'uribell ;n tho preSl'nt lIrticll' 'md l'upresentcd in Fig. 20.1'1(,
fn{/uM...<! [Ill(! (or,K,
'" ,
Si
~

::l
Fig. 24.11

5.11. EFFECT OF SHRINKACE AND TElrPERATURE CHANGES

ON FIXED END RElll:FORCED CONCRBTE ARCHES

1'empl'r4lure changes. EVCI'y temperature change leads to t!lf'

appearance 01 stresses 111 fixed end arches. Let us establish the ex-
pressions permitting to 'prcdi('.t these stresses. For this purpose let
liS assume that the tempcl'alufe at the extrados has boon increaood
,
, ,
",
<0/
,,;1/ -"V 0'
~ ", , '" '"
1 y f
Fig. 25.11 PIg. 26.11

by l; while that at tile inlrados by t;

(Fig. 25.11). Wo shall abo
admit that. within tho t.hickness of the arch till! temperature varies
linearly and thl're[ore tIlO inert'age in temp~ratllre at the neutral
Iinl'- (provided the latter c.oincides with the centre line of the cross
sedion) will equal tltt~.
For the simplicity let us uenole the diffl!rence (ll - t 2) by !J.l
and haLf tile sum of these temperatures by t. The simultaneous
 D.ll. Ef/..d oJ Sh,t"kag' and TtmpHlIluu C/sallg.., 519

equations cxpres:'iing tbat tbe displaceml!nt:; along thl! rod\ludant

c_onslrainls transferred to the elastic centre of tlll:- arch arc nil
(Fig. 26.11) beoomc in tbi~ use
X6 -'-6 _O}
11 11 11

XZf6t~,..\tl-O (9.11)
XJl6J.1 + t1Jt =0
Sinctl all the displacements of the arch caused b;r the said teUJper8-
ture choAge are S)'mmelricaL the displacement AI: 1111151 ll.Iso
(.'qual tero and consequently X: 1 is equally nil. Using thi> expf'e$Sions
dtl\'cloped in Art. 7.8 we lIlay determine thl! df'(Joetiolls due to
temperature change which art' given br
~H = a (tl - tt) t-"
j 111. T +0: '.+_t-
---y- .) NidI

"' ;).11
d'
= -a..1t ~ (Y-lI,) T -at,) cos fJ'x ds
t
t Td.
~~l- -a.6,t.)

III these expressiolls h represents thll thicknC&l o[ the arch. and a
is the coeflicient of lherlllal ~xpnnsiou. The ..alue of 6 11 (with due
rcgllrd to the infiUCDre nr normal SlroSSCS) is givt>n by
.'lll = S(y- Yf)~ :.~ + ~ cos~ ~ ~
while the value <.If 6u

is providl.'d by the expteSSioll
6" ~ Jt .!!!..
EJ
lutroducilla the values of ;.\u. ~3.l. 611 a.nd ~ in eqna1iOJl5 (!l.tl)
wc obt~iu
 Rtdlwdalll Arrhu

Thl: fixed end rnoment duo t(, a temperature change can JJO com-
puted nsing the exprc&;ioJl
M,u =X3t -I- XII (f - y~)

Let us examine a pMaboJic arch whostl neutral liUt' folloll's

n curve given by Y= :1
,:1;2 and whosl: cros~-St'ction<ll momt-Ills or

iu"rtill and thickness ....ary in accordanc\: with

J=....:!.L' h=~
C{)l;O;P" ' coslp.~

In these expressions J. and h. rcj)resOllt respel\tivoly the mOIlWlJt

of iuer!-ia and the thicknllss of the arch at tIle crown sectiOll. for(~S
XI/ aud X 31 will be given in tbat case by 1.hl1 foUoJwing expressions
x ll = all
4'
4,1f).t/iJ"
4(1+~) /2
l1+~) 4:1 fl El c
1
X~I = T; ai1tEJ. (to.H)

~COE1'J'''~
whNtJ 11 = -!.'-----~
~ (~-U.)1 ~

The first of the cxpres,'liOllS (iO.Ill indicates thilt the thrust dUl'
to a lemperature change incrca>;cs together witlt the rigidity of tIle
f\1"C,/i 011(1 willl the reduction of its riso. On the coutrary, a reduel iOIl
in thtl cross-sectional dimensions and the tllle of the matorials with
a IUWN modulus of elasticity will recluctl the stresses cau:>ed by
lOmjll;lratllm charJges.
Sltrinkagl:. StrcSSllS set up in a roinforced c.onereLe arch IJy thu
shrinkllge, of eOllcrete c.all be clllculattm in t.lio same way fl.!$ tho,o;1I'\
dUl! to a temperature change. Indeed if Cl were the coefficiont or
tburnwl expllllsion of l'oncroLe, ut would repre&..nt the st.raLn Pt'I'
unit Icugth (;ullsud by n dlange in temperatufC elJual to tOe.
+
.. Por :1 rect:lIlguJar al'1Jh of c_onstaot dl'pth thl'sc two c.>.:prt'ssiO/l$ <\l'~ (;Oll~f(l

dietOI'Y, th('IiI'~lltlldillgtoh"" ,r
h
cos q:."
I'
. Nen",thC\It'&, Ih~ ~rrOr introtlUCl',j by
h
thE' ll."'sumplion tbat !l ('quills ,----2..... is negligibJi'. eSJlcc.inllr in th" C-;(-~C- of nut
05 If"
Ilrcbi)~.

'''It WIll J~ l'elnemloered thnt for this Lrpl' clllrehl's 11,=+.

 S.U. Dlrt CO/ll/lUlolion of Part/boUe Ffud End Arc~. 521

'fhe ~hrinkage of concl'..tc leads to a shortening of all linear cli-

nUlIIsioll5 by approxiTnately 0.025 per cent. if we admit Lhat tht'
cocffJci8nt of therm.. l UpllflSiOIl of concrete is equal to 0.OO1.
the shrinkage may be I'\.'garded as equivalent to a drop in tompeu.ture
of about 25"C. In actual design pl<tctiee this is usually rcduccri to
10 or 15'(;. for in I't>ality tbe arches arc cast .section by st..-cHon Anti
thol'llfure only a C(lrlllin fraction of tho tolal shrinkage must be
tak,,11 into eOIl"ideration. Thus, the stres~s set up by $hrillkagt>
in 11 r..\:cd cnd arch mllY be cornpuwt! ill exactly the S3mc way a'<
tbp lllrCSS6S dne to a droJ) in temP6rature from 10 tu 1[1"{;.
Il is worth mentioning that there oxist mOllllS and wllys of com-
}ll)l1s11ting at luost parl.ially the shrinkage c[fect through tlrtitkilll
vat'intion of inlcrnll.l stro!~,:!es.

6.11. D[RECT CO~IPUTAT10N OF PAHABOLIC ~'lXED 6110

ARCHES
WOOII the neulral h'le of an arch follows a conie parabola and
its cros."-SCt;liOIlIlI IUOfOt'nl.!J of inertia vary in aordanC6 with
{a: p
c J,

'-
, "
\
~

'-

'O!
I , p

IT/ ','''-lI,-
"
Xl X2
h,
" ,
"'h
-l
Pig. 27./1

J",:.... eO:~2<' where I. is tht: moment o( incrli", at the (rOwn, all

the cocftic.it.'nts to tbe unknowns and all the (n.-e terms of the si-
nlllltant:ous t.'qllations ean be dotermined by direct computatillll.
Hence. (or lbis particular case it becom~ possihJc to obtain malho-
malic.. ! relatiolls between the redundant reactions tlcting II.t the
ehustic centre of lhe arch and tho applied londs.
1..ot Ul! Dlld th~SI:l rolations assuming that II vertical load uflity jJ
acts li distnllCtl a from the left-hand abutment (Fig. 27.1 tal.
 Tbe canonical equations relating to the conjugate simple struc-
ture of Fig. 27.11b beeQme
X161l + 6., = 0
XA:+6,,=O
v~6'3+6,J'-O
wherefrom

x\:- -~ 1
x,=-o:;:- > '"
x =- 6~ I
3
'u J

The displacement!!' (ill" 62P and 6.,p will be calculated lIcglectiug

tILe effect of normal strl:SSt'S, that mt:ans, u.'ling the exprl.'SSioll

61,-~M.Mp E~"
,
where lH p =- bending molllont induced in the simple slrncl.uro by
the IQad uni ty P
M. = bendiog moment due to the unit rellclion XI. Sub-
sliluting tbe "alues of All" Mt. ds llnd EJ" ill the
exprcssioll for 611' and remembering that for lhis particul/tr type
of nrchcs the elastic centra ordinpte y" equals we obtain
6.,= --
S d' ((
0 Mtf',{p?T;;-- ' ) txi(a-Z)COS'hEJf=
-a!-Y d.""

' 4/
= S(x-a) [3!-11(l-;r}x ] E/~
d. =

/., ( ' .')

= 3EJ";' 2 T - 1 -"1i"
4/
since Y'""'"F(l-z)2:.
D13noting by TJ the ralio -T we obtain finally
/,. 2)
6 11'= - 381. TJ'('12- 11+ 1
 c./}. J)lr~c1 CO"'I",I{ltion 0/ Pnrabolio F;z:~d End Archu 523

'rile valuo of Su is
,
giVCfl
,by
Olt=~M~ E~~ =~ (~ f_u)t(:;< )=~~.

t: o

lutroducing 6 and lP Oll in expression (11.t1) for Xl w(' ohlnill

immediately

X 1= --,-= +,.....X
61P
11
15/
- f 'lJ2(lj2- 21l+ 1)
.,
(12.11)
This expri;lssion can be conveniently used for the CMlslrllctiOIl
of thc influence Hoe for XI' The ordinatfls to this Iille for the left
semillrc.h will he ohtained vary-ing 11 from 0 10 0.5. For tht1 right
scrni8l'ch they will be symmetric-al to those Already founr!'
Next let 1J~ determine the value of displaooment o~p

t-- d.
02P"'" .} M 2M p EJ" = +t (')
~ 7 - r (a-x)
d.
I o =

where Tl repn-'Sl'llls as previoll.'5iy the T ratio.
The value of 6u is ohtained lwm
, ,
~ T
t')u"",2 ~ M; ::,. =2 ~ (~ -aY ;;c - 12~Jc

'"
X,= -"'3;"=-12T\f l r - T (" ') (13.H)
Using the latter expression wc may construct the innuencc Hlle
for X 2 varying agnin 11 from 0 to 0.5. The ordinates to the same line
lor 0.5 -<'1 -< 1 will be eq\lal in value but oppositfl iD sign for the
righthand pnrt of the influence line for X z is antisymmetricnl with
reference to its lefthnnd part,
~uw dutermine 6 3P
, ,
. t --
6~p= ~ M 3 M p
,
)\s for 633 it equals
d. t
EJ,. = - j
. dz
t (a-oX) EJ< =-""'2iiT;
.'

d. I
1 "~'J < =7!J
<
52.!i

whidl It'ads to
OJP hf!
XJ = - 033 = 2 (14.11)

This !~quaHon permits the construction of t110 X 3 inHueDce line

for the JoHhand seminrch. This influence line will he symmctrkul
with ref''''nnco to the vertical pns..~ing through the crown.

m c

H 0

lnf/vem;e line
for momenl Mc
Qf crown Sl'C//on
(l1ltJlf/pl!l /yl)
Pi;. 28.11

The l'llualions j.{lvlIlg the values of the redundant ITmctiOIlS X I.

X 2 and X 3 boing known, it becomo!! possible to find b).. direct C,OIll-
rutatioll the stresses ncting at allY eross section of tile arch or to
COJlstruct the innuencc lines for thc!5e same stres~es provid~d t1w
applied loads remain vertical.
Fig. 28. t 1 repl"Csents the inn "tHICe lines for the thrust JI, (01' the
vCI1ieal rca",tiolt V a and for the fixed eod moment lV a acting at
the left-hand abutment as well 3!' the inlluence tilte (or the bending
 6.11. f)trul Computollon of Parabolic Flud ltnd Archu 525

nlOm{'nt M~ acting at the c.rown section. The ordinates lo these

innuen<:,e lines have been found using the above equatiuns for the
rl!dundant reactions applied at tbe elastic centre.
These influence lines (Fig. 28.11) may be used for the design of
.all fixed end archM whose centre line foHows a conic parabola Illld
whose cro.'SS-sectional moment!' o[ iJl~rtia vary in il(',{',ordallct) with
tho rolation sl)(>citie.d at the beginuing of this article. Thl'sc innuP,l1cc

M.
H xA-l..---------- .fiW

Fig. 29.11

litll'S permit the determination of streS!le!l OCtlUg at allY cross Sl'c,tiol\

()[ the arch as long as the loads remain vertical. The following pro-
cedure should be adopted for these computations.
First determine the values of V". If anti Al" .for the given system
()[ loads multiplying each of the latter by the corresponding ordinate
to the nppropriaLe influonce line. For uniformly distrihutc(l loads,
their inten:;ily will be lllulLijllit'd by the areas boundell by thl'
S{'gOlellts of the innuenct' Iil1e~. The values of V", 11 and Jf" will
he then applieu to the left end of tbe arc,b liberated prodously
from all the existing const.raints.. ThereaIter the stresses al allY
S(lcl.ion will be easily compuwd assuming that tlie arch is H gtati-
cally determinate curved beam built ill at its right end and Ill'ted
upon both by tll~ applied loads and by thtl redundant reactions
deLermined as explained previously and applied to t.he left end.
Thus, for instance, if the fixed end arch were acted upon hy two
t'Ollct'ntrated loads PI oT.d P2 (Fig. 29.11) the bending mOfllont
in any arbitrary section K will be given by
M It = Y"x/t-IlYIt+M,,-P l (ZIt-al)
Problem. A paraholicarcb (Fig. 30.Ha)Is acted IIpon by lwo verlkaL loads
J\ "" 10 tons and P z - 20 tons as well as by a un!fonll toad of t\!l'lI htl1;; per
mMl"e distrIbuted over the quarter span situatod lmmedilil(~h' to the lef~ of the
c,rQwn. Required: (f) tIle thrust H, the vertical reaction 1',. and the f,xed ..od
Illoment M,,; (2) the bendingmomenl, the shear and the lHJllIJal strt-,"" nding
a~ thl' crown !It'Ction. Thll neutral line (If the arch follow~ the equlltion

'I (I-r) %=0.2 (10-:1") Z

VK:'T;
lIod tht eross-secliolllll llK)me-nts 01 inertia IIro ginn by

J~_~
=
Spl"tip... Sl;lrt. hi
cOl,struding (1111 inQuellt(l lino Jor the thrust If. For Ibis
pllrpo"" muhiflly ..1 the urilinales 1o Ihe innuenu line of Fig. 28.11 by tbe
q-2t/m _/1 utio "'bleh in Ibis particular
(a/
P,~/Qt 1 caec cquals2 for l_ 10 metres and
J( 1~ Zot J = [, m~'lres. The innuence lino
Um ror the thrust JJ obtained as ju~t
uXllIllined is shown in Fi;. 30.116.
Thu innUellC,(l lino lor M" will
be obtuln~d hy multipl)'illf:! at! tho
ordinatM tr. tlu' Ilppl'oprillU< ill-
o O'tener! Une- CIf Fig. 26.11 by the
f''Zm .~"nn lcngLh l. The CQ<Ilplctcd
," inflllenc..
I"ig. 3O.lk
Iiue is ~llown in
TI,e ordina.t~! tll the innucllcc
line- lllr r" in the e\'ent of a para-
bolic arch M1' ;ndl'Jl('nd('nt (Ir the
+ rulo .nd IhcnJol'O 11'0 innuence
lillo given in 'ig. 28.11 lJIay he
u!I(ld .....!thout any alterali"u,;;:.
("
Let usdelermille now 11'0 lJ,tu~t
duI' In Ih~ lU:l<b indicale(! ill
t'ig. :W.II". It, value will be
it~~SI".~~~~~~'"
_.., ... ;J ...... ~ .... _""~
equal to Ihe !;llln of thn product of

(d)
,
""",,<:i<::ll::l<::l<:::l<:::lt::l<::s.,,;<::s l!ilch concentrated lo.ad lor tho C<Jr-
rtl5jwndlng infiuCllco linc lI"diflllte
wilh till' product of the Uti" hound.
ed bv the influllullo Ilue over
thllt l,ortlOIl of 1110 omll cnrrrinlt
~he dl~lrihut('{1 lo~(l by thl! illlcn-
sil)' "I the lllU..... Thl' arl!ll men-
tluno,1 may be llculated llllPI'O-
:o.iml1tt'ly ",plMcing cur\'iliue3r
~enls of till' innnllnce llDE' bel-
FI~ 10.// ...' olm 1.... 0 neighbourilijt ordinal!!!!
by ~tr.igbt lices. If thE' dlsullCo
of ~1"lT"liug Ih~ o.djnal~ m:n.iIl5 t:(lnstant, the art':l, bolln<led by t .... o
(>r\lll'~t"" h.. ml I.... will he giv;>1i b)'

(wJ::'-a (.!t-+lI"+J+h",u+ ... 1-1I"'_1+ 11;)

!lunu tl," tlll'uSI Y "'ill ('(IUa(

,,_ P IO.I'J20..L.J':O.122Q+ q (.22&1+0.3310+0.3880+

+0,1,320+0.4.590+ u.~) 11.5_ 6.33IYi lOns

 S.Il. Dlred Computl1.lIOfl ot Ptm~boll~ Flzed end ~lrfJlt"' 527

1'be magnitude of lbl' \"t.rtical re&clioll Y. will be obt.ained in uull)' the

!ame Vo'ay
Y._ p.O,89G+lJtO,06I+q (O,~ +0. 78~ +0,7181-
-O,lA8+0,:;7~,..fl.~) 0.;)_ 13,577 1011'
All for tllo bending momclIl M.. il will IImOl.lut 10
.
M,,_P I (-O.l.t!IIJ)+PiU!15+q
(-0,';,28
-----:r---O,368-0.1~+

0.312) 0.5 ...

-l-U,OOO+O.I7<l.+:z- -2,~ \.01l-melres

'l'lil~bt,iug dom', lilXlrll\o 1110 l"rt lllld of ttl' uclo [rOIll :Ill cUll~train~!l
ond .l'I,Iplace lhe lat.tcr by tho l'eaetiyt' fOl'(t~ jusL found (t'ig. 31.11). '!'Ilt,
lmndlllg HlOml'lll acting .l lhle' crown MCtion will then equal
dI l1,,_1 V"T-Ift-Pj
I 2-
( 2 -'2'8-
') I I

_ -2.586+ 13,511 XS-6,3J1i4 X 5-IOX3- 2~OO = -2.633 1000mHre,

The nurmal !Iress ~ling..:rO$'! lILt' $lint' _lion will bt! obt.llill",1 projecting
all tllll furct'.! 10 tbo !t'Cl of llli.~ tl"O<!5 5OCtlon on the heriront.al: N~ ... Il ..,
=- li.a.~ t<lns (rompresslon),

Pr JOt

Mg Z,J8Glm
Vg ./3.$771
Ftg. 31.11
Tho shear will be gi\'on h)' tbo vertielll projection of the .!lime fon:es
I < 2x10
Qh"""'- VII-J'.-q T-13.a77-IO--,-- -1.423 tOilS

In Rct.ual practice the design of rodundall~ &n:-hcs for bridge con-

struction and elsewhere is frequently carried out with the nid of

geometrical parameters of arches such as their mHo. lhe law

governing the varii'ltion of their cross-sectional dimensions, etc,
+
lIpocill.l ~blcs, Such tnh!es have been prepared for widely varyillJ,:"

Tht use of such tables reduces very considerably the timtl reqnired
for compu~ation work and thereby elimiDfltes in a lArge measure
the risk of errors always present whl!ll calculations are long and
laboriolls.
 7.11. TWQ-HI;';GED ARCHES

In the ca!.<t! ur tWf)-hingcd arches the stress anrllysis is usually

carried (Jut adopting for simple ~taticalIy determinale struct.ure
the CUr\'cd bar shown in Fig. 32.11.1'he cquation expressing t.hat
lho hori:t.ontal displaccm~nt along the direction of X t is nil becomes
X,b. I +l1u '=O
for Jlat arelu:~ the "alu~ of 6 11 aud L\ll/ "'ill be cRlcu)llted
with dUb consideration to tbe eUcct of normal s1.r~, i .t!., Ilsing
t.Ilt~ oxpressions

- d.. r - ,u
S
6,pr.= I:. AlIM., El ,1:.) N.N p Er

In

diNlct integration of those oxpNlssions oocoll\e.~ lOO corn-
fll!'/}
plicatl'd rc!>ort. ~holdcl be made to numerical methUlI~ ur lo the
method of elastic loads.

x,
"
ri,. 32. 11 Fit. 31. 1J

Cross-!OCtional moments of inertia iD two-hinged arches remain

constAnt or vary in accordanco with
Jz-J.,cO$cp"
where J., is lhl' moment of inertia at the crown section (Fig. 33.11).
Alternatively t.he cross-sectional arOllS of two-hinged arches may
vary following the expression
F",=F.,cOSql"
wllore Fe is again the cross-sectional area at the crown
 12. ANALYSIS Of HIGHLY
REDUNDANT STNUCTURES

1.12. USE OF SYMi\lETUY

When anlllyzing the streS5eS arISlIlg in structuro" wllh Il largo

number of redundant constraints onc is usually called upon to
solvo a number of simultanoous equations equal to tIle structuro's
degrel) of redundancy, each of these equations containing the same
nmnhcr of unknowns.
Let us investigate, for inf<tancc, the frame appearing in l"ig. 1.12
which consists of two clo$ed contours and COlll;()quently is redundant
to the sixth de.grtlc. If all the c.omplItations pertaining to this frame
were carried out. adopting as conjugate staUcally determinate
stt'ucture the onc given in }<ig. 2.12, it would 00 ne(~!';!:'ary to Iorm
and to solve a system of six simultaneous equations with six
unknown" c~lch
Xl)ll +X~61~+Xill3+Xl;l~ +X~6t.~+XG()16+ l!.IP =0
X j 6 21 +X26~2 +Xs6u +X,62t +X~62S +Xe6:6+~21' = 0
X1()al +X 26s2 +Xs633+Xlla4 +X56s5 + X06,1C + !I.:lP = 0
X t 6'1 +Xi~a+X3~n+X4~t4 +Xs6;s+Xe6te + .1,P=O}
~16sl +X:OS2+X30~3 + X,OSt +Xso ss +X e6sG -: t1 sp = 0 (1.12)
Xt601 +X 2 0C2 +Xaoc3 +X,Oe, +Xst\s + X 0 6611T .1.e1' = 0
The solution of such a syslcm of eqllations would Ill, extremely
Iflborious anti .....ollld requirc a lot of time. The work can be simpli-
fied very c,onsiderflbly due to the symmetry of lilt' structurt:'. lL should
be rcmembered that in a symmetrical structure not rmly (he arrange~
mmt of its memb",rs but also their cross-:>ectioTUll rlgiditiell are symmr:~
trical aboul a certain axis. The simplification is based on the pos~
sibility o( finding a CQnjugate statically detorminato structuro Ior
which tlll) M; diagram for N1Ch redundant waction XI = t will
be either symmetrical or antisymmetrical.
Thus, for the fname undor consideration (see }'ig. t .12) ono cOllltl
adopt for simple structure the one appellring jf] fig. 3.t2a. fll lhis
H-H~3
530

case the 41:, "f~. Ms and M. diagrams due to symmetrkal uuit

forces Xl. X,. X s and X. would be thclOse!\'es symnlctrical
(Fig. 3.t2c, d, I and g) while the M, and the M~ diagrtlTlls induced
by anUsymmetrical unit forct>s X I ~md X, would be also antisym-
metrical (Fig. 3.12b and t').
It is ""-ell known that the product of a symmetrical gralllt by
antisymmctrical ono is always nil. Thus, for instance, if Ohe were
to multiply 1]le All graph (Fig. 3,12b) liy the At: gr3ph (Fig. 3.12c)
Simple &/ructUl'r

JJm't;l{ ~'mmt'
x.,r;J..I'I-.;;
I ~= I..)',
< "
I' [ r
I <

,6 I , p.-
t

Fig. 1.12 Fi~. 2.12

tho product pertojn[ng to the left"hand half frame would equal

+2h -
~ = + h-l while thnt pertaining to the right-baud' hall
'"
(rame would amount to -2h 22 = - h'l. Consequently, the
displacement ",1
equal to the algebraic )':um of these two amounts
will be nil. For tbe same reason all the other secondary displace-
ments whose values are obtained muhiplying symmetrical graphs
by antisymmetrical ones will abo reduce to zero.
For the frame under congidef:ltion lll1ch will be the case ror dis-
placements 612 .6\1,6 15 ,6 1" 621 6H 6'1> 6", 6 42 6u 6 H 6 Ul ' 6 51
1\40 6" and 6". It follows that S)'''tem of simultanr.ous equ;\tions
would bee.ome
XI6n+X~6u+jl"-O
X t 6u +X.,6u +Xs6 u +X s6 u + 6.!p= 0
Xtli n + X 363 ,+ Xs6~+X&6. +.1.3P = 0
X l 6u +X~6u+6.u'=O
 1.12. Vu 0/ S~mmrtry .~31

X ~&52 +Xlj~3+X5&~ +XUa~8+ D.Sl" = 0

Xl)6~ + X3~3+XS<\S+ XeO~e+ D.ep = 0
swl would COIISllqulllltly fa.lI into two irH.ll:1pendC'nt systems

XI811+X~6H+.:".Ij>"O
XIO~1 +X~6a +~,p=O
I (2.12)

X28~2+X~6a+X~6:s+Xe62e+~21'=O ~
Xli"2+XJ)U+X~fj~~+XJj~e+ "\3,,=0 J
(3.12)
X2a5!+X36~s+X50;,s X e6(,f, d,l' = 0 + +
X:6 62 + X 6as+ X~6es +Xel)~G-l-1~]l=
03

The first of lhese systtlrns contains two equations with two anti-
symmetrical 1IIlk,IOWIlS and the second four equations witll fuur sym-
meldcal unknowns.

!!~"'i!:f ~!ructi,/t.,

K,
f,
t, I .h,..
~I~ 1
:
t .,
I

t ix, ,(,'!

:~~,::, <)'
":k <

,
~ ,1X($ af Cb' {a!
(11) Sl...""::~y

,,
.X,'.'

;. -i::: ~
, -J'"
)' 1 ':!{ (5.' Af"

,
(,"
. .,'
,
d) , '.,.
{f:'

Fig. 3.12

Thus, the choice pi an adeqfUlte simple structure of symmetric"l pattf'm

has resulted in th., replacement 01 a system of six s/multa'leous equattOnlt
conlaLning six unlmowns each by two independent systems, the first
comprising two equations wllh. two unknowns and the second four equa-
M"
532 A"(ll~$i$ qf Highly R~dlWdllnt Strtleluro

flans wtth jour unknowns. This simplt{its cnormou,sly the computatiolls,

enhancing at the same time very considerably the precision of the re-
sults obtatned. All additional reduction of computation wOl'k has
been obtained due to the (ac~ that all the displacemcnts can be cal-
culated for one half of the cUlljugate simple structure only. The
total displacement will be tile double of that for the IlalHralllc.
p
(iJ )
,r--,----,-;r !hi , - _ - - , _ - ,

~!,
x,
-
~
x,
!
(cl

le'
, t~,"
1

, "I
@
x)O,
Fig. 4.12

If tha symmetrical frume contains a central column. tlle dispLace-

ment~ due to tlie redundant antisymmcLrical reactions carl be cOln-
plllt'd multiplying at first the diagrams relative to one half of the
fr:lme (withollt the ccntralcoJumn); whereaIter the product ohtaineri
should be doubled and increased by the product of graph multipU.
cation pertaining to tllll central column.
Anotll<.'r eXlllllple of a symmetrical frame is afforded by the fraRlo
I'hown ill FiR 4.124. It is easily seen thllt this frame is reullnl!<Hlt
to the third degroo. Fig. 4.12b represents one or the conjugate ::;imp!r
structures which could bA adopted in the presont cllse. This str\lcturu
is not symmetrical for the lower ends of the cxtremll column:::: have
different supports. 1t fullows that thll redundant reactions X .. X ~
find X 3 themselves wUl be also nonsym metrical. Ncvertheles.~ tho
diagrams of the Lending momcnU; induced in this simple structure
 2.12. Groupllll: 01 the '",krlowru

by unit rl::'ll.ctions X I and X 2 (Fig. 4.12c and d) will be symmetrical

while the dia.gr31U of the bending rnomllnt due to X" = 1 (Fig'. 4.121')
will 00 311tisymrnetrical.
Consequently, for the given simple strncturos the simultnncous
equations will again {nU into two different indeIlendent groups
XIS II +X:ton+~lj'=O
XIS~I+X~li~2+!:l~P=O and X~3~+~al'-O
jw.t [,S though all the unknowns were symmetrical or llntisylUmetrical.

2.f:.!. Gl\OUl'ING OJo'THE UNKNOWNS

H the structure whic.h is boing analyzed consists of sever3l spans
it ber.ornes impossible to tr3Dsfer the points of applic.ation of all
thl::' reduudant renctions to the axis of symmetry (Fig. 5.12a).
However, symmetrical and ant/symmetrical bending moment diacram.~
may .~tiJI be obtaimd if Ihe unknowns representing a ~'ingle force or
clJuplr are replaced by unknowns ri'presenting whole groups of forces.
Let us examine, for example, the six times redundant frame appear-
ing in Fig. 5.12a. Should wc adopt for conjugate simple structure
the onc appearing in Fig. 5.12b wc would have to solve six sirnulla-
lleous equations with six nonsymmotrical unknowns X., X z X 3 ,
X~, X~ and X, given below
+ +
X'&1I + X I &11 + XJo\3 + X 4614 X~61~ +Xt,fJ I3 6," E>oO I
X'&11 +X:&u+X,Su+ Xi>u + X 5fJ U + X,li 3ll + "":11 =0
XIS:n +X~31+X3o,3+X4634 +X~6~ +X,~+6.3P=O }
I
XIS41+X16u+X:liu+X~&u +X~(\~+X,t'iU+dIP =0 J
(4.12)

+ + +
XIO,t X:Ji'2 +X:J)53+ X.lIs, X5t'is5 X~6~6+.1.~P --= 0
XISt. + X~~2 + X36~3+XI6u +X56s, + XJieB ~p = 0 +
J It the~ l'qllatiolls none of the coeUficients 6, would normally equal
'lero.
On tho other hand, if the groups of unknown force!" ZIl 2 2 , Z3'
Z" Z; and Z& shown in Fig. 5.12c were adopted as the ullknowns.
a very large nnmher of secondary displacements in the simultaneous
equations (4.12) would reduce to zero, for these displacemcnls (coef-
ficients) would result from the multiplication of symmetrical graphs
by antisymmotrical olles. Here the unknown ZI reprcsont.'s two ho-
ri7.0nlal forces XI ami X. equal in valuo and opposite ill sign, the
unknown Z:-two horizontal forces equal both in value and iu sigo.
Z3-two vertical forces of equal amount, both directed upwards,
Z,-two vertical forces equal in amount and opposite in direction,
Z,-two couples equal in amount and opposite in direction, aDd
Z,-two couples of the same magnitude and actiflg ill the samo di-
'"
p p p

-
< ~,
, '. ~. ~ z. l ~~

-'-
" " z,
"" "-,7~l,
l.t z.j
Ffe5.U

Z,l'" t
1
1

1 .
1,'"
F'g. 6,12
 2.12. Grouping of th~ U"knoU)fU

rection. The bending moment diagrams due to the above groups of

unit forces are given in Fig. 6.t2. It is readily observed that tbe
Mj, M 3 Rnd M'~ diagrams are symmetrical while the M 2 , M~ and
At & diagrams are antisymmetricaL
Comparing the two simple structures appearing in Fig, 5.12b
and c we realize that the (ollowing relations exist between the un
knowllS X and Z
Xl=Zl+Z,; X,=Z,-Zz
X,=Z3+Z,; X,=Z3-Z~
X,=Z~+Z&; Xt=Z~-Z6
The above relations may be rewritten as follows
Z x,+x" Z Xl-X~
'~--2-' '=--2-
Z"=x{-x. Z.=X 3 +X&
" 2' 2
Z X2+X~. Z
'--y-, e=--,-
X 3-X&

Grouping the unknowns as indicated above permits the !llplace

ment of a single system formed by six simultaneous equations (4.12)
by two indopendent ones (5.12) and (6.12), the first containing only
symmetrical unknowns and the second the antisymmetrical ones.
(a) The tirst system
Z, (6{1) + Za (013) +Z, (Ol~) +(~tP) = 0 }
+
Z, (~3') Z3 (033)+Z, (~",)+(L\3P) = 0 (5.12)
Z, (6~1)+ Z3 (61)3) + Z, (5,~) + (.6.,p) = 0
(b) The second system
+ +
Z, (B 22 )+ Z. (tSt.) Ze(l$u) (L\2P) = 0 }
(6.12)
Z2 (tS n )+ Z. (5) + Ze (o,e) + (l!..p) = 0
Zz (6d+ Z.lBG.) +Z& (Bt &) +(llep)=O
It is clear that in the ahove expressiol1s the coefnciellLs (B UI ) and
the free wrms (L\III) represent the displacements induced by and
along the a[orew.id groups of unknown forces.
We have thus succeeded in reducing a system of six equations
with six unknowns to two independent systems of threo equations
with three unknowns. The work required to solve the Jatttlr systems
will be less important than that needed for the solution of the ori-
giMl one. Herea.fter we shall denote by tbe sign X aIL the unknowns
+
-TIll' construction of Htr9/l,~ diagrams dQe~ nol require 1nl' dlllermina'ion "f
till! unlmowns belonging tu 'he X group.
536

regardless of whether they represent single forces or wbole groups

of forces. We shall equally omit the parentheses introdnc(.'(1 iota
equations (5.12) 3nd (6.12) in order to dil!llinguish the displacement!'
due to groups of forces from those due to a single action.
The determination of displacemenLs nrising in a st.atically deter-
minato structure under tho action of group., of forces is 110 mure COIll-
plicated than that of the displaccrnents producod by singlo noUons.
These displac,oments will be computed as usual, lILuHiplyillg dia-
grams pertaining 10 onc half of the strucLure and doubling tho
result ohtainud. If the framo contains a central coluTlIO. graphs per
wining to ono half-frame (excluding the central column) will be
fIrst multiplied one by the other, the producl will theD be doubled,
and the result SO obtained will be added to the product of graphs
for the clwtral column.

3.12. SYMMJ:o:TRJCAJ~ AND ANTISYMMETRICAI. LOAOING

[f the syswm of loads acting on a structure is (litber symmetrical

or antisyrnmetrical all the computations are further simplified,
bocultse in this case it btlcomes pos."ihle to find a conjugate simple
structure for which the bending moment diagrams due both to the
\Ioit actions and to the actual loading become either symmetrical
or antisymmctric.al. As a re.'iult, a number of free terms of the si-
multaneous equations together .....ith some coefficients to the
unknowns will reduce to zero.
Let Ull eIlUlline the frame of Fig. 7.120. This frame is redundant.
to the sixt.h degree and is acted upon by 8 systenl of symmetrical
loads. A symmetric.al statically determinate simple structure with
symmelriCllI and antisymmetrical unknowns may be obtained cut-
ting ill two the upper crossbar and eliminatlllg three constraints
lit the supports liS indicaWll in Fig. 7.12b. The redundunt reactiolls,
which Cllnnot be transferred to the Axis of sylllmetry. such n!\
till) hQri'tOnlal components of the left- and of tilt! ril'ht-hand
cohlllln reaclions will be rcplaccd by two groups of forct's X"
and X s.
The bending momcnt diAgrams for the conjugate structure due
bo1h tu the uni~ actioll! followiug the directioD of the unknowns
and to the actual loads are shown in Fig. 7.i2c. d. e, ,. g. h andl.
All the unknowns being either symmotrical (XI' X 2 Xl and
X ,,) or antisymmetrical (X s and X.l, the simultancous equatiolls
will form two independent S}'sterns givcn hereunder
X t611 + Xt611+X~t~+X,611 +~IP =0
X,6!, + X:62t +X 362a + X"Il U +.11P = 0
 '37

Xl~1 + X/JU + X 6u + X,614 + 6

a ap =0
X1il u + X26u + X/Ju+X,.su+A,p=O
X~6n+Xe6Sll+~P=O
X~~+X/J.+&ep=O
l (1.12)

In the lfl.~t of the two sy.'llOnls tho displacemollts .1~p nnd AlIP
ara both nil, their yaluc being obtain\Jd multiplying ll11tisymmo-

HP 'j
T
- ,I,' I

,
---
x,
X.
=X,

:+
'" ,
I' ,
'"

.,
,
'<J ,., Of!
I'
"

(,I
Fir7.lZ

lrical graphs ftl l and Itf. b)- the symmetrical graph .'11,. due Lo LltO'
applied loads (Fig. 7.121). Consequently, these two equations be-
come
X/J55+ X /Jr,e=O
XI 64:1+ XJJ&fJ=O
 AlIlllgllI Df Hlgh.IV Rtdulldlinl Slru.dwu

which indicates that both the lLntisymmotrical unknowns X 5 and

X. are aI~ nil. Were the frame of Hg. 7.12a actcd upon by a sy-
.stem of antisymmctricalload.s it would be tbe symmetl'icalllllknowns
Ula~ would become niL.
Generalizing the abovo we may formulate the two following rules:
1. WMn a $ymmdrkal structure t.s acted upon by a symmetrical
sysl<ma. oj loads only tho$e oj tJu lUI.krwWtlS which repr~.'.nt the Ill/mml'-
tricot rtdund4nt rtnC1Wn8 remain different jrom =ero. wbilf' a)1 the
unknowns represcnting antisymmetrical reactions become nil.
2. Whm a sym.metrical structure /.IJ adea upon by an antisymrnd.rlcal
.systffm Dj loads. only those oj the unknowns which represent the ant/,
-symmetrical redundant reacttons remain different from uro. while
fill thc unknowns repreStlnting symmetrical unknowns become nil.

4.12. LOAD TAANSFORMA'fION

T\tu two rules formulated above are applicable to lUly symmetrical
stnlcture regardless of thc actual di'lributioll of londing. for the
.simple reason tnnt any sysuHn of loads can be easily rtlplaccd by an
p

f----'---__+_ j-

Fig. 8.12

~qlli"alcl\t combination of two separate systems, one of whicb is

symmetrical and the other 8IltL.s)'iDmetrical.
Indeed. lot us consider t.he symmetrical structure of Pig. 8.12
acted upon by Ono concentrated load P aDd the uniformly distrib-
uted load of q kg per unit length. both ere nonsymmetricaL The
lWO loads may be replaced by two groups of components nppearing
in Fig. 9.114 and b. tbe lirst of those grOups being symmetrical and
the Fecond anlisymmetrie3l. it is clearly seen that the supcrposition
()( these two systom~ of loads lends to a loading nbsolutely identical
10 the original onc shown in Fig. 8.12.
Wo have Recn in t.he prtlCcding "rticle that when n symmetrical
slructuro is acted upon by symmotricalloads alone the symmetrical
tlllkllowns remain difforent from zero. ConsequcnLly, for the simple
 4.11. Load TrlUu!ormuj,U1

Slatically determinate strucLure (Fig. 10.t24) acted upon by

the loads appearing in Pig. 9.t24 only the symmetrical unknowns

,. ,0>

X .. X t llnd X, must be cnlculated. The corNlSponding equations

bt-come
X l6u + X:1Jlt+Xa6II+6,p =0
XJ 6t, +X t 6s,+ Xa6u+ 6,p=0
X1631 + X,6n + X,36 31 + Ii,p =0
For the same reason the Il}'stcm of loads nppel\fing in Fig. 9.12b
applied to the simple structure of Fig. 10.12b will provide thrae

,, , ,
( p

,, -, " -, '.
'. -,
-, 0<, " "
". '.
Ftc 10.12

nntisymmetrical unknowns X~, X~ and X e, all the other unknowns

being nil.
Consequently, thelSC equations become
X, 6u +Xs6u +X,,6n+ 6 liP"O
Xl6~, +X 56u + X,/J5. + 1i5P = 0
Xl",+X.6u+ XAa+ tJ..p= 0
11 should be observed, hOW\lver, that in cerh-in cases tho replace--
ment of loads by thcir symmetrical and aotisymmetrical compo-
nent!! may complicato the computations in.!ltead of simplifying tbuln
and consequently the application of this proclldure cannot be re-
commended unconditionull)'.
''0 Alia/VIis of Hft:/tlv RtdUlldant Struduru

Fig. U.126 represents a symmetrical portal frame loaded by one

nOIl!l)'lnmelrical forco P. [f we adopt tor s:imple statically deter-
minate strllcture the onc sho~Tn in Fig. 11.t2b, the simultaneous
equations will fan into two independent systems, Oile conlaillill~
a single antis)'mmetrical unknown Xl and the other two $ymmetri-
ClIlllnknowns X t nnd Xl'
Nevertheless, it is much ea.sicr to construct onc diagram of thl:
bending moments due to the single load P (Fig. 1.1.12c) then twn
bending moment diagrams due to its symmetrical (Fig. 11.12d)
nod antisymmetrica1 (Fig. t Llao) components. Howc\,or, in the
nrst Cl:l!C the disp!acements .1:p and Alp will be computod multip-
I),jng the bending moment graphs pertaining to both columlUl while
tho 11se (I( diagrams of the symmetrical and antisymmctrical com-
JlO/lenLs will permit the multiplication of bending moment grllphs
lor one of the columns only. On the other hand, the M~ 0.1\(1 the
.M~ diagrallls are somewhat complicated in outline and for Inultip-
!icalion purposes they must be subdivided into two portions, one
rectangular ond the other parabolic. which would be unnecesMry
were tho original loading retained.
On the whole, in this particular case the replacement of till' load P
Ly iLs symmetrical and antisYlUmetrical components will HUlke the
calculations rather more complicated in~tead of .simplifying thom.
Ll't us now inve~tigate the framo represented in Fig 12.12a loaded
by onc horizontal force P. The degree of redundancy of thi.s frame
is equal to six.
FIJ!. 12.12b and c shows the samo structure loaded by the symml'-
trical and the antisymmoLrieal components of force P. The sym-
metrical components will cause DO di~placemeDt cf tho wp point
of tbe central column and consequcntly 'We may adlnit th:1t this
point is held rast as shown in Fig. 12.12d. Hcnce tho structure gi\'cn
in the la!.ter f1gu~ can be adopted as conjLqtate simple s\ructuro for
the C&.!lC under consideration. Tho bending momcnts induced in
thi~ stnu:~ture by tbe symmetrical componcnts of load P will remaiu
nil t1u'Oughout and therefore the di~placements a produced by
the-se components as wclla.s all tbe symmetrical unknowns must be
equally niL The same will apply of COUl'S8 to the antisymmetrieal
unkno""'n.s.
It fol1o ....'S that all the frl'lffiC member! will be acted upon solely by
bl.'nding Illoments induced by tho antisymmelrical components of
load P shown in Fig. 12.121:.
)<'or the latter system ol loads we nlay adopt the simple statically
dtllermiuate slructure represented ill Fig. 12.12e with unknowns
+
Slr~;ns due to dIrect stl"ll!\.~e3 lire ncgleded a~ usual.
 '"
p
q
to)

(jive"
strutt/J~

. -.
tb)
'<--;)"(-1.'
",IT'
Simple
!:tructure
. "p

Fig. JI.J2
 Analysis aj f{/,hlV R~dullda'lI Slrucluru

formed by tho groups of forces XII X ~ and X;lo Thus, lor the frame
of Fig. 12:12 thQ translorlnatioll of Lite applied loads into their

(,J

p
4 "

to)
-:.>.-
"- J),z re:
......JJ! "
, , "t I"
I L

t" t , '.
'd

,'c l
'. "
."" - - J . , <
k
-',
L/
--
I" il)
t,;
Pfg. 12.12

symmetrical and 3nLisymmetrical eompOllonts leads to the reduc-

tion of the Ulwlher of the unknowfJs from six to three. The resulting
simplilictltioll or all the c_omputatiolLs is tl\ercfofe quite Gonsidcrahlo .

.1.12. ACCUHACY CONTfWL OF ALL THE TE:RMS

ENTElIlNG TIfE SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

It will 10 remembered that the coefficients to tho unknowns alld

tho freo let'IllS of the simultancuos equations rcpn'senl displace-
ments induced in the simple statically dotcrrnina\.e sLrucLuro by
 ';.12. tluurllcy COlllrQlo! Equalloru

uwt forces acting along the direction of tho unknown roactions, as

'"
well 11.5 those du~ to the lIctualloads, These disJllacemonts are usu<llly
obtailled thruugh the multiplication of the corrosponding bending'
moment diagrams. Errors which occur wllile carrying out thcS{'
operations influonce further calculaLions and therefore render Or-
C(HleOUS the values of the redundant reactions linaJly obwilled.
r;rrors in the displacement va1ue$ can be usually detected u;;ing
the procedure described hereunder. Suppose that for tho analysis
of a structure 110ldufldaut to the ntll dogree reactions or groups of
reactions Xl! X~, .. " XI' .. '. X n have been adopted as the
unknowns.
Let us apply to the simple statieally determinate structure all
the unit fon'es eorrespondiDg to these reactions and let us cOMtruct
the diagram of tho resulting bonding moment, Wo shall call Ltlb
diagrn.m the summary unit bmdlltl moment diagram d~s[gnating its
ordinatos by .flfs ' In any cross scc~ion the ordinatl.\ ,lla \\'i!l thus oqual
the algebraic sum of aU the ordinates .i11l> M 2 " M/, ... , Y",
I[ we multiply succeSBively the M. graph area by tbe unit bl'ud-
iJlg moment rliagraJns Aft, M z , tltc., each of the products thus
obtainoo will be equal to the algebraic sum of aU the coefficients
to tho unknowns of the cOL'responding equation ht'C,lLUse
,-"
~ oli=6u+612+lij~+ ... +lil~ = ~ ~ MlM1 ~ +
,-,
+ ~ ~MLM2{j-+ . .. + ~ ~ MIM" ;~ '..,'

=~~MI(Ml+M~+",+M,,) ;~ =~J.'HIMa:~ .,,1 1>

For tho same reilllOll we may writo

lill+8u+~3+' ,. +6",,-""- 2,
It fullws that tbe lllgebraic sum of all tho coufficients tu thL-
uJlknowns cOlltllillOO in equation i mllst be equal 10 6;, whe!"C

(8.12)

Hence the values of all the unit displaccments formilll: the c-oef-
ficiellts to the unknowns of the first of the simultaneous equllliollS
can bl: cheektd comparing their sum with the value of 61'
I"""
~ (jlf=6 Ia (9.12)
t=1
 The al~ebraic sums of the coefficients 10 tlu! uDkDOwns of all
tbe uther simuaal)~ous equatioJ18 may be checked in Its-act!y the
same way.
The above procedure "pufllliLs us to verify the coeffIcients to the
uuknowns of each eqnation .separately. Lot us now sum up all the
values of 6t.. 6:" ..., 611 , Jenoling thi~ sum by 1:6. III that CllStl

III = 611 +6:.0 +630 + '" +6u

But since

6... =I t - - '"
J M"M' TT
wc fUld that

Con5Cquently
(10.12)
and
(I \.12)
Tho la~t expression ptH'miL!ol a simultanoous ch(lck 011 thl,! nce,urncy
of all the cooHicicnts tu lh~ unknowns contained in all the cqua-
lions of tlto given system, This dll'<'-!' will be carried (lut as follows:
(a) Fiud tlte algebraic sum of all the c~mcicllts to thl.' unkllowllS
(unit disploccmcnts) cOlltaincd io nil the equations of thl" given
system
16=(611 +bn-f hu+ .. , +6",,) + 2 (I'iU+61~T'"
... +,s", +6 u +6 21 + .. , +,s~ +~ .;- ... + 6"_1.11)
111 tho 3bo\'e exp~s'iiol\ the lirst in parentheses cuntains all the
principal displal:omo.nts, Le., thuse situated on Lilo main diagollal
and tllo oLher term all ttle secondary displaoolllellls situated on both
sides of t.hi6 diagonal (i.a., on scc,ondary ding:onlll~).
 C.l!!. Abridt~ Solid/on. 0/ Cllnonklfl Eqllalion. M5

(b) Using the method of diA~ram multipli('.,ation rmd the values of

6.. =~~Mi ;~
(c) C<lJ1l]Jllrt' the two values obtained as described ll00vt'.
III a nllmlJ<.-r of r..asC's the following illlJqunlity may help in
finding 1I1e l'rroncou.'l cocfficil.'nls to the Ullkllowns
6" x 6.. . ~ ;. 6:",
Tllll control of the frt'll tllrms of the canonical elIatiolls wiH
ho cnrdro out in n similar way:
(a) Pirst compute the value of

i.\IP=1:~ftfIMp :~ (12.12)
\\'h~e Mp represents the bending moments induced III tile cooju-
gale simple slructure by the actual loads.
(11) Cheek whether
~6=~p+4~p+ ... +~p-~ (13.12)
In gClleral it is quite sufftcient to verify simultaneously tllA coef-
ficients to the unknowllS of the whole system of equations. If this
cheek reveals an error. it is recommended to verify these coefficillllts
equation by equlltion as descriOOd at the beginning of the prescnt
article.

11.12. ABRIDGED SOLliTION OF CANONICAL EQUATIONS

Hereunder we shall describe very briefly the abridged mothGO
0(solving simultaneGus canl,lnieal equations which wall prGposcd
by Gauss. In this method the unkoGwns are eliminated one by OIm
using a set or certain coefficibnts. All tne operations are carriod
out ill tabular form and checked constantly.
Let us consider (our canonical equations (1), (2), (3) D.tllL (4) with
four UJlknowtl~.
I L will be remembered that each pair of coefficient!! to the un-
knowns symmetrical about the main diagonal aroequal Loonc anoth-
er as stipulated by the theorem ()f reciprocal digpla~ment.s. The
free terms have bet:n transferred to the right-hand part ()f the equa-
tions and are denoted by Kit K~. etc. 'fhe solution of Lids system
+
-In this book we ~aJl Dot COllllider tho "unabridged" mflthod of aolving
canonical equations. the latter' being 5eldol,llly used ill stress analysis of redun-
dant structures.
"The first o( lhoi!EI four equations ..... iIl be designatlld hya Rmnan r.gurll.
3$-8$3
 An~lv~i, 01 JlJtltJ~ RId""/la.,,t StnulUTU
'"
of canonical equations will be carried out Br. indicated in Table 1.12.
All the entries in column 1 con be made of[ hand. The numoor of
~.
'- S<W101o1l?, ""'o;~~ls
AA, ... }~+!-);+X.6;'.KI
"":..~ , ... {1J

xA,' ~xAt:XIJc:x.~":J(r m
","
, . . . . " , ,,'
, .... '............... . '"
,x,6.11 + .XrBJ1 +,l'~+X.".;.~ ifOJ
, ,/' /' .< (J}

../,8., JAt+!A.~ .. ;r.6~: K. (t.J

~rntJcrifPJlg.Y1Ols ~~_

columns and lines of the table is direcLly dependent on the Dumber

of !limuHancous equations. Thus, for instance, if OUf system con
tained five equations illswad of four wc should have nine columns
in::itead or tlie eight (;onlained in Tablo 1.12. These nille columns
would be under the following hcadiJlgs: Equation No.; XI; X 2 :
X 3: X~; X~; multipliers U'k: S, and K. Similarly instead of 1:i 1[rles
of Tablo 1.12 we would have 19, these lines being designntod by
(I); (2); (l) aa; (II);(3); (l) 'nu: (11) '1].:3: (Ill): (4); (1) -1].14; (11) -a1~;
(1II).Clu; (IV): (5); (I)au: (II)-an; (111)-1].3&; (IV).au: (V).
ITaving prepared the table. enter tIll! coefficients and th~ values
of K taken directly from the simultaneous equations into lines
(I). (2), (3) and (4). No entries are mode at this stage in the column
fOl'the multipliers all,. Column S wiU be fiUcd in with t.he values
of 't .l't> $" _, SII which represent.
$,=6 u +6u +6 l ,+ __ . +6111
1:= 6" +6 n +6 u + ... +6 m ete.
Further operations are carriod out in the following !lequence:
(a) Compute the values of au. au, and au, using the c:s:pressions
indicated ill the corresponding Ii.IK!S uuder the hC!ading "multi-
pliers Ou ~.
(b) Fill line (I) -an with tho values of the products obtained
by 1he lDultiplh;ation of all the entries of line (I) by Qu.
Cc) Calculate the values of 6' , 6' etc., given in lino (ID adding
two by two the ontries contained in iine (2) with those of Line (I) 'Ou_
No operations are earned out in columns XI and ~multipliors ou_~,
(d) Proceodhtg in the same way determine the values (11" (tu,
etc., \Isin~ expressions contained in the column "mult.ipliers Of A~.
Gradually the whole of the table will be filled in that WO)-, Whe-
nevor it is known beforehand that the valne of an entry equals tero,
this entl'Y is rl:lplaced by a dol. Such is the case of nllmorous entries
 ~
,- , ,if- 0'"=. .....,_
::c: -.il.

H----- -i---+--I--j----J--]

.-=-J- ,:;i.., ..,

-0

I---I---I-j---I-
"I"
~ro'

,1

I
-:-----1-1---1---1--1---1-
,I-I .
..; .0
~
_.
;,;

H----I----II---I----!-I---t-I
.2-
.0
;,;
"
o
;,; .J ..
hL---!'--!---I--I--I---J-

-
if
=
~
=
+ + ------
+
".
in lines (II), (Ill) and (IV). Eac_ll of the lines lf13rked witll a Roman
fl~ur(l repn\sen \..'lone of the_ cq uatiolls to be solved. Thus, [or ill:itallce,
line (rrr) represents the equation
X al1;a + X,O;' = Ka
When all the operations arc cnrl'iccl out corroctly the sum of all
the c.oerflt;ients to tlw unknowns of each equation will l'quul l:he
entry in the same line in column S. Thus. for installw. for equation
m I) it RlII~t V~ fountl fhut
6;.+6;4=S~
This contrlll should be carried O/4,t earh time the corresponding line
has been. eompl-t'lely tilud ill.
The last of the cquntiolll; tin alir case equation (IV}1 will conhlin
only OIW unknown yielding the vahlc of X,. Equatioll (TTl) ('on-
tailling two unknowns X 3 and X ~ will be easily ~I!lvctl leading
theroaroor to the solution of equations (11) anti (I) thus providing
the valu(ls of the unknowns X J , X 2 and Xl in succession. Tile final
rt'SHltS are checked hy the illtrocllll't.ion of aB tile unkuowlls thus
fouud into the original system of .simultaneous equationll.
To illustrate the above let us U~ the method jll:'>t described for
the solution of the following equations
2XI~X2+3X,-X~=5 (1) SI=2~1+3~1=3
-X1T3X2-2X~-5X,=-21 (2) 8 2 = -1+3~2-;)=-5
3XI -2X 2 -5X,+4X, =0 (3) Sa=3-2-5+4=O
-X 1 -flX 2 +4X a +X.=5 (4) S~=-1-5+4+1=-1
AIL the coefficients lo thl:J unknownB or these cqllalion~ Si'ltisfy
tile principle of reciprucal tlisplncements. Tile <lhbl'(Jvialed solution
of this syst-em of simllJtalleOll.~ equatinns is conlained in Table 2.12.
Having filled in lhis tablc, proceed as indicattld aIJove with tht<
solution of the equati()n~ contained in JilWS (l), (11), (fII) amI (IV)
starting with the l:tsl OIW
575 X _ 2.300. X - 4
-00 .--~ . -
-~X +~x/,= ~~. X "",-t12+17fo 3
10 ,S 10 1 to' 3 911
2.5X,=-18.5+0.5x3+5.5X4; X 2 =2
2X 1 =5+2-3x3+4; X.=1
To verify all the operations enter tho values of the unknowns into
the original equations.
-
~

.; ., ~w::\c< l;;1~ <=> ~ ~l

--
:;;12. ~f- .... onlN~~~~ ~~
~

I I I I I I I I
~ -
~
~ '7 .., IN .... 1...
I
o et> I"" ,-I':::
I I
~12
I
- ,')j=", I:: IS. :: l~
I I I
-.
..~I-
,
I

MIN
,

I =1""

; +
"
" " =I~
~ I

+,
-fn
i
jl

1/

;;, -I ""'-1'"
I I
=1...
I
~""IN =1::
I
::;I~ - _IN
I
EF- EIS
I
~Io
t;o::
I
-
, ~ MMIN
I
_IN
I
.n
I
=-1"'1
I
-I~ :il~
I I
,- .

M _IN N ~

i
-"
I
"'I'" I I
-
, , -I
~ . -I

-
;;
=
"------~
+ +
''0
Table 1.12 !thaws that nil alternation in the values of thu free
It't'lIlS will be renecLcd only in the untries of the last column K.
For lhils reason tbe method jnst described becomes particularly
W4JlI fIt for the strt':s5 analysis of redundant structures whon thest:
are called upon to carry Iliffcrenl loads.

7.12. SEVEI\AL PI\08L~MS IN STRESS A;"fALYSIS OF

REDUNDANT FRAMES
Probll!tD 1. Construct Ind cheek t.h. M. Q ;mJ N diaiCT.ms fot tbe ......... bl~
sp... syaUIIlE!lrical frnroe shown In fill:. 13.12.
Soh,UoII. The frame is three times ,talkalI, indeterminate. Fig. 1".12
shows one 01 ~hfl simple st"teLU~ "thleh euu.ld be adopted for the aoluLion
(If the problem. How-eY,r, that would illYob,c l.he simultanllGtlll ~luUoll
of three equnions with threo unkM....ns.
Tile problem will he wD!.idefll.bly simplilied if tilo unknowns are grouped
lU indieak!d iD Fig. 15.12. In tht> )aLler Cl!e the eanoJlkJal equations b.oooe
.r '~lI+X~u+ o.lp-O
XI62,+X2Iln+112P-O
X 3b33+ 113P- O
The unit bending moment diogr.iIl~ .q,. J,{: and if. eorrespendini to \he
elt~ undM eonsidorll.tiQIl are given in Pig. IO.I2a. band, while tilo dingnm
due to the appliod load is. preJ!oCUted iu Fig. 1i.l:!.
Mn!llplying the appropria\o graphs one by d,e other we shaH obtain the
values bOth of Ihe eoeflieulllt., lo tho unkno"'ns Itnd of the [rlll; temtS of the
above equatioM. It should Ilot he forl::otten that the moment!! of inertia "f the
columns .re only balf as great u thoso o[ tile CJV5:"bcam!l

111l- 2 ( . ; . ; " e~l +Il,.a. 2J:.~/, )".. 3~;1

a 24 II <1 3
1l,2-T'T' 21Uj =- MU I
11 " 2.. 1 ,,3
622- 2 7'7'3"' 2 . VU, =t2/1
llu-2
(
1l21
8 _ . _ 8 _ _ +8"'4 _
t) +Za---2",--_3
,,2 1 , ,_
3 _
2 3 BI, 2F./, 23 Ell cl.
3P" 20 4 3P"S
.6 1 1'''''--,-'"2' 2/ 1 --16/1

l1: p - -
I
2EJ.
[3PII 1<I
- ' - ...rY-yT+""2-'6
2 8 "( 3
2"SPIIT+
I II 3 11 1 11) 1 a 2 "] liP,,'
+2TPIJ2"+gP4T+TPIJT +T P"T'"'3"Y --1921,

3alB2.Pa;'..!..Pll
4. a 1 a) a P,,3
1131'- ( gP"T"T+ 2 "T--:r P"2 'ilJT;-ltJEJ I
 p I MII of ~(ry
;Jl~U,
.H C ,.-
o
J, J, J,
,
--'-~,"-"-.1,
Fit. U. Jt
p

XJ
-~
X,

!W
~

--
"
J, XJ

Fi;. ],'5.12
I"
a a 1 .,a
Q

,

"
(a'
"
- x,~,

tx z'"
Ib'
~

Fig. 16. J2
~-
M.
..
,.100 llil>placeHlont. UIUS computed wILl be cbookod U.shlg' ~he ~auD.l.ll,ary"
unit bending lllomollt diagu.rn 1"f, due to tht) .~ilXluJtaJlC(Jus application of all
the unit (OtC05 Ilcti"g nlong the UIl!ulflwns (Fill" 18.12).

P
l'
1,
-
lp, jP, /

_. '"
13-) -lI '/"
Plfl /1./2 FiK. 18.12

'/'ho value of b.. is ob\aiued ",siui \.0 tIle soeond power tbe 111. uingram:
,~_ d.
b.. _}.. JAI: 1;:.'1 -
[4T-T'3'
.. 2 II2 +6.. (2'"'2:; 4'2"4+ ~

5 )] I <I 2 2<a 21._'

+2.24.24+2'2 4 24 'U:.'J 1 +2.2<1'2'3' I!JI'" "~J,

Checkin8 thot condition (1l.12) Is i!II.tillfled w. find

21a' .SaB a3 3al a3
f,e/, -3"E7;"'+i2eJ," ~+2. 4b'J l or
2'.' 21..'
48/ 1 -""'fET;
It foLIo..... that all the unU dlsplac<lUienl5 are-ct>rreet.
I.. et us dell'rmilt(! now tho vllno of A. p multiplying the M. dilgrom
(Pig. 18.12) by thl! M p one (Pig. 17.12)
r-
df -I. [3 P
':'\.p_.L :,M"jlJpTl- 2t:J,
Cl I :>. "
""T'2'a'"4-+ tr
(0::1 a 1 3 I , ~")
+Tlf !'sP"'T+ 2T P"'T+lf P"'T+T PU.'T
If If
+
I
+TP""T 3'T"+"'3,2<>
(' 5 l.)] --~
35P.>'

ClJeck wbether condition (13.12) ill all10 salillfind

A.p-I:o.
3""113 3Pa l t 1Po$ Pa 3 35PDI SSp,,1
- 1'J21'u1 - -16l7;- 1V2B/ 1 +rm;
or - 192tJ, -= - 1!l2E1,
This indicates \bllt the dlsplacel1l9DtlI due to the allpliod lnad.!l 8te aho cor-
"d. We may now intrc>duet tho values 01 tbe codfieionb 10 the unknownJI and
of the rroo tlll'lJlS into our syst~zn of caIloniclll equations. Multiplying the first
 . 1nEJ t6EJ,.
twu ul tnl'S(! oqU"tIOn! by _ _,_I ~nd till' last onc by 3 WU obt:llD

320X I +48X2-3(,P-O

48XI+t6Xt.-11P .. O
48X 3 +P-O
The soluliou of lheSll thT1'1l Uljoatiollll If.ds to
3P 11' P
Xl"'" H6: JY t .... -,-,-: x~--4ii
Tbo eonslrllClinn of \ho r~ltina' bending lIIoment di~~m for tIle I;h'en
redundant ~tn~ture will bl" cllITlQtI out In the following !l"qUfllOl'. t"ir=>4. de-tor--
mine the bending ml1lJll'nts illdueod in the Iiimpll' .rt~lIct.urfl by tht rodundl,"L

@
tI: ,,,
" ' .' "
;;
FIK 19.12 Fig. :!O.12

rfulions X" X: and X~ obl.1lincd above. )'0. lhlll pUtpoM lnultiply all thO'
ordinlltes to Illl~ unit bt-nding momCJlt suph, Ml ~1! and J7~ by the rll5l'ecth'e
magnitudcs of thoso ",lIctions. Th. !hrte dlagram.lllu" oM. wed are represented
in Fip. 19.12, 20.12 .nd 21.12.
The ordin.tes to the resulting bendlni momtnt dlagr:un can now be obtained
summing up the ordinates to thcso l.hreG Jiqramll with thW!9 to the M" diagram
glVC!1l provlously In Fig. 17.12. (In Fig. 13.-12 we have marked by an asleri.sk
tilO5O or the C!nda 01 tht!; columns which nre con!idtf"td 113 being the loft-hind
ona for tho CORStrnction of btonding momont diagrams.)
MCD=Mco= _ 31'/1. _~_~+ 3P" _~
176 44 'to 8 26'
3P" PI. SP"
M BA =M./K"""" -J7G"+O-"'l8+ 0 - - 132
Al
OO
- _ 31's _:!.!!..._~+.!:- __ ~
H6 22 '08. 66
3P" 7P" P" p" 17P"
AJolI---mr-2r+T+'---- 21"10
P" Pn
Al.oo-O+O+--z:r+O- VI
3PII PII Pa
M ED-M /' ... -"""T7il +O+T+O-2li"4
5M An"ly.i. 01 HI,hlt Rtdrmdlt./ltt $lruduuf

In .11 tho .hove el"l)rl.'S..~On.s J,f .... denotes the Ill'nding moment at crOM
l;tlCtioo B of member BA. '" uc denotri thll momenl U cross 5l!Ction B of nll!nlber
ne and 10 forth.
The diagr.m of the rt:\Ulting bending l/lOlllonts plotted aB (lXplllined above
b I'('presunted In Fig. 22.tZ. In oedet' to cht.'"k the aecuracy of Ihis di:lgram
let us oomputo the mutual displAeumont lJ.f'() of points F :Ind G (toee Fig. 13.12).
This displatl'ment must be nlloCO!SIlrily nil for both poiDb are held fast hy the
!;Ilpp.ora of Ihe fratrtc.
In ord{'r to find the said dlsplncelUent wo shall 'liminuc tlllth~o constraints
at Lhe lower end or thll righl~hand column, transforming thereby the rlgh~ lialf
of the structul't! InW a stlltieally determinate polygonal IlOllm shown
in ~iK. 23.12. Let Ull nOW llVply two unit forc~s acting alnnl\' the dlredions

J1f!Jl
28.
!!JL
28.

@ ~~ Hgruph

, ,
",
Ii
"
Fi1 21.12 Fig. 22.12

of the de.,ired dlspla,ment. The hending moment diagram duo lO the!\e forces
u !I\own in this nguro. )lulliplying this diQgram by tho t1;~gram or ilio resuhi~
bl:'nding mOUlents gh'cD in Fig. 22.12 ...0 obtain
.. Po 2 1 (17P.. I Pa 1)
.!J,.YO--"T 264 'T' Ell +0... """"264"'"2- 254 '2 X
x_'_ _... ~.~
2E/ l 2 3
..!;;.-,~==~ (_"!"-l-..!1.._..!..._2.!.)_0
.'03'" E~l ~E~t
3
It will be remombered thaL Lhe produel 01 the reautUng bending moment
graph of Fig. 22.12 by th@ unit diagrams givCll in Fill:. '16.12 must be llL'!O nil.
Lel us prococd now with the determInation of the shearing forces
-SPa -0
Mp.. -M AB 132 -!iP
Q"'lj-=Qn... - a ... a ---nn-
47P.. :!PO) 1 57P
Q/fC-QCD- ( 264"'"+"U2 oj'2.-~
7P 47P) I 75p
QeD-Qoc-- - ( ""6G"T ~ Gp, -= - t32
Po 17PS) I 31'
QD/-QED- ( 264 +~ -;-=
PtI I P
QK,--Q'B~-264 '-;-""'-'264
Pa I P
QDG-QGD-"2'4' a-24'
 The signs of the ~'hoaring forces Gan be ebteked remembering lhlt tbe shear
is reckoned positive ,,1100 the 11.Jj,S of the II'JemGllt muM bt rolated e1ocJo,'I~
through an angle 1I11HIU" tha.n 90" in order to toOle In coinddenee .... ith the
uDj!;\'nl 1.0 lhe bending moment diagram at the 5ectioD under cou5idll'ratioo.

e Zl e Qgrtlp/l
IJ'l
p p

Fig. 23.12
"
FIg, 24.12
'G<

The magnitude!! of the shearing forC(.'S Q obtained .bove have led to the
<construction 01 the dllirlln shown In FI!, 24.12.
The v,lucs of the normel r~s w 11 be derived lrum tho equilibtillDl
of joill~ IJ, D IDd P. isollted in succession (Fig. 25.t24, band t). In the5e

Fig. 25. 12

oomputllliolU! unknown nonnol st.re.'lSeS will be alw.ys tf'Ckoned positive,

La. c.using the extension ollhe correspondiIli member. The vllues of shearing
force.!! are tabu directly from the !!he.r diagram of Fig. 24.t2. The equilibrium
eqUIlUons bec:ome:
Joint B (Fig. 25.t2.0l)

:I:Y_ -NB .. 'OP

-132-0
,.,b"ro'nnu.
S7P
N B.. = - t32 (COmpruslOn)
5P SP.
:I:K_ '32 +NIIP_O tileno[ore ,vBD--""'i32 (coIDprt'ulon)

Jo;n~ 0 (FIg. 25.120)

75P 3P
ty_ -NDC-"""'i32-M-O
wt~",from
,p .
ND()- -If" (eoltlprl'~IOn)

l:X--N D1J +,vDE:- i: _0 but sinu NDB-'i/t()

we finally have
I' 5P P
N DE: - 24 -"'"'i32-2iiT (extension)
Joint E (Fig. 25.I2c)
V
XY-""4i""-Np.,,-O ...-h~rofrom
~ .
N J',"l'"-44" (cJ:~1lI1~lonl

}';X=-NJ,.;D+ 2~"'0 thurefore NT.D- 2~ (utcnsinn)

Siru;e N BD .... Nor the la Iter 1'1l5ult moy be regarded as confirming lhe
Meeuur;yof previous r;owpulatiuml. The dtagram of the normal slrts5Cs gl\'~
in I<'ig. 2fi.12 has been toustru<:t.ed U5inll tbu dltl just obtained.
p
.. /tM

=--'
Fig. 26.12 ""
HI'{. 27./

Lot us ebeck tbo .:leeurae~' of tho M. 0 lln,l N dingrdJll~ ll~illt: th~ n,,,\hud
b.Slld on equlHbrlul\l considerations. lsolnting the upper half of the frame
wo must find that Iho aetual loads Ipplieol tv that part of tlle strut-turo Ire
blli/lJlcw exactly uy tho streS!!~ acting nt the- euts, i.e., at mldheight of lho
columns (Fig. 2'i.l'l). The values of thoS(J 1l1re.~et1 will be scaled oll" tbo cort....
spondi.D8 diagrnms (sea Figs. 22.12. 24.t2 *ud 26.12). lndt'l)<1 we f,nd tb:!.t
SP P r P
~X-"'i3Z-2.4~ 2~ -264""(10-11+1)-0

n __ l'+ ~S; + ~~ - ~ _~(_132+5'i+M_91_0

"M ( 5p, P P ) +P
/1- - 13Z T2T-""264 T T-
7P 31' 5Pa Ps Pa
--I-,-a+24-~+48-~28 ..
piJ. ,
- 528 {-IO+H-I+2M-33ll+72-IO+Il-I)_n
H,.,rote all the ~lliljbriulII rcquiremNll$ arc u~i3fied.
 Tht At. Q and N diagt"4Jn5 rould be ob~aiDNI. u!ing !!OItI(''''hat dill'tmnt
procedure. IndNd Wfo (ould -1'1,1y to the eonju;-llle 5\lllcally det('nnlnato
"r>ltlUnl Ill" rocl""daut r<:.~tilln~
Jp 1P P .
X 1 --'"'i76; X1 -ti"" aDd X3""-~
"'It'llor'with tbE- acw.1 Jo..dJl :l~ shown in Pig. 28.1z" and b. Tberl',h"r "'"(l cO'I.ld
ca tul:lto the values of till! n'aclioll~ developed at the SlIPI,orI3 of tho I:Ulet'
81ruelllrc undOl" tho lllmultan,ou! lH:tiQIl 01 .11 the fOITfl m('ntioMI! IIbovll.
p p

-"
P JP
m JP SI' -p
'm
"" '"
"s " f(
(0' (b'
Ftt. U.12

Tho diagrAms 01 the bomling mOUlMU. !obellrin!: 'orus and nnnllal ~1'CS5l'S
obulDl.od in thd way for tho ~imj'lle stlLiully dottrminale Slruct"", "I.~ld
coincide uJlctl)" with lb. cwrespomling re~lting ,11'1l5l5 diagrams for tht' givN\
rtilnnllanl ~nlCture.

PNlblem 2. Itl'!lu;rud Ihl' complete slrllY ana!}"!! for the t .....stor17 fralll\'
or 11 fllltory hlllldlrl/lo:ldl'd un~ymmetrir.lIy along the tOil (ru~bOllm. The
dHr~rcnt regidjlil'~ l) all lho frame mC'IUOOrs nre inlliealA.>d in Fig. 29.12.

.!i J
J
'" '1

"
V
lferJundon(
structure

,
, 1
Om
ro, (6)
Fit 29.12

SOIUUM. Tho conjugate simplo strueture will he obtained SllCtionilljt both

... ros.~bG/lms at midspall (Fig. 29.12b). Tllo bonding moment diagrAms dIll}
LO uuknown uni\ forces are given in Fig. 30.12. The diagtllJn of the bending
momeul5 IndUld In tho ame :!!imple !l\rueUlre by the KtUal lo.dlni it at"m

xl:!. -1-.... r ' ~J.' ,

,of,;' Xr'}
,,_/ .'f-
I X
r ~~ "r

,
\&)

3 .i /

(b)
,or"
(" W

3 J I I
Xs" ~~I ,of,.1
t-
-~
"'
~

~J.I
1

6 , J
~
J
i&1
(dl ..
'"
(fI

Fit:. 30.12

In F1i. :11.12. Owini to the proper d'oieo of Ihe8impl' stn.ctur. III the lollu..--
ini socond~ry dispJol:ement.s reduce to r.or\)
~,%> ~l&' ~u' ~11' 028' 6~. 6.6 end ~)G

FIG. 31.12 Fig. 32.12

In lhiij c~ tb' sy&tom of simultllnl!OU8 equations will fall inlO \WQ sep~rat.o
I!roups, the lirst containing four unknowns out of tho shl: ~ ..d Lho sewnd two
 7.12. SrliCral Problem. ;n Slreu Anll1lllis of Redundlll1l Prllme. 5590

unknowns only;
(n) ~htl first group
+
X103 u X;,03u+ X ""14+XOI'J18- -1.\11>
X\0331+X:/!JJ+X4033l.+Xo033l1- -6 3p
X t 03 41 +XIJ43+X loo+Xeb,e= -!i4P
XI~O\ +XaOo3+ X,03 o ,+
Xol'Jee= -Ao p
(b) the seconu group
X20322+X~Q25= -!i2p
X t 6n2 + X~6s5= -tl.~p

All the displnc()m('nls will be calculated assumini that EJ=f lOll sq In

4xl, 2 2 6 2 ~
1l11--2-X3X"XT+T(2X"~+2Xl()2+2X4Xl01 2 _351,.1

f,x" 2 1,+10 2
6\3=-,- X 1XT+6X---:r-X 1 X 2-=58

6X6('
I'Jjlo----r- 4+ T x 6 )'2=1
"+10
03 16 = ------:r- X (l x '1 X 22 = 42
1l 3J =(lxlxIX ~ +f,XIX1X2+6XlxlXl_17
6xG 1
oJIo=-,-x-r- X2 -l. 8

oJ8.-. l x6 x Tf x 2",,(l
6x(l 2 2
OH=-,-XT X6x T - 72
6x(l f
03'8"" -,-X:rX 2=18
, f
bllll =6x 1 X 1 X T+6X t Xi XTX 2=1.5
3X 3 2 1
022=-r-X yX3x TX2+4x3x3x2+6x3x3x l_f35
6:1~=3 X 6 x3
,
X'2 X 2=54
13x 31 2 I I
6~5=-2-' x TX3XT X2+6xax3x '2x2=58.5
I,Xf,X9 (l{10+4)X9 __
Ill p _ 2Xl 2x2 261

9x3 3 6x9x3
A~p _ _ 3x2 XTx3-4X9x3- 2 =-199.12
'" to __ 3x 9 xt 4x9xl 6x!lXI"",,_67S
Jp 3x2 I 2 .

.1,,. __ Gx6xl)
2X2 .... -81

A~p__
6x9x3
2 __ 81
6 8,.-- 6X~XI
2 __ 27

In order to cheek the v,:llul'S of thMO dl~platl"lD('nt$ construet lhe $UIIIrn:rry

unit bl'ndiag moment di."lgnm "if, duo 10 the simult.aneous IICtioD (If .11 the
unit reaclions shown in fig. 32.12. The vdue or 6.. will bo ..bUllne<! rail-inl
to the socond. po,.. ~r the "M. dilli"am whill! the valtl(! of "'.1'
ffiohirlylns the
Af. ,lillWlIffi by the Mp one
'.-' SM' ~ tlX2 (2x!,~...I..227_t;x
El ... -!..- ' 2x2l+

+ 6~1 l2 X <\2+2 X~+4 x 8x 2) +-m (2 x 122 +2 X 24'+ 12 x V. x 2)+

+ 1\~4 (2xt;'l+2x2 2 -4x2X2l+ 6;1 (2X2'l+2x2 2-2X2x2l+

+ GXl2x2
2x2xS X12_t321,.7

b..p_t "'.up S- "

El OX, ( 1+Tx3
--3"'X'2 , ) -~('+8)-
'X9

- ~~: (12+24) __ iI6.62

Condition (11.12) l'eqllires th.t 6.. _~li. Indeed

IS24.1_S54.7 + 17 + 12+ j .5+ 135+58.5+2 (58+ 144+-'2+

+18+6+18+56) Of' 1324.7_1324.7
Condition (13.t2) roquires that b..~ .... 1:;)'. lodl"l!'d
_716.62_ -261-199.12-67.5-8' -81 -27_ -7IG.62
B(llh of lheal tondnh)n~ being MtWed. we lOa}' be sure lbat no ell'OC' ha3
h~n commit~ in calculating tho unit dbplacemenl.'l. Substitnting the valUl!6
of IhtM di"I,!awmcnls in the two groo~ 01 ~i.mull.anllOUg &qUl:lllOnS, WI obu.in
J5-UX I +58.X',+144X,+42.f._ +26t
58X 1 + 17X,+18X4+6I,+ _67.5
t44X 1+ 18X,+72X4+ tBX,+ _1:11.0
+ +
42X 1+6X a 18X4 7.5X,_ +27.0
135X~+MXa-+ 199.12
a4Xt+58.5XI"'" +81.0
 TILl' solution (If thl!S(l eqI,lU;(lII!I (lmiUal hem, l('lItls to lh. '(1I1O"lring
VIJlI~ uf the rtdll ..dllnt n':tetlons
.1'1_+0.007 Lon ,,\'",....,,-0.1112 ton
X2 =+I.4GO lOII~ X)=+O.037 ton
X,_ +2.753 1(>f1I1'll!LI'('ll X,_ -0.31.0 ton-m<'tre

,\plllyiu!l" RH Lho (orces to llw ~jmple !t.nticlIlIy dcL~nnill~lc "tructllTl' ~nd

ClklllHling Llle loCLuling mor.nelll~ induced bOlh by Iha reactionS jU~1 ohtalnt'll
IllLd the aCILlnl l(lud~ wo Jiud
N5f- +'IAOO X 3+2.153-9_ -1.87 lOIlmel..,~
M(j~_ -l.WOX 3+2.753_ -t.GS ton-J""tres
M,,_ +0.031 x 3_0.31.0_ -0.23 ton-lUutre
M u = -0.037 X 3-0.MO- -0.45 ton...netre
A'~ .... -<t.00'i x 4 + 1.0Wi0 X 3+2.753-ll_ +0.5ll ton-lIllll!'\'
.41,,_-!o1l.OOi X"--I.460 X 3--=--2.753_ +".&1 tGn-metre
,fl'H6 -......
x, x,.o.RP " , , 'lJ'Z"l!i:J
_
5 - ~-; G S=.,}'x~,<"b~"<:,,,j .f . ,r ~ ~
4 J-::; J. 4

'J8 . ~ ,ni~.
,-

'."'" ' ~
'"

f. f ~-
xoan , ~.

J - J .,
X. _
- all' ~,' {JJf
:f,-oJt
,.
, I -iv . . ' -! l 16
-", _. u.

", '" (fJ (pI

Fir. 39.J2l

/11,,\_ +0.607 X-i+ I AGO x 3+2.7!l3+0.037 x3-0.MO-

-!I = + 0.3.1 tOn-metre
Mn ,,"", -l-O.GO'i x4_IA60x 3+2.75.'\-0.037 x 8_0.3)"", +0.36 101l-1U1'ln:
M 12 = +0.W7 X 10+1A60X3+2.753-0.692 x6+
+0.037 X 3-0.3ilO-9_ -0.18 ton-metre
Mu .... +0.601 X to_l.~W X S+2.753-0.r..q zx G_
-0_037 X 3-0.3-'.0= -0.16 lonm('.Lre
The i\.3mo bondinll' mOlUenL~ toUlll he obtaioed 3~ rollow$; first multiply
the unit bending moment gr(lph~ of Fig. 30.12 h~' Ihl.' ClJrresponding value!!
3S_Rr.3
of the unknowns, Thus, all the ordinates to the diagram illdu,:oo by X, _ 1
(see Pig. 30.12(1) should be multiplied by +0.607, the ordinates tt, I,ho grapb
induced b~' X 2 = 1 (Fig. 30;121 by +1.41\0, and so fortb. This will give the
bending moment diagrams ~hown in Fig. 33.t2(1, b, C, d. l: and '-, This
heing done, add up the ordinate.~ to all of theS!.' diagrams togeth"r wilh those
to the diagram due w the nctualloads (see Fig. 31.12). The resulting ordinHtes
will represent Ihe ordinates to the bonding moment dingraw corresponding
to th" given redundant structure. It will be readily obSl.'rved that the hl.'ndinlt
U!oUlents llL lIUI joints are the same 8S determined previously
M:,e= 4.38+2,15-9-= -1.87 ton-metress
Mi,-+O.11-0,3.(,=-O,Z3 ton-motre
Itfss "",+2.1t3+4.38+2.75-9 ... +0.56 tOil-metro
J/3t _ +2.1.3+4.38+2.75+ 0.11_0.34_90= +0.33 ton_melre
101 13 "" +6.07+'. 38+2.75_4.15+0.11_0.34_0,.. _0.18 ton_metre
end !!O forth. 1'he rllSulLing Il000ding moment diagram for the l'tUllO uudor
cunsidcration is givon in Fig. 33:12".
Problem 3. Hequlred the complete analysis of u douLle-span 3ynuu.-tricul
frame londed wilh one horizontal force (Fig. 34.12<.
Solution. The frame under cOllsideration Is redundant in tho third dl'gJ'(!c.
The. ~imJllo ~~aticallyde'orminat.e structure adopt.ed re repre5entell in )ig. 34.t2b.
Tho bonding momont diagr(\m.~ induced hy unit reactions will be c.oMtruct~l
f'lr LIlo folluwing groups uf unknowns:
XI consisting of two hori:ontal (lntisymmotrical forces,
X: consislin!l" of one vcr~ical roaction at the oonlral support,
X 3 consisting of two llymmetl'lcal horizonlal forellS.
Tho cr.rresponding unit bending moment djngram~ are shown in Fig. 35.12.
Let us rcsolvQ th(l force acting on tho fr1lIIle also in two gr<)UpS or component~,
one symmetrical lI.nd the olhor antisymmctricBI t1S IndlcuLt'd in i'ill". 3~i.l201
(1nl! b. 'The bending moment diagrams duo to these tomponenl.s lire al~ given
in the samc figure.

,
Si"7,?!e .. Injr:lul'~
U J
,IfMUmJl1l'l

,,
,7 A,'h

'" Fig. 3rJ. 12

The displawments ~ induced by the actual loads VillI be ohtain('d multi-

plying tho bonding moment graph duo to ontisymmlll.rical unit forces Xl
((lig. 35.1211) by the graph uS Fig. 56.12& dUll to the antlsymmotriclll MnJponent
of till.' actual loatl. The same oporatlon wm be. repeat!'d with the graph:; due
to Ihl) lIymuwLtlcal unknowns X z = t Ilnd X 3.0:: 1 on Olle hand. and the graph
due to tho !<ynlmotriclll cQmponr.nts of fOl'CO P given ill Fig. 36.12a, UII Lhn
other. [t is obviou'l that bot'h secondary displacement! 012 ami ~l~ will rednr.lI
It is no~ lId\'lsable to change the scal~s er the unit diagrams lnstea(\
of constructiug new one:'!. this procedure constituting (I SQurt.e of fuquent erroN!.
 '1.12. S~~...ral Problems III Sin.. Analy,i, 0/ RcdulI(lolll Frame' 5r,.'1

,
"
.~

(;:
~

, 5
6
5 '
@
,(/ =, , 1 J
X,'/
(6) X~'I
J

(0)
"

"

'c)
Fig. .1,U2

- ut
, 5

1
la)

"'.
 Analysis of H'lIhl!l Rtdlind~nt Struduru

to UfO, Conooquenllr, the threl.l simllltane'H1s equations. />e(:ome

X 11l ll +t. 1P -0
X102'.!+XJ~2J+t.1Jl'"0
X1~.:r.l+XsllJ3+t..1P "",0
ut us cakulatll all tho disJllnceIIlenls as~uming that El _I ton '~'l m
0,.=2X to.,V.x7.5x9 2 1O.r.4X3x9.5 +2
3 X +
2X:-I X
7.5X7.5X5+ to.5x2IXi!> '21531
X 2X2 2X I ""', .

10.!j!jXSX-}X5
6:l2-- 2 X 2X 3 = +;)1)

1)_=2x J(l.viX7.~x{I
~ :-; + ::: X 10.44x3x9.5
2x3 + 2 X 7.Sx7
2x2
.."XS
-
+-006
I .

~=2X to.l.":X53X9. 5 _ +'65.3

tJ. =2X 10.l,!.X15.15X9.5 +1O.5X31.5Xlt, ~.28.15.9
1/, 2x3 2xt'
A" =2x 10,4/.X5X3 .L52.2
"".1' 2x3 T

2X 10.M.x4.5x9.5 _+148.77
3p- 2X:l
Substituting ~ho$l~ values into the above system 01 l.Iquatiolls W'l ohlnln
2253.1X 1 -=> -2835.9
58X t +'G5.3X3 = -52.2
+
165.3X2 709.6X 3= -1";$.i7
Tllll sulution uf th"sl) equations rields
X. __ I.2-5~: X1 =-O.900=-0.!I: Xl=O
Tllo IM'm!illg 1Il0me-nts at dlltt'ront cross St'C~iou~ uf the. struetm'l' will be
.\1 ~~ ... ..L 1.25!1 X 7,5.- +
9.44 ton_metre.'!
'''~,\ = --;-1.2';9 X 10.5+0.D X 5_1,.5 -\5.75-= -2.~'i tOIl-l1lctres
MM" _'1.2S9x 10.5+ 0.9 X5_<4.S-!-IS.i5= +2.~3 tOIl-ml:!lrf~
M 1l5 = -L2.5!)X7.:i= ~9.1,." ton-mlltrl!S

N~1- -1.259 X 21 +:11.5_ +5.06 ton_metI'1'3

Thl.l "1nl" b~nding mOml)rlts llould be obtained u~in8 the llrtocodurt, adopted
ill Ihe pnwious problem, that is rnnlllplyinll (!Ill ordinates to the unit gr"Jlhs
by the mllgnitudcs of thll appropriate unknowns anll thell sllml!lillg up all
~ This m,~ans that the ordinates to the M, diagrnm will he multiplied
by (-1.259) aul! tho$!! to 1he !l12 diagram b>' (-0.9).
 7.12. SCllfml Pr!l&lem~ in Slre~s A/llllvsis 01 Redundant Frame.' 565

tbeoo ordillutes logcJther with tho ord[llllto-~ to the diagram due to th,' ne,Lw,l
loadilll;.
'J'hl,n>~ulling honding mom,mt f\[n$r~m is g[vl'n in Fig. 37.12.
C'A.'ttaill _~iml'lifjcaliolls ",-,!lId loo Introduced in the above ~,,)ulpulalinlls
011 the fnlluwiug grounds. When tile givCJL struCLlIl'(l ur Fig. :H.1Z11 is aelL'<i
upon hy two sj'lllTnotrical horhouhl forCe8 /(5 l\hown in fig. 36.12a "Im)" 'he
illdin~'{t mell\\>(lrs will work ill dil'l~t. ~u",p,~siun. all other mcmlx'rs r"mainlIJg
idle .
For lhis reason the bending moment diagram fl\Ul to Lho singlc loail will
Ill, L'xadly tile ",~m" liS the une producod by the uppJicotion of its iI."lisynnnctri~1
el.,nl)nnent~. 11 follows thuL lhe horitOll!ul reaclilms at the ~UPPOl'ts uf tho I,ll",

Fig. .97.12

,-,utside coluTnuS nllJ~t Ill' equlll both in value and in direttion. whitll means
that X! -.- O. l'roviollsly Wl' 11ln', nrriv<,d at Ihe samecondusion at theoukome
of r"lhcr I"horioll~ caklllntioll~.
The symmetrical CUl!lPO!lCllt~ of rt\rr,l~ P will [>r'ilvukQ nu IJcnding at joiat j .
Ifflwever. \\'fl have found pnwlou$l}' Ihill tlu> b"/lillng m(jfnl'!Ir..~ in Llil' ndjacl'llt
cro.~~ ~eelioilll of the inclined memhcr,:, duo to the "ntisymrnetL'icul C'llllp<>IICIlt.,
equal -4.5 tOII-m"tre~ (f'ig. 3tl.12,l). These Ulomr;ut.~ must be halance" hy the
mon'l'nt~ iJlducl\,J b~' the redundllnt reactiol\.~. Of these only ;'\2 lInd X 3 can
giVll ri"l' to Lendinr: in the inclined ruomh"rs irrunOOil<lely to the Jelt and to the
right of joint 5. C"n'!l-"quently, the bendiug moment<l inducerl hy hr,th o( the~
r'l'actions Ilt tho Cl'llSS $CCt[on.~ just mentioned must equal 4.5 ton-metres. And
~illCll X! _ U we mllY write that -5X 2 .... -\- t,.5 whcrl'frolLl

"
~'---5---
-4.5 C'I
.. ton
In Lilo abo"e equation tlL!.' cocflicic_nt (-5) to the unknown X 2 l'Cprc.""nt.,
Ill(> ""Ioe "f I.ho ]"mding IDllIJ",nt at Lhe cr(X'!~ ~ection untler r."n~i,l(',"tif)n due
~o a unit lo"d foJlowiug the direction 01 X 2 (soo ~'ig. 35.J21. Thll~. out of Ilu'(l(l

+
.. 'This i~ easily pro"ed br the introducti<.lll of imagillury hillge9 Ul j<li"t~
<1 and 6 Slid bv the elimInation o[ the !lllrizont3J constraint at joint 2. Tbo
applir,ation of t"he "ymTnetriclll COllllt'ml'nts will produce no bending in any
member of thn taUl'r ~tr\rcture. Therefore, 1111 tlte ire" LCru19 01 the canllnical
eQullHon~ becollle nil. which reqnires thHl all !.he re:lction~ of the rodundant
COl1~traint~ should be l'llually nil.
56' Analysl' of Highly R~d..."dant $trw:;lu!el

',~-X,
ne. 38.12

..I: ,,1
"CY2X~"-'~
10'
I"

Id'

XS' ! X,s"

I"
Pig. 39.12
 1.12. Sflnrlll Prcbl~m, in Stru, Anlll",1I of Rfdu.n.dollt Frllmu 5G7

unknowns two may IItl detennined oil IUUld leaving only one unknown X I' This
",111 requiro the COlnputation of two displaeenlenLs~" and ~jp and the solution
01 OM equation with ono unknown. The abo ...o elI:llmpl& sliD'" that In cer~ln
~ qulw. compliGlltoo problems can he soll'ed vuy .'limply.

Probl.nl 4. HequirOO. tho $b"C$!l diagrallUl for both vortical Ilnd horiwntal
membor~ or 11 ~breo-span highway bridge acbemalleaUy roprCilCntod In Pig. 38.t24
CIlrryiJ1g 011 Ibe first. two :!plllll a unUGmlly distributed laad 01 l.hroe tons per
motN.
Solllrlon. The aim pie st.tiea11y det.ennlna~ structure to be adopted bllldi-
uted In Fig. 38.12.h. Thu bendIng mOUlent diagram.'! du& to unit raaclloM 11&
Jt!m

~
.-

"" -" (b}

Fir. 40.12

gh-Qn in ~ig. 39.12. 'I'h..._diagrams duo to the symmctrk.al:tnd lInti$yuunet ri eal

enmpollcnU of the Ildualluad$ are representell in Fig. 4O.t2 . An examinlltlon
of till abovementioned !l1',\dLng moment diagrlllIls loads immediately to the
eonelui!oion Iht

Tho reph,c...ment of the Ilctud 10lldlng by ita symmotrical Il.Dd antisym-

mctdllal GOlllPUP(:IlLS will entail ITI ~be pro:sent C!lSO h:Udly any Simplification
lit all.
 A""l_'Ilh 01 Hlghlif RtdUlld""t Strllclurr&

C"II~~(IUt'lIUy, t.h ... fi~'c 9ill1ul~alleous eqlln~i<lII~ will ~(lbdi~'i(lo into ~wo
i",IL'p"'udenl systllm~, nUll cOJltainlllj hw (>{luatioll~ and tho ,,~h"r t,hr~e.
TIll' first s)'s\elll will cOl\l-Ilin l>n y "nkn(!wn~ with symrnelrieaL di>lgrom3
XIr.1l+X~11+X~r.,,_ -tl. lp
X 1t\21~X2622+X~02.l~ -tl.1p
X 10 41 X~42+X,r.U=- -d~I' +
"lid tho S1'Cond only lho llnllsymmetricaL Olles
X30:IJ+X~635'" -.6.3p
X~r.3+XG6M=-A~p
Lct 1I~ proceed with lue clllculalion 01 all He displacements lOssuminl;
tha~ B/l=1 t'm sI} m
, 2 OXflX6 + 16x\)X9 ''''8
1\"-" X 2X1.5 1\ ""'T ....'

, _+2 ~9xt + 16X9X1 _+90

11 x 2Xi.5 1\
61~- _ J6 X Oxl2 _ _1\32

'_+2 9XJX1+ WxlxJ

"
~ X 1.5 4
(12\= 16xl X I2,=_48

'_+2 "
12XJ2X8 +lGX'12X12_ '900
~~ X 2x3 <{ T

, +2 9XIXt+ 2 8XIX2/3 +133'U

3:\- X 1.5 2xIi - .,.
8xlx8
0::,,_ -2X 2X-i ... -lfl

6 ~'2 J2Xt2X8+2X8XJ2XIl~+57ii
M. T X 2x~ 2Xl\
, I p.- + (16XI08 2/3xl6x\)lii:J
... -+,1581

'-'2/'=
+ (to X 108-2/3 X 16 x (6) I
4. ..."
+ ,",.
,
3p-
+2x8xtOHx2/3
2Xlo -
+", J

J2Xll.!axR + 2X2/3X12X27X6
:lXE ~
(Hi X HIll -2/3 X 16 X 9(;) 12
... _I,,7H'I

a =-2 12Xt(Ji)X8+ 2 2j3XI2X27X(;

" 8XlOaxR __ 1\3:YJ
!p X 2x3 x 2 x 2 Xl, '
3
 (nlnKllldJlI( till's!' \,31\1':'$ in the t'qlwLinns givon ..ho,'!, we "btain
r,48Xt+90X~-"32X.--1,~84
!)QX, +16X~-/18X._ -17(;
_'o3ZX\_48X z+l16OX ,= +1,,7U/,
13.333X3-U;X~= -144
-16X3+576X~. __ +',,320
Dividing all tile h'rms of t1111 first l''luation by 18, of tho 8l'Clllld I>v t,
of thl' Uli,,1 hy 1,8, of the fourth bj' 813 and of lIl1' firtlL Iby Hi, we lint!
3(;X 1 +5X 2-2U",,= -88
45X I +8X 2-24X..... -Sli
-!lX 1 -Xa+20X.- +08
5X3-fjX~- -5'.
-X3 +36X5 ..,270
'I'hll solutioJl 01 thcso oojuntlous }'ields
.1'1=+2.145 tons
X 1 "" -6.435 1011-mctrc~
X 3"" -1.862 ton-metres
X,= +5.51,3 tons
Xs"" _7.4..iS lOll'
In ord"r In finu Lho ordinal"!, to '(.,0 diagram of the resulting l>!lndillg mOlllent"
/\Cling along the membeffl 01 thl' re,hlll'!,mt structure wc way now ad,l tlw ol'(li-
n(J,tc~ to the uuiL graph, multiplied by the vl,Luo 01 the correspondIng unknown

Fig. <11.12

to ~Ilo&' of ~he bendlnll moment dillgcam due 10 the ~ctualloadinll. ThIs re;ult--
ing lKJ"di"g moment diag."um is r0l'rl'Sl'nlod In Fi~" 41.12.
As [or the Slll.'llrlng forces, iml)looi8lloll' la Ihe flgb~ of t"o left IIhutmcnt
we haVe
3X12 6O.ft
QH=-'--12-12.99 ~onll
570 AnlllyslJ 0/ HIr;1l111 R~dund4nt Str~l!lru

In ~he deck member to the left of joint ~ wo find

Q'-J- -- ~"i1 __ 23.01 toos

and to the ril/bt or tb. 5aroo joiot
3X t6+71.12-37.~ '6 to
Q~--,- 16 = . tons
Continuing In the 9Ille ""ay we shaD obt.ain all the data nec~r)' [or the
(onstructlon of the J;h8llr diagram repreMoted in fig. -I2.12a. This diagMllD

PI,. 11.12

will Ill'rmit the eonslruetion of Ibo ditgrllm Cor DOMal 5t.c~ aiven in
Fig. 42.12b.
[n order to nnd the position of tho muiroum bonding moments ll't us deter-
mine tho JXliDUw~e lIhuting fon::es reduc.fI to UfO: X,'" ti.~ .. 4.33 1D8-

trMan<! X: = ~:~O = 8.70 metl"l's (Vir. 42.124).

Th, bending roaments at thOM cross Il8CtiOll.5 will amount to
for the span $-4;
4.331
M "",,._ t2.9!lx 4.33-3.0 X --,--28.12 l.oll-mell'1l$

for IIit> spall I.J

870:
12 +U.tOx 8.70-3.0XT-~2.41 ton-metrU
The roaetions at Iha supports aro as (allows
A I =+49.tt tOilS; At_+23.S1 tons
A 3 - +12.99 tons; .-4- -1.9\ tons
 7.12. Stuercl Pr~bltm$ in Stnu Analgrt, 0/ Rutandcnt Frames 57L

The Hlue~ 01 rcacliOflS Aa lInd Aa Ulay be easily cbeeked r<.'Ulcmbcrillg

that
Aa=X,+ X.~= +5.,')43+ 7.448= +12.99 Ions
A e - X ~-X5= +5.543-7.41,8 ... -1.9\ tOll~

Problem 5. Rc~uircd lho hcnd[n~ moment diagnUJlS for oil t110 members
of tho franle given In Fig. 43.12. ThIs fra.w.o is redundant to Uw sinh d('gl'lle
and tho nexural rigidity 01 all its members is the same.
Solulfo'l. Lol us adopt the simple st/ltk....d ly r1eterminate structure Mown
in Fig. 44.12 Ilnd let us subdivide all the unknowns In two IIrQul's, tho first

p
" P

P.ol

PH p.t,t !i.. ~
.
"
~;
T,
t" f"'x,
J l.4m
I',
'--'"
'--",
I ""
~
,.n,
Fig. 43.12 Fig. d4.12

t,l)nlaining only the allti~ymme~ricnl ones X" X 1 and X, . .~nd tho oocond
containing all the si'mmetrical one~ X 4' Xs and Xa' Since th(l sySt<'llI "f ]va(h!
..cting On the frama 1.$ anlisymmatricd itsell only the anl,is~'mmeLl"iuaLunkn""ms
will differ from 1cro (sec Art. 3.12). It follows tllot the gh'en problem ean 110
solvod I.slng one system of throo simultanoous equations witb three unknO\\'JlS
only
XI{ll1+X~I:+XIJI~+AIP=O
X l{lzl +t'z{lu+X ~2!+ 6 2/1-0
+ +
XI{l~1 X 1632 XIJ33+ t. 3P =0
In order to obtaiu the values of all the frea ternls and the coefficients to Lh(\
unknowns we must construct the bending moment diagrams due !loth to th(l
alitisymmctriclll unknuwllll and to tha aclual Loads applied to the conjugllt(\
simple structure (Fig. 45.12). The multiplication of the graphs will b(\ carried
out using Vereshchagin's mothod, all tbe bending moment t1ial:rams being
bounded bj' straight l1nos. We shaH also ~ssume that EJ = 1 ton &I m. Hence
5x5 2x5 5 ,
6 11 =2-,- X -3-+6(2 X 5:,2 X 8:+2 X 5 x8) 2+
16x8x2
+ 2X3 x:l6_1,19I;
4X5 2
022--,- X "'3 X 4 X 2+8 X 8 X 8_565.3
 ,lnlllll'i' Dj Hi~JIIIJ Rttlundlull $tnu:t",re'

6;u=t X 5X I x4+2 x 8 X 2 ... 52

2x5 16x8
6\2- --G-l2X4X8+5XI\1--,-X8--6S2
5 8xl6
6 u -1.5x yX 2+ 1 X 5x 6.5X 2+-,- =218

6-.11= '"
-~2-X t x2-8x8x2_ -148

The dbplll(l!lTl~nb iliduetd in tbe !Implt stl'llClU~ by the actual Io.ds

.. Ill he "bl.aill!'d in a similar ....y
A1p -2 X5{6 (2 x8x 12+5x t2)+816 (2 X IGx 2-l._16x 72) __ 92
12x5 2 (72-2<1) ,
,l.2P"--,-xTx4X2+8X8x 2 _1.316
12 X 5
<1 31' ""----r X 1 X 2-2 X8X 24=-324

Tb\) .bove vnl""s may be ehec.ked using thll summary bl!lIdlug mOm~l1t
dingram dllll lo Iho shnull8neOll! application of all toe unit reactlOll! a:iv~n

Fig. 45.12

in ViI;'. 1\6.12. Let us see whetlwr conditlOQ (11.12) Is fulfilled

~l\ .. 6 11 +6::2+b:u+2 ("It HIJ+6231
L6 _l,196+51;'l.3+ 52 + 2 (_652 + 218-148) =G!.9.a
 6.=2; -s-
At the UIlK" tlmf'
2x5
d. .... -,-l2Xl'+2XS'+2xtx6)
M:U f.

+ /2 x 6 + z)( 5~+2 x6x 5l+R.~ it x tn: ....

1

+2x6'-2x6x IO) ..... IHII.3 .... ~b

CooH"quentl}', ,,11 tho coefficil'Il~~ to the ullkuo.....ns anl Ifreet. Chl.'f'k
ill the Mme W~)' tht' diSIJI1Ict'm(,Qt5 duo to the "pplifd 10,,1, Il-,iull' O'Illrp,s

Fi/:. 411.11

lSion (13.12)
!6 ... 41p+A~p+AJP_-9'.!+{,31i1-32<1_960
- d,2x5
4.,._1: M""1~V-,-{2X5X12+6x 12)+
S
+8/6 (2 x lOX 2<1.+2 X 6X 72-10 x 72-6 X2f,l_OOO_l:A
Having made suro that 11,11 tbe 0J>l'rations cnrrioo out thus hr nrll correct,
Wll may lntrodUCll Ihe VIII,1Cl; of tlie displacement' into the S)'SI"Ul or (our
almull:meoU! {'<llllllions
1.I96X l-652Xz +2t8X s ",,9:!
- f>52X 1+ 5G5.3Xz- l-{SA',_ t,316
218X t - t48X,+S2X,_324
Upon simplifica.tlon theso I'qultioRS beoeome
+
5'l6X I -326X1 t09X,_'6
_S'16X I +283X:-7<1X,=688
I09X,-7U:+2tiX,_ 162
Their solution will be carried out In U1bulat I<'Itm using the IIbbte'lh.too
method a~ indiUllcd bereund(\r.
Solving t>qulIlio" (Ill) w" oht"ill
4.1.\'~_Gt..i; X 3 -t<i.!I7 toll-mell\'!l
Tberell[ter [rom IJqulllion (11)
100X 2-1S X i4.97_ -663; X2- -4.2.'H lnns
574 Analysis of Highly Redundant Structures

Table 3.12

Equation
No x, x, )lultlpllers (tlli- s K

(I) 5Cl8 -3.2(; 10D O:j2=0.546 381 46

ct13= -0.182

(2) 283 -74 -117 -()SS

(I) a" -177 208
" 25

(11) 01 l-e(l3
I
(:-l) I 2{J I GJ 1(;.2
{I).alJ
(Ill o.:z.~
-H).8
-2.1 I
-oD
12.7
5 -8.
-~13
'.
I
(Ill)

:1lJ(! fuwJly frlJm equation (ll

1"'I 1 "'I 61.4

598X 1+32llX 4.237+109 X 1<l.97=46: X j = -4.961 tons

III order to mllke sure that the fOOlS of the equations are correct let us
introducp thc!n into one of the simultu/leOllS equations, say, the third ono *
-/1.9tH X 109+4.237 X 74+ 14.97 X 26-162 = 0.009 ~ 0
It l'C'mnins now to multiply the ordinates to each of the unit bend'ing momont
graph~ hy the magnitude of the corresponding J'edundant reaction us shown.

zs. 94 H,!}?

J
h2J7"/ "z.nf 1/,. fl7
Fig. 47.12

in Fig. {,7.I2 find to add all of these ordhlatos together with those to the bend-
ing mOlllent' diagram due to the applied loads (~e Fig, ~5.12). The ordinates.

* It is moro advisable to substitute theso roots into nil of tho simultaneous
oquaLions.
 57."

silullltd to tho right Ind below the corrosponding memloel"5 will be reckoned
poslllve
1If 1Z - _14.97
M 2\ = - 14.97 +2~.80= 9.83
"'.12""- _14.97 _16.9';'+33.69_ IZ_OO_ -1,.23
+ +
At M= 2!J.94 33.90 _19.38 24.00_ 8.4C
Mu _29.94+33.90_12.00_ -8.1(;
Tbe ordil'lIlt~ 10 tho .&SUltlng bcndinl moment diagram will 00 ,!Iotted
on the side of th~ more extended n"res (Fig. 48.12).

Fig. ~8.12

Upon comple~ioll of this diagram it is IlK.t!sary to chKk the accuracy

tberoo(;
(1) ChHk the equilibrium of joint' (Fig. 49.t2)
t,ll,_ -4.23-4.23+8.46_0
(2) Check ""!lethM the algebraic ~\Im 01 R:TIIJlh areas aiong a cl~d CUIII"II!'"
equals 7.9ro. This Is carried out bearing in mind Ihal the rigldit~ of all olnnen~s
of contour l-t-34 remains constant and ,tckonillll positivI.' the pllrt..~ of till'
areas situated ouLside of thn contour
t4.97-9.83S
2 X
'+ 4.23-9.835
2: X
'+ 8.46-8.1~
2
, .~ 0
x =-".""'" ""

8.12. STA1'Ir:ALLY INDETERMINATE TRUSSES

By sta.tlcally indeterminale trusses we rnel\n suc.h goometriclllly

stable hingc-eollllcct.od fcnmcd struct\lres for wlLich neither the
stresses. nor the reactions can be found without the knowledr:o of
the deOel:tions sustaiued.
Each Slatically indeterminate lru!!S (liS well as any other redun-
dant stnlcture) lIlay be transformed into a simple stAtically deLer-
minate ouo by the elimination o{ the redundant cen~tr:lint~ pro-
576 _ _ _---'A~"~aIV.iA 0/ J1ltlll~ rrtd.lIlll.allt SlrIlCI,""',. _

\"idcd such consLrlliol5 are nol. indispcnsllbl0 from the viewpoint

or the slabilil)' of that structure.
The number or e1iminalell constraints wilt alwlI}'s represent the
degree of redundancy o( the Lru.'JS under cousidemtiolJ. HOlhmd"nl
tru~ may be slalically inde\Crlninol.c both inlrr1l411y and ~x
tnnolly jll.!L 1\5 the framed structures ....ith rigid joint.>! l:Itndi~ in
previous articles. hI the first C3.!ltl the constraints at the supports

FIg. 50.1t

arc ill~uch It numl~r that thtlir roll.l:tions may not be IICllueed from
statical cOIl"idl.lfations nIOH!!, while in Lho 1!ec.(.ud ca:;e. thcrodlllldnnt
(~onstraiI\Ls are inh('rent to tile truss itselt.
Fig. 50.12 l"tlprosents II ll'Ul:I~ redundant in thll first degree for
which only die rcadiorl5 at the supports are staticnlly inclott!rll\i-
llotO. 'fhi~ truss may be c,ollsidored as tlxtcrrllll1y redllllllant if olle

FI~. SI. Tt

of the v~rtic..lll supporting har!! is ~ganll!d as forllling the rcdundllnt

cOllstraint. If On the contrary it WIll'8 lI.l'!sumoo that thi~ redundant
constraint ill constituted by 0110 of the lower chord members, the
I nl!S will become intm:nally redundant. Fig. 5f. 12 represenLs :lOo\h-
or slatically indeterminate trtCl! which i,' c.:tternally staUcaUy
detorminate but internally redundant to tht: eighth dcgl'l'6.
Af'. already stated in Art. f .9, onc of the most esselltial pecllliar-
Hies IIf redundant strllctu~s resides in that the slrtsSt.'s devolofled
in thcir nlClllbers depend 011 Ule CI"O!!S-!cctiOllnl dimt:n."'ionii and
1('ngLhs of these members. When dif!l'ront matcrialf': arc IL"'Cd, the
stro.<;a distribution becomes also Il (unction of the modu'li of lllas-
ticiLy of these materials. III a(ldition, redundant structures tire
subjected to secondary stre~~lI dno to erection defects, movement
of supports, temperature !llr~ins, ete .. which makes them less de-
 8.12. Still/call" Indtltrminll/t Truuts 577

sil'3.blo 111<111 st"Lil~al1y d~l.V'minale ooes, as the latter arl' ahsolutdy

lIullffcett'<! by all the above mentioned fnctors.
011 Iht' other hllnd, staliclllly inrlett.. rminale lzus!'c.'l 1In.' endowed
cqllldl~' with certain advant3f!'Cs. ThlL,. C(Jn\iulIoU$ Irl1S.'Jl#; provide
lIetler roJlinR conditions for trains passitll: over rllilway hridlrt'S ror
their l'1;c1tic lill6 will pre--8Cnt no peaks at the supports i'Juc!l al.'!; exist
nect.'SSarily in the elastic lines of a St<rios of statically dotcrlOinato
trtl9Sl.'5. Accordingly, traJns passing over these sUPI)()rLs will reel
no shocks fir bumps. In addition. a continuous truss will always
rt'quire leM /IHI.tc-rial ror its cnnstructiun than a seri{'S of st...'l.Lically
d('wrrlllnale tru.sse." co\'eriug the same span.
Continuous InlSSCS tire also simpler to build tban tlie stalic:ally
determinate onl'S, ror the elimination of redundant constr&illt~ re-
qu.ires the introductioll of special hinges which are \ISlIillly rnU1l'r
COTnI,licatecl.
The ~u'('.ss analysis of rcdmldant structures OOCOJllI!S more and
mun' cOlllplicated with thtl incr('/}~ in the number of redundant
l:onstraillts.
III Art. 1.9 it was showu that the stresses or rcH.ction~ de\'ll]O(k\d
by the n('<:cs~ary constraints con IlIWllYS 00 delermined on the basif1
01 equilihrium consideration, while those of the redundant l;f'ln-
!!lraillts (nil bo J:ocnpuled only if the doDections of the sll'lIclurc are
kllOWll. It rollews that cross-sccLiollal nreas of the necessary member!!
or redundant trusses may be !Il;llcct.cd in exactly the same way ClS
for the staLically det.erroinnttl ones. the stresses in these menlhcrs
being independellt of thoir rigidity_ As for the redUlulant nH~lIlbcrs,
thtlir cross SCCLiOllS m\l!lt be chosen in such a way thnt.thc unit stl'l'l8...'"Cft
developed therein should he 3:i clo$ltl as possible lo the permi~ible
onl'S for that part.icl.llnr material.
In ordp.-r to arriyc at t.his result tho following procedure may !le
l"Cllommended: eliminate in tbe first instan~ all the redl.lOdant
lUl'rollers of the ~ converting it into a statically determinate
s)'sl~m which will be thereafter regarded as constituting the ('fm-
jugal" limple .slnlc1.\lro. The cros.s-!tlCtional dimen",ions ror all the
IlIl'mlwrs of the latter structure will then be computed in the tlSlull
\\'IIY. If !.he trmss is subjected to moving loads, influen('e Jin~s will
Ill' uftCfl.
The ('ross-sect.ional dimensions 01 the necessary members having
OC"C1l found. chuose more or less arbitrarily the cross--S('c~ional di-
or
Illen.<:.ions aB the redundant members of the trllSS "ncl tllllll
roralClllate all the stress~ using any or the methods peculiar to
redulIdant structures. 11 the unit stresses thus oLtninod r1iffer
liulJstantially from the allowable ones, th.o cross_scc.tional areas
lIlust he correctoo accnrdingly and the struct.ure should I.IC recal-
clllll.ted again.
:1j-$r,S
 5,.
Approximate values of stros.."Cs developed iu members of 5\oti-
cally Indeterminate trusses may he obtained comparing lhllS6 trus-
ses with solid web beams covering the sarno number of span!' ami
supporting the same loads.
Thus, the continuous truss shown in l<~ig. 52.12 could b~ roplfICcd
in the (jrst LlIlllanr.c by a solitl wob continuou:s b('llm re.9ling 011 four
supporLs for wlJich the bending moment and shear diagr<1lll.'! could
be easily ubL'\illl'd using one of the methods deseriood in Cnaptor 10.
Thereafter the stresses developed in both chords could be obtained

FI,. 62.12

dividing ~ht corresponding ordinates t.o UIO bending mOffitlllt di:l,~

gram by the lever arm of the stress under considl'rSlliOIl about. tbe
approprialc joint. Tho stresses existing i.o tbe verticals alld diago-
nals will b6 obtained in a similor way using the "bt>nf diagram .
.'\. similar procedure can be used for ostimaling stresses dcvelopod
in n.... luudanl trussed arches.
The accuracy of 8trc~SC5 acting in members of redundant trllssml
is controlled in the same way 88 in the case of redundant ~tructu"'S
with rigid joints such as portal and building frames, etc. Olle In list
make sure that a Il the joillls a nd portions of the truss are in cqu ilihrilllrl
ann thnt the deflections of th.e system arc cOllsisk'nt with the sti-
pulatiolls of the problem. Thus, for inslance, all the donections at
the supporls musL ~ found nil.
Problem. Delenninelhe st~ in all thll membel'$ of Ion. timo slalklllly
indet.nnin:llll 1nl" rep~nted in rig. 5S.n. The tlU5lI crries fi\"~ toncell-
T

p
, ,,p p
d
p
,
p
m "
" TT
1".0171
0

Fi,. .~8.12
lratt,lloads of Illn lon~ olch. All the member$ "r tbllllruss re of the ~m. cross
l\ffli"".
 57~1

S olurtllPl. If ~'e :t..OSUillC th'lt till! V('I'I kill at miihpan r,(lro~it utes the redun,lant
membH, we Ulay adopt as conjugate ~implll Mru(ture tilt one SlOwn in rill: M.12.
1

X,"
,, ,
h

11
Fit 51.12

The unIUlo"'-n X. will r/.'pl't.'5ent tbe MrtM develo~ in we nr',re!aid \"/.'rtiCllI.

--='""
In tbi-- Ct!!ll' the canonical equation becomes

.\'\6 11 +1'i1,,_0 whl'rtfrorn X,

Both ilenKtiolls6,. and 1'i ,p wlll ho dotllrrulned using Iwo M8' .... ell-Cr/.'monll
(liagrl'm~,Due of whkh wHI he conslructed for lho aeUm} loads and the nlho.

I
, p

''' ,
' I
i ,
"- ,, "- d
, ,,
, 1/
m
/
, II
,
1/ f I S
P
F.f. 55.12 Fl~. 56.12

for thl" Ullit load X. = 1 (Figs. 55.12 .Ind 56,t2, rt!$perli\'I!})). The valuN
of th~ deflections .Ire gh'I"O by
~ N1Nl'S
1I 11 - ! EF :uxl ,),1)'-1: Br
wbcl"(' S .ep~nts the I/.'ugtb of eKb mmlbt.>r.
All tbe computatioll! ",;11 bo carriod out in tabul.. form as imliCHdl here--
under 1_ T.IoIt> 4.12). Summing up all tl'eentrir.lIuf COhUlUIS 5 and I;, Toe obuln
EP6 u "",24(YJ.12; F.FIJ.,p_ -151i!IG.tl
It folio",'! thal
156911.0
X'-+240.t.12-6,53 to,IlS
:)tl1'$S.s in 1I1J till) other mero1)(lrs eRn bt 'dctc"ninl'd cllsi]y using tho
cxprt!~h!ll
 , ,
~,No I Unr
1~.Jlb
S, n,
Slr~~.

'''".
~.
Sir,,"
N,.
'o~
xIs "'"NlS
--,\ I.t I. fV_.\'I
t ..... s
To'" ,,,.....

",RI
+,~', .r"

(~,

( I,
;. :lI."t7
e\.Io~
u
'J
--S~,

~iUI.,'i
~.2
SO. I
0
0
-2:1.4
-21.9 -2' ,
-~.-1.

J< 1,."rl5 0 -3.05 3i.7 0 -19.9 -19.'J

(~d li.lXo~ 0 -3.0~ 37.7 0 -1f1.9 -1H.D
I ~, ,\.(,7 0 -3.: 50 ~ 1 -21.1 -:l1.!J
( ~I S.207 0 -:i.9 3i.2 "u -25.'i -:::~.4

...
o~,

c-k
~.((l

'.00
U_.1
-3."i.:i
-53.5
-r.O.O
6.33
'~33
9.00
too.3
278.0
324.11
-!m
-1782
_2100
-il.3
MA
~.8 _1.2
8.1\
11.1

d~1 '.00 -1JI1.O '.00 324.0 -21.;0 5lS.lJ -1.2

'.00 .s.U
,.p
,~.

" .(l(l
-MU
-3.1.a
8.33
r..33
278.0
l(jl).3
-2/1:\2
-8'0'0 4l.R
00
8.0
Il-JI ,~,uu 33.:'1 -3.33 ~4A -41f1 -21.7 11.6
"If U:~I 5:i.5 -5.33 114.0 -I tto" -:l~.8 18.7
m-I/ \.00 53.5 -5.33 lIoLQ -1 141) -3" t8.7
~/(
,_11 i. (Ill
'.00
33~'
'1.5
-3.33
-4.15 .."'.4, -'-,,,
--861
-21. i
-21.1
11 6
H.4
,~h
,~,

I-m
5.f(l
500
,j,UO
. ,
:t:i.O

8.'
-2.5
-0.83
-<>.8'
31.2
3.5
3.f'
-31Z.5 -18.3
--3.\.5 -a..i
-3-i.a -.:i. 4
. 7
2.!J
2.\1
"'Q
p-Il
,-,
'.00
5.00
:1.00
25.0
Iol.5
-25.u
-2.5
-{.tll
2.5
;}1.2
8fl.f1
18.8
-312.5 _If. :"
-8(\1
_187.3
-2;.1
Hi.a
"
1'0 . 1
_$.7
3.00 -15.0 6.7 -67.5 9. -!i.2
,-,
11
3.110 -ltl.O
1.5
'U ,~O -all.O G.5 -a.5
m. 3.U) -15.0 1.5 6.7 -67.5 tt.8 -5.2
op 3.00 -:t).{l 2.5 18.8 -187.r. 16.3 -8.7
b-, :l.3J
:i.:la ,
0 '0
'0
3.33
5.33
0
0
ti.5
IL5
(;.5
I;.fo
11.:>
n.s
,_d 6.00 0 1.0 It 00 0
d~ 5.33 0 LU !i.~3 0 l'.f. 6.5
~I a.a:1 0 '0 3~33 0 6~' 6.5

, - - - "",,,1-,,696 - -
 The value~ of X, oblolined ill l.his \\'H~' shl>lIhl be l'lllered inl(l (UIUl,fl" 7 oi 'fah..
l;! 4.12. Adding the m~gJlit\lde of Ihffil.' slrc>,&!s t(l thvso induced ill the ~impJe
strudum I,y tlol' Holuol loalls (tllo "alues ollljf~iO sIres,,,, IIro giVI)H io c"lumn 3)
we slldl obL~in Lho LOIHl S["'>SS/!S dcvl.'l"f>!'d in all the mC'mhor!l o[ th" rlodundllllt
truss. These stres.'le~ a~ rcprlls<,nl<'d in Cnl\Ullll 8.
In the c~se or stre!>..<t's due In tCUllll.'n,Lure changes tbe concnieal equation
inr a one time stlltic.allr ind"'L<!nllln"t" strnctllrl' will hccom..,
:x l0ll +.llt =0 ... hot(' 6 1,,,, aEN,tS
wbero a. .,.,. codlici(,llt of thermal l.'XIlHusioll
t .... ternperlllUI'O change in degrees.
Let 1I~ study nliW the stres".('s ilHluee,1 ill Rll lJu. memJ,el'!l "f the S:"'HI t'"llS,
by HO cloction deft. AS"IlllW thllt Lho vortical mn has been madl:' (l unils longer
(or shu..lcrl thun "l.'quired, which Js (llluivulcnt tO:l thcnnal expiln~ion or coo-
Iruc1ioll uf thill ve"tie,al equal1lng" _ 11 te". ",-hile the values of '!It>rmlll t>"pan
~ion or con.raction for all oLlu,"r Irus,~ memhNs renlf'in nil. In thi~ ease Illo above
equal.ion bN::orncs
XIIlII+dll=O
6j/=a,vllS",-'vI(l
v;b~I'" RI is tllll ~Ll'cSS lmluc{'{l ill lilt.' Sflme vertical I1lIl h~' fl unit .rOTe\) XI'
Slr\,ss onalysis for t.russes of a higller degrNl of l"lldundancY call he carried
oul ill oxactly thc samll way. Hesort can hp madt> t.<J the grouping of unknowns
alul 10 '116 I'epla,'ement of the applied Loads by equivllJ,'nt 5)'ltlmt'tl'icll.L and
anlisyHllllelrical SYSU,lilS as de.<.cribed in tilt' preceding arLlcl,~.
An cxnmplc of influence line construction for ll. one time slaticlllly
ind... llJrluillatc tru~ hllS bocn giYen in ArL. 9.9.

9.12. COi\1l'l,'TATIQ8' OF STATICALLY I:'i"DE:TEIlMlI\'ATE

STnVCTURES WITH THE A10 OF SnU'Ll::fI
STnUCTUflES REDUNOAXT TO A J.OWEIl DI~GI\lm

Sil)1llltaneollS wl"tioll of ~.Vl'r3L equatiolls with stwt'rul unllnowns

may be avoidecl H Uw conjugate structul'C used is oue degrce lower
in tl'([lllldallCY thnll tnl) onc nll;,dY7.cd.
l'lw strl's.'> comput.ation of a sLructurn redundllnt ill till' nth II(lgrl'll
will reducD Lo Lho solution of Il single equation with one l1tlkllOWn if
the eonjugaLo simple structure Hsclf possesses (n - 1) redundant
c.,qstraints. J1li.:s single equation
XI~JI'-'''''IP ....,0
wilt show Hlllt tho displacement of the (n - i) l.imes statically
illdelerminll!e eOlljugate structUrtl alollg the dircdion 0[ the ad-
diHollllI constraint whof:O wadion e.quals Xl is nil.
fn the ahovil e,xpN.~ssioll 011 and .ll" ropms('lIt th,] uenections of
the (n - 'I) Hllll'S static,ally indeterminate structure along the di
rcction of this c:onslrninl ellll5e\1 h}' the llnit reaction Xl llnd by
tlle applied loads, rc~poctivoly.
582 ____--"-""","",,'-""'-"'':11",,',,','-""",",""",.,,",'':'-'8,'",,"C"""O""''--- _ --
Were Wl\ IQ adopt as simple conjugate .':ItruetuI't' the one obtained
through tIle elimination of two redundant con!!traillts. the simul-
taneous cqulltiollS wHl oocome
x 1611+ X~12 +tl.IP-O
+
X ,021 Xz"'Z"~+!Jzp""O
where 8 11 , 8 12 &ZII alld 6 zp are the d(lllcctioil~ of the (It - 2)
022' ,lIP
times staLically indoterminate conjugate structure due to the unit
for\Xls Xl aud X z and to the appHtJd loads. 'rhe displacement:< 1I
and .1 of thi!l conjugate structure will be easily obtained if tht) dia-
gralll~ of stOO:'lSOS (those lor the bending moments in the case of fra
mes with rigid jointll or those for normal stresses ill hinge-coDnectcd
Slructut"Cs) induced ill this structure by unit 1000ds acting aloof,: the
directions of the unknowns and by the applied loads are readily
available. Sucll diagrams (or .formulas permitting their COJlstruc~
tion) con be fonn(l very frtlquCHltly in special engincoring handbooks,
in whklt ease the Ilmount of comput.. tion work may be wduccd very
cOllside_fably. However, if the stress diagrams pertaiuinf; to the
structure adopted as a conjugate one are nonavai]abll', the procedure
dl!scribcd becomes useless.

Pn;>bll"m. CDIl~lnl<::t tltl' hending moment diagram for a framed slrudul'<!

rodUlldant iD the fourth degree giv()1l in Fig. 57.12 using tilt' ~t,reS8 tliagr31n~
p
a , d
, I
i
,.
"-
,. J"

,f b
'! ,
Fig. 'i7.12

llvailllhlt' {or the kllM frame of Pig. 58.12. All the members of the frame havE'
the -'-'lIDe rigid it) througlU>\lt.
Solutioll. Adollt the (hreo thaI'S slatically indetllonlllato system shuwn
in Fig. 5!l.12 liS a conjugato sirnpll! ~twct.url'. Thi~ syBhml is d'ltived from ~he
Riven ()1J~_ by eJimlnlltion of the right-hand support. The equation \!"prr.~,,,g
thut puillt d rt'mRin~ in place becomes
XI~ll+AIP=O

'rhe di~llacelflclll 6 11 will be obtained constructing the bending momenl

dlag"3m inl uce(l in the cunjugnte structure by toe unit loali X,. The cantilevrr
cd of this ~truetufe_ is 5~atlc~lly dclcTllIiunt.e and the cl iagram of bend ing mOllwnts
produced therein by Lhe IOld Xl ill trianlt\llar in shIpi' witb. maximum ordi-
al joint t. It foUo",s thd the Yid joint ,",'ill be Ic.led upun
nllte f'qllll t.<J I
,
I

la)
"" -, /

Fig. 58.1!!

b)' touplc 1i = I and the bending momen\ dlllgrero relative 10 portion .cb
of tbe ~'ruclure WIY therofoTt !If. obtained multIplying IU the ordinlte!! 10 Ih"

p
a ,

,
Fig. 59.12 Ffl. 60.12

diagram~ ~OWll in fill:. 58.1211 b)' 1. Sueh a dilWlll! b gh'en in Fill:. 60.12.
The ilm(lunt of displll'lIlent Ou is equal to the !KOnd p<lWl.'f of this diagram.
C~ing Vl.'r1'shchllKin', method we Oblllio

6 11 -1/3 [(1/4 )2+(1/2)1-114 X 112+ (112)'+(114l l - l ( l x 'H+llJ dJ - ~~

Tbt' ~me ~ult could be arrived .t hy tbe multlplication of the M.
g-r~ph (Fig. 60.12) b)' tbe Grllph of Fill. 61.12 due to tho llppliclltlon of a
ullit l<lllt! Xl to the alatlclIlly dctcnmnnto struehu'C lIhOWII in the BaIl'\('
figure
 l)isp]:teeHK'lIt j,lp will be found lOultlplying tl.... diagnm \If Fig. ~.l!n
hy tl,e dillgralll giv~1I ill ri,. 60.12
51'1 VPI
<1 11,,,, [ 1/12 ( -2 X 3r X 114-2x ~/. x Ill! 'r
5PI flP! ~Pl 1'1
+~x~~~xm-2xl~xl%+lX~X

~Pl PI )' ( PI
x'''~-d4 xJI2+
1if X 1{8 -1-"6 -2xffixl/2-:! x
/'1 1'1 1'1)] iil--
I Pl3
X gzX 1/4+ 1ir X IIIt+ sr X 1;2 -641;1

The ~"mo r~~ult c,-,uld be achieve.1 u!ing tile diagram.! of Fig~. 58.I:!,.

Fjl. 61.1Z n~. Gt.}:!

JP!
m

Fie, (j,U2

:\Ild 61.12

It. 1p
Pi PI)
= ( -16+"32 Z"EJ--64E1
I I pp

or cl.. thoSl' of firs. 60.12 and 62.12 (_ Art. 7.9)

1'111 1 PIs
6\p =-7 x"2 X"2 (l{8 X 1/3-l/4 X 2/3) J!,J- -fAEJ
 W.]:!. In!lutnce Li,U l40dclJ for Co,l/inuoul Beams 585

Th" introducti,)Il or the value~ of 6" \lnd 0. 11' into the equ(ltioll giw,'1l
~bavE')'Ir!ds
,1,tp Pl3,24EI 3
}( 1 - -6;7--1;.\1.1113 -BB P
The resuhlng bending moment diaguru for the given redundant strurtlll't'
will be obtained QS usually mu(ti]J]yinlC \Ill the ordina\.E's to the .1;1 <1i(lgrum

/>1graph

Jlig. li1 12

]JJ' tht, magni~llde <or the vuknown XI jlls~ found equal to:S P (l'ig. 113,12~
thl'n,II[Il'l'lllldi"g thpSll nrdinales to tht>~e oI the Mp diagram of Fig. ;il).12".
llllu
Thl! linal diogram is shown in Fig. 6II.i2.

1O.t2. JNJo'LUENCE LINE .MODELS mR CONTINUOUS BEAMS

If the influence line for a continuous beam redundant to the nlh

degree weI1:l constructed using as conjugate stnlcture anothor COIl-
tinuous beam (11-1) times statically indeterminate, the rellctioJl of nth
constraint due to the load unity P could be derived frolll 1.lw ~qllatinn
X\6 11 +6 Ip =O
whence
, 61/1
};l=~""--
""
RepJilciug OlP by lip. we may write
XI=-~
On
'",
It will be remernbcrod tbat 6 pl givcn in the abovtl equation rep-
resents the ordinate to the deflection line ror 11 (n - 1) times sta-
ticalJy inlletermiTlate continuous beam due 10 tlte appliclltion of
a load unity acting :.lollg Lbe din:!clioll of X j, while 6 11 ma.y be ro-
garded os t.he scala factor permiUing the conversion or t.he rleRection
line to the influence liflo. This method of ironucnce line lollstruct.ion
we havtl namod the kinem.atic mtthod. It hlfllishes 11.11 Ilasy means

, 2
I' 3 t' ,
(a)

(b'
~
, J;; J; k Y
~

Shape (If In{luena ilM ftr Xt

of dtltermining the shape of \he influence lines for continuous beams,

this sbape being exactly the same as that or the del1ection line 6p1
which can be obtained at very little cost.
Fig. 65.12 shows the shape of the influence lines fOf support reac-
tions. for bendillg moments and shearing stresses pertaining to a
continuous beam resting 011 flvll supports. The sha()e of thew
luOutJ-ucc lines has beell determined praetically without nllY corn
putations lL'Iing the dellection lines clu~ to unit forces 3Pflliccl along
tbe eliminated redundallt "-'.actions. 'l'hilll, the influence !i,IC for the
left-end support n:action will be exactly of the same shapo 119 the
dcOcclion line of the continuous beam redundant in the sceond degree
(Fig. 65.12b) acted ILpon by a load unity X I_
This kinematic method provides very rapidly the shapt! ofthe
influence lilies which may be used as models when determining
those portions of coutilluous beams which s.hould be loadlld in order
to obtAin tll('. ext~me value!': of the SLtCSS<'s under consideration.
 13. SLOPE AND DEFLECTIONS.
COMBINED AND MIXED METHODS

'1.13. CHOICE OF UNKNOWNS

In thl! mt\thod of rOl'ces previously d~scriLed the unknowns rep-

t'escntl1d tllll rt13ctions (forr~s or moments) dO\'c[oped by the rcdllll~
dant eonstl'llints. When thc..."C unknowns were determined all t1w
stresses at any cross sectioll uf any member of the structure could
be easily clIlculatcll whereaftor the dcflec.tion~ and angular fllla-
tions could lIu obtained ill the usual way. Thus, in the above Jnl.\t.hod
wc ~ll1rted with the compnlation of str('.'!St"~ and reactio/lS procI'edmg
!hereafler to flu- determination of the rotations and deflections.
The saUle problem could be tackled in the inYl'fse order, that is
first drlamining by ally method available thl! displacf'mmts rmd pro-
c('('ding tJU'reajter with the computation {If the corresponding IItrc.,,'>l'.~.
Tlli" scqUlJnCll of operation" is adopted in tho tntlth.od of Jo;tre",~ ana-
lysis usually called the slope and rkflections wthod which we ur'f'
going lo ~tudy in this chap tor.
The unknowns of this me~hod wiI! represent. the angles of twist
uurl ddlections induced hy bending mOnlen1.~. wlliLe ~hc ;;lrains
and displn('.cmenlsduotonormal and .shearing forces will he Jlegl(lct~
('d. No additional error will be introduced thereby in thl.' c_ompll
tation of rigid joint syl'terus for ill the metllorl of fOI'C('s we had ('(!lllll-
Iy neglected the innuence of direct Hllll sllearill~ stresses. It ",i 11
lJC aho flssumcd t.h9t the difference in length Letw('eu the origillill
member and the chord of its elastic line is practically llonoxislCl1t
which means that t1w distance over which the enas of a dclJcrtell
lIll\IllIJer ,Ire dr9WU Logether is completely neglecled.
\-\-'0 .';Ilit]] begin our study ily establishing those of t.he rJispIIl('.o-
menls of 1"1 rncmLC!r which must bc known in urder to fJnr! the stresses
octing at onc of its cros." section;,,;. FOf this pmposC! let us ~tndy
a rectitill(lflr bar AB (Fig. 1.13a) isolated from any redundant stflll:-
tll(e. Tlte stresses existing in this structure induding bar AB ilself
will cau&! lbis IJar tu dl:'flect and to take lip n Ilew positioll A'B'
as :;hown in Fig. 1.13a. The movement or the bar AB to its lIew
posiliorl IHay be regarded as consisting of the following independent
d isplacemcnts:
 1.19. ChoIce 01 Unknown,.

1. A trallslation of all the points of LIle bar over the same distHflce
.1 A (Fig. Lt3b). During thi:'! trflltslntion thll bar remains stmight
illld prnallel to itself. Tile hending moments and the shears at !Ill
the r.ro.'lS secLiolls of the hllr remain nil.
2. The deilccLion of one of tlle fixed ends of the bar <llong a direc-
tion Ilormal to il.~ axis (say. of the e.nd Bl over a dist-anc.e .l /lA'
The clastic line of the Imr and the corN:>spolldillg helltlill~ lIIoment
c._UrYl!' :u'e reprm;cnted in FiR. 1.1Re.

'" A
"I
A,
A.
,, A' , A
-'~'8' "

.
,4'

,.\, . ,
" (I'J ,
A'

Fig. 1. 19

3. A rotation of the end A of the bar through an angle (fA- '1'11ll

clastic- line IInd the cOl're.!lpondillg bonding moment curve MU giveJl
ill Fig. 1.13d.
It. A rotal.iou of the elld B of the btlr through 0111 tlllf!lc {~8
(Fig. 1.1&.
5. The defleclioll of the axis of the fixed (illd uar 1l1ldcr tllC in-
fluence of the loads applied between points A Illld B (Fig. 1.Jaf).
The elMtic line of the bnr AB rosulting from il. translation I1 A ,
from (J dlJflec-tioll of the endB about the cnd A over a dist.arlc-e A RA'
from the rotation of I.he cnd sections through angles Q',\ and ((111 and
from the dcnection dutl to the loat!s directly applied. will coincide
{~xactly wit,h the ClllStiC line A'B' (Fig. 1.13a). Th\1~, if W{; Ilrrive
by any mea liS to delerminc the magnitudes of L\DA' ipA 311d Cflv
wc call thereafter t'8siLy fillt! the values of M and Q acting' lit any
cru!;.5 src-lion of that pllrtic.lllar bar, for the trilnsllltion AA is Jlol
(OOllected with allY stresses in tbe Lat under c.()usiderution. Con-
sequently, for each ind"pendem member of the slructurc we may
adopt as UllkllOWl\ll the deflection tI. BA Bnd the RlIgular rol:ltions
or angll'S of twist If .... Gild qlB'
III /raml'd Itrutlurn with rigid join19 (por~al fro/lit's. building
frMlll'S. t'tc.) the den4'('.tions and angles of twist at tbt' end faces or
all the lIlt'mhers meeting at tbe same joint will always be exactly
the Silme. ConSt'quclllly, whtn Uu method wulu consideration is
applied to lramI'd stmrturts with rigid jOints thot unknown$ will always
rl'prestnt tlit dt!/lcclirllls and angles 01 twist of various joint!.

2.1;j. DETEIlMl1'iATION Of' THE NL'lIInER Of' UiIlKt'iQWNS

rn the Itnalysis of 11 rl'dundant structure by the slope :\nd deflc(:-

tiolls IIll'thOlI Oltl.' must determine in the \'t'-ry first pl(lre tile /lumber
of unknown....
fll thl.' prttetling article it was ShOWl1 Iltat the 111lknown$ will
r<'pr~nt the angles of twist. tlnd the dE'fll.'Ctiolls the joiT1ts of or
Ihi. :i1ructurtl. It follows thnt the total Iltlmber Tt of ullknO.....wl will
be equal Iv the /Iumltcr of unknown deflections Tt.. Ilml Illlglps of
lwist n/

TM numbtr 01 unkllown angles of twist is always ~ual to the number

of the rigid Joints 01 the strudurw: and t!lerefore the deternlil\ation
of n/ red'ICC'S' 10 a simple counting' lip of theso joints.
A jOillt is deemed rigid if at lea5t two memul'TS meeting at. this
joint ;H"t' rigidly connocLed to one nflother. Examplt!s of such joints
lire nfforded hy joints 1. 2. 8 alld 4 of Fig. 4.130.. by joints lllnd 2
tlf Fig. <'i.1X/, Itlld by joint 1 of Fig. /t.13g. If a joillt is constitul('d
by the meeting of I!everd groups of members where all the momhers
of 011(' group Are rigidly OOnnected together but all the scparate
group': are binge-c.onnected between themselvl.'s, such 4 joint will
110 rcgardl'd as equivalent to several joinls the number of which
is oqulll to the number of groups.
l'hu!l. for instanc~., joint 1 of Fig. 4.1311 will be r('Ckonoo equal
1.0 Iwo rigid jointJJ. ""hile joint 1 of Fig. 4.t3i equal to tbrl't' rigid
joints.
Let liS determine /lOW tbe number of indepcndent joint dcOection.'i.
(/1 Art. 1.13 wc 11I1\"e mentioned that the deformations of rigid
strucllrrcs CIlUsc<! by dir&c.t and .hcllrillg slre$~es mll~' be llt'StleGLcd

~Tho'!(' of th... jOilll.'\ whoSt llllglp.!! of Iwi~t lIIM )WO".'Il b..{fltnhl\nd sll('h os.
fOI" ItHUII<:ll. tlw lixed end Jojnl~. il they .ru heM ab~o'\Itely fllSI, should nut
bu inclUded.
 2.18. Dr./rml/llltiufI uf /ht Numbt!r of UnknowIl' 5fJl

and that the difference in ]C'llgth betwcM 11 straight bar and tlHl
chord connecting the ends (If its elastic line may be rcgarded as
nonexistcnt. Beariug this ill mind, let us replace ill imagination 311
thp- rigid joints of the given redundant structure with Idng~. TIle
diITerent joints of the lattcr system will not be able to llIove
independently for the displfl.ct'menl of one of them may cntllil the
displacement of a certain lI11mber of other joillts. \Yhat we must
fiJld is the number of doflections which may occur indep<'ndently.
It is known that thc number of sueh deflections ill 0 hinge-con-
nected structure i~ always equal to tJ11J nnmher of additional I)ars
which should be introduced to make the struc.turo geometr[clIHy

8
,,
,,, B c

I]
{

,,, ,
,
, ,,,
A' ,
A",. (a) /3 (b)
D
(C)
D

Fig. 2. 13

sta,ble. It follows that. t}le number of independent joint rhfll!dions

i..~ tql~al tll the tU!gree of instability 01 the .~ystem obtained by the intr(}-
duction of hinges at all the rigid joints and supports of the orIginal
strurture.
AB on example, let us examine the portlll fram8shown ill Fig. 2.J3a.
This frame contains two rigid joill~s Band C Rnd con:'lequelltly
"/ = 2. The number of independent joiut deflections nd will be oh-
tnined replacing all rigid joints nlld fixed support<; by hill.ll'cs a;;
indicated in Fig. 2.13b. The SySLC'UI \hus oblidned is unstable bllt,
it will suffice to introduce a single additional bar to el1~ure its d-
gidiLy. Let il. be 011 ildditiOllal horizontal supporting bar CB tlS
in Fig. 2.13c or tl diagonol AC liS in Fig. 2.1311. The dotted linc!l
of Fig. 2.13b show the possible displacemonts of the sides of a liingu-
conn{'c~ed qUlll'flranglc. It is ohvious that the joint B will 1llOVtJ
over the slime distance as joint C and therefore t.hl1se two dcfloctions
cannot be regarded liS independent. Thus, in l:ltll case undol' C.Oll-
sideration the IlUrnller of independent -joint deflections equa(s (lne
(nJ = 1). 'filII tolal number of unkuowll lwist!i and dllfleetions will
"qual
n=-1l,+nd=2+1=;~
A~ another example. let II~ iU\'rsligflte the more cUlllplicnte frame
of Fig. :H3a whet'e the nurllber of rigid juint..<; totals six (It I = 6).
The hillge-conlll'l:led COllntE<rptlrl of this frame would be varialJle-
in the third dogree for its conversion into a .stable strucltlre .....ould
J 5 y,
"

( , ,
,,, "
, '"
;, ,
'b)
Fig. .~. 13
'"
1"I.'lllLire the introduction of at l~!<t three additiunnl bllts (Fig. 3.13b).
\""hl>lI these life prQS('rll, joint 7 is conll~t('d to the ground by 1D~:lns

to'R IO'fh , '

o( t.wo concurrent. bars rendering this connt'Ction sfll,ble. Thl' snme

, {V)

(f)~ I 2
;;;;;;;;
rr-"
,

(gl r,

'~,''M' ...

711 ~
lIJlplics to joints 5 and 6 and since Joints 2, a and 4 IIrO also ~nneet.
ed by at least two (',oncurrent b31"! to those just rnentioned, all
the systom will be stable. It. folloW's that tlJ~ ILumber of independent
dcncctiolls nil will equal 3 anti thE'reforo the total numher of un-
]ulOwns for this structure bcromes
 In Tnblc 1.13 wc PN!S('llt the number of unknown d",ncctiorl$ and
311gle8 of twist for each uf till" redundAnt .:ftnlCIIII'('!i of Fi~. 4.13
togclller wilh their d~~ of redundtlilcy.
Tnbk /.IJ

:-;,,,nlt\'1" lit
dlllPlnce"",nLa
""hto.."
0rlrf'N or
Sl<lMllre ,...1",,
<.!AnQ
orAlIj/l<'S
1..111
1 r..nl'C-
II,ono T~I"J

,,
,""
" " "7
," ," , 7

" ",
f.l ,
1 2
"
,""
I
f 2 2

,
5
,
II ,,
I
,,
I

3.13. TJlB CONJUGAT8 SYSTJ::)I OF REDUNDA:-.T 1I1::,\.\IS

The conjugate rt'(Jundalll system \Iti1i7.Cd in the IIlCtlUld of .'!Iope

and dencctions n!wllYli consists of 11 nmnber of singl('-~pnll reduwil\nt
IJe"ms. Thc."C sopumte bctlms are obtailled lJy I-he illtruduclion of
nddiliolltll C~IIl!tlr:lillt~ iulo thtJ given ~lrne\.lJre. Let us compo"'l the
i'limr1C SlnLictllly d~t('rmi"fltH structure used in the melllod of
fon;t'.'J with the COlljUglltu rr.dundllJlt system utili7.ed ill t.1ll) i'!IOPll
nlHl uenl'clioJls meOtod .
4. 1::0011 example is alTorded by the roclnngular p()rLIII framo I'C-
dundant ill LJl(J sccond dcgl'cC given ill Fig. 5.1;Ja, The siolp[c struc-
tlln.' of the m<,tholl of forces could be derived from thtl above pas-
sil11{ 11 ~ction through joint 2, which would be ii<luh'olclIt 10 the
olillliJ'...tion of two COl\strnints. The silllple structure would thu!;
oou"ist of a kllee frame and Il straigbt beam both rued at their luw('r
('lids (Fi:;:-. !'d3b) a.lId "oth statico.lIy determinate, Ail fur the
1':01ljll.lo(l\l(' I't-l(hmdl\nt system. this would be obtllinetJ I.y the
iHlrodnction of twu allJitionaL ooilSlrain\.:' into the gi\"cn sLrurlutc-
011(' upposing the r()latioll of joint 1 and the other pre\'I'I1LJn~ Llle
translation of joillh I and 2 (Fig. 6.13). The ~yst('m 11lll.'1ohlnilll'd
will he redundant to tile fonrlh degree.
'!'lill.!':
(a) 1I11J conjugllLo SiUllllc s:t'rllcLltre uLlIi7.ed in the llIcLholl nr
forccs is derived rmm the originnl QIlC- uy the eUmimlliolt of rl.'rlllll-
3~ 8$3
 d811t ('.t1n...trl.lints. wherens the redundant system pertllining to tho
slop(' nnJ denedioo!l method-by tbo b.trodw:tton of ;otdditional
('on,~tl'aiIlLs;
(11) the conjugate strllcLuro u~d in the R\cLhod of forces is I\lwnys
redundant lo n lower ucgree than the given stru('.lure whert!/lS the
conjugnte system used in the slope and rlehctions method is always
of a hi~r degree nf redunrlaucy.
It !'hrmld b<.' noted thal tM condraints inlrcxUJced in ortkr to pr~lJf'tl1
tlIe rotatIOn 0/ rigId jOints dlfj,r in urtoin res/WCts from eM slim 0/ COII-
s/rulnts providing fi:ud or built-Ut trlds. Ind&m, the additional con-
slrnillts should provenl only the twist 0(' rotation of tho joiut WiUJQllt

q
, , , K, (iZ
Conju!J'Dle systcfTI et , rt!tlfl(Janl
'rom, q
A'l~
z,
,, "
p < p K, p
,,
z, ,Z
0 J 0 J
la) , 0 J
,
FiX. .'i /3
'" FI" 6./3

interfering ill any W'<i)' with its linear translation. Hell~. Lhe only
fe,"IcLiollS these constraints are clIpahlo of developill~ col1si!'L of lllll-
ments applitld at the joints.
A..~ r,)r tho constrilinl..!l preventing the deneclioll or joints. thes!)
C/ln be obtained in different ways. One wuld, for iuSl.lIrlf,c. illtL'O-
duce diago[llll~ 0-2 or 1-3 of Fi~. i,l3a and b. or a horizontal J:;Ull-
llortilll.:' bar ill joint 2 os iu Fig, 7.13c or oltrrllaliv<oly an inc.lilll'd
braco 1I~ join I. 7 (fiJ{. 7.1311).
TIt~ cOllstr-etilll. introduced ill the shape of diagonal 1-3 (Fig. i.13b)
will not impede the displocement of joint 3 which is held f:\S~ ill
any way. This diagonal will prevent solely the dl.'flectioo of joint 1
ulolll( the dirC('tion of tbe line passiug through this joint am] jOillt 3.
From t1Lift vicw-point tho constraint pro\'jdt'd by an indiller! hmc!)
ol Fig. 7.'13a: is equivoJent to the above rliagonaJ. It is :dwLlys
preferable to introduce additiol1al constraints opposins:; the doflection
of joints in the shape of supports cOl\necting these ioints to the ~rouJld.
The introduction of additional bars conn~ting tJiffctcut joints
of the strucluro between themsolves should be avoided as mnch
as pi)!<SjlJle.
If the giv('1l structure consists of verliul and horizolltal ltlemlJers
prufunH!ec shoulrl be given to additional supports theJl1sclvl~ eilher
horjzontal or vertic.aL 'l'he introduction of inclined bars i!:! liable
lo cause ccrlllin eomplicatiolls in suhsequent computations.
In order to obtai,~ the conjugate redundant system the addItional
constrail/ls introduced must prevent Ille rotation 0/ all the rigid Joints
as well as all the- Independent deflations of these joints.
Lel us examine tlw two-storied frame or Fig. 8.f3a. This frame
is rcdundflllt to the sixth d<>gree Md therefor<> ~he numh.:!r of un-
li:nowll~ in the method of forces would also ('qUill six. Tn the method

'"'

0'~' ,
, :'-;;-'~f/

o .3 0 3
III
t
."~~,"'"(M

."""
I I

,
(ill ~'
];' Z ., "~ ;,
t
, , ,, 'f\>
(c
" "iiii ,
"
Fig. 1.19 Fig. 8,13

under con,~idcrntiol1 the Jlurnbe,!' of unknown di~placontent.s will

also equal six and will consist of four angle,'! of twist and of two
deflections. The conjugate system of redundant beams will be obtai-
ned by the illtroducLion of four constraints pl"'cluJing alll{lIlar rll-
t:\t.ious of fOIll' joints as well (IS of two additional hOrizontnl supports
llrevenling n1l the independent denections (Fig. 8.1:'Jb).
Let \I~ investig<lte in detail all the t>.l""nHnls f.ormillg t,he latter
syslelIl. As stnl,ed above. all of its members consUI,ute sillgle-Spll1l
::llaUcally indeterminate beam. For this reilson Jet \L!l tako up in
tbo rm:;t plnce the construction of bl'nding' moment diagr'lms for
a single-span heam of constant rigidity having onll fixed nnd OI1l'
fre('[y supported end (Fig. !U3a), Using the weJI-lmO\\'1l lllethod
of fercp-s, we may constnl(',t the diagrams for various lypes of
c1:terllnl IIc,tions, Tlu. reactions directed upwnrds and the moments
acting cloc,kwise will he reckoned posilive. Thll simpJ{' structu.'{'
correspondillg to this beaTIl will be formed hy 11 "impJe cllnlilcvrr
shown in Fig. 9.t3b. The reaction of the, roller support at B '\ill
j~.
t(ollstitule the single unknown Xl of the equation
X,6 11 +.1,,,,_O
(l.
'rhe vnhll' or cocUidenl 6 11 wiJl be gi\-ell hy the .'lC("olln Ilower
"'l
ot the M l gUJlh (~~jg. 9.t3c). TIle f'xterllal forces will hayo 110
eITlJ4Cl 011 this coeHieil,!lll which will anllllJllt to

"
{)u "'" :1F.J

The [I'i.'l' IcrUl o[ tll(' C4Ufllioll will bu enlc\,tated fot dincrt,\llt tyjles
of 10l'ilillg'
(n) The u('am IS 1I1t!lorm.ly lo(/(l'd oun Ill,. whoh' of if,. Imgth
(Fig, 1O.13a). Till' ynl\l(> or tJ.'q will tlWIl hl' ohlaillllocJ mulLiplying

1'l/: 9.19 Fig. ra.IS

tl,(' M q gr"jlh (Fig. 1O.13b) Ly thllo .~, cliagrnlll (Fig. !1.13r).

1 I 91-: 'i ql'
~,q--EJ""J T"t;'-=-8ifj
lutroducillg Lld'.! 111111(,' into ('-'<PI1'55ioll (1 'ta) wC! rllld illlml'iIi8.(ely

XI=JlB=fql
wherdrolU I"C3ctioll at point A lJK(lm~

RA =qI-Il.u=sQI
,
1'1'0 fixcd clld IlIomont al A will Ix; obtailll-d ~u"lmilllt Ujl llt(&
momCIl1.s Hlduc<.'d at that sedioll bulh hy Hili uppJicd tMlds aud
by ~h('- fOrt:t' X,
 (b) The bl'flll't (Qrri~$ ant roncl'ntratetl food P acting at (wy
arbitrary pOint (Fil:. 11.1:~). Displacl'mCnL <.\jp will 11l.~ equnl to the
pruduct of the Mp graph JJy thl:' M. gr~Jlh
1,,,1/1 ( 2 )
.l'P--""'2ET 1 311~~v

Since ul+vl=l Wll6UCC v_ t-u

1',,2l'
.11~- - GI1J l3-u)
Introducitlg thi~ \"IlJuc iJ\to cqUll.tiOll (1.13) wc OIJtRifl
. p,,2
XI == RJ1 = T(:i-lt)

TILt I"t'llclioll M poinl A becomes

RA -:P-RII=~" (3-v' )
and the fixoo find moment
M,IR= _PUl+P~21(3_u)=_ ~l v(l_v1)

(c) The fi:ud md of UII! bt>am /$ deflf'Cud In the dtrtlon normal to

its a:cu over a kngth ..'i (Fig. 12.13). This mon'ment 'will induce no

)1 1 ' 0
~,
Pu' fI+n.". @
1,:::l(~u'fr) -==t

PlU~~
FJ/J. 11.13 Ft/!. 12.J,Y

hending moments in the conjugate simple beam but thl! di:!place-

ment along the direction of XI will become
tH~::::zA

From equation (1.13)

which permits tlle immediate dc'-termilltltion of the reactiolls
developed hy all tht:' other constraints
SEI
R n= X t = ~136.

3El
R,,= -X t = 76-
'dEI
MIHl'= -tr-~
(d) The fixed end of the beam is rotated /-hrough un angle rp
(Fig. 13.t3). III thi'll cns(' the displacement at the l'ight extremity

, 'f
: II ''I'
: M grap" I

'.~
FIC_ 1!J,lS Ftc. 1'1,13

of lite conjugate simple beam aloug the dircctioll of Xl becomes

ill... = -!ill
in wlJich case expression (1.13) yields
'El
Xl =/i"" {jl
leading 10 the foUowing vaJuOIl of the reactions at tho supports
ant! of the fixc<l el1(l moment
gEl 3EJ
R/J=X j =I'f"lll; R... = -X l = -'/trp

'El
111,llS = -,- ~

(c) A diOerul.ce ill temperature 6./ = i j - tt is illlroduced bet

ween the upper (lnd lowoT Hhres of the beam (Fig. 14.t3). The de-
flection nlollg the direction of XI of the simple stru('.t:uL'O becomos
in that ease
g;L\f a~\t It
A 1f = -TQIl- - T T
where h i'l the del)lh of the (,cam.
Sulvillg CfIuatioll (1.13) we Gild
3aj,IEJ
X\- 2111
whC[1'rrotn
Sa4lEJ
az
R 3o.;1t/U
A=- 2/il
., So::3.tEJ
1> .... B - i1I
Let us studY next (I, beam wiLh both ends built in (Fig. 15.j3tl).
A'l a si rnple conjugate structuro we flhall adopt two ra..ntile\'or beams

ro~p I Hill J'

Ib)~""I~
" Xt j~
x t I
,,
,
"-- tr~____ "1

"'~;If M/XI
,

hL~
, I
1 I
, -- --
(dJ~
. ~
,I 1-1 gruph
,
I

'~' f{f.~
,, ,, :
(e) : l.ii,*o ~f;!.
Fit. I.i.U Fir. Hi IS

or Fig. 15.13b ohLained by cutting the given beam at midspllll.

The diagrams induced in the latter l1ystem by unit actions are rep
msented in Fig. IS.13c, d and f. It will he immediately observed
thnt the direct stres.c; X 3 will remoin nil as long as the I08ds rm1l8in
verlic;d. The same wiU apply to the case when lite fixed ~Dd1; aro
shined v~rtiCtllly or i!'uslain angular rotations. This !>et'OIUl'S quill!
clear if wc \<Ike lip the t'qufllion

XII\I+Xtl\~Z I-X~+.:}.31"-O

in wllicl~ bnth co~ftil;ioIlL, to the unknowns b~l and b n us wpll as

tIle [ree term ~3'" lllllst reduce 10 loro, for ltlt' !lending nwrllt'nl M,
romaing lilmstnnlly nil itst"li.
Tlle unkno.....n:'" XI nnd X z will
he fOlllld from the oquatiulls

AK,#_/- " X I 6u +.).lm=O )

Xt6~t+ ..\ _-O
The coeHicients to tb<, UnkIlO'ftlll'
(2.13)

11' : in these two equations art.' gh'('u Joy

~~
I I I 2 I t 13
all = 2'2' 2'T 3';F' iV = 1'1.81

, ~1'
I ,
6 u ={'['{'t:I=EJ
I I

I '
AI; for the free terms their values
I "'graph will depend on loading colldiliollS
,
I
some o( which are considered below.
(a) Both built-in emu are shi/kd
a dinance li. nornwlly to the axil
01 the brtam(Fig.16.t3). The danee.
tiODS !Iustamed by the oonjugate
simple structure along lhe unknown
coactions become
FI,. 17.13

llltrollucina thes<! vnlul;'S iuto rqulltioll (2.13) nlll! solviug thu

latter we ohtllin
,' 12l!J A.
X '=-/1'-'.

wherH.c
.2EJ 12P.I.
lla=X t = -/l~; R ... = - X '=11..1
6.1 OEJ
M ... u=-,rJ.; MM = - ( l a
(b) Th!: fiud nul at A l.f rotated throullh an angle ljl (Fig. 17.13).
In thifS eflsc the donec.lion! of the silllple st,nticlllly determinate beam
along tho rl.'dundaut TI.'3.ctiollS become
81" = -lI2,{pi
Soh'ing OllC(! a~rain ('()uatiolts (2.13) we obtain
6F.J J
X I=""""ji'"~; X s- -TcP
COll!ICI!UClltly, lhll ~adiolls at tlnl support alld llH' fi:nod 1'1111
mOUlcnts become
6J::J
Ru=X.=""""!i'"""lp
fjJ
RA.- -XI = ---v.-tp
4EJ '.!.f:J
lU.I/J=-,-lp; M/UI='T'J'

The oIJo\'o data \.ogetlll:r with some oddaionnl vah1l's of support

rcncLions Dul! flxeu end moments corrQ$poll<!illg tu 1I number of other
loading conditions arc presollted in 'fable 2.13. This laule will be
of groat holp for the strell.S 3nalysis of portal and building framos
by tllO slope and deflections method. 'l'he 8mtlysis of a heam with
both blliltrin ends subjC!i'.ted to other systems of 1011lling is doemed
UUl1ec(t'l~IlTY

~.1a. CA;;\ONI(;AL BQU.\T10NS I'EClIr.lAlI TO THE SLOI'I:: AND

D~fLE:CTIONS iIlETIIOD

First let us c1:nify tIle general principles permitting to rorlll tho

lIoce!&lry equations from which the anc1cs of twist and the dcflec
tiolls of tho rigid joints may be derived. For this purpose let U.9
comparo the given structure with the conjugate system CIf rcdundnnt
beams (Fi~. 18.13). II is obvious that t.he sole difiort'nce betwoon
the two ItY!:lLcms rt'sidcs ill' the prt'SCnco of addit.ional con:!ltraint~
in the latter, these ndditionlll collstrainL! opposing tho rot.:I.Lion
and the doflectioll. of joints. The existence of these constraint.! lends
to the nppellranc.e of rcocth'c moments and foI"CCS which ';liBI bocoUltl
necessarily nil when C'3ch o( the fixed joints will be rotated lhrough
all "!Iile equal to the r01l1 angle of twist and whe.. the deflections
of all tilt! joints will Lecome equal to those sustained hy the S.lme
jointS of the original structure.
Whtm this condiLioll is :.<atisfloo, all the defocmatioos nlUl stresses
.set up in the conjugate sysLelll of redundant beams will b('come
eXl\Clly tho same as tho strt'.'l.':lt'S lInd deformaliou!! IIf till' j,{ivtlll
structuro.
 ~I"-
~

I
I
7.1cr. -. _
I
~ ~

'" Ior; .., t:c ~\- ~

I
I
~
I
~""
I
~
I
,
"- ~

"

L
"

or{
..r-
~-l
~j
'1_.- - --
- 1 - - - - - : - - - -1- - -1-
,
z
 ~f
~I~
I
J I
, I
':;:,'< tI:,'<

1'1 111 ~ ..
i{1l
'<~
-
" ~ ~
..:,
1;;:

..-.
'!

f
,.

.-
j
 4.1:1. Eq~UotU P~ruli(JT ICI th~ SIClflr tllld DrllullClu "_[dhod I;(~i

TM t:f/uat!o/lS 0/ tM dope and dl'~ttoml method w:,a~ Jh~ ~:rlt<

unc~ 0/ r~cl~ rrwnU!nts and forea rUuelofH'd by till' imaginary
constraints of tM ronjugau syUl'm 01 rt!f1ulUwnt btams just. as lhe cqlla-
!inns of tM II"tJwd of forus I'rprf':38 that tM diltpUu('m~nls of I/u- rlln~
jugale simpll' structurt along thl' redundant r('actlon.~ rtll/abt nil.
III the lI1o!'t general form thC'S(' equations may he wriUcn al<
follows
R, 0
wh>rl' Ill, H z ll~, elt., ll.re tile rl:':lcLi\'o llllllOlJlltS [llld forces rlovel
lJI10ll hy the additional consLraints of the cOlljug'lIll. :syslelll of l'~dlll1~
(l!wl !Jenms dll~ both to the lI.cLllul IOfld.$ al'\(1 Lo the twisls ,lilt! dt...
nt>cliom: .'lll.~tairwd by tlla joints. 1'ho indicoi'l of these rNI~lioll.':' lIIust
z,
, ~ ,
, ~ Z,

,
I
I

fltl/fu'1fk1n'
;vuctu~
L

~
--
' fJ>

""'"'"""'"
I1II'rdvMtlflt

,
J
<
i~

FIt::_ IfU3
7,

""
lltWIlYS corresptlllcllo tbe indicp" of tho unknowlls. As for lilt' number
(Or equllliofls,it will be Cllll1l1 to tho numhel' oI addHi"l1nl ('onsl.rllinls
01" in olher words, to the numbcr of unknown rotutiOllS (llId dcnclJ-
tioml.
It i!l worLh Jnl'ntioning that lhe equalion!l used in tho slope and
dl'nectioll~ method ore equfltions of equtlibrllLm a'J cOlllpnrcd to tile
~C/Ilationi!l of tlJ~ mcthod of forces which were ktnemat/c (l{Jllltlions
showing the existence of certain relations betwccn Hll' di,"pl:ul'.
mCIIL$. of various parLS of the strudure.
Let \IS cxa.mine in detail the first oquAtion of tho slope Alld 110-
flections meLhod (Ill __ 0) with rdl'rcllCl;l to thl' cunjllg"te systl!lII
of redundant hcnmg gh'cll ill Fig. IS.l~{. The rC:I,(:t[\'(, 11I01\11"111 Il,
may be feplacL>d by the algebraic slim
RI =Rw+Jl Il + Illt
In the abo\"(~ (lxprc."ion tile .<;econd luflex al(jH~d 1-0 the terms
of thc right-hano j)l\rt servC's 10 indicaLo Ihe cause wliil:h IIlIS goi\'CIl
d!:lc to tllll~ particulllr l"ellction.
 Thus:
U lp is the reactive moment developed by the additional constraint
under the ftctioll of loads P (Fig. HU3a);
R ll is tile r~c(jve lIloment oC the Sllme constrAint due to the
roUlLion of joint 1 through an
"It" anl;::lc Zj:

."{/i'[:QEil:;:;:Qp;\,-..\i:-
! .. !!f_ Il lz is tho n"'clivo mOlllent dUl}
to the deflection of joints 1 Gild 2
I - ---- 1 over n length Zt.
,, The rear_live mOnl'nlS li ll

,,
p
nnd ilu due to tile di!!plucl1
maillS Zl nud Z~ may he l'epln-
ced by lilt! foJlowilllt ('.'i!J1'{'ssions
J
(a' R II = Zll"1l amI Htt=Z:fl!
whero ru is tht> 1"e::lcli\'(~ mo-
mont due to the rotation of
'" the fIxed joint through 311 llll~le
, )\;~\:."..'__'c'''"''''z''''''~':P- rqu:l.1 to unity. Le.. to I fIIdinn
(}o"I:_ 19. 13b), amI fU i:!l the
reactive mom(!nL d,IQ to :t unit
di!lplaccmenL of joints 1 alld Z
(Fig. 19.1&).
Substihlting these valut"!' into
tht! origillfll <,qua.lion Wl.' oblai,)
(0'
llr n +Zzr n +R ,r """0
2L The second l'llllrttiun (R 2=O)
r~:r'----'lt ,1'--if-
, may wfilttln in o~;lc~ly lbu
Ll'
, I
, I $lrnl' WilY

,, ,, Zlr,. + Z1rn-f-R:,,= 0
Htlre T2t is th~ reartive (orc.(J.
o J induced in the iUlll:,'illary sup-
,,' port by the rotation of joint. 1
through :m anglc equ31 to unity
Flr.l!J.U
(Fig. 19.t3b). and r n is tho
reaetive forc& develollfll by lhe
lHlIllC support "hen Joints 1 and 2 are d('O(:1Cted o"or a distance
('qual to a \lni! lell~~h (Fig. 19.1&). while RZT> is the reactive
rUfl,'e at t1l(' I'ame eupport due 10 the applied load!! (fig. 19.13a).
'l'h(l first o[ th~ eqtl:ltions expres.~cs that in reality nu rpactive
1l\oment is dovelopecl a~ tho i!Mginary cOllstraint Oppo..'~Ll1g tho
1'otation of joint 1, and lhe second that the reactive {urce at the
im.1ginrtry sllPllort is e(J\l:'llly llil. The two equations form together
a systelJ1 of simultanoous standard equlItions of the s)opu and dt}-
fl('(tions metbod. Equations of the same type oould be obtnilLed for
nny nUIllbi!r of unknown dispbc.cmeD~. the number of equtllions in
the system and tile number of unknowns; in each equation coinciding
exactly with the Ilumber of displacemen~ mentioned.
Th~, for inslArlce, III the case of four unknowns the system of
simultaneous equations of tbl! slope and deflectiolls method would
become
ZITrl + Ztrl~ + Zs1'13 +Z4T14 + RiP = 0
Zlr~r+Z2T~~ l-Zaru+Z~ru+Rtl'=O
(3. (3)
Zrral + Z~al +Z3r33 + Z,ru + Hap = U
Z'''~l + Zi!r,~ ,.LZ~ru+ Z,ra + H"p = 0
Hercund('r the ooofficients to the unknowns (unit reactions) ru.
ru. etc., situated Along the main diagonals will be termor! main
cM/liell'nts, while the ooerficients to tbe unknowns r,:, ru. Tu. r31.
el.c., will be termed steondnry ~~/ficienh. Tho coefficients to thl'
unknowns of the slope and deflections method when situated llymmc-
trica1ly about the main diagonal are equal between tbemselves as
W3$ the case with !imilllr coefficients of the method of fort:es. lndrod.
these coefficients aro related to one another by the principle of re--
ciprocal works T",n = r.... (see Art. 6.13). It follows that the system
of simultaneous eqoaLioDll of the slope and denect.iOIIS tnethod 1l1ay
be solved using the so-called ahridged procedure described ill Art.
6.12. The main coe[ficients of tlte equ3tions under oon~idcraljOll
81"0 nlwaY!l posiLive.
'.rhe equations of the slope and doflections method di[fcr from lhoS<'
pertainin~ to tile mothod of forces l)y the fact that the cocfllciellts
to tile ulllmowns 6 n", and the free terms h."p represenLillg unit c1i-
splacenulIIts of the simple stlltically determinate structure are rep-
laced by the coefficients to the unknowns rll ", and the free terms R"p
ropreseotiog the reaction!' of imaginary constraints. which trlln$-
form the given structure into the conjugate system o[ redundant
beams. In addition. the unknowns themselves represent in the laller
clIse the slopes (angles of twist) ::md denections of Lho conjugate
system while in the former they represented reaclive forces.

5.13. STATICAL METHOD OF DETERMIl'\'1NG THE COI$FFICIENT5-

TO TilE UNKNOWNS AND THE PHEE TBRMS
The determination of the coefficients to the unknowllJi alltl o[
the free wrms entering the equations of tlte slope and denectiom;
method requires the 1000wledge of the bending moments illducl!cd
in 311 the members 01 th" conjugate system of radulId .. nt beorn.~ both
by tbe H)lpliKl 1000ds and by tho unit twisLs and doO(l('liolls directed
1'llollJ: the unknown reactions of the ilulIJ;tinary constraints. l'lle
con!<truction of the corresponding diagrams .all he c<isily carried
ollL using data. contained in 'fable 2.t3. Asaume, for installet>. that
it IS rE'qllirod to cotlsLruct the bcnditlg moment dl8gl1.1OlS for thlj
:!yslcm of redundant heaUls given in Fig. t8.t:3b.
Tho Mp din~rllm for the lefL-hand coluIlu\ will coillcidu with that
IIf ~I li:<0(1 clld heaul netcd UPOlt by 11 concenlrau-d lOad (... ~(' li11tl G
uf Tubl(\ 2.13). For thl' cro.';$-Lcam this di<lgrom wit I l'oiucirlo with
lll:,1 of n hellllt lluilt ill 01 its lo[t cnd 81H) rrM'ly SllPllorlcd nL t.lu~
rJ!(ht 011(' (SI'O line 2 of 1I101'.'l1ll1lnbll:l). The fnell cnd 1Il011H.'lltS LI'rOUltl
, I 1 Ph
Mot- -,\f10,o-
-.
-lh.-;;,7.- --"
"
=Ii"'"' 1/2 !If1l-"_'1~Z
The :'!P diagrams are representee! in .'ig. 2O.1~.
The M l fliagram due to the unit twist oC j(lint 1 ill Q clockwise
direction will be ohwined for the cro.~sbt>-aIJ1 1-2 using dltlo. COIl-
tained in the 3rd line oC 'fable 2.13 and Cor the OOIUI1l11 0-1 in lie
8th line of thcSIHnc tablc. Thi~ diagram i~ reprt'sentl.>(! in "'Ig. 2O.13b.
,\s for lIw m-nding moments ,if 2 illlluced by a uuiL deRcctioll of joilll
2 IOWlIrtl<; the right. tht>sc will 00 fOUlul using lilies 4 And 9 of the
5alll(' table. The said doneetion will indu('c no henrhng in I.Icllm 1-2,
as it (ollows tile directioll of the ben.m axis. Thc '''2 dlagrllll\ i~ giY\'1l
ill Fig. 20.1&.
111lving comploted tho honding momont diagralll.'! dUll both to the
1I\>Jllicd loads find to tbe uniL displacOlllCnl.:'l of Uw .'!y~tern or rci!tJlt-
111111t bl.'nms wc may proceed wilh tht! delerminoliolt ol till 'he co('(-
licicnts to the unknOWIL'l and froc terms of the si lnul tallE'om; oqllatiou~.
I'or tbis purpose subdivide the lattllr intu two dHJcttJllt j:f'OUpS:
(I) those o.xprGSSinJ,:: rl'activl.' mornculs developed by tho imagi-
lIary cunstraints preventing the total.ion or ttll! joillts;
(2) tlltlsc representing rractive (orce! of tbe im8~illnry support'!
introduced ill order to prcVt'flt tLe deOccliof\ of joint$.
rh' (O'/fUi.'nU to th' unknowns and the fr~ turns brlongillg 10 tM
first crImp will he obtaiTid isolating ~ach oJ IM joinU ,uuhr COlUldtra-
lion and forming ~ corTt:spondLlIg cq/lUtbrium ~uations of IM type
'Ut1_O
T~ coefficitnts. and the fre~ terms belonging ta the seeond group
u/ll be t1:rlved tithcr from thl'" eqllUibrillm of the whole ,ty.dtfll tsolated
from It.t supports or from all' equilibrium 1)/ that or another portion
uf (M( sy.q,em.
 Tllt'stl eqllations will II<1Ve tlll~ general form
'iT -=(}
'1'ho dirocl.ioll of axis l' will Lt.' ~eleetlld wiLh a view of simplifying
ll,~ lll11eh liS possible the 1mbsequollt eompulations.

ng. 2(1.13

1ho fvllowillll convenLiUIl of signs wilt be adofJ~cet: tlw ,"'active

!orr.r!s (tOO flending moments will be rcr.kolled P()SitlV~:' wJum they follow
the d~rt!ctt(Jn of tlw lln.gulM rotatwlls (1,nd 01 tlw defU.'ctiQI1.~ adopted for
lhe 111lnt unda cOJlSidemtton.
j'rubll'm, Dotcrmjuo tll;; cOl!ltlciellt~ Lu the lJUlaU1W11'" amI tl1l' !Tt... lerm!!
ell\<'rlllg the simnltallM\lS C'lllntions of the slOIH.' <md dt,n'll.'li,,"l' motllUd for
11", ['"rl,,1 frnJOO gilt,.,n ill Fig. '18.13.
SO/IlIIOr!. S~nrt by determimng the rca(;tlV<:' mOJn\'nlS Il,,,, '11 llull 1'12' The
..""rlj"o mllnlont .!l'l' devel'lped by the imaglllllr~' c.onstraiuL "ppu.'mll' ti,e mu
H~~53
IiOll 01. J'~'~l 1 :md due ~o the applied 1000ds will. be obtailKod isolating tho
aforesllld JI.;lAl lIod ll.'lSlI.IIllDg lbat tb' system Is R1bJeCted solely to the ottlion

tt
ulPfJikd filJres
la)

p
,

-'
,,,
,
2

,,)

I 0 /
/
"
-Q'> ". - tJ

,/
(b)
,,
I "ZI

;> 1
le)
,, r'l
I

,,
,
,,

Ft 22 1J.

01 1(1,,\,1. P (-t.lto /'1 'Fig~. 20.t;1.f and 21.1:\d). The C,lllillhriun,-ollolut 11'1.'-
quifM thllt

wht'l't'trow

The roa~.tivll monu~nt '11 ~t ~he "lame joint due 10 its own unil rotation
Zl in elllCkwhe dir~ellon will be dntivod /r'om the OCluHlhrium cqn~ti(>n of tho
~aj(l Joint eorre~polldlnll to tilt'! CIl!!'O under COllsidt"Tatlon (~tlll~ /. Fip.20.13/,
-.nd 21.1:sb)

whenfrom
1'\1 _ _,_h
38/+'"/

As 101' the rt'ac!lve 1D01ll~Dt r.~ developed by Iho same cOftslrtlinl whon
joint 2 "hilt.. towards the right over a dislalN:e Z, _ I. ita value will bE' ob-
lalnC<1IrOOJ Il.ie I)lluilibrluln eqlllllloD o{ joint 1 P'.I:lIninll: '0 state // ,Fig~20.1St
and 2t.13e)

Nnt IlOmpule Ihe reactive forces

nary SUIJ~l't OPfosiTlI; the dont>eti<lll
Rr'
'%1 and r= d."elopcd by Ihe imAgi-
l'lOillt 2. The reacthm R%p doe to lbe
ilCttlal l()Il,<I~ wlL Ilt\ {vund pllS$ing soct un 1-1 which 1801111113 the IJpper part
o{ tll8 !trllctul"8 (Fig!, 20.1& and 22.13/1). Tllcprojeelion of all tbe fon:es ap-
plll'tl 10 tills IlOrtion on the horlzonUlI gho.s

};X-p+n~l'- : _0

p
R%p--2
The 1I.-gatiH' valuo found for this ll,act[V(l fOTea Indicatell tbet it is opposit.
In dirOCllun If' Lho oJellectlon of joint 2 whicb was assumed to man. from left
tu ti~ht.
Thl' rr.ocl1w force- '21 correspondiD! to stato / will he aloin obtaint/d pi'"
,sinlo): f;et'tLon /.1 U~ indiCQtf!od in Fig. 2 .tJb flnrl projf:'('ling I\h, forces on tb.
h<)f':wnlal wbencl!
~x=6~: """"21=0

lL will Ire ob~ ...; od that 'It ... rl t . This relation existing bclwOI'Il two 'leCOn-
dflry "l!lIctio!U; i5 :!imil.u in all respects 10 the rolali"n e);isling lX'\,w(J("n two
t<'Condary di~Jllflcemcnls \>1 the muthod of lorus /6",,, _ 6" ...): proor flf the
1I1Jl>~'e will be gh'tn in Art. 6.13.
The reaeli"c lorcl' 'It will be obl..alMd pa-"8ing S(>('t,ion /-J es In Fig. 22.t3c
and IIS1!umin~ that the .stressc!l in the sy.stl."m 01 redundant beams ,no due .solely
to the "nit d<:'Declion of joint 2 (!\tatl' JJ). Projec:ting 011 !.he furCfl on the %-ult
....... ebl.ll.in
.x t2lU 3EJ+
. . --"'--JjF "22;-
0

".
 Wc havo thus ohltlin<.'d the \"l'llues (If .1111 thl:' codficionts to the
IInknowns and of all thc free terms Ilnlerillg the systenl of ~il\lulta
lIl'OUS equatioll~. Tho rncUlOd 1l.sOO for the deterrniuntion of these
values will be call1ld hercuftl'r the stalk method.

H.IS. DETERMINATION 0 ... 'rH}: COJ::fFICIENTS TO THF.

tJ!'KNOWNS AND m' THI:: PREE TERi\IS BY TilE METHOD
OF GTlAPH MULTJl'L1C;\T!ON

In n Inl1tQ humhcr of cases the re.1ctive moment.'> and forcC$ dllV-

elrl]lt<ll uy lh(\ im:l;:irlflTY constrain's will be easily obtained rnultip
lying' olle by thl' other the corru,~pol1ding bending lIromenL graphs.

Fie. 2j.I.J

This method could he used adv:\rl~agcollsly for the analysi.$ of the

structure sltown in Fig. 23.13. Tho USi! of Lhe static method would

,, ,,
, ,
,,
,

Fi: ~/.fj

lel'ld lo cettain complications ror in tht! case under c.onlliderat.ion the

JlMj~clions on tllO %-Mi!l wlluld c.()ntain both sheariug forces and llor-
mill strc~"'.
Let us l.'oosidC'r two dHterent \lniL sltl.te~ n and m of an arbitrary
colljugato system of redundant twams (fig. 24.13). The work A nm
 r..1J. Dtlf'7mfllllltllll 111 /fIt CllcJlid~1I11 /0 Iht ['MilD"'''' 613

pcrformt>d by !.be external loads of state n plong I-he di~placerncnts

of state m may be expresst'd in lenll! of the bending moments using
exprt>!lSion (12.8) given in .o\rt. 4.8.
.... ~ M,.:U.. d.
A " ... =7",,,' 1 =,;.;... EJ

(.'J.I~)

The theorom of rooipNIC<l.l works statini: that the work produc_cd

by the loads or sll\to n nlullg tllt' digplncolnt'nts of slate m is eqnal
lo thel work accomplished by th~ londs: of slale m along the dis-
plac('mC'nl~ of stale n, wo may write
A"m =A rnn

A .. "'=r..... j
and therefore
7 ... = r.... (5.131
This throrem caned the theOl"tm 0/ rtclprocal rtQtti0113 clln l,e
formulated as 101l0ws: tM rtactWe forct due to a. unit displacement of
tonstraillt m along tJu: dirK;tion n equals the rtoctiVt' foru fnduud by
tile unit displacement oltonstraint Il along the dirt'ctlon m.
Problem. n('ll'nninl'l. tIle c'lfleienls to IJlo unknown!> 7'2 and I"ft for tl,o
porLat fr;llue of Fig. 20.13.
SolutlQn. The Illultlplication pf the J/ I graph by Lhe 1t/2 graph leads to

. _
1 12 -
l'fTIJT2d~= h
.) KJ ID
[2 (_~
hi XT
2/IJ_f,EI
7li"X
4.!!.)+ h
IlEJ I,EJ 6F.! 2F./] tll:J
+ fjt"XTT"'"'jirX-,- = -
L

,..hich coincides uaellr witlt Lhe vdue obtlllhK't1ln Art. S.13 using the at.atkal
mol.hod.
Tho main unR rrauion 722 '\'rill be oblamC!d ruising tbo M2 graph to tha
!ftA)nd po" ..er

r~1
_y
-j
~ Ml"'_-"-
EJ GEl
[2 (3"F-J~
"'.
?_"(EN)]+
X_ ~
h3E.J 2 3J~J 15F.'J
+/ltx2 X --s X ""i!""-----,;;
H i$ F.t'eJl that thi$ value toineidC!a again with the one obtaiocd previously.
The reactions duo 10 the applied lands may be obtained considerjng
two difforent states of the conjugate system of redundant beams, the
first of these states corresponding to the application of the actual load.!!
and tho other being some unit state. say, state n of fig. 25.t3.

G''''
~
p '-'
\!I
-..,-----
,,
.- .

~
. "":, 0
_ . O'~_----

'," I ~ P"

~
PI! , __
1 -

Fie- 2ti.I3

The work accomplished IJy the londs of slato P l'llong the displAcc-
menu of stale n is given by
Apn=P6pn+Rn,.t
At the same time the work accomplished by the external (orcas
uf state n along the displacements of st3.te P equals
Anp_O
Tho L!ll'orem of reciproclll works states 1113t
AJ>"=A,,p
and therefore
Rnp = -PlJ p "
III this exp~sion 6,.. ill the denectiOIl of the load point in
stale n along tho directioll of the load P. J( p_ t the abovl:'
expression becomes
(!S.13)
The latter expr1'ssion establishes the relation between the unit
reactions aDd the corresponding unit displacements.
The value of 6p " will be obtained llSing tbe hending moment
diagram corresponding to a beam built in at its right-band extrem-
ity and supporting onc concentrated land P = t acting along the
direction of the desired denection (500 Articles 6.8 alld 8.8). This
diagrnm denoted herufler by ,li~ is given in Fig. 25.13e.
 t.lult.iplyiug' this diagrt'1I1l by that for .1/" we obt.ain
" ,t",'M"dE
vI''' = ... .). p---gy-
Introducing tlLl< \':J.!ur or ()pn thus found in the t''()Jrt'&;iOIl [(It
l'C<'\ction R,,!, wc fill,l
J'
I"i' -
---
-
p'>'
-.)'
f <lrp .'\.1"
EJ
ds

WIIICh, after simplification [llld roplacement of PM;, hy 111;" lrl11ls

'0
R"p=-_l:~MnM,~S (7.13)
In the killer expression M~ sLanus for the ol'dillal(!s to the dia-
gram of tho hending moments produced by tILe load P ill any si mple
statlcally r1etorminato st.ructure obtained by the elimination oI
l'CdlWdanL constraints either of the given struc,iuro or of tho conju-
gatc ~y~l,em of ('edundant bl?ams. provided th@ constraints whose
('fwrtions are desil'ed are included in thoo' C'liminnted.
Thus, in order to flUd the ct>udioIl of the nth c01l5tmint duo to [hQ
kpplied IOl1ds ,."e should multiply the area of the bending-1Il0ffitlnt
dlHgrillll due to the same loads QPplil'U to l'l stHl.ically dl'll'rminal('
slfilClut'e (derivQd either from the given strllt'.~ure or rrom t.he COll-
jug-lite sysl,l'm of rcdllndnnt ]leams, provided the nth cOl1s~r.. int is
amo'lg tho~e clilllif)nted) by the bnudillg lOomen~ dilll,!ram /If" duo
to Lh& unit displllc.ernent of the nth t'onstrainL in the syl>tem of red un-
dalll beams. The sign of the prodllct obtained I1S d(l.<;cril,eu a1,ov(1 will
Le thereafter changed to the OPPof':ite one.
Problem. 1I1.'quired the. rC3c.tions R,P nnd R2P ~t tile supporl.s of the porWll
(rau)c 1\lIillYled in Ar~. 5.13. ,
SalutlM. 1'11& tOlljugl.lto ~ilT\plc strutture and the ""1~ graph rclat.ed to this
sll"llcLlIrc arc gi\'l.n in Fig. 2(1.1:$, Multiplying this graph by tlwt for lJ I (.:<00
"'il':, :!(I.13/ we "lib in
~~ ,M! ds 2 '/11 J
1I1"--~ JMf' IU =-;rXsX"jflX
1 3EJ 1 Ph h 1 2BJ 'I/t PI.
X2"X-'-+"2 X :r X 2: X"2 X m- -T+"F
Simil<lrly H~p "'ill Jl(l ohtainc{l b)' llw lIlultiplicnholl "I the Mp by LIlO M2
~rH(lhll (S<.'C !'lg, :W,I:'<)
\ ,-'/s I Ph h 1 2 6E.J I'
lI~p=-~ J M".U2 EJ"" -2"'2 '"2' EJ'3'~"'- T
'1'he.'lt' rl."mlt_~ clJinr.ide exactly with Lhose obtlllnoo [Jl Art. 5.1:1 lI~i"g till'
SlatlC ml'thod.
 7.13. CHECKING TilE COEHICIENTS TO THE UXKNOWi'(S
AND TilE: f'IlEE TERMS PERTAINING TO THF,
SI},fULT....XEOlJS F.QUATlONS OF THE SLOPE AND
DEt'LEcnONS METHOD

Check on th~ coeflicienls to tlle unknowns entering the $~'stem

o[ equatioll!! u!!t'd in the slope ~md deOfi:tiollS method is quitc-similar
to tlte onl' Jeseribed in Art. 5.12. Ono !!.lIouId begill with th6 COlt~lrm'
tiou of the oonding moment aiagrarn ,IT. obtained by the nlgohraic
SUllIllHllioll of <Ill the ordillates to the ullit graphs pertuinill!l" tu thi'
ronjugilt<1 syslem of rlldu[ldant beams
,-.
M,=-MI+Mz++M,,=
.-.
2l Ml
This graph when multiplied by each of the unit graphs will give
tho values of the algebraic sums of the ooefficients to Ihe uliknowns
beloll~ing to each equation. Thus. tile product of the M~ llr.lj>I. by
the At. grilph equ31s
"\ M.Jf.d'=",~ MI {MI +M2 + ... +M")d:
r ll ""' "" ---gr- "" J EJ
__ '" ~j1tt.u
~ ~ JU +""... {'MIM~d'-j_
j EJ ...
+'" {'
~ j
M.M"d,
J -=

"'" ru + rl~"" ... + rp .". ~ rli

i_I

The sum o( coefficients rz, = !:r~/ will he obtained in ('xnctly

the same way.
Cousequently. tlle sum of all tile eocflicients to tile unknhwHS of
allY equation (say. Eq. i) must equal r l given by

r,.-,,=,rSftf/M.p'; (H.t3)

Thus. if we wish to cheek the value.\! of all the unit reaction!' (coef.
ficients to the llllknowns) entering \Inl fir.<t of the equations or \he
slope and dene-ctions method we must compact': the sunl of these
reaetion.'l wiLh the \':'11110 of ru
;-"
,-,~ r,,-ru (~l. 13)

O~her unil 1'!.)/lCtiOIIS entering olher equations will ho cllOr-ked

in exactly the same way. The above pror,eduro permjL~ to check
uparaftly the coefficients E'nt('rin~ each of tlte equatiOlls. It i...'4 eqmdly
pos,'1iblc to cbeck simllltalUow/y nil Lho coefficients elltcrin~ all thl'
equnlinos. Indet>d if we J'ni.o;e 1O the &'Cool! power Lhe Ji. gmI'll wc
obtflin
-2: fM:ds ~\' (MI+M!...l.. ... +M.. II/ls_
r.. - J F.I=--.~ 1:1 -

_ (,.... eJ :Vtds+~.
t:I
\' ~...l..
- ~ El ' ...
+)'
~
eJ M~dT)
J!I +
_2(""fMt_li1.dS_1... _'f:{'Ji~Tt,,'I6._ )_
.....) t.J r- . , .....\ El I .. -
= (TU +r 12 -+- ... - T",,) ...... 2 (r12....:... ... +r:1I + ... )=:Er
The reaclions contained in the rlrsL term in parenlhc!lcs or ti'l'
abo\'e cxpr<.'SSioTls arc the principal onl'S situated along the main
dillgOllal, whill' the second tor m in parentheses contains nll the
sccondllry reactions situated below or obove tllis main dlogontlt.
It i~ apparent that the square or
tho lJ. "rapIl oqul\l! tbe algoornic
sum of all the unit rClactioll3 (coerftcienLs to the unknowns) cOlllnl

....r=r u
,.
nod ill oil the simultaneous e11llntions of the given systelll, i. c.
(10.13)

',' ~ -,t' d.
r =""~J 'J::J (11.13)
The \'alue~ of Ut('. free tt'rtll!l Illlly be checked COnl(llltillg
R _ -1: ~ Ji.lJ~ds (12.13)
'P- .l EJ
l!l:lt is, Illult.iplying the M; diagram by the ,.7. diogram. a will
loo remembered Ihat Mp is the bending moment induced by the
applieu loads in the members of II simple static:llly delerOlillQI~
structure cOlT<':Sponding 10 the rodundallt strncture under consi
deration. The product obtained II.S eX)Jlained above must be equal
to the alf:ebraic sum of llU the free term,s of the simultaneous cqUtl-
tions
n - 1: ~ ,M.+M:+ ... +M,,)J/;d,
.p- - J El -
_ _ (~ ~ JilM~d.
J El
+ .. J~ '<' M:.U;d, ,
1U "'T' .

+ ...." J~ M"M;Il')
F.J '""' nIP+ 11 Sp + . . . + " ""
that i~
 8.13. CONSTRUCTION m' THE .11, N. AND Q DI.\GRA:\lS
Whell the system of !'iimulLaneous equations derived from the
...loJlo ,HId dcncctions method is solved. in othN worrls. when the
.llll.d~ of twist and the doIlections of I'll the joints of the giv~D
rl,<!Il1ldtUlllilruclure life known. ODe can prot'eed wi~h tho conslrnc-
tlll'l of all the stres." diagrams pertaining to this structllre.
rho ortlinntl>." to lI,e It'!'ultinll bending moment grnph .11 will
lit) nbtnincd by tlJe StllJlDlatioll of the ordinAtl'S to tbe Mp dingram
wHIt thoro to the UJlit diagrams, 1\11 the Inttor beill;: p~vioU3ly
1Iluhilllied I,y th.e magnitude of the unkuowlls just dt'termined
M -..Mp+M,Z, +M I Z,+ ... + Af"Z. (14..13)
Till.' dillgrlllJ1 UItlS obtllincd may be checked \l$ing one of the pro-
fCIlllres dcscribed ill Art 6.9. H is worth noting that the control
uf Lho equilibrium of moment~ ae,tinl!" at each of the joints bewlne.<l
]larlil:l\larly significant for in the c.olls~rllction of all the bendillg
1fi01lll1nt dillgrllms used in exprcssion (t4.13) no reiflrenr.c was made
to thl' ~illid equilibrium condition. rr t1\1;' bending momellls at one of
the joillts do not balance, th.is menns thnt some {'rror 111\$ hecn cam-
miU<-d in computing the values of onc or mOff> unknowllS.
The shear diagram Q is derived from the bending moment diagram
jllst as in the method of forces. The normal slrcsse.'; may he computed
t.IlNenrlcr. Tho sh.e<,tr and normal stress diagrams will he chee-ked as
dl'scrilJed ill Arl. 6.0. Hero I-he l.'C(uilibrium oE diITcrenl IlorLions
of thl' slrnct life under considerntiOIl bCC<OlDCS of partkula r i mporta lice.

~Ll;J. CO\lPt!T.\TION OF TtIItMAL STRAIXS ny THE: SLOPE

AXD DEFL~CTIOi\S 1t11n'HuD
Wc have Mi'O previo1l51y that a change in temperature eotnibl
llsnally tho deVl'lopment of stres-~ in redundant strllcl-urcs. Only
ill il ft'W partit;lJ1ar cases temlJ'{'rature change.'" ha\'e no erred on such
structures as, for C-.l:ample. in the case of a rect...t ngular fraTlle rejlrc
S('nted in Fig. 27.13. This frame is externally statically determinate
and thereCore it can expand or retract (reely ill case 01 II uniform
ch:\lll:;l' ill temperature of all its memhers, without any stresses ari-
sing: in Itny of the latter.
Lot us show that temperature effects can. be always resolved irlto
symmetrical ~Ild alltis}'mmetrical component.'!. Assume thnt bor
AB of l?ig:. :l8.13a is of uniform cros." seclion and that the tompera
tUl'O Oil it.!! IIpper surfar.c is raised by t; ltnd on the lower one by t;
,\ilh t l > t l , The cfice~ of this diiierence in temperature is equiva-
ll'nt to thl' ~imuJtall{'{)lls chnllg:c flr lempernture equal to 1/2 (tl - t z)
 9.13. Compu,,,1I11A 01 T.c~m.at Slraltll: ..19

on both sur(3("CS (symmetrical COlnponl.>nt5, Fig. 28.13b) r.ombined

with changes of temperature equal to ~ (t. - tz) on the upper +
i
5urf:\co and to- (I, - tz) 011 the lower surface (antisymmetrical
components, fig. 28.13r). It is clear that the combination of these

". 0 "
-'8 --- ~-
"

r----- --... -------,,

' :f'!
,.;l; ft
,
,,,
.
J-"+---""-----+-~
~~
Fir. 27 13
.....
chaugE'S wiH resulL in the specified temperatllre change 011 each of
the two faces
11+1~+,,-12_t
:.! 2 '
onrl
t l +11_ '1- 12_ t.
, 2
netnrlling to exprt'Ssioll (20.8)
II-I~ II
0", = a. - , - N + et ----;r-
A II+lzll
ii
'Vc nolll that synlnlt'trical actions will lead to nornl81 ~traillg
only without bending or the bar because the dilferellcll (t.-t l )
reduces in that caSE' to lPro
.. ' II+t~Q "+'11
u"I=O:-,- N=O:-,-
l~tlllSC Q~ = 1l Wig. 29.130.),
~ If the Ilt'utral ni, 01 lIla har i~ not 5.ltuilud It widheight of the e",-~

~Cllen, ~ should be rt:'plnced by I~ + ~ !I ...hDrl,llllsthetll~taMe tu thu

l1t:'ulral axis of the Iloru who.~e tcmpt:'rature tillS hoen raised b>' t~.
 0" lhe other hand, when the bat is aCled upon by 8l1ti!YTnlOetrical
components only, it will bend without any cbange in the length oC
iL'l neutral IIxi!!. The angular rotation between the two end fac<'S of
lilis Loar will equal

because Q)/ -= l (fig. 2!Uab).*

Consequently. fixed ('nd bars which constitute alJ the 11ll'luhl!fS of
a conillgatD system of redundnnt beams will expall(l or contract.
Irno.p.rocry It<Jle f;JratUY1"l"<!l~.d:U

fa>

Pig. 29.J.Y

witllOllt bending w}lC'n they Ilre suhjected to a symmetric,,1 Ihermnt

eftet't and will bend wiLhant changing their length whcn t11{' ther-
mal eSeet is antisymmetriclll. The corresponding belldin~ mOlllenL
g-rnphs lOlly be found in Tablu 2.13 (HllellJ Ilud 10).
The only difte'uce beLVo'een the analysis of redundant strnctllf~
cllrryillg direct loads and those subjected to a telOpc.rnture change
resides in tile construction of the diagrams for the bending moments
M, induced in the members l)f the conjugate sy.o;tcm of rcrlnndll.nt.

Thi~ (l~pt(lSSiOll is illd~~lld"rll of the positIon of lhe neUlral ll.l.is.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _--"C./:.::8. Compu-lilti"" 111 Th..rm"l SC'C'="'C"C' _ 1'02\

beRms and ill the determination of the freo lerms of the etluations
(thl'SO being denoted in that case by R If R u etc.. and repre!'lenting
the rt'l\etions of the imaginary cOllstrai.nls due to the tt'lnpcroturc
cltall~e).

l'roblelP. RCtluited the cou,plell' stre:ss Illtlyats ur the pon"}'lnmetrie:.1

[talllO !.hown in FiR'. 3O.l3jl 5ubjlxted 10:\ tl"lDPfl"aturl;l rlllnge. All the ('11.'1111,',,15
01 thi~ IlllffiO are or C()l\~tllnl..:roS$ seo;luJU with a nexurfll rigidity tulIl to tJ.

"'.

I: !:
S,,"""t'U', vI
tN._.1i ;-:'<',1'''' l" !!...;!z <D
"""'~lr'(IJ;
t~frOdif"1

'" ,', 'e>

Yi~. 30.13

Solufllln. The Lt'lDpe1"alure intremelll t will be l"eSol... od into tWO<!()fIlpOllcml.:l-

Ollt' symmrtrkal lllll! equtl to a uniform hlOating of .llll,o l!1l!ffiC!nt!' t' _ ~
alld tha other anlisymme\Tkul to, Tho numbl!r of unknollmJl for tho eonj0l8"t.<>
tI}<-tom of redunflullt beams lIivon in foig. 31.13 will l'qual two.

{';\"
1 2 -z,
o

FI: 11.13

The simultancolls l'qulltlvn, becomo

Zlrn l-7.:r,z:- RII +Rit_O
Zlr21+Z2'2~+J/~I'1 JI~t_O
 TI... coeff,cienls 1.0 tho unknown~ will be c:llculut",l in l';\ilGt1r the !l81Ol"
war as if t.ho ~Iructl,rc wero subjectoli to a s}'stom of lo11li~, Each of the froo
ltnllS will consist of two reactions n' and R', the first ctlrr(''''JlQnlling lo the
symmelrical component and the second to the antisymmetrical onl'. The rcatth'p
'uun"mt Rt', u.welo]lod by the imaginary t(}n~tralnt i1t joint 1 and tbe n,aot(vll
forte 1121 tle"el"l,ed al lhll imngilllll'~' support will be dete'1nined u.<il\~ tl\{~
Ni dillgrarn pertaining to the system of rellundant heams and due \0 n UlliImm
ol.oall~" in temperlltunl or all the frnme rnernbl'rs.
Let"~ frn;l fuJr:.ulate tho extension of >in tlteS<.' elemellls dUll h' n .aist> in t ..rn-
I";rature equal 10 t' neglecting as usual Lhe Influence o( the lIil1."Ot str('~{'I'.
JlJ
,, -,
&EJ (fd l
!if~'O

",,,,-@- 'I

Fig. 33.1,1

It will bE' remembered that tire alltisrmllH.'trical tOnlponen'~ I lea,1 10

flO cJl:lJlgo wha1soevOI' in the length of the b.1rs. Tho oxt.cnsion (J( llJ('lJIL~t$ 0-1,
2-3 awl 1-2 w,ll therefore Illl given by AI c ; al'h l : A2 - <z1'h 2; Aa =- at'l
,'cI>pectively (at t' = II~I~).
Tilt> position of ;Ill lht> joints of tho cOlrjugal(l S:>,81('1O o( Il\ltlms "fWr 11 rwi-
f'lrm"ehange in temperatllro i~ indjcnted In dQt!t'd Hnl's in Fig. 32.13. It l~ l',,~il)'
"l'eJ] that the I'('latn'e denl'Ctiolll.' or tbo juinls will eq""l
J),lO-J),3"'" at'!
A2j-dZ-J),I-al' (hz-h j ); 6:13-0
It j" 0100 cll':!' that. joint 1 of Ihe cnnjngate S)'s\(,m will sustoln no nngul~r
rotat.lon, nnd tllrrefofe t],e.I,(,ndillg m(,m('nt~ illrluel'd It}' thll displocemellts
or 1ho joints may hl' ohtnin..d llIultiplpng th.. h.."ding n,o,,,,"'" duo (0 unit
dOOectiOllS (!K!O Ih]('.~ 4 ,111d !l 01 Tahll;: 2.13) b~' the values o( the denOCUOllS
lndkn\.()d above. T1r(' eorrOSllonding diagram together with !.he values of Us
p('rtin(lnt oNlinlltes is she"'n in Fig. sa.13. The mae-tion R,',
(FIg. 'H.13al
will !le obtalued isolating joint 1
,6EJ 3EI
!M j =Rtt -!if ~\IO-li" A2! =0
whcrdr';1ll
_ _ _ _ _ _ _--'9~.,J.".__'Cc'~m~PE"ct.l!ltiOll of TluT"'1t1 Sln"RS (i21

I\!' [or Ill.... n"i1eti"" H2r(Fig. 33.13), its V.IUll ""ill be ImUld 113511'''1::......_
lioo 1-1 and proJccting Gll the horl1out/lJlIlllhl' fortes lIcllng on that p'lrliull

I,r tf,,' f:,,;\n)(' ",tu.. l(od hovo Ihe aeeUon (Fig. SI,.131I).

-~x ---xr
t:!EJ l1
10
-l Ri _0

. 12EJ
11:,- -"""'hr .\IQ

l\~Xl I(ll u~ l;';l:nmlno the effeot prudud by tha IlnlisymDl~lrie~[ cumlJOI\<'Jl'~

Knowing Iha dl'Op in temperature IJ., = fl - I: helw~l'Tl the !llller 11n,1 oU1(-,-

lil<Yll.
" ,,==t
... ,

sudtlCeS o( tlch elomfnt u well IS tho deptll of their UClSS !tlon It wc may
u!ily obt,in !JIe dial:'r.:llll for JJi (FIg. 35.13) usinli': lines 5 and to
of Table 2.t3.
l'lIe ordllllk!l to thb dillgrllrn .... il) bllll8t oil" as usual 011 tllO :lid, oC 010 utendNl
I'1brlll'! or, in other words. on lhe low \cmpcrlllutlllSidl!. The equUlbriu'n 01 joint
'1 (lo'lg. 3i>.1301) givll$
'I HO EJat:.t 3EJa.b.t 0
""" 1 - 11 1 -,,--~-
"11I;,nt,,
n"It-~
EJa,1t

I':OSSII1K $('<:.LI'lII 1-1 Dlld IIf\lj,etJIIg OIlCl..' ;'l:!lIiu olllhc furt~~ "dinJ: on Ih,
tll'P...r f'Ortion of Ihll framc un the I.cfllonlal (Yil:. 3li,13b) \\'(! 1111,1
EX =R,,_ 3Y.Jo.::J,t =Q; n 3RJa~1
Um~ ~I- ~hh2

Whon 1111 tile e... err!ei,'ul!J to Lhe unknowns "'Ill all the fn."l tCl'm~ lJ.r(> ,1<'(-('.,-
mlnl~J. w,' UHI}' Ilr"t~"" wilh th(' !ltllutlOn ..I 11ll.' 5imuIUlnf><lU~ I"lIUll.t'''I1~ whith
"ill pd.1 lilt' valul~ ...Itl.e ulll.uO'll'll 'mglC'S 01 twilit IoIno den ....lillus olth(' j"iul.S.
Ri/.
~ )J~dt ,1,~"f''--------_'?---<~
( 'IFV
(.I~oJt

la, (0)

ill(' re::!.rIUrllf Jx-rnlin!C "'UI1I"U"" acting at ,lifferl'nL (,rn."" <ocLiom ,,( the
1:"""<1 redulllhmL to:lruclum 'na}' tbel"f'a!trf Le c.lculaled usin!; tho e.r.pf('$!lion
i\f _Mi+Mj I-MIZI-;-~..zI+...
Tl,e ben,IHlg mOlfl"'ntd'.gl1lm being kMwn, ""1 m.y prtl.'eet! ~ u~"1I1 with
\he fOl\~lrllclion "f \ht' ;!/i".r diag""m and fio.tly *~th 111111 fOf 0... normal
l>1~.

10.13. ANALYSIS OF sy,mml'lllCAL STIH.:<:rLI\ES

TIl,' t1unlysis of symmdricnl slnl(:turo~ IlIny Lt, fllcililnlcl1 H UtI!
\1nklluwns arc grouped IO'l'Olhcf in a mllllllor ,imililr I,) tho Ollt' 'ISC(]
in thc method of forc~s. 'rhi.'l Ill'uc('durc allow!' 10 ohlain syrnmctrical
Of antLosymllldricnl unit diagrams. which leuds lO n suhdivision
of simultanoous ~"(Jlllltions inlo two illdl'pcndt'llt groups. om' rontai-
ning onl)- tIle symmelrir;ll unkllo"ns ilnd the olhcf the Itlllisymmetri-
cal ones. .'\ substantitd simplification of all the compllL.1lioDs m;IY be
nchicvoo tltl!feby.
.'\5 an tlXll.mllle L1kc lip the double-span frnmc of Fig. 3. 13. Thl'
aUKle.. of twist of joint 11 !lIay be rCJo{M'ded as corusbtil1l! vI the Stun of
two 1I11known Dn~l(':'l Zj IInd 7. 2 and the nJ11l'lc of twist of joint b :lJS
ClJusisting of the dllTpr('ncc of lhe !tflllH' angles 7. 1 and Z2 (Fig. :l8.13).
Tllll IJIlrizonll:.I di'~I)ilH.'I'ml!nt of Ihl' crossbeam mflY be fegnc<led
aflllllllsymlllclcic;t! fOI" Juin! /J (.'ll'C Fi.l!'. 37.1:1) m()vl:'~ Awn)' from lhtl
axil' of symlllell'y while joint a moves towards the saln' axis over the
sallHl tlislnnctl. III this eltSc the system of three simultllllooUS 01108-
,
,.."f,l!IIIEllllmlilllllil----,.
L L

Fi,. 87./3

tion!! with three unknowns

Z.rll +Ztr.~+Z~u+ll'Q-O
Z,r~1 +Z,rn+Z~ru+R2I1=O
Zlr~l +Z2ru+Z:V'"U+R3Q =0
falls 111l(I_two iud\>pcntlc-Ilt group!!
+
Zlrll Z,JI"II+ R jq"""O
Z,ru +Z~r:u+R3q=O
"lid

hm:lJuse

rlf. 38.13

'rile Ll:lntling moment diAgrams duo 1.0 the gro\Ip.~ of ulIit re.. ctiol1s
lire represented in Fig. 39.13. The coeffieienLs tu the unknowns 85
well as the free terms of the above equations will be oblnillcd os
.\1)-8H


, ,,
,,

'.'
 JO,lH, Analvstr of S!J1I'lmMrfCQj SI"4clurtr r,27

follows
4el 3EJ 3EJ 4EJ 14EJ
rH = T 'I'-l-~-l- +h =-,-
r _
z
'oEI
h
+ ~!}.:!.
I
+ 3EJ _\ !,EJ =- 141:::/
I h I
fJEI fJJiJ 121\J
rl~ -, r~j''- - 7 -----,;2 = -t"-
271:'1 ':!.7E/
r33 = Ii"~'-l'-
h hejllg l'q\W.I to J
1J1~ 'Jj~
RIP=--S- R zp = - if a.1 ,,=0
J P()I'l,:d rr:IItIE!, JQutl~d hy olle sing"'- WIIC(lIl_
Fi);l'. 4.0.t:-l reprl'StHlls
tl'ated fm'ce, the conjll~lIle syslem of redundant bl'ams as well as tlu'
p 6EJ
T
Z,~I

<[J
T

z,rt
((;;r
.-z;)p

~z,
4fJ 4/
7>
eunj"guteJyllem 7i
IJt rM"Mant
""=

Ftg. 40.13
".
Ij28

hen diu/{ JnOltll'llt diagrams induced in the laUt!r by the sYlIlmetricnl.

(llld ilnti~Yl[lmetrical ~roups or unit reac~ions aud by the llppHed
loads. The l'eadsl' is invited t.o dleck bOlh tbe tlillgrams anti tile
l"lMctions (coefficients to lhe lIn]mQwns and free terms of the
silJlldllll\t'()u,~ equations) given hcrl'um!cr
20J!.J 12EJ
rll= - , - r:1 a.= - , -

11.1:~. AN EXAMPLE Of FRi\/.\E I\NALYS1S ~y THJ:: SLOPE

AND DEFLrr.CTlONS II'!ETHUD
ABumc thl't it i~ required to wnstru<:.t the Ill'llding moment, the 6bOl,riHll:'
fQn,,'~ and J1~rmal ~Ire~~s diagl""IIl!! fo" the frllnll'd ~trucltl\'c ~hown in Fig. 4'1.1:-1.
TIll.' ~ptenl (,f \"m]s, tho length of lIHll""lllh(,,'~ llud 1111, fati,,~ b"twef>Jl 11"'11'
lHO"telll~ "I i".. nia :m' all indicatml ill LilO! NlIlIO) tigul'll.

J Ni
~.~~

"_!..'~..z:!! , I

~
,
~~
~

~
J J
" ------ l- 'I,(/m It.Om

Fig. 11. I"

1, Com!"l 't~un of the Ilum.bu Dj ,,"k7101,.1l1 ,,, the 81upe and d~lluIiD7l' m~I"~d
with tMII7l rh melllDd DJ /~rNX. Tht' degrl'C 01 rOllullIlllncy of thQ gjv'~n structur...
being ellUalt" i = <!. X 3 _ I _ 5, the lllllfi!ler f,f tho unknowns ill Ihl'method
of forcus wo"ld ho equally f1Vl),
The number of unknown Ilnll!t>S of lwist 11/ = ;-1 allll ~h(' mll\Lh"r oE judo-
polldell~ unknown denGCtions equals nlle. :\1Id therofore the lowl numh"r
of nnkn,jwns ill tll(> slopE.> :md <!nn"cti,,,,s lll<lllwd will ""llllll "1.J... IIrl . \+
+ J.- 1,. H('llcll u!,j~ tllo IlIt~r method WI) shall !'{>(lnfE.> th" \l'uul>er 01 ~1Il1\l1
tun<'olls ~quaLions from 5 to Ii.
2, Cho,re <If lilt (clljlli/"It 'Y$lem. Le~ n~ inlrud'lce IlLreE.> imal<'Mry coo-
~trainl~ opposinll: Lhe rnlathm of tIlt' ri~;d joints of the r.'1lme ami 'mo ima~jI11,ry
suPporll'fCvenU,,!!, thE.> ,lisplllcemo.nt of joiJit J 115 indkat('d in Fig. 4<:.1:~. 'fho
three unknown RlIIlI,,,, of Iwist will 1H.. d('siglllltOlI by Z. 1:2 find Z. illld tbe
unknown Ileflection hy Z Thl) eonjugato !!y~lelU of r...dllnll/lnt lll)ams wi II eon~j~t
in thnt eDS{) of four hllnUl.~ f,x,~d at hoth el\d~ nnol 01 'Hll' h('~m [iXl'<! at onc cnd
only anll slllll'll' SIlJlPoI'ted at the ot,her.
 11.19. An F,zample 01 FT{ml~ Ana/llsis

~~. Conf/rUcli~1I of bending momenl diagrams f<>r Ih~ tOJlll1.go.t~ ~IIslem. The
c,ol'!Iicient~ to tho U1,knol\'/lS llnd the free terms of the s~'stom "r slmllltnnoOllS
equRtioll~ will ho (!I,,.j\,od from ~hc bel;ding. lllomc_nt dilllnllns indur~'d. both
hy the nVlllied loads and by the Ulllt rpactlOrls In nil thenwnl lors of 11,,' ':orljugale
structure. 1'hc:';(' djngralll.~ nre reprl'sontcd in Fii\:. 1,3.1::1. *
Zt ZJ
f0 ~p

FIR, 12 1.1

r.. Cah"I"llon of /h~ co~jfitje"ts I/> Ihe unknown . and of flu I,'te lom., All
th, n('rp~Sllry ojl<'ratiolls :m.. earrit<'l (Jul in t>thular form as indi"a!,'d hereundH.
5. Chuk/n~ Iht '_'allU'S ",btu./lled Iqr IfCmrntv. The acrur&cy o[ 1I::c ClloffleiNus
to tlw llnknown~ and or the rre<' terms olJtaincd as d/'scribcd 1111Ov/, will be c.heeked
llsing tilE) !of di/lgrHffi (Fig, llIt.ta'! (Ihlain..d tiJrougJl tho summnli>n of the
ordinales to t'le four unit dia!lfam~ shown in fjg. 4~.13. liaising till) lU'Cll of the
A'. lIiagram to thl1 ,,ond powor I~e e)[rrt~~ion (11.13)] \\'0 {Ihlllin
" ~ - I d. [ ;~ (f;J)1, 4 " 5 (EJl! ,
1'... ,.." .... J .1/. IU '=* 6EJ2XaX"3+r,X25/U >(

X (2 X.11+') 3" 2 x..:l!)../..

.X,-- 'd1i'J): (2 X:rX:r
'tii..'r ii 3 +

J 3 :;; 3) G(EJ)1 ( 5 ,
:r- 2X "2 X -r +~ 2 X
-t2X"2 X 1f X lf +
..!.. ..!.._')-X ~ X. ..!..) ,]
..l..2 x,2X ~ -
__ tl6EJ
U = 12..!Ef
~l-
2 U 2
Oil tho other 11"-,,,1, the sum o( :llt Ihe eodfi,cicnls givt>n in Table_ 3.13
(quals
!.r= I'll + r2~+ r33+r\~+2 (rI2+ 1'13+1'1\+ rZ,1--7 ru +rSl) ....
" + 35+\12) + 2EJ (I -1,0+ 3"
o>cEJ (..1+ 3 ..1- 7 -+, ' ) ...
'6+"6
. . 11~;' ~~12*F.J
The. c.flWpal'isu" or th,~ lotal thu~ ,,!ltlll!lod with thl) f''I'I.I1I or graph
llIuhiplic.ation shuw~ thllt the}' c.oinddo and eOll>l?-quenlly eonditiun (10.13) i~
!<lIti~ficd .

.. III this l'xampl.. the n.lues 01 all loads ano reactions /111.' 2lven III (Oil!
:md atJ the rli~t(lllc,es arp m{\ll~ur('d in lnlltl()~,
 ~I'" ~
, S
~i"-! ~
."
, ~~
,
,
N

~- "i Ulln"'b

,I
*' ~I-
,
+

;:;:1<0
"
i:I"
, ill"
"
~
,~~
@
",;
.;

"l~
, ~

~.
~
~~1~
,
~,.,

"
~~ ~~
,
~ "
~~ ~f.t:
~i'
~-
,
-,
~

~ @
 11.J.". All Ezamplr "/ Fran,,: Allal!!_t.. 631

Lilt us proceed wHo n chl?ek un the aCCl,lruc)' uf tl,(> rree- wrlll~. Fur this
P''''pose wc shaH construct the .M; tliagrum wbose ordinates Tel!fc&'nl tho Ll'llu-

Fig. 41,. 1,1

i,,!!" momenl-, ind",;(:d hy th(> givon lolld~ ill a lIilhpll' SlUlically OlltClTllllllllll
structure llhtninoo h~' oliminatioll of <lit the redundant r('lIctiOllll. 'I'his diugraUl

'''le. 1,5.13

IS givell in Fig. 45.13. MHHiplyiug it Ly ~hc M_ diagram lsce e)(prc:;.~i"n

(12.13)1 we obtain
"S- . as 1 (I 3 :'I 4 EJ) + 6xZ.aEJ
- . M,Mr>ET"='ET 3 X X XT X '3'
SEI
!l X
x (-2X 9 X3+2X 27 X3-27X3-,--9 x3J+
.... til!T 1 ~ 5 1
6HJ ( -2X2x5,-2Xfix21+27X"2+51Xtr __ 14 __ R. p r.)
.....iwl'cfrom 11~p_1~.
On lllo othrr hltnd, th" sum of all lho froe 1~r1ll5 gi~-en ill TIlLlc 3.1;->
l'ql,alS
:ER _RtP+[(2p+HJp+R~p ... 2.25 +O+O+tJ. 7.;= 14.00
The coinciucneu of Lho two rosults shows that condition (tS.13) is .o;j,tlsfled
which means that the cOlllpnlations (II'll correct.
 ~Io
,
o
,. "

'J,r
~I-
,
o "'.
I .
.:
o

,
~
I

, o,
o
~
, ~I-
~~
o
~
I

'"I o +
I .:
I
'",,I

r
,-.

~
'>-

;:;.
," ~ 0 ::c-.
" "
.

.,. ,
, ,
iU
;;It:: "
 .
;;;I~
I
;;;
+
~I'"
I
3
o
+

~~.
o

;;;
I ~l~
I ,
o ;-
~F i
~r
~,

o + ~I'" "t ~I~

,
o
I
B
~
I
.
I
f +
'"

,
'"
 '0

., ,
11
'~ ~
<'l ..
Q

11
, -"
.::;,

; "
'"

;,
, o
11

~<Q o o
~o
+ 11
I 11 11

J , ~

;;

~ rl~
 ".<
6. S"l"U'il/I ,,' flu .i,"IlII""~D'" ,qIl4I1GrI$. For the solution uI the simul
UUIlOUS equations rMOrt sb,ll be made to the abrldgE'd method dllscrlbfil
in Arl. 6.12. Tbo equations 1I1'gatinil: tho e.xisUncl' of rfllCli""11 "I th(' jmaKin~ry
eonslrain~~ become in that GaM!

ZlrJl + Z~rI2+ 23'13+Z4'14+ Hip _ 0

Z!T:I + 2 2'22-1- 2:1'"11+2,,:, + R~p" 0
2 1'sl +Z:'3:+ ZY'"u+Z,r",+ RSI.-O
Z .'41 +Z:,c+ Z:J"u+ Z,"u +H"p =0
SubstItUting in tb~ equatioDs the numeric,l values uf IIIl' tuflfieil!uu
to the UllkllO'I''nS and of tbe frt'e trr~ gh'llu in Table 3.13 *t' ubtain

3ZI+Z:+1-z,,+2e~=/) (Sl-~)
Zt+-ZtT:fZa+ ~ 1,,=0 (S2~~)
~ Z:+{Zs+1rZ.I-O (Ss--})
I 'Z I 2 11.75
"3 21 +"6 :+"6 Z3+1f Z"+ET- 0
TIle values indicated In parentheses 31 the end of each eqU.lhlll repl'('l'('ul
the total S of .1I the coofl'lcif'nt& enlorllllll tbis particular equn\iOIl.
The solUllon of tlte abov\! equation! is givon III Tahlu 4..1~.
BquMlon (IV) givl!I
175.7/o0x206.280
Z~--15.280EJx3U&l"'- "'''3 I
... ~ X7fT
Introducing this value inlo cllualioll (Ill) ....t fuld
191 " ( -OB. 253X
T2ljZ,+t2iJ , ' ) --&JEJ
ET
...lH'refrOIll
Z~_ +6. 7t9 X EJ
,
I'tOCl:eding in the same way '11I'8 fill.! from cquatiull (11)

~O~:++X(j,719X ;J +ra (-68.253X l;J) -T X r!'

~llOfcfrom

and from tquatiOll. (I)

"
, XO.3MxfT+T
32:.+t -GB.z5:1 X7IT - - ( ')'
/i1tJ
....lwrelrorn
 Table 11'

1':<1.... 11 "'"
NO t.
" t, t. II ' .
NIlIll_
PUfrs , ,

, , ot,2-
_ -1/3 ,
ill I I' ,- a13- 0
a,,_
l3/3 -7J!T
=-1/9
,
Cl) . 11/3 If' 1/6 I 16!3
,
0

+ (I> al! -1/3 0

-,'" I
-13/9
48J

_ .~-
-3120 ,
(11) 10/3 1/2 1lt8
=:<
a2~-
-fJr.o
T" I,EJ

+
r 11'Cl) a\1
nJ)a:,:j , . -3;40
116
0
-ljl20
,13
0

-35/60
0

",
- &11!J

'"
(Ill)
'2<) "
'20
a3\-
.. -ill
~
t ~)
:;11)
TIi'J - &JJ

I 47
( (41 't.rJ S,.
,
- 411

I1" '"
. -I/Ti -13,'2;
ftEJ
+1 (Ill a!: . -l/llOO -W " -SMJ
I

!Ix HI
l(11l) ot 2\1 - ""
2292(1
11Uxlfl
- nox 11It SOxl!JllfJ
I ,I
(IV)
, I
..
34 ,0'
I i\'lii:lSU
I -
1
_ .
1,5740
IS2SUEJ
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _c]/c."J"c3 .4/1 umpl"."/"FC,~,~m"'C!'A""""e" ..,-- -"",,7
Tile nluCll of tho unkno~llti 1Nl easily t-!Iecktd introducilll tht>w Inlo
all ~he llilllultllllOOUj I~'iualionj

(') 3Z1-1Zz+iZI f-2.~-3)C6.7t5-;"+

+ I X 0.3.';5 x ;/ -r~ ( -G8.25:i XW) +2.25x E~ _0

fl . I I 1
(2t lZI-'3~+2Z'+6Z,-t XG.715T+
+~XO.3$:;-h-+~ X6.ifllX-i.,+{-( -68.253X e~)-O
(3) 7'z-'z+'z I ... n f .... 3
2 T y a G \-"2 x .~xET-"3 X

x6.71!lx I;tl +~ (-I'8.253X /:'~J )..::0

I It:'. I
3Z1+fiZ!+6Z~+1JZ,+1t.75 E l -

I ""5
-TX ',I ' I
XW+ijXIJ. 3'- I
~X7T +'tr X '-'9
'./ _, ,
);7iT""f"

+~ (-68.2~X ')1 ) +H.75X E~ ..0

All dll~se el[unliOllS being sntisi'tt'll it may be eonduded Utili no errol' has
L<'lJIl cOlllmitted In tile computntious.
7. c....'n'I/1Iclilm DJ the bcrnltl1g mome,,' dlagTlllR. The ordinates to tllo "sull-
ing Lt>nffinlf momt'llt diagu,n will be I"llkul.ll.toU using el:pression CI<I.I:l).
tllg. I\t>. 13 l't'pn"iimt~ Lilo rliagTllms obltlinl:'d through the lOuW"lic<l.lion 01 lh(l
or4inUc.1 10 "aeh uni~ dWj!ram 11'et' fiE:_ <13.13) by ~he m:lgllitude oC ~hll ('01'-
'-'.1I'Olldllllt rf'C!eUOIl

AI,_M,ZI> Mt=.V:Z:. M3_1J~! aod M~--M4Z~

Sllllln,ing up all these ordinates and .dding thMelO wo ordinlltes to the
.V" diilgrnm (sec FIg. 43,13) we obl.in the-co to the dl).';ir~ 1fI:lUllinR' diagr<'lm
whlcb i$livlll in Fig. 4i7.t3. All Ih.. ""dlnates to tbis dijlgr;lm h:"" been set
oli "" the side of lhe e:r.tended Jibres.
.Ii. l:_klll.{ tlu ~rtdi1fl: mllm~,,' dlll,TUl..
fill StJltu.t ~tJUJd
Lt'1 U$ bob~ ,n sllcussion all ll,l.' rilil! johll.S of the fr:tme .nd lot us .~
whl.'th..r lbo U1111ilibrh.m ('Illletititon~ UIl iUlisfleod for l'~h ono of lhrlll 1_
Fig. <IUS)
10lnl J

Joint t

Joint 4
~(-= -6.896+6.896_0
(bl ""t!ll>d 01 d,nullollf
t:omput.e lhll algch,.,jc; !um of tllO Arell~ boundod by the homllug mOmCl11
dingram along memhl!ri 3-2-1-.'; fonning 11 c10StlII contou,, In the gcnl'l'<'I1 case
lh..~ MNS .moul<! he divideool 1' the rig,dhy of the &otre;;pono.!ing mem~ (JUt
in thl~ l'arlicl1lllr (:\,;;(' all the momt'nlJl of inel'lill are the IlUlne ano.! tberefore

"",_""a 177

s s

6> 3

t "
Fit. 16. 16

~Jm
?'4Z5~JlJ
11.131
'lilts

,t
(!,
U'"'
' 13 lIS

IJ. 78$

FI,. IT. 1.'

"'" "'11)' ~lml'l)' c,lculale Ill(' valuo of 0",. Thntt'
llh.'tI In~,11! tlln contour ..tU be rukoned positive
0'
Ihl' al1'lI~ which .re !i111-

f 11.2.17_11.139 6 6.896 3.714

!\t-- 2 x- 2 X
x 4+ 9.136-6,896 x 6_ -6.718+ 6.720.,., 0
2
~~~ ~~_1111."'''.S. A"__ ";xIlml'lr cl Pmme AnI111l!_I'~'-- --"e3~.

~). C(lI1SI'"lUti,m (If lh" sh"qr dilllfmm. The ordinatl'S to the Q diagram ""tU
he olotnincd using the "'):rr~~sjon
__ Q' +."d" - } l In _ 1
Q, , - n I"
The following IIrc tll<] .~lll~atS at v:lriolls cross ~odioll;
&.oction 0 Il( column 0-1
Q01- 3 '' r13.78.'. 7 '9-
- 3 - - ,,>" Ion"
S.!<:tiOll .1 of th" .~amc column
13 i8fl
Q10=~, 3 - Z x 3+ . -,-=. 1 ,,-J tons
SectioM J ami 2 olilho inclined bar .1-2
13.785+7.'25
Q'2-Q21- - 5 .. -1,.242 tons
S('ct;ons j (1nl] 3 vi column 2-3
Q~=Q.;:=11.13~tl1~57 3.7S3lons
Scclionl< 2.and <I 01 CtOSShl!:;Ull 2-4
Q21=042= 3.7t.'J-;'fi.800 __ 2. 652 t"n~
Soctions 4, and 5 ol.eolumn 1c-5
1i.8!'l6+9.t3G _
Qu-Q:...- 6 _2.6/2 tons

These v~lue" have j)('rllJitt(',1 tht.> l;onslruct(01\ of Lhe Sht4lr (]Iagram giV(',1
ill Fig. 1,8.13.
10. Cb"cking th. ~hMr dla;:mm. Let us pass II !;OCtinn through the ]OWl'r
I'nrl~ of the thrc-l' eolumns amI let tl.~ considl'f the equilihrlum 1l1111l horizontlll

Fig. -18.13 Fig. #9. 19

projl!clions of thl' forcl.'s acting on tho 'Ippe-f portion 01 Lhe frllffio

.!:X "",2 X 3+8- Vi9S-3,i3:S~2.(j72_()
H. Canalmdion of thr. diagram for normal Ifrtl$~S. This rlillgrmll will
be obtained isolnting in ~u('c~ion 1111 Iho jOiTltR of the frllme, The normal
stft'S.WS 3cting in all thn members will be deT'ivl'<l from the uquilihrium of thl'Sl'
 ....
i,
7.

1 o
I
~, ~

"+ + -,
o

,s
~ o
I

8 8
~
"
, o
"
:i ..-
o~
I 1
'" '"
'-
N
~

11
~o
..; "j t
00
++
~ !::
"M;
00
~~
""
, 'I
-~
I ~
~I
.,
~
~~ ~

- ~."
.N

"'~ ~ ":;.). q.

!
_I~ -~ ." ~~~fI
~
'.,, NN
,N
<->'
~
~I

 64'
An
JolnLS. S~re!!ieS CJIusill& eXlt"llsions will be reckoned pc>sitiv('. tho neullSary
oper.lions are given in Tahle 5.13. The dcs'r'f'd dfagr"m for normal 5tr~
apJlE'us in P'ig. 49.13.
12. C6nJctllg Ilk diGfNlm for 110'''''11 .l~..a. P.~ all pre..iously I section
tbJ'Ollih tbe lo\\"(ll' md' of tbo columns ud ""rito the ~i1ibn\lm eqUUiOD
of .11 verticd COO1punMU of forces lInd reactions applied 10 loho upper punioR
of lite structure
l:Y = _6A99+3.81i7+2.6S2=O
This equation heins ul.isrted, the stl1lSS anal)"s;s of the frame fUY be COD-
sidE'1't'd complete.

12.13. nu: MIXED METHOD

In the method under consideration OIlC part of tho unknowns
represents rorces (just as in the method of forces) and the othC'r pArt
K,

(., 1',
Fig. :;O.J3

angles of twist nnd deflection!> just as in the slope and donecliolls

method. Thus, the unknown forces Ilnd the unknown di~plocemcnt.s
will he dealt with simultaneously.
The npplicSltion of thil'l method will be exphlined using 05 8n
example the two-storild frame shown in Fig. 50.130. Let us first
CSf.Ablish the degtE'e of rcdundnncy and Ule number of unl;:no~1l IUl-
(:les of twist and denoctions for each of the two stories. These data
are given in Table 6.13.

Lo",'@r , 2
Upper 2 12

Total tI
 11. is obvious that \-he l'lope and denocliom. methorl can be ndvanla
g(lOu..~ly l1~d for analy~is of the lowfr Slory while the method of
fumes is IICHer lit for t-hc upPt'r 011(1.
The ruin'd melhod bused on the simullanoolls lL-;e ur fort"~ nnd
di5plllc~ments as unknowlIs was int,rodurl!(l in the U.S.S.R. by
Pro(lo:'<So)f A. Gvo:r.d'v iD 1927. Tho applicalion of tbis mcthod to
tilt> two-stori~l frame undt'r considel'ation will Jeall to a ['('duclion
in tbe nllntber of unknowns lo 4 orlly (rom 11 if the mt'thod of forces
Wf're used, or from \4 if it were the slope and don\!cliolll'l mdhod.
These unkll(jwn.s will represent the nllgle~ of twi.qt of the low{'r floor
joints and thu ~Ircsse~ rlcting flt thl' ~flble llill:l;c. The COr)j\lgate
mixerl strlldure is roprtlS(lJIled hi Fig. 50.13b. Thi~ $Lrllctllrej'is
derivlId ft'onl the givon ono lhro\lgh the eLimination or llUJ COtl-
.str:lint~ aL the Lop hinge nnd through the introduolioll nf irnogifl:\ry
COIl~lraint-~ at UlI' jointll of tbe flrsL floor.
Let lIS form the simuHaflCOu'C (\qllations 01 the mixOil method.
'rllcsu u~lllatiolls will express that the rl'a.dinlls of the imllJZinory
OOIl~ll,.inl.'l dllo to tlle unknown 31,gles of twist Z\ and Zt liS well
:IS the mutll:ll displacements 01 the two brnJldu~s of Lhtl frauJO ulong
thl.' dirti'1!I5 o( X ~ ann Xl are nil
Zlr u +Ztrlt+X~rl~.JXlr" 'rRIl' _ (J
Zlrtl +Z,ru+ XSrtS ..r..X,r2l ..r.. n sp = 0
(15.13)
zla~. +7.,6., + X,633 +X~63\ + t.~p = 0
Z/Ill + Z,6lt +X~6u + X~~u + Au > = 0
A closer exnmin:lUon of Oi\ch of the :lhoyo eq\lntiull~ lelld.q Lo tJ1~
following conc.'.lll.!lioll~. III the fil'ilt cquutioll:
llrll = rearliOll of tho imaginary ('on.!ltraiIlL at joint} due to the
rotation of this joint through lHi ilnglt' Zj
Z2r12 = reactioll of the Ill'Ime cOllstrnint dut' to the rotation of joint
2 through IlII angle Z:
X"-,,, = re:lctiou ne the Sllllle constrnint \Jut' to Ule AI.plicntioll of
the' (ouo X s at the top hinge
X1rll = rt>l\etion of tlte same constraint dul' lo the force X~
RIP = rt'-3clion of the same constrllint dut' to the Ilpplil'd 1000d.
rh~ sum oJ all tJt~ Ilb<n:'t' rractw!U must equal ':J'rtl for Ilk ronUraint
intr(}(luad at jotnt } is in reality nOll~rlsunt and th~reforl' llnC'apable
0/ ckt-'l'lopi/lg any r~nctwn.:; whatsGel.'V". 1'hllS, tile first of (he four
cqulILions is nn equilihrium equation expressing that the rendive
1ll0lllontof tht' illlil{!'illar,v con<tLr.1int III jolIJ11 due 10 /\11 the unknown
forces lInd dil'iplnccmenls llS w{l11 a~ lo the llppliell load':' rl'rnClins niL
'fhe .s~ond (Jf UIt,! simulLnneolls equlIt.ions (1:i.\:-I) c.onvey!< the
gnme irlen ana lho meaning of all it.' termti is also exnr,t1y the sam!}
with ~he 1I111y i1irtt'r~nc.c thnt they all ruf!'r lo Lilt.' imlll{inllry COJl-
straint. jntro.llll'OO at joill~ 2,
N!'xl lot tl~ 6XtHllinc tha third equa~ion of this r;ronp.
ZIO~1 -- mulual df'nN'Lion I\IOll~ Ihe horizontal of the two hrnnches
of thE'! conjugate strucLure c;!used by the rotalioh Z.
Zz6n = di.~pll1c('nHmt alollJ! IIle ~l\me dirt.'ctioll due If) LllU rllluliol l Zz
X/>S1= (1cnecl.ion alollg the Slllll{\ dirCt'l.ion duo 10 lhe> unknown
~I'OUP of {Met's X! ilst>Jr
X,63~ = ullnectioll along tho sallle direction due to lhl! unKnown
group of {orecs Xl
~3" = dent'CLiQII dIU: to lhc applied loads
Th.. Ill/m. of all 1Ilt'~ lkjkcttoll.~ mf/.gt ~ nil for tk e.w,t,ng htng~
prel.;mLs all Ill/dual dispkJreml'nts of the two bran~h('.~ firtM ffa~.

z
.r, z,

'.
11f::1 X.
'~Zt
:' "
"
u, ., ,
P,;. ';1.13

Con5Cqut'ntly. th!' lhin! oqualioll expn.'8S('51h!' idl'(l. thaL the displace-

ments of tl. certain poill~ rclltain nil whirh nwans thn~ this l'qua-
tion i5 a f;im:matlc ooc. The fuurth C<ltllllion of lhe Ijlmultlllloolls
~l'steTrl (15.13) OXllr~Se!l C;\"/l,Cll}' the same idea willl rt'ferllhce 10 the
1I11J11l1l1 vt:>rlirlll displacement of l.he twn brallches or t!tt> fmrncnt Lilo
top hillgl"
Tho coefticient,!! 10 the unknowns entering lhl.se t>qulltiull1:l helong
10 fonr dirTctOHl groups:
1. Codlidtmtll rt'prt>scnting fractiuns dllu to unit {kfkctions or
twisL~ :If! for iostance fU'
2, CocmcicllL.<l representing reactions dill' t(l wut fOTYes or moment.
a!l for illst.'\nct:> rn.
::to CoefrlcienV: relJrcsenLiI.g lkfkr.tion3 or twists dlle to ullit dis-
plnu11Il'nt, uS for ill~lance 6 2[,
<'I. CoeUident.os reprcSl'1l1illg (YflUons or twiSts due to umt force,
or mOmJ'llt.~ A.'l fM installr.(' 6 u .
All t1H:se cocfflciellts will he computcd as desctihed in lhe COtre~
spondillJ,l' 11I,tidel; of tho preseot. llnd previoll' chapteN!,
 It should be noted that for the conjugate structure shown in
Fig. SO.i3b only one pair of coeffleients 10 the unkno..... ns cn\.cring
equation!! (15.13), namely 6 3 1; and 6., reduce to zero, the ullk'lowns
X, being symmetrical and the unknowns Xi antisymmetric..al. TIle
free \.erms RIP' d,p and .diP will bo also nil {or Lbe loads acting on
the upper parL of the frame are nil themselves. Even if the lower part
of the frarne wero nonsymweLrical 6 u and 6 iJ would rttlnai.1\ nil,
their values being determined by the multiplication of bending
moment diagrams induced in tho dillerent members of the upper
portion of the framc, Were the unknowlI angles of twist replaced 1y
their symmetrical ond antisymmetricol components (Fig. ~f .13),
a g['('ater ntlmbar of coefficients Lo thc unknowJls would become nil
and the sy:::lcm of simultaneous equntiGtls (15.t3) would il.5eJ[ fall
into two independent groups. lhl' first cOlllllining symmt:trical 1111-
knowns
Z,r l l+Xsr l3+ R ,p=O
Zl6~I+X/Ju+6,p=O (if.:.\)P=l=O)
and lht' !ireond containing the anlisymmelriclII Oll~
Z;'u+Xl;ru +R1P""'O
ZI6U+XI;6",+A,p=O (if ~p*O)
Thl.' prillcipltos of reciprocal works and di~placcmt:nts provide
for Lhll follOWing relations between the secondary coeffieilmls to ~he
unkllown.~ of tha miuJ method
r"",-=r_
6m.. = lill/ll (16.13)
r1>\ll.= -lint"
)'rolJlem. }o"orm the s}"stem 01 unnnJCIlI equations for the lrMlIl" gh'ell
ill Fig. 52.13 lInd drttrwine tho coeffodclll., Lo aIL t],e unkuo"'lIll u.-ing that

/1 q
I i'l~Z~'mITlfqrnt
i - RtdUndont
,,,,,,,"~

, I
~>m I , ",.
'm Ix.
Fig. 52.18 Pig. 58.18
mo,hod which lead~ to tho minimum number 01 unknowns. It ill Il!liumed tbat
t1111 erO$ll !5tlcLioM of 1111 tho members 01 the frllme Nmllin constanl throughout.
 12.19. TIU! Mind Mdlllxl

S<Jl",tio". The choiu of the.- lIllt.hO<t will bto bMell on Tlblo 1. t3. This I.llblo
~h(l"'~ imrne<liolt'ly that the milied method will k,ll to the best rf'SUIL!. IndeM
....trfl this JJlI.thod adupted. the number of unknowns would equal two. while
the method of fOITe5 wflllld lud to four llOkno""'ls and the slope and 11enl'CtioDs
~thod-to !even unknown.
Taille 1.13

ponlOll or .t.... ~I ... rt

1'1 ..... 1.... of ,,,.k,,O_ll
1,,151$ ..011 derJO!CIlOllI

Lcfthllnll I 6
lHl:ht-hanll 3 I

, 7

The conjugMo sysUm wlllch ~holllll IJe afloplrd h ginon In Fig. 53.f3. All
Ihe ",dull:! Ira cxprt'5!ed in tIlns and rnet.{'. TbI' si..nllJtaneou~ eqUIUOn! pennit-

X,, I
p,,_ 5:;.13

tini' Lhe iletenninnljon of the unknown~ XI nnd Z:t IJeellrne in th8L):'SO

X I611 +Zz612+ Atp-O
Xlr:tI+~22+R2p-O
The e()@fl1ci('ot ,)11 repre!eotll thl! dis-plleement due to a unit ror<:e ."d
....-111 be dct.ermlned r.ising LO the second po'l'et" Ih'" M, lllagr.m iivcn ID
Fig. 5U3
1 ['X5
611 -7T 2 5
-,-X-rX4+3"(2X4:l+2XlP+2x4X8)+8X2X8 ] 19'
- EJ

l'h& coefficient 6 1:l ""hieh nlp.csenls a displacement due to .nother dil-

plrtccment will be derived from tho geomutr)' of the st.rnct.u~ all ~hown in
Fig. 55,13
/)j2-II<I:' coeo:,_Sl+' coea._llf>
 The l(llgk 01 t .... ist ~ IJl'ing ~Qulll 10 I and I w 8. the ulue 01 eucf
tki"ul till lleeolmes equal 10 uiRh1.
l'b~ dl~l'lacewt'1l1 61: wdl '"' rt'ekollcd Il!itivt' fill' it lollo.....s tb..,
dirt'Clioll "I IlK' reaction XI_ 'fhe CUOrfiCHlUl,u represt"llW! the rellctioll 01
the wilslr.llul introduced al joint 2 dUll to a ullit fore.: XI_ Tbo \,.h.l('
HI lhi" cO"lflCient IM)' '"' d,rh'ed frum thc I't(ullibrium ,,( this joint
(Jo'ig. :;7.13)

'21- -8
Tb... I'llll... Illaglli\ud... 01 lhi!; C:<l('rr~iOnl .."uld ho ubl.i..~'<I o1irocdy 'ronl Ih...
I'dlll'uu r,u - -"......
Th(' f'l'lol'rrlChml 'l!:! r"preSCOL.<: the reactioll of the "amu CUfl.~trllilll to ullil
rotMion Za "f juilll ;! {So.:o Fig. 55.13}. 11('01:(', \.hi~ rV('rrldl'll~ may ho dcl('mlin('(\

I
I'm
2
I Zl-/

flit MU3
(~"
,~
I'/Il . i7.1S
It' 2

I'll:. :HUIJ

u"illlS thll oqulJ[bl';utD 1.'11\1311"11 101' the ~ame jll/Ill aetE'd lllHlIl .S :$hO,,"11
in fiR_ .!I8.13
8J
Z:M2-"~--r--(iJ~O

T~-i-EJ
As lOt' lbe Irve lorllll dIp amI R=,.. lll('ir values in Ibe llnl'('DI c:a!lI .....111
be livt'n b)'

:u ~ilJOllah.-d in Ihe app"",'riall,l lines 01 Table 2.13.

13.'3. THE COMIJINED METHOD

The cornl,incd meLhod is lIen suilt'd for the analysis (If ~yntllleLri
co.l redulldallL slrnc.Lllrcs Dcled iljhUl by Ilonsymlllclricl\! loads. The

~mo m~~niIUlh "r lhis

"TIll< l:lli'llllclent would h~ "I'lained b)' tl'e mlllhc.d
de'nil~d ill Art. 1~.8. Tho :mgll! of tll'i~t or }uinl 2 should IX' rCjlfl'!lt'nled by n
v(\l't!tn\ \'l'Clor (Fig. ;:ill. I::!) nrling III thi~ J(lint. 1'1oQ lllOrlll:'nt of tllis \'eclor
Ilhou\ joiul I wilt C!lUII] t x lj_l:l_t'lI~'
 ].'.u. TIu CombJ/wl J,f,,'hDd M7

use of lids method will be c'xJlllli"ed tJ!ing as au CXtlll1lllu thu portal

frlll11l'l .shown in Fig. 59. fR. Rt'placing the applie-d load P by its
l'lyllllllt:trical and aTltisymmelrical componcnLs (FiR'. 60.134 ami b)
we arrivo at two different loading eases for each of which lh" lIum-
hN or unknown.~ ean be p.8sily determined.
Thu5, in easel onc corfC!!-j)()Ildiug to the symmdricltl loadin:r the
displacement of tllll cro~b('am 1-2 will ri>rtlllin nil and (he llflgll'S of
lwii!t of the lWo joint.' 1 and 2 will
be equal ill amount and opposite "r----......,'
in siall, hellce Z3 = 0 and Zj = Z: _,P
(Fig. 61.l3a). It follows l,hat if wc
IIpplied the slopo arId r1eOee,/.iolJs
method wc would olJluin in that
l:I'IBa Otlll equation wiLh one UllkllOWrl
()l\ly. H, 011 till' conlrllry, wC'
~m )lloyed the method of fore<>s 3
lI!'Iil1g thll sirnple stfl.lcture of (a'

('r----,'
P

o 3

Fig. 59.111 I'I~.

'"
M.13

Fig. (jl.13b we would arrive at two Ilquallons with two

ullklrowns (the shaH ring strt'1;S X ~ being obViously nil).
Hence, th.e slope and ckfl~cti()ns m~thod Is the QfU' to lw adopted in
the ca.st of symm~trkol kxJdfng.
Next, lilt us consider the ease of antisymmetrical loads, u~ing as
conjugate struetllrt> the one shown in Fig. G2.13a. It is r~dily seen
that the number of unknowns will in tbis case equal two: tile first
reprC!SCllling tbe angle of twist 01 joiots 1 (lnd 2 {which are Uuld
both in amOur\t and dir~tion} and tile .second oDe rcprescnlillg IlIe
horhOILt.al deflection of these two joint.'5.
Cou5(lqullnlly, the slope and deflection:! method in the ellS() uf 3n(i-
symmetrical loading will lead to a system of two simnll311001L'l
equations with t.wo unknowns.
On the othi>r hand. if lhl:l method of forces Wl're used wc could
<ldopl the- si mple Sllllicnlly dOlerminate structurll gi veil ill Fig, 62 .13b,
I>hich would lead 1.0 one unknown only, this unknown representing
tile shear X" both normal stress XI and bending moment XI being
Z, 'Z,
~" ~ Zl~..o
, '. ,
,p
" ):J"o

Svrrplt ztau'TlIl
" p
I
dl!t_r~
rlrtllrt

o o, J

Plf. 61.13 '"

nil. Thus we could once agniD obtain OOll equation only with one
unknown. There/ore the methcd 0/ /orces &hculd be QcWpted in the case
0/ anlisymmrtrital loading.
Zt~Z,
~"
, , ~ ..!l-
f
"

, p f li
"
0 ,
0
,., ,,,
FI,.62./J

Taille 8.13 represents in a concise (orm the results obtained above.

Thus, the combined mrtlwd will consist in the simultancoU! applicA-
tion of two different methotls as des<"ribed above to t ....'o different
cases of loading of one and Lho same slructure.

.....,.
1'IIn,1Ioftt of "Quail"".

SIOP~ .nd
Me\bnd dell_ llelhod to be Ulell
ot lo~. lIOns
IrIell>lxl

5ymme~rI<;al 2 , Slopt and d~nl,<:th,"lI

Auti8}mmetric.a1 I , method
Method of rOfto,l8
 14.13. C0I11!r"ctil)tl, of JAf/Ilence LIII(' 649

14.13. CONSTRUCTION OF INFLUENCE LINE BY THE: SLOrE

AND DEFLECTIONS lIlETHOD

The construction of i.nnue[lctllin~s Ior stre.'l.Se.~ acting at allY section

of a redUlld~lltstructllre.as well (is for the angles of twist ahd deflec-
tions can he carried out using the slope and deflections method,
llfo..... ided tho influence lines Ior the displacements adopted as un-
kllowns arc coustructed in the first IJlace.
Let us study tile construction of these influellco Iinl!s 1Ising as
an eXJlmple Lhe structure reprl!sented ill Fig. 63.1::1 all the membcrs
of which arc of uniform cross section. The standard equation cort'CS-
pondi.ng to the conjugate system oj rodundant h~ltms sbowll ill
Fig. 64.13 becomes

wherefrom

since
rip'" -Opl

Hence the shape of the influence lino for tho nnglo of twist will
coincide with that of the diagram of vertical deflections Bpl caused
by a unit rotation of the imaginary constraint through an anglo
2 1 = 1.
When the load unity P trllveb along the right spalt (Fig. 65.13}
we have
I
TIP = -'2 v (1-v2)

and when the samtlload is situated within the left !;pan (Fig. BIU3}
the &lme expression becomes
I
Tjp= +'2v(1-02)

The m<lgnituclo of Tu will bo derived frolU the unit hending"

moment diagram iil (Fig. 67.13)

rll= 3El +~+~= lOEJ

l l I I

[n the above exptessiofl the values of v and u. may vary only

from 0 to 1, these two letters representing the ratio between the
di:5tance to the load point and the span length. The values of Tl />
in terms of v are given in Table 9.13.
Slope and D~.fleJ:liofu. Cllmhln_i/ and Mlun M~lhod,

,IP., z, ,,p
a
""" ,,1 vi

Fig, r;ti.13 FIg. fi6.18

Fig. 67,18
 14,13. Co,uln,ct/ofl of [nflu~"el! ',I,,~ H5i

Tab//' !.UB

"." I I , 'ill
I Onllnnle ZI
I. L.
I
I
Sl1all II , '0,
I
O,dln"Lc 7.,
l. L.

Bight 1 0 0 l.ell 1 0
n.s -O.1/,4l +(I.OH4 I'
la 0.'
"
-, (.U44 1 -O.OIMTI"
I'

~~
I'
O.H -O.l!Yll +O.t)U)2 0.6 +(I.ltl21 -(I.019:~ HI

O.t, I'
-0,1681 -t-O.OIr,8 1\/ 0.' +0.1IiSl -.1.
o
1168 /Z
li"I
I' I'
0.2 -O.0!161 +OOO9G ET 0.2 +O.U!)lil - O. OO:JIi IN
0 0 0 0
" "
The snmo tablo contains the vulues of the ordinates 1.0 l,he influence
line Ior Z. given b)' the expressiolJ

'"
Z,=---
'H
The completed irtfluBHce title is represented ill Fig. 68.t3.
The influenco line for tho heuding moments nt (m arbitrary section
k sitUAted within the lert span will he ba!Wd on the following cxpres
lnf{ur]f>ce line for 1 1

vi vi

,
K

,Im OH I a5l

Fig, 58.lS Pig. 1i9.lS

sion as lUllS' as the load unity remains within the !s31nc SlH\1l
M 3eJ Z
"=1>'fn~--I'- ,a,
In this expression
~M: = bending moment at soction k of a t~olljugate I'edundnnt
bl';lI11 whoso riglil cnd is fixed and the InfL ono sirnply
supporLcil (Fig. 69.13)
052 Slope alld De.flectlon:. Combined all~ Mi:z;ed Method:

= distance from the cross section under considoration to the

all
left-hand support
SEl
-V=reaction at the left (roller) support duo to n unit rota-
tion of tho imaginary constraint at joint a through an
angle Zl = 1.
The influence line for the shearing force at the snme cross section
can be deduced from the equation
" SElz l
Q1 = Q"---y,-
When load unity P shifts to the right of the central support
the allove expressions are simplilied and hecome
Ml=_37/ Zlu,,; QI<=_S~J 2\
Let 11S construct the influence line for the bending moments and
the shearing forces acting at a cross section situated a distance
0.4 1 from tile left end of the first span. When the load llnily travels
along the fmst span the expression for M 1 becomes
n SEl t 2EJ
.M" =M" = - l ' Z 1 X Oo4l=M~-__,_Z,
Let us find the values of M~ and Q: for the conjugate redundant
beam of Fig. 139.13. As long as load unity P remains within the
first span to the right of sectionk, I.e., when u <; 0.6 (sce Table 2.13)
Mt= ;~ (3-u)0.41; Q?= ;~ (3-u.)
When the load unity is witllin tile saOle span bu~ to the left
of section k. Le., when 1.1.>0.6
1I1~ = ~ (::I-u.)0.41-(0.'U-vl) = ~ (3-u.)004l-(u-0.6) 1
o =u~(3
2
u)_1

The vtllues of the ordinates to the M: and Q: diagrams computed

using the above expressions are given in Table 10.13.
Ta/lIt IQ 13

Lo~ojr>olll\ I .u~ Q1 I Inf..oad l'O\nt

M~ Ql
In Ulm,. 01 " U.na o!"
I
"OJ.
0.2
0
0.02241
0.0832 !
"
O.<t>lj
0.208
0.6
0.8
U.1728 I
0.0816/
-Cl.51i8
_0.296

O.t; 0.1128/ 0.432

1.0 0
"
 14.1.'. Contlnuti'"" GI 1"P.u~nc~ J.int'

\-Vhen the lond point shifts to the second spa I} the ordInates to the
M~ and Q" i11nuence lines become e_qual Lo thoso for Lhe inllucnce

, !','
10>
, f' , 1'" ,
,, aliI
+a4ll
j"::
la I

,, I, , ,~ 1'=(1411
,, ,
0.61 I
f
,, ,I ,, ,
, ,,
I"::
,,"
,,
I I

,I, In(luente
" " ,,
.
'I
(lJJ
,,
,
((ne for
, MC
I (b):
I
~~
~ .
I In{luem:e Un/? for
1 Q:

1<'

Id'

Ffg. 70.13 FI([. 71.13

line for Zl (see Fig. 68.13) multiplied by the following factors respec-
tively
3EJ
-~alt=--rx .
3EI 041 ""'--,-
t.2EJ) ,nd ( --,-,-
3EJ)
(

Figs. 70.13b and c and 71.t3b and c represent the influenco lines
for the different terms entering the expressions of MA and Qh' The
completed influence lines for MA nnd Qh shown in Figs. 70.13d
nnd 7L13d have been obtained through the summation of the ordi-
nates to the inlluence Hoes just mentioned.
 14. APPROXIMATE METHOD
OF STRESS ANALYSIS
FOR REDUNDANT FRAMES

1.11. CLASSIYICATlON OF AI')'H.OXl.\fATE :METHODS

'fhl' nI'lllrsi.'! of com pI i....ated frnml.'S llsing one of the exact methods
dC!lcriLed nl;o\"e (method of forces, slope and uOflccLioml method,
the mi.{cd OIlC, etc.) often remains (I.'tc-eedingly labour consuming
c\'en when all tbe possibilities of simplifying l-he equations hll,\'e
be('lI profited by. In such cascs resort ~hotlJd be made to approzimale
mull,of!s which milY be subdivided into two main groups.
Methods bclnngin~ to the first of these groups procCi'd by 1'Iucces-
Stve R)llHtlximatioll8 (iler<ltive mClllOtls) and therefore tlte llr(!('isiorl
(}f tJw fmal results mny be liS great as desired. After a sufncicnL num-
ber of approximalioM these rcsulLs will for all practical Ptlq10~3
be equivalent to those obtained using 0110 If the exact methodll.
The methods bel(Jnging to the sec(Jnd group are based an simpli-
flc.atiou!l introduced both in t.he 8ITdngemellt of structural membE'fS
nncl ill the distrillUlion of londs. 'fhl:' simplified system thUll 011-
tnined may ther(!after be annl)'1.cd using l'ithcr one of lhe exact or one
of the appro:dmnte mothods.
The simpliflcations introduced inlo olle find the salUe sy~lem may
vary considerably aud eaeh ot tht''in simpJifJeatiulls will influence
til~ final results 10 a different degree. Conscqucn1ly, one mUllt ll.'arn lo
choo.'' tha simplest way of allalY1.ing t.ha stru4;lurc wilh due rogal"{!
to 11ll! desirt'd precision of the f!luII rcsult.~. III onll'r to Ije nble to do
so ouu l!lllst undl'rstllnd very clearly the work of the entire structure
and at the sam~ time onc mllst lte wt'11 \'er~d in al\ the exact methods
of streS!l llnalyll.is.
Appro:(imatc JlIethOlls ate partilmlnrly useful when choosiug
cJ'(.<S-scctionaJ dirnellsions for proliminary ('stimates, whE'n com-
paring nltcrnntivl! lnyouts of olle n'ld the llame ~tructtlrc or when
dcsigllillg 3neillary Hr t6J1lpor~ry hllilclill!l's.
As no tlnnlYllis whether exact or npproxitnale of a tooundanL
structure I;3n be underUlken ,UI long IlS th6 cro&<-scclional dimen-
sions and rigitlities of its mcnlber5 remain unknown, the snme methods
nro freqtlently resorted to ill the preliminary choice of sllch dimen-
sions.
 AplJroxirmltc methods nrc scldomly used in the dt'Si~1I or sjmp](!
frallll's. {'X,ltct solutioll.! hi'illg l'Clldily Kvnilllble ill appropl'illtc ent:i-
neerill:: hll.lJdhuoks.

2. H .. TtiE METHOD OF MOMENT DISTRI8UTJ{):i

Tho method of moment distribution belongs to tlte first group of
njJproximat.e methods conl!tilllling in f;let a particular appJiClltioll
of tLt' SIOPI~ and deDretions method dCllCrihef1 in Utt. preceding cJllP-
ler. II learls t.o n very l'uhsllt..ntial redllction in the number of tlqUll-
wanl< tllld ill the case of struClllfl'.!. who.."e joints can ~ustllin alll;u
lar l,,,,,is\.! alone but ca.nllol, be rleneded. the method under cOIlSidp.rOl
lion (lElrmiL.'1 to avoid completely the suInt-ion llr !l'imultallC'flus CljUlI-
lions ,vith ~\'ct;ll unknowns.
....M lJu' fil1lt time. this IMl.lLOd was suggcst('d in 1929 by N. Del'-
IHlISky :lrul a few months IlItf'T. early in f930. a delailC'd dc<:(rip-
tiQI'1 of practically the same rnethod was givln by l-'roL Hartly
Cro!l!l. The moment distribution method cotJld be USf!d for thl' 11.110-
lysis of all r~dund/l.nt framed structures but in pradico it is appliod
only 10 cOlltinuolls beams nud complicllted rrnnU's whose joinL."l arc
nol. ucnec,terl by tlle a.pplie-d IO<lds. A mnximum of (till.', 01' two illdc-
ptJlldl.'llt defle<:tions of joints may llt1 tolerated.
The mom{lnt distriblltion mc~hod is particulady well IH fOl' the
ollldys.is of multi-story building frl1IUe.s IInd cloSC'll frllrrH'S of II}'dfau-
lie plonts. wht'rc its application result.s in a very cOll",iderablo redlU:-
t.ioll of computat.ion work. The COil vent ion of !igll;l adopted previously
for bending moment.'! and :Jtl.'arillg fflrt('!:l remains urrclaang('d and Ilia
conjugale JI}-s{em of J"l'dundant bl'llmS is obt8in~ in eX/l,c(Jy Ule MOle
way 8S in lhe slope and dE'flectiolls method.
Till' re~dh{.' moments. 8('Unl: at the l'nds of t.he bars arc- cOllsid-
('red positi"" when they IIct clockwise. the sILf"lrs when they t('ud to
rolate clockwise the portion of the bar under consider.ation about
its fllr eod. Tile J'('8cti"e muments are us.ually denotl'd by till' lett{'r M
witb three lower indices the first two gi"ing the numbers or juil1L~
bC'twecll which the bar is inscrted and Lhe third, separn~ from tbe
firSt two by a comma, indklltes t!lf' causa giving riSt' to Ihat partic-u-
lllr moment. The end of tbe bM at which the reactivo moml'nt Is dev-
eloped is nlway!!! indicated by till' \'ery first of the indic-l'S. Thus. (or
example. Mill." will rep~('f.t the re:tctive mom('nt denJoj)(!(1 at
end i of bar ik, under the hlnUC'nCl~ of load P.

I. ANALYSIS OF !;tnuC'!'um;:s WITH "'XED JOINTS

Let us 'XII 111 inc tlle lilruclllre .-;hown in Fig. 1.14a. In this :-truchlrc
joint 1 ~dol1e can SlJstain an Ilnglllnr rotation ::lJId 110 sill~le joillt
may l,~ d('fll'cted. 'The conjuglHe s}'stf'm of re<lundallt b(>ams sllown
I.i56 Appra,fll/late Met/lad of Stress Analy,ls for RedlLudallt Fr"",cs

in Fig. l.t4b is obtained by the introduction of an imaginary con

straint preventing the rotation of joint 1. The reactive moment de\'~
elop'd by this constroint will 'qual
Pi, Pt
M u .1>= -T =-T
l'his momont will be reckoned negative for it nets in an countcr-
clockwise direction. Tho moment produced at this joint hy the load-
ing of bar 14 tends to rotate this joint in a clockwise direction and

'0'

;Ftg. 1.14

as soon as tho imaginary constraint is removed the angle of twist

of this joint will become equal 1.0 tp\. This rotation will result in the
appoaranco of the following moments at both ends of all the bars con-
verging at joint 1 (500 Table 2.13)
M M!Ju. M 2eJ\z M\2.t
It.l=--r;;-1ll1; 2101=~q:>1=-2-

'1 31JJ\~
"l1,l=-,-CPI; M al 1= 0
"
4EJ a
..
"11I,1=-,-l(JI;
jt
 Tu thl'sc exprl'S.<;ions ,'11 12 .\ is tlte rl'llctivo moment induce.l at llud
l of bar 1-2 by the ro~~tion of joint 1 through. all angl~ .P.; EJ,~
is llll' nl'xural rigidity of barl-2; lit i:s the length of Uu' same Illlr. and
S() forth.
It is Iluito oL,-iolls that the ;111810 of twist Ir, of joint I lIIust. un
such that lhe sum of alltbc noacth'e momt'llts <l(.ling aL tno near ends
of the har.! cOll\'e~ing at this joint .'Jhould bt'COnle nil. This Clln be
esprestlCd by the t'quation
,\fl~. I +M
u ., U1 +M
u +M ,,=0
This {'(pmtiuJl is in n.l rl'!!Pt"Ct different from till' onc 1l!(.'lI in IIU'
slOl>O nllll dcncctino:i method. Since all the bars mt:\'tillg nl joint
J art' lWlstet! tJlI"Ough the same angle trIO wc may writl'
,\I'l. I : J.J I3 1 : AI H I - in: i 13 : i 14
\\ Ilero
, {;J It (I, i5EJ r~, ' J;;J u
ll~--t;-;-; i la lu l.~=-/~
The termi'l i !:ivca above- MC frequently called the ,~ttDnl!S$ /act()r.~ of
the frame mOllll",r,~. In case o[ bal's fixed at both ends tlU) sLiffoC$.'J
r<lctor i!! equlIl 10 their ncsural rigidiLy per unit length nnd for thoso
hovin!: (,rIV end built-in and the otlter freely supported this foetor
OfIlIOI!l 0.75 o[ Ull;lir Ilexural rigidity por lWit length.'"
'rh" bendirl;: mOlllenl.s due to tilt' twist of joint] bN:onlO t!Quul to
Ml~, 1= 112+::~+ 11~}'lu. p= ~l-l-l!lll"."
. ,=- "~- 1'13 1u' 1I=-,!,~Mu.p
I,,; ' \ftf
iV u
~

jI,fU.I=~f,:-:_ "3T
~Hi 'Hi
_ MI4."=-~un-I.,,p

The val,l('s of ~lt = ~~t, ; ~I'=~ ; tIl' = ~'j indiC:llc that pnrt of the
unbOlIOlllcecl moment applied to the joint which is taken tip by the
c.()rrcsp4.lndin~ franJ(' member. Hercnft.er Lhese valuC5 wiU be ,,,,ied
di.slribulion jaclor$. It is clrar that for each i ndi\'idU3 I joi nl the Sll In or
nIl the disLribution factors must equal onc.
1'ho algebraic snm of moments induced by the twi8t of joint 1
with the reactive moments illduced by the applied Joad~ in lhe bt!:llns
of the conju~lltc syst.em \\.jlI yield the \'tlluc of tho rl'su!till/o: moments
tlclill1l' lit t.hl':' joinl,,> of the given !;Iru,eLute
i'l PI Pt PI PI
.M 11=llnT; MI~=J113lf; M U =J1ug-T= -(t~III~)T

CPr1311l nlllhnr~ allrih\llc lheJ1l1merHf/"tll !IlCIO' La till) rlll'<"I 4- "~IlIlJJy

dt'l1l:'t.,! hy the 101l()( K, (n our oplidon. ft Ilts bet!.l'-r thr. tcm I,_r",
f,Z-aS3
 '1 M.: 1'1. ~1-0
"11""'2=1111 Hi' J31-

MU =1l14 ~(: + ~t = (1+ ~~~) ~l

These mOlllCIlLS must sAtisfy the rolJo.....iug r~hlLion

M l1 +M ,J +JIfu =O
The diagl"llm of the rosulting moments is repre.'lentcd in Fig. 1.1tic.
The Rnalysi~ of I'1!dundanl structures by the method :under cousid-
eration consists of the followiug operations:
1. III the flrRl plac-e the reactive l!laments inducud in tlw ht'ums.
(l[ lhe eDlljugate redundant syslem al'e determined using Table 2.13.
2. Next. equilibriurn oquatiOllS for ('ad. joint arc fOfJll{'d lIJJlllyinf,{
to tho juioLs balancing 1I1oments equal in lImount Hllrl oPP(lllil(,' ill
si!:.. to tile renctive momeuts, these balancing mO!UClltl:! being di.ostrib-
ut~ RlIIOlllC tilo mombcl'5 converging /lit the corrM-p<lnding j\iillLs
in dirN't proporlion to their stiffness factor.
3. Half the alllount of the distribuLed momcn~ is trallsfern'd (car-
ried ovur) to the fur enu of tlte bOlt Jlrovidl'd Lids cud ill also rlll'idly
fixod. In tho cvent the far enu of the liar i& provided with n llillge-
tho l'nrrY-Ovtlr momellt mu.st be Ilil.
4. :\'ew'cotllltcrbalsll('iog mo'tlCI1Ls 8lll npplit'd to each joint
throw" out of hnlanco Ily the cnrry-over momellt.<!.
III OrU(lr to uccelente the work severn I nOllcontigllous joill~ JlIay
oe doal! with lIimultaneously. The opt.'rnlion is IX'pentcd until llll:
v/lllIC'S of uubnlanccd moments become so small that they llIay bo
disfl'gnrded. The lillltl vnJuc of the hl'ndin~ mOlllonts flctill~ at t.bc
1'1l']s of cnclt llltHnber of 11 strucllLl"l! arl' olllnincd lllllllming "11 tho
\"lupsof the Iixl'd enn monl(\nls with tilt! vnlllosoF Lhe di~ll'ihtllt'd alld
cMrY-U"or moments, due cOllsidcrlltion being gi,ell 10 their "(>-!:IJ)(>Clive
signs.
All the computations should be carried out. ill tuhulat fonu. The-
table lo 1)(1 used should consist of a certain lIumbtir of col 11 11111$
and linos. l'nch column c,olTospondillg to Ol\~ ('od of eac.h member-
of Iho slructu,"{'. Thl\'!(\ columnil are grouptld joinl by joint ft..rer\'-
iug. if IlL'CC!!.!!llry, l'.xlrll cQlumn~ for cxlerrllll mOlnCllti!!. The exac.l
proccdu1'C to b~ followed when no joint of Lhc illructure Illny Le
dOnN.Led will be deRcribed in detail in the follo ..... ing IlfOhk,Ul.
J'rublnn 1. R~uired 110(\ bending mOlUl!llL dillltf'Ul' for :111 lI,c n~mh_
of 11 rouf IrlL~ "ith riitld join IS u'pl'l"'l'lllPd in "'Isr, 2.1411. Th" 1l'lIi'il of :Ill
the loui'l, ~ho fl'hlin' nlul'S 01 tho lUoml'nl, of inl'rtJa and lilt' IHlIIth .. t!.' dell.rl)'
indinttc'<l ill Ibl' ~:Im" figure .
.')ol"twII. Sinel' all lbe join IS of the g'H.n hus.- ((~ <:OInpl<'tely rhrhl 11,,
SliFfll"s., fllt:lors of all the bus Willlllllou"t to j::"T !j!., A.,,-~(JIH'''!l' t!lilL 1:: _ I
lud rl'f\lrring III the mOl1ll'llts o[ hl\lrLi" to J .....t'. ma)' wril.E' I "'" :01' The v"l"es
IIf thl' l'~ifr"cJl<i fllttON; thll." obtained (QC' t~ lie mort" preciS!". t.heir relal,h't' nltul:5j
arC!' gh...1I in th~ third Iiue or
Tabl... 1.1';.
Tflbl, J.U

, , ,,
Jllllll :-'0.
I I I
Ho" No.
I
J.!
I IHI
}_.[ 4-2 4' I I,-, I I
'1 2-J 1-1 I-J

StilTrwu
1~c1"r I " 133 '33
" 133
II . " "
133 (,7

Di~trll'llliOII
rnd"r I'
0.333 O.U67 0-'0 Cl.20 M) '.W 0.40 . '" 0.30 030

I"i.~cll
m('uWulS,
<'nd - -1.40 I. 4') - -1.40 1,'\0 - - - -
t,)II-llle-
Ir<'~

,,
J 1' .<\'
-
-
('. 'I:.'! 'I oi7
- -1-
_0.42 -o.~i -fl
_i' 01 --\1.112 --O,(II_ll.112 -(HI!
-
-~ -~ -O.?
- 10
- -
-
:41

-- I---
ing 01
""""'-1
j"iul' 2 -- ~'}I ~l Q~I 0.01
-
.'" ,tto,
1 (U;I

n~$u1ting 0,47 ......(/.47 , .S> -0,01 -1.84 0.25

hcndi'lg
OlnmcnWl

fllIvlng dotl'rulined Ibe slill'nc><S fllrlul'!' pn.oeC'"d 111';1], tho nltullllion of the
diSlrib\ltfon facl,or.':. /IS lnllieued ht'~llI)(~r fQC' jOillt I

".
It should he &lYra)'!! bpt in mind that tbe sum of IOU the di:!tribull~'" ratIon!
mU!<t he lllw~)'!l equal to one.
TbI' fIxed end mUllu:nt5 corresponding ~o tht' r<.-dunJllnl Ll"l111S o( ~he conju
g3.h .~y"klll orll givell Ill'
,l'
M'I. ,,-M IJ. p .... -:11 41 , p - -M 3.:,. ,,- -""'1'2 ""
1.2 X 3.75~
- - tl - -1..10 L/)1l-lIlclrl'!!

Th_ "lomHlt~ should be I'llkl'M! into tbl' IHth Hill' of Tabll'. 1.14.
Ail the above entrif'!o h.dug bf.e.n made" "'-I'
nll'Y Pl'IlC<'<"d ,,"Ub tho bltlaneing
or l.be rnOUlonl acting nt jf:>lnt5 J :md J of tile Ir"!S, joints :1 an.) 4 rt'lllailling
In equilIbrium for (ho time being.

ass
aM

alS
'b)
Fit. 2.14

At joInt 1 the unbalanced flxftl ond mOffil'nt .~:u . Nlual" - I AO ",m-melres,

this mClful.'ul being dirrttNl l"'lJnlercl~kwi.!'e. 'rhls mnflll'nt will I~ ukell
01' by Ihp bending Inllfl1cnls Ilelin~ at the ('od, of all thebal~ (Oow-rglng IlllbB
joint und~r (nnBidet',t'''''' lh~ I>f'ndiug m"lIl'nt~ IM.'ing tIIklllu~l Ill' follows
If 11. I __ 0.333 X 1.40_ O. n ton_lIlCue
M u ,l-o.GG1 X 1.-\0_0.':13 t<Jull:el.f(!
Thl' c~rry-ovl'r mOllll'llt! "'hiell mun to Irll.ll!fertt-'I1 to ~ll(' br ends (Of lhf!.s&
two !.an "'HI ~rnOU!lt hI
M~I, I _0.00 X (l.li7 "'" 0.21, \o,,-ml'~ro
MU,l =0.50 X OJl3 '=::0 0.47 ~on-ml'tre
Pll.5~i/l1l \0 jOill~ 3 ""I' nole that ~hi/l joint II' aet.ed upon by Rn UnbalaQet'd
mome"t JlI " :tITKlllllting 10 t ..... l lon-metl"l."~ It(tinR elot.L;,.-i5ll'. Thh n.mlll'nt
must Ix> di~tribute.:l Cl fol'~$
.Val . a ..... -0.50 X l.iI),.." -0.84 W/l-metre
,If~,)_ -O.iOX 1.1,0"" -O.~ t.. u-meue
Tho uny-owr monl('uls are l'(!UlII 10
M~~, ~_ -,).~ X 0.8'0 _ -0.1,2 tollmelrl'

M2.1,:t -.. -I).!"~)X O.5f, -'" -".~ lon_n,,~lro

 Bal~lIeinf{ Joint.~
1 anal , ~s d~ribed alIOH' v."i! hllVQ di.:5turherJ the ~Iuillh~
'"
flum of joinlS Z :tod ~. The unh"hlllCoo mOUlent 8l joint t .mounts nOw to
..v,-M u I +.Uu.~"",OA7 -0.42_0.00 ton_mett'!'
Di!ltrlbuting this mOOK'nt among the ILree ban wn""rglDg lit jO;1I1 4 ~'Il
oLtain
.If u.'''' _O.4IJ X O.l):)=< - (1.02 (oo-Ioolre
M,:!" __ 'l.2IJX 0.05- -0.0' tOIl-molre
JJ u ., _ -O.oill X 0.05_ -0.02 ton-lIIetre
011(' hal[ ..,1 ~:lrh of Ihe~1J mOQleull> vdU be agnln C1lrri,~ OV~t 10 Lilt' fllr
1'11,1 of each of tho bllrs
.lf ll . ,_ -0.5 X 0.1)2"" -0.01 U'H-lHctro
. H2,., __ 0.5 X O.UI- -0.005 lOll-melt"
,)1"",, __
0.5 XO.02 __ 0.01 Nn-UlU~r(l

i'l'l'lCee\Hn,ll ill exaell)' tbe !laDle "'ay for JOint :2 we shall (illd that lb.
Ullblll.neod moou.'l1t lrall5Jllitled to joint J (Ml~.I) l..-qullls only -0.011. This
IInbah.ueed moment i$ \'('1}' mud. sm.l!fr tboo U1(' ono fOIl.ld prtvi~ly. i15
,.Iut bE'ing prac;ticaUr no !~ler than the degree of pl"l'dsion 01 .. 11 our eompu-
!.alions. ConsequenUy. no urthef appro:dmlltlons art" Jl('Cl's..... r) for tbumoullts
uf .U the unbalancN nlOWl'n15 "..hic;h will have to bE'dealt with will bo smaller
than O.lll lon-meU(!.
The eomputdions a;lvtn in Table 1.1<1 rop..St'nt all tlu! opwatiOM noces.sa."
'<> ..... h" the prohlelll. Tht< beulling mOln('llt diagram (onslructed wHh due regard
10 the SGn (OnH'l1l1oo adopled il< mo",'n in PiR. 2.1f,b.

Z. ANALYSIS OF STnUCTURES WtTU OEFl..CTEI) JOIN'I'S

'fIle nnnly~il! of structures whoM' joinLs 1l1lly he deflected requires

thllt in acldiLiOIl to COllstrnillts opposiJl~ [,Iw twist of these joint.q
ilJlll~inllry support.'! should be inLl'Oduccd prevenlill'l' all indepen.
dent drIlcctiOllS. S('hemnLically these supports may he replaced
Il)' n corMSpondiug number of supporting oafS. As previously, the
h..nding fII01llt'IlLS induced at the ends of all the redundant bell InS of
tbe conjugate system should bl'. cnlculated usillg appropriale ready
made formulas or tablcs_ Xe.d all the joints should be balanced
by a series of successive Approximations. Finally the corrections
takin:- cart'- of joint dene<>tions should he introduced. The I'nct
seqncnr-e of operations 'will be shown in tbe following example.
Prllblem 2. T\elluired th(>. bto:nding nlOmen1 diairams for all Ih" ml"llllbors
of a double-spAn ftllm" sill...'.... in Fig. 3_14<1, Only one joinl of this (ritllle r,all
sustain mll indepr.ml('nl dt'nection .
~olullon. The slilTne!s (actON for 1111 the m('lll!Jers of the frmm(' are computed
'l~ loIlQ..... ~
O. 75J 12 O.7!'1x3 to'
112-~c..~-1. .w
fifi2 Approximate Mf'lhod uf Stress A nalY$fs lor U~dIJlld/J'11 FrIJ=s

0.75/:1& 0.75X I, 07'

1.J6=---~---- .,
13eJI} <\
J'5 8.0
I,s= l~sJl} =5.33=1.30
JS I
j3r,--I---~O
9.0
... , ..)
"
3\J O ' ..
J?:J 27.0
;~~,..------4.50
I'1.3JO G.O
KUl1wing these v~dues wo may ".asil~ obtain the tll~~ril!ulioll factors as
q "ill t/m

"" ~ Z Ju-'l7Ja
'" " QnOG
,-

~.O Z

U9'l5
11.3

Id'
0.78

,-
Fig. 3.U
 2.14. Th,. Melhod of MGm~nl Distribution

'I'll,' fixed ~nd 1ll0fficnts for ~hc rooundant h~allls or 110.., c.()njtlgal~ 5y~l<)ms
lSho,," in Fill". 3.11," aro
,/ ,,~.,.~ gIll 0.36X5.W
j -JtfM'fI~~12----1Z-=~O.8f> ~OIl-lUetlO

'!IlL 3X1~
4-hl.,.- _M~. "--""12--12= _".DO UJII-meires
Qa"~ 3x~ 2Zx4x2 Z
g(>""
M'I.J.I'- -""T1-~"--
"J. 2.'
--,-,-- (j':l = -18.8 i<Hl-metres
ql~. Qa~1J 3x62 22X4~X2
M32'/'=1"2+~=~..l- 6'l ""28.5 ~on-mctres
Till' l'fluiJilwhnn of 1111 tho joints pertaining t.o the system whnso deDC'<:tiotlS
'011' w",\'('llted I'r tlw imagin~ry support at tho level o( the cr~heam is ~nsur'ed
hy S1ffcC'_"~h'l1 ~llpl"o:(iLDation~ as showil in Lhe upper part of Tahle 2.14.
'I'hl' cl)rr<~:tiolls hking C'HP of joint denoo.:tions wiH be obhinpd upre5Sinz
Ilont lhll tOWlI relicti/m or the imaginary support duo both to tloo .,ppli..,d loade
~l1d 1'1 the lioriztmlal deDeclion ZJ i.s nil, viz.

R11'+rllZj-0
Tler;- lI,p is tho nJaction along Z, illduCI'd hv the o:ctornal lQads, "1111 'u
i~ tl,(' n';lctiun .,lollg lhe BRme dire<:tion due t.o the ullH tHsplac('mel1~ Z, ,." 1.
11(01I0;.1i"n n,p will be derived from the sllcaring stre.:L"I'S lit the lower ends
(If tIll' cnlumos (Fig. 3.i4c)
M21
Q l~'I>--:n--TI=- 5.99 2-<
.<J>h} tons

M 38 3.71
Q"'1, p= ~'""i;;"""'TI.=0.925 1011

Q~"'1>=-
M,.l+M~
14[;
q,lu
:.I = -
0.10+1.34
5.311
36x5.33
2
"
__ l. (.ons
Thu "'luilibrium of the 'Ipper portion of the frame Sl'parated rrom Ha
'!iul\llOrt.~,
fcquirillg 1I,at !X=O. wo !'8.VC
-Q'2, p-Q&3, P -Q:.I, p -qll.~+nlP""O
"jo"t'Ofroltl
2.!l95-0.952+1.23_0.36 X 5,33+1I 1p =0
allll e.tlm;clluently
RJ,,- -1.38 tQn9
'!'S for n""rtio,l 'Il il will bE" found assuming thaL th(' llOrizonLllI h~.&m of thE"_
"""'''I':''le sy~t{'m moves lownrtb tho right over a distRnf.p Z, "'" 1 (Fig. 3.I.\d].
"ho ~Ihlill'ing forr'~s which would bo devc!<.Iped in that (,asu et tho lower {'lId.~
(If tl\{' cnlullllls rdivltJcd by EJ~) would amount to
- 3J 1Z 3x3
-23 _1. 125
Q'2,l =0 J t l.
o
- 3J 30 3x-i
QS3,l= Joll ""'"43-.1875
o
- 12J1~ 12 X 8
Q~I.l= Joll = 5.33a ... 0.6325
o
'J'I"~",, shearing forco~ are shown in Fig. 3.t4d.
 Tabl" 2.14

JOint No. , ,
Bar No.
~LilT'l\.'n r.(Cl.or j
21
1.125
Z-3
'.50
3-t
".00
3.
0.1, ,
31
.. '3
1.:?;
1-J
1.5(
'1
1.50

I.. "., -
Hl3tril.mlHlU r~('Wr I~ 0.20 0.00
~.~
0.'" v.11l U.ijc
"'ixt'd l'ild mOIlIt'nb,
lOIlII\{'\ n" ,, -
3.16
_18.8
1~.n4
28.50
7.52 - - - - --
-ll.SIl ll.80

-
- -!l.GI -1~1.2 -3.20 _\:1.1" _UiV -
1 - - - 0.;0 1.00 O.I~\ O.;~:i

,,
2 1.92 ; 6!) 3.84 - - - -- -
- -1.3') -2.00 -ClA3 -1.::51 -
-0.1;'';

,r ,, 0.26 I.'"
d (,.52 - O.~ u.~ 0.2(; 0.13
Ll:L!"l\cing
J,
Joillb , - -0.21 -il.i3 -0.07 -O.:! -11.\1 - -

,, 0.0'0
~no 0.17 0.0Il - 0.113 11.07 V.O~ 1).02

- --0.0-\ ---{I 07 --0.01 - -

-"T""
2

,
d 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0 01 - -
l J - - _0.02 - - - -

"t""1
Prdinlinary v~lul.l o( 5.!lfl -:).:I'.l 18. tl, -3.7\ 1'.10 l.v.
bellding m'JITlI'nt5.
tOll-Qletl'('!l

Lk'lIdini: momenl.s oue

to unit d(lJk,cliou 1 1

2
-', - -
~0.71 - - ~I." _1.1;!J

O.:v.
or! ,, - --0.'"
0.4'
Ilnd I.SO 0.\1) - ('.50 \.(11 0."
8Il1... ncing
jUlnts -1I.J9 -O.~ -0.21 Lu.r - -
IZun.:!
l 0"'1 O. t6 ').(J8 - 0.03
". '" fl.(W, 0 .. 12;
 2.U. The .Ut/kM 0/ Mo"u,,~ D.&lrib,dio!l

J"lllt N;). ,
,
-
~~t~ ~'l'Ol
- -

l'~"
-0 01
.f
Bal"'ueillg
j"luL,i
(I.Vi 0.03 0.(11 - O.Ot - -
- - .UI - - - -
Corr(!Clum eorrl!!pond -1.75 1.75 O.~2 -0.82 0.30 0.U7 -0.91 _Ut ,
ill'l; 10 Z,_I
C;,rttioTlc orr~spon.l -1.60 1.00 0.1,7 -u.7f, 0.27 0.88 -0.88 -t.::!l
,nil W ZI_0.'J12
fillnl ,'"'nu 01 bend- -1.3:1 -4.8:1 18.61 _1. 1;5 -14.1& u.78 -u.7d ,
U. I:
illg mom"n l , Ion-
moin,s

Till:' !iXllU (lOU momenls CIIl8eu by the ~"lllO dlsplaclU''''nt or thl' lI')ri~oullll
henm O<junl
,UZl 1 - -1.I25X 2 __ 2.25
,fi3(l.I- _0.1875 X ~_ -0.75
- - ~.i,l3
AlIJ.l=AI~4.1= -0.1'325
2 - -1.6!J

Tile Lendlug lIlow..ut! III the joinUo_ 01 th" Il:iven redundant sln,elul"(! du","
to tb. snme unll displacement Z, - 1 will be obtainod bill11ndng Iho joints
lIS Indicaled in the lower part of Tablll 2.14. Knowing these hcndh,g mORlel,b
we mal' tlnd the eorre'!lOnding sho3rlng forenat tbo 10,..eT Ollds of the eolumn&
u "'01 /IS the relICtion rl: ....hich equals tho algebraic 5U1U or shearing farcus-
octing It tho top 01 IlleSt' columns. Tllue !h(,&r!! and the rt':lIdion TU equal

'UII 1.75 08--

1j-
",~.I = -~=-r- . '.:l

7J' Ni. 0.82 0 2(15

""'=-/3;---'-- .
- M~.+Ji~t _0.97 .. 1.38 0 '33
QW.I= I,~ 5.33 ""'.
rtl-~i:. I +Q~',l +Qw.I_O.875+0.2CJ5+0.4.33_1.513
We Illlly 110.... IinJ t!Je actual ,'.IUI! of the dcDeetioll of th(' upper parl or
tllt rraml!
 TIll' J">i'iti~e ~i!:ll of \hi~ (l('flection in(\icatl'~ that lt~ direeUoll ruillCidt1s
with tlH' uno ndoptl'tl. Till' ()"rl'er.liuu~ which must he introducl'd un th" Ilcndmg
IlltllllCIJts wil!now he 113Sil}' "ht,1inlld n)llltipJ~'jng the magllitHlle~ of th,~ rnOlllent~
.Inn t,) " unit dl,lll'ctioJl 1,1' tho &dul\l value (If this delll)clloll which e'l\1uls
V,UI2. ,\Il'lin!t the",' rorrwtud mom".lIl~ tu tllO!'e ,)btllinl'rl in lb" upper part
or lhe tahlc disr<igartling tho horizontnl dofif'l'liun (lr the erossbe'llll we ohtain
11", li",d v"hll'.'I or tlw l'<,quirM moments (fig. 3.14.,,).
Ir s('veraJ ilHltl[llludcnt denections could occur in the givlln struc-
ture it would b('cumo nocC's.sary to introduco separatoly the COI'rel:.-
tiOWl dllo tu ollch uf lhose deflections 011 the values of bending mu
IIl1'uLs ohtnilwrl for lhe non-dldlec.ted structure. The real value or
each (if lJLC:';l) deflections wuuld Le derived {('om a syslcm of :;imul-
Ll1rtCOllS eqmllions. The number of these equations would he oqual
VI the nllmhcr (If independent ueflections and therefore woulrl rc-
nl:lilt \'ory lIIuch slLlallcl' thllll the Ilumbet' o[ eqlJaLions used ill any
o[ Oil' llxact methods. Thu.~, i[ there are Lwo inclependellL joint
rleneetiolls, re~arrlless of the lIumber of lmknown angles of twisl,
wc shall have \0 ~olvc ollly two equlltions with two unknowns givCH
hcrellour'r
rllZ) + r!2Z!+ RIP =0
ralZj + ruZ~+R~p=O
 15. MOO ERN DESIGN METHODS

1.f5. UASIC J>BINC1PLES

Ulltil qllito recQul1y the desigll of nil Cll~i'll.'l'rillg sLruelul'c.s waif

}Jascd Oil permissible stresses. This Ill11UJlS that tlle tllleflwl fOrccs
(bending moments, shearing !lnd normlll foroos) in differont me m-
bC'TS of tho structure were determined llsing the methods developed
(11 the Theory of Structures nssllming thllt tILe wholo.structurc
wUl'kll as a perfectly elastic body. The S<!lection of the cro~sce-
tiUlIlll oimcll!lions of these members was based on formulas ustnblishcd
ill treatises on the strength of materials and wns aimed III k~ping
the design uhit strcsse..s ill t.he..ooe membcnI within t.he permissiblo
Oil!;!.... As for the permissible stresses tbomselves they wort' tllken
equlll either to the ultimate strength (If the materials or to tilc
strcs.~'S corresponding to their yield IJoint divided by a cerl,ain
far.tor of safety_ In accordance with ~his method the general e.....
l.rt'8Sioll ensuring the' strength of the SlI'1IC'ture could he written os
follows
(J"": ~.!

1.. tbis cxprc!sion (J is the design stress. (JaIl is the ultimaLc

strength or yield strength of tbe maleri<ll, and K is the s<'\fely
11\I:l.Or (K> I).
However. it I.er.ame soon apparent tbat for COflt-rcLc, reinforced
CUllcrcte and mllSOllry structures results ohtained using Lho mcthod
,"f permissible strosstlS were frequently in contradirtion wiLh dllta
llasC'o un observation or on experimental work. 1'his hlUl led t.o till'
(',tentiol) of n /lew method 01 computation usually kllown ns the
.,ultimato loads mcthod~. I.n this method the safety factor is no
Jonger rcfcrre-d to the maximum Il1lit sl.re.sses llrising ct dirreront
"(;8

points 01 the strLlcLure but tG tho ultimate bearing capaciLy o[ the

cross suction of 11 member or of the structure as {l whole. In this.
method the general e.xpression ensuring the stt'ollgth of the lIIombc{'
or structure under c.onsideration becomes

s"" 8"'11
K
J-,(I;lre S is the inlernnl force acting in the member under consider-
ation, S.. 1I is tho ulLimate load which the ~ame member is cllpahle
t.o c~lrry (hy ulLimll.lc load we moan a toad just sullicicllt La Cllll:-;I}
its failu.re), ami K is the safety betor. As 0. geJl('raL rule the uLti-
mate load.~ are calwlated with due cOlIsirlcraliol\ of pOS.'lible 11011-
elastic deformations.
Both methods mentioned nbo\'o suffered rl'om Q1I8 and the Sillllfr
drawback: the value of the safety factor remained constnnt while
in rmtlity it should depend on a number of circumslnllcl's cOllnected
wilh the structurlJ under c.(lnsideratiofl.
At the present time the U.S.S.H. Building CodrH U!I.IDfe thnt
all LI,o Cltgincerjng 5lructl!te~ should he deSi(W'd iJ~4;;;prda!!CC'
with th~ metllOd of ultimate state~' developed by 0. grou)) of Sovif;!t.
scienUllts uuder the direction of bead. V. Kcldysh and Prof. N,.
StreLpl'sky.
The term ultimate state refers to such l\ stllte of the stl'Ucture OT"
of 0110 of ils lnembers which makes further service of this structuro
impossihLe, whether due to insllffH~ient heal'ing c,apaei!.y, or to tho
<l\lpe;lrauce of excessive deflections and dororlllatloll~ or fmally to
the development of some local defects. In tIle general c.nso
the following three ultimate states should be t<lkl'tl into rOllsi-
deration:
1. The ultimate stato characterized by the loss of hearing cap1\c-
jl,y due eitller to Jat.k of strength. to loss of i;tability or to fali-
gue (ill the case of repeated loading).
:t. The ultimate state characterized by tbe developmellt of exces-
I'ivc ueformntions such as dencc~ions, twists, otc.
3. The ultimllte sLate characterized by Lheformaliou /lud opcuill!t
of cracks, or the appenrance of other local defcels proventing further
use of the structure, as, for instance, loss of impermeability in :t
reservoir, etc.
Each of the above ullilllate states may de\'eLop under the in-
nueTlco of numOJ'OUS fuctors, the mairt being-
(1) the tYlle and intensity of external loads and other actions;
(2) the strength and other mechanical pruper~ies of building
materials;
en tho conditions under whic_h the structlll'C has been ereclell
and will he-vc to work.
 ""
TI\c d~igrl I\\Ust "flSllre that during the servicc life of the struC"-
tuJ'C flone of these ultimate states will be allowed to occur nt the
samo time pre.tlllLing the Oycr9xpcnditllfc of building mnleriah.
Tilt> problem may be approached fmrll three different l'ln~les=
I. It may be neccss.uy to delermioc Hm ultimaw load for;l
givt'1l structure. in other words, to find tho magnitude 01 Lho
IOMl! which will lead to the dcvelopmcnt of any onc of the ultimato
SUites.
~. One may be required Lo choose the minimum eros,,-SC(liollal
dimensions ul" all thc structurolmembers which would ensure agAinst
the appearance of allY of lite ultimate stald under a given londing
.acting uudcr l\ given S('L of conditioos_
:1. Olle InOlY be required to find the re;\1 safety factor of a ~iven
sl.l"Uctllrc 1I1lder a given sysLom of loads or, in other word!!, to find
tilt,.. ratio hctwten the ultimate land I'l.lld the applied olle.
Tn the method of ultimate states the single safl't)' (actor u~cd
in the two methods mentioned previollsly is replaccd by n set of
dif(el1ltltiattld factors.
'rhus, the cksi{(n loads (both livo and dead) used in all tho CORl-
puttlLiOll:l arc obtained multiplying tho $Cl'vice or Ilormal l~
by tl ("ctor n called the overload factor. This fRctor i~ jll[()nued to
tuke care of tiny possible incrctlse of Lhe applil,d loads over ll.1l(1
,abovo the magnitude of the normal service loads (when the work
of the structure hecomes aggravated by a ~duction of certain
loads, tho overload factor mu.'!t Luko care of this eventuality). The
'<l"erload factor will neccSS<lrily vary dopending all the loading.
Thus. for instance, tbe overland (nctor (or dead loads alld hydro-
static pressures adoptoo by the V.S.S.R. Building Code... is quite
~1lll'111 alld equal!' only 1.1, while the same faC'.tor for live load.i CM-
ritld by 1htl noors of dwelling houses reaches t.4. For willll pressure
too overload factor equals 1.2, for Jjnow 1.4 and for the pressure
t'xcrtecl by granular materials it should be taken equal to at least
1.2. When C'ertain special or e:tceptiond combinations of loauing
.arc taken into consideration an addilional factor called the corn,
blllaJ.lons foctor should be introduced on all )j"e loads. this factor
aCo,;Qunting for tDe edremely low probabiJi~y of all liye loads
reaching their muimllm vAluos simultanoollsly. The llumeric.-al
value of 1hi.'< factor IIsul:llly ranb~S from 0.8 to 0.9.
The dl!sign dU,lgth. of nw.trrlal! is obtained multiplying their lIor
mo.l strength (the latter being stipulated hy appropriate standl:lnls ur
obtained by dift'ct testing) by a uniformity facter k, this factor
takinl: care of any possible drop in the strength of tho mnteriHI
used (as compared with the aforesaid normal strength) caused by
"3ome n\lctuation in its mechanical properties. This factor will there-
fore dl,pond ~ol(.\ly on tllll properties of the material undor con si
dcrlltiull. Ttw numerical values of this fador adopted by tile-
V.S.S.H. BuiLding Codes arc:
for structur;lL low ctlrbon steols from 0.8 to 0.9
for limoor working in bending and for masoflry work 0.4
for ('OI1l:.rutt'S with cube strength hetweell 250 nnd 600 kg per
54 cm app"oxiuwtely 0.55.
Tht V.S.S.H. Building Codes contoin tho vnluc.~ of uniformity
fncLor:s k for numorous building materials with dut' l'Cg<1l'd Lo
lllnnufnr,turing procedures and the U:,;(J fOl' which lhcso materin(s
arc intonded.
Plll',lllilll'ititls of working conditions such ItS the prosonc.c of ng
grt,s.~iYe media, stre~ concentrations, the danger or brilt]e failure
as woll as Ilny other cilocumstances alleyiating or aggravatillg tllll
work of the .~Lrl1cture mll.'31 ho tnkCll ellre or by the working condt-
tirms factor rn, whose value may h(lcomc bo~h smallor or greuter'
[hon lIIlity. Thus, for illstane.('., the workillg conditions [ue,tor fOI'
riVllblU joirrL~ "fldes fNlm 0.6 101.0 depending Oil thl' typo of rive"'!
und on the use Lo whieh these joints are put; for wlwden Ll!3ms
who!j() minimum cro!'S-!uH,'.tioJlol dimllnsiOlllj do nol [nil bolow 111 cm
the working conuitioos !nctor is taken equal to 1.1;J, IllId fol' CO]'-
tnin pre(~asl rcinforc()d t'.oncrote (;'lemonts the Building Corlo~
HUlltorir.l) 10 adopt m = Lt.
Tht' working conditions factol' is applied to the ultimate 103e[
and cOlLRcqUt,lntly a decrease in the vaLue of this factor is cqlliva-
kilt Lo an illereasc in the value of the overall safety fact.or.
Wholl l.he design is based on the first uHilllato state tlte gtmcraJ
uxprcssion ellsllfillg I.lHlt the structnre t'.olllplies with the strength.
rcquin.'ments l.ak().~ the shflpt.l of tlw following illoqlllllily
S" S"1I
whore S is the internal forc.c developed in tho member unue-r c,oll-
liiclHrHtion in tilt' event o( the Illost unfavourable tombinatio!l IIf
design loads (sorvice londs nlul1.iplicd by the ovcrlood factor).
find SUit is t]IO ultimo.lj' l)(~aring c<1pll.dty of this particular member
C(lnlj)Ult'd in tC'rllls of it.s (;t"o~~-sec-liuna( dirnelwions. o[ the dl'sign
strength or tlle Inatorinl (olJtained IJY multilllying itl'. (\c_tuaL ~trotlglh
by the illJ(lroprialo uniformity fador) [l.ne[ with dllC regard to the
wlll'king eonditiolls factor.
In II numlJer of C'_M!eS tlte building code~ lluthul"izc tile tlesign
of structures Oil U:w assumption thllt failul'o will oC'..:ur well aCtel'
the appQ(lran~'c ()[ nonelastic JeforJlIotions. This leads tu llIore
ec,ollllmital use of building materials, Ildyulltagc heing tnklHt ill
lhis case of tho reserve of sLt'Cnglh existing heyond tho ela~tic limit.
Tho "lrains and dertccliolls are u~lI11Hy computed assuming that
UlO t,lastir limit or tho Tlwtcrial is neVl!r excecdlJd llnd reducing to
IInity all Lbe overload factors. The following sections will bll dlJ\'ol~
cd to 0. brief outlillu of modern design olethods eusuring the !I~l'lmglh
of {rntne.d structures, these methods taking due account o( plclstic
IIL,formations pc-<'.uliar to building makriall'.

2.15. DESIGN OF STATICALLY DETBllloUNATE UEAIoIS

For simplicity tho real strcss-strllin ('1Irvo ot nil cla1'll,opln.~tic

mnl{'rinl is f"llplaced by Lhc simpliiicrl ructiliuco.r dingram givl\tl
ill Fig. 1.1!"1. This diagralll cOllsist~ of an inclinctl Iille roproSl'llt-
inl:.( the dn.!Lic strain,.. and of [I horiwnl<ll lino c(Jrrc~()('lIIdilll! In

Strains E

plrlsLiC, :>Iraill$. 'rhu values or yilclJd ~t.rIlS~CS ill h.'.Jl!;iUll (u~) /lul! i.~
comprt'~ioll (O'~) mny differ p6rmitting thc~IJY n hottl'r n.prc.'tmlll-
tioll of the real properlies of certain materials 5U('1I as concrell'.
asbcllto!l cement and rorlain plastics.
It is WJlIllIly B:<.>;umod tLat pht!ltic sl.rainS!;et in wiU,oulllny lmll~
sitioll periud as SOOIl as the stress in thll ffilttl'rilll hn... 1'~1't,,"dl'tl
its 1'i{,lrt poillt. For dcsign purpose!! yield g~n~s'SCs I'J, Ilnd 1];' arc
replaccd by ~ho dt'sign s~rtmgth of the nlllll'rinl Jr nr 11' Ill! tlw (,IS1'
may be. the latter heing obtained multiplyil1g yil'ld gll'llsscg hy Ihl'
c.orresrondilll; UJlirorlnity factors.
Jt is as,!;ufficd that pllt~tic deformfltions uf the malerillls may
continue indeftnildy lInd that the increase in strenglh due to ~lraill
hardening llilll' 1Jl' Ill'gl<'Cled. Strictly ~peaking, the simpliflcd riia~
gram eall he ufl~d only iu the event Ihe IJ[nslk derormnl-iullS sus-
tail'el! by the mnterinl do not exceed Illl' !,uril.0Jllal portion or I,he
t'12

real stn!S5-strnin curve corre5ponding to the yield point. For cer-

lllin building matcrinb 5uch as rolled stacl, this Itori:t.ontal !Stretch
may 00 qUilC short.
to'aih_fC of l"Cinrorc~1 concrete elemonts usually occurs whcn bolh
the reinforccment and t1lO C<Hl<.'role itsclI haVll IJIllerecl the lono of
phtstic <leformations nnd therefore tho simpliflcd diagram of
Fig:. 1.15 J'()mllin~ to 1\ certain extent applicable. In nil CllSllS whore
briulc failure may Lo cxrOdcd the c.lingram of Fig. 1.15 become!!
totally Ululcccptable.
Lt,t tlS now examine tilo cross soction o( a slaliC8.lIy detcrminllte
beam symmotrical about ib verLic."l1 axis ond working in pure h<.>ud-
inll (Fig. 2. tba). For sirnpJicit~ ,",'0 sball assume 0; = a,_

..
a,
tlf-'

c, a,
'"
.
,.) C.,
~

'" 'fJ '91

(01' (b)

Fir:. 1.1S

As long a~ tho stresses al all the points of this CroS.'i section re

lI_uill below the elastic Unlit of tlw mnl.tlrial (the elaslic limit. coin-
cidjng on too simpliflCd dingrllm with tho yield point) the stress
-diaj;trnID for th.e cross section under consideration. will consist of
two trinngllls 1JhOWR in fig.2.15b. If tllo bending' IllOmenl is in-
cr~a!<l)d, tlu,) lJI,fCS!iI:!S in 1.ho crfl$3 secLion wilt incl1lflstJ nlsn lllld Lilo
oUler fibres will evcntunlly reach the yiold point (~'ig. ~.15c). At
this moment t.he purely elasLic work or tho beam cOllies to an cnd,
plastie strains beginnirlg to dE'velop within tlte extreme fibres (If
the cross sectioll.
The method of pcrmissiblu stresses is ba5l:d 011 the assumption
that the bearing capacity of an clement iK.'eQmes ('omplctcly ('xhl'l.ust
ell as soon as nonelast.ic strains apptlar in t.he otlwr fibres of the
cross section. Howcver in reality the stresses in all the fibres locatod
do.:;cr to the neutral axis rcrnoin well below the yiclrl point of the
malerial and therefore the loads and bending momenl.lJ may be
fUfth.or increnscd without entailing t.he immediate rllilllJ:e or the
be'llJ1.
 2.15. DuiV' '11 $tQJlcalq, Ddcrlftin.Mc B~tlms 6"
:For Iho!'08 of the fibres whe-re the yield point has boon alrtady
{lxcC'{.(It>d t.he slre!!."f's will n:main constant while for the rest of
the fibrE's situated clo~r to the neutral axis they will eonUrluG
jncrcn~ing with 8; gra.dual decrease in the depth of the clAstic zone
(Fig. 2.f5d). If the bendilll;: moment is further incre1l..~d the stress
dingrflffi will tend to that. of Pig. 2.15e at which moment the ooarin,;::
c<lplldty of tho beam will become complotely exhaWlted IUHI II pla-
stie hinge will o.ppear. Sllell Il p19stic hinge difft>,rs from 81l idt>al
ono by the fl\Ct that it will fllnction only if two couple.':! acting in
(Ipposite directions are applied to this hinge. each of thesc couples
bein, equal to tJlO ultimate resisting lOoment oorresponding to the
.!i6ctiOJl. The plastic hi.n~ disappe<lf1'l lLS soon as tbe beam i;'J uo
loadl'd or if tbe bending mUlIll.'nt ehani:CJS sigil. In both {ases the
bc:lom ccverts to nn elastic stdt'.
The bending moment at the plastic hinge which characterizes
diU real bearing capacity oC Leo.m is cOrlsiderahJy greater than the
herldirlg moment cntailillg tho appearance of yield stre~ in the
external fibres of this benm. T.he magnitude of tbis lx>IIding moment
nHI)' be obtained in the following way. On tho formation of a pla-
stic hinge all tIle points of tllo ext<lndcd portion or a cross Sl.\ction
are st.tossed to o~ while aJl tbe points of the compte!lS<ld portion
are stres...cd to Ov = ~'O'D'
Since the normal force in l'l cross &..>ction working ill pure be.nding
t'quaIs zero, Ihe resultant of :loll the unit stresses acting O\'CC the
d'endcd portion mU!lt equal tbe reSlIlt.ant of all lh(' unit stres.ws
Act.iug over the cOnLpres..~ port.ion. in other word:'!
*'lIF t = o,F.
lXllerc(rom
F: F.
F !=~=~. 1j>F
F.= 1j!+t
P is the tolal cross section of the beam.
This cqualtOIL permit!) the immlldiate detl:'rminnLiQn (If ~hl! neutral
axis which mllY no longer coincide with the horizontal nxis (If sym-
metry for the givcn section. Tho real beariJlg capacity of tile beam.
c,harac.terizcd by thP. ultimate bending rnOme.nt, may be nGw oh
tAined takil1g Iho momcnt of all the sbe....~s acting at I)lis cro~
section about the neutral axis just obtained. Replacing the yield
.~trcs:;:es a. by the design ones R and introducing the working:
couditions fa.ctor In we obtain
.l1.1t = mR ['I-' SY. dFI + ~ V, dF l ] = mR(tl'S1 +8.> =- mRW p
FI "
where y, llnd Ut represent the distances ot the- elcnlenl.llry areas
dF I and dF 2 (these areas being situated ill the upper nnd lo\\'er
U-8~3
li14

portion or the cross seclioll. respectively) t.o the neutral nIis. amI
SI and $: are lIle staticlll moments of the~ two portions Abuut
the ~amc axis.
Thu term (,~S 1+ $2) rcp~SQnts tlUJ pla.~tic rui:Jliu{! mIJ/1l",nl of
the cross ~'I:cti(m alltl will hI:' hel'culldt'1' liesignlllcd by IF ,.
The ffill.ltlliLudc o( the ultimAte resislillg mOIl1Cllt would l'\.ll111tiJl
ullchan2:cd j( the ilIomellt:~ or tl,e internal foI'l'tls were referred tu
the I:rllsity axis iostead of the neutnl Olll'. "'ur II rectangular CT'OS-'>
section the pla.iLic resisting moment bc-conws
lVI'=W.S\+SI=~(~hi+h;)-- .,):~t)
~spl-'\;tivl.'ly

.'
where b :llld 1l rj>prcsent the willlh and thl' d(lpth
Ct()$i'I S{'l.'lioll. and
of tht!

,
h j = '1'-1; h:- 1/.'+1
, bill
\VIWll ~ ..... t, as iJol tile case for strllcluralf<tC{'l, IV p l'l:IUalsT illllt

COn3elluently
Irp bill bhl
-W-T:T-1.5
W roprl'Sl'nting as usual the eladic rt'sisting moment of UU' CrW'S
sectioll.
Whell $ ""'::! as in the case for ashestos. CCLn(;lot we obtain
bh~ 11'1'
WP=T and IT=2.0
h follows that Lhe heMing capacity o( structuritl clcml'nli mB~' be
increascd quite con~iderably if doe aecomlt i~ takeu of tl.tc plastic
strains which may develop.
For H-btnms and I-beams the ratio W
W
l'qu::ll:: apl)l'(Ixim::lwly 1.15
(pnwidcd 't' = 1) nud in thaL ease the plastic dcsign hecollll's IlS.~
ntlracUve.
For t.hOSll (I( lho materials whore -,p faclor is the grontl;!st the (!('o-
1I0ll1Y dol'ivucl rrom plastic dosigu bC'COln(lS \'lJrY Iloticonblo for it
becomes possiblt! lo incrcnse th~ scrvice loads twice or QVI'll mOl'c.
The uistrihutiOlI of stresse~ Rlld pla~tic Wilt'S along Ibe span of
thl' (,cam is \:Iltirely d"pellclcnt on the bUilding moment. diagram.
During ullloadillg the straiJl~ dt'crea~o along a straiJtht line (dotlt.'d
lino ill Fig. 1.1;') parllllel to the one representing their incJ1!a~ dllr-
iug loading while tl16 body litill works a'l 311 olastic one. Hence
durini:" unloading tho material behaves again a.... a purely clastic
onc and Lho $Lrcsltes I\t any particular stag.3 of lids operatioll will
be given by the sbaded portion o( lho diKgram obtained by supor-
position and given in r~ig. 2.15f.
 3.1f';. Dnff" fit Sl4litllll/l Ifldtltrminlll~ Btllml

Wben the beRnt is conlPlbtcl)' unlollded the stress diagram will

take the shape iooicated in Fig. 2.15g. The moment due t.o the
internal forces must vanis.b for upon complete unluading the bend
ing moment ht>conlCS equal to terO il~lf.
It should be noted that the huring Cll.paciLy of beams carl1'jng
tr<lnsversal load'! may be reduced considerably due to the influence
or shearing stres.<;('s, whkh becolllll portiC\llorly cl<lllgerous whl'll the
oJIl!Stic limit is excetldcd.
I'rol>l"U1. nl'qu[fl1d to sdect ..he' aO~!-fetl,ivflal dimerosifln~ cl 11 simply
~\IPl'Orl~,1 b.~lllll e m long 11111dl1 of low CllrL~n sttlt'l, thl' delld )OIlU 011 Ihl' hCIlm
I'qw,lling Z ton.< per m@tre Rod 1.\ COncl'nH:,ll'd 111'1' load of 5.0 tonl! being Il P/Jlill<l
'11 mld~jJ~n. The OYl'r!l'n,1 factnrs equn] rC~I'l'ctl,,(!ly 1.1 for tbo dllllcllOlll and
l.t, for till' li\'c Irllli!: Ih~, WOI'king condition!' fllctor 111 cqullb 0.00. TI1C dE'l'ign
s1.r('ngth "l low (".ad,oll t1ol!'1 R will bl' t"kl:1l !'qUill 1.0 2.100 kg pllr fq ("'11.
SI11utll1'l. 'rh" ,1E':"ill'll mOlr\('nt al mid!l'lIu i!l
nqqp '1 p PI l.lX2.0xr.~ 1.4X5xtl
M =-.-+-,-"" 8 + Oi -
_9.9+ W.S-:.ro.4 tOQ-mftres __ 2,1W},llOO klcm
11<(1 ~rin~ c.pacil) of !tt'l'1 beam .... orldna: in bt'nding is Ilivu b)'
M"ZI-mnWl'",,0.9x 2,10011'p_f.890IV,.
Lt'!. us adopt. III I-bum ...11051) ph-Slit l'e!'i:ning D1Offi('nl W,._I.I~V.
!:':'lltllllinl the dl'5ill1l Il(lnding DlODlE'flt to the ultimate M!'SiSUOll;: IRonoent
or lhQ ben ... 'H' finJ
.1f",II-l,&OO!V 11
....hiclt Il'ltds to
1,8110 X 1.15W""Z,or,O.(I(lO

IV_MO <lm~

wr. ~hall d\oo!(' ~ 36( I-lwam (the_ C .5.5.1\. Stole Standfll~11 with 11 re!isting
mO,Ul'nr of (162 l:nI 3. Wer" lhe lllme be:lm dUill"ned using tIle llerrni5l!i bl" !Ltrt"'Se3
method we !h<luld hnl't" to Wle a 40.- I-bum.

3.15. DESICN OF STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEM.IS

The ('omplett' t'xhawtiou of the hearing capacity of certain re-

lhmdant iIlcmbcl'$ of a strut-lure "'ill not entail it.!! failure pnl\'ided
the remaining members continue to forlll l\ geometrically stable
system c,apable of carrying tho applied load. Plastic dcformations
of the overloaded members wiU lead lo a redislributioll of stresses
\\'hich will illcreaso I.ho hearing pow~r of the structure II.S a whole.
Complete failure of Ute latter will occur only when the number of
members whose hQaring capacity has been exhausted becomes equal
to the IlUIllJJer of redulldant cOl1strainl~ increascd by t. Th~ plasUe
design of stalically indoterminato strudurcs may he carried out
43-
 Modtm D~Mgn MelhM!

using the method of plastic hillges which, in its morc goneral form,
is known in the D.S.S.n. under the name of the method of ultimato
equilibrium. Both the static and tho kinematic procedures mAy be
uLilizeu.
Tho kinematic procedure rc_quires the knowledge of Iin+!s or
points of failure. permitting the formation of equilibrium equa-
tions pertaining to the mechanism into which the structurtl will
be converted once its benring power Itas been exhausted. It is usu-
ally assumed that all externa! Jonds increalJCe simultaneously and
in the same proportion anu that thnir points of application. (lirec-
tions and signs remain unchanged. It is also assumed that the
pallcrn of tho actual failure will be the onc corre;lponding to the
mil\imum \'IIIU6 or tho ultiJuate load.
Equations of u[timllto equilibrium may be bast!d eithor on statics
or Oil tho principlo of virtual displaccmonts. In the lattcr cuse it is
assumed that jnflllilesimal displacements occur; these displnccmellls
remaining l.'_onsistcnt wilh the constraints subsisting after thtl trans-
formatinn of the structure int.o a mechanism.
"fho !':tatk procedure requires that the intarnal forc~s should be
disLributed in the redundant structure in such a way that together
with ~ho initial or inhenmt strOs.'les they should lead to its failure.
for this purpose some distribution of internal forclls ill equilibri-
um with the applied loads is chosen and thereafter <t number of
additional systoms of internal forces. each of these systems being
blllallccd, Le., corresponding to zero loads, are added thereto. The
numl:ll!r of these additional systems must he equal to the number of
redlllldant constraints of the given structure.
The ultimate equilibrium is reached when the bearing capaciLy
of certain membors or the sLrut,ture becomes L,xJlausted.
The real distribution o[ internal forces will correspond to the
maximum breaking load possible under the given conditions.
Both tho static and the kinematic proredures if applied to the
~amo redundant structure will always lead tu tho samo results.
In a number of cases resort may be made to the so-called method
0/ moment equalization, derived from the kinematic procedurc.
The appearance of each plastic hinge in a continuous bearn always
corresponds to tho elimination of one constraint "nd thereJort;!
reduces by one the dl!gree oE redundancy of the giVCll beam. Hence
the bearing powor of the heam will he completely exhawwd as
soon as the number of plastic hinges has become equal to the degree
of redundancy of the Learn plus one.
It should he rememllered however that the bearing capacity of
each single span will be also exhausted as 80011 as tlU'oo hinges
appear within its length. For this reason every span of a continuous
beam must be also considered separately.
 :I.l.~. Dtll/t" oJ Stotic"ll, fnddtrm,n"lt lh'Jr'" 677

Let us take the c.ontinuou!I beam sho.....n ill Fig. 3.150 whose
bearing capacity is required for the 'l'iven distribution of loads.
First let liS replace the given beam hy Cl conjugate stalically de-
terminate ,.:tructure cOllsiJIting of a series of cod-supported beams
a9 indicated ill Fig. 3.:l5b and let u.:s construct separately for each
of tllese btoamll the dillgrams of hendinl: moments induced, 011 tbtl
Pr, <JIt

.
I,
qtlJ/l
J
e , z '

ono hund. by the ultimate mOlnent which may be c1~\'eloped at each

of the supporl.!l (Fig. 3.15c) and, 011 the other hand, by th~ bQnd~
ing moments duo to the ultimata loads whose points of application
awl directiolls al'!) given but who!;e mngnitudes remain unknown
(fig. 3.15d).
It is clear that the ordinates at the !lllpports to the diagram of
bending moments entailing the formation of plastic hinges at t.be
:laid support! will repre!lent the ultimalt! bcnring power of the cor-
respondillg cro~ sections of the belli m
Af l all; Mt. ,,/I; ,,/.i .\1,.
It-f,. ,,11
The rwdll.f1g bending moment diagram will be obtained by
Ilupcrpositiotl uf the negative bending mOlOcllt dillgrllm duo to tbe
This dillgram Illls heen constructed on tIll.' tI$,umption lhat tho ultimata
strength of the beam varies from sypport to 5upporL.
678

3foroS,1id moments at the supports with the diagram of positive

bending moments illduced by the t1pplied loads in each span of Lhe
conjugate simple structure. Thtl !Cales of Lbege two diai:rams will
be so selecLed that in oach span the maximum posith'c ordinates
to Lhe diagram of the resulting moments .should represent the bearing
capacity of corresponding cross sections (Fig. 3.15e). The numerical
value <If the ultimate load for each span will be found {'quoting LIlo
maximum ordinate to the bending moment diagram pertaining to
the l:onjugRtc end-supported beam to the sum (in absolul values)
of tho maximum ordinate to the resulting diagram wHhill tlla span
ulldof consideration with tho Ordinate at tho same eras.!! st:clioll
duo to the application of ultimate mornent.~ at thl) ~upport.s.
Thus, for ill!'itsnce. in the first. Spllll from left to right wc shall
lllwe
,Ill, ~fI/I.
-'-,-
+ At 11, ..11

whcrefrolll
p _ .1/ 1 Ilfl ..L MA. "lilt
I,,ul- b Ill<

Since MI,..Jt=M1, ..lt for th~ ,se.cond span we shall hav('

~, uttli =
-----s-- "' I, "It
jl +" I' 11, lOll

whtlrdrom
g2,,,.11 = 8 <"'.... II+AlJI.
1I "tt)

Similarly for thl) fourth span we .~hll)] have

p~, ult l 4 _ ].13. ,,11
--g---::I
+~
li
+ Ai 0, u/l

wlwrefroOl
_ M ."lt+Uf4, ..It+SM D,ult
P ~,..JI- 3 1
4
Knowing the "!lIlies of the ultimate resisting moments wo can
easily dBtcrmin~ the \dtimate loads for each !Opan which will lead
tu the value of the ultimat.e load for the beam as a whole.
When the ultimQte f'l.':isting moment of the continuoU! beam
romaim3 tonstant Uti determination of ultimate loads becomes
particularly simple. Indeed in that Cll.llC the desired re!lult will
I~ achieved if the rnn:ximum ordinates to the resulting bending
moment diagram within the spans are made equal to those at the
supports (Fig. 4.15).
Wh~n it is desired to solve the inverse problem or, ill other words.
10 fmd tiLl!. necessary crosSo-!'oectioDlll dimonsions corresponding to
u given loading, one should start by the construction of bending
 t;7~

moment diaqranls for llRCh o( the spans regarded as a sepa.rate end-

supporlt>.u beam. Tbi:! ~ing done. t.he vAlues of maximuM bending
",omcllt;; in t.he span and at the supports should bu choson in such
a way that. t.lleir ratio should be t.he samo as t.he rat.io of the resist.
iug JttoltlenL~ at. the corrosponlting cross SCCt.iOIIS. This Illtler ratio
should he l\dopted beforehand for ot.herwise an infinitely great
tllllnber of solulions would IJeCtlmtJ possible.
Assume. for insLnnce, t.hnt it is required tu construct the diagrom
of tll(' design bcndillg ilHttnont Ior the continuous bllum of Fig, 4.1;1.
all the louds being known bot.h in amount Dnd in direct.ion,
PI,IIIC Pl,uil q p""'/ P"."/C P.l,lfU
J,odl

Assuming that t.he desigu moments nro equivalent t.o lhe ulti-
mate ones the desired diagram for each span will be obtainro in thl)
SAme way as tho ultimate moment diagram, First the bending mo-
mCllt diagrams induced by tho given loading in all thc COJljugaw
end-supported beams will be c.ollStructcd and tl,e pertinent ordi
naLes to these dingrams computed.
'l'hcrenftcr ontl may II!OCeed with the !Jfcliminary equalization
of the bending moment diagrams for t'3CJt span as indicated ill
Fig, .5,1.'ib. If the cross secHolI of tlw beam is tu remain cOllstant
throughout. its dimensions are c.ho&'n to I'8si.!lt the maximum hcnd~
iog moment. In the case under coD!idoration tho bending moment.
Acting in the first span is the greatest oE !lll. It is ob,ious that no
plnst.ic bingE'S will appear ill an)' of the other spans under tile given
IORdiJlg.
If it were required to construct. the diagr.tm of bending moments
leadiltg to the format-ion of plastic hinges in all I-he loaded Spa.llS
onc should procet'd with tho equDlizaLioll of moments acting imuw
diat;;lly to the left and immediatdy to the right or each support,
In doing so. oue should always start with tho spalls carrying the
smaller loads passing therellftt'r to the spalls characterized b) gra-
dually ill<'rcasing maximum bending moment.s.
Thus, in the example under cOllsi(lllratioll one I$llould 5tlrt with
tho ~econd span (or which the preliminary bending moment diagrlllll
wiH be adopted as tho rillal onc. The diagram for the (jr,gt sllan will

, .J. -~1
-; p,
I.
t-'-- 1--'---
;a'
, " ,
1111111111111
.1
, .
1
,
,I
-,
. -I
"
I,
'" 1

Ftt. 5.1.'>

be ohLained immediately since the bending momeflt Ilt the right.

hand support is already known (Fig. 5.1.5a) and tho onc at the left-
hand support is nil.
Thereafter one should pass to the fourtll span which is prooedecl
by t.he unloaded span 8. Hence the preliminary bending moment
diagram for span 4 can also be adopted as t.he linal one. The diagram
for tbb third span will 00 obt.ained COIlOBcLing by a straight. fiuc
tllC ordinates over supports 2 and 3 which lire already known. The
resulting bending moment diagram is reprllS(!ntcd in Fig. 5.15c.
This djag-ram may be used for the detcrminat.ion of etOss-sect.ional
dimen~ions both over th~ supports and wit.hilL the spans.
It i.!l clear LhaL Lheso dimensions will durer from support to !'up
port nnd from span to .!Ipan but. the beam y,till be of equal n>sistance
for the given system of loads.
Other solutions (Quid be found if the ratios b"tween the resist-
ing momenls lit t.he support.s and in the spans were tIlkcn differ
 ",
ent from unity. If a beam of equal resistance wele not specifIed
sUlI JJlor~ solutions to the Same problem could be obtained.
00<'> oould nho use the bE'llding moment diagram obtained for
all eliUl~ic r.ontilluous beam. The crossseetional dimel\.!lio1l8 would
be baSt.d ill thltl case on the values of bending momenU5 obtained
through lIw l.'<)ualizalion of those at the supporl.s with those in the
Spflll".
In certain c.aSt'S it bl"(.omC:!l llece!l-'lI.ry to (md the safety factor
[or 1I. ::iven continuou.s beam carr}ini: a welI-deflDcd system of
loads. In tbat CllSt' one must determine the bearing capacity of {'sell
!-pall, "'hidl should be done as indicated in Figs. 3.15 <lOO It.t:;
t'qullliliug Ille ordinnle!! to tbo bending monu~nt diagrams SIt t.lle
supports find within the spans with the only dinetellce that thtt
bC'llrillg r,llllacities of differE'nt c;ross sec~ions should be nOW conl-
puted disrt'garl!ing the working conditions factors. The latter will
119 cnleullllod for each spnn soparately, dividing the mognitude
of the ultimate- load obtained by the amoont ef tho loads Ilcluully
llpplit'd.
Tho "'I...11C pr'oblem could he dodt with in a somowllat diffol'('llt.
mnllll('.', One could start by the construCLion of the diagram for
the C'qllalized bC'nding momenl.s as in Fig. 5,15, dC'r.ive therefrom
the required cross-gee_lienal dilllensions for eac-h span and thero-
nfter ('ompare the bearing capacities corre..~ponding to the dimell-
sion~ frJund with those of tht! given beam, This procedure will per-
mit again the deterflJina~ion of the actual values of the working
conditions factOr!!.
Up to UIl) present we have Assumed that plCUltic hioges will
:lPI}(lat either at the supports or at those crOSS sections where till!
bending moments pass through thl;!ir maximum. In actual practice
beams whose heacing capacity varies sharply from section to sec-
tion ure rrequently cnoountcred (for instance, reinforced conCl\lle
beams). In thl!Se roses it is impossible to determine beforehand the
location of plastic hinges.
To find them one must fIrst trace "he diagram representing the
variation of tho bearing capncity aJong each span (Fig. 6.151. Such
a diagram will usually consist of a positive and a nl.'gativQ brallch.
since each cross section is capable of resisting both posilive and
negnth'e bending moments, evcn though their magnitudes mllY
dilTer considerably. The bending moment diagram should ther~
after bo inscribed into the diagram mentioned above (the ultimate
resisting moment diagram) in such n way I,bat the two should have
at. least three common points. The location of these points will
indicate the position of the plastic binges.
Assume, for installce, tllut the dingram for the resisting moments
along the first SPlln of the beam given in Fig. 4.15 is represenLed
f182 Modun Dt8tgn 11ft/hod.'

by the broken lines shown in Fig. 6.t;l. Inscribing into the lat.ler
the hending moment diagram for the same span we shall lInd tll3t
, . ,
" ~I
, .,.
P"uu f-
~

A ~ I\;
n~ E

I~ ,..-
I,
I,

Fig. 6.15

tho plastic hingl!s will appear in cross sections A and E. The uLti-
mate value for load P will be determined on the basis of 1.!LeSE! two

Fig. 7.15

diagrams, its value being equal to

p
1,U./t-
_ ME'1l1l
b,
+ M ... ,u/t(..
ab
+b t\
l

In the cllse of a continuous beam of varying beuing capacity

pbstic hinges may appear at different points as indicated ir\
Fig. 7.15. Each different set of these plastic hinges will lead to a
 3.1S. D~~rgfl of $lllUcafly Indel~rmln"l~ B~am. ll83

di[Jcrellt value of" the ultimate load and therefore, for design pur-
poses. onc should adopt the smallest of tht'se values deduced from
the comparison of different failure patterns. It is obvious thlll, sltch
failul'c pattet'IUl which lire inconsistent with the stipulation of tIll'
J1J"oblem should be fl:'jecled.
When II heam carries both dead and live loads whiell may vary
in amollnt hIlt whose ratio remains constant, the ulLimattJ vallll;'~
of these loads will be found using an envelope diagl'lIJ[) for lhe
bending momenls. The ordinates to this diagram wiH be gi\'i:lrl in
Lcrms of II single parameter determining simultaneously the mag-
nitude of lluth dead and livc loads. Assuming thtlt the beam relllllills
elf\stic IInd having obtained the correspondiJlg bendillg mOnH!lIt
diagram, one should proceed with the equalization of lhe maximllrtl
JJlmding [lluments with due consideration to the ultilllale resisting
1110m~lIls of the beam. This being done, tlte required ultimate JOltd~
will be eClsHy found. Wlllm both the dead and live loads are knowl\
llefore.hand the required cross-sectional resisting moments may he
computed equaHzing the ordinates to the bonding moment dingram
due lo the above loads multiplied by tile overload h.cton::.
All Ihe llhove leads to the important COnclusion that the methnd
01 rla~tic, hinges permits the design of continuoUfl beams withmll.
reS()rl.ing to equations based on the deflections of the laruclllre.
It i~ worth mentioning also that the forma~ion of plal'ltic hiHgo.-''1
reduces the reuundant continuous beams to the ~tatc of a IlH'Chll-
nism, which is completely uneffected by such fac.tors as the set-
tlt-ment of Sllpports. temperature changes, 01' erection defecl.s.
Pal'tly fixed ends become equivalent to tho rigidly lmilt.-in
Olll'S.
Once 11 continuous beam has been loaded beyond its elasLic limit
residual deformations and stresses will allpeal. These stresses will
!lnl, balaol within oach sectio~ as was the case wHh statically de-
terll1inate boams, for the redundant constraints will develop eertaill
reactioJls wlLic.h will not reduco to zero upon witlldrawal of the
loads. 'rhe determination of residual stresses is rather complicated
hut since these stresses have practically no infiuenee 011 the bearing
cnpncity of the structure this question will not be studied here.

Proulem. DotBnnlne the hoaring caJ)ncity of 11 continuous I-bl'nm shown

in Fig. 8.15, whose resisting mOIllont \I' = 237 cm3. TIle bpnm is mado of low
carbon steel with Il. de91gll ~trengtll of 2,100 kg POl' !;<j cm. 'I1lC working con_
uitioll~ fllctor If< - t.
S".If/IIO". Thl!' ultl,,:,nte ~omE'nt .which call 10(> Ilevclop~d by the cnlSS s<!CtiOIl
of 1hls I-beam workIng III banding equals

Mull .... mEW p=mRf.t5W _ t.O X2,iOOX 1.15 X 237-=

.. 573,000 kgcm _5.73 tOIL-metr('s
Siuce tho bendior: moment "'ithin th,!paD and It the sopport mutt lie t'qual
1IU !h..lI hal"$ for the tint !p;iD

PI"'!' "~f
--,--'" 1111

Fit. 8.15

Slmilnly lor the !ll.'eOn<l ~V"l "''e slldl fmd

'1,,~tt_2;lf .lI
...herertom
t6,u,,1I 16 X 5.73 3
q~II---q-- <i.6i _5.7 Ion, per metre
~<lr the C&JlUlevl,:r

when'fruID
Ufllll 2 X 5. 'i3
'1.111 - T " t:s:r'" S.10 100u prr meLrl'

4.15. DESIG).' OF REDUNDANT FHAMES AND ARCHES

Frames llnd arches are usually subjected to the simult.aooolls

action of bending moments am) normal !()rccs and consequE'lit!y
we nlll!ll study first the combined action of normal and Dexural
stresses on n cross section working beyond its elastic limit. WI!'
shall lIssume that the ulti rMle strengths (or yield stresses as LllE~
case may be) of tha material in extollsion (O'f) and in compression
J~=~o-,l differ but that the eros.'! section possesses at least one
symmetry axis ill the plune of the bellding moment MUll' If in
addition to this moment the cross saetion is also suhjeeled to a
1l00'mal forc,a N acting along its axis (l~ig, 9.15), a plastic hinga
wHt appcllr at Litis section when the diagram of [Ibl'(' stre~p,g will
take the shape indicated in Fig. fU5e. 1'he noutral axis will shift

M"tt- - fJ'il~g fa)

,
(b) Ft (cl
""u
FI!:. 9.15

towanls the edge of the cross scction. its distance rrom the celltre
il1tTcasing with the reduct,ion or e => NM"u. The magnitude of tlle
""
ultinlflte normal force wil( oqual the resultant of all litE' fihre stresscs
nC"lillg over the given cross section and will be given hy
N ... 1t ""'a u (..pF.- F~)
where F I and F z are the areas of the compre..'lSoo and ox tended
POI'tiOIlS of a cross section. respectively.
Since F 1 - F2 = F we can casily find the areas of both portiuns
jn>:t mentioned which will detcl'mine the position ef the nentral
/lxis
F
F 1= 1+'~ (1 +~'NI:
NUll) F .F
2= I+'~'f'
(1 - .v.. lt )
N"
r "1I ,,1/
III t:his expression. N~1I = 'fauF reprl.'sents tho value of the ulti-
mal,!:' normal load for tIle eross se_ctien working in direct compres-
sion. The maximum value of the bending moment whic_h may be
applleil simultnneot1-<;ly with a normaJ lond ."rl,,1f will be given hy
M W11 = all (~)FIYI +Fcld = .M~/l'v
where Yl I'llld Y2 are the distances of the centroid~ of lhe compressed
and (>.xtended portions to the grnvity axis of the whole cross sec-
tion, a,lId M~,II = <1ljWp is the ultimate bending moml?-llt which
f'.Oldd be appHerl when the e1crnellt works in pure bending. HeTlcc
1Ill) value of \' givcn by
'lJ'FWI+ F2Y2
v= IV
,
will reflect the influence of a norlllal load on the resi~tance which
a cross sectiOIl may develop to f1exuraJ stresses. Wp representing
as usual tlte plastic resisting moment of the same cro!!S section.
The laLter musl be detnmincd with duo cOll!'Cideralion lo till,' differ-
ence he~woelL the valm's 01 the yield (If ultimll.te stresses in com
p,'eJ!.,ioll uud ill ('xlensiQII. For a roctallgtllar (:toss section whose
/of _ .tJ .;ut' _ ~t. tJ d,

,C '-J ~:l - "".ill'" ,...~:! U/'I/JJ Null' Th

,o
, ,,
6

,
'" '"
"- ~.C /,
/' '" .. ~
,.
1
,,
0
lib.'
~., r--..
"~.,
-\- 'P'; ,a
a , /' CI
a6 V /1 1"-' .'- \ a6
/ / Iw:~ "S
- ., ~.O ~
a
a / , rq;" ~2 .J
~a
,
/ /
-1008
- -aB -Q+.ot
- (1 Ot 0' 06 08 10

~ blensuJn
I tDmpreSllorl ~
"';u N",
Ff;: M.I:'

widlh nntl depth arc gi\'C'1I hy lJ nud 1& respecti"t>J~ and whose re-
.. Wp = If-bll' ~d
sl!llllll moment ~ we 1111

('I~'h S",,).
," __'_
1+< , .... ~, u/l
h..=~
to,' (i_,vtt.fI)
"NC "If
_-hI ll~
K",,='!:'0l'bh: Yl=-,-~ i
h -h~ III
Y1-~"'T

"..... t,!,IlIII~+l,lhz)(I+.,l (I+v-N..,,)

,..~
(I -.........-
N"U)
1/'1. 1 ..;;
",,/I ,',,11

III I~ig. 10.15 wc have repfel'll'nll'd graphiCl:llly the valuE's 01 v

ill term" of the ratio N~ll for different values of !p. Similar graphs
N"u
 4.15. Du/C" 0/ Redll7ulant Franlu a/ld /Jrclle,,' !l81

could be ootained fo~ reinforced concrete members. The exam illa-

lion of thl'sC CUI'Ves shows that when the yie-id point or ulti.male
strtmgt.h or the matNinl in compres~ion alld in ox.tt;'llsioJI romains
eqnal (~) = 1) tho value of v is 1llway~ srualll'r than unity. On tll!.'
other hand. when the said ultimall! stresses or yield points JilTel'
($:1= 1), the value of v lIlay LH>.('<lme greater than unity. Il ff,1l0WS
that ill t.he latter case tIte ultimate resistanee which may he df'\'c!
oplO'd by the given IlI(lHlher to f1CXlu'al lands wit! he increasod by
the app\[cal.ion of a normal load. The calle when lP = 0 is purely
theorclical and thereforE.' devoid of prllc.tical interest. For dlO'Sign
purpose.... IT!I should be fl~placed by the product mR~>:r or, ill olll('f'
worrls, llY the llesign tensile ~tf('f1Kth of tile Jlllltt>rial.
\Vlten desig-lling rt>dundartt arches and fmuws tlte main diffJtIJ11y
will always rllll.~if':t in the determinlltioJl III the po~itiou of plasUe.
hinges or, in ot.her wOl'ds, in the prediction <If thll railurt> pattern
for tho givl\l1 .~tl'ucttJre.
JII a number of cases preliminary analysis of the structllro as Ml
dll~tic body may be qui III helpfuL, for iL may be assuuwd that
plnsUc hinges will form at Lhose r,TOSS sections where tlw bending
mOJll(luts pass through their maximum.
"!'hA IIlI,ltem of failure for au arch of two hillges will differ depelld-
ing on the load points. If the loads. ure symmetrical, failure will
t)cnH' with the formation of four plnstic hingp.'S (Fig. 11 .1;)(1.), Ull'i,'
Ulullber falling to three whclI the two central hirlj.{E'-'l rn~'rge
(Fig. H.'15b). Ju tlulo eveut of nOllfiymmCll'ical loading tlw number
of plastic hinges equals two (Fig. 11.t5,).
]t can he uasily shown thot the proeedure of the equalization
of maximum ordinlltes to the bending moment diagrams remains
applicable to tho desigll uf two-hillged nrche..~ (Fig. 12.15).
lIaviu.g replaced the given reduudant /l.I'ch hy the c.onjugate
simple strut_turt' let us wnstruct for the latter the dingram of b>hll-
illg moments M l duo Lo the thrust Xl as well as the Mp diagram
f(lf all ('lld-supported f('ferenc.e beanl of the samo span al.'t>d UPOJl
by the Same 1<H1ds. The diagram for the reslllting mOIll(',nlS .l"f will
be obtainC'd t.hrough the summfl.tion of the ordinatC'S to the /Ill 1111<1
Atll diagrams wil.h duc consider'ation to their respective signs. It.
should he Iloted that Lhe outlillc of the M l diAgram follows exactly
the shape of the lJcul,ral!ine 0,[ the arch. The desired solution will
be obtllill>d dlOosillg thp scales {or the two diagrams rnentiOlJl'l[
above ill such a way thaI, ~he nlaxill\Ulll ordinal.es to the r>sulting"
diagl'iHlL at th>so cross sections wiJertJ plastic hinges afl;) liable Ln
appear should he in thc same ratio as the bearing" capacities of Ihe
sa m(' cross sections.
Sillc.e t11cse cross sections work both in bending and in compl'es-
sioJl their hearing capacity must he detcrmined irr terrllS of v. As
.
,
tlte normal stresses acting at. eAch cross section are still unknown,
it becomes necessary to adopt !IOmc arbitrary value for this coef-
I1cient. In t.he first approximation" may be taken equal to '1.0.
The resulting bending moment diagram obtained as described
~hovc will enoble liS to find the nUlgnitude of the u.ltimnw loads
uI.ing the rel:lliOIl between the ordinates tu this diagram ill the

,,,
'. ,,
,~':~'~'~'~:::~'~=:;~'
Id
l'l1:.11.1$ Fie_ 12./~
Sl\llle WlIY "s describod in the preceding article for continuous
beams, The location of plastic hinges will coincide with the mui-
mum ordinates to the resulting bending moment diagrnm.
Wr.re it necessary to obtain the bending moment diagrnm due
to a Kiven system of loads regarded to be ultimate. one should start
by the construction of the di3~rl'lm for the reference beam from
which the required diagram will he deducted using tlle moment
('quali7.tltion method.
The pattern of failure of a rtxerl end symmetrical arch will depend
on the 101lding and may be either symmetrical or llonsymmetrical.
III th~ first case the Ilumlxlr of pllUltic hinges will amount to six or
five if the dish.nee between two central hinges reduces 10 :tero
(Fig. 13.15a Rnd b). In the second Cllse failure of the arch will be
pre-ceded by t.he formntion of at least fOllr plnstie 1111Ig(>3 as in
Fill:. 13.1&.
In order to dotermine the ultimate strength of a fixed I!nd arch
leL us adopt liS conjugate simple structure the one given in
Fig. 14.154 and let us constrllct the re:mlting bending moment
dil\gram lI1 I {lUll to the simultaneous action of the unknown!! Xl'
X 2 Rnd X~ together with the JIff! diagram due to tlte loading who~
intensity remains 141.!Hl Hllknown. The Iluml:ricol vnlu.'S liS well
us the signs of the urdillutes I.u the ilf: di3gram. M: being equal
to M 1 +
ilJ~ I- M,. rt'Dlain unknowll.
TIIB final din~ralll for tht' rcsulting bending Il1olllenL:!: will ue
olJIll.iul'd addill!, logt:.lher the ordinl'ltes toO tll(' Mp :Uld lu the Atr.
dill.l;rams me3sll1ed Ht Olla and the SllfllC cross secliUllS (Fig. 14..15b).
Sill!:!! the systt:.nJ of loads i~ nonsYfllllltllrieal. fraih"o will occur

( ,

(e)

Pig. 13.15 n~. H./5

.....ith tilt' formation of fOllr p1;1StiC hillgi!S which will OjlCn up nlttlr-
rooth'ely-one upwiltdi:l Mid the other dowJlwllr<!s.
Till' maxilllum OI'UilllltP.!l (in absoluto VttlUll) to Lllu r!')'slIltiug
hOlldillg Ilwmlln!, dillgrnrn nlllllt coincide wilh thl' IOCtttioll of lhcSQ
!lllLSLk hillgllS IWU must he llllnlericnlly equal lo tho 1IIliwnl.t\
!>lrl'llgth of Ihe corre'lporlding ('.ross seetinns. 'rho signs o( these
ordilllll~!l will ch:\lIgtJ fror., hingt! lolling(!.
If Ihl' IOll;ds nre koown both ill di.reeUoll IInd ill nmnunl. lilt'
Ol"dilllll{'s 10 the bt'Ildillg 1I10mt'nl diagram for Ihe. rdCr(lIlCC hllam
arc &URlplel.ely dett'rmill~ pt"rmit.ling comput.alioll or the urdill-
al!"s t.o lht!lillill bendillg ll\()menl diagrllm for the <'rrh. Tht! ionuenct:.
0' nurmal strt"ss~ will be accounlOO for in tbe sa me way lIS ex-
plailled pnn'itll\sly fur lhe ea.s;e or tWlrhinged uell(>s.
I'r;lblem. t1equired tloe final bendinl{ monWnl diagram Ior 11 fh:4!d-t'nd /ITCh
\\11"'~ Il('ulrallhw follo\\":s. p"rabolll. 'fhl/lIp.n uf tho arch 1 - 12 Ill, it~ rist'
f - :J III IIOId tbu 1Iltimllt.o :strength of "H tho ero" !~clions ill bedding r('illains
the iII11no. The arcl, ill aelcd UJXl" by 11 f"Oll~ntratcd load 1'''11 :>0 20 tons IIppUt>d
81 the Cl'uwn (Fig. 1:'i.15it).
SoluHoN. The rlnlll h~ndillg monlllnt di:lQ:ralll will lot \,bl~illcd slImmhq:
up thl' Ql'dinntes 11> Iho bending mOllll.'nl dillgra.rn due to the Ihrust H EO X:.
u-~n
6(JO

to those illduClid by tbll Ihe<! end llloments M .... = "''111 = X z alld to tl,o une
Induced by the load P ,lIl1 the..~ dill~rllm~ rell.ting LO the conjugllte stIlL plo struc
ture represented In Fig. IS.1Sb. SlnOO fniLure of ;I symmetrically loeded 81'(',h
will occur with Lho formation of five plastic hingl~S, Llto final bending momlmt
diagram wIll have the shape indicated In }'tg. 15.15e.

c
.(0;
8

Ib)

X,_'11_+-''''+
(C)_1:'~L

Ftc. 1S.1,~

Thl.' thrust will be dctcrrninod using t!ll\ following relation de.rlucl.'d from
that diagr(un
M ..+.,,,11 +M~_lf'+Mc. ,,11

wo oblaill
11 .... :\1& _ P ..11L =20><: 12_
20
I qf l,x3
Till.'. hendiul,[ momont 8~ cross ~CLjon Xv whose positiolL i., }'el un!o;llowlI
hut wldch coincidee with the I,lastic hinge D will be givell by

, D. 1<11 """ A.ull "" I'IIv-"" ",ull+-,-""V-------pr--(

+"'D- p .. Jf4fXn, - !( ,- X)
v-=
" "
-MA.I<II-IOXv+.f Xb
 ..,
Tilt' ht'ndin)l' moment dillKrl'lm r.o"illillg through it.; muimmll ;It this point.
tl,t> fir::!! deri\'ath'u ,nust be nil unci Co>tl5CIII~nlly
dJI () tU
-r--
d. fJ
-1+ ... ..(0_ 0 .l

.... h"n.lrom X o -3 m"ll"l'l!. It (ollO\\'s Ihot

,U o. III1 =JI" ... lI~tOXD+ j-xl.- --'ID. /1-3(1+ 15

.. herclrow
.4{ D...I I " - 7.:. tn,I-lIlrlres
,IfA, ~Il =A/ c . ,,/1-:' _.IfD II = 1.5 wl.l-m('lrl!$
XCx! lot liS ~x:l.IT1ille Llu' simple porl~1 iTlllnt' given ill Fil,l:. 16.15.
Thil!- It/uno .....hich is subjccr.ed W horil.olllal ulliformly di1l:lribllted
louds will collllpse with the formation
of Iwo plMltic hinges. fig. Hi.IS reprc
~lItS the bending rnoment dingntrn fur
this framo provided till' fIbre str('~s
r('lIll1iu helow the clastic limit or the E
IIlalcrilll, TIJ~ norma.! sire.."S .in the CI"t)S.'t-
ue-alll remllining constllnt, the location
of till' pl051.ic hillges will dllPClIll .'Jolely
Oil the vnlu~ of iJelldillg mU1nUIlW!. Ilnd
Ihcl'l.,forc Ihe hinges mUllt ho located lit C
am} D wluwe the said mumonW! reR1;1J
their mn:dmulll. for tlw Sllme reason
IJlastic hillgt's in the c.Ilumns may form
mdy at Iloinl.s D' and E.
TheoreticAlly tile nnmber or possible combinaliomo of pfastic:
hinges will equal .si", but practically lhi~ number f::l1ls fO rour.
nnmely. C and D. C alld D'. E and n.
and linnUy E and D'.
The ultinlaLe strell8th or the frame must be del.erminrd ror each
of these rour ~ibJe combinaUOlls or plastic hinges. it! lower value
indicating the One c:orrespondillg to actual faHurt'. 10 eAch case
the ultimllte strength \\ill be derived rrom the equilibrium of the
mt'Chnnism ohLaincd by the introduction of two pla.'ltie hinges
(ullc.tiuning under a constant moment.
'file exact plastic design of Inld~i-stury building rnunl'S remoins
still very cOll1plicated. hut approximllLa method!'! are quite simple.
In the case of "ertica) )03d., uloue rCStJrt ('.an Le made to the pro-
ccdllrt.' d~cribcd in the second parngraph of Art. 3.14. ht'llding
1ll01l1t'l\ts heing eqll~li7,('.d for each tlpan se-J)arately \\.illl dll~ regard
to ~lLe ultilllate slrenglh or the cross llcction at the ~lIl)porl~ and
ill the llpnll$.
[11 Ilctlllll j)ractice furthcl' llimp1ific(\~iolls Ilre frequently itltrt.l~
dllccd. Thu!I. in determining the bcnding moments at the supports
".
""
the loading of ~h(' neighbouring spa liS is simply IlcqlCClCd. Thi!
lel'ids tu a reduction of llbout 35 per cellt ill the suppurt moments
Wb'll the live luads do 1I0t eneed n\'tl tim('S thl' dead lORds.
When the huildiltg fmml' is sllbjl"CW<!. 1.0 horizolltal lOAds aCLing
:lL tbe jOlllLs, ll, procedure similar to the oue described in the third
porul;rllph of Art. ;tU may lx' used.
Wilh due fl'gard tu plllstk dcfnrnlllliull (Fig. li.15) this pro-
(~t->d1lJ'(' will Jle hnscd 011 thl' following CQlIsiderntionll; nt each noor
lon~l thll r~uHlItll or all hori:wlltill fON:t's lransmiltcd frOIll the Hp
!lCI' floors will oqllul the rcsulli'nl of :'lht'Hillg ~lrcSS('s acting ncl"Oss

-.---r'
,I l' /
r - r , - --;.
r J -4,
J J
-
J .f .f
,, -- ,I IT
" , L
raJ (b)
FIt:. 17./S

ti,e top sccUons ur nil the colull1J1J:! uf LIlO lowel' flour. h will be
nSSllllll\d tlwl this rCslIltfllll i8 disl.l'ihutcd nmOlll{ nil Lhe culllll1lls
or that pnrticlllkr fllIor ill dirCt:1 prollOrLiotl to l!lc fotio hBtween
the 1I1limate sll'ClIgth of the eolurnll cross sreLioll ill Lelldin~ rind
the d~"ill'n leu~lh or the AAme ClllUlIIl1. When all the ('OIUIIIIIS hllVtl
the S-lllllC IClll!lh. it will be IlsslImetl that the re.'<llllullt will be lii~
II'ihull'd :l1ll1I1I!!" 1111 the columns ill direct proportion 10 their ulti-
mflW IlrengtlL. In that c;u;e the mflximlllll bending moment 1\1 Ihe
uPIlt'r and luwer sceLiom! of each COIUIlIIl will be given by

When billtlncillll' all the intermedia.te joints one In\l8t take ClIre
to distribute till' C()IUIIIll bending moment amollg Ille floor bl'ams
also in direct proportion to the ultimate streugth of the latter,
In tlw fll'8t npproximo.tioll the ultimo Le strength of the floor "earns
lIlay he c.omputlld disrt'garding tbo influence o( normal stresses.
 '"
5.J5. DBSI(iN OF' HEDUNDA';T TIll!SSES

Tho plasUe design of rC'dUlldallt. tnlSSeS is ha~d 011 t.he MlnO eon
ilidcrll.tion {IS that of the Framed structures with rigid joiul.<: Ilnd
the mllio diHic1l1t"y lips once agnin in the fact that Lho [oilufe pal-
h'ru is 1II)l known beforehand. IL mAy becomo therefore IIKcssMy
10 c.'l:llmine n lal"lll' Ilumber of different poS!ibiliti.'S.
It is clear that il~tual failure will folluw lhe paUerll enrn.'spolld-
i,,~to the millimllffi \'lIhle of the ultimate load.
Let 11:< fJXlII1l1UC the slatically indelermiulltc truss of fig. 18.15
"roddt'<l with a sillgle redundant member. Failure of this lruss
will occur whell the daslic limit of llll' IlH\LCriRl is excoor!l'd in at.

ledl. lwo ur ill! memhers. Sillce the trUE! conlaim! 17 1J(l,~, nil tll('
po~ibJc c()mbinations of two bars out of 17 m\lst be (lXI,miul'l1.
Evell if the illlpossib(e. combinlltions Ilro rejected. the rl'lllainillg
IHlTllber will be so gre3~ that nu practical solulioll of the prohli.\lll
c()lIld be otlailled in this way. Consequently, it IJeeolll('s mllch
('~sict to compute all the stl"E'llSe5 ill the rl.'dundllnL truS1i regl'lnlillg
it a:'l an clastic body llnd to find the memher in which the eln$tie
limit will be exceeded in Ibe first place. Vihefl lhis IIH;!IIlbcr i'"
fOllUd, lhe strcsse:o: in all the other menlbcrs are recaJc... lalcd agidn
on llle assumption that the stress in the first onc will relllllin COIl-
slant and eqllal to iV" lI :::::> mRF. In IJlal way the sec_ond h:.r ill
wllirh the ela:o;tic limit ""ill be again excccdl'd may be fOlllld. It will
he Ilcccssnr)' to raITY onl similar comp'ltations M mall)' tilll';-! as
lllere art redundant members plus oue. Iloving detenninNl the
I~i1llro pnttcrl1 of lhe strllcture lIuder consideration, tho nlUllIlIto
IUilds will be dt'_dllcl'd from tha equilibrium o( Uu:. IIlCChlllliiUIl illlo
which the tru~ hlls been cOllverted.
A&!llTllC. for exnmple, Lhllt the clastic limit will h~ t.'XC,C('dlid at
Iirs~ ill hflt's 1 (1nl! 2 the ultimllttl lOilds for which nre gi\'OIl IIY

N . u./j-mHF I and N2.",I=mRP2

6>,
The magnitude of load P cauSiltg the failure of thC' lruIG will
he obtained from the t"Qllilihriurn of moments about point A of 1111
the forc-Cll acting to "ue left <If ~ceLiol1 I-I (sce Fig. 18.15)
};Jlf A =O; P,,11 d-N 1,u1,h-N r ,"'lr=O
whercfrom
NI. ,,1110-1- ""2. "I'" mR (111'1+"1'2)
P ,,11= d = cl
The dcsigll of redundlll'll trusse!l is further eornl,lil:alcd b~' the
fact. lhat compresst!d bl:lN< nlAy loose their sl}lbiJity well before
the inter"al forces lltt'ome equAl lu the ultimate beariutr cllpadtics
mRP of the corre.'1pollllillg mCJIlOOrs. In thnt ('Me it boctJlllt'..1 nece5-
s;lry to fllld the critical loads for all Iho oompresSl'd elements. rt is
worth 1l0tirl~ thut. It rcdundlllll lrll~ CUll fail not only during the
;lpplication of the loads hut 111110 lluJ'ing Imlonding. III Iho u.s.s.n.
lhi:; quoslion has boon ~llIdi('r1 ill dl'tail by l;'rof. S. flpI'nflll'in fllld
hoL X. Strelt'l..sky.

6.15. HEOU!'\DANT STIWCTl"RES SUfUEr.TF.:D TO REPRATl::O

LOAOI,,"G
Tile unloading uf a redllndnllt Sl.ructure slreSSt'd lie)'olld its
<!lu!!Uc Iimil lea,'~ residu.d strains ill Q Humber Or iL!l mt'-mbcl'll.
Tlll.'St' lOLraillft and deforlllations 1I18y incroase with endt S\I('.('C"SSiVH
loading JOlHling fllml'y lo the failure of the sl-r\lclllrl'. Tht' qlle~
tion is of the grelltest illlportnoc,e for practically all structures flrt'
loaded awl unloaded repeatedly during tlteir service LHe.
First. let ut< see wltat will hElppen to It redundallt structure if
a single lond is relleatedly applit'd a.t the Sflffie pb,ct' and thon re-
moved. A13 an e.'C:ample, let us lake tbe system consisting of RII
Bb~lulely ri~id beam carried by thrro ols!lto-plMtic hangt'fS
(F'i~" 19.15)..-\ single load P ill applil'd nt till' centre of IhC" heltffi.
In Fig. 20.1:; we lu\\'e represented the dene<'tiol\." SlLStllinod by the
tlystem during a suri~ of successive loadil1g~ and unlondings.
If the magnitude of the applied land 1" ill slOaller '.han thlll. of
the ultirnaLi.l onc, but sufnciently Illrgll to prnvoko plastic Jerorlfill
lion o[ thl' {'C"lItral hanger. this IIRnger will r('tain UpOIl unloading
n residual .\!Lrllin, The two other hangers avell if their 1l1l\l!tic limit
has never Leen exceeded will alSQ rClmnin strainPd for they UN
conoected to the ('lwtr:!' hanger by means of the rigid beam. Hcollce
upon unLoading Lhe two ouler hAngers will ('C"nutin exteodC"d Bud
the cenlrnl hanger will be comp~. tlte sunl of tl10 ,'C"rLical pto-
jl'Ctions of these threo forces rl'l1Il1ining nil. 'rhus. the rt'sioual Sires-
ses will ho hnLancod withill the llysl.em itself. [.{>-t the re~idual strain
of three hallge["s be eqlllll to t:r,.', \Vnen the sLrllctlll'e is loaded ror
 6.1$. l1..du"dllnt Slri<Cllj'"" SubjCted I" Rep"lrd ',,,,,dln/l (,95

a second time, compressive stresses will disappear in the Qcnlral

han~er as soon as the load has reached a certain mngnitudo p, Any
additional increase of this load will lead to the appearance of ten-
silo stresscs; iu this hanger whereafter its elastic limit will he exceed-
,

f, f,

p
o <3' .:l"IJ"
FIt(. ]9.15 Fig. 20.JS

cd onca again. However, the magnitude of load p~ will be consid-

cl'ably grealar than al 11le flrsl loading and tho rcsidUlll strairl
/i" - /J: will Le smallor. As SOOIl IlS Ute applied load is relluced
(P) (0)
, ) ra)

ill- ITI- t, P, p,

!'tg.2J,J5
-- --
jp, p,
--

P,

lo its former value the stress in the central hanger will beconH!- again
equal to G'IF while the stresBes in the two other hangers will become
equal to those developed during the first loading.
The ndditionlll residual strains in the central hanger will d(!crcase
with each loadirlg and there will be I'l moment when they wiU be-
come completely stabilized, the systom reverting thus to a perrectly
clastic state. In that case the magnitude of the load leading to tho
failure of tlle structure will be the same regardless of the number of
its applications."
+*(t is /lssUmetl:UHlt tile number of loadiogsls w/l1I be.low thll~ ll'llding to the
IIpp.mraneo or tile fat,igull phenomenon,
 l.Alt us eXllmine also the ease when dHTerent IOllds tire rep['lI(ed
ill sllcce:lSion. The structure will c.onsist of all elastic beam suspcnd-
ed tu three hllllgel'iS Wig. 21.15) and loads PI alld P2 will he applit!d
in turn, load PI leading to tbe appearllllce of plastic ~trains only
in the eClltrll1 hauger Il,nd load 1'2 only ill lhe ouler OIlE'S. As fol'
Lilo bcaln it.self wc shall as,sl1me trial ils ehlstic Iilllit rt'Inains 1I11:-;11r-
lI<lSSNI. Afler lllo first applic/ltion of IWll'l PI perl1lilllllnt dcflll"nH\lioll~
will set in lllld the elastic !lea m will hecomo COll('<lVe upwillds liS
indiCllttld ill Fig. 21.15a. TlLe second IOllding will lead to tile iU\'l!r-
siou of the CUI'Vllttll"C of the bea1l1 allu HUer ulllmuting the ht'1I1l1 will
rCI1l:dll deRectl'd upwards as indicated in Fig. 2-1.15b. 'rhl' suh.!!t'-
quellt IOlldillgs alld IJllloading3 will increll!lt! the residual SLnlins
of tbe IlIlILgers (see Fig. 21.15c lllld d) until faihue will occur due to
e.'l:cos.'\in' strains. The bearing capacity o( a structllI"C will rem:till
ullelTeeted by rl:lpeated loading onl)' if the incrense of residUll1 sLraim;
st.-.ps completel)' after l\ cerlAin "umber of loadings 11l1d unIOlldilll.,"s.
[\lid provided the inltlrlllll force.!! due boUI lo tile aPIlliclllioll of 'IIC
11"11111:0: and 10 the residual straius remain /,,,,101'.' the ullimnle S{I'l'l1trlll
of tilt) c(,rr~~Tlollding cruss sectioll. The nhv\'t' condilion mny I'l'
o.\:pressed hy lhe followillg inequality

S+So,,-:S..1l
where S is the tolal stress in the lllclIlber of the redundullt !';Irlll;
lure regarded l\.'i pl'rfcctly elastic duo l.o the applied loads; So is
the rcsil1L11~1 or initial slre..CI.S in the same member l':dstin~ in the
ohserlce of illl loads. aild S.tI is tbe IIllimllte slrt'f1gtll o( the S.1111C
IlIcmbl'r.
It folluws that the dcformntiofls of a !ltrlleLute will renlain Ijlllitcd
nflt'_r allY Illlmhor o( load rE'lkltitiolls ollly if it. is possible to lilill
Huch n CO!ll!>illHlioll of residual (or initial) sl,r('sst'S thnt their m~lll
tnllt with tilt! stresses due to tho gh'cu cxLcl'IIal 10ilds IIPlllil.'d ill :lily
.'iuCCL'Ilf':iou will remain below the ultim:110 strength uf the appro-
prialll melllbol'S.
011 Lilt' conllary. if such n cOll1binutioll of inilial strt'SScs llllll
stresses duc lu the 108115 is impossible, tlll:l dtl(orma\iOIlS o( tilt" struc-
ture will ilOcrea.<;e indt:linitely unLit failure occur.s.
This Ilrinciplo litst established by tUt>ikh. rednc.cs thl:l delt>rmj
nntion of ultimale loads for eollliTlIIOUS ~i1UlS la a simllle I'quali-
%ation o( masirllllIR ordinAtes lo the t>o\,t!lope hellding momellt
curve covering nil pos.'o:iJ,Je IOlldillgs. III the U.S.S.R. tldJ'l qU~lioll
has Lct'n Slndit>d in detllil hy Prof. A. G\o7.dev and I)rof. A. R:r.lll1
nit.<=-in.
 INDEX

Angle hm-bln~, .w3-4, 478. 480.

illlerll~1frietioll, 28.'j..4 523. US7
repolll, 283 truSS,.J, 229~2, 571;
twlsl, GOI, 62Ji, 6:i1 ~'ilh variable cro.."S S/"('tiullS.
Areh(es) 480-1, 528
bOWlllring. H5 Arlicll]III[,m. sll~CO rr~med structurll,
eenLn' Hill', 1:1(" 128-9, 4711. 21,3
525
fixed ""d, tll, 0\78, 480-527,
688tU. ~ f11$O Arch(es), red"n- 11,,,
.bnl, t:urv.-d. :l3(
,Iireoet coml,ulation. 521-7 i,lIe. 216
shrinbgl.', 5201 inclined. 595
ternr.~tllur(' ch8ng~. 518-20 numlJer. 20-1. 28. aQ. 192, 248-9
flat. 330, 3lil, <i8L .(,87. ""'jond. 338
52ll r~1i Inpar, 338. -iJ5-6, 588-00
hingl'I~, 4i8. M! Ill.., Arch(es). substitute. 182-4. HI(;. 254
Ihed oml Beam(a)
masonry, 478-9 call1ilover, fm, 87. 3!;5-6, 599-()OI
maxillltnll <-'COll0m\', 128-9, 1j111 Illflut'nce lines, <l8-!J
mullihinged, .:136-8 htonuilllC moment. 1i4-4l
ncutrn/ 11Iw. ~ An::l'lcs), cenlr,-' re.etion, ~O
lIuo onehinge, 478 !lLear. 44-8
p:orabolic, 497503, 5W. 52(7 ('ontinllr"'Jl. on..&'.
rlltionl/ c<lnG!plr,t.!OIl. (24 .nalpit" '-i7'"
rI'<Un:r.llllr. 481 hdJuc-nee lint!. 466-77, 58."1-7
I't'dun ani. 478-528, 578 b",nding Ilwmco.l, M"S-7li
,lesiRll, 684-92 rI'action. 47&-7
inllueJlCIl Iin~. 503-18. 52.(,-6 sh(':lr. 472..(;
Slrl.'$l analysis, 481-4 ~rO!.:l. 216
ajl~lr"xi",nlc llIelhllds. .(,84- CUI'\'Nl. 33.')-/;
,,21 dllO{t('tioM, 31,4
rofnCUl'cNl c"lIcroLe. 478, 518-21 dell'rt'Q of re<l[Jlld~Il<:Y, 79-81)
rise. 1/)4 doohle-HllllIl. .><tf Ill", lll,arfH),
span, 1i)4
!Ipamfrpl. fll.1
...../';10
Cl'. ing.<lroS..(,
sh.tically ;nd('l...rmmak>, 419. ft'iI billRed. 77-8
11110 AI'rll(I':5/, rwnlldunt hllaginafy, 362-3, 371-2
thn..-o-hinftd, 11l4-t"9. 478-Y 1n"lti~paD
l,ulI60Uc 279-30 '''II~, &1.:;
slrC$!le!>. U4-28 st<otu;ally t1f!lt'rIllinat.8. 24-5.
SUI,porl rel:tiOn1, 107-1<1 11>.-95. 275-0
liNt, 141,-9 ",irh overhang, tu B('llllll.'ll.
trns.'!(ld, 221}-'13 couUJevPf
HlJ8 lndn

polrgonal, 95, 381-2 rotation, 22

rt!dlllld~nt, 593-601, 612-3, fjl,H instantaneous. 271-3
Jl,!fel'('nce, I,W_7 zero velocity, /!et Centre. rotation
~imply ~IlPP')rted, 35-i8, 77, 86 Chain. Jdnemotk, S7r,
innllCIlCll Ii,,(<:s, 3fj-52 deformations. 376-8
h"nding mOlrJ~nt, 1,\l.5t Chord, truss, 1St
reaction, 36-40, 49, ~2 CoelTieient. SlI! also Factor
sh~:Lr, <\3-9, 51-2 t!lol'lllal expan,ion. 331. 521
sillglo-sll~ll. 5\)59 Colll'siolJ, grrUlIltllr motOI'IU!);, ~8/.
~tnbilit~', 25, SI) COllC'l"'l)tO. shrinkagll, 52().t
statieo.lly detcrnlinal(,. C,71-5 C"nst,I'ainl.s
Slatically ill<l~t~rminaU>. 67581, imllginar)", 6;;ro
tlU~C'J. !'OU-7 nCCl'Slial')', 381-8
t.WU-~IHlll. <\64. su alsQ BlllllU(S), number, 21,8-9, 381
<l(lnble'~Jllm uniformly load~d. rninillllllU, 24tl, 3117
I, 11;-7 preventing joint dofi,'cti(m. 504-5
WlH'd....lI, tl70 r~dlllldant, l49. 384-5, 388, 411,
Bolyakov, N" 13 516
Bell,ling mOnlc'llls, 32-<\. <\0'::1, 77 "eplacement by forces. 2f>68
carry-ovllr, 658. 660 CnntractlOII, thet'lllol, su Stralna,
ddcrminatioll, 53-7, 87-8. t 11,-7, lempe"r\ture
t,tr" 1,::15, 1,578 Coulomh, 28."i
,Ji:lgram. ::12, 3/" 77-8, 89, 117, COlllllerhrnc-e, 15t
HlB. 1.6S. 535-(\. 540-1, 553-1" C.'oss, H.. li55
582-5. 595-9. 602-1,. 6M, 6250. Curves, envelope,
(;[\7 b,mding moment, 4f>l-6
Slllllnl:l,'y unil, 543, 552, ;;(\2 :>hearing force. 464
lllW,')Opll curvE'.~, 41H-ti
equilibrium, 36. 813-7, t28-9,
155-li, 193, 225. 2<\0. 6t8 lleOcclions, 3213
inn"enr.o llut'I:l, Ut Jnnuence Hues, graphs, 1,38. 50B
bonding mOlllent maximum, joinls, 59.. _5
706, 78, 465 principal. 39i-2
lnIU;IlIUlll, 411:\ rigid joints, 601
Jl<J~jtivo, .11, ;~3, 1)1, secondnry, 391-3
unhala)l!'('ll. (i5H, ('t;o-1 stI'\H:.tures, 37S-h2, I,OB-fl. 413--4,
IlI'Ht <\21, <\23-6
Jit,nt.il'.lllJy !Ictorminu"', !l5 due to 1ll1nperatura e,hang!!, 519,
thl'l'l)-hln~od, t04, 11,811 (jI8-:.!"
lJ~r"atsky, ?\" 055 unit. ;ml-2
Bemst,l.in, S, GOl, Dcformat,ions, 6eC all~ Defl"cLions,
Belly, :i~1 StrAin8
BC7.ukhov, N" 13 kinOrllatie chain, 376-8
Hl~ikh. rour. Diagonal, truss, 2W
noll/Un, 1/" 13 Diagram
Oridl/e M.:l:twel1-Cn'rlIorla. 177, 519, sn
cantilever, 84 al.~" Stress, dingrll/ll
dllC,k. 207 virtual displacNneuts, 2M,
hig!r\vay, 5()7-71 269-13
l'1li!wIlY. 478, :\77 Dispbcell'H.'Ills
thrlll,"s/Illn, S67-H cumputatioll, 3'00-82
thrOllg I. 207 ltC(:llracv control, 5<\2-5
clllstic loads method, 3.57-(l3,
1,86, 505-18
(;clllro graph multiptiC-lltiaa lIh~lhod,
ot~,~Lic 1.3V, 507 ;;!1().1
 strain 1'Ilrry
Indtz

nle~bod, 355~7 unifor.nity, (Ili\l-10

'"
\l'f"\'Sbc,I'lIg,"'~ melhod, 341- workilllf wodltlol\:l, 6iO
55, 363. 48~, 4811 Filnnt'lll<oBorodid,. M.. n
lh'"lIitiOl1. 312 Forc&(al
dimen..; io... lit). 321 u~rnd. l\'OI'k or. 310-G
horizontal, 421 inllllenc:e Iinct, _ hlRurnu lillt!l
linear. 328 intt'rJlal. $et Stre"$l'5
1Il'gfltivll, 2G3, 330 rnuimum, 1Q.O
pw..itiVj~. 263, 275. 3ao normal, 33
~~nd~ry, ~29, 530 dt>ll!rrnlnati"u. tt4i, 363,"",
unit, 469, 499-501 555-6
\'irI1l81 ,ji:lgr,un. 31, 5~r., 63!H.l
diagram, 2M, 21)9-73 p"~lIi~ .... 31. :-13, 114
principle, 21,;1. 263 reactive, 60(;
TJOllll1, Sehwl'dIl.'L rf~lllt.8nt, 1~a
Shl"llriul!", il21" 1,:"
dME<rmiuuliull, ~37, 87-9,
Endl, .,t iIlalerillill', grllnul"r j 14-1, :v.5-5
Etcl'ntrkity 01 loll1l'. lz.i dillgr3m, 31. 34, 8!1, S', 639
Elutkity. thcur)', II direction. "17
1~lenJf'nts, IU o.f.. ,\remller(s) on\'elope curvn, 4.fi.i.
bearing capllcity, 674 mll)rimllm, "r.5
billlre. 672 mlDlwum, "G,~
5o:etJndllry, 218. 223 rJl.'gathl", M
EIU:l'J"f, ,.lr.in. 317-21 jlO>litivc-. 31%. 34
Equ",t'''n(!I, lItr "lr.o "onnllb.{!) tri.nl:le, ~. 28S

".
equiHbrinrn. 1i05, f,32-5, 6oi2,
kinematic, 64:j
,illlllltiln('oul"
Formlll.ts'. Sl't
Coulomb's. 284
0.11" Equalionrl)
1II0hr'~. 329-31. 331, 3~5. 355
Zhura\,.'!k)'JI, 31<1
ahri<.l~l'd lOolul;"", 5/05-50. FrlOmC(~I, UI/ 1/110 Slrlletu~sj,
li35 {cllrned
cot'ffitiont checking, 1;16-8, dl'lubl~Er-1n. 550-j. 5(H-7, G2 t..a,
637 Utli J )
~t)luMoll knf'll. :-1;;11-1, 3311-100, ::.178, 380--1,
by groph llIultiplication 80SI,(H. /0201. I,~:H, 582
mothod, 6125 U1ultisll(HI, 1,~2
iJ)' slatical method, 607-12 l!(ln~}'mme(l'i<;nl, (j214
sLrain energy, 373-4 port{ll. 330, :jo\5, J~8l), 3':13, 398,
of Illre<' moment!. 4"4 4Ot-3, 410-5,1,11-8, MO. 5(\1.
"ltimYtt> l"quilibrium. 616 S9i1.,091 I, 813. 015, 621, 641.
Ell IN. L .. 12, 106 r.!H
F:xpan$ion. I!lfi'nlll, s Straln~. lem- l'!(Lltongul"-f.618-9
(lE'rature rrdunulnt. 6lI4.-S
rlliid, 3li3-6
a)'mmt'trieal, ~2, 540, ssa. 7,
("ctor 561-.
distributioll. f,S7, CISP-OO. 60% ll'ft't.hhi"ged_ 9i, 353-4.
rocal, <l~f ~\Vo-5Lory, 55i-61. 595. 641-2
lofl-hand, "501-6. -469 FT1Imowork, _ Strueluru(S). framed
rigbt--I:lallu, "56. 469
IOlld COIlIhillallon. C>69
ov"doa4l, /\(}9 Gall'l'kln. II , 13
lUlflLy. 6~1-8. CSI GtHlci, G., It
!call'. 211, 2735. 278 GAlI!l!l, 1\ .. 545
etHlnl'S.:!. 651, 659, 66t-2 Guph
 a~a. 3~3-4 rigid, 11-8, 379. 590, 65a
dCnf!('liOIl, 43ll df'fleoclio"s, 601
PQl'litiu<, of eo-'1,lrohl. ,H:,"""
G\'Ol,Ie,'. A , 13. 64Z, litll;

1IInge(l)
('r,,\\'U, 238
di._U'ibutiou .Jo0!l: Il('Illll, I'IO..ll
,10III,le. :'lR7
intNm'Mli"tt,. 381,5 L~ll:rlllll;', l .. 12
mubde, 83 Lino
l"lI"b~r, 7\1 CIUllVll~, 2J.l{>
"rdi""rl'. :~"-7 t!enCCllon. <163-7, 371
pl~sl.c, 1\1:~. [\ijl-:l, 1i1:l7. ti(ll c1.1~tic 577, [,89
lIUI,kl', Il . 12 iJlllu"II<:'~, Ire fnnllOnce lines
l'I'J]lerl~JI"i.1. SI01lkhov'~, 2<\;" l,r'Mllro;, \2:'1-.1;, 4711
slip. 283
Londls\
IlInllOlIl'l' l.ltP(.~i lIulis)'llllUl'lrical, 53&42, 6<\&-7
Iiending rnOl""'1II, 1'};;1. O~-5. a"le. l '
I:';). 14~. :l7!1-S1', 4~'o, 4:$6. cl'll'ntral..od. 34. ::;2..$, tlS9, :-1:;9,
~f,R-71~, 513. ".:;t 525, 5'Ji
rUIl_truel,,,,, IlKlV;ng, 59-foS
kttt,..nMk lnl,\bu.l. 2\H-&\ crilla!. I;:t, 1;7
nI, 4:1.')...0\11. MI6 dual!, 41iJ-3. 471i
meLllOl1 nf iru;\>lntalll'O<ls (en- dl'5ij{Il, 669
tr(" It! rohlliulI. 26~~"l tlll$tie.. 56;\-72. <\:1\\ 5tl6-9, 517
n"plr,,! ?"inL nl..,I<"d. 139, f'qui-'all'nl, 7()-6
tH, 2:\9, 2<\\ irna.J!:inarr. 429
sj<llll' and denc(ti",~ llleLhud, Illdll't'Ct applicali"u, -t9~2
(;'W":" li'I',4613
S(llLjeal IIlOth"d, <\31 llwst UnfllVUllrabll' I~h!ilioll, :~",
~""lllIo{"uS IlI'1tln~, '0(\1 .. <7, :'185-7 ;;'H~HI
cllO'(} mfllllCnt. I ,.~ 'liQvillj;(. 34-5, lii, 1!H1. 4i(;, 47lJ
crllkll! apl'.t, f,2 uniformly .liRld1mt"d, (i8!!
,,,wlll,,1 f/fret). l:iJl-II, 215, :i1J l'losiliplI of cmllrl~ (,f l':r,,\'it~'. 429
reaction, 3lj.J,Il, 4\1, 52, ill, 93-4, l'ri"'.liplf' of ~ul."q)O!jliull, 35
1:11'-102. H:i, ,!la. 2:'-;, 238. rt!llCMll,.~I, o!l4-.1i
2~L 1':~2, f,:-tU. 171;-7 ~lpliuJ. 310
tNlllUdaJlt "tru('hHI">, f,31~1.i), symmetrical. ~:il;-Io:!
&M-Ul Irlll!formatlon, 538./02
1I11(':lr. 43-!l. 5t-:/. !It-:~. 135-7 ul~lmdc. 668-9, ,,is
:/'~7. :/71;, o\.:i:! 3. n7. 4,26: u .. ifor.... M-7, 18!!. 591..
513. 1152 Illlifutmly di:<tribuled, ~. 343
,imilar. 7\ LoadiJlR' I Loa.I("1
sl~, I:tlJ-216, :!~-33, 238-9,
277-0
Illrl,~I_, Z2~, 2J>~. 2:<S .\llIIS505. . . lasti... no
lllll';;ral. :\Io]'r'lI_ 3'0\.. "''o\i1 !Iawi"I!', grllnul"r
IIrlivl' IlI'"l"ISUl'f'. 28492
IIlIgll' of intcrOll1 rr,ctitlll, :l..-"3-4
J"inlJll ~ngll' "f rl'p'l.'!C, :/:s3
t1enoelj,,". 5!MS. ,jt;l COhGsivll, 28-1
Ioj"II"d, jg J,arlic"lar C.SI~S of prl's~lIro com-
number, :/,\8 Pllt"~jOI1, 2\)3-3U5
 iOI

ptK"O!!it r. 282 vI llllpt.... viuu,:: soil Sutlllnlllllel'l b'f

l,rOperlie<!', 282-4 Vo"llll:r, 3Ool-S
11111:\1:11. J .. 310, 325 qltlllSl 1)OIYJfllllllUr Ilh;'IIl'd ~ur
JoI(!mhpr(sl, al'~ Ql#O EIl.'uU"III,{lIl ';let'.3(}1-;;I
idlt', :.M9 wal..,r. ?ol15
n.duml;lnl, 24!.1, 577-8 'l"lllllr s~lllr~lcd ..., rlh. 303-4
"tiff"".!>! loet"r, ("1,7 \\";11I1, I:GH
lruss, IirOUlls ;,e
218 I'rlllclJllo
J\!cthOlltrl) of $ujlcrpnsitioll, iS5, :iW, 1,13-5.
displuCI'lIll.'nt cOUlpulutif>u, . ~a!)
Dl~pla.cel1l"nl:il. WlllV"I~liul\ 'lr vlrlual di9/II11C.,rn('ul!>. 2GI.
illnll"n\'1l liuo conSlI'uclio,l. I<'e 2ti:.~
'nllui.'llcl: lil1(', eUl1sttllctivlI Prokoly('\', I , 13
of momIlL~, l!raph-llUol)'lieal, ,:SS PrU!!kllryako\-. L.. 217
P()Il(;Nel'II, :,loo-::!
sl~ dpll'rlllir.&l.io<l, ,,"StrC5!!l(i"l',
delunnilllllioll KlIbill"yich, I.. 1:'1
Moment neactl(>lI{~1. IH-7. Ht. <\(It;. 1it)1 .....
bentl.ing, ~ 81ludillg II:lOml'lIt _ .I"" Sul'P<>"lS, rea"Holl
rot... , loi3-4 .. hutml'(ll. :Mt). :17t
(If ht"rlio. :ii9, "i80, 5:.!l, t;28 1I\1lllrti('al llI"th"d "r d~tctlllill.
urigin, 15(j lug. 107-8
rt>.,cth'(', liO,Hi grlll,hit.ltl IIlt,tlll/d "rdelcrmin-
~lilt.kaJ. ;1/10 in~, 1('18-10
hOl'll""tn[ C<lllll"'lIl'lIt~, 1118
i'l1ullinaty, Mill
PMld. ~!l, t5'l fnRul'"Cl' hltl'!!, ~e InnUNIC\!
11:1",110, :Wj luw!S), rt!lIctiun
I'llll/no"IC/!, }> .. 13 retllllllllnl, 521-.4
j'ill', l!-l."l'l. 282 unit, 1116-7
PI:ltI" v\!rltelll rumpollf'fll. lOB. 266
d .,,\IJrl>. 285-6, 2'JHi, 302. :K'7 nciUII<hrtty. llt'gY'('(", 383-1, 3\31;
.-Iql. ~ nt.!l"nll::ci", .., _, 1;~lIJ
Pja"licily. theuty. II
Plale
l>p.:>rh1li, 15 SClniktilcll<n-. G.. 17
piu-tOn!lIlCllld, 2i.1-3 ShllkIIO", \',. \GIJ
,~illgl(!., 26:17(1 Shear. ~ PO<'t..., s!tl':,rlllg
1'0;111 SJIlirnuv, A .. 13
fUClll, 15461 SuitJw, N .. 13
ldl-liuruJ, "M-I, Spall, tl'll!!ll, ISI
dghl-hllnd, 4Sti SIralu8, IY,'~ /IlK} Dcnecllons, D(>[ur'lIw-
nellt,ral. 1;;115. 2;;19, 241 ti<>ll~
lllllll'l, "'9, 151 plllslie, 671-2
Polygon ll'nll,pralnrt'. :i;,7-41}. fit8-21,
IUKt'. 122, 174-7, t79 Streuglh
funicul.r. 122 desilll1. Ill;!!
"ollc.,II, 2'JO Ulti,\IU", Wl
l'uJlufflart'V. S.. t~ SII'l'5il(E'S)
Porusity. 01 lfl'llllllu m;lkrjaJ~. 282 ill arch~, i1'(-28. 481-521, 528
Pr''liSur('' .hlll 11. cOJ\Crt'ttl "hthlkage. 520-1
;U1/o, 282, V\S d~~"'J\lil1ati."1
:tclive, 284-92. 295. 305 "cGurat) ehp.ck. 5S':\.-7
difl.'ct oolllputalio.t (.f, 292-8 Illllllytieol IJll,lltHlil, 111-21
unit, 296-7, 301-2, 305 llpllroxirnaLe mot!l",d"., <\R4-
hydrostatic, 3035 ~21 . (\;>',.r....\
702
(:(lnlhincd method, M6-6
,Ii,'()ct tlwthotl, 182-6
olll~t.ic centre method, 42(;-31
fO~(I1 p'jinls mcth(,d, 453-(;1
g"aph,cul meUI(,d, 1:'::':-8,
174-8:':
mdhotl of har rcpLucement,
254-6
method 01 f'lrl:t>:l, 389-94.
:-1978, 1,U8, 588, G41-2,
647-8
method 01 juint~, l/i3-74.
IH2, 192, 211<\.-5, 251, 253-5
ml'tl,,)!! of momlmt distribu-
tion, 1155-lIil
lnplhutl o( m{)lnNiI.~, 155-1\3,
11\2, 200-a, 2W, 251-2
meth"'l <If r('(lucing $j>llCO
~trlJctllr(' t." "Ianu ones,
2~O-7, 259-tiO
1Itl'tIJod 01 .'It'CtiOllS, Hil-3,
251, 257-9
IIlp_thud (If shc:lrs, 2Q3-i,
251-3
mix<:d method, 6<\1-6
slope anti deflectiotls method,
5S8-{;53
,H"!l"rIlIll, 177-1\2, :l2B-9, 415-23,
582, lilis
di~tr(h'l~\()1l III I.rl1~('1!, 18lHIt
dIll' to Ort!cti"ll defect, 581
III Irallhld ~truclur,'S, 182-6, J99-
;WI,550-75
nor'mal, U,'I-4, 417
ill 1'('I./ull!!nnt ~lructurl~
Ilue to In'WCllw"t of supports.
41v-5
duo 10 temperature changes,
4.0!J..l0, 518-20
in lhr;~L'-hiJl~ed archt'.~, 114-28
in Iru5MS, 1.';3-82, 217
S~rllletsk~', N., 13, 668, G94
Sll"lIger, 49
StI"Uclllre{~1
IldCfluale strength, 6678
dofl<'/:UOILS, 341,.,';, 1,08-9, 413,
421. 423-6
deforllllllion~. :17282
de!li!/n 1l\t>lho(ls, 61i7.\)l;
l'1astie C(~J1tro, 482
framed, 11...~, If,iJ, 1,04-6
'l1llllysis, 1l2S-41
complit;uted, 20, 182-6,
HI5-9, 213/;, :W;
i"nno"cl' Jjnl'~ for stresses,
199216
with l'igid jointcs, 590
rigidity, i!l~'".,tigalio., bY1.ero
load ul<Ithod. 1!)2, 241)-51)
~ilnpil', 20, 1~l1~, 1!I!l-21,3,
3113';', !,1t-3
llo:dlillry, 425
imag(n&ry slale, 412-0\.
~pllre, 2..3..{;(I, 3ili-B2
~t:lhililr' HII-9
~lalt~~~J~' dt>I".. millnle, 2(;,
lhree-dimcllsional, U~ Stl'ue-
Lures, frnm('d, Sp:lN.< thrust.
devl!Jopillg. 22:'\.-33
I,ingerl, 358. ;-1(;6-72
iwogin:wy slall', .360-1, 1,12..1,
la rgl~-s 1'1111. 106
masoury. fl!li
multi~llall, 213
plane, Zf'r-30
redundant, 383-5, 388, :193, ti26,
f>lJU-3, 1,51, fllJ!o_6
~llIal~'sb, 3\l4-4118, ,';2(H17,
1120, 1)<\1'\---8, f,:;8-61\
gr"lI11;lIS' of llllkll"W"~,
53a-t,
'l.~e "f ~l'nllnetry, 529-a3
"qllilibrlllln, .\.tU
illnllen~.e liucs, !'31-!iO. ru-
also TnnuE'nce lillE':! slre.':'.'\().~
in, 408-15
rcillfon:cd concretE>. 61;7
staliNdly Il(,torminat", 2lJ-a!),
182-11, 213, 218-51, 1,82
s(aticall~' indetermillllte, 21\-7.
383, 39'>, 1,23-ii, 581-5
re.: alllQ Slrllf,lufl)S, redu"dPllt
symmE'lrical, 52!), ~8
an"ly~i.~. H24-41
thrOUllh, "" Stl"Uctufes, fra.med
ultimate state, fi/i8-9
Strut. 1,~1
Supports
huil1-in enrl, 17
di~plaCl'mentl3, :172-6, 410-5
fi.x(~l, 22
lh&d elld, 17
fr"e, 15
hinged immovable. ru Suppcrt:i.
Ih:"d anll
imllgillary. 661
movable, 22
rno,"hJe rollor, l:l
poendlllum, 15
readioll. 15, 17. 26, 31i-!iO, 5....
BS, 105. 107-11" 1045-ti, su alw
 I "If",

lleaeLion(!) lIoW(!, t52, laR

llCuh.ill('llt. 415 "dlh inclined *Ilp/,orl!. 2:l3-!l
SPOCl' frlllllew'lrk, 2<\1i-8 K-, 153
sphericalli"ed,245-6 multllill", f53
spherical mOV:lb!ll, V.::;-tl pBraboHe. 180
spherical roller, 245-6 flBrallel chord. 1[.:1. :!ll.i
stlblt". 23 plaill!. 17, 20, 251
IypelI, 15-7 1>olYiOn.lll, 152.
Snll."m(sl POd. fr.3
arched, 12 Putt. 152, 158. 265-1
auxiliary, 216-8 r,dllndan~. G!.I3-4
cl)mplieal("d. 250 roof, 153. 65$.61
diaphl(",fOml'1I1 graph, 358-80 simpl", 20,28. (l0, t5:~
hiufl.-conuoC.tpd, 21, 330 or
nlll,,!ll"r bBnl, 20-1. 28, 30
rell "llllo, 3~8 Mmb~r of juillts. 20-1. 28. 30
stable. 20. 22-3. 25-7, 192. IIl4 stte9C!S In. ISa-82
alalicnll)' dtt('rmlnato. 30, 231;. st.lllleally dctcrmill~tc, 28, 30, 153
252 "!t.alklllly inlfehl'UIillllt." l 42ti,
statieaBy j"deterlJliQ;Hc:, 30 438, 57s..B1. G!.I3
Ibt~billged, 1M-1 slrll". ~ eompullllLiolli, 321
tran.sformed. 182-3, 195-6 ......iLIl SI1bolll'ldcd r~ncls. 21G-23
triangulated. u.~. 12 threP.-lunRed. HL$
'Inily statl'!. 328 throu~h bridge, 220, 278-9
unst~,I,It'. IR. 21 trillllRuJar. 1~. Hs9, 200-t3
jll~lnllI8nt'ol1.'lly, 18. 23, 25, lIHsI~Nc, 21-2
1!J:-H. 196, 250, 270, 272 U\iCB. 12. 151l
unyielding, 18. 21. 2S WlllTl."ll, 152, 188
subdivided,217
Wllipplo. t~
Tauk. d('''aled, 252
Theorem YereslH'hagin. A. 341
C.utHlillllO 's, 35~tj Vinci, L . f I
MU\\'",Wa, 325-7. 375. 391 Vlaso'. " .. J3
of reciprOCllI l'PaCUull<S, 6t3
of rccjllroc~1 work.,. 321,~, 413-5, WIIII(.)
6t::L pfleo-, 281-2
of dll'ec 1lI01l1cllls, 441-53 ret:,inlng
lhurll.lllkys. 33, 358. 416-1 loads. 281
Thrust, 115. 226, 240 ~ on, 2il2-309, Iff 0110
hlflUt'lIce line, 221, Prl"SSllrt
d'/tI In temperalluu (',hllllge. 520 sllbilil)', 287
Tie.IM tJpe!, 281-2
Train. alundard, 72-3 ~. f2
TruSSt") WOOg<.\ tllt-ory. ~a-7. 305
ardll~d, 153, 223 Work
Lride, t53, 2-13, 2;;-1) el~lUellLnry, 315
cll"loJovcr. 1l'>9. 252 of external (Il.Cl'!!, 3tu-G, 322-5,
e!ossiuraLion, 152_3
ronlinuou!, 577-8
6"
of 1lI0IPt"nt, 312, 314
cre5C6<Jt, IS3 of sheariog ~.r\$St'a. 315
deDl)Ctions. 3-i5 III !O("J'WI IIf 11.l1,rnal 10fCt'S, 322,
double, 153 328
double Wuren, 153
eolld-sulIl'0rted. 153. 202-3 Zavrieov. K. 13
E<juilihnum. 28 Zbemoehkiu. H., 13
hll\gt'join~d. 18, 28, 23('; ZhlJrlI.vsl,y. 33
 Tv rUf: U~Al.I"U

roUr I'ubli~hcr.; would II(' griltefulror plllr (0111-

'n"nlS un the (ontent. trlln.~lnHou nud lI"sign of
tldl> b(!ok. We would 11151' he J)!1:uSt,,1 to recelvo UIl)"
other ~1l11gcstiun.~ you Ill!)' wi5!l ,,, rnako.
Ou" ndan!~s is: ~lir Puhlislitlfs.~. Pen')" nizhsky
I'lJIl'1I1"k. ~loscow. 115SII.