CHAPTER 3

EXTERNAL WORKS
 Understand external works
3.1.1 Describe site clearance and earthwork in the early stage of construction
3.1.2 Explain the construction of road.
a. Flexible pavement
b. Rigid pavement

3.1.3 Determine the advantages and disadvantages of flexible pavement and rigid pavement.
3.1.4 Describe types of road furniture.
3.1.5 Explain the road drainage system.
3.1.6 Explain the construction of the pedestrian walkways.
3.1.7 Explain the construction of retaining wall
a. Purpose of retaining wall.
b. Types of retaining wall.
c. Construction process of retaining wall.

3.1.8 Describe the construction of gate and fencing

3.1.9 Explain types of landscape
a. Hard landscape
b. Soft landscape
 Clearing & Grubbing
removal of trees, shrubs, and other vegetation
removing stumps and root mat at least 2 (600mm)
below subgrade
less removal required for embankment heights > 5
topsoil striping
muck excavation

SITE CLEARANCE AND EARTHWORK

SITE CLEARANCE
 verify location of underground utilities through Miss
Utility or local one-call system
check for utilities not included in one-call system
dig test pits to confirm actual locations
note location of aerial utilities for equipment and
truck clearances
confirmthat all applicable permits and approvals
have been secured

PRIOR TO STARTING ANY EARTHWORK:

 Install all required E&SC devices
Review soil borings and other geotechnical
information
Observe existing drainage patterns
Plan access and excavation patterns
Determine handling of spoils
Verify original ground surfaces (compare against
existing contours or cross sections shown on the plan)

PRIOR TO STARTING ANY EARTHWORK:

 1.control surface and subsurface water
2.maintain optimum moisture range by drying, mixing
, or wetting
3.identify and monitor cut & fill quantities
4.good layout (horizontal & vertical control)
5.minimize handling - minimize stockpiling

KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL EARTHWORK

OPERATIONS
 6.optimize haul lengths
7.minimize cycle time
8.proper selection and sizing of excavators and haul
units
9.alternate haul unit wheel paths
10.experienced personnel in the field

KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL EARTHWORK

OPERATIONS
 RIGID
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
PAVEMENT
Rigid Pavement Typical
Applications
High volume traffic lanes
Freeway to freeway
connections
Exit ramps with heavy traffic
Advantages of Rigid Pavement

Good durability
Long service life
Withstand repeated flooding
and subsurface water without
deterioration
Disadvantages of Rigid Pavement
May lose non-skid surface with
time
Needs even sub-grade with
uniform settling
May fault at transverse joints
Requires frequent joint
maintenance
Flexible Pavement Typical
Applications
Traffic lanes
Auxiliary lanes
Ramps
Parking areas
Frontage roads
Shoulders
Advantages to Flexible Pavement
Adjusts to limited differential settlement
Easily repaired
Additional thickness added any time
Non-skid properties do not deteriorate
Quieter and smoother
Tolerates a greater range of temperatures
Disadvantages of Flexible
Pavement
Loses some flexibility and cohesion
with time
Needs resurfacing sooner than PC
concrete
Not normally chosen where water is
expected
 MESH
REINFORCEMENT JOINT SEALANT

COMPRESSIVE JOINT FILLER

 Structure
Surface course
Base course
Subbase course
Subgrade
 Built from concrete slabs
either reinforced or not.
Concrete slabs connected
in a longitudinal or
transverse.
The base will only be built if
it is built on the weak
subsoil (subgrade).
The thickness of the
concrete slab is depend
on the type of subsoil,
reinforcement and the
loading of heavy traffic.
Can be built manually or
by using machinery.
 Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavements
Called rigid since PCCs high modulus of
elasticity does not allow them to flex
appreciably
About 6.5% of paved U.S. roads use rigid
pavement
 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)
 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)
 Slipform

Fixed form
 Flexible Pavement
Hot mix asphalt (HMA) pavements
Called "flexible" since the total pavement structure
bends (or flexes) to accommodate traffic loads
 Structure
Surface course
Base course
Subbase course
Subgrade
Dense-graded

Open-graded Gap-graded
 SUBGRADE PREPARATION
SUBBASE COURSE
BASE COURSE
PRIME COAT
BINDER COURSE
TACK COAT
WEARING COURSE
MISCELLANEOUS WORKS
 Uppermost part of the soil
Natural or imported
Supporting the load transmitted from the overlying layers
 Consists of granular materials, either naturally or
compacted or ocassionally stabilized with cement or
lime.
To disperse the load from the base course before
transmitting it to the subgrade.
Help as a drainage layer
Prevent moisture migration from subgrade
Menahan tanah subgrade dari bercampur dengan
road base
Sand and aggregate
Standard CBR % : Crushed aggregate 30
Sand, Laterite, etc 20
 Plays a prominent role in the support and dispersion of the traffic
The thickest layer
3 types :
Crushed aggregates
Cement stabilised
Bitumen stabilised base courses
 All the bound layer(s) within the pavement i.e wearing
course, intermediate course and binder course
An impermeable and flexible lining of high elastic
modulus
Hot-mixed bituminous mixtures-consist of well graded
mixture of coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and filler,
bound together with bitumen
Binder course
Overlying the base course
Supporting and dispersing the traffic load
Resists shear
Wearing course
Topmost layer
Resist abrasion and prevent skidding
Make a assignment about types
of road furniture.

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 DRAINAGE is VERY! VERY! VERY! IMPORTANT, both in
relation to road pavement construction and
maintenance.
Good drainage will help to keep the water table
(and strength) of the road pavement in equilibrium.
Water below the road pavement must be kept low
and not be allowed to rise up into the construction
layers
The road pavement must be constructed so that it
will drain in the event of a failure of the integrity of
the surfacing layers, i.e. if water is able to enter the
road pavement there must be a path for it to exit.
Surface Drainage
Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the
surface of the land. This is normally accomplished by
shallow ditches, also called open drains. The shallow
ditches discharge into larger and deeper collector drains.
In order to facilitate the flow of excess water toward the
drains, the field is given an artificial slope by means of land
grading (see Fig. 98).
 Softening the road surface when it is
constructed of soil or sand-clay or gravel
or water bound macadam
Washing out unprotected areas of the
top surface, erosion of side slopes
forming gullies, erosion of side drain
Generally softening of the ground giving
rise to land slides or slips
Softening the subgrade soil and
decreasing its bearing power
Shoulder Slope
Roadside Drain/ Shoulder Drain
Toe Drain
Bench And Berm Drain
Interceptor Drain
Out Fall Drain
Median Drain
Kerb Drain
ROAD DRAINAGE
 Sidewalks play an important role in transportation, as they
provide a safe path for people to walk along that is separated
from the motorized traffic. They aid road safety by minimizing
interaction between pedestrians and motorized traffic. Sidewalks
are normally in pairs, one on each side of the road, with the
centre section of the road for motorized vehicles.
In rural roads, sidewalks may not be present as the amount of
traffic (pedestrian or motorized) may not be enough to justify
separating the two. In suburban and urban areas, sidewalks are
more common. In town and city centres (known as downtown in
North America) the amount of pedestrian traffic can exceed
motorized traffic, and in this case the sidewalks can occupy
more than half of the width of the road, or the whole road can
be reserved for pedestrians, see Pedestrian zone.
 Sidewalks may have a small effect on reducing vehicle miles
travelled and carbon dioxide emissions. A study of sidewalk and
transit investments in Seattle neighbourhoods found vehicle travel
reductions of 6 to 8% and CO2 emission reductions of 1.3 to 2.2%.
 Sidewalk presence had a risk ratio of 0.118, which means that the likelihood of
a crash on a road with a paved sidewalk was 88.2 percent lower than one
without a sidewalk. This should not be interpreted to mean that installing
sidewalks would necessarily reduce the likelihood of pedestrian/motor vehicle
crashes by 88.2 percent in all situations. However, the presence of a sidewalk
clearly has a strong beneficial effect of reducing the risk of a walking along
roadway pedestrian/motor vehicle crash. The presence or absence of
sidewalks was one of three factors that were found to encourage drivers to
choose lower, safer speeds.
On the other hand, the implementation of schemes which involve the
removal of sidewalks, such as shared space schemes, are reported to deliver
a dramatic drop in crashes and congestion too, which indicates that a
number of other factors, such as the local speed environment, also play an
important role in whether sidewalks are necessarily the best local solution for
pedestrian safety.
Riding bicycles on sidewalks is discouraged since some research shows it to
be more dangerous than riding in the street. Some jurisdictions prohibit
sidewalk riding except for children. In addition to the risk of cyclist/pedestrian
collisions, cyclists face increase risks from collisions with motor vehicles at
street crossings and driveways. Riding in the direction opposite to traffic in the
adjacent lane is especially risky.
 Since residents of neighbourhoods with sidewalks
are more likely to walk, they tend to have lower
rates of cardiovascular disease, obesity, and
other health issues related to sedentary lifestyles.
Also, children who walk to school have been
shown to have better concentration.

Busking
Some sidewalks may be used as social spaces
with sidewalk cafes, markets, or busking musicians,
as well as for parking for a variety of vehicles
including cars, motorbikes and bicycles
 Contemporary sidewalks are most often made of
concrete in the United States and Canada, while
tarmac, asphalt, brick, stone, slab and (increasingly)
rubber are more common in Europe and Malaysia.

Different materials are more or less friendly

environmentally: pumice-based trass, for example,
when used as an extender is less energy-intensive
than Portland cement concrete or petroleum-based
materials such as asphalt or tar-penetration
macadam). Multi-use paths alongside roads are
sometimes made of materials that are softer than
concrete, such as asphalt.
 In the 19th century and early 20th century, sidewalks of
wood were common in some North American locations.
They may still be found at historic beach locations and in
conservation areas to protect the land beneath and
around, called boardwalks.

Brick sidewalks are found in some urban areas, usually for

aesthetic purposes. Brick sidewalk construction usually involves
the usage of a mechanical vibrator to lock the bricks in place
after they have been laid (and/or to prepare the soil before
laying). Although this might also be done by other tools (as
regular hammers and heavy rolls), a vibrator is often used to
speed up the process.
 Stone slabs called flagstones or flags are sometimes used
where an attractive appearance is required, as in historic
town centers. In other places, pre-cast concrete slabs
(called paving slabs or, less correctly, paving stones) are
used. These may be colored or textured to resemble stone.

In the United Kingdom, Australia and France suburban

sidewalks are most commonly constructed of tarmac,
which is however not environmentally friendlier. In urban or
inner-city areas sidewalks are most commonly constructed
of slabs, stone, or brick depending upon the surrounding
street architecture and furniture.
 In the United States and Canada, the most common type of
sidewalk consists of a poured concrete ribbon, examples of which
from as early as the 1860s can be found in good repair in San
Francisco, and stamped with the name of the contractor and
date of installation. When quantities of Portland cement were first
imported to the United States in the 1880s, its principal use was in
the construction of sidewalks.
Today, most sidewalk ribbons are constructed with cross-lying
strain-relief grooves placed or sawn at regular intervals typically 5
feet (1.5 m) apart. This partitioning, an improvement over the
continuous slab, was patented in 1924 by Arthur Wesley Hall and
William Alexander McVay, who wished to minimize damage to the
concrete from the effects of tectonic and temperature
fluctuations, both of which can crack longer segments. The
technique is not perfect, as freeze-thaw cycles (in cold-weather
regions) and tree root growth can eventually result in damage
which requires repair.
In highly variable climates which undergo multiple freeze-thaw
cycles, the concrete blocks will be separated by expansion joints
to allow for thermal expansion without breakage. The use of
expansion joints in sidewalks may not be necessary, as the
concrete will shrink while setting.
What is a Retaining wall?
Retaining wall is a structure used for
maintaining the ground surfaces at different
elevations on either side of it.

Retaining walls provide lateral support to

vertical slopes of soil. They retain soil which
would otherwise collapse into a more natural
shape. The retained soil is referred to as
backfill.
Types of retaining walls:

Gravity Retaining Walls

Semi-Gravity Retaining Walls
Cantilever Retaining Walls
Counter fort Retaining Walls
Cantilever Retaining Wall:

stem

H2 H1
H
toe
heel
y

shear key
b
 Forces acting on the retaining wall:
Lateral forces: Earth pressure due to backfill and surcharge.
Vertical forces:
Acting downwards:
Self weight of the retaining wall ; Weight of soil above
heel slab.
Acting upwards:
Force due to soil pressure underneath the base slab.
Stability Conditions:
A retaining wall must be stable as a whole, and it must have sufficient
strength to resist the forces acting on it.

In order that the wall may be stable, the following conditions should be
satisfied:

i. The wall must be strong enough to resist the bending moment and
shear force.
ii. The wall should not overturn.
iii. Maximum pressure at base should not exceed the SBC of soil.
iv. The wall should not slide due to lateral pressure.
RETAINING WALL
RETAINING WALL
R.C WALL
CONCRETE CRIB WALL
Make a assignment about the
construction of gate and fencing

Cover (red)
table of content
content/picture
conclusion
reference
Elements of
landscape
design
What is landscaping?
Landscaping refers to any
activity that modifies the
visible features of an area
of land, including:
1. Living elements flora or
fauna.
2. Natural elements such as
landforms, terrain shape
and elevation, or bodies of
water;
3. Human elements such as
structures, buildings,
fences or other material
objects created and/or
installed by humans; and
4. Abstract elements such as
the weather and lighting
conditions.
Elements of landscape
Natural
Manmade

Natural Manmade
Plants/vegetation Brick
Water Metal
Earth forms/landforms Plastic
Timber Glass
Stone
Elements of landscape
There are many varieties of plant materials such as:
Trees
Shrubs
Creepers and climbers
Land covers .etc.

USES:
Environmental Architectural
1. Microclimate modifiers 1. Enframement
2. Conservation belt 2. Scale induction
3. Erosion control 3. Creation of plaza
4. Retains ground water 4. Defines pathway
5. Welcoming look and
5. Retains soil fertility
aesthetic appeal to the
6. Prevents siltation building
Elements of landscape- Plants
Plants create
outdoor rooms.
Trees, shrubs, and
ground covers can
be used to
emphasize the
desirable
architectural lines
and masses.
Plants can be used
to soften and
balance harsh and
awkward
architectural
angles, masses
and materials.
Elements of landscape design- Plants
The human eye has a
tendency to follow the
outline of the objects in the
landscape.
With this idea in mind the
apparent size in affected.

By graduating plant sizes away from the house, the

apparent size of the structure is increased.

Plants that reach large sizes at maturity are often Tall evergreen create an uninviting, inhibiting
planted too closely to the house when small. appearance to this entrance.
When mature, they dominate and make the
house look smaller
Elements of landscape design- Plants
Creating outdoor rooms
The development of
outdoor rooms utilizes
the same elements as
indoor architecture-
floors, walls, and
ceilings.
The difference is that
the elements of
outdoor rooms are
composed of plant
materials that have a
changing and
dynamic, living quality.

A small side yard developed into an

intimate strolling garden.
Elements of landscape design- Plants
Inwardly oriented
space is
characterized by
either complete
or nearly
complete
enclosure and a Planting beds and walks
strong central act as a breezeway
between driveway and
focal point.
entrance courtyard.

Central areas for

sitting, sculpture Inwardly focused
displays, patios, space
and hot tubs
require enclosure
for purpose of
privacy, quit, and
concentration.
Various plant types,
heights, and
combinations create
walls, partial screens,
and overhead
canopies
Outwardly oriented
rooms are enhanced
by amenities outside
the space such as
good views and
breezes.
Activities taking
place within the
front yard are more
public in nature
and will require free
visual access on
Outwardly focused and off the site and
space little enclosure.
Elements of landscape design- Plants
Environmental role
Pollution control
Noise control
Climate control

Use of windbreaks to control

winter winds

embankments., deciduous and evergreen

plantings and masonry walls are used together for
effective sound control.

Use of deciduous plants to direct

summer breezes
Elements of landscape design- Plants
Elements of landscape- Plants

Creepers

Shrubs

Climbers
Covered pathways
 Elements of landscape- Plants

GROUND COVERS TREES

 Elements of landscape -Water
Water is also another most important landscape element.
Water bodies improve the quality and the worth of the site.it
makes the site attractive.
There are many types of water bodies : Whether a small babbling brook
or a tumultuous cascade, water
1. Fountains
features add sound, movement,
2. Pools and enjoyment into the
3. Ponds landscape. They also provide
opportunities for incorporating
4. Spouts pond and wetland plants into
5. Artificial waterfalls. etc. your landscape design. The
choice and placement of
boulders, stonework, and
plantings can link the water
feature with your building and
property, creating a unified
landscape composition
 Elements of landscape -Water

Water flows inevitably, from the source to the receiving ocean

basin. This continuity of rivulets , streams and rivers can be readily observed.
USES:
1. Excellent land water interface gives an ecological home for the animals and plants.
2. Water runoff reduced.
3. Microclimate created.
4. Moisture level maintained.
5. Wetland, marshes, swampy areas are conserved.
6. Maintaining vegetation into wetlands.
7. Hydrological cycle maintained.
8. Site aesthetics are enhanced
Elements of landscape -Stones
Stones are hard, impermeable, inorganic elements used
extensively in landscape architecture.
Stones are basically used for the following:

1. Paving
2. Retaining wall
3. Stacked stone wall
4. Sitting
5. Shelters
6. Parapets
7. Bridges
8. Sculptures
9. Planters
10. Bollards
Elements of landscape -Stones
Stone, one of the oldest paving materials, offers good,
durable, wearing surface with a minimum
maintenance required.

Rubble and ashlars masonry are the two forms

of stone used for paving.

Rubble masonry is rough stone, as it comes

from the quarry, but may be trimmed somewhat
where necessary.

Ashlars masonry is hewed or cut stone from the

quarry and is used much more often than
Rubble for the surfacing of the walls
Elements of landscape -Stones
Landscaping with stone brings in a natural element
that evokes solidness and a sense security.
Types of Landscape Stones and their uses

Retaining Walls--There are many different types of

stones that can be used when it comes to creating
retaining walls in the lawn. One may elect to
assemble a retaining wall around a small pond, or
even a garden.
Flagstone-- Flagstone is a very popular choice when
it comes to stones that are used for steps, or simple
ornamental design.
Boulders --Homeowners elect to implement the use of
boulders in the decorative design of their landscaping.
Great products in the way of boulders include that of
Birchwood, Wisconsin, Granite, and even Honeycomb
Western stone.
 Elements of landscape -Stones
Marble--Many individuals elect to use marble
when decorating their landscape. Marble can
be used to create signs, around or in garden
ponds, and even marble fountains can be
purchased in order to bring out the natural
appeal of a pond or garden area. They are
also used in sculptures.
Natural Stone--Natural stone is often a choice
for small landscaping structures.
Decorative Stones--Decorative stones are used
in pathways or trails to beautify the garden.
Some of them are Royal George, Walnut
nuggets, beachwood pebbles and many
more.
Other-- Other than that there are pebbles
used for sidewalks, stepping stones used in
gardens and stone is also used as stone
lantern in Chinese gardens.
Hard Landscape Elements
Definition
The term hard landscape is used by practitioners of landscape
architecture and garden design to describe the construction
materials which are used to improve a landscape by design.

Hard landscape can also describe outdoor furniture and other

landscape products.

A wide range of hard landscape materials can be used, such as brick,

gravel, stone, concrete, timber, bitumen, glass, metals, etc.
A. Hard Landscape Elements
Functions of Hard Landscape Elements
to provide physical visual interest, i.e. texture, colours,
materials

to satisfy practical needs of user, i.e. seating, safety, comfort

to protect landscape plantings, i.e. retaining walls, for

example, can help prevent erosion and porous paving material
limits water runoff.
A. Hard Landscape Elements
Gazebos/Pavillions

Chinese

Islamic

English Japanese
A. Hard Landscape Elements
Sculptures

Japanese

English

Chinese

English Japanese
A. Hard Landscape Elements
Other Elements

Bridge (Japanese)

Pergola (English)

Fountain (Islamic)

Moon Gate (Chinese)

Bollard
B. Soft Landscape Elements
Definition
The term soft landscape is used by practitioners of landscape design,
landscape architecture, and garden design; and gardeners to describe
the vegetative materials which are used to improve a landscape
by design.

The range of soft landscape materials includes each layer of the

ecological sequence: aquatic plants, semi-aquatic plants, field layer
plants (including grasses and herbaceous plants) shrubs and trees.
B. Soft Landscape Elements
Ground Covers & Grasses
Some ground cover plants make good
alternatives to turfgrasses in some
locations, especially in the xeriscaped
landscape.

They provide variety of texture and

color, reduce soil erosion, and serve as a
transition between grass areas and shrub
or flower beds.

Grasses add variety to many types of

gardens, including water, Japanese, rock,
wildlife, craft, xeriscape, container and
others.

Ornamental grasses add two elements to

the garden experience that are not readily
obtained from many other plants:
movement and sound.
B. Soft Landscape Elements
Shrubs
Shrubs are the primary way gardeners can
diversify the garden horizontally.

Shrubs are also a useful source for food

and cover for wildlife on a smaller scale,
often down to ground level.

Shrubs provide cover for some smaller

shade-loving plants.

Some flowering shrubs attract birds with

their fruit and some shrubs even provide
colorful fall foliage rivaling any tree.
B. Soft Landscape Elements
Trees
Besides the economic value a quality tree
can add, it also provides shade, privacy,
and beauty.

Trees provide dramatic vertical layering

within the landscape and garden.

Trees create shady microclimates in the

landscape, protecting shrubs and
groundcovers from direct exposure to the
natural elements.
 B. Soft Landscape Elements

Fragrant and flowering

shrubs
 B. Soft Landscape Elements

Ornamental Garden (English & French) Topiary

Pattern using evergreen shrubs called As an art form it is a type of
parterres and knots. living sculpture
Shape of geometry, box, yew are
frequently trimmed.
B. Soft Landscape Elements

Annual Plant
Plants that lasting only for a few months
and normally planted at the strategic
location.