Special Issue:

Ships Navy Experts Explain

the Newest Material &
Structural Technologies

AMPTIAC is a DOD Information Analysis Center Administered by the

Defense Information Systems Agency, Defense Technical Information Center
 The issue you hold in your hands has been 14 months in the
making. It began with a simple idea: turn the spotlight on the
age-old art of building ships. We wanted to show the exciting
new technologies that are offering novel materials for ship con-
struction, changing the way ships are built, and indeed creating
one of the most fundamental shifts in Navy combatants since
steel replaced wood.
This simple mission turned
out to be much more complex.
The project underwent a num- Editorial:
ber of different iterations, but
finally settled in and came There’s More to AMPTIAC
together. It has been a labor of
love for yours truly, for I really
than the Quarterly
do believe that even though air-
planes and tanks often grab the
spotlight, Navy ships are still the most challenging structural
and materials engineering systems fielded in today’s military.
Nothing has the complexity, impact, size, and sheer force of a
fighting vessel, nor can many things capture the imagination in
quite the same way.
So here it is, finally, and I am thankful that it is done. Not
just because it is off my desk and I can get on to the next proj-
ect, but we are proud because AMPTIAC has compiled some-
thing that probably has not existed before: an overview of the
newest technologies being incorporated into structures and
materials for use aboard Navy combatants. And the people pro-
viding the perspective are the experts at the Office of Naval
Research, NSWC-Carderock, and the Naval Research Lab. You
won’t find this level of detail, variety, and expert content
focused on this subject anywhere else.
That all being said, there is one critical feature of this publi-
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Some of you out there have been reading this publication for
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ago when we shifted over to our current layout format and full
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Editor-in-Chief
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Editor-in-Chief The AMPTIAC Quarterly is published by the Advanced Materials and Processes Technology Information
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INTRODUCTION
Ships are under constant attack, both from the elements of
nature and the enemy. The vast majority of ship hulls are con-
structed from common carbon steels, which are obviously sus-
ceptible to corrosion, but they also create distinct thermal and
electromagnetic signatures easily detectable from long distances.
Additionally, the construction framing of large steel ships is fun-
damentally the same as that used in wooden ships many years
ago – the main difference being the larger hull size enabled by
the stiffer steel. Both steel and wood hulls alike utilize networks
of longitudinal and transverse framing, sheathed with relatively
thin plates to create the hull form. Current steel construction
and ship design have been standardized over the past 100 years,
and as such, they are very mature technologies, employing well-
established and time-honored practices.
Nonetheless, even methods which are staples of the industry
have shortfalls. First, the construction process is very labor
intensive, involving the welding of thousands of steel plates.
Second, all the welding creates numerous heat affected zones,
resulting in areas of stress concentrations. Next, the entire struc-
ture, and especially these heat-affected zones, are highly suscep-
tible to corrosion and reduced fatigue life. Lastly, extensive coat-
ings are required to shield the structure from the elements. All of
these factors and more ultimately translate into higher build and
maintenance costs for ships.
For the next generation of ships, the Navy is looking to
stealthier hull technologies, specifically those which create lower
magnetic, acoustic, hydrodynamic, radar, and thermal signa-
tures. One way to accomplish this is by constructing hulls out of
reinforced polymer composite materials. Composites have many
advantages over carbon steel, including a much higher strength-
Roshdy George S. Barsoum
Ship Hull, Mechanical and Electrical Systems Science and Technology Division
Office of Naval Research
Arlington, VA
to-weight ratio, lower maintenance requirement, and an ability
to be formed into complex shapes (such as hulls). Composites
hulls also offer a number of stealth benefits:
• They are non-magnetic, making them less susceptible to
mines and torpedoes
• They can be made to absorb radar energy rather than reflect
it, rendering the structure with lower radar cross-sections
(RCS)
• They have significantly lower harmonic resonance, hence
they are markedly quieter in the water
• Their thermal properties allow for considerably lower thermal
signatures.
Beyond the benefits of stealth, composites also have high dura-
bility and increased fatigue life.
At the same time, the Navy has also been investigating stain-
less steel as a material of choice for the next generation ship
hulls. Stainless steels feature all the benefits of carbon steel, but
have the added benefit of being non-magnetic and less suscepti-
ble to corrosion. Unfortunately, stainless steels are appreciably
more expensive (per unit weight) than carbon steels. When it
comes to constructing monolithic single hulls, it is very difficult
for stainless steels to compete economically. There are revolu-
tionary new designs however, such as the advanced double hull
concept, which require significantly less labor to construct than
conventional hulls. For the double hull concept, the reduction
in labor cost overcomes much of the price differential between
stainless and carbon steels, thus making stainless steel a more
economically attractive choice. A double hull also increases ship
survivability by making rupture more difficult.
This article addresses the advantages and challenges of intro-
ducing new materials, such as composites or stainless steel into
The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 3 55
 Figure 1. Potential Use of Composites in Naval Structures.

new and emerging 21st century hull technology. It further intro- ite hull would afford could result in improved capabilities, such
duces the concept of hybrid hull construction, which combines as increased payload, higher top speed, greater range, and
composites with stainless steel to achieve many of the weight and reduced fuel usage. As mentioned already, another advantage of
stealth advantages of composites, while retaining the stiffness and composites is the ability to design very complex hull shapes at
strength of steel in the ship. This is followed by a review of two very little increase in cost and weight (which is not true for
hybrid composite concepts presently being developed for combat- steel). Hydrodynamic designs which require complex hull shapes
ant vessels, and examines the various studies underway to address (especially at the bow and stern) for efficiency or other hydro-
the basic issues in the construction and design of hybrid hulls. advantages can be more easily achieved using composites.
In contrast, the fabrication processes for welded steel hulls
COMPOSITE MATERIALS FOR SHIP HULL APPLICATIONS introduce large residual stresses, which lead to large deformations
The most compelling reasons to use composite materials in hulls of the individual plates (known as dishing.) Multiple dished
are stealth, lower total ownership
cost, and weight reduction. Since
construction with composites is
more expensive than with steel,
designers need to show a clear advan- Composite section
tage to composites and a means to
achieve cost savings over steels, either
in initial construction costs or in
total life cycle costs. If stealth is the
highest priority, composites (and
stainless steel) would be proper
choices. Composites, as discussed
below, offer other signature advan-
tages that cannot be achieved by Stainless Steel Frame
steel. The Norwegian Navy claims Stainless Steel Double
that its composite ships have very Hull Construction
low maintenance (no corrosion), (b)
which results in lower total owner- (a)
ship costs. Lower maintenance
requirements could aid the US Navy Composite
in its evolution of a fleet requiring Skin
less manpower to operate.
The weight reductions a compos- Figure 2. Hybrid Hull Designs.

56 The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 3

plates along the side of the ship are usually referred to as hungry
horse deformation, similar to the exposed ribcage of a starving
horse. The RCS of the hull is increased by the multiple concave
surfaces diffracting radar signals, thus magnifying overall signa-
ture. They also reduce fatigue life under repeated cyclic load, also
called panting. Stainless steel hulls are expected to result in much
higher residual stresses and hence dishing deformations will be
larger. The only means to assure tight manufacturing tolerances
is to relieve the residual stresses by heat treatment (which is very
expensive), or to use some advanced welding technology that
could minimize the residual stresses (e.g. laser welding, which is
not yet available at most shipyards). In some steel hulls, designers
resorted to increasing the steel thickness (thus adding weight) to
reduce hungry horse deformation.
Composites represent an excellent alternative to many of the
problems steel hull construction poses. They can be fabricated
to very tight dimensional tolerances with minimal residual
stresses. Therefore, in order to meet various signature require-
ments while reducing maintenance and total costs, composites
would seem a logical choice. However, composites bring their
own set of drawbacks to the table, which in turn must be
addressed and managed.
Several studies have shown that for hulls longer than about
200 feet, even carbon fiber composites would not provide the
required stiffness and strength required for a hull. Figure 1
shows the usage of composites in ship hulls and where the pro-
posed hybrid (part composite, part steel) hulls could fill the per-
formance gap.
The cost of carbon fiber composite structures is prohibitive
for larger classes of ships (400 ft or larger). Current cost for car-
bon fiber is $12-18/lb (depending on grade) vs ~$0.45/lb for
high strength steel, and ~$3/lb for stainless steel. On the other
hand, low cost, high performance composite materials (such as
glass reinforced polymer or GRP) using fabrication processes
such as resin transfer molding (RTM), can compete with steel on
a per-weight basis (high-performance composites have superior
strength-to-weight ratios over steel). A variant of the RTM
process (SCRIMP®) is now being used competitively to build
hulls for patrol boats, corvettes, and mine-
hunters. Currently, the Swedish Visby (210
ft) is the largest all-composite hull (carbon
fiber sandwich) in service.
Still, composites lack both the stiffness
and the in-plane strength required for the
larger combatant ship hulls. The structures
of long Navy combatants carry loads by the
alternating axial tension and compression
the hull experiences during hogging (hull
Bending Moment Comparison
bows up) and sagging (hull bows down)
modes, the result of traversing waves at sea.
Therefore, for long structures the in-plane
strength of the composite becomes the criti-
cal design factor. For small ships or boats,
like Visby, the bending strength (and not the
in-plane strength) of the composite is the
critical design factor. The composite sand-
wich construction technology common in
smaller ships or boats, cannot provide the Figure 3. UNDEX Whipping Analyses.
necessary in-plane strength for sea loads in long ship hulls.
Composites therefore provide some of the answers to realize
low-signature, low maintenance hulls, but fall short of being able
to handle the massive structural hull loads of large sea vessels. In
contrast, stainless steels possess sufficient strength, favorable
magnetic properties, and are resistant to corrosion, but are more
expensive in large quantities and lack other stealth properties.
These realizations led to the hybrid hull concept, where a hull
might be constructed in part from composites which provide the
signature and maintenance improvements, and in part from
stainless steel which provides the needed structural integrity.
HYBRID HULL DESIGN
In the past five years, several hybrid hull designs have been pro-
posed incorporating many of the aforementioned performance
characteristics, like stealth, stiffness, and strength. It is inter-
esting to note that the aircraft industry (Airbus Industrie for
example with the A380) has started to work on hybrid aircraft
structures for large passenger transport. Their construction
bears a striking resemblance to the hybrid ship hull concepts.
Two hybrid hull designs have thus far been proposed; and are
illustrated in Figure 2. One design (Figure 2a) has a mid-section
of stainless steel advanced double hull and bow and stern
sections made of single skin cross-reinforced composite or sand-
wich composite. This design uses the steel in the center of the ship
to achieve the strength and stiffness required for large combatants,
and the composite at the bow and stern to achieve all the weight
reduction, address complex shapes, and provide other stealth
features. The hull shown in Figure 2b has an all-composite skin
along the entire hull reinforced with stainless steel framing in the
mid-section. This provides the necessary stiffness, and can carry
the hull-girder sea and whipping loads. [*See Note]
Advantages of a Hybrid Hull Design
The hybrid hull design takes advantage of materials where they
perform best:
• Steel is used for stiffness and strength
• Composites are used for light weight, creating complex shapes
HULLWHIP Analytical Model
Lumped Masses Beam Elements
Shear Force Comparison
The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 3 57
 ADH Midbody

GRP
Bow

GRP
Stern

Highest Stressed
Elements at Joints

Figure 4. FEA of Hybrid Hull under Whipping Moment.

with exact tolerances, and reducing signature. hybrid hull subject to UNDEX shock and whipping loads
• Hybrid design does not require expensive composites. It relies (shown in Figure 3.) Two hulls were used in the analysis; one
on the use of low cost GRP, which has already gained Navy using conventional steel construction, and the other using
and shipyard acceptance. hybrid construction as shown in Figure 2a. Figure 3 shows a
Hybrid design allows for low maintenance, elimination or comparison of the peak bending moments and shear loads (blue
reduction of corrosion problems, light weight, ability to use low is for conventional construction and red for hybrid construc-
cost/high performance composites, as well as embedded sensors tion.) The moments and shear are measured at specific points
and fiber optics for health monitoring. The hybrid design in along the structure’s length. As shown in the figure, the hybrid
Figure 2b would also reduce repair costs through the use of construction results in a 30% reduction in whipping moments
removable panels. This type of construction eliminates the prob- and shear.
lem of an entire hull delamination, which could result from the A detailed finite element analysis of whipping (Figure 4)
ship impacting ice, piers, or other hard objects. (Sandwich con- shows that for a hybrid hull the highest stressed region is at the
struction used in ships like the Visby incorporated special “stop- joints due to the material mismatch. To study the behavior of
pers” in the hull skin to prevent the entire hull from delaminat- large composite/steel joints, several applied and basic research
ing.) In addition, combatants with hybrid construction have the activities are being conducted.
following advantages:
• Superior performance in underwater explo-
sions (UNDEX); 30% reduction in whip-
ping loads.
• The hybrid hull in Figure 2b is perceived to
be less vulnerable to internal explosions,
because the outer skin would allow relief of
internal blast pressure preventing extreme
loading of the structural frame.
• The use of low density composites saves
weight, allowing for added additional pro-
tection systems.
• The steel framing depicted in Figure 2b also
provides options to reduce structural
acoustic signatures. Ship Hull Grillage for Bending Test
(Lehigh University)
ANALYSIS AND TESTING
OF HYBRID HULLS
Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
Several finite element analyses were performed
to predict and evaluate the performance of a Figure 5. Large Scale Hybrid Joint and Hybrid Hull Testing.

58 The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 3

 Basic Research on Composite
to Steel Joints
The wide application of composites
in future ships and submarines (e.g.
composite topside, composite mast,
Steel FRP Adherent composite sail, hybrid hulls etc.), has
opened a new field of research in
joints. Several studies are underway to
insert
understand the behavior of composite
University of Maine University of California–San Diego to steel joints. These investigations
cover three areas: development of join-
ing mechanisms, understanding failure
behavior under cyclic and dynamic
To Instron
E-glass loads, and development of computa-
beam tional tools for joint analysis. Figure 6
hightlights several studies for develop-
ment and analysis of various joining
Steel
beam mechanisms: bolting, adhesive joining,
Lehigh University composite fasteners, and compliance
University of California–Los Angeles matching methods.
Figure 7 shows some of the theories
Figure 6. Development of Joint Concepts, and Understanding Failure Mechanisms.
and experiments related to dynamic
failure and friction laws that should be
considered in the failure analysis of
these large joints. It is imperative that
Large Scale Testing friction not be ignored along the entire circumference of a hull
Figure 5 shows the large, built-up composite-to-steel joints, (or length of ship topside) after failure of the fasteners and the
which will be tested soon. In addition, a proposed half-scale hull initiation of interfacial cracks.
may be tested in the future to gain more confidence in the analy- Figure 8, shows some of the analysis and computational tech-
sis of large scale composite/steel joints under complex sea load niques under development to allow the designer to predict failure
and UNDEX conditions. of interfaces under cyclic fatigue and dynamic loading. They

Steel

California Institute of Technology Harvard University

Brown University Brown University

Figure 7. Theoretical and Experimental Methods for Understanding and Measuring Friction at Interfaces of Composite/Steel Joints.

The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 3 59

 Mathematical formulas,
rules, weight ...

IMPACT LOADING

Automatic learning tools

Global Scale Material Scale

Component Scale

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

University of California–San Diego

Figure 8. Development of Analytical Methods for Analysis of Hybrid Ships.

cover the use of neural networks and expert systems, as well as the
development of multi-scale computational methods (covering the
scale from interface details to the full scale structure.)
APPLICATION OF HYBRID HULL
The hybrid hull concept was conceived to enable the use of com-
posites in the structure of large combatants. The emerging need
for fast craft in the Navy however, brought about a new possi-
bility for hybrid construction. Fast craft require high fatigue
resistance and the use of low density materials like aluminum or
composites. Where many aluminum alloys suffer from poor
fatigue performance, composites can be made to possess excellent
fatigue resistance, but may lack the stiffness for some of the hull
forms of the proposed fast ships. Figure 9 shows some concepts
of hybrid construction envisioned for fast ships.

Application of Hybrid Hull

Pentamaran Trimaran
Theater Support Vessel

Catamaran Surface Effect Ship

Theater Logistics Vessel Fast Patrol Boat

Figure 9. Concepts of Hybrid Construction in Fast Craft.

60 The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 3

CONCLUSIONS
Many aspects of hybrid hulls are currently being investigated.
While the technology has its drawbacks, there are many advan-
tages that make it worthwhile to investigate. Everyone agrees
that the Navy needs stealthier hull technologies for the next gen-
eration of ships. These new hulls must have lower magnetic,
acoustic, hydrodynamic, radar, and thermal signatures. Hybrid
hulls fabricated from both steel and composite materials, mak-
ing use of the best properties of each dissimilar material, could
very well provide many of the advantages needed in 21st centu-
ry combatant structures.
REFERENCES
M.J. Boone, V. Caccese, R. Bragg and K.A. Berube, “Mechanical
Testing of Epoxy Adhesives for Naval Applications,” UM-
MACH-RPT-01-03, April 2003
V. Caccese, M.J. Boone and K. Berube, “Adhesive Study,
Bonding and Assembly of the Full-scale Hybrid Composite
Strut Assembly for the AHFID Project,” University of Maine
Department of Mechanical Engineering. Report No. UM-
AHFID-RPT-01-1, February 2003, 45
A. Cochard and J.R. Rice, “Fault rupture between dissimilar
materials: Ill-posedness, regularization and slip-pulse
response”, Journal of Geophysical Research, 105, 25,891-
25,907, 2000.
D. Coker, A.J. Rosakis and A. Needleman, “Dynamic Crack
Growth along a Polymer Composite-Homalite Interface,”
Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, 51, 425-460
(2003)
J.L. Grenestedt, “Steel to Composite Joints in Hybrid Ships,”
Proc. International Conference of Sandwich Construction, Fort
Lauderdale, March 31-April 2, 2003
J.W. Hutchinson M.E. Mear and J.R. Rice, “Crack Paralleling
an Interface Between Dissimilar Materials”, Journal of Applied
Mechanics, 54, l987, pp. 828-832
Hybrid Ship Hull, US Patent No. 6,386,131
Hybrid Hull Construction for Marine vessels, US Patent No.
6,505,571
Kerri Piccinich, “Manufacturing and Characterization of
Chemically Joined Polyester Glass Composite and Stainless Steel
Sections,” MS Thesis, Department of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, March
2002
J.D. Melograna, J.L. Grenestedt, "Revisiting a Wavy Bonded
Single Lap Joint," 2001, submitted
J.D. Melograna, J.L. Grenestedt, “Adhesion of Stainless Steel to
Fiber Reinforced Vinyl-Ester Composite,” Journal of
Composites Technology and Research, Vol. 24, No. 4, 2002, pp.
254-260
R. Mewer, S.S. Vel, and V. Caccese, “Detection of Bolt Stress
Relaxation in Hybrid Bolted Connections for the MACH
Program”, “University of Maine Department of Mechanical
Engineering. Report No. UM-MACH-RPT-01-07, April 2003,
p. 78
K. Ranjith and J.R. Rice, “Slip dynamics at an interface between
dissimilar materials,” Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of
Solids, 49, 341-361, 2001
J.R. Rice, “Elastic Fracture Mechanics Concepts for Interfacial
Cracks,” Journal of Applied Mechanics, 55, l988, pp. 98-103
J.R. Rice “New perspectives in crack and fault dynamics”, in
Mechanics for a New Millennium (Proceedings of the 20th
International Congress of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics,
27 Aug-2 Sept 2000, Chicago), eds. H. Aref and J.W. Phillips,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 1-23, 2001
J. R. Rice, N. Lapusta and K. Ranjith, “Rate and state depend-
ent friction and the stability of sliding between elastically
deformable solids,” Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of
Solids, 49, 1865-1898, 2001
NOTE
*Whipping loads are created when the length of the vessel
bends upward and downward repetitively due to an underwater
explosion. The motion resembles grasping a ruler at each end
and flexing it repeatedly up and down. While similar to routine
sea loading, the magnitude of the bending and the rate are much
greater during whipping.

Roshdy George S. Barsoum, PhD, PE, directs structural mechanics and ship structures programs for the Ship Hull,
Mechanical and Electrical Systems S&T Division of the Office of Naval Research. Prior to joining ONR, Dr. Barsoum
was chief of the Mechanics of Materials Branch at the Army Materials Technology Laboratory, and senior engineer
at Raytheon Missile Systems Division and Combustion Engineering, Inc. He obtained his PhD and MS from Cornell
University. Dr. Barsoum has written/co-written more than 60 publications in ship protection, smart materials and adap-
tive structures, finite element methods, pressure vessels and piping, elevated temperature analysis, fracture mechanics,
adhesive mechanics, fracture of composites, instability and mechanics of advanced materials.

The AMPTIAC Quarterly, Volume 7, Number 3 61