Title:

Application of strain gauge for identifying the metal alloy from stress-strain curves in

uni-axial tension-compression tests.

Objectives:

In this experiment, students shall learn how to apply the strain gauge to obtain

stress-strain curves and thus shall be able to apply engineering knowledge of solid

mechanics to identify and determine the mechanical properties of any given metal

alloy materials by carrying out a series of uni-axial tension-compression tests.

Equipment and Materials:

Item Description Item Category Quantity Estimation

Hydraulic press E 1

Hydraulic pump E 1

Cooling tower E 1

Shimazu servo pulser S 1

Strain gauge SP 1

Metal alloy SP 1

Digital vernier caliper E 1

Decoder E 1

Item Category:
SP Sample or specimen
C Consumable
CH Chemical
W Labware, glassware, tool and components
E Equipment
S Software

1.0 Introduction:

Understanding material mechanics is critical for engineering. The uniaxial tension and

compression tests provide a simple and effective way to characterize a material's

response to loading. By subjecting a sample to a controlled tensile or compressive

displacement along a single axis, the change in dimensions and resulting load can be

recorded to calculate a stress-strain profile. From the obtained curve, elastic and

plastic material properties can then be determined. Therefore, to investigate material

mechanics and gain experience in uniaxial testing, we performed compressive and

tensile tests on alloys, pure metals, and ceramics, and calculated their Youngs

modulus, yield stress, ultimate tensile strength, and elastic strain energy density.

1.1 Uniaxial testing

For uniaxial tests, the displacement is typically held at a constant rate, and

displacement and resulting load are recorded. The load is measured by a series of

strain gauges, or load cell, while the displacement can be recorded as displacement

of the cross head, or the beam on which the specimen load frame is mounted. For

more precise load measurements, strain gauges or an extensometer can be directly

fixed to the specimen. To make direct comparisons between materials, loading

responses must be normalized against sample geometry. Therefore, the dimensions of

each sample are noted to compute stress and strain from load and displacement,

respectively. Engineering strain can be calculated as:

e = L/Lo

Where L is the measured displacement and Lo is initial sample length along a single

axis.Engineering stress can be calculated as:

e = P/Ao

Where P is the applied load and Ao is the initial cross sectional area of the sample

normal to the loading direction.

1.2 The stress-strain profile

With the sample geometry, a stress-strain curve can then be generated from the

recorded load and displacement. A typical stress-strain profile for a ductile metal

resembles the following:

The material initially behaves in a linear elastic manner: stress and strain are linearly

related, and on unloading, the deformation is recoverable. The slope within the linear

elastic regime is Youngs modulus, or the ratio of the engineering stress to

engineering strain in the axis:

E =e/e

E characterizes the stiffness of a material in units of force per unit area (N/m2 , or Pa).

Experiment Setup:

#Strain gauge #Metal alloy #Hydraulic press

Error!

#Actuator controller #Decoder

#Cooling tower & Hydraulic pump

Procedure:

1.) The impurities on the surface of the specimen were removed by using sand paper.

2.) The diameter of the metal alloy was measured by using digital vernier caliper.

3.) The testing machine has already been set up and calibrated by teaching engineer.
4.) To measure the strain of the metal alloy, the specimen was loaded into the

hydraulic press with the strain gauge directly attached to the specimen.

5.) The specimen was placed centrally between the two compression plates, such that

the center of moving head was vertically above the center of the specimen.

6.) 2kN load was applied to the specimen and the process were repeated by replacing

2kN with 4kN, 6kN, 8kN and 10kN.

7.) A set of strain values were obtained from data acquisition software of Shimazu

machine.

8.) The data were saved in ASCII file and were edit by using spreadsheet software.

9.) The final diameter of the specimen was measured by using digital vernier caliper.
Result:

Initial diameter, d0 = 2.531cm

Final diameter, df = 2.531 cm

Area = 5.0312 x 10-4 m2

Theoretical Young Modulus = 200GPa

Load Stress Average Calibration error Experimental Young

(kN) (MPa) Strain Modulus

(%)

( m/m) (GPa)

0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0 0.0000

1.8070 3.5916 30.6391 0.4 117.2217

3.7450 7.4435 51.1065 0.5 145.6470

5.6844 11.2982 69.1152 0.6 163.4696

7.6080 15.1216 85.2320 0.8 177.4164

9.5211 18.9240 101.9815 1.0 185.5631

 Stress-Strain Curve
20
18.924

15 15.1216

11.2982
Stress (MPa)

10
y = 0.1892x - 1.2617
7.4435
5
3.5916

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

-5
Strain ( m/m)

From the equation above, the gradient of the graph which also known as Young

Modulus for the specimen was 189.2 GPa.

Sample calculation for 1.8070kN load:

Area d2 (2.531x10 2 ) 2
A= = = 5.0312x10-4 m2
4 4

Stress F 1807 N
= = = 3.5916 MPa
A 5.0312 x10 4 m 2

Young Modulus 3.5916 x106

E=/ = = 117.2217 GPa
30.6391x106

Overall Young Overall Young Modulus=Gradient of the graph

Modulus
= 189.2 GPa

Percentage Error TheoreticalValue ExperimentalValue

%error= | | x100%
TheoreticalValue
 200GPa 189.2GPa
= | | x100%
200GPa

= 5.40 %

Discussion:

The uniaxial test is the most widely used mechanical testing process for

characterising solid material behaviour. It is a simple and versatile method for

determining material properties in almost all kinds of material applications (Bradley

et al., 2001). Uniaxial tests are also employed to study localised deformation

behaviour, such as strain distribution around a notch in a specimen (Nawrocki et al.,

1998). A compression test determines behavior of materials under crushing loads. The

specimen is compressed and deformation at various loads is recorded. Compressive

stress and strain are calculated and plotted as a stress-strain diagram which is used to

determine elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point, yield strength, Young Modulus

and, for some materials, compressive strength.

Mechanical properties are subset of physical properties that are based on the laws

of mechanics that is the physical science that deals with energy and forces and their

effects on the bodies. They are the measured response, both elastic reversible on force

removal and plastic irreversible or non elastic of material under an applied force are

distribution of forces. Mechanical properties are expressed most often in units of

stress and strain . They can represent measurement of elastic or reversible

deformation (proportional unit resilience and modulus of elasticity), plastic or

irreversible deformation (percent elongation and hardness) and a combination of

elastic and plastic deformation such as toughness and yield strength.

Why do industry need to know the mechanical properties of a material? Many an

applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical, civil, chemical, or electrical, will at

one time or another be exposed to a design problem involving materials. Materials

selection is one key problem that will always face engineers that must work with

materials. Examples might include a transmission gear, the superstructure for a

building, an oil refinery component, or an integrated circuit chip. Many times, a

materials problem is one of selecting the right material from the many thousands that

are available. There are several criteria on which the final decision is normally based.

First of all, the in-service conditions must be characterised, for these will dictate the

properties required of the material. On only rare occasions does a material possess the

maximum or ideal combination of properties. Thus, it may be necessary to trade-off

one characteristic for another. The classic example involves strength and ductility;

normally, a material having a high strength will have only a limited ductility. In such

cases a reasonable compromise between two or more properties may be necessary.As

we have seen there are various properties governing the performance of the material.

Different properties make to particular material more suitable for a given situation. For example,

High-strength low-alloy steel (HSLA) is a type of alloy steel that provides better

mechanical properties or greater resistance to corrosion than carbon steel, so they are

used in cars, trucks, cranes, bridges, roller coasters and other structures that are

designed to handle large amounts of stress or need a good strength-to-weight ratio.

Thus, a thorough knowledge and in-depth understanding of these mechanical

properties will help us to select and deliver the most suitable material for every

situation in industry.

Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More

specifically, strain () is defined as the fractional change in length, as shown in Figure

1 below.

Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although dimensionless,

strain is sometimes expressed in units such as in./in. or mm/mm. In practice, the

magnitude of measured strain is very small. Therefore, strain is often expressed as

microstrain (), which is 10-6. While there are several methods of measuring

strain, the most common is with a strain gauge, a device whose electrical resistance
varies in proportion to the amount of strain in the device. For example, the

piezoresistive strain gauge is a semiconductor device whose resistance varies

nonlinearly with strain. The most widely used gauge, however, is the bonded metallic

strain gauge. The metallic strain gauge consists of a very fine wire or, more

commonly, metallic foil arranged in a grid pattern. The grid pattern maximizes the

amount of metallic wire or foil subject to strain in the parallel direction (Figure 2).

The cross sectional area of the grid is minimized to reduce the effect of shear strain

and Poisson Strain. The grid is bonded to a thin backing, called the carrier, which is

attached directly to the test specimen. Therefore, the strain experienced by the test

specimen is transferred directly to the strain gauge, which responds with a linear

change in electrical resistance. Strain gauges are available commercially with nominal

resistance values from 30 to 3000 with 120, 350 and 1000 being the most

common values.

The elastic modulus was determined from linear regression analysis of the

experimental stress-strain data. The elastic modulus of this specimen was determined

to be 189.20GPa with a standard deviation of 10.8GPa from the theoretical value of

200GPa of young modulus for steel. Based on the values above, the percentage error
was calculated to be 5.40% which fall in the acceptable range. Major sources of

measurement uncertainty can be grouped into the 4 categories which are uncertainty

due to the calibration equipment and calibration processes, uncertainty of the testing

machine as calibrated, uncertainty of the testing machine during use, uncertainty of

the test results. Thus, the error mainly due to the calibration uncertainties between the

hydraulic press and the hydraulic pump. Next, the most obvious form of that is the

orientation of samples as there was no self-orienting appliance in the machine. Any

angle off of 90 between the specimen and the strain gauge would decrease the

accuracy of the strain values measured on the sample. As elastic modulus are

inversely proportionate to strain, any excess, ignored strain would decrease the

calculated value. All of these sources of error serve to affect a much lower calculated

value than one mightve expected from theoretical value.

For best quality analysis of the test specimen, it is essential that the test is

conducted in strict specifications given in the standards. There should not be any

errors that may affect the test results. Here are some of the precautions that must be

taken while performing the test to ensure accurate test results yielded from the testing

procedure. First, the misalignment of the specimen should not be allowed during the

test. Next, the specimen for the experiment must be prepared in appropriate shape

with the exact dimensions as given in the related test standard. Moreover, the grips of

the machine must be use properly to prevent any slippage of the specimen.

Next, there are some recommendations that intended to minimize measurement

uncertainty and provide increased confidence in data produced by material testing

machines. For example, keep the testing machine in optimal operating condition.

Make sure the testing machine on a scheduled maintenance program and have it

serviced by trained individuals. Furthermore, keep the testing machine in a well

calibrated condition. Shorten calibration intervals based on historical calibration

results where applicable. Lastly, once an uncertainty analysis is complete, concentrate

on reducing major sources of measurement uncertainty.

Conclusion:

The elastic modulus of the specimen was determined in uni-axial

tension-compression test. By comparing the elastic modulus of the specimen with

young modulus for some common materials, the metal alloy was identified. The

theoretical elastic modulus for the metal alloy was 200GPa which is steel (structural

ASTM-A36), while the experimental elastic modulus was calculated to be 189.2GPa

with 5.40% error. Despite the slightly deviation of values calculated for elastic

modulus from the stress-strain curves from which they were generated still conform to

the expected profile and mechanics of metals: an initial regime of linear elastic

behavior.

Lastly, the stress-strain diagram is an especially useful tool in that once it has

been plotted for a given material, it is representative of that material in any member in

any number of configurations. It also gives a clear picture of what can happen if

material limitations are not taken into consideration when constructing a structural

system.
Appendix:
References:

1.) Van Vlack, L.H., Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering - 6th Edition,

Addison Wesley, 1989, p 8.

2.) Smith,W.F., Principles of Materials Science and Engineering - 2nd Edition,

McGraw Hill, 1990, p 255.

3.) Van Vlack, L.H., Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering - 6th Edition,

Addison Wesley, 1989, p 556.

4.) Dewey, B. R., Introduction to Engineering Computing - 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill,

1995, p 69.

5.) "Materials Engineering." Main_page [SubsTech]. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2013.

6.) ASTM E74-00a, Standard Practice of Calibration of Force-Measuring Instruments

for Verifying the Force Indication of Testing Machines. ASTM Volume 03.01.
7.) ISO 7500-1: 1999 (E), Metallic materials Verification of static uniaxial testing

machines Part 1: Tension/compression testing machines Verification and

calibration of the force-measuring system.

8.) NIS 3003 Edition 8: May 1995, The Expression of Uncertainty and Confidence in

Measurement for Calibrations