BIOLOGY 2 Most plants produce spores, non sexual reproductive

cells, which are generally lacking in animals

Definition of Terms:
Main Organ of Plants
Plant Morphology refers to the study of the plant
structure Roots
Plant Anatomy is the phase of morphology dealing
with the minute internal structure of plants, with Absorption of water and dissolved materials
special reference to their tissue The anchorage of plant
Plant physiology is the study of chemicals, physical The conduction of water and dissolved substance
processes and behavior of plants from the root up into the stems and of food from the
Plant genetics is the study of inheritance and stem down to the root
breeding of plants The storage of food and water
Plant pathology is the study of the causes, control Reproduction
and other features of plant diseases Photosynthesis in a few species

What Distinguishes Most Plants from Animals Stem

Most plants are able to manufacture their own foods
from raw materials from the air and soil, while
animals lack this ability and depend upon plants for
their food
Most plants have green pigments chlorophylls which
are lacking in most animals
Most plants contain cellulose in their structural
framework, a substance lacking in all but a few
species of animals Leaves
Most plants are stationary, whereas most animals
are capable of locomotion
Most plants have an unlimited scheme of growth, as
contrasted with the limit scheme of most animals
The conduction of materials from roots to leaves and
from leaves to roots
The storage of foods and other substances
The production and support of leaves and flowers or
cones
Reproduction
Photosynthesis
Chiefly in manufacture of foods from water and
mineral salts absorbed from the soil and from the
carbon dioxide of the air
Cones and Flowers Specialized Roots

For reproduction Aerial roots ivy

Prop roots corn
Why water is Important to Plants
Storage roots carrots
It is a constituent of living protoplasm Contractile roots bulbs and other underground
It is a raw material used in food manufacture stems
It is the medium of absorption and of transportation Photosynthetic roots orchids
of solid materials in plants
Difference of Herbaceous Stems and Woody Stems
It is the medium in which most of the chemical
reactions in protoplasm takes place. Herbaceous Stems Woody Stems
It provides the pressure which if necessary for the Soft and green Tough and not green
maintenance of form, for support of the growth Little growth in Considerable growth in
It helps regulate temperature diameter diameter
Tissue chiefly Tissue chiefly
Important Plant Processes primary secondary
Chiefly annual Chiefly perennial
Imbibition process entails the absorption of water Covered by an Covered by corky bark
by deep or partly dry colloidal materials epidermis Buds chiefly covered
Osmosis diffusion of a liquid thorugh a Buds mostly naked by scales
Difference of Photosynthesis and Respiration
differentially permeable membrane
Diffusion the tendency of the molecules of a Photosynthesis Respiration
substance to move from a region of greater Takes in carbon Release carbon
abundance to a region of lesser abundance dioxide dioxide
Plasmolysis outward diffusion of water causes a Released oxygen Binds oxygen
shrinkage of the protoplasm away from the cell wall Synthesized sugars Degrades sugar and
and other organic other organic
Osmotic pressure the maximum pressure which
compounds compounds
water by a rigid membrane permeable only to water
Result in increase in Results in decrease
dry weight in dry weight
Occurs only in the Occurs in all living
 presence of cells Elements: Hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
chlorophyll Release energy phosphorus, sulphur
Stores energy Occur throughout o Sodium, magnesium, chlorine, potassium,
Occurs only when entire life of any cell calcium, iron usually present but not
light energy is
invariably
available
Compounds
o Carbohydrates
Zoology o Lipids
o Protein
Important Terms and Definitions
o Nucleic acids
Zoology is the study of animals o Hormones and vitamins
Biology zoology and botany together o Enzymes
Cystology study of cells o Inorganic constituents
Hypothesis the scientist analysis available date and Biological Characteristics of protoplasm
from these develops a scientific guess as to the o Metabolism
cause of the observed phenomenon Digestion
Respiration
Theory application of hypothesis
Assimilation
Scientific law when the theory proves to have a
o Growth
wide application
o Irritability
Ecology the study of relations between organism
o Organization
and environment
Genetics - the study of the similarities and Cells
differences existing between parents and offsprings,
and the factors which control the same Minute protoplasm exists in the form of masses,
Is the term applied to the progressive development consist of a central differentiated portion. The
of more complex forms of life from simpler one nucleus and a surrounding portion, the cytosome.
Embryology is the study of development Cell membrane the outside boundary of all cells is
determined by a thin but definite membrane
Chemicals and Elements that are most characteristics of
protoplasm
 Cytosome is the part of the cell lying outside the
nucleus
Nucleus is a specialized mass of protoplasm usually
spherical, near the center of the cell
Major Characteristics of a typical Cell
Cell membrane
Cytosome
o Cytoplasm fills most of the space between
nucleus and cell membrane
o Vacuoles are relatively large liquid globules
suspended in the cytoplasm
o Central bodies they are division centers
from which radiate during cell divisions,
cytoplasmic strands
o Mitochondria - are granules of small size but
of various shape suspended in the
cytoplasm. They are the centers of enzyme
activity
o Golgi apparatus
o Plastids centers of chemical activity
Nucleus
o Is a protoplasmic membrane surrounding the
nucleus, similar in constitution to the cell
membrane
o Nucleosome consist of everything enclosed
by the nuclear membrane
Mitosis
Indirect cell division
Phases or Steps
o Prophase all the changes in the cell from
the beginning of division to the
establishment of the chromosome on the
equator of the spindle
o Metaphase - the division and separation of
the daughter chromosome on the spindle
o Anaphase the changes associated with the
migration of chromosome to the poles of the
spindle, the position of the new nuclei
o Telophase the processes of reorganization
of the 2 daughter cells
Amitosis is a direct nuclear division, the nucleus
fragmenting or pinching in 2, usually not followed by
division of the cytosomes
Meiosis
is a special type of cell divisionnecessary for sexual
reproduction in eukaryotes. The cells produced by
meiosis are gametes or spores.
Interphase
Growth 1 (G1) phase - G1 stage each of the
chromosomes consists of a single (very long)
molecule of DNA. In humans, at this point cells are
46 chromosomes, 2N, identical to somatic cells
Synthesis (S) phase - The genetic material is
replicated: each of its chromosomes duplicates, so
that each of the 46 chromosomes becomes a
 complex of two identical sister chromatids. The cell is
still considered diploid because it still contains the
same number of centromeres. The identical sister
chromatids have not yet condensed into the densely
packaged chromosomes visible with the light
microscope. This will take place during prophase I in
meiosis
Growth 2 (G2) phase- G2 phase as seen before
mitosis is not present in Meiosis. Actually, the first
four stages of prophase I in many respects
correspond to the G2 phase of mitotic cell cycle.
Meiosis I
consists of separating the pairs of homologous
chromosome; each made up of two sister
chromatids, into two cells.
Meiosis II
consists of decoupling each chromosome's sister
strands (chromatids), and segregating the individual
chromatids into haploid daughter cells. The two cells
resulting from meiosis I divide during meiosis II,
creating 4 haploid daughter cells. Meiosis I and II are
each divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase stages, similar in purpose to their
analogous subphases in the mitotic cell cycle.
EVOLUTION
Heredity
Genotype - Inherited traits are controlled by genes
and the complete set of genes within an organism's
genome
Phenotype - The complete set of observable traits that
make up the structure and behaviour of an organism
Variation
Hardy-Weinberg principle - provides the
solution to how variation is maintained in a
population with Mendelian inheritance. The
frequencies of alleles (variations in a gene) will
remain constant in the absence of selection,
mutation, migration and genetic drift.
Gene Flow
is the exchange of genes between populations and
between species. It can therefore be a source of
variation that is new to a population or to a species.
can be caused by the movement of individuals
between separate populations of organisms, as
might be caused by the movement of mice between
inland and coastal populations, or the movement
of pollen between heavy metal tolerant and heavy
metal sensitive populations of grasses.
Natural Selection
is the process by which genetic mutations that
enhance reproduction become and remain, more
common in successive generations of a population.
ECOLOGY
Biomes - are climatically and geographically defined as
similar climatic conditions on the Earth, such as communities
of plants, animals, and soil organisms, and are often referred
to as ecosystems.
A fundamental classification of biomes is:
Terrestrial (land) biomes
Aquatic biomes (including freshwater biomes and
marine biomes)
Most of the plants are evergreen, not deciduous.
The branches of the trees are festooned with vines
and epiphytes (see the photo taken in the Luquillo
National Forest of Puerto Rico).
Epiphytes are plants that live perched on sturdier
plants. They do not take nourishment from their host
as parasitic plants do. Because their roots do not
reach the ground, they depend on the air to bring
them moisture and inorganic nutrients. Many
orchids and many bromeliads (members of the
pineapple family like "Spanish moss") are epiphytes.

8 Classification of Biomes Temperate Deciduous Forest

tundra hardwood trees (e.g., beech, maple, oak, hickory)

taiga which
temperate deciduous forest are deciduous; that is, shed their leaves in the
scrub forest (called chaparral in California) autumn.
grassland The number of different species is far more limited
desert than in the jungle.
tropical rain forest Large stands dominated by a single species are
temperate rain forest common.
Deer, raccoons, and salamanders are characteristic
Tropical Rainforest inhabitants.
The trees are very tall and of a great variety of During the growing season, this biome can be quite
species. productive in both natural and agricultural
One rarely finds two trees of the same species ecosystems.
growing close to one another. Taiga
The vegetation is so dense that little light reaches
the forest floor. The taiga is named after the biome in Russia.
 It is a land dominated by conifers, especially spruces
and firs.
Tundra
The climate is so cold in winter that even the long
days of summer are unable to thaw the permafrost
beneath the surface layers of soil.
Sphagnum moss, a wide variety of lichens, and some
grasses and fast-growing annuals dominate the
landscape during the short growing season.
Chaparral
The annual rainfall in the chaparral biome may reach
2030 inches (6476 cm), but in contrast to the
grasslands, almost all of this falls in winter. Summers
are very dry and all the plants trees, shrubs, and
grasses are more or less dormant then.
Marine Ecosystem
All life in the ocean is divided into three main groups.
o Plankton
o Nekton
o Benthos
Freshwater Ecosystem
Freshwater ecosystems can be divided into lentic
ecosystems (still water) and lotic ecosystems
(flowing water).
Limnology (and its branch freshwater biology) is a
study about freshwater ecosystems.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Is the phenomenon or process by which an
ecological community undergoes more or less
orderly and predictable changes following
disturbance or initial colonization of new habitat
Primary Succession - is one of two types of biological
and ecological succession of plant life, occurring in
an environment in which new substrate devoid of
vegetation and usually lacking soil, such as a lava
flow or area left from retreated glacier, is deposited.
In other words, it is the gradual growth of an
ecosystem over a longer period.
Secondary Succession - occurs on substrate that
previously supported vegetation before an ecological
disturbance from smaller things like floods,
hurricanes, tornadoes, and volcanic eruptions which
destroyed the plant life.
Community Founds in a Climax Community
o Hydrosere - Community in freshwater
o Lithosere - Community on rock
o Psammosere - Community on sand
o Xerosere - Community in dry area
o Halosere - Community in saline body (e.g. a
marsh)