SHIPHANDLING

FOR THE MARINER

FOURTH EDITiON

BY DANIEL H. MACELREVEY
AND DANIEL E. MACELREVEY
ILLUSTRATIONS BY EARL R. MCIvIILLIN

CORNELL MARITIME PRESS

Centreville, Maryland
Copyright 1983,2004 by Daniel H. MacElrevey and Daniel E. MacElrevey For the shipmates and friends
ivho have shared, their knowledge of the sea and ships
All righcs reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any so unselfishly through the years
manner whatsoever without, written permission except in the case of brief
quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information,
address Cornell Maritime Press, Inc., Centreville, Maryland 21617

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

MacElrevey, Daniel H.
Shiphandliug for the irariner /by Daniel H. MacElrevey and Daniel E. MacElrevey ;
illustrations by Earl R. McMillin.4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-87033-553-0
1. Ship handling. I. MacElrevey, Daniel E. II. Title.
VK643.M23 2005
623.88dc22
2004014453

Manufactured in the United States of America

First edition, 1983. Fourth edition, 2004
 CONTENTS

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 7
Arrival
Master's Trial; Hard Right Turn at 6 Knots; Hard Left Turn at 6 Knots;
Backing and Filling; Half Astern to Dead in the Water; Stopping While
Maintaining Control Over Heading; Handling a Ship with Sternway;
Bow and Stern Thrusters; Turning with a Bow Thrurter; Most Effective
Maneuver; Approaching Shallow Water; Directional Stability; Effects of
Bottom Contour on Handling Characteristics; Handling of Larger Ships
in Shallow Water; Approaching the Pilot Station; Stopping or Reducing
Headway; Picking up the Pilot/Making a Lee; Estimating Speed
Through the Water by Ship's Propeller Wash; Wind Effects on Steering;
Communications with Other Vessels; Pilot Aboard; Pilot-Master
Exchange of Information; Posting of Maneuvering Characteristics

CHAPTER 2 46
Shiphandling in a Channel
Bank Effects; Planning Ahead; Tide and Current; Types of Rudders and
Propulsion Systems; Directional Propulsion Systems: Effect of Trim on
Handling Characteristics; Making a Turn in a Channel; U ;;ng Aids to
Navigation When Turning; Meeting Another Vessel or Tow; Overtaking
Another Vessel or Tow; Using Shiphandling Instrumentation; The Ba-
sics of Squat; Undcrkeel Clearance; Stopping and Maneuvering in a
Channel

vii
Vlll CONTENTS CONTENTS ix

CHAPTER 3 101 CHAPTER* l G3

Use of Tugs Anchoring and Shiphandling
Making Up a Tug; Communicating with a Tug; Using a Tug; Tug on a with Anchors
Hawser; Lashing up a Tug Anchors for Anchoring; Know Your Ship; Again, Plan Ahead, Think
Ahead; Anchor in Steps; Planning; Wind and Current Effects; Depth of
CHAPTER 4 115 Water; Maneuvering Room; Briefing Officers; Navigate by Eye; Final
Heading; Anchoring Off the Final Heading; Basic Anchoring; The Ap-
Approaching the Berth proach; Placing the Anchor; Laying Out the Chain; Digging In;
Swinging Room at Anchor; Mooring and Anchoring with Two Anchors;
Good Bridge Practices; Discussing Docking Plans; Timing Ar- Stern Anchors; The Anchor as a Shiphandling Tool; Shiphandling with
rivalHolding in a Channel; Speed of Approach; Reducing Speed AnchorsHow Much Chain?; Docking with an Anchor; Holding a Ves-
Early; The Approach; Bow-in Approach to a Pier; Stern-in Appioach to sel with the Anchor; Anchors to Assist Steering; Anchors to Break a
a Pier; Stemming the Current at a Wharf; Approaching a WharfCur- Sheer; Emergency Use of the Anchor; Lying Alongside a Bank; Going
rent Astern Astern with an Anchor

CHAPTER 5 128 CHAPTER 9 204

Docking
Using Wind and Current to Advantage; Measuring Slow Rates of
Speed; Detecting Lateral Motion; Setting Up to Back; Quickwater;
Bridge Markers; Use Finesse, Not Force; Going Alongside; All Secure
CHAPTER 6 139
Undocking
Planning the Undocking; Draft and Trim in Ballast; Singling Up; Using
Quickwater When Undocking; Undocking from a Wharf; Backing from
a Slip; Coming Anead from a Slip; Coming Off Parallel to a Berth;
Backing a Ship Toward a Hazard; Left-Hand and Variable-Pitch Pro-
pellers; Turning to Sea; Dismissing the Tugs
CHAPTER 7 156
Departure
Dropping the Pilot; Departure Speed; Maneuvering with Other Ships;
Course Card and Passage Planning; Ability to Maneuver
Special Maneuvers
Canals and Locks; Single-Point Moorings; Ship-to-Ship Lightering;
Five- and Seven-Point Moorings; Mediterranean Moor- Williamson
rums; Twin-Screw Ships; Maneuvering Twin-Screw Ships; Low
Length-to-Bearn Ratio Ships; Moving Up to Larger Ships; Replenish-
ment at Sea; Helicopter Operations
CHAPTER 10 253
Training
Onboard Training of Ship's Officers; Onboard Training of Pilots;
Shiphandling Simulators; The Rules of Threes; Simulators as Innova-
tive Training Aids; Types of Simulators; Scale Model-Based Simulators;
ScaleIs It Important?; Computer-Based Simulators; Comparison of
Model and Computer Simulators; Tools of Simulator Instruction; Simu-
lator Validation; The Simulator Instructor: Degree of Instructor In-
volvement; The Simulator Currciulum for Deck Officers; The Simulator
Curriculum for Pilots; The Three Steps of Simulator Training; Briefing
and Debriefing Sessions; The Future of Simulation; Computers for
Testing and Evaluation; Simulator versus Hands-on Experience
X CONTENTS

CHAPTER 11 288
Master/Pilot Relationship and
Bridge Resource Management PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
The Pilot Aboard Ship; The Master's Responsibilities in
Pilotage Waters; "Release from Liability" Forms; Some Practical Con-
siderations; Bridge Resource Management for Shiphandlers; The Cost
of Responsibility Piloting and shiphandling skills have received much greater attention in
the years since publication of the first edition of Shi o handling for the Mar-
iner. This is an exciting development for anyone interested in the art and
CHAPTER 12 302 science of moving ships and, by all indications, it is a long-term process
Vessel Operations that will benefit both mariners and the maritime industry in which they
work.
Planning the Passage; The Course Card; Bridge Design; Pilot Naviga- This new interest in shiphandling skills has been prompted by several
tion Equipment ; Bridge Height; Night Versus Daylight Maneuvering; factors including a greater awareness of the impact marine collisions and
Record Keeping groundings have on the environment, and new federal legislation and in-
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS 329 ternational conventions affecting ship operation, shipowners' liability for
marine casualties, vessel manning, and watch officer training require-
BIBLIOGRAPHY 304 ments. Training is more technology-driven as sophisticated computer-
driven simulators become more readily available to teach shiphandling
INDEX 367 under tutelage of senior officers or piloLs. Thanks to the ubiquitous micro-
chip, it is possible to provide formal shiphandling, piloting, watchkecping,
ABOUT THE AUTHORS 385 and bridge resource management training ashore in a classroom environ-
ment.
Training is particularly important for ship's officers serving aboard
larger, more deeply loaded ships on fast turnaround schedules where it is
increasingly difficult to accumulate traditional shipboard training, mas-
ter to mate to cadet aboard ship. Now, several excellent facilities including
the Masters, Mates, and Pilots Maritime Institute of Technology and
Graduate Stud;es facility, the Marine Engineers' Beneficial Association
STAR Center, the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, the state maritime
academies, the Seamen's Church Institute in New York, and the commer-
cial simulator facilities operated by MarineSafety International and oth-
ers, are using rapidly evolving simulator technology to provide that
training.
Simulation has still not reached a level where it replaces hands-on ex-
perience, but it is being used effectively for ini'Jal and specialized training
and as a forum for experienced mariners to compare techniques and eval-
uate their own performance. More advanced simulators are also being
xi
xii PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION xiii

used for license examinations, recodifications, and evaluations of mari- each edition. Hopefully, others will send material for future editions so
ners in specialized skills. Discussions of shiphandling have moved from this text remains as up-to-date and as useful as possible for seagoing pro-
coffee time to class time and the professional is better off for the change. fessionals working to improve their shiphandling skills.
This fourth edition of Shiphandling for the Mariner is updated to in- Lastly, photographs of new propulsion systems, bridge layouts, navi-
clude the latest changes in training and vessel operation. Chapters on gation equipment, hull designs, and upgraded simulators have been
shiphandling training, voyage planning, squat, bridge equipment, and added throughout the text. The photographs and new tables showing the
bridge resource management have been expanded. Much of that new ma- latest data on squat and underkeel clearance keep the book current.
terial is based on suggestions and papers contribrted by Captain Paul Practice maneuvers are again included with the text. The exercises can
Ives, Captain George Markham, Captain William McAuliffe, and instruc- be used with this book as a self-taught shipboard shiphandling course or,
tors at the RTM STAR Center. The sections on squat and underkeel cleai - better yet, they can be part of a formal maritime academy or simulator
ance have been rewritten and expanded based on the volumes of *-escarch school program. In any case, training and books can explain the science of
gathered by port authorities, the Panama Canal Authority, and various pi- shiphandling, but the art is learned by doing. Hopefully, these maneuvers
lot associations including the Panama Canal Pilots Association. Larry L. and this expanded fourth edition o Shiphandling for the Mariner will
Daggett, Ph.D., and J. Christian Hewlett, P.E., completed most of that work help many mariners become skilled in moving ships.
using survey grade DGPS to measure changes in ship draft and the behav-
ior of ships in restricted channels. Material about new pilot navigation and
communications systems, new ship types and propulsion systems, conning
ships with omni-directional propulsion systems, and bridge resource man-
agement for pilots and shiphandlers have been added. A discussion of pas
sive versus active vessel traffic management is included to encourage
debate on various traffic management schemes. Hopefully, this will lead to
a more effective vessel tracking system (VTS) through the use of the ad-
vanced differential giobal positioning systems (DGPS) such as the very ef-
fective OTAN system now in use in the Panama Canal.
A greater understanding of the use of simulation in trainingdevel-
oped while visiting marine and aircraft simulator facilities and reading a
two-foot-high stack of material supplied by the National Research Council
Marine Board, plu:? new material used by the RTM STAR Center and
other facilities for programs to evaluate and license mariners and pi-
lotsis the basis for expanded sections on simulation for continuing edu-
cation and training. The material provided by Captain Charles Pillsbury
of MITAGS, Captain Orlando Allard from the Panama Canal training
facility, Harry Crooks from the RTM STAR Center, Captain Richard
Beadon from the Seamen's Church Institute school, Peter Barber from the
Southampton Institute, and Captains Robert Meurn and George Sand-
burg from the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy CAORF facility at Kings
Point on the same subject has been retained.
Changes and suggestions sent to the author by working mariners and
instructors at various maritime academies and schools are added with

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
by Daniel H. MacElrevey
First, I want to thank my son, Captain Daniel E. MacElrevey, an experi-
enced mariner and first-class pilot for the Delaware Bay and River. Dan
provided the inspiration to again update Shiphandling for the Mariner
and collaborated on much of the new material. Now, I hope, the book
passes to new hands and another generation of contributors who will keep
the material fresh and pertinent to the mate, master, or pilot handling
ships.
I am very proud to have a son who is successfully following family tra-
dition as mariner, shiphandler, and pilot. As everyone who enjoys working
on the water already knows, it is more than a professionit is a rewarding
course through life.
Dan, welcome aboard. For the fifth edition, you will have the conn.
It is a fact that those who spend their life on or around the water are a
special breed. They are always willing to help a shipmate and pass on the
seaman's skills from one generation to the next. This is fortunate since no
one person can write on a subject as diverse as shiphandling, and only the
contributions of others make this book possible.
The marine industry has provided much of the background material
and most of the photographs. I am indebted to, and greatly appreciate the
assistance from Texaco Incorporated; Exxon Corporation; Sperry Marine
Systems; LOOP, Incorporated; Raven Industries; Concordia Maritime;
Kvaerner Maas; Merwede Shipyard; the Panama Canal Authority;
Starlink Corp; MarineSafety International; American President Lines;
Seaward International; Black Star Publishing Company; the U.S. Mer-
chant Marine Academy and the CAORF simulator facility at the academy;
the Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies (MITAGS);
and the RTM STAR Center.
Acknowledgment is gratefully made of the permissions granted by
publishers to quote short passages from their books: Harper and Row and
J. M. Dent for Joseph Conrad's The Secret Sharer and The Mirror of the
Sea, respectively; Ilamish Hamilton Ltd. for Jan de Hartog's The Distant
Shore; Atheneum for Jan de Hartog's The Captain; Dodd, Mead & Com-
xiv
AC KNOW I,E1 )G M ENTS XV
pany for Guy Gilpatric's Mary, Queen of Scots; the Harvard Classics, Two
Years Before the Mast; and American Heritage Publishing Company for
Captain Charles Porter Low's "Recollections" quoted by Alexander Laing
in Seafaring America.
Captain Earl McMiliin read every page of previous editions and the
new material for this edition. His writing skills and professional expertise
as mariner, j ilot, and lawyer helped put the text into readable form while
his cartoons make a potentially dry subject a lot more interesting.
Captain Brian Hope also read every page of previous editions and of-
fered professional advice between trips on the Chesapeake Bay where he
serves as a pilot. He also contributed photos of some of his beautiful paint-
ings of maritime scenes on the Bay. The fruiLs of his much-appreciated la-
bors are still an important part of this fourth edition.
Many master mariners and pilots, including Captains Robert Boyd,
Dean Colver, William Deaton, Carl Dingier, Robin Erixon, Curtis Fitzger-
ald, Eugene Guest, Bill Lewis, Douglas Hard, Marshall Irwin, Warren
Leback, GeorgeMarkham, James F. McNulty, Axel Munck, Philip Tomlet
III, George Quick, George Smith, Wilbur Vantine, and Albert Wilder con-
tributed both time and materialirreplaceable information based upon
years of experience in some specialized area of our profession. Raymond
Letulle, Kings Point classmate and Philadelphia lawyer, gave some order
to the chapter on the master/pilot relationship.
Contributors to this edition include these same "shipmates" plus Larry
L. Daggett, Ph.D., and J. Christopher Hewlett, P.E.; Captain Paul Ives,
Captain William McAuliffe, and RTM STAR Center staff Brian Long and
Captain Joseph Lobo.
Larry Daggett and Chris Hewlett are principals and officers of Water
Simulation Technology, Inc., a leader in the study of squat, ship behavior,
and the calculation of underkeel clearance for ships in narrow channels.
They have completed in-depth studies on this subject for the Panama Ca-
nal, St. Lawrence Seaway, Delaware Bay and River, Houston Ship Canal,
and elsewhere. The techniques developed by WST have made it possible to
study this important area of ship behavior with greater accuracy based on
the performance of actual ships in real-life operating conditions in more
depth than ever clone before. Their contributions to the section on squat in
this text will interest every practicing mariner and shiphandi^r, and the
seafaring community appreciates their willingness to share that reset rch.
Captain Paul Ives is a retired Delaware River and Bay pilot. He is a
past president of that association and has been a respected voice for pilots
xvi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

for half a century as a consistent advocate of applied technology for pilot-

ing. Paul writes on bridge resource management and shiphandling for
masters nnd pilots, and hp teaches techniques for handling ships
equipped with Azipods and othei advanced propulsion systems at the
RTM STAR Center. His contributions to update this edition are important
because the theme of having material prepared by those "who have been
there" is an overriding principle of this text since it was first published.
Additional material on simplifying Azipod operation and selecting ba-
sic modes lor shiphandling was contributed from lecture notes and inter- SHIPHANDLING FOR THE MARINER
views with Captain Joseph Lobo who teaches shiphandling and Azipod
systems at the RTM STAR Center. Captain Curtis Fitzgerald who teaches
advanced shiphandling at the Maritime Institute for Training and Gradu-
ate Studies also provided additional information and photographs on
Azipods.
In reality, this text does not represent the thinking of any one person
but instead brings together the expertise of many. There would be no
Shiphandling for the Mariner without these contributors and the infor-
mation gleaned from countless mariners while the authors worked aboard
ship as deck officers and pilots.
Lastly, a continued special thanks to Carolyn, my wife and shipmate in
life, for her support, help, and patience. Only those who have been in-
volved in a project such as this can understand why the author invariably
expresses these sentiments.
 INTRODUCTION

The ability to handle a ship, especially in confined waters, is one of the

most demanding and satisfying of the mariner's .-kills. It is a skill both an
old as the first ship and as new as the latest vessel to be launched, yet little
written material is available to the professional seafarer on shiphandling
and much of what is available is either sparse or inaccurate. Hopefully,
this volume will help to fill that void so the master, mate, naval olficer,
and Coast Guard officer will be able to gain some insight into the tech-
niques used bv the skilled shiphandler or pilot to move a vessel to her
berth.
No master or mate of any type of vessel can be considered a fully quali-
fied mariner unless he can handle that ship in a competent and seaman-
like manner. This is especially true when considering the classic master/
pilot relationship, a relationship that makes it essential for the master to
be able to judge whether a pilot's actions are proper and whether the ship
is being handled in a safe manner. While it certainly is not possible for the
seaman to read this short book and then do the work of a pilot who has
spent years refining shiphandling skills, the book will at least help mari-
ners to better understand the handling of ships.
Until recently, little significant stuuy was done on the behavior of
large ships in shallow water. The science of hydrodynamics is now being
applied to shiphandling and much is being learned that will allow the
seaman to better predict a ship's behavior. Ships do respond in a predict-
able manner to the forces 01'wind, sea, and current, so these studies arc-
important.
Years of experience are needed before the shiphandler can put this in-
formation into a "real world" perspective. So many variables and so
many learned techniques are involved when actually handling ships
that shiphandling remains more art than scienceand this book's non-
mathematical presentation, stressing application over theory, reflects
that fact.
No single volume can possibly cover all the conditions that will 1. encoun-
tered by the mariner when handling a ship njr can any single technique be
3
4 INTRODUCTION INTKODUCTION

agreed upon by all professionals as the "best way" to do a job. Shiphandling cept this convention as readily as anotherthe use of ship and vessel to
is a learned art and it is only possible to give a background upon which to mean a vessel of any kind or si/.e. A love of work on the water i= not re-
build the necessary skills. stricted to deep water, nor peculiar to men aione.
A sincere effort has been made to separate fact from fiction and all that
is contained herein is based upon actual experiences of practicing pilot.; Okay, Mate.. notify the engine room thai there ere two hours to arrival.
and professional mariners. There are too many myths about shiphan-
dling, espec ially in the use of anchors and the behavior of ships in narrow
channels, and where th s volume differs from commonly held opinion
:

those differences are based upon the experiences of mariners who have
performed such evolutions hundreds of times. It is lime to replace the
myths, born more of an overactive imagination than of experience, with
facts that are applicable to today's ships and conditions. Further, this text
is written for tne practicing mariner who already possesses some degree of
professional knowledge, experience, and training In navigation and sea-
manship.
Material that is not original has been credited to its source but the bulk
of this information has been gleaned from the community of seamen and
has been passed along from master to mate, pilot to apprentice. It is not
possible to credit that information to any single source. The assistance of
the many mariners and pilots who reviewed this material is appreciated
and the unselfish manner in which they donated both their time and ex-
pertise is indicative of what makes the community of the soa different
from that of other professions.
Just as a voyage is a natural progression of events from departure to fi-
nal arrival at a port of destination, so too is this book organized to follow a
vessel and her officers from the time she is preparing for arrival until she
is again back at sea. This should put the information into a logical 01 der.
After following that hypothetical passage to its conclusion, special evolu-
tions that are not often encountered by the mariner are described in the
concluding chapters. Since it is inevitable that such a list of evolutions will
be incomplete, it in hoped that others in the maritime profession will put
aside their coffee cups and add to this collection; as professionals we would
all appreciate the opportunity to learn from their experiences. It is time
that more is written by active professionals, as at present we are over our
marks with the inaccurate and unapplicable theorizing of Lhe bureaucrat
arid the desk-bound seaman.
Incidentally, for brevity, the pronoun he is used throughout the text to
refer to an officer or a cro .v member serving in any capacity and obviously
means a professional mariner of either gender. I trust the reader will ac-
 CHAPTER ONE

ARRIVAL

. .. the place to enlarge upon the sensation of a man v. h

fuels, for the first time, a ship move under his feet, to hi
own independent word.
Joseph Conrad, The Secret Sharer

You arc two hours from arrival at your first U.S. port, after a three-
month trip that has been a good one for most of the crew aboard. The
mate on watch called you from your warm bunk about half an hour ear-
lier. After showering, and while savoring the morning's first cup of coffee
that he had ready for you, you contemplate the day that lies ahead. The
ship is starting to feel the shelving bottom as she comes on soundings,
and shortly the pleasant routine of life aboard a ship at sea will be re-
placed with the activity, some might say the intrusion, normal to any
port call.
The master has reviewed the appropriate sailing directions, light lists,
local notices, and charts of the area, and has prepared a course card show-
ing courses and the distances between the significant navigational aids in
.ilace along the channel to the dock. Soon the gear will be tested and re-
quired log entries made, and the chief mate will be called to stand by the
anchors forward. The mariner's duties of open sea navigation and the
myriad other tasks required of the deck officer at sea will be replaced by
those of cargo handling, port administrative work, paying off, piloting,
and shiphandlingthe latter being perhaps the most interesting of all
these duties.
MASTER'S TRIAL
In preparation for those tasks, the prudent master has familiarized him-
self with the handling characteristics of his ship. This is best done by put-
ling the \ essel through a series of maneuvers such as those proposed here
to give the master or mate the information needed to predict confidently
how the ship will behave in shallow water. Preferably these tests will be
done in water ofdepth less than 1.5 times the vessel's draft (fig. 1-1) so the
7
8 ARRIVAL HARD RIGHT TURN AT 6 KNOTS 9

again in such a manner as to simulate the loss of one engine, a steering

marked changes in ship behavior that occur in shallow water will be ap-
parent. The series of maneuvers should include
1. Hard right turn at 6 knots.
2. Hard left turn at 6 knots.
3. Backing and filling maneuver starting from dead in the water.
4. Half astern to bring the vessel dead in the water from 6 knots, hav-
ing the rudder amidships.
5. A series of backing maneuvers, until the vessel is dead in the water,
failure, or other casualty. Learn how your vessel responds to various com-
binations of rudder position anct/'or engine use. For example, try turning a
twin-screw vessel to starboard with the port engine stopped, or practice
steering the vessel using only the engines. This will prove to be time well
spent when your ship suffers one or more of these failures and, if you are
aboard for some period of time, you will lose an engine or there will be a
steering failure.
All there maneuvers should be done with a sufficient number of mates
on the bridge so the necessary data can be collected. These data will be an-
alyzed later and compared with information collected aboard previous
ships that a master or mate has served in. With a little planning, the time
required to perform these maneuvers can be found without interfering
with the ship's schedule. Since there is no other way to gain the "feel" for a
ship necessary to handle her in a professional manner, it is import ant that
these maneuvers be completed.
A sample data sheet to be used by the person making these tests is
shown in figure 1-2. Let's discuss these maneuvers in detail and give some
thought to the things to look for when doing the tests.
HARD RIGHT TURN AT 6 KNOTS
This maneuver is made at 6 knots so a feel of the turning radius of the ship
a n be gotten at normal maneuvering speeds rather than in the full sea
Wealher Conditions
SS/MV Wind.
Shallow water data Current
At

using '.he rudder and engine as required to keep the ship's head Dale
within 10 degrees of her initial course.
6. Backing for ten minutes, starting with the vessel dead in the water, Time Heading Speed
(seconds) (true) (knots)
RPM
Telegraph'
throttle
Turn rate
'/sec)
Rudder j
(aeyrees) i
Depth of
water !(t.)
keeping the rudder amidsnips.
7. Turning with the bow thruster, if fitted, to the right and left across
the wind. This should be done at 3 knots and at 1 knot.
If your vessel is nonconventional (that is, equipped with twin screws or
an Azipod-type system), you should perform each of these maneuvers Fig. 1-2. Data sheet for trial maneuvers
10 ARRIVAL
speed conditions with which the seagoing mariner is more familiar. Dur-
ing the turn do not change engine speed, and remember that the rate of
turn will be affected by both current and wind. Record the data as shown
on the sample data sheet. At the same time, observe the area required to
make this turn and compare it with a known reference length, such as the
distance from the bridge to the bow, for future use when judging whether a
vessel lias sufficient room to turn in an anchorage or harbor.
Keep in mind that the depth under the keel will cause the turning di-
ameter to ncrease until, in shallow water, it may be as much as twice the
;
diameter found for the Fame ship in deep water. Since for practical pur-
poses the rate of turn is about the same whether maneuvering in shallow
or deep water, the larger area required to complete a turn is not immedi-
ately obvious to an observer. For these reasons it is stressed that the
shiphandler should carefully observe the turn and compare the turning di-
ameter with a known reference for use when planning maneuvers in the fu-
ture (fig. 1-3).
HARD LEFT TURN AT G KNOTS
Make the same maneuver but this time turn to the left and again observe
the turning diameter. When handling smaller ships, the smaller diameter
and greater rate of a low speed turn to the left is apparent to the observer,
Fig. 1-3. Effect of depth on turning radius at slow speeds.
RACKING AND KILLING
as compared to the turn to the right. These differences become less signifi-
cant, however, as ship size increases. Trial data for VLCCs and ULCCs in-
dicate that the differences between the turns to the right and turns to the
left for these largest of vessels are insignificant.
However, there are disadvantages to turning to the left when maneu-
vering in confined waters that far outweigh this one ad\ antage of slightly
reduced turning diameter. These other considerations, such as the ability
to back and fill, are discussed in following sections.
BACKING AND FILLING
For the purpose of these trials, this common maneuver is started with the
vessel dead in the water. The engine is brought to half ahead and the rud-
der is put hard right. It will be immediately apparent as the ship moves
ahead that the turning diameter for this accelerating turn is significantly
less than for a turn using constant revolutions, and most ships will turn in
about half the diameter required for the hard right turn at 6 knots, assum-
ing both turns are made in the same depth of water (fig. 1-4).
Fig. 1-4. Accelerating turn diameter.
12 ARRIVAL
When the vessel has picked up a good swing and some headway (the
amount of swing depending on the searoom available for the turn), the en-
gine is put half astern (or full astern for iow-powered or deeply laden
shipsv. The rudder becomes less effective as the ship loses headway, so it is
first put amidships and then hard left as the ship begins to gain sternway.
Again, the duration of backing and amount of sternway depend primarily
on the space availaole for the turn, but the vessel can be turned in about
one-and-a-half-times her own length if required, by reducing the amount
of ahead and astern speed the vessel is allowed to develop (fig. 1-5).
Again observe the diameter required to make this turn, and get a feel
for the maneuver and the time required to reduce headway. The effective-
ness of the rudder while the ship is going astern can also be ascertained at
this time.
Do not be fooled by the fact that, during both this backing and filling
maneuver and the steady state turns, the ship at first develops a good
swing and then appears to be losing that swing as the rate of turn de-
creases. This effect is sometimes misunderstood and the shiphandler feels
that the ship is going to stop swinging. The rate of turn will only decrease
1. Halt ahead/hard right.
2. Half astern/hard right.
Fig. 1-5. Backing and filling maneuver.
HALF ASTERN TO DEAD IN THK WATER 13
until the forces affecting the ship reach a state of equilibrium, after which
a constant rate of turn is maintained. Be patient!
Do not auempt to back and fill to the left unless you have no other al-
ternative, as a hhip will normally lose her swing in that direction when ' lie
engine starts turning astern. An excessive number of engine maneuvers
are required to back and fill to the left, and in many cases the ship simply
will not make the maneuver. Some of the uses of the backing and filling
maneuver are discussed in later sections.
There is not much point in collecting data during this maneuver. The
rate of turn and the turning diameter required to reverse the vessel's
heading are more a factor of the shiphandler's skill than the ship's charac-
teristics, so comparisons are net particularly meaningful.
HALF ASTERN TO DEAD IN THE WATER
The ship's behavior when backing can only be learned by observation. It is
a characteristic of each individual ship that the master and mates aboard
must have a feel for if they are to maneuver their ship properly.
While proceeding at 6 knots put the engine half astern and the rud-
der amidships. Do nothing further except collect required data as the
ship comes to a stop. The data is most useful if the maneuver is per-
formed when there is a minimum of outside influences and the wind is
^ s s than force three. Use visual and radar observations to fix in your
mind the distance required to bring your ship to a stop using just the en-
gine (fig. 1-6).
You will find that the ship changes heading significantly, in some
cases as much as 80 to 90 degrees in shallow water and somewhat less in
deeper water, although she doesn't travel a significant distance from her
original track. Despite the differences in ship behavior in shallow water as
14 ARRIVAL DOW ANI) STERN THRUSTERS 1 .'5

compared to deeper water, there is not much difference in the stopping Keep in mind that bottom configuration and the proximity of a bank af-
distance required. The data collected during this maneuver are useful fect this maneuver. A ship may back "the wrong way," especially if the
both for routine and emergency maneuvers -you have a better feel for the starboard quarter is close to the bank or a shoal area at the edge of the
ship and can better predict her behavior. channel, so that the swing to the left is not checked. This effect is mini-
The ship's tendency to twist in this manner when backed directly af- mized if the ship is kept at or near midchannel whm backed.
fects her performance of certain routine maneuvers. The greater the mag- These possible variations in ship's behavior make shiphandling inter-
nitude of this twisting effect, the more effectively she can bo backed and esting and ensure that the handling of ships will always be an art rather
filled in an anchorage or other confined area, but the more difficult it ir to than a science.
stop in a narrow channel when it is necessary to keep the ship's heading
within reasonable limits. HANDLING A SHIP WITH STERNWAY
Depending on the ship's configuration, and especially the location of When the ship is dead in the water, put the engine half astern and back for
the house and any large objects such as containers on deck or an excep- a period often minutes so good sternway develops. Note all the previously
tionally high freeboard, the backing and filling maneuver can be signifi discussed effects of backing and also note trie degree to which the ship fol-
eantly distorted by the wind. If you think ahead, though, this wind effect lows her rudderthe ability or lack of ability of a ship to steer while going
can be used advantageously when maneuvering in tight quarters. Since astern is quite important when moving in confined waters.
the ship moving forward usually wants to head up into the wind once the Collect the usual data and note particularly the direction of the wind
rudder's effectiveness s lost, and to back into the wind once sternway de-
;
relative to the ship. Since the ship with sternway wants to back into the
velops, the twisting effect that occurs when backing the engine can be eye of the wind it is especially important to be aware of the wind. Back
used to the shiphandler'^ advantage: plan to back when the wind will am- first with the rudder amidships and then try to steer with the rudder after
plify or dampen this twisting effect to your advantage. sufficient sternway develops.
STOPPING WHILE MAINTAINING CONTROL OVER HEADING
Again the ship is pro?eeding at 6 knots on a selected base course. The rua- HOW AND STERN THRUSTERS
der is put left and as the ship begins to swing to port, the engine is backed. Bow thrusters are becoming increasingly common aboard merchant ships
The ship loses headway while the swing left decreases in rate and finally and stern thrusters are also seen occasionally. The bow thruster has its
reverses. When the bow starts swinging right, come ahead again with left advantages and disadvantages as does any other equipment.
rudder to check and leverse the swing. Repeat these maneuvers as re-
quired until the ship is down to the desired speed. Advantages Disadvantages
It maybe necessary to put the rudder amidships when the engine is go- Located at the extreme end of the ves- Becomes ineffective as speed in-
ing astern, ro that the ship loses her swing to the left as desired. This can sel for maximum effectiveness. creases.
only be determined by trial so it is important to practice this maneuver at Available at all times, unlike a tug. Less powerful than a modern tup.
every opportunity. Don't wait until the ship is proceeding up a narrow Gives good lateral control without af- Cannot be used to slow a ship, or hold
river on a rainy, windy night to learn how the ship behaves when the en- fecting headway. against a current from ahead or
Saves some expenses by reducing the astern.
gine is put .astern. need for tugs. Requires continuous maintenance to
This particular maneuver is obviously important since it is used to stop ensure reliability.
or reduce a ship's speed so a tug can be made up, to shape up for docking, or Unusable at very light drafts.
any number of other important maneuvers in confined waters. There is lit-
tle need to collect data during this maneuver since this is primarily a Thrusters are used much like a tug to move the bow and stern laterally,
shiphandling exercise that yields little quantitative data. steer the vessel when going astern, hold the ship alongside a wharf or pier.
16 ARRIVAL
and hold the ship into the wind at slow speeds and when anchoring. The
thruster's uses are more obvious to the seaman than its shortcomings. The
thruster is a useful tool to supplement the anchor and tug bu^ certainly
does not replace a tug in all cases.
Keep in mind that the thruster is most useful at speeds of 2 knots and
less and should not be relied upun at higher speeds. This is very impor-
tant.
TURNING WITH A BOW THRUSTER
The bow thruster's effectiveness can only be determined by experimenta-
tion. The many diagrams that show this equipment being effective at
speeds of 6 knots and more are a figment of some naval architect's imagi-
nation. More than one ship has a similar carefully drawn but incorrect
graph posted in her wheeihouse. The person who developed this graph ob-
viously never got beyond sailing model boats in a test basin and the graph
only demonstrates the gap that remains between the theoretician and the
real world.
Try your bow thruster frsf. to the right and then to the left, making it a
point to orient your ship so you bring her bow through the wind each time.
This is an interesting maneuver for the mariner since the data collected
makes it possible to predict with confidence the thruster's effectiveness
when steaming through a crowded anchorage or holding the bow into the
wind while the mate drops the anchor.
Perform this maneuver first at 1 knot and again at 3. To see how far the
theoretical data is from reality try the thruster again at 6 knots. It won't
have the effect shown on the previously mentioned posted card, and it
probably won't even be felt by the helmsman holding the ship steady on a
course!
Collect the usual data for later study in the comfort of your fo'c's'le. Pre-
pare a graph of speed versus bow thruster effectiveness (cnange of head-
ing in degrees per minute as measured by observation or rate-of-turn
indicator, if that equipment is available) for both your own information
and for the use of pilots. There .s no doubt that the graph prepared aboard
ship will be mo e accurate and useful than the one supplied to the ship at
r does not squat so much forward that she goes by the head, in which
delivery.
Remember that it is not so much the power of the thruster that is of in-
terest in these tests but the ship's speed through the water at which the
thruster is effective. A few years ago a tanker turning in the Delaware
River collided with another tanker at her berth while trying to use the bow
APPROACHING SHALLOW WATER 17
thruster at 6 knots to assist in making the turn. It is better to learn the ca-
pabilities of your equipment during this trial maneuver.
MOST EFFECTIVE MANEUVER
Professionalism in shiphandling entails looking for (he most effective ma-
neuver, not just a random series of maneuvers t hat will put the ship in a
desired position using a minimum number of bells and helm orders.
Having completed the trial maneuvers, the shiphandler has a feel for
the ship and is better able to anticipate her behavior. It is therefore possi-
ble to choose the most effective action to take in a situation.
The most effective maneuver accomplishes several tasks simultaneously so
the ship is handled with the minimum of orders and is always under control.
For example, when it is necessary to alter a ship's heading to starboard
and reduce her headway, the less experienced shiphandler might first
make the starboard turn, tnen check the ship's swing, and put the engine
astern to reduce headway. The accomplished shiphandler puts the engine
astern first and the resulting starboard swing caused by the ship's ten-
dency to twist in that direction when backed takes the ship around the
turn while headway is simultaneously being reduced.
APPROACHING SHALLOW WATER
You have familiarized yourself with the local conditions of the port at
which you are about to arrive, planned your passage from sea to berth, and
have become confident thatyou have a good feel for your ship and what she
will do under various conditions. You now feel ready to bring your com-
mand into her first discharge port.
The vibration felt throughout the ship's hull tells you the depth of wa-
ter under the keel is decreasing. Test gear, and then reduce speed to mini-
mize this vibration. Other changes to expect include
1. Improved steering characteristics as the underkeel clearance de-
creases until, in shallow water, a directionally unstable ship be-
Cuines easier to steer and l^ss unstable. This is true only if the ship
case the stabilizing effects of the shallower water are negated by the
change in trim.
2. The ship's turning radius increases until, in shallow water (depths
of 1.2 times the vessel's draft or less) the radius can be as much as
double that experienced at sea.
18 ARRIVAL DIRECTIONAL STABILITY 19

3. The vessel twists more when backed. directional stability. If she swings at increasing rates of turn when the
4. The trim of the ship changes, the draft increasing more at the bow or rudder is amidships she has negative stability. A vessel with neutral di-
stern depending primarily on the hull form. rectional stability continues swinging at the present rate, or continues
along on her current heading until external forces take charge. She ha.- nc
These changes are significant and must be kept in mind as water depth tendency to either increase or decrease her rate of swing when the rudder
decreases (fig. 1-7). is left amidships.
The ship's directional stability is especially important when proceed-
Shallow Water ing up a channel or attempting to steer with a minimum of rudder at sea.
Deep Water (at Sea) More rudder for a longer period of time is needed to check the swing of a di-
Directional stability a function of Directional stability becomes more rectionally unstable ship than is required to start that swing.
hull form and trim. positive (steering "improves"). It may not be possible to check the swing of a directionally unstable
Rate of turn dependent on hull Rate of turn essentially the same as ship before she leaves the channel even though the rate of turn is quite-
characteristics and diicctional for deep water. normal for an average ship. Large rudder angles and constant attention
stability of vessel. are required to steer her, especially in confined waters and when making
Diameter of turning circle approxi- Diameter of turning circle increases course changes. As a greater number of full-bodied ships, and especially
mately three time ship's length. to as much as twice that of deep ships with open sterns and full sections forward, are launched, the condi-
water turn. tion of negative directional stability becomes more common.
Speed loss significant when making Speed losses occur with large Because this condition is to a large extent draft critical, it is afTected In-
large course changes. changes in heading, but to a lesser even small changes in trim. A few feet of drag will change the entire per-
extent than in deep water. sonality of an otherwise "cranky" ship and give her positive directional
Loss of headway in calm water, with Loss of headway with engine stability. An alteration in trim changes the underwater form of the hull,
engine stopped, a factor of dis- stopped, in shallow water, less shifting the greatest submerged cross-sectional areas of the hull. For this
placement, trim, and hull form. than in deep water. (Ship carries reason, any ship significantly trimmed by the head has negative direc-
her way longer in shallow water.) tional stability and a seaman finds that the characteristics of a ship with
Vessel's head falls off to starboard Head falls off in the same direction, inherent negative directional stability are the same as those always asso-
when engine goes astern. but at a greater rate, as depth ciated with a ship trimmed by the head. More time is required than usual
decreases. to start such a ship swinging, and veiy large rudder angles for longer peri-
ods of time are needed to check that swing. If she gels away from the
Figure 1-7. Shallow water effects on vessel maneuvering characteristics. helmsman, watch out!
Directional stability is obviously a condition with which the manner
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY has long been familiar, although that term may not have been used to de-
Directional stability affects the ship's steering characteristics, the degree scribe the condition. As more ships are constructed with hulls that are in-
to which she can be checked when swinging, and the change in her rate of herently directionally unstable, it becomes increasingly important to be
turn when the rudder is put amidships. A hydrodynamicist looks at direc- alert for tnis condition. You are better able to predict your ship's behavior
tional stability in other ways, and tests for the degree of directional stabil- both when handling the ship yourself and when turning her over to a pilot
ity that a ship possesses by putting the ship through a series of "Z" r if steering behavior is considered to be a function of directional stability.
maneuvers. Because the changes in directional stability are significant as draft
A vessel can have positive, negative, or neutral directional stability. A and trim are altered, and because large, full bodied ships with large block
ship that tends to steady up when the rudder is put amidships has positive coefficients often squat by the head, it is especially important that these
20 ARRIVAL.
Cap'. . .
potential changes be given careful consideration when trimming such
ships for arrival.
It is apparent then that directional stability
1. Increases as the underkeel clearance decreases.
2. Becomes more positive as length increases.
3. Becomes more positive as drag increases.
4. Decreases as the block coefficient increases.
5. Decreases as the beam increases for a given length (length/beam ra-
tio decreases).
6. Decreases as the area of the forward sections increases relative to
the area of the a f t e r sections (as the pivot point shifts ahead).
EFFECTS OF BOTTOM CONTOUR ON HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS
Changes in ocean bottom contour do not affect the ship's benavior until
shallow water conditions are encountered. Shallow water effects as shown
in figure 1-7 vary in magnitude with changes in average depth.
EFFECTS OF BOTTOM CONTOUR ON HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS 21
The additional effect^ of specific changes in bottom contour are super-
imposed on these shallow water effects and cause (fig. 1-9)
1. The ship's bow to move away from more shallow water. This well-
known "bank cushion" effect is caused by the pressure built up on
the area of the bow, as seen in the raised water that forms between
the ship's bow and the shoal or bank.
2. The ship to move bodily sideways toward a necrby shallow area, as
her parallel midbody passes that area. This movement is caused by
the increase in velocity of the water flowing through the restricted
area between the ship and shoal, and the resultant reduction in
pressure on that side of the ship.
3. The stern of the ship to move toward shallower areas or banks due to
the reduced flow of water to the area behind the ship, and to the
ship's propeller on the side closer to that shallow area.
Bank cushion is unfortunately often exaggerated in marine texts that
describe hypothetical ships "smelling" shallow water and heading away
from it, saving themselves from grounding. These tales are untrue and
dangerously misleading and should be filed along with those about sea
monsters and falling off the e ige of the world. It is more correct to say that
"a ship tends to head away" from shoal waterthe effect is not as strong as
often indicated in classic books on seamanship.
~'h T.)
c ix
Fig. 1-9. Effects of changes in bottom contour or a near bank.
22 ARRIVAL APPROACHING THE PILOT STATION 23

Bank suction is more strongly felt than bank cushion and causes n ship
to sheer away from a shoal or bank. This is a significant effect that can
make steering difficult as the bottom contour changes in shallow water.
All these effects r.re felt to some degree during the arrival phase of a
voyage as water depth decreases. The effects are more pronounced as the
ship proceeds up a channel and are discussed more fully in applicable
chapters.
HANDLING OF LARGER SHIPS IN SHALLOW WATER
A study was conducted by a group of shipping companies and organiza-
tions in July 1977, using Esso Osaka to determine the handling character-
istics of VLCCs in shallow water.' This study has been widely circulated
and used to refine previous theories. The data were also used to improve
computer programs for the various shiphandling simulators used to train
deck officers (fig. 1-10).
While most of the information contained in the ter is discussed in this
text, it should be stressed that the tests proved that, contrary to oft-stated
opinions, VLCCs remain highly maneuverable in shallow water and steer
quite well both with the engine turning ahead and stopped. This now Fig. 1-10. The VLCC Esso Osaka. Courtesy Exxon Corporation.
well-documented fact, based on both the Esso Osaka study and on the ex-
periences of masters and pilots who have handled these larger ships in assigned to stand by must be trained in shift ing over to the emergency sys-
shallow water, should be comforting to the master bringing a VLCC into tem and then steering by both compass courses and conning orders.
shallow water for the first time. In fact, large ships usually steer better in This operation must be practiced at sea before an emergency arises. It
shallow water with the engine stopped than they do in deep water. There is difficult enough for an experienced helmsman to steer in a confined area
is no need for a ship to move at excessive speed to maintain steerageway. with no visible horizon, let alone an untrained person under emergency
It is encouraging to see greater attention being given to real-ship/real- conditions with the noise of the steering gear machinery making it diffi-
time data on shiphandling and maneuvering characteristics. The data col- cult to hear helm orders. The half hour a month required for practice is
lected during the Esso Osaka trials, and several other shallow water tri- time well spent.
als, such as those done by El Paso Marine Company with liquefied natural There must be a tested and reliable means of communicating between
gas carriers, can only result in safer handling of present vessels and the the steering gear flat and the bridge. A good headset with a long cord that
design of better-handling ships in the future. leaves the wearer free to move about and use both hands is recommended.
The headset cuts down on background noise no instructions can be heard
APPROACHING THE PILOT STATION Prepare the anchors for letting go with the claws and pawls off (or clear
It should be standard practice to station an engineer in the steering gear whatever gear you might have aboard your particular ship for securing
flat when arriving and maneuvering in restricted waters. It's too late to the anchors at sea). Break the anchors out of the hawsepipe to ensure that
send someone to shift to the trick wheel after steering is lost. The engineer if needed they will run free, unless the ship is rolling too heavily to allow
this. The anchor may need to bo lowered to the water's edge if a large bul-
bous bow prevents dropping it from the hawsepipe. (See chapter S for a
1 W. 0. Gray, Esso Osaka Maneuvering Triais. discussion of the uses of the anchor.)
24 ARRIVAL
STOPPING OR REDUCING HEADWAY
You now want to reduce ship's speed so the pilot can be safely embarked
and the ship maneuvered among other traffic and anchored vessels. Th?
most common methods to reduce a ship's headway include
1. Using the 3hip's engine astern. (See figure 1-6.)
2. Slewing a vessel about a base course.
3. Large changes in heading, including a complete round turn (fig. 1-11).
The use of the engine astern to reduce a ship's headway is the easiest
and most common method for slowing or stopping any ship. It is also often
the least effective. A propeller is less efficient astern than aheada laigo
turbine plant may have as little as 25 percent of the power astern than it
has aheadand a ship becomes difficult to handle when the engine is put
astern at higher revolutions. Time and searoom are required to back a
ship to a stopso with a large ship it is often impractical to use this ma-
neuver alone. This maneuver becomes more useful as headway is reduced
to lower speeds, and is generally carried out as described in the previous
Chang3 of heading = 90 Change of heading = 180
Speed = 6.5 knots Speed = 4.2 knots
Elapsed time = 4 M. COS. RPM = 52
Elapsed tlmo = 9 M. 20 S.
STOPPING OR REDUCING HEADWAY 25
section of this chapter, so that the ship remains reasonably close to the de-
sired heading.
A preferred method for reducing headway, and with VLCCs often the
most practical method, is a series of course changes to starboard and port
of the base course. Using this slewing maneuver the ship loses a signifi-
cant amount of headway each time she swings, yet makes good her desired
track towards the pilot station or anchorage.
Keep in mind when other vessels are about that this slewing maneuver
may be confusing to them. They don't know if your change in heading is .an
actual course change that will affect a meeting situation between your two
ships, or only a temporary heading change as you slew ship to reduce
headway. This is especially true at night when the watch aboard the other
ship sees your large tanker or containershlp showing first a green and
then a red sidelight, and then sees both sidelights as you head directly for
them. Good seamanship dictates that you contact by VIIF any ship that
might be concerned and let her know your intentions when slewing ship to
reduce headway.
The round turn maneuver, or even a large change in heading, quickly
takes the headway off any ship, with the reduction being greater for larger
ships. This maneuver disputes the claim that VLCCs can't be handled
safely in crowded waters "because it requires miles to stop those big ba-
bies." A rule of thumb is that a VLCC loses 25-30 percent of her headway
for every 90 degree change in heading.' If the ship is proceeding at 12
knots, her headway is reduced to 2 to 3 knots at the completion cf a round
turn even though the engine continues to turn ahead for steerageway. The
ship completes this turn in about three times her length in deep water, or a
tit less than six times her length in shallow water. (See figure 1-3.) That is
much less than the ofUelaimed "several miles" stopping distance suppos-
edly required for these ships.
This round turn maneuver is useful
1. When in a crossing situation at sea it is necessary to maneuver to
avoid collision.
2. To sio>v a ship before arrival at a pilot station.
3. To make a lee for a pilot.
4. To 5top a ship after losing the engine.
2 Ship Performance Data for VLCCs.
26 ARRIVAL PICKING UP THE PILOT/MAKiNG A LEE 27

The round turn maneuver used in a crossing situation at sea accom- with high-powered boats and special boarding facilities where it is pre-
plishes several tasks simultaneously. Your ship is turned away from the ferred that the ship proceed at higher speeds. You are usually aware of
other vessel and makes a 360-degree course change while reducing head- this requirement cr the pilot will inform you cf it via VHP when you call
way. At the completion of the turn she is back on her original heading at a the station two hours before arrival. Unless informed otherwise, the
minimum speed, and you probably find that the other ship has crossed 3-to-4-Knot speed is comfortable and yet not so slow that the boat has diffi-
your course line and is safely on her way. culty staring alongside while transferring the pilot to the ladder.
If a *-ound turn is used to make a lee for a pilot, the ship both sweeps a Make your approach so as to give the pilot a good lee and remember
calm area for boarding and loses headway. that it is possible to knock down a short chop by putting a swing on your
The round turn can be used to stop your ship after losing her engine, ship just before the pilot boards so the quarter is swinging away from the
since she will usually respond to her rudder if given a chance. The ship re- pilot boat. "Sweeping a lee" in this manner is especially helpful when
mains in the limited area needed to make the turn while losing headway there is a cross sea and swell since you can block the swell with the ship's
until stopped or nearly so. While she might carry her way for an extended hull and then knock down the contrary sea as the pilot beards (fig. 1-12;.
period if moving straight ahead, she stops in a surprisingly short time Making a iee often requires some careful planning, especially when a
when put into a hard-over turn. It is stressed that the ship does respond to shoal area or traffic restricts maneuvering. Here again, a complete round
her rudder without the propeller turning ahead at even very low speeds. turn may be the best way to make a good lee, even if it appears at first to be
A master or deck offcer, accustomed to the ship's immediate response very time consuming. Since the turn takes off a great deal of the ship's
to rudder movements at sea, might feel that she does not steer effectively headway, you can make up for some of the time required to make this
when the engine is stopped. Often a master advises tne pilot that the ship round turn by being able to approach the station at a greater speed than
does not steer without the engine, or will not steer at less than some exces- would have boon possible had you proceeded directly and then slowed with
sive speed, such as 6 knots. In waterways such as the Panama Canal, or in the engine alone. More important, while it may not look rough from the
a port area where speed is naturally restricted, this lack of steering capa-
bility would create an interesting situation if it really existed. The Pan-
ama Canal locks certainly could not be entered at such a speed and yet the
ship must be steered all the way into the jaws of the lock. Ships do, in fact,
respond to rudders at very low speeds if given a chance.
This is a comforting fact as the world's merchant fleet becomes almost
exclusively powered by diesel engines. The odds increase to some extent
that the engine will not go astern if a ship is diesel propelled since it is
stopped and restarted astern in most casesbut you can still get the ship
safely stopped using a round turn. The round turn is useful in these and
other situations and every master or watchstander must keep the maneu-
ver in mind to reduce neadway and avoid casualties both in the open sen
and when maneuvering.
PICKING UP THE PILOT/MAKING A LEE
As you approach the pilot station after several days steaming&t sea speed,
a conscious effort is required on the part of conning officers to reorient
themselves to the lower speeds nacessary for maneuvering. When making
a lee for the pilot, be sure speed is reduced to 3 to 4 knots. There are ports Fig. 1-12. Ship in hard-over turn "sweeps a lee" for the pilot.
28 ARRIVAL
bridge, it is rough down there in that small launch, and the transfer will
often be hazardous. Professionalism demands that you make the situation
as safe as possible lor the pilot, regardless of how late you are arriving at
the terminal, or how many gangs might be waiting at the dock.
To further assist in sweeping a lee without gaining excessive headway,
you can use the previously described backing and filling maneuver. Come
ahead to start the ship swinging to the right and then put the engine
astern. The vessel turns about her pivot point while headway is simulta-
neously reduced so the maneuver does not require any great amount of
searoom. Remember, though, that all the way must not be taken off the
ship as this makes it difficult for the pilot boat to stay alongside. It is also
important not to back so long that the wash reaches the pilot ladder and
sweeps the pilot launch away from the ship's side.
ESTIMATING SPEED THROUGH THE WATER
BY SHIP'S PROPELLER WASH
How, on a dark night without a Doppler log, do you tell what speed you
are making? By watching the wash from the propeller. When the engine
is going astern, the ship's speed is down to about 2 knots when the wash
from the propeller begins to move up the starboard side of the ship So
long as that wash is being left behind the ship, you are making some-
thing in excess of 2 knots. Of course, as every seaman knows, once the
wash reaches halfway up the ship's hull, the ship is dead in the water.
(See figure 4-2.)
Would you want a good, sound ladder to scale a two-to-four-story sway-
ing building? The pilot wants at least as much when boarding your rolling
ship in a seaway.
Be sure a clean piiot ladder meeting current IMO and USCG standards
is properly rigged under the supervision of a licensed deck officer. This of-
ficer must visually and physically inspect the ladder as it is rigged and be
in attendance while the pilot embarks or disembarks. Two seamen must
also be on hand at those times. Use only a proper ladder, reserved for use
as a piiot 'ladder, that is made up so that
1. The rungs are of one piece hardwood.
2. The bottom four rungs are of reinforced hard rubber.
3. The rungs ha^e a nonskid surface.
4. Rungs are pi least. 19 inches long, 4 inches deep, and 1 inch thick.
ESTIMATING SPEED THROUGH THE WATER 29
5. The laddt-r is hung by single lengths of Manila or prestretched (low
stretch) Dacron.
6. There is a c l e a r space 16 to 19 inches between the lines across each
rung.
7. Th 're are 12 to 15 inches between the rungs. 3
Have a heaving line available to handle the pilot's bag (it may contain
your mail, so handle the bag with care!) and a life ring with watertight.
Maintain communications by walkie-talkie between the pilot ladder and
the bridge when the pilot is boarding or leaving. Keep the ladder and the
deck area at the head of the ladder well lighted. Place a light aft but near the
ladder so it illuminates the ladder without blinding the pilot boat operator.
Coming aboard on a winter night is dangerous enough without having
to use an iced-up ladder. Keep the ladder on deck in icy weather and put it
over the side only when the pilot boat is alongside.
Spreaders are required if there are more than nine rungs in the ladder,
to keep the ladder from twisting. These spreaders must be at least 70
inches long, placed at intervals not exceeding nine rungs apart, and bo se-
cured behind and in-line with rungs.'
The maximum distance that a pilot should have to climb is 9 meters (30
feet), and an accommodation ladder must be used in conjunction with the
ladder as shown in figure 1-13 when the distance from the water to the
deck exceeds that amount.
Be sure to lash the accommodation ladder tight alongside 'he ship with
the frapping line B (fig. 1-14). This important line is often forgotten, leav-
ing the accommodation ladder free to swing away from the hull as the ship
rolls in a swell at the pilot station. The frapping line also holds the accom-
modation ladder alongside when the ship has a small list and, since the pi-
lot ladder is lashed to the accommodation ladder at point D, this in turn
minimizes the amount the long pilot ladder is free to swing.
The access to the deck must be either through an opening in the bul-
wark or over the rail using stanchions at least 40 inches high secured into
the bulwark together with a sturdy set of steps down to the deck Too mar.v
pilots have been needlessly hurt trying to climb over the rail or gunwale
(fig. 1-15).
3 Malcolm C. Armstrong, Pilot Isiddcr Safety, pg. 8-12.
4 Ibid., pg. 15.
30 ARRIVAL WIND EFFECTS OS STEERING 31

WIND EFFECTS ON STEERING

As the ship slows, she begins to feel the wind and become more difficult to
steer if the weather is not the best. The freeboard or "sail area" that the
ship presents will he the principal factor determining how much effect
the wind will have on steering, although the ratio of the ship's draft to

Fig. 1-13. "It's a long way up." Courtesy Lee Klimo.

Rig inanropes on each side of the ladder. Make sure the manropes hang
free of the ladder so they do not hinder the pilot's climb. If the manropes
are swinging across the ladder, the pilot may request they be pulled up on
deck. Not all pilots use the manropes but they should be available to assist
a pilot in transferring safely from ship to launch. Have the manropes and
ladder rigged well above the .vater so they clear the deck of the launch ly-
ing alongside. A ladder lying on the launch deck may trap and injure the
pilot, while a ladder lying between the launch and the ship's hull may be
pulled down from the ship by the pitching launch.
If a pilot hoist is used, be sure a conventional ladder is also rigged
alongside and available. Many pilots have had enough bad experiences
with these hoists that they refuse to use them, and even if the hoist is used,
the ladder must bt availabb in case a problem develops.
Rigs for proper boarding facilities with various combinations of free-
board and hull type are shown in figure 1-16. Titles of some useful books
and pamphle ts about pilot boarding techniques and facilities are included
in the Bibliography. Fig. 1-14. Use of combination of pilot and accommodation ladders.
30
ARRIVAL WIND EFFECTSOSSTEERING 32

Providing lor
rounded hull

Ladder details *
Place 70-inch (1 8 m) spreaders at treads
and not between. Also, leave not less
than 12 inchos (0.31 m) and not more than
1G inrhes (0.41 m) between the treads while
making all tread spachg equal.
117"
3 m ysjaaKKj;;*

Co.rect Incorrect

Tread dimensions

59'
freeboard will also be important. Needless to say, even if the amount of 1.5m

sail area is not great, if you are only drawing 10 feet forward, you will find
the wind a problem as you begin to reduce speed. i
How much will your vessel feel the wind? As a rule of thumb, based on 39"
tests with various types of ships, at very low maneuvering speeds, a 1m Special notes

high-sided ship such as a passenger ship or a containership will feel the I k Waterline
Vessels with pilot hoists
wind significantly at a wind speed of three times the ship's speed, while a must also have pilot
The entire boarding area must bo
illuminated by lights rigged over
vessel's side and directed inboard

loaded tanker will require a wind speed of at least five times the ship's ladders rigged. toward the boarding area.

speed before being affected to the same degree. Other types of cargo ships Pilot hoist

will fall somewhere in between these two ratios, depending on their house
configuration, deck load, and freeboard and even ship types that appear
similar at first glance may have different characteristics. (See figure
1

1-17.) For exampl?, new classes of passenger ships with deck after deck of
closed balconies separated bv vertical bulkheads at right angles to the

5Maryland Pilot Captain B r i a n Hope, R1 Paso Consolidated Maneuvering

Trials, El Paso Marine Company, Solomons, Maryland, 1978. Fig. 1-1(3. Pilot ladder pointers.
30 ARRIVAL
hull seem to catch the wind. The shiphandler must allow for more leeway
when approaching a berth or anchorage for a given wind force. Appar-
ently, the wind cannot pass smoothly down the ship's side as it would
along the hull of the conventional ship so the ship is pushed laterally at a
greater rate due to what some pilots refer to as an "ice tray" due to the ap-
pearance o these ships with their row after row of recessed boxes. An ex-
r
perienced shiphandler considers ship types and oddities such as the ice
tray effect that determine the effect of wind steering and the leeway re-
quired at slow speeds.
Keep in mind that a loaded containership, passenger ship, auto car-
rier, or high-sided liquefied gas carrier with 75 feet of freeboard presents
50,000 to 60,000 square feet of side to the wind (fig. 1-17). A full ragged
sailing ship carried about 45,000 square feet of canvas. Obviously, the
wind direction and force is at least as important to a pilot or master han-
dling modern motor ships as it was to ship's masters maneuvering ships in
the days of sail. Ships may grow larger and look different but the wind and
sea haven't changed and the basic principles of shiphandling remain very
much the same, no matter how many flashing lights and alarms we put on
the bridge.
Ship's speed in knots
Fig. 1-17. Speed of vessel at which wind takes charge. (See footnote 5.)
25
WIND EFFECTS OS STEERING
Conversely, the ship's speed can be reduced to a point determined by
that same ratio of wind force to ship's speed before you would begin to have
problem; steering. This is not to say that you cannot steer at that point,
but rather that you will then need to use the engine to steer, giving a kick
ahead as the ship starts to come up into the wind. When you arc trying to
stop the ship, this can obviously become a problem. By punching the en-
gine ahead, that is, significantly increasing the revolutions for just long
enough to start the ship swinging back to the desired heading, you will be
able to control the ship without significantly increasing her headway. You
should keep in mind that the wind will become an important factor in han-
dling the ship as you reduce speed when making arrival or slowing to pick
up the pilot, and consider this factor when planning your arrival.
How will the ship react as you reduce speed? Ships of most configura-
tions will normally head up into the wind at increasingly larger angles as
the ship loses headway. When finally dead in the water, the ship will usu-
ally want to lie beam to the wind. With ste/nway, the ship will want to
back into the wind. Be aware, though, that every ship will behave a little
differently, depending on the silhouette that she presents to the wind,
that is, the location of the house, deck cargoes, amount of freeboard, and
trim. Only you will know exactly how your ship will behave in a strong
wind, and then only after extensive experimentation with her. Again, it is
stressed thatyou should get as much experience as possible handling your
vessel under varying conditions. Don't let your natural reluctance caused
by lack of experience deter you from creating opportunities to handle your
ship and develop a feel for her at slow speeds. Any damn fool can handle
his ship at sea speed!
Here again, a potential problem such as a strong wind can be made an
aid once the shiphandler begins to appreciate his ship's behavior and
plans his maneuvers with that behavior in mind. An example would be a
ship that must turn arotmd and head to an anchorage, or perhaps to sea. If
she is loaded with containers, it might not be possible to turn in a direction
that requires the bow to come through the windshe might be held on her
heading by the wind much iike a sailing ship in irons, and her speed would
increase without any significant change in her heading. If the ship is in-
stead turned away from the wind (or back and filled around if the amount
of searoom available will not allow a normal turn), and her stern is
brought across the wind during the maneuver, the wind will assist the
ship in turning. As sternway develops the ship will turn easily as she
backs into the wind, so that when she comes ahead again the wind, now on
36 ARRIVAL
the quarter, will assist her in turning. This is true even if due to the config-
uration of the channel or anchorage the ship must back and fill in what or-
dinarily would be the "wrong way," to the left since the normal tendency
of the st^rn Lo go to port when the engine goes astern would be overcome by
the wind as the ship gains sternway.
This demonstrates once again the value of appreciating the forces of
wind and current, and the need to add sail training to the curriculum of
our maritime schools. Apart from the important but more esoteric benefits
of sail training such as self-discipline, attention to tasks at hand, and ap-
preciation of the demands of the ocean environment, there arc important
direct benefits. The skills required to navigate and handle a ship being af-
fected by wind and current are as important today as they were in the
years of the Down Easters, and these seafaring skills can best be learned
by working a ship under sail. Sail training should supplement the seago-
ing experience already given potential deck and engineering officers.
COMMUNICATIONS WITH OTHER VESSELS
With the advent of good radio voice communications, and especially the
universal use of VHF radio, it is possible to avoid many dangerous situa-
tions as well as arrange passing and meeting situations so that those
aboard can enjoy a degree of peace of mind not possible when conning a
ship only a few years ago. Further, the third mate no longer has to stand
out on the bridge wing manning the signal light on a cold, rainy winter
night arriving at Ambrose. Unfortunately, this also means that this same
mate probably can't read a message sent by flashing light when needed,
nor will hs or she enjoy the satisfaction of mastering that skill so as to be
able to talk to a passing ship by flashing light on the long night watch at
sea. Today, we instead suffer through long discussions on the VHF with
every passing ship such as, "How was the weather behind you?" and other
nonessential communication that interferes with important transmis-
sions. Better we had stayed with the "What ship? Where bound?" of the
Aldis light days.
Be that as it may, the VHF can be a great aid to the ship's officer if it is
used properly. While there are good references available on proper radio
procedure, to ensure that the VHF is used to its best advantage, there are
also practices that may not have been discussed sufficiently.
1. Don't transmit overly long messages, with tiresome and unneces-
sary repetition ofyour ship's call letters after each transmission. It is
COMMUNICATION? WITH OTHER VESSELS 37
necessary to give your call letters to another ship only when making
an initial transmission, and after the iast transmission of your dis-
cussion. Between the first and last transmissions you need only give
your call sign at ten-minute intervals, although you will hopefully
keep radio communications shorter than that.
2. Call the pilot station, discuss the placement of the pilot ladder, up-
date your estimated time of arrival (ETA), and ask if there are any
special requirements for boarding facilities.
3. Use the VHF to contact the pilot services before arrival at the sta-
tion to discuss the traffic and weather that you might encounter as
you approach the station. This is often better information than you
can obtain from a traffic control system, which we'll cover in a later
chapterwhen we will discuss traffic movements and control in gen-
eral. Suffice it to say that the piiot is able to give you this informa-
tion and make your arrival safer and easier.
4. When talking to other ships, remember that while U.S.-flag ships
are accustomed to discussing meeting situations according to their
intentions for meeting and passing, ships of most nationalities dis-
cuss how they will change course to pass. Therefore, it is prudent for
the mariner to state any meeting arrangements in two ways to be
sure that the other ship understands those arrangements. For ex-
ample: "Golden Gopher, this is the tanker Prudence. I will alter my
course to starboard, to meet you port to port."
This will avoid any misunderstandings, even if there is little English
spoken on the other ship. If you are in U.S. inland waters, add "for one
whistle meeting." This phrasing of communications on the radio is com-
monly taught to apprentice pilots and should be adopted by ships' officers
as well.
Use the ship's whistle to supplement radio communications and fur-
ther clarify tiie planned meeting, whether or not this is required by the
Rules of the Road. There is an unfortunate reluctance of deck officers t o
use the ship's whistle today.
There was a collision several years ago between a U.S. Navy mari-
ner-class support ship and a Liberian-flag, Chinese-manned, bulk carrier
at the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay. It could have been avoided if these
recommended procedures had been followed. The non-English-speaking
crew of the bulk carrier thought the naval ship was going to alter course to
starboard, when in fact the naval ship had requested on the VHF radio a
38 ARRIVAL
starboard to starboard meeting. The only word clearly understood by the
Chinese master was "starboard" and, since the rules that most of the
world operates under outside U.S. waters discuss course changes, not
meeting situations, his mistake was natural and quite common. The sea-
going community is international, speaks many tongues, and care is
needed when speaking via VHF to arrange meetings and passings.
Lastly, do not call another ship by saying, "Ship 011 my starboard bow."
A call on VHF can be heard at sea even under the worst conditions over an
area of at least 1,400 square miles, so it is obvious that you are certainly
not defining the ship that you want to speak with. There are many other
means of identifying that ship, such as adding an approximate course that
she is steering, or a geographic location, the type of ship, or the hull color.
Technological advancements such as the Automatic Identification Sys-
tem (AIS), selective calling for VHFs, and the use of transponders have re-
duced some of the confusion that has been prevalent when identifying
individual ships in congested waters. However, these aids do not elimi-
nate the need to correctly identify the vessel you are calling and impor-
tance of making certain your communications are clear and precise.
It is also important that mariners appreciate and make use of equip-
ment that extends communications beyond the spoken word and radio
messages. Graphic presentations on a laptop used in two-way-based
DGPS systems such as the Panama Canal innovative communications
tracking and navigation (CTAN) system are just as much a communica-
tion as spoken messages. In fact the " C in CTAN stands for communica-
tions because designers of that system intentionally included features
that used the equipment for communications. A graphic presentation that
includes AIS capability will communicate more information in an instant
than a mariner or traffic coordinator could provide in two or three minutes
of spoken communications. This is especially true in restricted waters
when experienced pilots relate the visual presentation to existing weather,
currents, channel restrictions, and a developing situation to accurately
predict what will happen a.3 a vessel proceeds from the known point.
Successive generations of mariners have relied on flags, blinker light,
and whistle signals for communications. These visual and audible com-
munications were supplemented by verbal communications via VHF ra-
dio. Now, graphic presentations have developed as the next generation of
communications for many purpose. This form of communications must
now be considered when questions arise as to whether ships and mariners
have effectively transmitted intentions and actions from ship to ship. The '
PILOT ABOARD 39
concept of graphic communications also extends to radar and automatic
radar plotting aid (ARPA) presentations although delays while making
calculations and the need for interpretation make then, less useful for
communications than high-definition, real-time DGPS-based systems
and systems that use graphic presentations in lieu of alphanumeric lists
and long, sometimes rambling radio communications. Changes and inno-
vations bring new forms of communications for each successive genera-
tion of mariners. Uses of these graphic presentations are evolving as pilots
and mariners find additional ways to use this tool.
This does not mean that new systems always replace the old. Mariners
should use all modes of communications as appropriate. The VHF can be
used to tell others what you will be doing before it will be obvious to some-
one monitoring a radar or laptop, but the whistle signal is still appropriate
because it makes clear to everyone in the vicinity, including those not
monitoring a VHF or laptop, that a ship is about to change course or put
the engine astern. Traditional tools are as useful as ever when maneuver-
ing relatively close to another vessel, but the new modes extend the range
and speed of communications so shiphandlers can know what is happen-
ing several miles away and arrange meeting and monitor progress of ships
even though they are not yet visible to each other. (Sec also chapter 12.)
PILOT ABOARD
After the ship's officer brings the pilot to the bridge, there are several
items that should be covered before the ship's conn is turned over for the
passage up the channel. The first should not be to have the pilot write his
name; there are more import ant things to be taken care of, such as shap-
ing up for the channel and meeting other traffic.
Several pilots were gathered arounu the table at the pilot station, wait-
ing for the arrival of their ships so that they could begin their night's work.
Coffee was passed.
"Got myselfa Japanese containership tonight, which should make for a
pleasant night's work. They wili be as efficient as hell, make their ETA.
and have a hot cup of coffee waiting for me when I ^et. up to the bridge
"Yeah, and can't think of anything I'd like more after boarding on a cold
night like this."
The junior member of the group was to go aboard a German refriger-
ated ship. He joked that the first thing the captain would say was, "Where
have you been pilot? We have been waiting for ten minutes, and we do not
like beirg delayed like this."
40 ARRIVAL PILOT-MASTER EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION 41

This observation has been made by a thousand pilots, on a thousand

nights such as this, and always raised a laugh.
"I have an American ship, light draft, and a long way to the bridge. Af-
ter going up 30 feet of icy ladder, and cb'mbing six decks, I'll be panting like
a race horse."
"Yeah, and the first thing you'll be handed won't be coffee!"
"That's for sure. They'll stick the damn bell book in my hand and want
me to write my name!"
This brought a bigger laugh from all in the room.
This is a scene common to pilots from all over the world. Before a pilot
can get a U.S.-flag ship headed fair, or even catch his breath, he is asked
for his name. No coffee, no sandwich, no "May I take your coat, pilot?" Pro-
fessionalism calls for something better than this. Keep it in mind the next
time you welcome a pilot aboard your vessellet the man eaten his
breath, get the ship steadied up on course, hand him a cup of coffee, and
then ask for his name.
PILOT-MASTER EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION
The pilot will noed information from the master. While IMO regulations
now require a card to be posted in the wheelhouse showing some of the
ship's particulars and maneuvering characteristics, this card is not much
good on a dark night on a ship that is underway. The same information
will be much more useful if it is also contained on a small pocketsize card
that the pilot can look at with a flashlight while starting up the channel.
Further, there is other information of more use than that found on the ma-
neuvering card, which should be supplied by the master. Is the engine in
proper operating condition? Does it respond quickly? Does the ship have
any steering peculiarities? Can she maneuver on heavy oil, or must you
change to diesel prior to reducing to maneuvering speeds? Will there be any
problem letting go the anchor or making up a tug due to deck cargo or the
ship's construction? This and many other items must be exchanged as it is
obviously to the masters advantage that there be no surprises for the pilot
at a later time in the passage. The additional information required will vary
from ship to ship, und voyage to voyage. It is here that the professional 275, and all yours."
knowledge of the master alone can serve, and he must give some thought
before arrival at the pilot station to making up his own list of pertinent in- possible to design an exchange that will be useful in every port. There is
formation, to supplement the oosted information required by regulation. some controversy regarding this pilot-master exchange and the amount of
The pilot should also provide several pieces of information to the mas- information that a pilot should provide to the master for what is, after all,
ter. Every port is different with its own unique requirements so it is im- a fluid situation where much is subject to change as the ship transits from
42 \RRIVAL
dock to sea or vice versa, but the concerns are overblown and should be put
aside given the professional relationship that exists between these two ex-
perienced mariners.
In general, the pilot should provide the master with any information
that is relevant to the vessel's passage. At a minimum this would include
Reviewing the "pilot card" with the master and discussing ship's
particulars and any peculiar handling characteristics.
Fixing the current position and reviewing the general route from
that point to the berth or anchorage.
Discussing the draft, trim, GM, and any considerations when speed
will be limited due to squat and underkeel clearance.
Discussing any hazards to be encountered (that is, working dredges,
the possibility of reduced visibility, or recent shoaling).
Reviewing traffic that will be encountered enroute.
Discussing limitations, special notice, manning, and other matters
affecting use of the engine.
Communicating local regulations that will affect the passage and
any required radio communications.
Providing estimated call-out time for the crew, need for an anchor
watch, any special engine maneuvers.
Discussing the berth, arrangement of lines, and any special prob-
lems anticipated while docking.
Anticipating weather conditions and currents.
Timing of pilot changes enroute.
Establishing locations where tugs, if any, are expected including
special tug escorts.
Reviewing special operating requirements such as speeds, areas
where ships cannot meet, time and location to put out a ladder for
docking pilots, readiness of anchor, need for lookouts.
Discussing bridge equipment and its operation as well as the pilot
requirements for deck officers to monitor the radar and fix the
ship's position.
Completing any special equipment tests and communicating any
other special information peculiar to a particular port.
This exchange can actually be completed in a few minutes. The entire
passage will be easier and safer for all involved when everyone on the
bridge has been properly briefed prior to beginning the passage. The pilot
POSTING OF MANEUVERING CHARACTERISTICS 43
can then assume the conn with a definite, clear statement so all 011 the
bridge know that the conn has changed hands, make any security calls,
and proceed.
In the past, there have been attempts to regulate a long and rathe*
onerous exchange and even some consideration for requiring ships to an-
chor or otherwise delay proceeding until that exchange is completed.
These proposals by regulatory agencies are unnecessary if the pilot and
master provide a full and proper exchange for a given port 011 a voluntary
basis. It is in the best interest of the ship's officer, master, and pilot to
make sure complete information is passed relevant to the ship's passage.
Some pilot associations have adopted forms specific to the port to facili-
tate this information exchange. These pilot forms are generally more ef-
fective than the more generic company forms that must fit all ports at
which the company's ships call. The pilot forms contain specific informa-
tion needed by the master and pilot for the intended passage. The Ameri-
can Pilots' Association and the state associations have been active in this
area so the pilot-master exchange is now widely accepted and common-
place.'
POSTING OF MANEUVERING CHARACTERISTICS
The applicable sections of the Code of Federal Regulations arc excerpted
to show the information required on the posted card, and the minimum in-
formation that should be presented to the pilot on the recommended wal-
let-size card. Several other items should also be included, such as the
ship's length, beam, displacement, horsepower; the distance from the
bridge to the bow and stern; distance from the bridge at which visibility is
restricted; the present draft; and a check-off list showing the operating
condition of the engine, radar, and other navigational equipment; the bow
thruster; and any other items pertinent to your particular vessel.
The information required by law is general in nature and is for deeper
water than the pilot would ordinarily be interested in. Since the data is for
specific conditions and is too often based on analytical calculations or
moaei tests, it is of limited use at best. Here again, it is obvious that the
master should collect his own data based on actual trials that he will have
conducted at the earliest available opportunity after taking command of a
GMaster-Pilot Exchange, A Position Paper, International Maritime Pilots'
Association, February 5, 1997.
44 ARRIVAL
new vessel. Since there have been so few actual trials under shallow water
conditions, any data derived by calculation, or from simulations based on
such calculations, should only be considered as being a good approxima-
tion of a vessel's performance. As more tests are conducted, such as the
aforementioned El Paso Marine Company and Esso Osaka tests, there will
be more valid data available. Hopefully more complete shallow water tests
will be conducted in the near future for other classes of ships, as well.
As stated in the Code of Federal Regulations:
Aboard each . . ocean and coastwise tankship of 1,600 gross tons or
over, the following maneuvering information must be prominently dis-
played," etc. in the pilothouse on a fact sheet.
(1) For full and half speed, a turning circle diagram to port and starboard
that shows the time and the distance of advance and transfer re-
quired to alter the course 90 degrees with maximum rudder angle and
constant power settings.
(2) The time and distance to stop .he vessel from full and half speed while
f
maintaining approximately the initial heading with minimum appli-
cation of rudder.
(3) For each vessel with a fixed propeller, a table of shaft revolutions per
minute for a representative range of speeds.
(4) For each vessel with a controllable pitch propeller, a table of control
settings for a representative range of speeds. .
(5) For each vessel that is fitted with an auxiliary device to assist in ma-
neuvering, such as a bow thruster, a table of vessel speeds at which
the auxiliary device is effective in maneuvering the vessel.
(6) The maneuvering information must be provided for the normal load
and normal ballast condition for:
(i) Calm weatherwind 10 knots or less, calm sea;
(ii) No current;
(iii) Deep water conditionswater depth twice the vessel's draft or
greater; and
(iv) Clean hull.
(7) At the bottom of the fact sheet, the following statement must appear:
WARNING
The response of the (name of vessel) may be dilferent from those listed
above if any of the following conditions, upon which the maneuvering in-
formation is based, are varied:
(1) Calm weatherwind 10 knots or less, calm sea;
POSTING OF MANEUVERING CHARACTERISTICS 45
(2) No current;
(3) Water depth twice the vessel's draft or greater;
(4) Clean hull; and
(5) Intermediate drafts or unusual trim.
* * *
(8) The information on the fact sheet must be:
(i) Verified six months after the vessel is placed in service; or
(ii) Modified six months after the vessel is placed into service and
verified within three months thereafter.
(9) The information that appears on the fact sheet may be obtained from:
(i) Trial trip observations;
(ii) Model tests;
(iii) Analytical calculations;
(iv) Simulations;
(v) Information established from another vessel of similar hull form,
power, rudder and propeller, or
(vi) Any combination of the above.
The accuracy of the information in the fact sheet required is that at-
tainable by ordinary shipboard navigation equipment.
(10) The requirements for information for fact sheets for specialized craft
such as semisubmersibles, hydrofoils, hovercraft, and other vessels of
unusual dcaign will be specified on a case-by-case basis.
When you are sure that the pilot is fully briefed, then, and only then,
can the conn be turned over to him. For some reason, it is the custom
aboard too many ships to have the ship on full ahead and On the general
heading for the channel when the pilot gets to the bridge. The turnover of
the conn then consists of, "She is on full and heading 330, pilot." Too many
masters think that the faster the changeover takes place, the more profes-
sionally it. has been done. Ridiculous! And that is just how the pilot in-
volved in such a turnover feels about it. Give the pilot sufficient time to get
his eyes adjusted to the night, gather all the needed information, and then
turn the-.-onr. over to him. A professional is never in a hurry to do anything
aboard ship, yet more often than not aboard the merchant ships of most
nationalities this hurried evulution takes place. It has taken you two
weeks to get to this port. What is five more minutes?

CHAPTER TWO
SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
Seamen, with their inherent sense of order,, service, and
discipline, should really be running the world.
Anonymous
The squall passed as suddenly as it had arrived and all that remained was
the mist rising off the hot, wet deck. Only a few minutes ago we had been
feeling our way up the winding river channel as the driving rain blinded
those on the bridge. The pilot had navigated primarily by radar, alternat-
ing between that equipment and the forward wheelhouse windows where
he pcerea through the heavy rain to verify what he was seeing on the scope.
Never was a voice raised, as courses and engine speeds were given to keep
the ship in the channel, and this display of skill and confidence was appre-
ciated by alt on the bridge.
The aura of professionalism that surrounded this pilot's actions is as
much a product of experience and attitude as it is the result of technical
training and skill. It is essential that all seagoing professionals develop
this aspect of iheir work along with their technical snills. Professionalism
is a learned trait, qualitative in nature and difficult to define. We have all
observed, the shipmaster or pilot who is obviously in command of a situa-
tion, a person who is a professional, and the manner in which he performed
his work was, of itself, a definition of professionalism.
Because of the uniqueness of the seagoing environment and of the sea-
man's work, the "showboating" often resorted to in other professions to
impress one's peers and superiors is out of place aboard ship. Decision-
making committees and the substitution of rhetoric for content are mecha-
nisms that can be used to hide inability in some fields. Not so aboard ship.
Here you must be competent and confident about your work, and any lacn
of skill will become evident in a short time. Further, you must also appear
competent to those you ivork with so they too have confidence in your skills
and respond without the delay or questioning that leads to confusion.
Since professionalism cannot be. learned from a book, those who teach
at the various maritime academies and schools, and more importantly, the
<1(5
DANK EFFECTS 47
senior officers aboard ship, have a responsibility to nurture its develop-
ment among younger officers just starting out in their careers. This offers a
significant challenge in cm era when it is fashionable to denigrate tradi-
tional skills and quiet competence. Demand professionalism from all
aboard. Ships cannot function properly without a singular high standard
of performance end sense of responsibility.
BANK EFFECTS
In the portion of a river where the channel narrows, the ship begins feeling
the steep bank close on the starboard hand. She wants to sheer to port as
the combination of suction on the starboard quarter and, to a lesser de-
gree, the cushion of water built up between the ship's starboard bow and
the bank become more strongly felt. The problem is compounded when it is
necessary to siow the ship; tne rudder loses some effectiveness as the flow
of water is reduced, while the suction at the stern, which is primarily a fac-
tor of the ship's speed through the water, remains s:rong. The ship mu.'-t
be moved further from the bank and the rudder angle increased.
But what if the ship gets so close to the bank that she starts to sheer
across the channel? Don't reduce engine speed, because at this point the
rudder needs to be as effective as possible and any reduction in the ship's
speed that might result from a change in engine revolutions will be negli-
gible in such a short period of time. Rather, let the head fall a few degrees
off course across; the channel while maintaining some rudder angle to-
ward the near bank, and increase engine speed so the flow of water past the
rudder increases significantly. When the heading has changed a few de-
grees toward the center of the channel, increase the rudder angle toward
the near bank to first check the swing, and then to bring the ship back on
course as she reaches the center of the channel, or at least reaches a dis-
tance from the closer bank that will allow her to be steered safely. Only af-
ter getting away from the bank should the engine speed be reduced so the
ship loses some headway and the tendency to take a shaer is reduced. It is
obvious that a ship should not proceed in a narrow channel at full maneu-
vering speed, since she would not have any revolutions in reserve should
tney be required.
Remember too that a ship wants to move closer to a bank, due to the in-
creased flow of water and the resultant reduced pressure along her side
closest to the bank. For reasons explained by Signore Bernoulli, a ship
wants to move laterally toward a closer bank even though her heading is
parallel to it. Either keep the ship headed at some small angle away from
48 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
the hank or hold her in the center of the channel when not meeting another
vessel.
As is oointed out again and again in this text, the forces acting on a ship
can often be put to your advantage, making an aid of what seems to the
nonmariner to be a hazard. When making a turn, a bank can be put close
enough to the quarter to cause the ship to sheer in the direction of the turn
and thus make a turn that she otherwise could not navigate, or at least
could not navigate at the speed that is possible using these forces. As an
example, there are turns in the Gaillard Cut in the Panama Canal that
theoretically cannot be negotiated by many ships without tug assistance
and yet ships have been making these turns easily throughout the life of
the Canal with the aid of bank suction. If your ship should transit the Pan-
ama Canal or another narrow waterway, watch the rudder angle indicator
and the position of the ship and you will find the ship going around many
turns with the rudder amidships. A seaman routinely uses learned skills
to turn potential hazards into aids, both in close water and offshore.
This same bank suction can also assist a ship to pass another vessel in
a narrow channel, to locate the center of a channel in times of limited visi-
bility, or to make routine maneuvers, as long as it is planned and allowed
for. Keep in mind, though, that speed must be restricted so the ship can
come ahead if the sheer should become greater than desired.
Fig. 2-1. "The quiet manner in which the pilot, went about his work
TIDE AND Ct'KRENT 40
PLANNING AHEAP
Once again we see the importance of planning ahead to use natural
forces to advantage. Thinking ahead and planning maneuvers based on
an understanding of the forces acting on the ship, much like a chess mas-
ter who wins by planning several moves at one time so they follow in a
logical order, is essential if a ship is to be moved efficiently and safely.
The pro:ess of thinking several steps ahead underlies every maneuver
discussed in this text. Its importance in your development as an excel-
lent shiphandler, rather than just as an acceptable shiphandler, cannot
be exaggerated.
Und erstand ship behavior, properly reduce ship's speed, use existing
conditions and forces to advantage to assist the ship's rudder and engine
in maneuvering and, most important, think ahead of the ship so that she is
reacting to your orders rather than your orders being given in reaction to
the ship's behaviorthese are the basics of excellent shiphandling. Think
ahead of your ship at all times.
TIDE AND CURRENT
Many rivers cannot be negotiated by larger ships without a fair tide since
a head current hinders them in making turns. As shown in figure 2-2, a
fair current helps the stern around u bend when it strikes the quarter, so
the stern comes around at a greater rate. At the same time the bow is as-
sisted by the eddy currents reflected out of the bend and the lack of current
on the bow on the point side of the bend. In contrast, for a given speed over
the bottom, a ship stemming a tide has a greater flow of water passing be-
tween her and the bank, retarding the stern's motion around a turn and
forcing the bow and ship bodily towards the bank (fig. 2-2).
Since a ship that is closer to the bottom is more difficult to control, high
water makes the pilot's job easieraside from just putting enough water
under a deep loaded ship to ensure that she is in the desirable state of be-
ing always afloat! By moving with a rising tide to ensure a fair current and
deeper water, a ship is using both tide and current to her best advantage.
The current changes at each area of a channel at a different time and is
affected by several factors such as freshets resulting from heavy rains
upriver and strong off- or onshore winds so tides may occur at significantly
different times than predicted. Keep a seaman's eye on the current. De-
velop the habit of looking at pilings, buoys, and other fixed objects to
check the actual current against that which has been predicted until the
50 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
practice becomes as natural as breathing. It's the difference between the
neophyte and the professional.
TYPES OF RUDDERS AND PROPULSION SYSTEMS
While the mariner has an academic interest in the characteristics of all
the various types of rudder and propulsion system^ used on ships today,
the shiphandler must first be concerned with how the ship responds to the
system with which she is fitted. He can't change that rudder or engine,
whether or net '.lie ship handles poorly, but must live with the ship as she
is. A practiced shiphandler will know in a very short time how effective the
rudder is and how the ship will respond to varying amounts of rudder an-
gle. Unfortunately, the tendency towards smaller rudders on larger ships
has made the shiphandler's task more difficult.
Again, plan ahead so the rudder and propulsion system can be used as
effectively as possible. Proceed at a moderate speed so greater engine rev-
olutions can be used as needed to increase the flow of water past the rud-
der and thus increase the rudder's effectiveness without creating other
problems. By using the engine in this manner, for only as long as needed to
obtain the desired results, the shiphandler can usually overcome any in-
herent deficiencies in the ship's design. This tactic is particularly effective
'I YPES OF RUDDERS AND PROPULSION SYSTEMS 51
with a diesel ship since immediate, large changes in revolutions can be ob-
tained; a steam turbine ship increases revolutions more slowly and more
caie is necessary to keep the ship's speed down while still controlling
steering. Obviously then, speed is important when steering a ship suffi-
cient headway is needed to make steering possible, yet speed must be kept
down to minimize unwanted hydrodynamic effects and to have sufficient
engine speed in reserve to increase rudder effectiveness when required.
Ships fitted with balanced spade rudders often will not steer when
large rudder angles arc used. A turbulent flow develops over the rudder's
surface so its lifting effect is lost and it stalls. Occasionally a ship is still
designed with such a rudder and all those involved in her design and con-
struction seem surprised when she goes aground early in her life while
trying to negotiate a normal turn. A few years ago, a class of large German
containerships was fitted with such a rudder and suffered several
groundings within a few months. Tug assistance was required so those
ships could make turns that other ships of similar size navigated rou-
tinely. If a ship's profile drawings show a spade rudder, beware of turns re-
quiring the use of more than 5 to 10 degrees of rudder angle. The rudder
may stall, and the loss of effectiveness means that the ship will just con-
tinue along her course as if she had no rudder until she fetches up at some
point where you never intended to be.
Propeller design has a significant effect on the handling characteris-
tics of a ship. The direction of rotation affects the ship's behavior, the di-
rection in which the vessel tends to twist when the engine is put astern,
and the diameter of the turning circle for right and left turns, as discussed
in chapter 1. The size of the propeller affects the stopping and steering
ability of the ship since higher revolutions are required to get a good flow
over the rudder a t reduced speeds when the ship is fitted with a smaller di-
ameter propeller.
The handling characteristics of a ship fitted with a variable-pitch pro-
peller are significantly different from those of a ship with a fixed blade
propeller. Variable-pitch propulsion systems have advantages since a die-
sel engine so fitted does not ha^e to be stopped and restarted to go astern,
and an almost infinite choice of speeds is available. Further, you can go
astern indefinitely, which isn't possible with a turbine-driven ship, and,
unlike a conventional motor ship, you can change the direction of pro-
pu'sion repeatedly without being concerned about exhausting the sup-
ply of starting air. These advantages have at times been used as a basis
for recommending that VLCCs be fitted with this type of propulsion. The
52 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
drawbacks should also be considered, however, belore deciding whether
variable-pitch propulsion is as desirable as claimed:
1. When reducing the speed of a ship fitted with a variable-pitch pro-
peller, the fiow of water past the rudder is significantly disrupted
unless the pitch is reduced very gradually. The adverse effect on
steering is significant. The propeller cannot safely be put at zero
pitch tc reduce the ship's headway since this completely disrupts
the needed flow of water to the rudder.
2. A variable-pitch propeller going astern is less effective than a con-
ventional propeller. This compounds the aforementioned steering
problems since, because it is more difficult to drift the way off a ship
fitted with a variable-pitch propeller, it is often necessary to use the
engine astern for longer periods of time to stop her.
When approaching a berth, lock, or pilot station, it is therefore neces-
sary to start slowing a ship equipped with this type of propeller sooner than
would be required with a conventional propeller, and to then use minimum
pitch to steer at slow speed once headway is sufficiently reduced.
Since a variable pitch propeller is normally turning at high RPM, even
when in position and stopped at the berth at zero pitch, be sure to keep
stern lines clear of the water when docking. Inform linehandlers on the
dock that this is necessary, as a line can become fouled in this rapidly
turning propeller in an amazingly short period of time. A tug working at
the stern must also be cautioned.
DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS
In collaboration with Captain Paul lues and Captain Earl R. McMillin
More ships and tugs are being built with new types of propulsion and rud-
der configurations including the Voith-Schneider and Shottel systems
used primarily for tugs and self-propelled barges and Azipod propulsion
systems being used at this time primarily for passenger vessels, a few
tankers, and some special-purpose vessels such as ice breakers.
These omnidirectional drives make a vessel highly maneuverable and.
for ships, they make it possible to operate more safely in restricted waters
and call at marginal ports under conditions not previously possible.
Schedule keeping is improved and operating expenses for port calls are re-
duced since fewer tugs are required.
DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS 53
Advantages
Th is is primarily a text on handling oceangoing ships so this discussion of
omnidirectional propulsion will focus on the uses of a generic Azipod sys-
tem rather than other omnidirectional systems that are more commonly
used on smaller vessels. There are more similarities than differences be-
tween the various omnidirectional systems so, with a few exceptions, any
discussion of advantages, disadvantages, standardized terminology, and
commands for Azipod systems also apply to other omnidirectional propul-
sion systems.
There are some obvious advantages that make omnidirectional sys-
tems particularly attractive for passenger vessels and, to a lesser extent,
some other special-purpose ships.
Electric generators power the Azipod system and the drive motors
are located at the stern outside the hull. This gives the naval archi-
tect some freedom in design.
Machinery is located in more appropriate areas within the ship's
hull so high-revenue spaces are available for staterooms and pas-
senger services.
A shaft is not required to transmit power to the propeller.
The system is inherently quieter so noise is reduced in all areas of
the ship.
The system is safer because the engine does not have to be stopped
and reversed to go astern. This eliminates the risk of losing engine
power that is always present when conventional diesel engines do
not restart while maneuvering ahead and astern.
Air compressors can be significantly smaller since the engine will
not be repeatedly stopped and restarted.
The ships are highly maneuverable because the drives arc variable
speed and directional with controls for twin drives that can be split in
Harbor moce so power is applied in two directions simultaneously.
These and other advantages are obvious to experienced mariners who
maneuver ships fitted with Az pod propulsion and similar systems.
;
Concerns
There are also potential problems stemming from the manner in which
Azipods are sometimes operated. Those problems are not inherent to the
55
SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
Azipod system. They stem primarily from improper application, and they
can be minimized if shipowners and operators accept the potential nega-
tives and deal with them in a constructive manner. Some of the more im-
portant concerns include:
The power and maneuverability of Azipad systems create the illu-
sion that ti'aditional shiphandling skills and the practice of good
seamanship are less important with these new systems.
Terminology for various equipment, operating modes, and maneu-
vers must be standardized industry wide so officers, crews, pilots,
and others who maintain and operate the systems speak a common
language.
The plethora of Azipod configurations makes the system unneces-
sarily complicated to operate if the shiphandler attempts to use ail
possible positiors instead of adopting a few standard configura-
tions.
The potential for single-person operation to steer and maneuver
creates a very real risk that the concepts of bridge resource man-
agement will be ignored.
Computer-assisted operation oft.be Azipod system can be used in-
appropriately to dock, undock. and maneuver in restricted waters.
There is also some expectation that Azipod systems will be more ex-
pensive to maintain due to both the cost of repairs to the system and
lost time when a ship is out of service for maintenance.
There is a real concern that traditional shiphandling and seaman-
ship skills will be lost as officers serve aboard ships fitted with
highly powered and maneuverable omnidirectional systems.
Each of these points is discussed in more detail in the following para-
graphs.
An Excellent Aid, but Recognize Limits
It is possible to use brute power to maneuver Azipod vessels into situa-
tions that no skilled shiphandler would accept. The problems that inevita-
bly occur when high horsepower replaces good seamanship can be masked
when shiphandlers use the system continuously at full or near full oower.
This occurs most commonly when less experienced ship's officers operate
the system. It is particularly common when using the joystick and com-
puter input. Skilled mariners and pilots never work a ship at its maxi-
53
DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS
mum, and they always have options as they maneuver, dock, or undock
When the ship is put into situations that require continuous use of the
thruster and engine it half and full engine, the ship is at risk.
Unfortunately, less experienced shiphandlers often fail to recognize
when this point is reached until wind or current increases further or the
ship is setting down on an adjacent vessel and they find they have no re-
serve power or options. All systems are operating at their maximum and,
very quickly, an apparently routine docking or undocking becomes a cer-
tain accident. Skilled shiphandlers would never do that since they plan
ahead and always have options for maneuvering if the wind increases or
shifts, currents are stronger than anticipated, or other conditions change.
Experienced masters and pilots bringing conventional ships alongside
a dock while repeatedly using engine revolutions for half and full ahead
and astern know instinctively there is a problem. Rapid and repeated
changes in engine and thruster at higher revolutions are often the first in-
dication that an Azipod vessel is at risk. The computer will attempt to ful-
fill any instruction, right or wrong, using every tool available until there
are no additional options available regardless of the consequences. Rapid
changes,... higher power,..., use of every asset with maximum and rapid
rudder movements as the computer attempts to complete an order are all
signs the ship is being put in jeopardy.
Shiphandlers should reevaluate any maneuver if engines and
thruster must be used at half or full power for more than occa-
sional short periods of time as the ship approaches a dock or ma-
neuvers in close quarters.
This may sound like common sense but, unfortunately, anecdotal in-
formation from pilots and mariners indicates this practice is increasingly
common while maneuvering this generation of Azipod ships. It is incum-
bent upon shipowners and shiphandling instructors to stress that ships
are ships and the Azipod system is an improved shiphandling tool. The
same practices of good seamanship and shiphandling that apply to other
types of ships also apply to ships equipped with Azipod propulsion systems.
Design and Controls
The design and controls may differ from ship to ship but the design is basi-
cally the same. Pods containing electric drives are fitted at the stern of a
vessel. The pods are rotated 3G0 degrees so the direction of thrust can be
56 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
changed and even reversed by rotating the pod or reversing the direction
and speed of the propeller mounted at the forward end of the pod. The ex-
ternal electric drive receives power from the ship's diesel generators. A
typical installation is shown in figure 2-3.
Some installations also have a fixed pod on the centerline. Naval archi-
tects and builders have plans for other modifications of this Azipod design
that include having a propeller on both ends, one pulling and one pushing.
There are also designs that use a conventional shaft and propeller with a
pod immediately astern of that propeller. In port the pod acts as a stern
thruster.
Azipods are controlled in seveial ways. Typical controls include non-
follow-up lever controls, conventional wheel with throttle controls, large
knobs, and combination controls that simultaneously rotate to determine
the direction of thrust and move forward and aft to apply more or less
power and determine the direction of propeller rotation.
Most systems also have a joystick control to change the orientation of
the pod and the drive motor speed and thus the direction and thrust of the
propeller. The systems can be controlled by a helmsman at a conventional
Fig. 2-3. Typical Azipod propelled ship. Courtesy Kvaerner-Mass Yards.
DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS 53
helm stand, or by the officer on watch, or a conning officer operating the
system from a console, with or without computer assistance (fig. 2-1 J.
Use of Standard Terminology
The systems have various operating modes. Terminology to describe the
arrangements and modes varies from one manufacturer and vessel opera-
tor to another although most can be broken down to an "open water" or
"cruise" At Sea mode, a Harbo" or maneuvering mode, and a Docking
mode for use when actually going alongside or leaving a berth. The modes
can be further categorized as automatic or manual.
Typical modes and commands in use include: 1
Company A Company H
Company C
1. Call Combi (Cruise) 1. Open Sea (At Sea) 1. Maneuvering high
2. Separate RPM (Cruise) 2. Maneuver Direct (At 2. Maneuvering low,
Sea) port, or starboard
3. Call Azimuth (Maneuver) 3. AzimenPort or 3. Joystick (Cruise or
starboard (Maneuver) Maneuver)
4. Call Joystick Dynamic 4. Joystick(At Sea or
Positioning (Maneuver) maneuver)
a. High speed
b. Low speed
The language of the sea was developed out of necessity so mariners
could give orders, provide instruction, and operate systems safely and ef-
fectively as they moved from ship to ship and company to company. Need-
less variations that reflect the designer's whim more than any actual
diffei"ence in operations serve no purpose. Some standardization of termi-
nology is particularly important given the increasingly international mix
of ship's crews and owners. The ship's bow shou'd be called the bow re-
gardless of which company operates the ship.
The sooner the industry accepts a standard nomenclature for this inno-
vative propulsion system, the better, since training and operations are
hindered when mariners refer to the same controls and modes by different
names as they move from one ship to another. There are enough similari-
ties in modes that general terms can be used in any discussion focusing on
these systems from the viewpoint of operation and shiphandling.
1 Information from chart by Larry ReimerRTM STAR Center.
59 53
SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS

For the purpose of this text, there are three modes: "At S>>a," "Harbor,"
and "Docking' with minimal configurations in each mode. The At Sea and
Harbor modes are further categorized cs automatic or manual.
Minimize Modes of Operation
Good seamanship requires adopting standard modes of operation for most
situations and describing those modes using terminology accepted indus-
try-wide. Once that is done, it is also possible to take the next step in the
evolving operation of Azipods and adopt standard conning orders so the
ship can be maneuvered from any location on the bridge by a shiphandler
or pilot no longer confined to standing ever the control console.
Modes and procedures for Azipod operation currently vary in several
ways from company to company. For example, some owners encourage the
systems be used in all possible modes, positions, and power settings re-
gardless of how redundant some positions might be or bow confusing the
operation might become. Other shipowners and manufacturers limit
Azipod position and power to a few options. The latter policy is based on
Fig. 2-4. A typical Azipod control console with various steering, engine, the premise that many arrangements have the same net effect on vessel
ana thi-uster controls plus instrumentation. Courtesy RTM STAR Center. movement.
Operation can be kept simple without compromising the advantages of
the system. Some ship operators have already adopted the policy with
notable success. The validity of this approach is demonstrated when skilled
shiphandlers and pilots are training on bridge simulatois. Without coach-
ing or direction, these experienced shiphandlers quickly evolve to the same
basic configurations for the Azipod drives because they recognize from ex-
perience the most effective operation for a particular situation.
A u t o m a t i c I dent i fi c a t ion At Sea Mode (Sometimes Called the Cruise or Open Sea Mode)
Azipods
B o w R a d a r
When operating in open water in the "at sea" mode
DGPS A n t e n n a
SATE.L_L.tTe COMMUN l CATION The rotation of the pod is limited to 35 degrees to port and starboard
StA&ILlZElRr. of the centorline.
S t e r n R a d a r
Full power is available.
Th r u s t e r s
Pod movement is synchronized so pods move in unison.
T V r^lONlTORS
The pods, and thus the ship, can be steered using the helm, wheel,
mini-wheel, autopilot, or differential positioning system.
Fig. 2-5. ''No matter how many bells and whistles she has, lads, she is Power At Sea is about double the horsepower available while maneu-
still a ship." vering in the Harbor mode. The pods are synchronized to move together
60 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
and power is reduced to zero ifoperators attempt to rotate the drives to an-
gles greater than 35 degrees from the centerline.
Harbor (or Maneuvering) Mode
There are some variations among systems but when most Azipods are in
the "harbor" .mode
Power is reduced to approximately 50% of the power available at
sea.
The pods can be rotated 360 degrees.
The pods can be rotated independently and be used at different and
totai variable angles (there are exceptions with systems that allow
only one pod to be rotated).
Steering is done by pod control, combi-controls, differential posi-
tioning system, joystick, nonfollow-up steering, and by varying rev-
olutions of the port and starboard engines ahead and astern.
Basic Configurations
Based on watching the experienced shiphandlers at work, there is good
basis for limiting Azipod operation to a few configurations, three-to-four
in most cases. Those configurations are changed only periodically as con-
ditions change, that is, the shiphandler will use one configuration for open
channels, another for approaching the berth, and a third for going along-
side. They will probably adopt one or two others for special situations but,
in any case, the modes are minimized.
As previously stated, some basic configurations were adopted based on
pilots using the systems in varying situations. Interestingly, these are the
same positions described in a pamphlet distributed by Electronic and Ma-
rine Research. Other configurations are described in that publication but it
2 This is true in all modes although the concept is first encountered in the
is interesting that experienced pilots quickly evolved to the same configura-
tions described by Electronics & Marine Research Industries (EMRI). This
is not a coincidencethere are good reasons to select these configurations.
Keep in mind while discussing these configurations that the prope'ler
is on the forward end of the pod and turning ahead as indicated by the ar-
rows when the pods are operating in the normal position.
1 Steering Control Systems for Azipod, Electronic and Marine Research,
Ilerlev, Denmark, 1998, pg. 4.
53
DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Configuration til (At Sea ModeJ
In open water the pods are placed parallel to the centerline and moved to-
gether in a synchronized mode much as rudders are moved with conven-
tional ships (fig. 2-6).
Note that steering using Azipods is very similar to steering with an out-
board motor or tiller since the pod is turned to port to turn the ship to star-
board.,3
This lakes some thought at first when using the lever or combi-control
since the wheel has been used for so long to steer a ship. Wheel commands
were standardized for merchant ships many years ago so a rudder com-
mand "right ten" means to put the wheel to the right to move the ship's head
to starboard. With the Azipod system, the pod follows the control. The pod is
turned to port, which moves the stern to port and the ship's head to star-
board, so the ship turns to starboard. This operation quickly becomes intu-
itive when the shiphandler accepts the concept that the steering control
and the pod are tiller controls so steering a ship with the Azipod in this con-
figuration is exactly like steering a small l>oat with an outboard. The opera-
tor moves the handle of an outboard to port to turn the boat to starboard.
open channel when the pod configuration in figure 2-6 is being used.
Cot!figuration if2 (Harbor Mode:
In this configuration, the pods are placed at 45 degrees in opposition to
each other. The propeller setting is changed to maneuver while the pod re-
mains in this fixed position. The arrangement is particularly useful at
slow speeds in open channels and anchorages 'fig. 2-7).
3STAIi Center Azipod Ucture Material, Captain Paul Ives, Instructor RTM
STAR Center, Dania, Florida, February 2002.
62 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
Fig. 2-7. Harbor Mode configuration #2.
An instructor at the RTM STAR Center, a facility where many passen-
ger shipmasters and pilots are trained, refers to this arrangement as the
"bicycle mode." This term is quite descriptive of the manner in which
4
ships are handled in this arrangement. For example, the port control is
moved ahead and the starboard control is pulled back to turn the ship's
head to starboard. This is the same motion as the handlebars of a bicycle
where the left side moves forward as the right side is moved back to turn
the bicycle to the right. The two handles are in line, that is, the setting of
both propellers is the same, to move straight just as the handlebars of a bi-
cycle would be in line when moving straight ahead. The angle of the pods
also helps stabilize the ship at slow speeds and, by increasing the setting
of one pod only, the stern can be held against a wind to assist in keeping
the ship on a desired heading at slow speeds.
There is some dispute over the usefulness of this configuration. Ship-
handlers are using this aTangement less often and some companies are rec-
ommending against using Azipods in this manner. Mariners report some
difficulty in maintaining course in narrow channels because Azipods have so
much power that even small changes in settings can cause unacceptable
changes in heading. At the same time, many pilots seem to like this configura-
tion when proceeding at slow speeds. The information is oifered so ship-
handlers can try this configuration and decide for themselves whether the
configuration is useful, as has been the theory, or that the parallel pod ar-
rangement with conventional steering should be used all the way to the berth.
Configuration (Docking Mode)
The shiphandler orders the Docking mode at an appropriate time as the
ship approaches the dov:k. The pod closest to the berth, that is, the port pod
4STAR Center Azipod Lecture Material, Captain Joseph Lobo, Instructor RTM
STAR Centei, Dania, Florida, February 2002.
DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS 53
Fig. 2-8. Docking Mode configuration #3.
when docking port side to, is set parallel to the centerline. The pod away
from the berth, the outboard pod, is put in a three o'clock position relative
to the centerline (fig. 2-8). In this position the fore and aft unit is used to
move the ship ahead and astern. The unit at right angles to the centerline
acts as a powerful stern thruster to both steer and move the stern toward
or away from the berth by moving the stern to starboard or port. In con-
junction with the bow thruster, the ship is turned, moved ahead toward
the berthing position, and turned to move into the open dock area and to-
ward the berth. Handling is simplified and intuitive and the ship is always
under control with this arrangement.
Standardized Commands and Conning
The multiplicity of pod configurations is an engineer's dream but a
shiphandlers nightmare. It would be impressive butillogical to discuss all
the configurations and nuances possible with Azipods or to try and use
them. There are several advantages to limiting and standardizing the pod
position including the fact that standard commands can then be adopted.
Pilots using Azipods at the RTM STAR simulator tried various meth-
ods and commands for conning a ship while standing away from the con-
sole. In other words, they took the Azipod system to the final stage of
development by integrating the controls into proper ship operations. Two
methods were used to conn the ship. Both work well.
In configuration #1, steering and engine commands are given in the
same manner as done for conventional ships.
In configurations #2 and #3, the pods were positioned by degrees or
clock positions relative to the bow and engine orders are given in percent-
age of power ahead or astern.
For example, commands might be port engine at ten o'clock, twenty
percent power ahead; starboard engine at two o'clock, twenty percent
power ahead. The ship is then steered by increasing or decreasing power
65
SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
on the two engines as previously described. The ship would be turned to
starboard by a command "port engine 50 percent ahead; starboard engine
ten percent ahead."
Some pilots use standard engine commands of dead slow, slow, half
and full ahead and astern while configuring the pods and thus the direc-
tion of thrust using relative headings. In that case, the port engine is at
315 degrees, half power; starboard engine is at 45 degrees, half power.
More important than the terminology used is the fact that the orders are
standardized and spoken. Once standard commands are adopted, it is no
longer necessary for the conning officer to stand and operate the controls
in a manner that violates all accepted principles of bridge resource man-
agement. The bridge ere .v and pilot work as a team to safely move the ship
once commands and configurations are standardized.
A good case can be made to us q percentage offull power rather than con-
ventional engine orders since power applied through the electric drives in
the pods is totally variable. At the same time, there are advantages to us-
ing clock positions for Azipod configuration since relative headings for the
pod can be confused with compass and ship's headings while maneuvering
in restricted waters.
Based on observations of pilots and experience using the Azipod sys-
tem, recommended standard commands are
1. Engine commands use percentage of power from zero to 100 in a for-
ward or reverse direction in both the At Sea and Harbor modes.
2. Conventional rudder commands in degrees to port and starboard
are used and executed using a standard wheel-type control at sea.
3. Pod configuration use clock settings relative to the ship's bow in the
Harbor mode where engines are used primarily in fixed positions.
Azipods evolve to the next level for ship operation when standard com-
mands and configurations are adopted. The conning officer is relieved
from distracting steering responsibilities. The bridge crew is again work-
ing as a team in compliance with internationally accepted standards for
bridge resource management with the pilot or conning officer in control of
navigation.
Computer Control
A computer-controlled option is available in all modes. Controls for the au-
tomated or computer-controlled mode differ from one shipowner and man-
53
DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS
ufacturer to another but all are similar. Most are controlled by a joystick
for input of desired resultant power, speed, and direction of vessel move-
ment. The system's computer translates joystick input to engine speed,
pod rotation, and bow thruste-orders in the manner determined by pre-
programmed algorithms.
Shiphandlers must remember they are controlling resultant power,
speed, and vessel movement, not actual revolutions and direction of
thruster, engine, and rudder movements.
Automated controls are not new for open water since gyro-controlled
steering has taken ships from port to port for half a century. Computer
control for Azipod operation in harbor conditions is obviously more com-
plex and it should be used with some care.
Interestingly, experienced masters, mates, and pilots are more cautious
about computer-controlled operation than less experienced ship's officers.
Skilled shiphandlers, be they shipmasters, officers, or pilots, are
trained to plan ahead and be proactive. Computer-controlled systems are
reactive. This difference is important. No matter how quickly the system
detects and reacts to wind shifts or set. the system cannot anticipate and
plan ahead based on past experience and local knowledge. The best sys-
tems detect leeway and set almost instantly, but they are still reacting
rather than anticipating, as a trained shiphandler would do.
Experienced shiphandlers consider crew skills, anticipate external
forces and known hazards, and know what works and what does not work
in a particular situation based on experience over a period of years. They
also adhere to the concept of "most efficient maneuvers" and use a mini-
mum of commands and maneuvers to accomplish a task. Computer-con-
trolled systems will overwork engine and steering to power through a
maneuver that experienced shiphandlers would avoid. In the computer's
rather simplistic universe, there are engines, thrusters, and existing ex-
ternal forces, period. High power and overuse of the engine and thruster
compensate for the limitations of computer controls and, unfortunately,
create the previously discussed illusion that ships can move safeK in re-
stricted waters with computer input and a joystick.
At the risk of being repetitive, it is stressed that shiphandlers must
master essential, specialized skills before docking a ship in close quarters
regardless of the system used. Some will argue this point, just as they once
argued that bow thrusters made tugs obsolete and bridge control elimi-
nated the engineer on watch, but time will prove that computer controls do
not make shiphandlers out of inexperienced deck officers with little
67 53
SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS

shiphandling experience and no local knowledge. At the same time, in the
hands of an experienced deck officer these are very helpful tools while
moving the ship toward a berth. The computer controls are an additional
aid to the shiphandlera sophisticated tool, but an aid only.
One Ship Length Rule
Pilots and experienced mariners are learning from experience to limit the
use of computer-controlled systems with wide agreement that the system
should not be used near docks and fixed objects. At a minimum, good sea-
manship seems to support a "one ship length rule" to aecide when to change
from automatic to manual control.
The computer often applies power in an unpredictable manner. Lines
are parted when the computer attempts to move a ship laterally rather
than at one end only. Most systems allow the pivot point to be shifted to al-
low for this maneuver, but the system becomes progressively less auto-
mated as the pilot makes more of these adjustments. As one pilot with
experience handling Azipod vessels stated, "You find yourself trying to
outguess and cor-ect the computer." 1
may change as programming and input to the systems becomes more so-
phisticated.
Bridge Resource Management and fjzipods
Azipods are more than just a refinement. They are a breakthrough tech-
nology that reache3 its full potential when expectations arc realistic and
sound shipboard practices are followed with minimal modifications. Hav-
ing a single person standing at the console handling the engines, thruster,
and steering to bring the ship directly to a berth or anchorage is clearly not
one of those modifications. Unfortunately, this has become a common
practice aboard too many ships where the pilot becomes an adjunct, an ad-
visor, to the bridge team and the mates stand aside while keeping records
and providing support with little or no knowledge of what is being done or
the details of any passage or docking plans.
The practice totally disregards the importance of local knowledge and
the principles of bridge resource management when entering a channel,

One pilot compared computer control to having an apprentice pilot

aboard. The apprentice handles the ship but the experienced pilot is con-
stantly monitoring the apprentice and using skills learned through expe-
rience to undo the mistakes of the apprentice. It is usually easier and safer
to do the job yourself. There is a reason to do the extra work to train an ap-
prentice, but it is difficult to rationalize the same effort to supervise a com-
puter. Automatic controls are an advance in an anchorage or when using
adaptive autopilot at sea but the "one ship length rule" is good seamanship
when docking or undocKing.
As previously discussed, pilots see an increasing number of situations
where ships are put into risky positions because the computer does not
know when an ordered maneuver is unsafe or inappropriate. At some
point, professional skills must override the computer-assisted system,
and pilots and deck officers are learning that point is reached early in a
maneuver.
The "one ship length rule" for shifting off computer controls seems rea-
sonable except in the most basic conditions. Obviously, pilots and ships' of-
ficers may want to shift to manual controls long before that point. This
Fig. 2-9. "The Captain says Azipods are magic so we never know what
' Captain Earl 11. McMillin, Canaveral Pilots' Association, December 6, 2003.
,r tricks he is pulling out of his hat."
68 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
anchoring, docking, or undocking. Bridge Resource Management (BRM)
is based on situational awareness, a shared mental model, a plan, the
learned practice of thinking ahead of the ship, and feedback from the en-
tire bridge team that has an active role in support of the conning officer or
pilot. These proven principles that arc so basic to safe, efficient ship opera-
tion are being ignored aboard too many ships with omnidirectional pro-
pulsion systems.
Approximately 90% of all marine accidents occur in restricted waters
because that is when ships are exposed to the greatest hazards. Bridge re-
source management practices are developed to significantly reduce the
human factors that, according to the National Transportation Safety
Board, cause 75% to 80% of those casualties. This includes proper commu-
nications skills, situational awareness, stress, fatigue, and interactive de-
cision-making. Proper bridge organization uses a team of officers to
navigate, monitor ship's progress, steer, and communicate in a manner
that supports the master and pilot who move about the wheelhouse and
bridge wings to maneuver the ship safely and expediently to or from the
dock. The master must get away from the Azipod controls and end the cur-
rent one-man operation that dominates vessel operation with at least tacit
encouragement from shipowners.
BRM establishes minimum manning standards under various condi-
tions. (See chapter 11.) This does not mean the officers and crew should
simply be at stations. They must also be doing meaningful work. If all par-
ties are NOT involved
The one-person operation leads to operation based on a single indi-
vidual's perceptions of a situation based on scanty information with
no input from the officers or pilot at the same time that person is
prone to make errors due to being overloaded.
There is no monitoring of the operator's actions so there is no way to
minimize one-person errors or break the certain to occur "error chain."
There is an imbalance in the workload and no working organization
fo support the master and pilot even though it is impossible for one
person to perform all tasks involved in maneuvering to the berth re-
gardless of how maneuverable the ship might be.
There is a direct relationship between situational awareness and
safety yet, without a traditional bridge organization and standard com-
mands for conning, there is no way for anyone on the bridge to Know what
53
DIRECTIONAL PROPULSION SYSTEMS
is being done to maneuver the ship. As a result, there is no way to check for
single-person errors or break the error chain as long as the master is inde-
pendently moving le\er and adjusting controls without discussion with
a
anyone. There is good reason for giving and repeating conning orders be-
tween parties. Those practices are not anachronisms. They continue for
good reason and the simplistic, unprofessional single-person operation
will result in preventable accidents. It is no way to run a ship!
This excellent propulsion system will not deliver to its full potential as
long as operating policies conllict with sound BRM practices. Some claim
traditional BRM is outmoded because of a plethora of alternative arrange-
ments for the propulsion system and the lack of standard conning com-
mands or commonly used terminology to describe Azipod modes and
operation. This is simply not so. Ships are ships so the practices of good
seamanship and shiphandling skills are as important when handling
ships fitted with directional propulsion systems as any other type of vessel.
Pilot -Master Re la t ionsh ip
There is an additional consideration when discussing the increasingly
common but improper one-man operation that effectively excludes pilot
control of the navigation and maneuvering of the ship. A state-licensed,
compulsory pilot is charged by the licensing authority with the duty to
care for the safety of the vessel, its cargo and crew and, equally important,
with a public responsibility to move the ship from point to point consistent
with federal and state laws and port regulations in a manner that mini-
mizes risk of collision, oil spills, and environmental damage.
Public policy requires the pilot, as a citizen subject to the control and
laws of the host state, to protect the public's interest as well as to provide
shiphandling and pilotage services to the ship. This responsibility is
clearly established by law and precedent and it is inherent in the state pi-
lotage system. This aspect of the pilot's role has been reinforced in an era
when ships are susceptible to external threats ana use as a weapon in
modern terrorist-based warfare.
The pilot must be able to fulfill that responsibility by exercising h.s v r
her final authority to control ship movement in pilot waters. This is not
possible ifofficers atconsoles do whatever they feel is appropriate. In real-
ity, the pilot is not conning when he or she has to find out after the fact
what is being done by looking over the operator's shoulder. Pilots should
consider stopping the ship or going to anchor and reporting the Situation
when they do not have effective and complete control.
70 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
Shiphandling and piloting arc always subject to the traditional pilot-
master relationship with the understanding that a master may relieve the
pilot for appropriate reason but, on a daily basis and barring cause, the pi-
lot has a legal responsibility and authority to control vessel movements
not monitor the actions of others and provide communications.
There must be standard commands and conning practices so the pilot
can fulfill this responsibility to the licensing authority and play his or her
essential role in the pilot-master relationship. (See also chapter 11.)
Lost Shiphandling Skills
Lastly, there is a concern that shiphandling skills traditionally passed
from generation to generation will be lost since Azipod systems allow for
one-man operation with little or no involvement or discussion with junior
officers. Thfc is particularly true when computer-controlled options are
selected during the docking or undocking. Shiphandling skills lost in a
fleet are lost forever and, when a system or system components fails, mas-
ters and pilots will no', have the skills needed to proceed using conven-
tional skills. This is not, an academic problem. It is a real concern so it is in
the best interest of shipowners to ensure that mariners maintain tradi-
tional shiphandling skills.
Deck officeis should also have an opportunity to practice handling
ships with Azipod propulsion in the same manner prescribed elsewhere in
this text for conventional ships. They will have needed skills to maneuver
when an engine or steering motor fails or situations arise where ship-
handling skills are needed. It will happen and officers must be prepared.
There is precedent in maritime law that a ship begins its voyage in an
unseaworthy condition when officers did not receive training in less com-
mon equipment found aboard that vessel. In that case, the impact on lia-
bility limitations makes the additional cost of training look like a bargain
even ignoring the benefits of having fully trained and competent officers
aboard the ship. More training is needed for unconventional vessels of any
type.
EFFECT OF TRIM ON H.vNDLING CHARACTERISTICS
As a ship's trim by the stern increases, she becomes more directionally
stable and her tactical diameter increases. The latter change is minor and
of no practical significance to the shiphandler as long as the drag remains
within practical limits. There is, however, a marked increase in the diam-
eter of the ship's turning circle as the bow comes out of the water.
EFFECT OF TRIM ON HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS 71
From the shiphandler's point of view, assuming there is not an excessively
strong wind on the higher bow, a ship usually steers better as drag increases.
The steering characteristics of a ohip on an even keei vary uepenuing
on the ship's hull form. A ship with a lur e block coefficient steers poorly,
t
tending to be directionally unstable. This condition is amplified if the ship
trims by the head as she enters shallow water. A ship with finer lines may
be directionally stable, or have neutral stability when on an even keel. The
behavior ot a ship with moderate block coefficient can only be determined
by trials since there is insufficient data available at present to allow an ac-
curate prediction of her steering characteristics.
A ship trimmed by the head is directionally unstable for almost all hull
forms. When in this condition the ship requires large amounts of rudder
for excessive periods of time to check her swing. The vessel becomes
cranky and difficult to handle. If she trims by the head in shallow water
the problem is compounded.
Why does a ship behave in this manner when the difleience between
the forward and after drafts decreases? One must look at the immersed
sections of the ship to better understand this phenomenon, and especially
at the location of the sections having the maximum submerged area.
The ship is turning as a result of couples formed at the rudder and
through the center of gravity. One of the forces forming the latter couple is
the imbalance of pressures about the submerged portions of the hull (fig.
2-10). As the ship begins turning, there is a new increase in pressure below
the waterline on the bow away from the center of gravity, that is, the out-
ward bow. This resultant imbalance of forces in that location, forward and
outside of the center of gravity, causes the ship to be directionally unstable.
All ships experience the same imbalance in the initial stages of a turn.
If a ship is trimmed by the stern though, the pressures shut further aft
along the side of the hull as the ship stabilizes in the turn, while the corre-
sponding pressure drop on the quarter on the inboard side of the turn con-
tinues to increase. The resultant couple has then shifted aft of the center
of gravity so the ship becomes directionally stable.
Ships trimmed by the head experience a larger initial positive pressure
at the bow clue to the increase in submerged area forward, while the nega-
tive pressure is reduced at the quarter due to the reduction in submerged
area. The couple therefore remains ahead of the center of gravity
throughout the turn and the ship continues to be directional v unstable.*
1
6 John H. La Dage, Modem Ships, pg 2034.
70
SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
Net pressure on submerged
hull is forward ol Co.
(directionally unstable).
trimmed by stem (diroctionaily stable).
3. Turning at constant rateship
trimmed by head (directionally unstable).
Fig. 2-10. Effect of trim on steering.
This condition is indicated to the shiphandler by the shift forward of
the apparent pivot point of the ship, so the ship seems to pivot about a
point nearer the bow than normally expected, and by the ship wanting to
continue to swing after the rudder is placed amidships.
A large VLCC with full sections forward will experience the same dis-
tribution of pressures in a turn when on an even keel as a finer ship does
when trimmed by the head. Obviously then, if a VLCC is trimmed by the,;
head, she will be even more unstable since the resultant couple is magni-
fied accordingly.
The effect of trim by the head on a vessel's steering can be anticipated
by referring to t he curve of areas of the immersed sections. This cu-ve is
developed by the naval architect by measuring on the ship's line drawings
with a planimeter that portion of the cross-sectional area at each station
72
EFFECT OF TRIM ON HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS
that will be submerged at a particular draft and trim. These areas are
then put into the form of a curve by measuring outward from a baseline a
linear distance equ^.l in units to each station's submerged area. Afi c-r plot-
ting the corresponding point at each station, a curve is faired through, 'he
points. The curve will reach a maximum at that station having the great-
est submerged arearthe location of a vessel's center of buoyancyand as
the vessel is trimmed by the head, the apex of that curve will shift progres-
sively forward. More use should be made of this curve since it is one indica
tion of the changes that can be expected in directional stability of a
particular hull as trim changes. Sample curves should be included with
the ship's stability and trim booklet for use by the ship's officers.
The value of this curve is unfortunately limited at present since, like
all relative indicators, some norms must be established against which the
mariner can compare the curves for his own ship. Hopefully, these norms
will be developed as part of future model, simulator, and trial testing.
Larger ships are being built, with higher block coefficients and a greater-
percentage of their total submerged area in their forward sections, so this
curve and the steering characteristics that it indicates are becoming in-
creasingly important.
With this in inind, what steps must a mariner take to safely handle a
potentially directionally unstable ship? First, she must not be trimmed by
the head. Keep sufficient drag to ensure that the ship maintains positive
directional stability, allowable draft permitting. Second, on a ship with
marginal directional stability, the rudder will have to be used for a longer
period of time to start the vessel swinging, after which large amounts of
rudder are needed for longer periods of time than normally expected to
check a swing. The rudder is put back amidships as soon as the swing be-
gins since the rate of turn will increase even when the rudder is amid-
ships. If the rudder is kept on too long the ship will get away and it might
not be possible to check her swing in time to avoid leaving the channel.
Don't overlook the importance of having a trained helmsman who is ex-
perienced in steering your particular ship. A directionally unstable ship re-
quires speral treatment and the helmsman's experience can be invaluable.
Even this potentially unsatisfactory condition can be put to advantage
if the shiphandler watches the steering closely, since a directionally un-
stable ship can turn in a very small area. It is not suggested that the ship
be purposely loaded to obtain this condition, but often the mariner must
live with a ship "as she is" and in such a case he or she can at least take ad-
vantage of the situation.
74 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL USING AIDS TO NAVIGATION WHEN TURNING 75
MAKING A TURN IN A CHANNEL
4-
There are two basic considerations when making a bend or turn in a chan- v2J
nelwhere to begin the turn and how much rudder to use.
It is impossible to make a turn properly if the turn is started at the A
wrong place in the channel. Obviously, if the turn is started too late, exces-
sive amounts of rudder and engine revolutions are necessary to complete
the turn while remaining in the channel or in the desired location in an an-
chorage. A more common error, though, is to start the turn too soon, since
it is human nature both to be conservative and to become impatient when
waiting to reach a desired point. This results in having to check the ship's
swing and then start the turn again at a later time. Starting a turn too
early may not always cause a problem and is certainly preferable to start-
ing a turn too late, but if you have to check the ship's swing in a channel
where suction can be experienced, it may be difficult to start the ship turn- 4
ing again once that swing is lost.
Begin the turn when the ship's pivot point is nearly at the turning point at 1. "Advance'at maneuvering
speed, as determined
the end of the reach or range, not the ship's bow or bridge (fig. 2-11). Remem- during master's trials.
ber that ships turn circles, not corners. Since you have fixed the diameter and 2. Start turn when pivol

advance of the turning circle in your mind during the previously described point nearly abeam conter
ot estimated turn circle.
trial maneuvers, you should be able to judge when to start a turn (fig. 2-12). 3. Pivot first on buoy 7,

While it is possible to determine this point by constructing diagrams then on buoy #5.

based on channel widths and the theoretical turning radius of the ship,
such an approach to a routine maneuver is not practical and encourages
the mariner to get involved with unworkable methods. It is better to learn
to handle the ship by instinct and feel developed from experience and trial
maneuvers.
If in doubt about the amount of rudder required, use a larger amount
than you feel necessary. Reduce the rudder angle as needed to place the
ship at the desired point in the reach using the reference point method dis-
cussed in the next section. Practice making exact turns at every opportu-
nity. even if a ship is in an open anchorage and there is no need to put the
ship in an exact location at that particular time. A professional makes
turns neatly and with a minimum of helm orders, and it is only through
practice that the feel for making precise turns can be developed. Turns can
also be practiced with great benefit on a simulator since you can get a very
realistic feel for both rate of turn and relative movement when working at
such an installation. These are skills that, like riding a bicycle, are never
lost once learned.
Fig. 2-11. Use the pivot point to position a ship in a turn.
USING AIDS TO NAVIGATION WHEN TURNING
As the ship proceeds up the channel, numerous aids to navigation are
available to the pilot and master. While the primary purpose of these aids
is te determine the ship's position relative to the axis of the channel, there
are other ways in which these aids can be used.
A buoy at a turn can be used as a rate-of-turn indicator by aligning the
buoy with a fixed point on the ship such as a stay, stanchion, or window
frame (fig. 2-13).
1. If the relative bearing changes toward the bow, so the buoy is moving
forward relative to the reference point, the ship is turning at a rate
that will bring her closer to that buoy. She will be closer to the buoy
at the completion of the turn than she is at present. If the rate at
which the buoy is moving ahead of the reference point increasing,
then obviously the rate at which the ship is turning is increasing.
76 SHIPHANDL7NG IN A CHANNEL
and maneuvering.
2. If the buoy is remaining steady relative to the reference point the
ship is turning at a fixed rate. She will maintain her present dis-
tance from the buoy as she makes the turn. In practice, the ship will
actually be a little farther from the buoy when the turn is completed,
since she is sliding sideways during the turn at a rate relative to the
speed at which she is moving. For practical purposes though, the
ship can be considered to be maintaining a constant distance from
the buoy during the turn.
3. If the bearing is opening away from the bow so the buoy is moving aft
relative to the reference point, then the ship's distance from the
buoy is increasing. If the rate at which the buoy is oper ing is increas-
ing then the rate of turn is decreasing.
MEETING ANOTHER VESSEL OR TOW 77
"T
Distance from buoy
^
Decreasing
>
Increasing
s,
Fig. 2-13. Pivoting on a reference point when turning.
Using a buoy in this manner is especially effective when turning in a
strong current since it is the vessel's movement relative to the buoy and
channel (the net movement resulting from the combination of vessel mo-
mentum, swing, and current effects) that is of interest to the shiphandler.
This resultant motion is immediately apparent when the ship is turned
using a fixed reference. By adjusting the rudder to alter the buoy's relative
movement a shiphandler can position the ship in a turn with great accu-
racy.
The angle between the lines of buoys marking the port and starboard
sides of a channel can be used with great accuracy both to predict the
ship's future position in a reach into which she is turning, and to know
the vessel's position relative to the centerline after she has steadied up in
that reach. Further, the rate at which a vessel is sliding laterally can be
quickly determined by watching the change in angle of those buoys dur-
ing a turn.
A range can obviously be used to determine the ship's position relative
to the channel, but do not overlook the fact that the rate at which a range is
opening or closing is of equal importance. This information is used in the
same manner as the change in angle of a line of buoys to position the ship
in a reach or channel.
MEETING ANOTHER VESSEL OR TOW
If a channel is of sufficient width, meeting another vessel is simply a mat-
ter of staying on your own side. The problem then is one of determining
what "sufficient width" is, this being primarily a question nf ship size and
especially of draft and beam.
78 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL MEETING ANOTHER VESSEL OR TOW 79

Ships routinely meet in the 500-foot-wide reaches of the Panama Ca-

nal with no problems, when their combined beams total up to 170 feet.
(The only exceptions are the Panamax class vessels that do not meet any
ship in those 500-foot-wide reaches due to their own inherent handling
limitations.) This limit was established based upon the operating experi-
ence of the pilots in that waterway and confirmed by simulator tests and
can serve as a guideline, although ships do meet in channels of less width
than 500 feet under the proper conditions.
As ships approach the 170-foot-combined beam limit it becomes nccej-
sary to meet i n the manner shown in figure 2-14. In such cases the ships
1. Meet nearly head-on and, when approximately one-and-a-half ship
lengths apart, put their rudders to starboard to move to their own
side and pass safely.
2. When one ship's bow is abeam the bow of the other, her helm is
shifted to move her stern to starboard until she is parallel to the
bank.
3. The rudder is again put to the right to check the swing. Caution is re-
quired at this point, so watch the ship's head closely. Your vessel
wants to continue swinging due to a combination of the bank suction
on the starboard quarter and the effects of the other ship as her
quarter comes abeam your bow, that is, your ship wants to turn to
port as her bow passes the other ship's stern. Use sufficient rudder
to check thr's swing and maintain control despite the effects of suc-
tion at the bow and stem.
4. Do not increase the right rudder at this stage, but instead allow your
ship to sag slowly to port so she is heading away from the bank once
again. It is n ow unlikely that you could hit that ship if you tried since
she has passed your bow and is moving away. So long as you don't
come together laterally, which is unlikely unless you are close
enough to shake hands with the mate on the bridge cf the other ship,
you will pass safely.
5. Finally, as the stern of the other ship passes your stern there is a
mutual suction effect that moves your stern away lrom the near
bank as the two ships pass clear and proceed on their way.
Again, the ship's speed is a key. The ship must be moving at less than
full maneuvering speed so suction is minimized and sufficient engine
speed remains to come ahead and increase the effectiveness of the rudder
 80 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
as needed. This passing maneuver is not as difficult as it might sound, and
is probably best demonstrated in the Houston Ship Channel where the pi-
lots have perfected what for them is a routine meeting maneuver.
A great deal of study is being done using both simulators and actual
ship trials to determine the limits for safe navigation and meeting in vari-
ous types of channels. The results of this research can be used to safely
handle vessels in narrow channels as ship size continues to increase with-
out a commensurate increase in channel width and depth.
Hopefully, the practice of using the services of experienced ship-
handlers to perform these tests will continue. A great gap still exists be-
tween theoretical hydrodynamics and the real world, which limits the
value of any tests not performed by competent shiphandlers.
OVERTAKING ANOTHER VESSEL OR TOW
The mechanics of handling a ship w hile overtaking another vessel are rou-
tine and safe as long as the shiphandler realizes that it is the speed at
which the maneuver is performed that is most important. If the overtak-
i f ing ship is abeam of the other vessel or tow for any length of time, she in-
creases the chances that the overtaken vessel will become unmanageable,
particularly when her stern is abeam the bow of the vessel being over-
taken. Give the overtaken ship as much room as possible and maintain a
moderate speed to minimize the period of time that the two ships ore
abeam.
The overtaken vessel reduces her speed as much as possible before the
maneuver begins while still maintaining steerageway, to further reduce
the time required to complete the overtaking maneuver. WTiile being
passed, the slower vessel increases revolutions as needed to increase the
flow past her rudder and maintain steerage.
The Rules of the Road give the ship or tow being passed the responsibil-
ity for agreeing to any passing situation. It is obvious why this is so. It is
the overtaken vessel that is most likely to have a problem and will be the
most likely to go aground should any problem arise. No prudent mariner
agrees to be passed until the maneuver can be performed under conditions
where he or she feels comfortable.
USING SHIPHANDLING INSTRUMENTATION
While the seaman's eye remains the best aid to shiphandling and maneu-
vering in channels and restricted waters, other aids are available to sup-
plement experienced judgment. Radar and other electronic aids such as
USING SHIPHANDLING INSTRUMENTATION 81
DGPS-based navigation systems have become increasingly useful. These
tools have evolved in accuracy and operating features to the point where
they are equally useful as offshore navigation equipment and aids to pilots
and mariners moving ships in restricted waters.
That said, it is a fact that the gyro o nd fathometer remain the essential
tools for shiphandling even though the newer equipment attracts more at-
tention. Pilots wisely navigate primarily by eye using the gyro for direc-
tional reference and fathometei to monitor depth under the keel. The
other instruments have become essential to safe navigation but in no way
do they replace the tools that provide direction and depth.
Navigation tools used by pilots include
1. Gyro
2. Fathometer
3. Radar including ARPA
4. ECDIS
5. Doppler Speed Logs
6. Rate-of-Turn Indicator
7. DGPS and CTANS
8. VHF
9. Console presentations of wind force and direction and other perti-
nent operating data
The gyro is used, of course, to maintain direction, supplying the point
of reference for almost all maneuvers. The gyrocompass also serves as an
accurate audible rate-of-turn indicator as it clicks off the fractions of each
degree during a turn. It is surprising how accurately an experienced sea-
man can judge the rate of turn and, of equal mportance, whether a desired
;
or undesired swing has begun, without having to continuously watch the
gyrocompass. Hopefully, the solid-state era will not bring with it an "im-
proved" silent gyrocompass.
The fathometer provides the soundings that the mariner needs to pre-
dict when a ship might become difficult to handle due to shoaling, and to
know the clearance beneath the keel. Squat can then be anticipated as
well as the need to reduce speed as bottom clearances change. The fathom-
eter must be routinely watched; the development of the digital fathometer
mounted on the forward bulkhead of the wheelhouse to supplement the re-
cording fathometer in the chartrooin has done much to increase ship-
handling safety. The fathometer seems too often forgotten on e the pilot is
80 82
SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL USING SHIPHANDLING INSTRUMENTATION

aboardthis is unfortunate since the depth of water is a basic ship- enable the mariner to detect and control the ship's rate of swing in a turn.
handling parameter. A rate-of-turn indicator usually supplies turn information in tenths of a
Due to the mass of today's larger ships and the greater height from degree per second, although degrccc per minute ore used occasionally,
the water at which the pilot is now working, it has become more difficult showing a rate to the right or left that corresponds to the direction of the
to detect an error in judgment and to recover from that error. It is impor- movement of the ship's bow. This information in itself is not of great
tant to have an accurate means of determining the ship's movement value (fig. 2-16;. It is. the relative indication that is importantthat is,
both ahead and astern over the bottom, and her lateral motion at the bow whether the rate is increasing or decreasing, and by what amount. It is
and stern. The ship can then be accurately positioned at a pier or at the
single-point moorings commonly used by VLCCs, and also steered at the
low speeds involved when the bow and stern are moving at a fraction of a
knot. While a single-point Doppler log is useful at sea, the complete
Doppler presentation showing ahead and athwartship movement is
needed to supply the information required in mrneuvering situations
with large ships (fig. 2-15).
On larger ships and ships with restricted visibility from the bridge,
such as containerships, it is important to have a rate-of-turn indicator to

Fig. 2-15. Conning station with centralized readouts of fore/aft Fig. 2-16. This fully integrated bridge includes a helm station
and lateral speed, rudder position, heading, wind direction and containing gyro repeater, rate-of-turn indicator, and all appropriate
strength, vessel position, and other navigation information. steering options suitable for the ship's steering system. Courtesy
Courtesy Concordia Maritime. Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies.
84 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
both interesting and instructive to watch a helmsman do his first trick
aboard a ship fitted with a rate-of-turn indicator. After a short time, he be-
gins to steer bv using the indicator, as well as watching the jackstaff move
across a point of reference as helmsmen have done for centuries. While
holding the ship steady on a compass heading the rudder is used to keep a
zero rate of swing. As soon as swing is indicated the helmsman uses suffi-
cient rudder to check that swing, often applying the rudder before any
movement of the bow to the right or left can be detected by eye.
When a ship is directionally unstable due to her hull form or trim, the
rate-of-turn indicator becomes essential, making it possible to navigate
restricted channels safely. By accurately knowing the rate of turn the
shiphandler can limit that rate to a known safe maximum and always
keep the ship under control. As an example, a current class of liquefied
natural gas carriers, which have to be trimmed to an even keel to meet
the draft requirements of their terminal port, are safely handled in spite
of being directionally unstable at that trim. By limiting their rate of
swing to less than % 0 degree per second it is always possiole to eas-
a clearance.
ily check their swing. While the readout is basically a relative indica-
tion, this rate of turn of % of a degree per second is comfortable under
0 channel. The ship displaces an amount o water equal to her own weight.
most conditions. A rate of turn of % of a degree per second is a safe max-
Q This water must move outward from and around the hull in all directions.
imum for an ordinary turn, that is, a 36-degree change in heading in one
minute.
THE BASICS OF SQUAT
In collaboration with Larry L. Daggett, Ph.D
and Christopher Hewlett, P.E.
As a ship begins to make way through the water she undergoes a change in
mean draft known as sinkage. This change may occur equally forward and
aft or may be greater at the bow or the stern resulting in a change in trim
as well as a change in mean draft. The combination of sinkage and trim is
called squat.
There have been some inconsistencies among definitions as used to de-
scribe the components of squat in various studies and nautical publica-
tions. Because research is providing more detailed information about this
subject, and because from the shiphandler's viewpoint the subject is more
complex than previously thought, a few basic, common definitions are pro-
vided for the purpose of this text. These definitions would seem useful for
all discussions of squat if the most recent research is accepted.
THE BASICS OF SQUAT 85
:
Sinkage is the bodily increase in draft, that is, the increase in mean
draft due to the effects of moving in a restricted channel.
Trim or, more accurately, dynamic trim is the rotation about the trans-
verse axis due to the change in pressure and the resulting change in draft
along the length of the ship with the greatest change in trim being at the
bow or stern depending on hull form.
Squat is the combination of sinkage and trim, the largest change and
location of that change along the ship's hull depending on the location of
maximum change in trim.
In practical terms, the mariner will say the ship squats some num-
ber of feet or meters by the head or stern since it is the net result of the
sinkage and trim that is of most interest to the shiphandling moving a
ship in shallow water. In fact, more attention should be paid to all three
componentssinkage, trim, and squatbecause they all affect ship-
handling. This is becoming more obvious as ongoing research provides
a better understanding of the causes of squat and changes in underkeel
Squat is a natural phenomena as a ship moves through a restricted
r
The water so displaced moves primarily along and under the hull and re-
turns astern of the ship to "fill" the space left by the ship as she moves on.
Naturally, the faster the ship is moving, the greater the velocity of this
flow under and along her hull, and the greater the corresponding pressure
drop as a result of that increased velocity.
This is a basic principle of physics known as the Bernoulli Principle.
Depending upon where the greatest drop in pressure occurs along the
length of the hull, this reduced pressure will result in greater sinkage (in-
crease in draft) at the bow or stern, although the draft increases to some
degree all along the length of the ship.
As the ship enters shallow water the flow of water becomes increas-
ingly i estricted clue to the reduced clearance under the hull. If the channel
i? shallow and narrow, the flow of water becomes restricted both under
and on one or both sides of the huli depending on the ship's location in the
channel. The effect of this restriction or "blockage factor" is dependent
upon several variables:
1. The speed of the ship through the water.
2. Ratio of the ship's draft to the depth of water.
86 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL THE BASICS OF SQUAT 87

3. Ratic of the ship's cross-sectional area to the cross-sectional area of MAJESTIC A1AEHSK NORTHBOUND. GAIILARO CUT

the channel (fig. 2-17).

4. The ship's block coefficient. (The previously explained effects on
draft and handling characteristics of a high block coefficient are am-
plified in shallow water.)
5. The ship's displacement, which determines the amount of water
that must pass around and under the ship's hull at a given speed.
6. The rate and period of acceleration as the ship increases speed.
Consider first the effect of ship's speed since this is the factor over
which the mariner has the greatest control. It has been found, based upon
observations of both actual ships and models, that squat varies in propor-
tion to the square of the speed. If ship's speed is doubled, squat ixicreases
by a factor of four. With today's large ships and minimal underkeel clear-
ances it becomes immediately obvious why speed and resulting squat
must be very much on the shiphandler's mind. It should be noted that the
ship's speed here refers to the speed of the ship through water and no*, the
ground speed so, if the ship is moving against a current, the speed effe:t
tt.^. Sw^j. Sto^t^. uvmbm >vitwSm]

will be increased. Fig. 2-18. This graph shows the relationship between speed and squat.
Note that the squat (lower lines) increases as the speed (upper line)
increases. This fine hull containership trims by the stern due to the
effect of squat. Courtesy Waterway Simulation Technology.
x
B l o c k a g e (actor fB = ^

The maximum cross-sectional area of the submerged portion of the

ship's hull, as seen by looking at the midships section in the ship's file of
drawings, is significant when compared to the cross-sectional area of a
narrow channel. The ratio of these two areas, referred to as the blockage
factor, determines the clearance through which the displaced water must
flow. Obviously, the less area available the greater the velocity at which
the water must flow for a given ship's speedand the greater the resul-
tant pressure drop around and under the hull.
The other variables listed also affect the flow ir. a similar manner and
their importance will be obvious to the mariner.
The formula most often used by mariners was contributed by C. B.
Barrass, Ph.D. The total squat in open water can be calculated with suffi-
7

cient accuracy for a VLCC using the formula

1

Fig. 2-17. Blockage factor in restricted channels. 7 C. B. Barrass, Ship Squat and Its Calculation, pg. 11.
88 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL THE BASICS OF SQUAT 87

S (meters) = C x V / l 0 0 r
b
2
0 tive model presented by Eryuzlu et al. produced a moan error of -0.02
S (feet) = C x V / 3 0 2
meters and a standard deviation of 0.07 meters for a VLCC in the Dela-
ware Bay and River.
h

where Comparison of predicted and measured squat in the PC studies has yet
S = squat to be conducted on a vessel-type basis or on a fully combined database;
C = vessel's block coefficient however, comparisons for individual ships have yielded some useful re-
b

V = vessel's speed in knots sults. After generating comparisons for several of the aforementioned
published numerical methods, three formulations, were found to provide
Squat in shallow, confined waters is double the quantity S found by the the best agreement with the measured data from the Gaillard Cut.
above formula, that is, in shallow, confined waters the squat equals 2 x S That said, it is obvious that there is no single best formula for all condi-
When aboard a ship with a block coefficient of 0.8 proceeding in shal- tions and the Barrass formula does, as stated earlier, consistently provide
low water at 10 knots, she will sink approximately 1.6 meters (5.33 feet). If an important margin of safety.
the speed is i educed by half, to 5 knots, the same vessel sinks only 0.4 The Barrass formula has been discussed. The two other formulas refer-
meters (1.3 feet) or one quarter the squat experienced at the higher speed. enced are
It should be noted that this formula for predicting squat generally over- Tuck/Huuska:
estimates the squat and thus provides a margin of safety. In some case? S = 9. A V , "F ,
2
b
V K_ r h

where this formula has been compared to measured squat, the margin of L p p
2

safety was found to be too large for practical operations. In those cases,
other predictive formulas have been found to fit measured squat more ac- S t = bow sinkage in meters
curately when a more accurate prediction of squat is required. Many of the V = ship volumetric displacement in meters 1

available predictive models are described in a PIANC publication'. L p? = ship length between perpendiculars in meters
Recent measurements of ship squat using high-accuracy differential K s = 7.45S, + 0.76 for S > 0.03 t

GPS equipment have shown that the most accurate predictive model is de- K s = 1 for S, < 0.03
pendent on the ship type and waterway characteristics. For example, where S, = AJAJK,;
measurements of twenty-six ships on the St. Lawrence Seaway' demon- A, = ship underwater cross-sectional area
strated that squat could be predicted with mean errors of 0.08 meters or A. = cross-sectional channel area
less and standar d deviations of less than 0.13 meters using formulas sug- I\ = 1 Channel-type parameter for canal with no overbanks
gested by Tuck, Eryuzlu et al., Barrass, and Tothill, depending on the ship
type and whether the transit was in a canal or lake. However, Tuck was of- F . = Froude number based on the undisturbed water
ten nearly as good for predicting squat as an estimate made using the depth = W(gh) * L

"best fit" technique. Recent measurements demonstrated that the predic- where V" = ship speed through the water in m/s
g = acceleration of gravity in in'/s
? Approach Channels: A Guide for Design. Appendix C, Final report of the joint h = water depth in meters
working group PIANC and IAPH, in cooperation with IMPA and IALA,
published as a supplement to Bulletin 95, June 1997. Eryuzlu and Hausser:
sLarry L. Daggett, J. C. Hewlett, David Stocks, Maximization of Ship Draft in
the St. Lawrence. Volume 1, Squat Study, Fleet Technology Limited and
BFtf'L8 ; T = ship draft; B = ship beam
,0.27
Waterway Simulation Technology, Inc., Transport Canada TP 13888E, S = 0.113 ^y- |
b

December 2001.
90 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL 87
THE BASICS OF SQUAT

For fully loaded tankers in unrestricted shallow water: 1.08 < h/T
< 2.75
It would be appropriate at this point to also discuss the effect that
blockage and speed have on handling characteristics of a ship. Since a ship
in confined waters can be compared to a piston in a cylinder, it is obviously
more difficult to drive the ship ahead as the blockage factor increases.
There is therefore a practical limit to the speed at which a ship can proceed
up a channelthe ship that makes 16 knots at eighty revolutions in open
water might make only 9 or 10 knots with the same number of revolutions
in shallow water. This limit is reached when the water is flowing at rela-
tively high velocities so the ship becomes difficult to steer, experiences
heavy vibrations throughout the hull, and generates a much greater wave
pattern astern. The wake becomes short and steep, breaking along its
length and moving outward at a greater angle from the ship as the point of
maximum flow around the hull is reached. The ship is now said to be "pull-
trim by the bow. Generally speaking, ships with finer lines such as con-
tainerships with a block coefficient (C) of less than 0.7 have been found to
trim by the stern (fig. 2-19).
Squat becomes increasingly important as ships get larger and load to
deeper drafts. It is imperative that the mariners allow for squat when
loading and reduce the speed at which the deeply loaded ship navigates in
a shallow channel. This requires a conscious effort on the part of many
mariners since the operation of ships of this size is a relatively now phe-
nomenon and most ship's officers have served in the past in ships where
squat is not a significant consideration. Ships exist -o carry cargo and by
limiting speed to minimize squat, a ship can lift the maximum possible
deadweight.
GLOBAL CHALLENGER - N O R T H B O U N D , G A I L L A H D CUT

ing a lot of water."

Depth of water, thus underkeel clearance also affects turning and
steering and underkeel clearance is directly related to squat. When a ship
is maneuvering in shallow water that restricts water flow, generally when
the underkeel clearance is less than 0.5 of the ship draft, the ship will be-
come more stable and, therefore, more difficult to ';urn. Greater care
should be taken as the shiphandler decides when to begin a turn and the
amount of rudder to use to make a turn.
Squat, depth, trim, hull form, speed, and other factors affecting steer-
ing and turns are interrelated. The effects of near banks are also impor-
tant in any discussion of steering and turns. The shiphandler should
review discussions of bank effects elsewhere in this text when considering
the factors presented in this section.
Will the squat occur by the head or by the stern? This can only be deter- t7D0 1800 1900
mined with accuracy by observation but a commonly accepted rule of
thumb is that a ship with a large C (greater than 0.75) will tend to squat
CHANNEL STATION (HUNOHEOS OF FT)
b

by the head. Vessels having such block coefficients are generally large
tankers and bulk carriers that are very full in their forward section-:. The
previously discussed curve of submerged cross-sectional areas is therefore
also helpful in predicting squat by the head or stern. If the curve reaches
its maximum point at a more forward station, the ship can be expected to
trim by the head. Hulls having forward sections of varying fullness should
be tested so some criteria can be developed and published to determine
how far forward this peak in the curve can be located before a ship will
Fig 2-19 Full hull, high block coefficient bulk carriers such as MV
Global Challenger trim by the head. Note that the difference between
sinkage at the bow and stern decreases and speed decreases at station
1600. Note also that squat increases in narrower reaches of the
Panama Canal for the same speed such as between stations 1700 and
1800 where the blockage factor was greater. Courtesy Waterway
Simulation Technology, Inc./Panama Canal Authority.
93
SHil'HANDLING IN A CHANNEL UNDERKEEL CLEARANCE 99

UNDERKEEL CLEARANCE
The squat phenomena, as discussed to this point, has been well known and
understood for many years to the extent it affects a single ship and so fa^
as ship's draft changes for a given channel configuration, hull form, and
speed through the water. Additional discussion is needed of factors other
than squat that affect underkeel clearance as larger ships load to greater
drafts. Ports and channels that once were considered suitable for deep
draft ships are now marginal as larger ships load to deeper drafts and un-
derkeel clearance is reduced to the minimum considered safe for the port.
In the past, some research was done to predict squat and underkeel
clearance under more complex conditions such as when multiple ships
pass in narrow channels but the findings and accuracy of the data was
questionable. Much of the research was conducted in test tanks so practi-
cal considerations including the impact of ship stability, changes during
periods of acceleration, and effects of ship interaction on squat were rarely
applicable to day-to-day maneuvers in shallow water.
More advanced tests have been conducted in th; past decade using su r- Fig. 2-20. All the effects expected in a confined channel can be seen in
vey grade DGPS to measure changes in draft and trim of ships underway the Gaillard Cut.
in narrow channels under dynamic conditions. These tests have focused
on underkeel clearance (UKC), which is the primary concern for mariners work, because of its scope, expands significantly on past theory regarding
handling ships in shallow water and narrow channels. In the past, squat and UKC requirements in shallow water. The opportunity to mea-
shiphandlers often considered squat and UKC as basically synonymous sure these conditions in the Panama Canal was unique. The tests were
although they are actua lly something quite different and that difference is performed in a controlled operating environment so conditions and mea-
increasingly important as more ships arrive at a port loaded to the maxi- surements could be repeated and confirmed in a rehable manner. These
mum safe draft. In fact, factors including acceleration, ship/ship interac- conditions and the extremely close cooperation between the parties in-
tion, and rolling in turns are at least as important as squat in any volved in the tests created a situation that came as close as may ever be
discussion on underkeel clearance. All factors are dynamic since ship possible to having test tank conditions using actual ships and full size test
speed, stability, hull configuration, and channel profiles are interrelated tanks within the very accurately surveyed Panama Canal channel for
and a change of any one of those factors affects UKC. Mariners and pilots weeks at a time. The results affect not only the Panama Canal but also
tend to focus on squat when they discuss UKC but these other factors were ship movements and operating parameters in all waterways and routes
found to be at least as important when navigating in some areas of the with shallow water and restricted channels.
Panama Canal and other waterways (fig. 2-20). The PCC (Panama Canal Commission) invested the time and work
Definitive tes';s were conducted by Waterway Simulation Technology, necessary to conduct these tests and reassess cl-_~sic squat and UKC theory
Inc. (WST; for the Panama Canal Commission (PCC) in 1998 when
drought conditions made draft and squat critical. This landmark
10 11 12 11 Ibid, May 8, 1998.
1 2 Larry L. Daggett, Ph.D., P.E., and J. Christopher Hewlett, P.E., Panamax
1 0 Larry L. Daggett, Ph.D., P.E., and J. Christopher Hewlett, P.E. Study of Ships Meeting in the Gaillard Cut, Panama Canal, Waterway Simulation
Ship Squat in the Panama Canal, Waterway Simulation Technology, Inc. for Technology, Inc. for the Panama Canal Commission, Balboa, Republic of
the Panama Canal Commission, Balboa, Republic of Panama, March 20, 1998. Panama, September, 10, 1999.
94 SHil'HANDLING IN A CHANNEL
because the waterway, by its very nature as an international waterway
serving world shipping, must be particularly sensitive to the needs of all
Panama Canal users. There is a real need to maximize carrying capacity
of ships transiting the Canal consistent with safety. The tests were con-
ducted for the Panama Canal but the results are an important contribu-
tion to an understanding of ship behavior in ali'narrow and shallow
channels.
For the Panama Canal study, pilots maneuvered all types of ships
while the WST personnel measured results under various operating con-
ditions. Operating procedures and regulations were modified based on the
test results for ail ship types in various situations. Survey-grade DGPS
equipment was installed on the bow, stern, and bridge wings to measure
vertical displacement and the draft and trim changes were recorded. The
resulting hard copy graphs and tables documented the findings thut were
at times surprising. The findings might not have been accepted if the mea-
surements were not well documented.
The tests provided a basis for predicting underkeel clearance and ex-
panding the understanding of squat effects and changes in draft under a
wider range of situations. Practical applications for the data include re-
vised draft restrictions for various ship types in Gaillard Cut in Panama
and speed limitations in various waterways for ships at or near maximum
draft.
It is noteworthy that the test results support the application of classic
squat theory' as developed by Dr. Barrass, Ph.D., for the Panama Canal
Gaillard Cut to the extent squat is affected by speed, blockage factor, and
block coefficient under the less complex conditions for which the Barrass
formula is most often used. Equally important, the tests also increase the
knowledge base for the squat phenomena in a range of conditions for light
and loaded drafts at various speeds including a few conditions not previ-
ously discussed in professional literature. For example, the study docu-
ments squat and changss in UKC as ships meet and pass in narrow
channels, accelerate in shallow water, turn and roll in twisting channels,
and move between areas with varying and irregular channel cross sec-
tions. Tu that extent, the Panama Canal tests provide greater knowledge
of hydrodynamics affecting squat and draft that must be disseminated to
the industry.
Similar tests conducted in other waterways including the St. Law-
rence Seaway, Houston Ship Channel, and Delaware Bay and River veri-
fied the results of the Waterway Simulation Technology studies in the
UNDERKEEL CLEARANCE 99
Panama Canal; huwever, it was found that specific predictive formulas for
particular ship types and channel characteristics provide more accurate
estimates of squat than the Barrass formula. Based on these waterway-
specific measurements, the predictive model, and updated channel survey
data, a UKC calculator can be developed tor use in analyzing UKC fur a
planned transit.
To summarize test findings, it was confirmed that
1. Speed through the water is the most critical factor when determin-
ing and maximizing UKC.
2. Squat increases for a given block coc fiicient as speed increases, with
the increase in squat being greater for ships with higher block coeffi-
cients.
3. The rolling effect for various ship types turning in narrow channels
is significant and, for wide-beam ships where draft increases signifi-
cantly for each degree of roll, may limit UKC more than squat at
lower speeds. This is especially true for containerships since they
sometimes discharge water ballast to reduce draft in restricted
channels and thus have a lower GM.
4. In general, ship type is a factor when predicting changes in UKC in
narrow channels.
5. Squat may be as much as double the calculated squat for constant
speeds when high-power ships accelerate from a stop or increase
speed quickly.
6. The effect of "crabbing" due to bank suction that causes a ship to pro-
ceed at some angle to the axis of the channel does not seem to in-
crease squat although more research is required in this area.
7. Squat varies as ships pass through channels with changing symme-
try as the blockage factor changes.
8. Squat generally increases 50% as two ships pass in a channel or
other restricted area but can increase by as much as 100% depend-
ing on the ships approach speed and separation distance.
Safe Speed for Minimum Underkeel Clearance
The PCC squat study verified the classic principles for calculating squat.
The change in squat is geometric. Basically, for the same conditions,
squat varies approximately as the square of the speed. Double the speed
and you increase squat by a factor of four. This is especially important in
96 SHil'HANDLING IN A CHANNEL
shallow water where the tests demonstrate that, as a rule of thumb, 6
knots is a practical speed limit for ships in channels where UKC is 5 feet
or less considering variables such as acceleration pnd rolling in turns in
addition to squat effects. Of course, good seamanship should prevail at
all times.
The shiphandler will always consider factors such as a rocky vs. mud
bottom, the quality of charts and accuracy of ranges and buoys, the type of
ship, its stability, and other factors that affect concerns with grounding in
a particular area. They may routinely navigate a channel with a mud bot-
tom at a higher speed. At the same time, they may proceed at a slower
speed to have greater clearance when the bottom is rocky. Pilots make
these adjustments routinely and often proceed at higher speeds because of
their local knowledge of channel symmetry and bottom type that permit
higher speeds with safety. This is the essence of piloting and the reason pi-
lotage and local knowledge are irreplaceable in the safe handling of ships
regardless of changing technology.
In any case, absent specific local knowledge to the contrary, the
6-knot speed limit for 5 feet of UKC is a useful rule of thumb for
shiphandlers that is suitable for safe navigation in almost all
conditions.
Effects of Stability on UKC
There is an apparent contradiction between points 2 and 3 (on the previ-
ous page) as demonstrated by the DGPS measurements. Ordinarily,
wide-beam, full-hull ships such as tankers and bulk carriers are expected
to experience greater increases in draft because squat is greater for ships
with a greater block coefficient. Those ships would ordinarily require a
greater UKC for a given speed. In fact, at slow speeds, wide-beam ships
with finer hulls may require greater UKC because GM is less and they will
roll more for a given speed than the ship with large block coefficient. For
example, the deep draft of a 106-foot beam Panamax ship increases ap-
proximately 11 inches for every degree of roll.
The reality when considering changes in UKC for various ship types is
often different from what might initially be anticipated. Bulk carriers and
tankers usually have larger block coefficients (above 0.8), less horsepower
(6,000-14,000), and greater stability (GM more than 3 feet). They are
more likely to squat by the head and accelerate more slowly. Due to high
UNDERKEEL CLEARANCE 99
GM, this ship type will usually roll less due to rudder-induced rolling in a
turn. These ship types are relatively similar in hull form regardless of
owner and place of construction, so squat, sinkage, and changes of drafr.
are generally more predictable for these ship types.
Car carriers, containerships, and passenger ships usually have lower
block coefficients (less than 0.8), greater horsepower (15,000-65,000), and
less stability (GM commonly less than 2 feet). They are more likely to
squat by the stern and accelerate more quickly. These ship types will mil
more in turns in narrow channels, and there are greater disparities in hull
forms among ships of this type. For these reasons, squat and changes in
draft while underway are less predictable.
General cargo and ships carrying specialized cargoes have characteris-
tics that are somewhere between the aforementioned ship types.
The WST trials make a good case for allowing less underkeel clearance
for the more predictable bulk carriers and tankers than for other types of
vessels, which is quite the opposite from what would otherwise be ex-
pected foi high block coefficient ships based on squat alone. They heel less
in a turn. They heel less due to rudder-induced rolling. They accelerate
more slowly and have less horsepower so speed changes will have less ef-
fect on draft.
Acceleration
Ship acceleration is an important consideration when handling ships in
shallow water Changes in engine revolutions have a greater effect on
UKC than previously anticipated. The tests indicate that initial squat
while accelerating is approximately double the squat as calculated by the
classic formula. That formula assumes constant speed so a high-powered
ship put on full ahead may strike the bottom while accelerating even
though there would be sufficient clearance under the keel once a specific
speed is reached. Pilots and ships' officers must accelerate in incre-
mentsdead slow, slow, and then halfinstead of going directly to half
ahead when UKC is less than double the squat calculated for constant
speed. A modern containership increased draft more than 4 feet in the ini-
tial few minutes as the ship accelerated from a dead stop using revolutions
for half ahead. In this particular test, the squat decreased to 2 feet or less
when the ship reached normal half ahead speed even though revolutions
remained constant throughout the period the ship was gaining headway
in shallow water. This increase was due primarily to an induced heel to
the starboard during the acceleration.
98 SHil'HANDLING IN A CHANNEL UNDERKEEL CLEARANCE 99

The Waterway Simulation Technology (WST) tests showed that un- EVER REFINE - NORTHBOUND, GAMBOA REACH, MEETING WITH NEDLLOYD DEJIMA

derkeel clearance varies when a ship moves between channels of different

formation in asymmetrical channels where the slope of the bank is differ-
ent on one side of the ship than the other. The change occurs each time the
symmetry of the channel changes. The cause of this change is not obvious
although it may be due to changing blockage factors or to disruption of
what is otherwise a stable condition as the ship proceeds along the chan-
nel. There is little that can be done to minimize this effect other than re-
ducing speed and allowing for the increase in draft each time the channel
cross profile changes.
Tests showed the draft for a 612-foot-long by 95-foot-beam bulk carrier
changed by as much as 2 feet while proceeding at a moderate speed when
the shape of a 1,000-foot-wide channel changed so the effect of changing
channel symmetry 011 draft can be significant. A ship could ground if the
pilot does not minimize speed when channel width and symmetry are
1475 (480 1*65 1490 14S-5 1500 1505 1510 1515 1520 1S 1530 1535 1640 15*f 1550 1555 1560 1565 1570 1575
CMANNtIL S'ATtON (HUNDREOS Of FT)
changing from one area to another." Ctmwm hw.u

Meeting and Passing
Squat also increases significantly as two ships meet in a channel or other
restricted area. Tests were conducted by WST to measure the effect of
ship/ship interaction on squat. The tests were done at a range of speeds ir.
the thoroughly surveyed Panama Canal channels where the chance of
grounding was minimal. Squat was additive as the ships met and passed.
A ship squatting 4 feet meeting another ship squatting S feet and moving
in the opposite direction would experience a cumulative squat of approxi-
mately 7 feet as the two ships passed in a narrow channel.
Obviously, the distance between ships and the channel width has an
effect on the increase in squat. In the tests, the channel was approxi-
mately four times the combined beams of the two ships. Tests were re-
peated for several days with fairly consistent results and the increase in
squat was consistently mere than might be anticipated prior to these de-
finitive trial runs. In all cases, squat generally increased by about 50%,
with increases from 60% to 100% occurring, when two ships passed in a
channel depending cn speed and distance between ships. The increase is
greater at higher speeds and for larger ships. Sinkage was greater for bulk
Fig. 2-21. Ships meeting in restricted channels will experience a
significant increase in squat as the ships pass. Note that sinkage
nearly doubled to 7 feet when this vessel passed approximately 150
feet from the containership Nedlloyd Dcjima. Consistent with
findings, this low block coefficient vessel trimmed by the stern due to
squat. Courtesy Waterway Simulation Technology, Inc./Panama
Canal Authority.
carrier/tanker type vessels than containerships. Increased heel was also a
primary factor for changes in the vertical for typical containerships in
meeting situations (fig. 2-21).
Shiphandlers must not underestimate the effect of this ship/ship inter-
action on squat and draft. The increase can be drastic and rapid so ships
moving at high speeds in narrow channels could ground immediately as
they meet. It is noteworthy that a 900-fool containership traveling at 11
knots in an otherwise safe 700-foot channel immediately increased draft
by more than 7 feet as the ships passed."

13 Study of Ship Squat in the Panama Canal, Waterway Simulation Ibid, pg. 41.
Technology, Inc., pg. 34. 14
100 SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL
Overtaking
One would expect that squat would be greater for two vessels in an over-
taking situation than for a single vessel in the channel. One would also ex-
pect squat to be greater for two vessels in an overtaking situation than for
two vessels when meeting and passing and the increase would last longer
since the ship/ship interaction continues for a longer period due to the
lower speed differential between overtaking ships.
There is a lack of data on this situation so it is not possible at this time
to say with any certainty that this assumption is correct. For safety rea-
sons and until there is data available to support or refute that assump-
tion, it seems proper for shiphandlers to assume the increase in draft
when ships overtake in a narrow channel is the same or greater as when
ships meet and that it lasts for a longer period.
Squat, underkeel clearance, ship stability, speed, hull form, channel
form, and all the other factors discussed in this section could cause a ship
to ground in an otherwise safe channel. Also, in addition to grounding, re-
cent research clearly shows the importance of considering all factors af-
fecting steering and shiphandling in narrow and shallow channels.
STOPPING AND MANEUVERING IN A CHANNEL
The berth is now in sight but the tugs aren't yet available, so it is neces-
sary to stop your ship during her passage up the channel and hold her in
that location until tugs arrive. It would of course have been better to have
had the tugs made fast before needing to stop, but it is certainly not a prob-
lem to stop without them. The maneuver for stopping your ship while
maintaining her heading is discussed in the section on master's trials in
chapter 1, and since you have kept the ship's speed moderate at all times,
you are in control of the situation with or without tugs.
The experience gained during the master's trials helps you judge
whether the ship can be stopped in the distance available using only rou-
tine maneuvers. Remember that it is often possible to perform two or more
maneuvers simultaneously, such as using the tendency for the bow to
swing to starboard when the engine is put astern to both make a turn to
the right and reduce headway.
CHAPTER THREE
USE OF TUGS
We maneuvered in the outer harbor until it was dark.
When we put in the Chief came to the bridge, wiping his
hands with a wad of cotton waste and his forehead with
his sleeve. "Blimey, Skipper," he said, "you certainly
kept us busy." I had . .. i found out that she was indeed
a lovely ship; you couldn't expect her to do more and still
be called a tugboat.
Jan de Hartog, The Distant Shore
The heavily bearded docking master burst through the wheelhouse door,
grabbed the old man's hand, and welcomed him to the port in a voice two
tones deeper than our whistle. Taking the radio in hand, he instructed the
two tugs that would be assisting us to the dock to come alongside and make
up.
How do you like your coffee, Cap'?"
"Black please. Just black and hot will be fine," the docking master re-
plied to the captain.
"Call the standby and have him bring up a pot of coffee, Cadet."
"I'll get it, sir. It will only take me a second to go downstairs for it," re-
plied the cadet.
The docking master glowered at the cadet, but said nothing until he had
left the wheelhouse. Obviously, he didn't like the young man's reply.
"Downstairs! Downstairs! Where the hell does that kid think he is," bel-
lowed the heretofore jovial docking pilot.
u They don't go down below anymore, they go downstairs. Decks arc
floors, lines are ropes, and the other day one of these kids called a mooring
wire a cable. "Hepaused long enough to catch his breath but ii was obi-ioi s
that he had hardly begun his dissertation on the preservation of the seafar-
ing language and the use ofproper shipboard terminology. In fact, we were
lectured on that subject for the rest of the docking.
Unfortunately, it is true that the vocabulary of the mariner is often ig-
nored end those who have been working around ships for any length of time
are not happy about it. Perhaps this is because so many landsmen rush to
101
102 USE OF TUGS
the water on weekends to play, and most of what is written and filmed in
the United States about living and working on the water is directed to-
ward, and produced hy, these neophyte admirals who do not understand
that the language of the sea is steeped in tradition. Nautical vocabulary al-
lows those aboard ship to communicate orders and ideas clearly and con-
cisely in a manner that is not open to misinterpretation. For this reason it is
important that the shiphandler use proper and accepted shipboard termi-
nology when giving orders.
While practitioners in the medical, legal, engineering, and scientific
fields have and use a specialized vocabulary peculiar to their profession,
the language of the sea is now being misused with regularity. This is sad
since seafaring is not just a job, it is a way of life, and the seaman's vocabu-
lary captures the very essence and spirit of life on the water.
The argument has been made by some that the seafarer should "mod-
ernize" nautical language so it could be immediately understood by all,
even though this would actually mean that it would be clearly understood
by no one. Without a unique nautical vocabulary it would be impossible to
accurately express ideas or describe conditions in the marine environment.
A whole series of long and ambiguous sentences would be needed to express
the same thoughts that the seaman can now convey with but a few words.
Consider the paragraph ofinstructions that would have to be given to a sea-
man tending the spring line to get the same reaction that the mariner gets
from the three words: "Check the spring."
Just as doctors or lawyers would not bastardize the language of their
professions, nor tolerate others in their field who do not master that lan-
guage, neither should the mariner accept the misuse of the language of the
sea. It is another aspect of professionalism.
After being properly chastised the cadet went forward to assist in the
docking, having assured the docking master that his point had been made.
The work of the tugmaster is a subject unto itself, and it is beyond the
scope of this text to discuss that work. Only the use of tugs to assist in the
movement and berthing of ships will be covered here (fig. 3 1
There are several types of tugs, each of which has its limitations and
advantages. The single-screw harbor tug is still predominant in many
ports and will serve as the basis for this chapter. It's essential that the
shiphandler understand the tug's work, and her limitations and capabili-
ties, so that he can do the best possible job without endangering the assist-
ing boats.
LASHING UP A TUG 111
MAKING UP A TUG
Having proceeded to within sight of the bertn and taken the docking mas-
ter aboard, the crew makes the tugs fast and gets ready to go alongside.
The tugs can be made fast in several ways depending on where they are to
be placed and the work that tliey are going to do.
If the tug is to assist in a routine docking or undocking and is to be
made fast on the bow or quarter, she generally puts up two lines. The first
line sent aboard, to be led forward and put on a bitt on the ship's deck, is
the backing line. This line is made fast to a bitt on the tug's foredeck. Since
this line will take a heavy strain as the tug backs against it to pull the bow
or stern, it must be put on a bitt aboard the ship. Too often, the mate on the
bow or stern puts the backing line on a small cleat on the bulwark, or on
some other unsuitable fitting that is out of the tug master's line of sight.
When the tug later backs on that line for the first time, the cleat pulls off
the bulwark with the very real danger of injuring or killing someone
aboard either vessel. The second line sent aboard from the tug is led from
the tug's foredeck to her bow, and then up to the ship. This come ahead line
is led aft on the ship's deck and used by the tug to work against and get into
position to push (.fig. 3-2).
If the ship will be backing into or from a slip, a stern line may also be
rigged so the tug does not fall around as the ship gathers sternway. The
ship's speed must then be kept to a minimum since the tug is at nearly
right angles to the ship while backing, with the full length acting as a drag
and putting a heavy strain on that line that increases geometrically as
104 USE OF TUGS
Fig. 3-2. Making fast a single-screw tug.
ship's speed increases. Two of the ship's crew must stand by to let the line
go promptly on signal from the tug and slack it with a messenger to the tug.
If the line is not let go promptly the tug is either unable to get in position to
work or the line is parted by the strain as the tug and ship maneuver.
There is a very real risk of getting the stern line in the tug's propeller if the
messenger is not used and properly tended when slacking the stern line
dowm to the boat.
Twin-screw tugs, due to their ability to maneuver, will often give the
ship only a backing line since they can use their two engines to get at right
angles to the ship to push without a come ahead line.
Tugs having one of the various patented drives that allow maneuver-
ing in all directions will need only to send a hawser to the ship, which al-
lows the tug to work with greater freedom and to be more useful to the
shiphandler. Patented drive tugs such as the Voith-Schneider can do ev-
erything that twin-screw tugs can do with the added advantage of being
able to work (to direct their thrust) at right angles to the ship when the
ship has headw ay. Obviously, the closer the tug is to being at right angles
to the ship, the more of her power is being used to move the ship in the de-
sired direction. These patented drive tugs can also work closer to the
stem or stern of the ship because of their ability to maneuver around the
flare of the bow or curvature of the ship's run aft. The closer to the ends of
the ship that the tug is able to work, the more effective it can be in moving
the ship.
LASHINGUPA TUG 111
The patented drive tugs usually keep their working lino on a winch
with sufficient power to shorten or lengthen the line while working
against it. The tug is thus able to change position without losing effective-
ness and to work at more than one location around the bow or stern with-
out having to shift lines.
COMMUNICATING WITH A TUG
While various tug signals have been developed that are peculiar to a port
or even to a particular berth, certain basic signals and maneuvers are
common to almost all ports at which you will call in the United States. Sig-
nals to be given with a hand whistle or the ship's whistle include:
One blast If pushing or backing, stop. If stopped, conic ahead
with normal power.
Two blasts Back with normal power.
One long blast Come ahead dead slow.
Series of short, Increase to full power, ahead or astern, depending on
rapid blasts the direction in which the tug is presently working.
One long and Tug is dismissed. Let go the tug's lines,
two short blasts
Now that the radio is supplementing the whistle, the shiphandler can
verbally instruct the tug to perforin these same maneuvers. The use of the
radio has resulted in safer and more professional work since it is possible
to specify a tug by name, and to give more precise instructions to the tug.
When using a radio to work more than one tug, good practice dictates that
the name of the tug be repeated twice so that there is no misunderstand-
ing about which tug should follow a particular order: "(name of tug) Come
ahead full (name of tug)."
USING A TUG
Rule onedon't use the tug.
Make the needed tugs fast but plan the job so as to deliberately mini-
mize their ue. Let's look at the reasons for this. The tug is simply another
tocl available to the shiphandler to accomplish the task at hand, supple-
menting the engine, rudder, bow thruster, anchors, and mooring lines.
Use the tug only when these other tools will not by themselves accomplish
the task. There are several reasons for this.
1. The only way to develop a skill in and a feel for handling ships is to
do the work. If a ship is pushed and pulled into position primarily
106 USE OF TUGS LASHINGUPA TUG 111

using the tug, you aren't developing any skill in shiphandling, you in fact having more than one effect and to use these effects to your best ad-
are only learning to push and pull with tugs. vantage (fig. 3-3).
2. If a job is planned to minimize the need for the tug, then those tugs Other than the pushing and pulling effects on the ship's bow, the bow
are available as additional tools if requiredan ace up the ship- tug can also be used to follow a ship which is going astern, working stem to
handler's sleeve. If the job is done in a manner that makes the use of stem to steer the ship by pushing on either bow as required. The tug trails
tugs essential, this backup capability is lost. By making the tugs the stem and comes ahead against the port bow to move the stem to star-
fast, and then working as if they weren't available, the tugs can be board and thus turn the ship to port. Pushing on the starboard bow has the
used to correct any problem that might arise. opposite effect.
The bow tug is used to hold the ship alongside in position after arriving
There unfortunately seems to be an inverse relationship between at the berth until mooring lines are out and tight. By keeping the tug at
shiphandling ability and the availability of powerful tugs. No great skill is some angle to the ship, that ship can be held against a flooding or ebbing
required to berth a ship under normal conditions with a little common current as well as alongside her berth until she is secure. Other uses of the
sense and a few powerful tugs to push and pull the ship into position. It is a bow tug are covered in sections on approaching the berth in chapter 4. and
pleasure, though, to watch a skilled piiot or master move a ship using only going alongside in chapter 5.
her engine and rudder, making her perform without fuss or confusion. The
only way to develop that degree of skill is by handling a ship with mini-
mum assistance.
The tug's power, when working alongside, is used primarily to move
the ship laterally although a properly made-up tug can direct forces in all
directions and move the ship ahead, or slow the ship and hold her in posi-
tion. This flexibility is one of the reasons a pilot will sometimes use a tug
on a ship even though she is equipped with a thruster. A shiphandler
should never hesitate to use a tug in appropriate situations even though
the master insists the thruster will be sufficient. Tug fees are, at times, a
necessary co3t of safe docking or undocking.
Keep in mind, when using a tug to maneuver, that ship's speed has a
crucial impact on the tug's effectiveness. The tug has only a limited
amount of power available and, as the speed of the ship increases, more of
that power is needed just to "keep up" with the ship and therefore less
power is available to assist the ship's maneuvers. Keep the ship's speed to
a minimum for maximum tug effects when maneuvering.
As stated, backing a tug also slows the forward speed of the ship, and
simply dragging the tug along with its deep hull at some angle to the ship's
centerline will have some slowing effect. Keep in mind that the opposite
effect occurs when the tug comes ahead. The tug's force increases the
speed of the ship since some of her power is pushing the ship ahead. It is
possible to compute by vector diagram the percentage of the total force
being generated by a tug that is acting in the desired direction under a
given situation, but in the real world it is sufficient to know that the tug is headway.
108 USE OF TUGS
The after tug or stern tug, if placed on the quarter, is made fast in the
same manner as a tug on the bow, that is, with a backing line and a come
ahead line. The tug backs and pushes against the hull in the same manner
and with the same effects as the bow tug, with two important differences:
1. The after tug acts as a drag, reducing the effectiveness of the rudder,
especially at slow speeds when the shiphandler is trying to move the
stern laterally without any significant increase in speed.
2. The stern tug tends to set the stern away from the side on which she
is made fast, toward the pier or wharf in a docking situation, which
creates an additional problem for the shiphandler. This effect in-
creases as the angle at which the tug lies to the ship increases, since
the tug is acting as a rudder of the dimensions of the tug's underwa-
ter profile (fig. 3-4).
For these reasons it is best to have the stern tug stand off until actually
needed to assist the ship, and to be let go after undocking at the earliest
practical time.
Occasionally a tug will be secured on each bow when the ship is ap-
proaching a berth or lock, or holding a position in a channel (fig. 3-5). Ei-
uI ^
A
Fig. 3-4. Effect of a tug made fast on the quarter.
LASHINGUPA TUG 111
ther tug can then back or come ahead, alone or together, to move the ship's
bow as required. More importantly, when both tugs are backed simulta-
neously the ship's heading is maintained while reducing the ship's speed,
as the tugs back against the ship's headway. The ship's engine can also be
used as required, so that she is both steered and stopped with maximum
control.
A tug can be placed astern of the ship and made fast with one or two
lines (fig. 3-6). In this position the tug backs to slow the ship or comes
ahead to either the right or left to move the stern, acting much like an ac-
tive rudder to supplement the ship's own rudder. The tug can also be used
to steer without the ship's engine, controlling the ship without developing
excessive headway. It is claimed in some shiphandling texts, and occa-
sionally by pilots in ports that do not normally use tugs in this manner,
that there is some hazard to a tug made fast on the stern. This is simply
untrue. For example, tugs have been used astern to assist literally thou-
sands of ships through the Gaillard Cut in the Panama Canal at speeds of
6 to S knots without any problems. Often texts recommend using a fug on a
hawser ahead of the ship to assist the ship to steer. This arrangement is
both less effective and potentially more hazardous. A conventional U.S
harbor tug working ahead of a ship with any significant headway is al-
ways in danger of being tripped or rolled over.
The ship should always keep an officer and two crew members stand-
ing by the tug lines, especially when they are led through the ship's quar-
ter chocks, in case the tug should have to let go on short notice. Too often,
110 USE OF TUGS LASHING UP A TUG 111

There are occasions when a conventional harbor tug can be put on a

hawser, most commonly when handling a dead ship or a ship with such a
light draft that it is not possible to make up alongside. In this case, keep
the ship's speed and the use of the ship's engines to a minimum to avoid
getting the harbor tug in irons, abeam the hawser, and rolling her over.
When working a tug in this manner, it is common to use radio commu-
nication to give the tug a speed and direction to pull, and otherwise to use
that tug in much the same way as has been previously described for a tug
alongside. Tugs on a hawser can also be used in opposition to one another
to increase or reduce the way on a ship, or to hold a ship in a particular po-
sition in a stream or at berth. In chapter 4, other uses of tugs on hawsers
when approaching a berth are discussed.
LASHING UP A TUG
When a ship is moved in a confined area or as a dead ship it is often effec-
tive to lash up a tug at her bow or stern. The tug lies alongside and puts up
a head line, stern line, and an aft leading spring line to the ship. The head
and stern lines are kept as short as possible, leading as much like breast
lines as the situation permits, and heaved up very tight. It is important
ship's crews make a tug fast and then walk off, giving the tug on the stern
no alternative but to let go the lines from her end should it be necessary to
break away. This leaves the lines in the water near the ship's propel-
lernot a desirable situation!
TUG ON A HAWSER
Although it is not as common to see a tug work on a hawser in the United
States an it is in other parts of the world, which might be called the "Euro-
pean style" of shiphandling, the use of a hawser should be considered.
There is no point in discussing the relative merits of the European and
U.S. systems, since the design of the tug used, the experience and habits of
the shiphandler, and the physical layout of the port all determine the style
of working.
As Shottel and Voith-Schneider tugs become more widely used in the
United States, there will be a corresponding increase in the amount of
hawser work seen by the mariner. These tugs are designed to be used on a
hawser, having winches that are properly located relative to the tug's
pivot point so they can work safely in this manner. This is not generally
true of conventional U.S. harbor tugs. Fig. 3-7. "The pilot wants a tight lash-up, Harry, so . . ."
112 USE OF TUGS LASHING UP A TUG

that these lines be tight so the ship and tug work as a unit, or the lash-up
will be more of a hindrance than a help Do not allow the ship to be moved
if it is not possible to get a tight lash-up due to the ship's draft, hull config-
uration, or the location of her chocks and bitts.
The tug or tugs may be lashed up on the stern and used in place of the
ship's engine and/or rudder. If a tug is lashed on each quarter, the ship is
handled much like a twin-screw vessel. In sheltered waters a large ship
can be moved significant distances quickly and safely in this manner.
When using tugs in this manner helm and engine orders similar to those
used aboard a twin-screw ship are appropriate.
When only one tug is lashed up, the off-center location of the tug is felt
until the ship has some headway, so the ship initially tends to move later-
ally away from the tug. It is more effective to back the tug to turn the ship
to the side on which the tug is lashed up, that is, back a tug lashed to the
port quarter to turn the ship to the left (stern to right, bow and ship to the
left). Once it has headway a small ship can be moved efficiently with only
one tug lashed up.
The other common type of lash-up places the tug on the ship's bow
heading aft. This might be done when only one tug is used to back a ship
from a berth around another ship docked astern or to back a dead ship
from a berth. After being lashed up (fig. 3-8), the tug is backed to move the
ship's stern off the dock to get clear of the berth and around any ship
astern. When the ship has sufficient angle to the berth, the tug comes Fig. 3-8. Undocking with a lashed-up tug.
ahead as needed to steer the ship from the berth. Helm orders are used
that are similar to those used to move the ship from a berth under her own
power.
WThen leaving the berth stern first, left rudder is used by tne tug .o f

move the ship's bow to port and thus her stern to starboard. This can be
confusing, so face aft in the direction in which the ship is moving, and give Tup ahead, rudder
hard left.
helm orders to the tug. The maneuver is immediately simplified and the Ship's engine ahead,

helm orders needed are obvious. Once clear of the berth, with sternway on
rudder hard right.

the ship, the tug is given a course or steadied on a heading and the tug
master steers the vessel much as a helmsman would.
A ship with a tug lashed up can be stopped by backing the tug. If the tug
is lashed up on the starboard quarter when moving ahead, or lashed up on
the port bow when moving stern first, the ship will twist and can be han-
dled like a single-screw ship with a right-handed propeller.
A lashed-up tug can often do the work of two tugs when used together
with the ship's engine moving a ship laterally without developing Fig. 3-9. Working tug and ship in opposition to move ship laterally.
114 USE OF TUGS

headway. Use of a tug in this manner requires close cooperation between CHAPTER FOUR
the shiphandler and tug master, a:3 well as a good tight lash-up. The tug
lashes up at the bow heading aft. She comes ahead with her rudder hard
over in the direction of the pier while the ship uses her engine ahead and APPROACHING THE BERTH
rudder hard over, also in the direction of the berth. The ship's bow and
stern then move together away from the berth, the ship's engine working
in opposition to the tug so the ship gains no way ahead or astern (fig. 3-9). There are many old pilots, and many fast pilots, but
there arc few old, mat pilots.
Traditional

The docking master hadn't left the center window of the wheelhouse since
beginning the approach to the pier. He continued to give helm orders slowly
and quietly, signaling with his hands to the right or left as he gave the rud-
der commands to the helmsman. With a strong northwesterly breeze setting
us toward the dock it certainly was not going to be a routine docking and yet
he showed no signs of tension or concern. If the docking master's demeanor
was any indication, the docking apparently was not going to be as difficult
as those of us on the bridge had expected.
As the ship came up to the pier the docking master walked out on the
bridge wing where he stayed until we were in position alongside the berth.
Even when the bow fell off the wind toward the berth the orders came slowly
and deliberately, and if the docking master had any apprehension about
the evolution it never showed. Docking on this blustery afternoon was un-
eventfulabout as exciting as watching grass grow-just the way it was
supposed to be.
GOOD BRIDGE PRACTICES
Several important aspects of the shiphandler's work have been touched
upon here, all of which are as important as the technical skills involved in
docking a ship.
1. The docking master did not move about the bridge while working.
2. Hand signals were given to clarify all helm orders.
3. The pilot remained calm and unexcited throughout the docking.
Select one location to work from when handling a ship and don't move
from the position until nearly alongside. Too often the shiphandler will
move from wing to wing and back again to the wheelhouse at a frantic pace
115
116 APPROACHING THE IiERTH
that increases as the ship gets closer to the dock. Ostensibly, this is done
so it is possible to get an unobstructed view of the approach but, in fact, it
onl v makes it very difficult to appreciate distance, speed, and motion. The
ship's heading is immediately obvious from any vantage point, but less ob-
vious is her motion both ahead and athwartships. It is important that the
shiphandler pick one location, generally amidships, and stay there until
close to the dock. When nearly alongside, when cargo and superstructure
block the shiphandler's view, a move can be made to the bridge wing where
the shiphandler should remain until the docking is completed.
Helm orders must be supplemented by hand signals to right and left to
avoid any misunderstanding due to language differences or inattention. It
is quite common, especially during a long passage, for a helmsman to re-
peat an order correctly and then put the wheel in the opposite direction. If
the shiphandler points in the desired direction when the order is given,
this mistake is rarely made by the helmsman.
The pilot's manner of working ensures that a calm and orderly atmo-
sphere prevails throughout the docking. Often, if a mistake in judgment
or action occurs, it is because people become excitedand excitement is
contagious. Even when a problem develops, if the shiphandler, be he pilot,
master, or deck officer controls emotions so his concerns are not obvious to
others, there will be none of the shouting and running about that only
DISCUSSING DOCKING PLANS 117
complicates a bad situation. The shiphandler controls the mood of the
bridge as well as the movement of the ship.
DISCUSSING DOCKING PLANS
Discuss the approach and docking plans well before reaching the berth.
The docking master appreciates the opportunity to brief you and to be as-
sured that the ship and crew are ready to respond as required. Don't ex-
pect him to predict each bell and helm order in detail but do get an
understanding of:
1. The approach, including any special maneuvers or engine require-
ments.
2. The placement of tugs.
3. The configuration of the berth, including any special problems such
as poorly located dolphins, ships to be maneuvered around or be-
tween, and any unusual space restrictions. This is the time to learn
of potential problems and to cancel the docking if you don't feel it can
be done safely. Don't wait until the ship is halfway up the slip and
being set down on the vessel in the berth astern.
4. Any special requirements such as a need for the anchor or for any
unusual leads for the mooring lines.
5. The current and wind to be expected at the berth. This is often differ-
ent from that indicated in the current tables and can best be ascer-
tained from the docking master who has the local knowledge required
to make accurate predictions.
In turn be sure to give all the same information to the docking pilot that
is described in chapter 1 for the channel pilot. Too often the docking master
is not properly briefed since the "passage is almost over." It's at least as im-
portant that the docking master be as fully informed as the channel pilots.
Don't hand the docking master a two-page preprinted form asking for a
detailed description of the "docking plan," including the engine bells that
will be required and the heading of the approach. The docking master can-
not do this, nor would you want to restrict him to any such predicted set of
maneuvers. Such forms and procedures only reflect the lack of profes-
sional background of the originating party, and create an embarrassing
situation for both the master and the pilot who must deal with such absur-
dities. An intelligent discussion between two professionals to ascertain
the general plan for the docking will suffice.
118 APPROACHING THE BERTH
If you don't agree with the proposed plan, let the docking master kr ow
about it. Don't wait until the middle of the evolution.
TIMING ARRIVALHOLDING IN A CHANNEL
For a number of reasons it may be necessary to plan a vessel's passage to
arrive at a berth, turning basin, or lock at a specified time. The master or
pilot may wish to dock at slack water, or the tugs or berth may not be avail-
able until a particular time. This is a routine navigational problem.
When timing arrivals, the mariner often attempts to arrive exactly as
scheduled and allows no time for unforeseen delays. Any reluctance to ar-
rive early and have to maneuver the ship to hold her in position in a chan-
nel for some period of time is natural but unnecessary. The ship can easily
take an hour to go the last mile to a desired point so there is no reason not
to allow some extra time when planning a passage.
The master or pilot can
1. Anchor to a short scope of chain with a head tide.
2. Steam on an anchor at slow engine speeds and hold a position and
heading in the channel even if there is a moderate wind from abeam.
3. Hold with a tug on each bow, using the engine as needed while the
tugs minimize headway.
4. Back and fill as necessary with surprisingly little advance up a
channel.
Further, by arriving early the master has an opportunity to practice
any or all of these maneuvers to sharpen shiphandling skills and develoo
confidence. Arriving early presents no problems but arriving late causes
the mariner to use excessive speedthe shiphandler's worst enemy.
SPEED OF APPROACH
The major difference between the neophyte and the experienced ship-
handler is the speed at which they work. The less experienced shiphandler
generally works too fast. Don't equate increased speed with increased ability.
When beginning an approach to a berth, speed should be reduced to
bare steerageway. This is much slower than most mariners realize and it
is a rare ship that, under calm conditions, will not steer at speeds of less
than 2 knots if given a chance to respond to her rudder. Further, by using
the engine in short bursts or kicks with hard-over rudder, even the worst
handling ships will respond. If additional response is needed, use the tug
SPEED OF APPROACH 119
or work against an anchor rather than increase headway. If unsure of
speed take all headway off the shipyou are now certain of her speed
through the waterano then come ahead as required to steer and make
minimum headway to the berth
There a.e several methods available by which the mariner can judge
speed:
1. Doppler log and/or GPS giving direct readout.
2. Fixes by radar or visual bearings.
3. Position of the ship's quickwater.
4. Observation of passing objects and comparisons with known dis-
tances.
The Doppler log gives direct readout of speed over the bottom (or speed
through the water when the ship is offshore and the log is indicating speed
referenced to water mass). Both single-point and three-point Doppler logs
have proven to be extremely valuable shiphandling tools, especially when
moving larger ships where speed is critical and tolerance for error small.
GPS units, especially those with a differential or wide area augmenta-
tion system (WAAS) correction, provide an extremely accurate indication
of speed over the bottom. Bear in mind that the speed shown is the resul-
tant speed at which the GPS unit's antenna is moving. Even when a unit is
interfaced with the vessel's gyro, the speed provided by the GPS becomes
less useful once the vessel begins to swing.
Fixes by radar or visual bearings are neither convenient nor suffi-
ciently accurate for determining speed in a docking situation.
The position of the ship's quickwater, that is, the wash from her propel-
ler as the engine goes astern, is extremely useful to the shiphandler at low
speeds. If that quickwater falls behind the ship when the engine is put
astern, the vessel's speed is 3 knots or more. When the quickwater begins
to move with the ship, the speed is about 2 knots. When the wash reaches
the midsection the ship is dead in the water. Since 2 knots is a comfortable
approach speed for an average size ship, it's convenient to be able to put a
light on the water at night and then go astern until you see by the position
of the ship's quickwater that the speed has been reduced to the desired
2-knot speed (fig. 4-2).
Some experience is needed before the relative motion of passing objects
con be used to estimate ship's speed, although it is possible for an experi-
enced seaman to judge speed visually with surprising accuracy. How does
120 APPROACHING THE BERTH
Fig. 4-2. Estimating headway when backing. Note: This figure depicts
the quickwater from a right-hand propeller. The location of quickwater
at various speeds is reversed for a left-hand turning propeller.
an experienced seaman become experienced? By practice! Estimate your
ship's speed of approach at every opportunity and compare it with the
speed shown on a Doppler log, or the speed indicated by the time required
to advance along a pier of known length, or by comparing your estimate
with that of a more experienced shiphandler such as the docking master.
Apprehension is usually the result of uncertainty, and the ability to judge
your ship's speed with reasonable accuracy will do much to make yuu a
confident and capable shiphandler.
When estimating ship's speed look at objects abeam or a little abaft the
beam since an optical illusion occurs when looking ahead. Objects forward
REDUCING SPEED EARLY 121
of the beam do not seem to be moving and if you use them as a reference
you'll find your ship is going too fast when she reaches the berth. Try an
experiment to satisfy yourself that this is so. Stand in the wheelhouse at
night when the ship's speed is most difficult to judge and, while watching
an object ashore located forward of the beam, slow your ship to a minimal
speed. Now look abaft the beam and see how fast you are actually moving.
Judging absolute speed visually can be difficult, but it is possible to de-
velop some rules of thumb to improve your accuracy. For example, at the
Panama Canal the pilots use the long fluorescent lights that illuminate
the banks at night to judge a ship's speed. By aligning the after edge of the
light with some point on the ship, such as the wheelhouse window, and
counting the number of seconds required for the entire light to pass that
point of reference, a surprisingly accurate estimate of speed can be made:
the lignt passes in 2 seconds at 2 knots. It is because of aids and skills such
as this that the pilots in the canal, where scheduling and timing are so im-
portant, are able to move ships as efficiently as they do.
The shiphandler must differentiate between speed over the ground and
speed through the water. Obviously the speed over the ground determines
the speed at which the ship arrives at the pier, while speed through the wa-
ter affects the ship's response to her rudder. Docking while stemming the
current is an advantage since the shiphandler can steer 3ven when moving
at minimal speeds relative to the berth; docking with the current from
astern creates the opposite situation and requires a greater degree of skill.
All of the aforementioned means ofjudging speed give ship's speed over
the bottom except the use of her quickwater.
REDUCING SPEED EARLY
Speed is especially important during the approach since a ship is less con-
trollable when her engine is used astern to reduce headway. If speed is
kept to a minimum it is possible to use the engine as needed without arriv-
ing at the berth with excessive headway. If speed is not reduced early in
the approach, the shiphandler finds himself with a tiger by the tailneed-
ing to reduce speed and yet having to use the ship's engines ahead to con-
trol the vessel when shaping up for docking.
Many shiphandlers make it a practice to stop a ship completely about
one ship length from the berth, especially at night when it is more difficult
to estimate a vessel's speed. They are then certain of the speedit is
zeroand can use the engine as required without concern about arriving
at the berth at an excessive speed.
122 APPROACHING THE BERTH BOW-IN APPROACH TO A PIER 123
k'
THE APPROACH
A good docking actually begins long before the ship comes alongside the
Dier. The approach is at least one third of the docking. Tf the speed is re-
duced, the ship properly lined up with the pier or wharf, and then steadied
up so that all lateral motion is eliminated, she practically docks herself.
When berthing starboard side to the pier, assuming that the ship has a
right-hand turning propeller, the ship approaches at only a small angle to
the dock. When the engine is put astern to take the last headway off the
ship, the stern moves to port, so if the ship is already at a significant angle
to the berth, it will be that much more difficult to get the ship flat along-
side. It is natural for a ship to behave in this manner at any time when
backed, and this behavior is amplified by the quickwater trapped between
the hull and berth moving up the ship's side. For this reason a deeply
loaded ship will normally require a tug aft to hold the stern up to the pier
when docking starboard side to.
The same ship approaching to dock port side to the pier must maintain
a greater angle to the berth, approximately 10 to 15 degrees to the dock in
most cases, with the bow heading for the area of the pier that will be amid-
ships when the ship is finally in position alongside (fig. 4-3). After the en-
gine is put astern to stop the ship, the stern will move to port and reduce
the angle of approach so that the ship comes flat alongside. By using left cal to attempt to cover each step of a particular docking in a cookbook-like
rudder and a kick ahead with the engine to check that swing to port as the fashion. By understanding the basics of shiphandling and approaching
ship comes alongside, the ship can be stopped in position without needing the pier in a proper manner, the mariner can use good seamanship to ad-
a tug aft. just to a given situation.
There will be some modifications to the basic angle of approach for a Ships generally approach either a pier constructed at an angle to the
starboard or port side to docking, depending on channel or a wharf that parallels the channel. The ship may dock either
bow or stern in at the pier or heading upstream or downstream at the
wharf.
1. Wind strength and relative direction.
2. Set and drift of the current. BOW-IN APPROACH TO A PIER
3. Ship's draft and freeboard. A ship docking bow in should turn and line up at the greatest possible dis-
4. Ship's power and steering characteristics. tance from the pier. This simplifies the docking ana minimizes any lateral
5. Whether the pier has an open or solid face. motion as the ship approaches the berrh. The angle of approach described
6. Physical configuration of the berth. for starboard or port side dockings is increased or decreased to allow for
7. Availability of adequate tug assistance. set and leeway toward or away from the pier due to current and wind. If
8. Presence of other vessels in the berth or slip. these forces are too strong to permit a safe docking, the ship can land on a
camel or a cluster of pilings at the outboard corner of the pier and then ei-
These factors all affect the docking of a ship. Modifications will be dis- ther come ahead on a bight led as a spring line or have a tug push on the
cussed briefly in subsequent sections, but keep in mind that it is impracti- bow to bring the ship into the slip. As ships become larger it's increasingly
124 APPROACHING THE BERTH
impractical to come ahead against a spring in the classic manner to warp a
ship into a slip or berth. Tugs are generally required in these cases (fig.
4-4).
STERN-IN APPROACH TO A PIER
When docking stern in, use the location of the ship's pivot point as a refer-
ence when estimating both the distance that you should pass off the end of
the pier, and the point at which you should turn away from the pier and be-
gin backing (fig. 4-5). The angle of approach is less important when back-
ing into a slip since the tugs are used to steer. Because the stern tends to
walk to port when the engine is backed, it is desirable to have a small an-
gle toward the berth when docking starboard side to. If the tugs have a
problem holding the ship at the desired angle, the engine and rudder can
be used to assist, coming ahead for sufficient time to move the stern in the
desired direction but not so long that the ship gains headway. While figure
4-5 shows the tugs made up on the bow and quarter, the after tug can also
be used at the stern on a hawser when berthing the ship stern in. This has
many advantages. The ship's engine can be used with ahead revolutions
together with the rudder to steer the ship, while the tug continues to keep
her moving astern by pulling in opposition to the ship's engine. Consider
using a tug on a hawser in this situation.
STERN-IN APPROACH TO A PIER 125
Position pivot point --
so stern swings clear
and snip lines up
v \oY\
with slip.
Tug may be used on
hawser astern Instead
of on ship's quarter.
I I
Fig. 4-5. Docking stern in at a slip.
Always avoid pushing with the tugs so long that excessive lateral mo-
tion is developed towards the Derth, causing the ship to land heavily
against the stringpiece. It is the lateral motion that the less experienced
shiphandler has the most difficulty detecting and controlling, and a mari-
ner will never become a shiphandler without being able to appreciate
sideward motion.
The importance of having the stern tug stand off until actually needed
was discussed in the previous chapter. This is especially important when
planning a stern in docking. The stern tug must not make fast until the
ship has turned to bring her stern toward the slip and is dead in the water.
Until then, the tug aft is of little help and may fall around under the coun-
ter and have an efiect opposite to that desired. Preferably, the aft tug does
not come alongside until the ship is entering the slip, since once fast, tiie
after tugby her weight and underwater profile alonesets the stern to-
ward the pier as the ship comes astern. This effect is amplified when dock-
ing port side to since the stern tends to move to port anyway when the
engine is going astern.
126 APPROACHING THE BERTH APPROACHING A WHARFCURRENT ASTERN 127

The bow tug is best made up with only a backing line so she simply fol- Ship stopped ielative to the bottom.

lows the ship into the slip, trailing on the line in a position bow to bow with
the ship. She comes ahead on either bow to steer the ship into the slip as
required, without having the effect of setting the ship towards the berth
that would result from being made up on one bow.
STEMMING THE CURRENT AT A WHARF
Berthing starboard or port side to a wharf while stemming the current is a
straightforward job that should be approached ac described earlier, with
some adjustment for the prevailing wind and current. There is usually Fig. 4-6. Approaching wharf, current from astern.
some set off the wharf as the ship comes alongside, in a direction contrary
to the current in the stream, which is running nearly parallel to the ship's Once alongside, the tugs hold the ship against the eddy current that
heading. This set off the pier is caused by a combination of the eddy cur- exists at the wharf. The mate on the stern must keep the propeller clear
rent that forms along the shore or shoal area, which exists in almost all while running stern lines since the engine is used continuously to hold the
cases under the wharf, and the hydraulic cushion that is created between ship in position against the current. The tugs can also help to hold the ship
the hull and the shallow area under the wharf. This cushion is quite signif- in position by keeping an angle into the current rather than being at right
icant when the face of the wharf is solid, or nearly so, as is often the case angles to the ship's hull. Their thrust holds the ship alongside and up to
when a wharf is constructed using a bulkhead to contain the bank behind the current (fig. 4-7).
the stringpiece. This set off the wharf should be planned for so the ship can Berthing with the current from astern is not a problem as long as it is
be brought alongside and held there until made fast. Tools available to the kept in mind that the ship is effectively backing stern first into position. By
shiphandler to accomplish this include tugs, steaming against an anchor, adjusting the angle that the ship makes to the currentstern toward the
or good breast lines. Do not expect to simply bring the ship alongside and dock to move in that direction, stern parallel to the dock to check the lat-
have her lie there without some assistance until the lines are run ashore. eral motion toward the pier or move away from itthe ship can be effi-
ciently and safely be rthed. Any problems that arise when docking with the
APPROACHING A WHARFCURRENT ASTERN current from astern usually result from trying to push the ship alongside
Docking at a wharf with the current running from astern requires greater with the tugs, rather than letting the current set the ship onto the berth.
planning and skill. The ship comes up to the berth with the intent of back- The vessel gets away from the shiphandler because the current takes
ing into position since she will be making sternway through the water charge. Use the tugs only to assist to keep the needed angle as the ship is
when stopped in position relative to the wharf. If the shiphandler thinks of set alongside.
the job in this way, that the ship is coming stern first into the current to the
berth, the maneuver becomes much more straightforward.
Come abeam of the assigned berth with two tugs made fast and take
all headway off the ship. Continue backing the engine while keeping the
stem angled slightly toward the wharf and, as the ship gains sternway
through the water (while stopped or nearly stopped relative to the bot-
tom), the current on the ship's offshore side moves her laterally toward
the wharf (fig. 4-6). Use only enough speed to hold the ship in position
and use the tugs as required to control the ship as she is set alongside by
the current.

CHAPTER FIVE
DOCKING
Captain Ball, on the bridge, heaved a sigh. "Ring off the
engines," he directed; and somewhere down below, the
telegraph jingled. Suddenly, disturbingly, the decks
ceased to throb and the stanchions to tremble. After
eighteen pulsing days the ship seemed no longer to be
alive. Silence, torrents of silence poured in from all
sides.
"Hell's bells!" remarked Captain-Ball, unbuttoning
his overcoat and taking a cigar from his nightshirt
pocket, "What a trip that was!"
Guy Gilpatric, Mary, Queen ,yof Scots
"It's been a pleasure to watch your crew work, Cap', a real pleasure. They
know what is needed and go to it without a lot of talk on the damn radio."
The expression on the old man's face made it obvious that he agreed
with the docking master's observations and was proud of his ship and crew.
"It's true Pilot. They do work wellprobably because most of them are
permanent aboard and know what is expected ofthem," replied the captain.
"They rotate as a teammates and engineers, and most of the unli-
censed crewso they know the ship and each other. Makes for a safer and
more efficient operation, that's for sure."
"How come more ships aren't manned this way, Cap'?"
It is o. subject the captain felt strongly about and he went into a lengthy
explanation, interrupted only by an occasional engine or rudder order as
the deep laden bulk carrier slowly approached the berth.
"Too few owners appreciate the importance of a trained and organized
crew, and of keeping a crew aboard ship as a unit. The same shoreside man-
ager who cries like hell if he has three personnel changes in his office in one
year thinks that the staff aboird ship can be shuffled from vessel to vessel at
random and still be well-trained, know their ship, and work efficiently."
"Well, it's obvious from the way that everyone aboard your ship works
like a team that it makes a difference," replied the docking master. "We're
getting closebetter move out on the wing."
128
USING WIND AND CURRENT TO ADVANTAGE 129
They moved to the port wing and continued tiie discussion.
"Another benefit bf having everyone in the crew stay together is that they
take a lot more pride in their work and the operation of their skip. Guess
that's the keysince they keep coming back to a permanently assigned
ship, ihey feel an interest in her and it shows in their work."
"I see a lot of this on the better run ships such as yours, Captain. They
have bridge teams that are trained together, and permanent unit crews,
shipboard management schemes, and a lot of other good ideas."
The subject was dropped as the first heaving line snal; <d ashore; the
docking operation now required their full attention. After the engine was
rung off the captain invited the pilot to his cabin for a heave ahead before
going to his next job.
"Yep, this unit crew business should be started on more ships, Cap'. I
sure see a difference when I move ships set up that way. Things go much
smoother, and it makes shiphandling and docking a lot easier and safer."
"Hopefully, more companies will begin to appreciate that it's the key to
efficient and safe operation of ships, Pilot. This crew even trained as a unit
in navigation, bridge procedures, and shiphandling, and there would be
no point in all that training if they were split up after their first vacation."
As they parted with a handshake, the captain added,"I've been going to
sea for over twenty years and I know that having permanent, well-trained
crews makes a difference i in the standard of ship operation."
USING WIND AND CURRENT TO ADVANTAGE
Too often the seaman brings a shoreside mentality aboard ship and thus
looks upon wind and current as hindrances to be overcome, rather than as
aids to be used with the rudder, engine, tugs, and anchor to put the ship
alongside a berth in a safe and seamanlike manner. A powerful tug can
combat a moderate wind and current, although at best the docking will be
sloppy, but even the finest tugs do not make it possible to fight a strong
wind or current. Nor is it necessary for them to be asked to.
Before starting the docking, get out on the bridge wing and feel the
wind and weather on your face. Look up at the stack and down at the wa-
ter. Look out to the horizon and check what the future weather conditions
might be. Constant awareness of wind, weather, and current is essential
to effective shiphandling.
How do the effects :of wind and current compare? Air is about nine hun-
dred times less dense; than water, so for a given velocity wind has much
less effect on the ship than current. An increase in the velocity of either the
130 DOCKING
wind or current will increase its effect on the ship, both varying as the
square of the velocity. The relationship of density and velocity to pressure
is expressed:
2g
where
P = resultant pressure
p = density of the fluid (air or water)
V = velocity of the fluid
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft./sec') 1 overcomes the wind (fig. 5-1). In stronger winds put an anchor down as de-
A 30-knot wind exerts the same force on an equal area as a 1-knot cur-
rent. This ratio is altered by variables such as the surface area of the su-
perstructure, the ratio of the ship's draft to her freeboard, and the vessel's
trim. While the shiphandler should not apply this formula to every dock-
ing situation, the ratio 30:1 can be used as a base to help understand the
relative effect of wind and current.
As a ship's speed is reduced, the momentum of the ship and the effec-
tiveness of her rudder and engine decrease while the wind and current re-
main the same. WQien the ship is dead in the water, only the wind and
current act upon her, although at some prior point these outside forces
have become dominant Sthe docking has been properly planned, the ship
r into the wind before
is so positioned that as the wind and current "itake charge" they assist the
shiphandler in docking the vessel. Until that time, the ship's angle of ap-
proach and speed are adjusted to compensate for wind and current, and
anchors and tugs are used as necessary.
Let's look at some of the ways in which the wind and current may assist
the ship:
1. A wind blowing off the berth can be used to overcome a 3hip's lateral
motion toward that berth, instead of using the tugs and engine.
2. A wind blowing on the berth can ease a ship alongside if the
shiphandler stops her a few feet off the berth.
1 R. S. Crenshaw, Jr., Naval Shiphandling, pg. 15.
USING WIND AND CURRENT TO ADVANTAGE 131
3. A current that runs across the end of the berth acting on the ship's
quarter can assist the ship in turning into a slip. She is landed and
pivoted on a cluster of pilings or a camel rather than being steamed
into the slip while fighting the current. (See figure 4-4.)
Don't fight a wind blowing off the berth. Position your sliip at a greater
angle to the berth and deliberately give the ship more lateral motion as
she comes alongside. The engine is kicked ahead with the rudder hard
over to move the stern towards the berth and the ship is then held along-
side by tugs. The larger angle of approach compensates for the wind's ef-
fects while the ship has headway. As she slows, the lateral motion
scribed in chapter 8 to check up the bow and amplify the lateral motion as
the ship comes alongside into the wind.
The tugs and rudder move the ship toward the berth, the anchor holds
her up to the wind, and the wind checks the lateral motion that develops.
A strong wind on the berth causes ihe ship to land with too much lat-
eral motion, so it may be necessary in such a situation to back the tugs or
ease alongside with an anchor as described in chapter 8. Plan so tugs are
Kick stern toward dock
to create lateral motion
backing.
Wind
Approach at a greater
angle to compensate
for leeway.
Fig. 5-1. Don't fight external forceswork with them.
132 DOCKING
in position to perform this work, or have the anchor on the bottom and
ready to use.
When the wind is quite strong onto the berth, put the ship alongside
earlier in docking. Don't fight a strong wind: let the ship go alongside and
slide up the stiingpiece into position. The ship can't be olown heavily
against ihe dock after stopping in position if she is already alongside.
These are but a few examples of ways in which mariners use wind and cur-
rent as tools rather than allowing them to become problems.
MEASURING SLOW RATES OF SPEED
The minimal speeds used while docking can be accurately measured with-
out instrumentation or complication using this rule of thumb:
"A ship moves 100 feet per minute at 1 knot."
If in doubt of a ship's speed, note the time on your watch and the ship's
position relative to a bollard on the pier. After any convenient interval of
time (say thirty seconds), again note the relative positions and you will im-
mediately know the ship's speed.
You don't know the distance between bollards or other convenient ref-
erence points? It can be estimated with sufficient accuracy by comparing
the distance between points with the ship's beam.
Having moved in one minute between two bollards placed 150 feet
apart, you know the ship is making 1.5 knots.
WHien determining ship's speed, don't ignore the obvious. Engine revo-
lutions equate to speed through the water. This is so obvious that it is of-
ten forgotten during the approach to a pier or when proceeding in pilot
waters, yet engine revolutions are nearly as good an indication of speed
when maneuvering at low RPM as when at sea.
Learn your ship's RPM/speed ratio. If 10 revolutions equals 2 knots,
then 60 revolutions equals 12 knotsit isn't necessary to continuously
consult a detailed table to determine ship's speed through the water.
DETECTING LATERAL MOTION
It quickly becomes second nature for an experienced manner, who lives
and works more closeiy with the elements than perhaps any other profes-
sional, to make allowances for wind and current. It is equally important
that the shiphandler also develop an appreciation for the less obvious lat-
eral motion that results from:
1. Turning as the ship is approaching the berth.
SETTING UP TO DACK 133
2. Extended use of tugs.
3. Checking or holding the lines before the ship is alongside.
These actions cause sideward motion independent of any motion
caused by the wind and current, even when the ship is making no head-
way. If not checked, the ship moves laterally toward or away from the
berth or comes alongside with excessive force. Lateral motion may be de-
sirable at times and is not so much an effect to be avoided as a factor to be
watched for and used to advantage.
Lateral motion is easier to detect when working from the centerline of
the ship because you have a better view of the vessel and her heading.
Watch objects ashore located ahead or astern. Use their change in align-
ment as a range to detect latera motion, and note when the distance from
1
the pier increases or decreases independent of heading, wind, and current.
The ability to detect this sideward slide through the water and make
use of it is a mark of an accomplished shiphandler because it is one of the
effects that is least appreciated by an inexperienced pilot or master.
SETTING UP TO BACK
Prior to going astern, especially when docking without a tug aft, a sin-
gle-screw ship should be set up so her inherent twisting effects are an aid
rather than a hindrance. Since the approach is planned to allow for this ef-
fect, only one additional maneuver is required.
When going starboard side to the berth, put the rudder to port and kick
the engine ahead until the stern develops a slight swing to starboard. Note
that it is necessary to considei the rudder's effect on each end of the ship
"ather than simply on the ship as a whole. Near the berth the rudder is of-
ten used to move the stern rather than to change the ship's heading. After
this slight swing of the stern to starboard has begun, go astern to slow or
stop the ship. While backing, the stern checks up and probably moves to
port as the propeller and quickwater take over, but any movement of the
stern to port is minimized since you shaped up to back prior to putting the
engine astern. The maneuver is repeated as required so the ship is
stopped in position and parallel to the pier or wharf (fig. 5-2).
When berthing port side to, the ship is set up to allow for the same
swing of the stern to port. Since the ship's angle of approach decreases
each time the engine goes astern, the initial angle of approach is greater
for a port side to docking. The rudder and engine are used to check the mo-
tion tc port as necessary so the ship does not come parallel to the berth
134 DOCKING
1. "Kick" the engine ahead, rudder hard left,
swinging the stern toward tho dock and
countering the twisting effect as (see no. 2)
2. The engine is p j t astern. The swing is
checked L>y the K .opeller's toique and
the quickwater as the ship stops
parallel to trie dock.
Fig. 5-2. Docking starboard side tosetting up to back.
until she is in position. The quickwater partially checks the swing so the
ship lands easily.
Knowing that the ship swings in this manner, it is logical to use astern
bells to change her heading to starboard rather than only the rudder. This
provides an opportunity to simultaneously slow the ship and change her
heading (fig. 5-3).
Don't overuse the rudder when docking. The rudder can often remain
hard left during the final stages of a docking maneuver whether docking
port or starboard side to, since it has so little effect at these slow speeds. The
hard-over rudder is in the position in which it will most likely be needed,
and having it in this position saves time required for the steering engine to
move the rudder should it be needed to check the ship's swing. Do the same
when backing the engine in an anchorage or during other maneuvers when
the ship has little or no headwaythe rudder need not be shifted when
backing the engine unless the ship develops significant sternway.
QUICKWATER
Quickwater develops when the flow from the engine going astern starts
moving up the ship's side. This occurs first on the starboard side at about 2
knots and by the time the ship has little headway there will be consider-
able flow up both sides of the ship. The quickwater strikes first on the
quarter so the stern moves away and the bow heads toward the berth, and
its effect is more pronounced when docking starboard side to. The quick-
water eventually moves up the full length of the ship so she is affected
equally fore and aft, the cushion being used by the shiphandler to reduce
the ship's lateral motion or move the ship away from the dock.
Like other forces that affect a ship, quickwater is planned for and used
as an aid by the competent shiphandler. Quickwater affects a docking or
BRIDGE MARKERS 135
Use the twisting effect
when backing to
simultaneously turn
and stop the ship.
Fig. 5-3. Coming alongsideport side to the dock.
undocking ship but is strongest when there is shoaling or a bulkhead un-
der the berth. This contains the flow and increases the pressure acting
upon the hull. If the ship approaches with excessive speed, it is necessary
to back more strongly than desired for a greater length of time, and result-
ing excessive flow of quickwater becomes a problem in spite of the best
planning. This is one more reason for approaching at the minimum possi-
ble speed.
BRIDGE MARKERS
Common sense dictates that a marker or light be placed on the stringpiece
to show the location of the bridge when the ship is in position. Unfortu-
nately, this is rarely done. Too often the ship is alongside with the first lines
run before someone on the dock decides that she should shift 50 feet ahead
or 30 feet astern. Aside from being both annoying and unprofessional, this
practice cost both "he ship and the terminal a great deal of time and
c
money. The stevedore or terminal operator knows where the working hatch
or manifold should be spotted, and every shipmaster knows the distance
from the bridge to the bow or manifold, so the bridge location can easily be
marked on the dock prior to bringing the ship alongside.
Shipmasters and pilots must work to make the use of bridge markers
and lights more common.
136 DOCKING
USE FINESSE, NOT FORCE
Keep in mind when going alongside that you are bringing a moving object
of considerable mass alongside an unforgiving and immovable piei or
wharf, an evolution that requires some degree of finesse. Beware the
shipmaster or pilot who tells in most graphic terms how the ship was
"forced" into a berth against wind and current, having been "belted" full
ahead and full astern until she was "driven" alongside the berth within
feet of certain calamity. This is no professional speaking!
Shiphandling, like lovernaking, is a subtle art: the ship is not driven by
the shiphandler, she is caressed, and this must be foremost in your mind
as you give those last commands to ease the ship alongside.
GOING ALONGSIDE
It is extremely important that the ship is flat to the stringpiece as she co-
mes alongside. This i3 true for several reasons:
1. The frames through the entire midbody of the ship can absorb the
impact of landing, rather than having the impact ccncentrated
within a small area of the hull.
Fig. 5-4. ". . . and just think, First, that pilot docked with 'finesse."'
M.L SECURE 137
2. A parallel landing traps the maximum quantity of water between
the hull and the pier or wharf, and thus develops the maximum
cushioning effect.
3. The eddy current acts equally along the entire length of the ship,
slowing her lateral motion and easing the landing.
4. If the ship is docking with any current, having the ship's upstream
end hard alongside keeps the current from getting inside the ship
and forcing her back off the berth.
5. The maximum cushioning effect is gained from the ship's quick-
water when the ship is parallel to the berth.
When the impact of landing is spread over the entire length of the flat
parallel midbody, and several hundred feet of nearly incompressible wa-
ter cushions that landing, the ship can go alongside with surprising force
without damage. The reverse is true when the ship lands at any angle to
the berth. It is common to see water trapped between the hull and a
solid-faced pier or wharf go several feet into the air as the ship conies
alongside, indicative of the energy that this hydraulic.cushion is absorb-
ing. If the hull has any angle, the water rushes toward the end that is far-
thest off the pier and the cushion is lost.
ALL SECURE
The ship is alongside and the lines are being run ashore one after the other
to make her fast. The number and placement of these lines varies with the
location and construction of the pier, the type and size of the ship, and the
weather and current conditions that are expected.
Ships usually run sufficient head, spring, and stern lines that keep
the ship from moving forward and aft. Unfortunately, these lines are of-
ten a hindrance rather than an aid in keeping the ship alongside in a
strong currentespecially after the ship has been allowed to get off the
pier at one end. The tidal current gets on the inshore side of the hull at
the bow or quarter, an eddy current develops to further increase the
strain on the lines, and the ship moves ahead or astern into the current.
The ship rides outward and ahead on the lines, pivoting on them much
like a wf.terskier at the er.d of a towline, while the lines at the opposite
end of the ship pull her in so she begins surging up and down the pier.
This surging occurs because there is a greater strain on the upstream
lines than on those leading downstreum, and causes shock loading that
parts lines.
138 DOCKING
Breast lines, the lines that arc most effective in keeping the ship along-
side, are too often overlooked although they should be doubled up like any
others. If there are sufficient breast lines to keep the shiD alongside, the
strain on the lines leading forward and aft remains equal and the ship
does not begin surging.
The surging is aggravated by passing ships whose hydrodynamic
forces move the berthed vessel first away from and then toward the mov-
ing vessel, while also pulling the docked ship off the wharf. A pressure
wave moves ahead of the approaching ship, and there is a decrease in pres-
sure between the two ships due to the flow of water as they pass. It is espe-
cially important that the ship be kept hard alongside, with sufficient
breast lines run and all lines up tight, at berths exposed tD passing ship
traffic.
Remember too, Mate, to call the ship that is approaching at, excessive
speed on the VHF radio and tell her to slow down. No longer is it necessary
to stand by and watch a catastrophe develop because you cannot commu-
nicate. Look over the side and make sure the ship is alongside, then go to
the VHF radio and tell the passing ship to pass at minimum speed with the
engine stopped to ensure that your vessel is not pulled off the pier.
CHAPTER SIX
UNDOCKING
Many are the boys, in every seapoxt, who are drawn
away, as by an almost irresistible attraction, from their
work and schools, and hang about the docks and yards
of vessels with a fondness which, it is plain, will have its
way. No sooner, however, has the young sailor begun his
new life in earnest, than all this fine dra cry falls off,
and he learns that it is work after all.
Richard Henry' Dana, Two Years Before the Mast
Cargo operations complete, the ship lies quiet for the first time in many
hours. The shore staff are gone, leaving you with a desk heaped full of
memos, magazines, and unopened mail. The short stay in port was hectic
but you enjoyed it both because it marked the enil of one voyage and the be-
ginning of another. Perhaps it is just because your work has these begin-
nings and endings, rather than going on intermiruibly as jobs ashore seem
to do, that you stay at sea.
The telephone interrupts your reverie.
"The pilot is on the bridge. Captain."
Another voyage has begun.
PLANNING THE UNDOCKING
Take the same care when briefing the undocking pilot as was taken with
the pilot who docked the ship; exchange the same information and data
card. Be sure to inform the pilot of the status of the anchor in addition to
all the other items outlined in previous chapters, especially if they are
backed out of the hawsepipe or if one was left on the bottom after docking.
It is surprising hew| cften the docking pilot finds out that there are two
# #
shots of chain in the water after letting go the last line.
As you did before docking, get out on the wing and feel the wind, check
its direction by looking up at the stack gases, and look over the side to check
the current. No matter how many instruments you might have to supply
such information, it's still important that you use your own senses and get a
feel for existing conditions before planning this or any other maneuver.
139
140 UNDOCKING
Too often, the less experienced shiphandler looks upon undocking as a
relatively simple operation and does not properly plan the evolution.
The ship is usualh undocking stern first from a berth, so she steers
poorly if at all. Since she is starting from alongside, the shiphandler has
fewer options available that make use of the wind and current as the ship
begins ba eking from the berth. During a docking, wind and current are felt
when the stern is in clear water and the angle of approach can be adjusted
to make use of these forces. This is not the case when undocking.
Even the most careful plans may have to be altered after the lines are
let go since it is difficult to determine which of several conflicting forces
will most affect the ship leaving the berth. Often the shiphandler lets go
expecting to be set oft the pier by wind, only to remain hard alongside due
to subsurface current. If this occurs, take time to replan the undocking be-
fore touching the telegraph. The ship isn't going anywheremore acci-
dents occur because of inappropriate action than delayed action.
DRAFT AND TRIM IN BALLAST
The directional stability and handling characteristics of a loaded ship
were discussed in previous chapters, so it is assumed that the ship is now
in ballast and light. Ideally, she is ballasted to at least a moderate draft to
submerge the propeller, rudder, and bow thruster, and to reduce windage.
Give her a few feet of drag. The amount of trim by the stern depends on the
handling characteristics of the ship, but it is better to have a bit too much
drag than not enough. Try to at least get the stern well down if stress or
loading conditions limit ballasting since:
1. The ship has excellent directional stability with good drag.
2. The propeller and rudder are then most effective. With a deeper
draft aft the ship steers better, requires less distance to stop, twists
less when the engine is put astern, and requires less rudder to coun-
ter the torque of the propeller when going astern.
3. It is preferable that the bow also be ballasted to at least a moderate
draft to reduce windage and submerge the bow thruste so it is ef-
r
fective.
If a choice must be made, however, between getting the bow down or a
proper draft aft, choose the latter. It can be a challenge to hold a light bow
into the wind until headway develops, but it can be done using a tug or the
USING QUICKWATER WHEN UNDOCKING 141
anchor. In most situations, the advantages of having the stern down out-
weigh this disadvantage.
SINGLING UP
Alter undocking ships for many years, pilots and seafarers alike tend to be-
come complacent about singling up mooring lines. Too often it becomes a
habit to single up at a particular berth in the same manner with every ship.
"Two and one forward and a stern line aft, Mate," and without further
thought the docking master heads for the coffee maker.
Singling up is usually a routine operation until the night when from a
warm, quiet wheelhouse you underestimate the force of the wind or cur-
rent. It took several lines to hold the ship alongside. Yet, when singling up,
the ship is left hanging off a few parts stretched fiddlestr ig tight. Walk
out on the wing, feel and see the conditions, and really think about how
many and which lines should be taken in.
Ideally the lines are taken in systematically while the ship is held in
position without overloading the remaining parts. Which lines should be
left until last? This depends on the existing conditions, hence no rule of
thumb can suffice. Basically, it is preferable to leave short lines until last,
that is, a short headline and spring forward, a short stern line and breast
line aft. Run a bight or tiuo in place of a single line if the wind und/or cur-
rent are strong. It requires only one winch to heave that bight aboard when
taking in the last lines, but the bight provides twice as many parts to hang
on while waiting to let go. Use tug assistance to hold the ship alongside
and reduce the strain on remaining lines while singling up.
Short lines hold the ship alongside more effectively and still keep her
from moving forward or aft, and they can also be brought aboard quickly
especially important aft since the propeller should be cleared as soon as
possible so the engine can be used.
As ships get larger, winches are geared down to handle the higher
loads and thus are slower. It is therefore important that the crew be in-
formed if the last lines must come aboard particularly fast. The mate can
leave the shortest line until last, and lead it to the winch before letting go
to get the propeller clear quickly.
USING QUICKWATER WHEN UNDOCKING
The ship's quickwater can be an effective tool during the undocking, espe-
cially when backing from a wharf or pier, since the ship is passing through
the quickwater as she moves astern.
142 UNDOCKING
Leaving a starboard side berth the quickwater forces the stern away
from the dock or wharf, then moves the ship laterally and, when there is a
good flow striking the hull forward of the pivot point, checks up the swing
01 tne bow toward the pier. The more restricted the flow of quicKwater
along the inboard side of the ship, whether duo to shoaling under the berth
or to the pier or wharf having a solid face, the more effect it has on the ship.
Quickwater has less effect when leaving from a port side berth since it
is inherently less strong on the port side of the ship and is acting in more
open water due to the ship's angle to the pier as she starts to back.
Quickwater has a minimal effect but does reduce that angle to the berth as
it strikes the forepart of the hull.
With some planning, the quickwater can be used to neatly move a ship
with the minimum of bells and rudder orders. For example, a ship can be
started astern until the stern begins to lift off the pier. The engine is then
stopped and the ship drifts astern while the quickwater moves forward
to strike the hull ahead of the pivot point. The swing of the bow toward
the pier is checked arid the ship backs straight astern, clearing the berth
in a neat and seamanlike manner. Quickwater is discussed further in
chapter 5.
UNDOCKING FROM A WHARF
Take advantage of any current from ahead when undocking from a wharf.
Deliberately get that current inside the ship and create the situation you
have been avoiding while the ship was berthed. The current moves the
bow off the wharf as you use the engine and rudder to lift the stern without
developing any head or sternway over the ground (fig. 6-1). The ship
moves laterally off the berth.
A certain feel is needed when adjusting engine revolutions so the ship
makes no headway but sets away from the berth in the current. Use suffi-
cient engine revolutions to keep the ship abeam of a selected point on the
wharf while walking her laterally away from the berth. When wind and
space limitations make tug assistance necessary, the tug is backed as re-
quired to maintain the ship's angle to the wharf while the current takes hei
off the berth.
Greater lateral force and control are needed when ships are berthed
close ahead and astern, or a wind blowing on the wharf overcomes the cur-
rent. Either use a second tug or back the bow tug while the ship's engine
turns ahead with more power and hard-over rudder (fig. 6-2). In the latter
case, the tug and engine work against each other to prevent headreaching
UNDOCKING FROM A WHARF 143
1. Current lifts bow (and ship bodily)
away from the wharf. Rjdder and
! engine move tne stern.
1
2. RPMs adjusted so the ship makes no headway
over the bottom while moving laterally.
Fig. 6-1. Undockingcurrent from ahead
while moving the ship off the dock laterally. The ship maintains an angle
to the wharf so the current can assist the tug and engine in moving the
ship off the dock. A more detailed discussion of this technique is found
later in this chapter.
When the current is from astern, the ship is undocked in much the
same manner as she was docked under the same conditions. Work the bow
toward the wharf using the tug, engine, and mooring lines, and then back
into the stream. If a vessel is berthed astern, use the engines as necessary
to match the current as the ship works laterally off the wharf. Again,
maintain a speed through the water that matches the drift of the current
so the ship moves laterally over the ground.
A steam-turbine-powered ship can easily maintain the required speed.
Communicate with the engine room by telephone rather than telegraph to
obtain specific revolutions instead of using standard maneuvering speeds.
A motor ship requires more attention since a nigh-speed diesel has a
dead slow that often exceeds the required speed. The engine must be
stopped intermittently to make good the needed speed, a maneuver that
requires :.cme practice. A variable-pitch-propelled motor ship has an ad-
vantage in this situation since the pitch can be reduced to exactly match
the drift of the current.
144 UNDOCKING
Tug's power oppose." the ship's engine.
Ship moves away from the berth but makes
To take a ship off a clear wharf at slack water, put her bow at a small
angle to the berth and steam ahead. Use the rudder with care, lifting the
stern while maintaining the ship's angle to the wharf. If the wharf is not
clear ahead, the ship is either worked off using the engine in opposition to
a tug, or the bow is pushed in toward the pier and the ship backs off as de-
scribed later for a port side undocking from a pier.
BACKING FROM A SLIP
This common undocking situation has as many variations as there are
piers. All have some basic similarities though, and the shiphandler uses a
knowledge of seamanship to adjust methods to suit the local conditions.
A ship berthed starboard side to needs no angle when backing from a
pier, since the torque of the propeller and the quickwater move her stern
to port, clear of the dock. It may be necessary to use the bow thruster or tug
to check up the resultant starboard swing of the bow so it clears the
stringpiece, or tc intermittently come ahead with hard-over rudder to
steady up the ship before continuing to back. If the ship is to back to star-
board after clearing the slip, go astern until the pivot point is well clear of
the pier and then come ahead with hard-port rudder to walk the stern to
starboard as the bow swings clear (fig. 6-3). If the turn is begun before the
pivot point clears the pier, that part of the ship aft of the pivot point vr ll
close on the pier as the stern moves to starboard. This is so whether the
ship is turned with the engine alone or with tug assistance, as a tug does
not lift the ship bodilyit pivots the hull about the pivot pointa point
that shifts aft to about midships as the tug pushes or pulls on the bow.
BACKING I-'ROM A SLIP 145
1. Ship backing from a berth.
2. Come ahead, rudder hard left, to
pivot ship. Don't kill sternway.
\/
Pivot point
Fig. 6-3. Think "pivot point" when turning.
Before backing from a port side docking, work the bow in and get the
ship at a good angle with the stern well off the pier. This can be done by:
1. Pushing with the bow tug.
2. Heaving on the headline while holding the forward spring.
3. Backing a stern tug, if used.
4. Coming ahead dead slow against the spring line with the rudder
hard over toward the deck.
It is becoming less practical tc work against mooring lines as ships in-
crease in size and power. Diesel-propelled ships often have a dead slow
speed of 6 to 8 knots and are especially difficult to undock by working
against ship's lines.
The torque of a propeller going astern walks the stern to port so the
ship comes back parallel to the berth as sternway develops. She then co-
mes easily out of the berth and is turned as required once the pivot point
clears the pier (fig. (j-4).
Whether backing from a port or starboard side berth, the bow tug ei-
ther backs along with the ship, using a stern line as required, or falls
146 UNDOCKING HACKING FROM A SLIP 147

safest maneuver when there is no tug assistance since the ship is

alongside at all times until clear and thus cannot be blown against
the pier and damaged. She may lose some paint while sliding along
but this is inconsequential since "paint comes in buckets while steel
comes in shipyards."
2. Putting the ship at a good angle to the berth by working against the
spring line and then backing clear. However, the entire ship body, or
more likely the ship's bow, may be blown back down on the pier and
damaged when undocking in this manner.
3. Breasting the ship off with one or two tugs.
The ship's behavior once she develops sternway is primarily a factor of
her superstructure and freeboard. She may set back on the pier bodily, or
the bow only may set down toward the pier as the ship backs into the wind.
The shiphandler must be prepared for either situation unless the ship is
being slid along the stringpiece.
Another situation develops when the shod doors on the pier are closed.
An eddy often forms as the wind reflects off the closed doors and the ship is
Fig. 6-4. Undockingberthed port side to. set off tne dock rather than on it. This simplifies the undocking. Since the
around and follows the ship while hanging on a single line. When there is
sufficient room between the hull and berth, a tug line trailing stem to stem
can work against either side of the ship to lift the bow and steer the ship as
she backs from the slip (fig. 6-5).
It would seem quite simple to back from a slip when a strong wind is
blowing off the pier but this is not always the case. When the ship is dead
in the water the wind tends to move her bodily off the pier; this effect is
modified by a large stack or forward or after house, which causes the bow
or stern to come away more quickly. As the ship develops sternway, she of-
ten backs into the wind so the stern usually moves toward the berth, over-
coming the torque of the propeller during starboard side undocking or
accentuating the twisting effect in a port side uncocking.
A wind blowing on the pier holds the ship alongside. While more eso-
teric maneuvers can be usedthe ship can be pu'led off the deck with an
anchor deployed during docking, or a lashed-up tug can be usedmore
common options available for undocking in this situation include:
1. Sliding along the stringpiece until the stern clears the outboard cor-
ner of the pier and the ship is turned fair in the channel. This is the Fig. 6-5. Tug working at the bowbacking from a berth.
148 UNDOCKING
ship will lie some distance off the stringpiece rather than hard against it
in this situation, the shiphandler is aware of the condition and can plan
accordingly.
In any case, the mariner again uses the wind rather than reacts to it.
Anticipate wind effects aud adjust the ship's angle to the berth so the wind
helps her maintain a desired heading. A shiphandler who waits until
these effects occur and then responds to them soon feels like a cat chasing
its tail.
COMING AHEAD FROM A SLIP
This straightforward and simple maneuver can generally be performed
with minimum assistance. In a clear slip it's often possible to depart with-
out tug assistance unless there is a strong wind or current holding the ship
on the berth. Even under these conditions a ship can sail withe ut a tug if
there is good maneuvering room off the end of the pier.
Undocking when the wind is off the dock is a simple maneuver, the ship
steaming clear until the stern has room to swing and then turning fair in
the channel. A tug may be required if the channel off the pier is not wide
enough to permit turning unassisted. The anchor or spring line can also be
used to work the ship around the end of the pier as described in previous
chapters.
A wind blowing on the berth presents some problems to a ship docked
stern in. Usually a tug is used to lift the bow while the rudder and engine
move the stern away from the stringpiece. The ship may depart without a
tug though, even in a moderate wind, if the job is planned to make use of
existing conditions. Let go all lines and steam the ship at slow speed up the
stringpiece keeping the rudder about 10 degrees toward the pier to hold
the ship lightly alongside. If the ship were to come off the pier and then
blow back down again she could be damaged. As the pivot point clears the
end of the pier, increase the revolutions and rudder angle, turning the
ship across the end of the pier and lifting the stern clear. The ship must
have enough speed to overcome leeway when she clears the end of the
stringpiece2 to 3 knots usually being sufficient. The stern lifts neatly
away from the stringpiece as the ship clears tne berth and turns to head
fair in the channel (fig. 6-6).
The only safe maneuver when the ship is stern in and has to turn away
from the pier with limited maneuvering room is to wait for a tug. There are
maneuvers that can be used but they depend on so many thr'ngs going well
that the risk of accident is excessive.
COMING OFF PARALLEL TO A DERTH 149
Fig. 6-6. Undocking bow out from a slip.
COMING OFF PARALLEL TO A BERTH
Often a ship must come off a berth while remaining parallel to the
stringpiece, such as when she is berthed in a narrow slip, or docked star-
board side to with a ship astern, or berthed at a wharf with ships close
ahead and astern. There are several ways to accomplish this:
1. Use a second tug made fast aft to lift and control the stern during the
undocking.
2. Lash up the bow tug facing aft and use that tug against the ship's en-
gines as discussed in chapter 3.
3. Make the bow tug fast in the usual manner and back that tug to lift
the bow while the ship's engine is coming head with the rudder
hard over toward the dock to lift the stern. Sufficient engine revolu-
tions must be used to counter the tug's power as they work against
each other, so tiie ship maintains her position over the bottom, that
is, relative to the berth, but moves laterally away from the string-
p ece. (See figure 6-2.)
;
These techniques can be used alone or in combination with other previ-
ously discussed methods for undocking to turn a ship around in a limited
space, or to accomplish work with one tug that might ordinarily reouire
two. Such options augment the more common backing and pushing work
with tugs.
150 UNDOCKING
BACKING A SHIP TOWARD A HAZARD
Given a choice, a shiphandler never presents the stern of a ship to dan-
gernever backs toward a shoa or another ship if there is any option. It is
1 Variable-pitch ships often have right-hand turning propeiiers. These
preferable to b.ck into clear water even if this means turning the long way
around to go to sea.
A ship can go bow first into a bank or shallows without damage, but put
her rudder into the bank and she will probably be spending time in a ship-
yard. Back toward another ship and have an engine failure (an event suffi-
ciently common with motor ships that it should be planned for), and
certain embarrassment will result. Back toward open watar, though, and
have an engine failure, and you just back a little further than planned be-
fore getting an anchor down and the ship stopped.
Make it a rulewhen handling a ship, back toward open water.
LEFT-HAND AND VARIABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
Keep in mind that the maneuvers described herein are for a ship fitted
with a right-hand or clockwise turning propeller. The rare ship having a
left-hand turning fixed propeller is handled in a manner opposite to that
described, that is, a starboard side undocking (or docking) of a ship fitted
TURNING TO SEA 151
vith a left-hand turning propeller is done in the manner previously de-
scribed for a port-side undocking (or docking).
propellers turn in the same direction whether the ship is going ahead or
astern and only the pitch is reversed to back down. The propeller is there-
fore turning clockwise when going astern, just like a conventional fixed
pitch left-hand propeller, so such ships are handled like vessels with
left-hand turning propellers when docking and undocking. Variable-pitch-
propelled ships should be standardized, all being fitted with left-hand
turning propellers so they back like other ships that the shiphandler is ac-
customed to handling. There is no standard at present, so the shiphandler
must check the direction of rotation of every variable-pitch-fitted ship be-
fore planning the docking or undocking.
TURNING TO SEA
Turning in relatively open water is a straightforward job as long as the
shiphandler minimizes the ship's speed. The basic behavior of ships when
going astern, and during the backing and filling maneuver, are discussed
in chapter 1. There are, however, additional points to consider if the ship
is to be turned in a restricted area.
It is possible to both turn a ship around and control her position in a
channel or turning basin while she has sternway. While moving astern,
the ship can be steered using the engine ahead, shifting the rudder to di-
rect the propeller's flow in the needed direction much like a thruster. The
flow acting on the ship's stern is the resultant of both the astern and
athwartship vectors of this flow. Wliile moving astern remember
1. To reduce or kill sternway, put the rudder amidships, and direct this
flow aft.
2. To continue moving astern while going to starboard or port, put the
rudder to the s ide opposite that to which you wish the stern to move,
thai is, to move the stem to starboard, put the rudder to port and the
engine ahead.
3. To charge the. magnitude of this turning and stopping force, in-
crease or decrease the engine revolutions.
Think of these changes as one maneuver, much as you increase, de-
crease, or stop a bow thruster, rather than as several separate and distinct
maneuvers (fig. 6-8).
152 UNDOCKING TURNING TO SKA 153

The shiphandler who finds the ship carrying her sternway longer than
desired often increases engine revolutions but leaves the rudder hard
over. The rudder should be put amidships to direct the increased flow from
the propeller directly astern. After the speed has decreased sufficiently,
the rudder is shifted back to the right or left to renew the stern's swing.
Face in 'the direction of ship movementif going astern, face aft, it'o
where the action is. This simple change of position does much to improve
the mariner's shiphandling technique; seagoing professionals, mates, and
masters spend so much time looking ahead at sea that they tend, out of
habit, to handle ships in confined water while watching only the bow.
If the ship is to be turned in a basin
1. Turn in the direction that keeps the stern in the best water.
2. Take nearly all sternway off the ship before starting to swing her.
3. All factors being equal, turn the ship to the right to take advantage
of the ship's better turning characteristics backing and filling in
that direction.
4. Position the ship's pivot point so the stern swings clear.
5. Fix the diameter of the basin in your mind before starting to turn.
6. When possible, put the end of the ship to be swung in the area of
maximum favorable current.
7. Put the ship at the end of the basin from which the current is flowing
when starting the maneuver.
Discusr the depth and profile of the basin with the pilot, as the location
of any shoaling depends on local conditions. Lacking better information
you can estimate the location of shoaling based upon the basin's proximity
to turns in the channel (fig. 6-9). The deepest water in a basin at location
"A" will usually be in the bend away from the point, and the stern should
be swung in that direction. Above or below the turn, at location "ii," the
deepest water lies on the side nearest the path of the ebb tide as it flows
from one bend to the next. Midway between the turns the deepest water
would generally be in midchannel so the ship can probably turn in the
most convenient direction. Do not present the stern to potential dangers.
It may be impressive to watch a ship performing several maneuvers si-
multaneously in the basin as she is both stopped and swung but, if the ship
is not nearly stopped before being turned, there is little margin for errors
,7
w\ X
- \ \ \

A \
x, -
Increase revolutions
to increase turning
1
and stopping forces.
V \
V'
14
\ J *v>- I
\
V1 . { _
\

ll *. *J. Lllw
11321

Fig. 6-9. Common bottom configuration in bends and reaches.

154 UNDOCKING DISMISSING THE TUGS 155

in judgment or for any unknown current. Reduce the ship's sternway, then
turn her.
The stem can be put in the mud and the ship pivoted a round on the bow
if the cunent strikes the quarter in a favorable direction. The anchor can
be used in the same manner, either alone or in conjunction with the bank,
to swing the ship ,'fig. 6-10).
Watch natural ranges ashore, both ahead and astern to determine if
the ship is being set along the axis of the channel, and abeam to check that
the ship does not develop unwanted headway or sternway over the bottom
as the tugs and engine are used. Don't be in a hurry to come ahead with the
engine after the midpoint of the turn is passedwait until the turn is
nearly completed before starting to come ahead over the bottom.
Wliile swinging, the banks ahead and astern appear closer from the
bridge than they actually are so it is important that you fix in your mind the
basin's dimensions before starting the maneuver. When the banks start to
appear close, re mind yourself of the clearance that you know is avadable, and
you will avoid the apprehension that causes unnecessary maneuvering.
DISMISSING THE TUGS
Dismiss the stern tug as soon as her work is done. Do not carry the stern
tug along after clearing the slip since, as previously discussed, she is only
a hindrance.
Keep t he forward tug as long as it might possibly be cf assistance. Even
if the ship has a bow thruster, a tug that has been used coming into the slip
should be kept fast until the ship is headed fair, clear of all obstructions
and any traffic that might be a problem. You have paid for the tug's ser-
vices, so make her earn her money. The bow thruster may quit or refuse to
stop when used, or a problem may arise that requires more effective power
than the bow thruster can develop as the ship's speed increases.
When dismissing the tug, lower her lines with a messenger. Dcn't d op
them from the ship's deck since a line in the water may foul the tug's screw
or your own. Dropping the line also makes unnecessary work for the tug's
crew since the line could have been lowered on deck rather than having to
be dragged wet from the water. Listen for the tug's signal, often a long
blast on her whistle followed by two short blasts, so she can be let go
promptly as the ship starts to come ahead. Keep at least two crew mem-
bers and a mate standing by a tug at all times, even if she is to be held for
some period after clearing the berth.
The ship now turned and headed fair, the docking mast, r wishes all a
good voyage and climbs down the ladder to the waiting tug belo^'.

Current

1. Ship dead in the water,

let go anchor (aporox.
2 x depth).
2 and 3. Steam around anchor,
making no headway.
4. Drop back to current
heave up.

Fig. 6-10. Turning short on an anchor.


CHAPTER SEVEN
DEPARTURE
Captain N. B. Palmer was a rough old sailor. He was de-
termined to see me get along, and helped me more than
any other man to know my duty as an officer and t j fit
me for a Master.
Captain Charles Porter Low, Recollections
Downbound and light, she made good time despite the flood tide. The old
man, tired from the short, hectic stay in port, left his chair only to glance oc-
casionally at the chart on the wheelhouse log desk. He had little inclination
to make conversation with the pilot, now ten minutes into a monologue to
which only the third mate was really listening.
Fresh coffee in hand, the mate returned to the log desk. She noted the
time on the chart as the ship swung onto the next range, comparing the
course that the pilot had given to the helmsman with the previously inked
and labeled courses on the chart.
"Right to one, five, four."
Checking the swing, the A.B. on the wheel repeated the new course,
"One, five, four, Sir."
"Very well, steady so."
"Trouble is, Mate, they always have to be looking for problems, and if
there arsn't any they create some. It's part of life today but it sure is hurting
the marine industry."
The mate had heard all this before, and always some mysterious "they"
were causing the problems.
"Who are 'they,' Pilot?" she queried.
"Industry groups, government agencies, the Coast Guardand why do
we have a military service regulating and policing professionals in a com-
mercial industry anyway? The Air Force doesn't regulate the airlines!"
The captain sat back in his chair and took all this in. He had heard
many such discussions recently and, while the Coast Guard was often the
target of the seafarer's frustrations, the problem obviously went beyond
that agency. What the mariner basically objected to was the preponderance
156
DEPARTURE SPEED 157
of often irrelevant regulations that interfered with his work, and the exclu-
sion of the active marine professional from the process that developedI those
regulations Some representation from the active seagoing community, at
both the national and international levels, was long overdue. The captain
appreciated and shared these concerns.
"There is a lot of expertise on the water today, Mate, and. the standards
in the industry suffer when active professionals are excluded from discus-
sions of matters affecting the marine industry."
Picking up the phone to instruct the standby to rig the pilot ladder, the
third mate nodded her agreement.
"You 're right, Pilot, we're letting the tail wag the dog in our industry."
"It's a good way of life, Mate, and we can't let others use politics to down-
grade it. We have to become more involved in matters affecting our profes-
sion." (Note: This was written in 1983. The situation has not improved.)
t
DROPPING THE PILOT
Well before arriving at the pilot station, the master and the mate on watch
discuss inbound and outbound traffic with the pilot. All ships are identi-
fied by name and their intentions clarified so there is a smooth transition
of the conn from pilot to master. It's easy for the pilot to discuss any poten-
tial problem situations with the other ships before he leaves since he has
radio contact with both the other pilots and the pilot station. They know
the destinations, drafts, nationalities, and intentions of the ships moving
in the area, and are able to assist the master in making safe meeting ar-
rangements before the pilot disembarks.
Until the master is fully confident that there will be no problems as the
ship departs from the port area, he should not release the pilot. Being a re-
sponsible professional, the pilot has no objection to performing this last
service before leaving and the master must not hesitate to require it.
DEPARTURE SPEED
A lee is made and the pilot boards his boat t^ go ashore. The ship returns to
her heading and proceeds to the departure point at a speed that matches
the flow of outbound traffic. Moving at that speed obviously reduces by
half the amount of traffic that must be dealt with since now only crossing
and meeting ships present any potential problems. Time saved does not
justify excessive speed, and any fool can engage in false heroics with a ship
that belongs to someone else.
158 DEPARTURE
boat?"
Speed is also limited by depth of water. Trying to push a ship at a speed
faster than proper for the depth of water causes excessive squat and suc-
tion and, since the flow of water to the rudder is restricted by the
underkeel clearance, the ship becomes hard to steer. Increased difficulty
in steering and the pronounced vibration that can be felt throughout the
ship are certain indications of excessive speed.
This remains true until the ship leaves shallow water conditions, not
just while the ship is in a harbor or channel. As the ship reaches deeper
water, her speed should be increased incrementally, rather than being
brought to sea speed upon departure. This is increasingly important as
ships get larger, not only because of the inherently greater drafts of
VLCCs, but because of the higher horsepower and tendency of the larger
hull to develop harmonic vibrations under shallow water conditions. As
ship size increases, ihe master must adjust shiphandling habits.
Make every effort to move with the flow of traffic whether there is a for-
mal traffic se paration scheme or not. If a problem develops, do not hesitate
to stop the ship and let the situation clear itself up. Since the master and
mates have developed their shiphandling skills, maneuvering while
maintaining heading and position should present no problem. Too often,
the less experienced shiphandler tends to increase speed to "get away
from a potentially dangerous situation"the experienced master or pilot
MANEUVERING WITH OTHER SHIPS 159
uses the opposite tactic and slows or stops the ship. The other ships are
moving ahead to create the potentially dangerous close quarters situa-
tion. If you stop, you avoid reaching the problem area until the situation is
resolved. Stopping, not rushing on, is the action of the professional.
MANEUVERING WITH OTHER SHIPS
Make your actions known to other ships by whistle signals and by use of
the VHF radio. Make any changes in course or speed large and obvious. By
making larger than required changes in your heading, especially at night,
you are effectively talking to that other ship with your lightsshowing
her your sidelightand there can be no doubt about your intentions. Refer
to the section in chapter 1 concerning the proper use of VHF radio, and es-
pecially keep in mind that ships of other nationalities do not arrange pass-
ing situations, but primarily discuss alterations in heading. If no one on
either meeting ship speaks English fluently, there is a chance for misun-
derstanding when you discuss a port to port passing since this may be in-
terpreted by the other vessel as a request for an alteration ofcourse to port.
To effectively maneuver a ship and continually assess traffic, the con-
ning master or mate must be relieved of other navigational and adminis-
trative tasks. The pilot develops an intimate knowledge of local waters
and is able to navigate mainly by eye, so full attention can be given to traf-
fic and shiphandling. The shipmaster visits many ports and cannot possi-
bly develop the pilot's working knowledge of any particular port; another
person is therefore needed to do the navigating so the master can give suf-
ficient attention to maneuvering the ship.
It's true that the master alone can do other work when traffic is light
and conditions good, but as soon as any one task requires more than pass-
ing attention, it is necessary to compromise the major duties of assess-
ment and shiphandling unless additional help is available on the bridge.
It is not suggested that the merchant ship resort to having a horde of peo-
ple on the bridge performing nonessential and redundant tasks, as is too
often found on naval vessels (and perhaps the latter will find they can op-
erate more effectively if their number is significantly reduced), but there
should be one additional person to compensate for the local knowledge
that disappeared when the pilot went down the ladder.
The mate on watch continues to carry out the tasks that were being
done while the pilot was aboard, while the additional mate plots traffic as
necessary and navigates. The information obtained is passed to the mas-
ter, who needs only to check the work often enough to be sure that it is
160 DEPARTURE
being done correctly. The additional officer should be the chief mate when
possible, since he is generally the most experienced as well as being the
one who wiil most benefit from the opportunity to be involved as the ship
enters and leaves port. Too often the mariner spends several years as chief
mate, shuffling papei s in the ship's office during arrivals and departures,
only to be promoted to master and thrust back into the world of navigation
and shiphandling. By assisting the master, the chief mate is gaining the
knowledge required for that most responsible of positions, and acquiring
the skills required to be an effective shipmaster and shiphandler.
The plethora of bridge equipment has not relieved the master of any
traditional tasks, and in fact often creates distractions for the other offi-
cers so that essential tasks required by good seamanship are overlooked.
Any impression that this equipment makes it possible to conn a ship with
a bridge team that is one third smaller than the master-pilot-mate team is
illusorybring an additional officer to the bridge until the ship is at sea,
clear of navigational hazards and traffic, so the master can in fact be the
shiphandler rather than the navigator.
Fig. 7-2. Ya see, Mister Mate, if you come up to sea speed too soon she
lf
may vibrate a little."
COURSE CARD AND PASSAGE PLANNING 161
Fig. 7-3. The pilot departs off Cape Henry. From an oil painting by
Ii
Maryland Pilot Captain Brian Hope.
COURSE CARD AND PASSAGE PLANNING
The passage outbound should be as carefully planned as the passage in,
with a chart in the wheelhouse available for consultation, courses inked in
with pertinent information labeled, and a course card made up by the mas-
ter.
The course card minimizes distractions and allows the master to re-
main at the centerline window to conn the ship. The pilot is able to draw
the chart of the port from memory yet carries a course card; how can the
master effectively conn the ship without one? The card should contain the
reaches or ranges in order, with the course, length of the reach, and turn-
ing point at the end of each reach noted. This information can be put on a
three-by-five card and kept in the shirt pocket, eliminating the need for re-
peated trips to the chartroom to pick off each course. The shiphandler can
then spend that time watching the tug and tow that may be crossing the
bow, while being more certain as the ship is brought to each new heading
that there will be no errors in course.
The course card should be made up for the entire run from the dock to
sea, not just for the portion of the passage after the piiot has disembarked.
This effort will be especially appreciated should a rain squall or fog set in
midway to s;ea since the master will need only to glance at the course card
to check the heading as the ship feels her way.
Too often the term "passage planning" conjures up the vision of
mates laying out pages of detailed courses, distance, navigation aids, and
162 DEPARTURE
estimated runs at various speeds. This is fine for voyage planning, but a
form-based passage plan alone is not suitable for navigating in restrict3d
pilot waters. Indeed, a shiphandler working from pages of detailed infor-
mation alone, without marked up charts and a proper course card, is much
like an actor reading from a script during a performance. This is distract-
ing. It tends to put mental limits on the mariner when situations arise
that are not provided for in the original plan. Put complete information di-
rectly on the chart and course card prior to arrival or departure to elimi-
nate the chance of error inherent in transferring information from the
plan to the chart to the quarter-master while actually conning the ship in
traffic and restricted waters. A passage inked in advance on the char t with
turning bearings, courses, and distances noted, together with the pocket
course card, are very much a part of any proper passage plan.
With a proper plan, properly marked chart, a course card, and effective
bridge resource management, the mariner can give the maximum atten-
tion to handling the ship. A more complete discussion of the course card
and passage plan can be found in chapter 12, and excellent texts on pas-
sage planning and bridge resource management are included in the Bibli-
ography.
ABILITY TO MANEUVER
Do not be too quick to change to heavy oil when handling a motor ship that
can maneuver only on light diesel fuel, or to bring a steam turbine ship to
sea speed when this means that you cannot then reduce speed without de-
lay. The pilot station is the wrong place to increase to sea speed, or to be
unable to stop or go astern on short notice, since at that point ships are
converging from all directions rather than moving in a predictable man-
ner within a fairway or traffic scheme. The inbound ships are eager to get
into port, are preparing to take the pilot, and probably are in the highest
risk location of the entire passage. Perhaps the haste to increase speed is
understandable, since those aboard want to get the ship to sea where the
routine will settle down and life will return to normal, but wait a little lon-
ger until traffic is astern.
Yes, contrary to the landsman's opinion, the 3eaman does consider life
at sea normal!
CHAPTER EIGHT
ANCHORING AND
SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
I had no means of knowing that what had happened to
me was a manifestation of the sixth sense possessed by
every born seaman. You can train a man in navigation,
seamanship, celestial observation and the computing of
, tide, current, speed, wind, and drift, and yet he will
never be a sailor unless, at the moment of truth when he
is forced into a comer from which there is no way out ex-
cept by instant intuitive action, he unerringly makes the
right move.
Jan de Hartog, The Captain
Too often a mate is promoted to a position for which, through no fault of his
own, he is not ready. The principal cause of this is inadequate onboard ex-
perience, especially "hands-on" experience for junior officers under the su-
pervision of more experienced officers. This lack of experience is especially
significant in the area of shiphandling, including the conning of a ship in
restricted waters and the use ofanchors, although it is important that such
experience be gained in all the shipboard skills. In an industry that oper-
ates in an environment alien to the novice, it's imperative that knowledge
be passed from one generation of seamen to the next if professional stan-
dards are to be maintained. The fine training schools and maritime acade-
mies that serve the seafaring community offer an excellent theoretical
beginning, but it is only thata beginning. There is much that can be
passed to a new officer only by example or instruction.
Pride in profession, appreciation
% of the relative importance of various
tasks, and acquisition of that intangible thar separates the exceptional sea-
farer from the averagesea sensecan only be gleaned by observation of
others experienced in working at sea. The planning and effort required to
give junior officers onboard experience is cs important as any other ship-
board <ask and deserves the same attention from the seasoned master, mate,
or chief. Hands-on training ensures both better operating ships and a contin -
uation of seafaring traditions and skills. Let the chief mate conn the ship
163
184
ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
and pick up the. pilot; have the second mate plan a cargo loading under the
supervision of the mate; and give the third mate a chance Lo handle the ship
during Williamson turns and other maneuvers at sea. Insist that these and
other tasks be carried cut properly. To ensure that high standards of seago-
ing life are maintained, it is necessary that the master be a stern taskmaster
and demand that those working for him perform to the highest standards.
In no area is hands-on experience more important than in shiphandling.
It is possible to watch a shiphandler work for years and still not acquire a
feeling for that art. Arrive at the pilot station a bit early and give the mates
an opportunity to perform the maneuvers described in chapter 1. Let those
officers put the ship to anchor. While maneuvering, explain why you choose
a particular heading to allow for wind and current. When one of these
mates later has to alter course on the mid-watch for a fishing boat not seen
until close at hand and is able to maneuver without hesitation or mistake,
the effort put into training will suddenly be worthwhile.
As a young mate, didn't you appreciate the master or chief mate who
took time to pass along a hint or to recount a sea story with a lesson at coffee
time ? You have the skills now, and a pride in what you doit is your turn to
pass them along!
ANCHORS FOR ANCHORING
The master's most common shiphandling task may be simply putting a
ship to anchor. The skills involved are so basic, so essential, that no mari-
ner is qualified for command until he can put a ship to anchor safely, expe-
diently, and with confidence under all conditions.
On almost every voyage a master anchors for some reason. Done well,
the task is completed without fuss or confusion. Done poorly, it becomes
an unnecessarily complicated and dangerous evolution as the ship works
against nature and the anchor, rust and mud flying, the chain straining
and jumping across the wildcat. The skills of the master or officer at the
conn make the difference and, fortunately, anchoring skills are easily
mastered with practice and planning.
At first glance there seem to be many different, unrelated ways to an-
chor but that reaiiy isn't the case. True, a ship might use one anchor or
two, placed in line or spread, from bow or stern, with equal or unequal
amounts of chain stretched out or underfoot, but in every case the task is
basically the same. A ship approaches an anchorage, maneuvers as closely
as possible to the desired final heading, slows or stops, and drops the an-
chor or anchors to the bottom.
164
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS
On the other hand, there is no one anchoring technique "for all sea-
sons" because there are an infinite number of combinations of weather,
ship tvues. anchorage locations, and other factors to consider; so it is both
impossible and unnecessary to try to discuss every conceivable anchoring
method as a distinct and different evolution. Instead, this text discusses
only the most common anchoring situations and baoic anchoring tech-
niques that any reasonably skilled shiphandler can then adapt to most an-
choring situations.
KNOW YOUR SHIP
It is impossible to plan an approach properly without some knowledge of
your ship's maneuvering characteristics. Perform as much of the master's
trials recommended in chapter 1 as possible now, if you haven't already
done so. The hands-on experience of maneuvering the ship during these
trials gives the shiphandler a feel for the ship's response to rudder and en-
gine and confidence in his skill and his ship's ability to complete the ma-
neuvers safely within the confines of a particular anchorage. Ships are too
valuable to maneuver by a wing and a prayer, and it's essential to have this
knowledge and experience before having to anchor in a difficu It situation.
Knowing the ship's maneuvering characteristics means understand-
ing both what a ship can do and what it cannot do. Knowing when not to
anchor is probably more important than how to anchor. When the anchor-
age is crowded or the weather adverse so the ship cannot be safely an-
chored, consider all alternatives including ordering a tug to assist, and if
the job can't be done safely, lay off and wait for conditions to improve.
Remember too that maneuvering characteristics are not static and a
particular loading condition such as a very light draft, or greater than nor-
mal drag, or reduced underkeel clearance, may significantly alter a ship's
normal behavior. Some ship types are more affected by these changes
than others: a high-sided ship or a heavily loaded ship may handle much
differently in strong winds than in light airs, and a loaded tanker is a con-
siderably different ship from a tanker in ballast. Ships change, conditions
change, and the weather changes, so don't fall into the trap of trying to do
the job the same way every time. Each anchoring is a new task: plan ac-
cordingly.
A bow thruster significantly changes a ship's handling characteristics
during maneuvers at slow speed in an anchorage. Maneuvering is simpli-
fied if the thruster is used to turn a shit) to her final heading, set up to
back, position and hold the bow, and perform the other shiphandling tasks
184
ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
as the ship goes to anchor. Most ships do not have bow thrusters, though,
and thrusters t.ren't really effective unless ships are moving at speeds of 2
knots or less, so the assumption is made in this chapter that no thruster is
avaiiabie.
AGAIN, PLAN AHEAD, THINK AHEAD
Here again, the same basic principles for successful shiphandling and ma-
neuvering apply. Plan the overall maneuver prior to arrival using infor-
mation from the charts, pilots, and your local knowledge about the port
based on past experience. Apply your understanding of basic shiphandling
principles and your appreciation for your ship's maneuvering characteris-
tics learned during the master's trials. Reduce speed early. Adjust the ini-
tial plan to use existing conditions and forces to advantage to assist the
ship's rudder and engine in maneuvering, then think ahead of the ship,
adjusting the original plan as events develop, planning several steps
ahead of the ship's maneuvers. Plan the anchoring as a series of simple
steps, and always think ahead, think ahead, think ahead.
Consider anchoring in two phases because anchoring is an exercise in
both basic seamanship md shiphandling. Decide how the ship will be an-
chored, and then how she must be handled to accomplish that task. Any
good seamanship book discusses the first phase fully, so there is no point in
repeating that discussion. The assumption is made here that the reader is a
knowledgeable mariner who is aware of the seamanship aspects of anchor-
ing and has already correctly planned that part of the evolution, so this
chapter will stress primarily the second, shiphandling phase of anchoring.
ANCHOR IN STEPS
Keep the shiphandling phase of anchoring simple. Look at anchoring as a
series of four steps: approach, placement, laying out, and fetching up. Plan
each step separately as a series of small basic tasks rather than trying to
plan the entire anchoring as one long, complex evolution and think ahead
of the ship 30 each step leads more smoothly to the next.
A ship might need to enter an anchorage, reduce speed, back and fill
aroimd to the final heading, maneuver to rhe selected anchoring location,
stop, and then moveslcv/ly astern, all as part of what might appear at first
to be a complex approach and anchoring evolution. In fact, reducing speed
is one separate, basic task, as is backing and filling, and stopping while
controlling the ship's head, and most of these individual tasks have al-
ready been discussed in some context in this book. Consider each task sep-
166
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS
arately, as you proceed step by step to anchor, and even relatively
complex, challenging anchoring jobs become simply a series of small jobs
that most mariners have mastered.
PLANNING
Every mariiier studies the charts, sailing directions, predicted weather
conditions and, as the ship gets closer to the anchorage, the radar presen-
tation of the anchorage, looking for several types of information, including
1. Direction and strength of wind and current.
2. Depth of water.
3. Type of bottom.
4. Location of lee shore, shoals, or other hazards.
5. Maneuvering room for approach.
6. Number and location of ships already at anchor.
7. Conditions affecting visibility, weather, and currents.
8. Local customs and practices of the port.
9. Swinging room after anchoring.
Unfortunately, mariners too often weigh these factors only to decide 011
the best location for anchoring, the amount of chain, and the number and
placement of anchors. They forget that shiphandling is an inherent part of
anchoring and that this same information must also be used to plan the
shiphandling phase of the anchoring evolution. Look at the situation
again and plan each step of the task using existing conditions to advan-
tage to help rather than hinder the work as much as possible.
It is as important to have an alternative "bail out"plan in mind as it is
to have a primary plan of action, before entering the anchorage, in case
things don't work out as expected. Generally, such a plan consists of leav-
ing the anchorage until conditions improve or, if it is too late or impossible
to leave, putting down an anchor and riding to a short stay while you sort
things out. Remember, having those two anchors hanging at the bow is
like having two tugs standing oy forward ready to hold your ship and pre-
vent accidents. Bailout plans vary widely depending on conditions, and al-
ternatives are discussed in appropriate sections of this chapter.
Keep in mind too that any plan must be flexible since all too often an-
other ship will be anchored in your selected spot or in the way of your ap-
proach The plan is only a starting point: Use your shiphandling skills to
adjust to existing conditions as they develop.

184 ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
Let's look at some of the factors to be considered when a ship is going to
anchor.
WIND AND CURRENT EFFECTS
Wind and current determine the preferred direction for approaching the
anchorage, the final heading after anchoring, and to some extent the
ship's behavior while maneuvering in the anchorage.
Set and leeway increase and the ship's turning circle becomes elliptical
because of the wind and current, the longer axis of the ellipse lying in the
direction of the wind and current. The effects of wind and current on navi-
gation and shiphandli ng increase dramatically as a ship's speed decreases.
The mariner, accustomed to navigating at full sea speed where set ana lee-
way are much less significant, has to plan more carefully and make
greater allowances for wind and current effects while moving through an
anchorage at reduced speeds.
Don't fight the wind and current. Review previous discussions on their
effects as a ship slows, stops, and then moves astern, and plan the maneu-
ver to use these external forces, not just to compensate for them. Current
can be a problem, setting a vessel toward other ships and shoals, but it can
also move a ship away from hazards. Wind causes leeway but it can also
assist the shiphandler, helping to turn a ship around short, for example,
as a ship with sternway backs into the wind. Think ahead and use these
external forces to advantage.
Plan to pass downstream and to leeward of ships, buoys, and hazards
to navigation, or, if that isn't practical, allow plenty of searoom and sev-
eral degrees for set and leeway to be sure to pass well clear. The two or
three degrees allowed for set and leeway at sea just isn't enough in an an-
chorage; think in fives and tens, when maneuvering at slow speeds.
Don't, under any circumstances, pass close upstream or to windward of
buoys, obstacles, or ships at anchor. It is a most helpless feeling to be pass-
ing close across the bow of a ship at anchor as the current sets you swiftly
toward her stem. There is little that can be done in that situation except
come full ahead, put the rudder hard over to try to move your ship's stern
away from the other vessel, and pray you pass clearand that maneuver
isn't very effective if you are in real danger of colliding.
And how far is far enough to pass clear? That depends on current and
wind strength, and the speed at which the ship is moving. In any case, par-
ticularly at the very low speeds at which a ship is usually moving in an an-
chorage, it is probably farther than you might expect. The 100-foot rule
168
MOORING ANDANCHORINGWITHTWOANCHORS
discussed in chapter 5 applies in this situation just as elsewhere, when
calculating the effect of both wind and current and estimating the dis-
tance a ship will move in a specific period of time. By using that rule, and
the length of your ship as the basic unit of distance, you can easily esti-
mate a safe passing distance. For example
A ship moving at 3 knots is moving ahead at approximately 300
feet per minute. A 600-foot-long ship will take two minutes to
move ahead one ship length and pass clear of a fixed point. A
2-knot current on the beam will set that same ship 400 feet, or
two-thirds of a ship length, during that time.
The distance of one ship length that looked quite sufficient when ap-
proaching an anchorage is not a safe clearance for a 600-foot-long ship to
pass clear of another ship at anchor at that speed in this situation when
there is a strong current or wind on the beam. If you are the master stand-
ing or the bridge, maneuvering under these circumstances, the approxi-
mately 200-foot clearance after passing in this example will be too close for
comfort.
The term "sail area" gains new meaning when maneuvering high free-
board and light draft ships in a strong wind in an anchorr ge. Passenger
ships, containerships, car and gas carriers, and other similar ship types
present a significantly larger profile to the wind relative to their draft and
make much more leeway than average ships as they move slowly through
an anchorage. It is even more important that these types of ships don't at-
tempt to pass close ahead, to windward or upstream, of other ships and ob-
stacles.
Both ships with large sail areas and common ship types at light drafts,
moving at slow speeds in an anchorage, may be difficult to turn to wind-
ward when strong winds retard the bow's upwind movement. It is often
better to back and fill the "long way around" to a new course, backing the
ship's stern into the wind, if the bow won't come through a strong wind di-
rectly to the desired heading. Tno ofter, the master stubbornly fights the
wind, repeatedly working the engine full ahead and full astern to bring
the bow through the wind, forgetting that the longest way around is some-
times the quickest and safest when maneuvering in adverse conditions
(fig. 8-1).
There will be times when winds and currents are so strong that even an
expert shiphandler cannot maneuver to the final heading before letting
184 ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
go, yet it is under these very same conditions that a master most wants to
be on that heading to minimize the strain on ground tactile and ship's
gear. Put down one anchor and a shot or two of chain and turn on the an-
chor under these conditions, as described further on in this chapter, or call
for a tug, or stand off until conditions moderate. Consider these alterna-
tives well before arrival at the anchorage, not when the situation arises, so
contingencies can be arranged in advance.
DEPTH OF WATER
Shallow water affects the ship's maneuverability. As the depth decreases,
the ship's tactical diameter increases and she becomes more directionally
stable. The ship may need as much as twice the room for large course
changes in shallow water as she would in deep water, so it becomes in-
cx-easingly important to approach a shallow water anchorage at slow
speed, in a position to back and fill to assist in turning the ship as re-
quired. Remember also that the ship will twist somewhat more in shallow
water while going astern during a maneuver. Mentally review the section
on shallow water effects while going astern during that maneuver. Review
the section on shallow water effects in chapter 1 and figure 1-7 for a more
detailed discussion of these changes.
Deep water also affects anchoring because the anchor has to be put
down differently in an unusually deep anchorage. In depths greater than
about 100 feet the brake may not be able to stop the chain if the anchor is
let go from the hawse, because the chain's weight and the momentum de-
veloped as the anchor and chain free-fall that distance exceed the capacity
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS 1 7 1
of the brake. The anchor should be walked out in such deep anchorages by
engaging the wildcat and backing the chain out of the locker using the
windlass, lowering the anchor nearly to the bottom before disengaging the
wildcat, and letting the anchor fall free the last few fathoms to the bottom.
Du ring these operations the shiphandler must hold the ship in position for
an extended period of time, even in strong winds and currents, a task
made easier if the ship can first be brought to her final heading.
MANEUVERING ROOM
The number and location of ships at anchor, nearby shoals, a lee shore,
and other hazards to navigation limit maneuvering room and make it
more difficult for a ship to enter, maneuver in, and depart from an anchor-
age. The shiphandler has to make plans that match the ship's maneuver-
ing characteristics to the available space in an anchorage, adjusting his
game plan to the size of the playing field.
Consider all options before entering so your ship and crew are pre-
pared for whatever is required; once again, don't hesitate to maneuver on
the anchor if there isn't enough space to turn or back and fill unassisted. A
tug can be ordered to assist your ship when maneuvering room is limited,
but a shiphandler who is reasonably skilled in anchor work can usually
turn and position the ship without a tug.
On occasion, there just isn't enough searoom in a crowded or small an-
chorage to turn to the final heading before letting go, and there will be no
option but to let go, heading with or across the wind and current as dis-
cussed later in this chapter. Adjust anchoring plans to the real world when
you arrive and find the anchorage smallei or more crowded than expected;
use your shiphandling skills to adapt the ship's maneuvering characteris-
tics to the maneuvering room in the anchorage orif there just isn't enough
roomdon't go. Even the handiest ship may, under some circumstances,
have to anchor elsewhere or stand off and wait for conditions to change.
Maneuvering room is as much a consideration when leaving an an-
chorage as it is when arriving. There may not be enough maneuvering
room to turn and depart from an anchorage, even though there was suffi-
cient room when your ship arrived. Other ships may anchor after yours, or
your ship may swing to a new heading so there is no longer sufficient room
to turn and depart. The same techniques that are used to maneuver at ar-
rivalincluding backing and filling, using wind and current to advan-
tage, heaving short and steaming around on the anchor, or turning with a
tugcan be used to turn a ship departing a small anchorage.
184 ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS 173
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS

BRIEFING OFFICERS Visual navigation is preferable when going to anchor because the ship
Discuss the anchoring plan, including the intended approach and the loca- will usually be following a circuitous route rather than a straight track
tion for letting go, with the mate on the bow. the mate on the bridge, and, if line, backing and filling and turning as needed to round up into thn wind
uncommon maneuvering is involved, the engineer on watch to be sure and current. If visible marks and aids are not used, you have to continu-
they all know their responsibilities as the ship is put to anchor. Be sure the ously interrupt your shiphandling work to refer to the ship's charts.
mate knows Accurate navigation is fine and important but it can, at times, be over-
done. Pilots routinely anchor while navigating by eye, and calmly and qui-
1. Which anchor or anchors to use. etly place the anchor at least as precisely as a team of navigators shouting
2. Whether the ship will turn to the final heading before letting go. bearings and distances to go and distracting the shiphandler from the im-
3. How much chain will be put out initially. portant work of maneuvering the ship to anchor. In most cases, a few
4. Direction, ahead or astern, and approximate speed cf the ship over well-chosen leading marks and an abeam reference visible to the ship-
the bottom when the anchor is let go. handler, together with a minimum of fixes and some shiphandling skills,
5. Whether the ship will be turned on the anchor. are more than sufficient to position the ship as accurately as the often re-
6. Whether the anchor should be held at short stay for maneuvering. dundant distance circles and continuous cross bearings that are too otten
7. If more than one anchor is used, how those anchors will be laid out. relied upon while going to anchor. Quite simply, it is a matter of profes-
8. Final amount of chain to be used. sionalism.
This briefing is important because neither you nor the mate nor the en- FINAL HEADING
gineer needs any surprises. A neat, seamanlike maneuver will be spoiled The term "final heading" has been used several times in discussing an-
if the mate slacks out too much chain when you intend to maneuver on the choring plans, but just what does the term mean and why is it important?
anchor or turn short in a crowded anchorage, or holds the chain too oon so The final heading is the direction in which a ship will lie when at anchor
the anchor drags and the ship is set beyond the planned anchoring spot.
Planning completed, it's time to go to anchor, so let's look at the most com-
mon method for anchoring a ship.
NAVIGATE BY EYE
Study the charts and publications carefully, well before arrival, and com-
mit important information to memory. Select some prominent landmarks,
aids, and ranges to lead the ship to her selected anchorage and prepare a
pocket course card showing these leading marks as well as the approxi-
mate courses to the anchorage. Depending on the situation, the pocket
card might have the courses and aids listed on one side, as described in
chapter 12, and a sketch of the anchorage showing the intended track and
prominent aids and hazards on the other.
Navigate by eye as the ship approaches the anchorage, conning the
ship to anchor using landmarks and aids that form natural ranges and
leading marks. The mate will navigate as usual, as a backup to keep the
master or conning officer informed of the ship's progress, using charts on
which the intended courses are laid down in advance.
184
ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
heading into the resultant of all external forces, primarily the wind and
current acting on her superstructure and underwater hull, after the an-
chor has fetched up and the ship has swung around to bring all those
forces into equilibrium.
There are several reasons why it's better to let go when the ship is on
her final heading, and the advantages of doing so more than compensate
for any additional time spent maneuvering to that heading. When the an-
chor is let go on the final heading
1. The chain will lead clear of the hull as it's slacked out.
2. Wear and strain on the chain, stem, windlass, and the mate's paint
budget are minimized.
3. The chain is laid out along the bottom neatly and quickly.
4. The ship can be positioned among other ships and obstructions
without concern about swinging clear after the anchor fetches up
since your vessel is already on the same heading as those ships.
The more restricted or crowded the anchorage, or the stronger the
wind or current, the more important it is to anchor on this heading.
In some instances it is essential to anchor on the preferred heading.
Large bulbous bows can be damaged by a chain leading under and
around the bulb with a heavy strain and, even more importantly, the
chain itself may be damaged in such circumstances. Naval vessels often
have sensitive sonar domes and other equipment protruding from the
bow that can be easily damaged by the chain. Heavy winds, swell, and
strong currents exacerbate the problem as the chain works and surges
more heavily against the wildcat, and the stem, bulb, and any protruding
ship's gear.
Obviously, it isn't always possible to maneuver to this final heading be-
fore letting go, especially when the anchorage is small or crowded, or the
wind or current is quite strong or from the wrong direction, or visibility is
restricted. It isn't always necessary to do so either since a ship may anchor
on any heading in light airs or slack waterin a calm, every ship in the an-
chorage probably lies at a different heading anyway. A real professional,
though, tries to bring the ship to her final heading before letting go in even
a light breeze or weak current and, in practice, a reasonably skilled
shiphandler is usually successful in doing so. There are methods for an-
choring to minimize the strain and problems when it is impossible to let go
to the final heading, and they are discussed later in this chapter.
174
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS
How is the final heading determined? Lcck at other ships and boats an-
chored in the area that are already lying to the wind and current or esti-
mate the heading if there are no ships in an anchorage. Sea sense and
some experience with a particular ship are invaluable in the latter case
since the final heading is affected by the ship's draft, her freeboard, the
strength of the wind and current, and the location of the ship's superstruc-
ture and deck load, if any. In practice, this presents little problem since
the ship only needs to be on the approximate heading before letting go;
having the wind and current a few degrees on one bow o- the other, rather
than dead ahead, won't significantly affect the ship or strain her gear.
A master could also compute the final heading by vector analysis, but
the calculation would be complicated and impractical in day-to-day work,
and there would be no point in doing so when such exact information is not
needed anyway. A practiced seaman's eye, current tables, the knowledge
that a 1-knot current has approximately the same effect as a 30-knot wind
over a given surface area, and some seafaring experience are really all that
are needed to determine this heading with reasonable accuracy.
ANCHORING OFF THE FINAL HEADING
Under some circumstances, it may be necessary to anchor heading across
or away from the resultant of wind and current. In a light breeze or weak
current this presents no problem since the ship can turn to her final head-
ing after the anchor fetches up. In stronger winds or current*,, though, it is
usually best to let go an anchor and one-to-two shots of chain only, an
amount equal to about twice the depth of water, while the ship moves
slowly ahead. The chain is held while the ship makes a controlled turn on
her anchor to the final heading, in the least possible space, as the anchor
alternately digs in and breaks free with little strain on the vessel and her
gear;
When letting go on or near the reciprocal of the final heading, start the
ship turning to starboard and let go the starboard anchor, to take advan-
tage of the twisting effect if the engine is needed astern to assist in turning
the ship.
When letting go with the final heading on the port or starboard side,
turn up into the wind or current toward the final heading and use the up-
stream or windward anchor so the bow comes up into those forces and the
chain leads clear of the hull. In both cases, turning in this fashion mini-
mizes strain on the gaar and ship while the wind and current assist the
ship in turning (fig. 8-3).
184 176
ANCHORING AND S H I P H A N D L I N G W I T H ANCHORS MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS

Come ahead with the rudder hard over in the direction in which the
ship is to turn, backing and filling if required, as the ship swings around
on this slowly dragging anchor to the final heading. Stop the ennine when
the ship is on cr near her final heading. Ease the anchor's brake and slack
the chain to bring the ship to anchor as the wind and current check the
ship's headway and then move her astern. Don't just open the brake wide
as the ship falls back before the wind and current, ease it so the chain is
laid out slowly or the wind and current will take charge and bring the ship
up hard against the chain and gear, possibly damaging th3 ground tackle
or pulling the anchor free.
This technique for anchoring off the final heading is especially useful
when turning in a strong current such as is found on the Mississippi River
and other estuaries or in a strong wind or heavy swell that would put.
heavy strain en the ground tackle.
BASIC ANCHORING
Anchoring is almost always a "plain vanilla" routine. The ship enters the
anchorage, turns as nearly as possible to the final heading, and backs
down until she starts moving slowly astern over the bottom. One anchor is
let go and the chain is slacked until the desired amount is in the water.
The engine is then kicked ahead, if necessary, until the ship loses nearly
all sternway, the brake is tightened, and the anchor fetches up. Port after
port, voyage after voyage, the ship usually will anchor in this simple man-
ner, so, for the sake of clarity, we'll discuss this routine in some detail and
then briefly mention some of the less common alternative methods for an-
choring.
THE APPROACH
The master or conning officer approaches along the planned track, navi-
gating by eye using leading ranges and selected aids as previously dis-
cussed and progressively reducing speed. Less speed means more time
time to plan, time to respond, and time to stop the ship if a problem
arisesand when speed is reduced, the engine can be used ahead and
astern as needed to maneuver without concern about being over speed
when the final anchoring location is reached.
Detect your ship's movement over the bottom using the apparent mo-
tion between other ships or objects in the anchorage and more distant ref-
erences afloat and ashore. Closer ships appear to move across, in front of,
background references because cf the differences in perspective between
Wind/current astern
1. Put down s'arboard anchor.
2. Turn to starboard on iii-;
anchor to fr.al heading and
3. Ease out additional chain
to anchor.
WincVcurrent to side
r
1. Let go anchor on side
toward final heading.
2. Maneuver on the anchor into
the wind/current and
3. Ease out chain to anchor ship.
Fig. 8-3. Anchoring off the final heading.
closer and more distant objects. The apparent movement of references
ahead and astern of your ship indicates lateral motion while references
abeam or nearly abeam show headway or sternway. Your ship's move-
ment can be detected by eye with surprising accuracy, using this method,
long before any change in position is shown by traditional methods of navi-
gation. Use this technique by day and by night, during each step of the an-
choring evolution, especially when moving at very slow speeds and when
backing down and laying out the chain.
When should a ship start to turn in the anchorage? The master or officer
conning knows the ship's tactical diameter at slow speeds from the master's
trials and, allowing for any possible set and leeway, estimates by eye and in
some cases by fixes, the point to start the turn or turns. It is best to simplify
maneuvering by making any large changes in heading well before reaching
the location where you plan to anchor since you then only need to stop the
vessel prior to letting go. This isn't essential, and in a restricted or crowded
anchorage, it isn't always possible, but it sure makes the task easier.
184 A N C H O R I N G AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
As a rule of thumb, a ship turning at a constant engine speed in deep
water, that is, water more than one and a half times the ship's draft, will
be about three to three and a half ship lengths ahead of her starting point
and about one and a half ship lengths to port or starboard after turning 90
degrees, and about one ship length ahead of her starting point and three
and a half ship lengths to port or starboard after turning 180 degrees.
These distances are significantly reduced, in an accelerating turn using in-
creased revolutions. In shallower water, the turning circle will increase
until, when the water depth is nearly the same as the ship's draft, the dis-
tances required to turn are approximately doubled. These distances are
not exact, but they are close enough for day-to-day work, especially if you
make any needed small adjustments to the estimates to allow for maneu-
vering characteristics of a particular ship and for the wind and current
that make the ship's turning circle more elliptical as previously discussed
(fig. 8-4).
The following hints should prove useful in maneuvering into, around,
and out of an anchorage:
1. Searoom permitting, a large course change as the ship swings
around to her final heading, as described in chapter 1, will signifi-
cantly reduce headway as the ship approaches an anchorage.
2. Tunis to starboard are preferable to turns to port, to take advantage
of the twisting effect as the engine is backed to reduce headway and
stop the ship.
Conditions: Rudder hard over, engine
speed constant, water depth over 1.5
times ship's draft.
Results: (1) 90 from track, 3V4 ship
lengths ahead, and 1V4 ship lengthj to
port or starboard of start point;
(2) 180 from track, 1 ship length ahead,
and 3Mi ship lengths to port or
starboard of start point.
As wate r depth decreases, distances
increase. Wh6n depth almost equals
draft, the distances are doubled.
Fig. 8-4. Approximate turning circles in deep water.
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS 179
3. A kick ahead will accelerate the rate of turn, reducing the turning
circle without a significant increase in speed. Be careful, though,
that speed isn't significantly increased b> successive kicks ahead, as
il might be impossible to stop the ship at the selected anchoring loca-
tion.
4. Backing and filling near the anchoring area, as described in chapter
1, is usually preferable to successive kicks ahead when about to an-
chor. as the ship can be turned and simultaneously slowed and
stopped.
From the trial maneuvers, the master knows approximately how many
ship lengths the vessel will advance after the engi ne is put astern and thus
at what point the ship must go astern to be dead in the water at the se-
lected anchorage. For safety's sake, back down at least once before reach-
ing that point to check the slr'p's speed, using the location of the ship's
quickwater as described in chapter 4. (See figure -1-2.) Too often, a master
reduces to what, after several days at sea speed, seems like a slow speed in
an anchoragc, only to find that the ship is actually moving much faster
than anticipated when he backs down to let go.
Put the engine astern well before reaching the selected auchoring loca-
tion when anchoring at night, or in a crowded or restricted anchorage,
when speed is both more difficult to estimate and more critical, and back
until the ship is dead in the water. There is then no doubt about the ship's
speed: it is zero. Come ahead again, slowly move the last few ship lengths,
and let go.
PLACING THE ANCHOR
The ship slowly moves the last few hundred feet to the selected anchorage,
on the final heading if possible, using the leading marks and ranges to
navigate by eye while the mate checks the ship's position. Convert dis-
tance to the selected anchoring location from yards or fractions of a mile to
ship lengths or feet, units of measure the shiphandler navigating by eye
can use most effectively to estimate stopping and turning distances dur-
ing the last few ship lengths of the approach.
The anchor drops from the bow, net the bridge. It is the bow's location
that matters when letting go. Too often shiphandlers overlook this simple
fact and estimate distances from the bridge to the shore and other ships.
This can cause significant errors when anchoring VLCCs or other large,
bridge aft ships in restricted or crowded anchorages where the stern may
184 A N C H O R I N G AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS 181

be as much as a quarter-mile from the anchor, or when anchoring car car-

riers or other bri dge forward ships when the shiphandler is nearer the an-
chor but 700 to 800 feet from the stern. Put the bow, not the bridge, where njy
you want the anchor to lie before letting go.
Do not routinely anchor in the middle of an open anchorage, so far from
other ships and obstructions that you swing clear by several ship lengths
no matter how the wind and current might turn your ship. It is un-
seamanlike to waste space in the anchorage; it causes problems for other
ships anchoring after yours and it also causes problems for you, since
other vessels are forced to anchor closer to your ship than might be safe be-
cause they have to use whatever space you leave. It is also unnecessary be-
cause most ships swing to new headings at the same time, staying clear of
each other, unless tneir draft, freeboard, or size are so different that some
swing before the others. So there is no need to, at all times, be able to swing
clear over an arc of 360 degrees.
Anchor only as far from other ships and obstructions as necessary for
your own ship's safety and put the anchor closer to ships ahead than
astern. Your ship lies back from the anchor and the ship ahead and, as the
ships turn to current or wind, the ship ahead swings away from you. .n T
Correct: Anchor let go
closer to ship ahead
print, that may sound like common sense, but it is amazing how often ex- Fig. 8-5. Anchor closer to ships ahead than astern.
perienced masters and pilots put the anchor in the center of an open area
and find they are anchored too close to ships astern when the chain
stretches out. This can be an even greater problem when the tide or wind Masters too often stop the engine when the quickwater reaches amid-
changes and the ship astern becomes the ship ahead. Place the anchor ships because the flow of water moving up the ship's sides creates the illu-
closer to the ship ahead, not in the center of an open area, when letting go sion that the ship is moving astern when actually she is then just dead in
(fig. 8-5). the water. The chain will only pile up on the bottom and stop running out if
Think ahead of the ship as you place the anchor. Set up to back and the anchor is let go without some sternway. Continue backing until the
maintain control at all times when the engine is going astern. When an- quickwater is forward of amidships so the ship is moving astern, open the
choring a ship fitted with a right-hand turning fixed propeller, under most brake, and let go.
conditions, an or near the final heading, kick the engine ahead m t h the LAYING OUT THE CHAIN
rudder hard left to start the bow swinging to port and then put the engine
astern. Back until the quickwater reaches amidships and then continue The brake is tightened and eased as necessary to control the chain as the
backing until the ship starts moving astern. Ideally, when anchoring close ship moves slowly astern, laying the chain evenly over the bottom rather
to the final heading, the bow should steady up as the engine goes astern if than in a pile that could foul the anchor or damage the gear as the ship
the starboard anchor is to be dropped or begin swinging slowly to star- falls back, until the chain is brought up tight against the anchor with a
board if the port anchor is to be used. When anchoring at some large angle heavy strain.
away from the final heading, the bow should be swinging away from the The mate on the bow must keep the bridge informed of the lead and
anchor, as the chain pays out, as previously described in the section "Final weight on the chain at this point. The mate is the master's eyes as he ma-
Heading" in this chapter. neuvers t j move the ship slowly astern at the best speed and heading.
184
ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
keeping a light strain on the chain at all times so it is laid along the bottom
clear of the stem and bulbous bow. The mate notifies the bridge as soon as
the ordered length of chain is out so the engine can be put aheau to reduce
stern way, if necessary, before the anchor fetches up hard. Everyone gets
back to bed much sooner if the mate keeps the bridge well informed with-
out having to be repeatedly asked how the chain is leading.
Tighten the broke enough to check the chain and control it, but don't
set the brake so tight that the chain is held and the anchor llukes dig in
prematurely. When the flukes dig in too soon, before the shank is nearly
parallel to the bottom, the anchor may break free again- -so balled with
mud that it can't dig in when the full scope of chain is out. This is less of a
problem when the anchor is intentionally dragged, because it is less likely
to have dug in so fully that it comes free with mud and rock jammed be-
tween the flukes and shank.
Keep in mind that it is movement over the bottom that's important
when letting go, not speed through the water. When drifting with a strong
current from ahead, the ship will have sufficient sternway over the bottom
to lay out the chain when the quickwater reaches amidships, since she
would then be moving over the bottom at the speed of the current. Obvi-
ously, if there is a 1-knot current from ahead and you back until the water
is midships, you will be making 1-knot astern over the bottom and the
chain will lay out nicely.
The aforemantioned apparent motion of ships at anchor relative to
background references afloat and ashore is the best indication of ship's
movement once the ship starts moving astern. The quickwater forward of
midships only tells you the ship has sternway, while the Doppler log often
becomes useless once the quickwater moves up under the hull. Watch the
movement of vessels and objects against the background shoreline and
move the ship slowly astern over the bottom.
DIGGING IN
Tighten the brake when the required amount of chain is out and, if the
ship still has significant sternway, put the engine ahead one last time so
the chain isn't parted due to excessive sternway as the anchor fetches up.
You might use hard-over rudder while kicking the engine ahead at this
point, if required, to bring the ship closer to her final heading and to keep
tne anchor chain clear of the stem, bulb, and any underwater gear. Re-
member that the rudder directs propeller thrust, and the stopping effect
as the engine turns ahead is much greater if the rudder is amidships.
182
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS
The engine is used ahead only long enough to rcduce sternway. Don't
stop the ship completely. Hold the chain and let the ship move slowly back
against the anchor as the catenary caused by the chain's weight absorbs
most of the force of the remaining sternway. The ship must have a bit of
sternway to work against the anchor and dig the flukes well in to the bot-
tom. Back the engine again, if the ship inadvertently stops too quickly, so
the anchor is well dug in before the engines are rung off.
SWINGING ROOM AT ANCHOR
Obviously, masters prefer to anchor far enough from other ships and ob-
stacles, space permitting, to swing clear on both the present heading and
all other possible headings on which the ship might later lie at a safe dis-
tance from other ships.
But how far are you from ships ahead and astern? In a crowded anchor-
age, especially after days in the open ocean, other ships always look closer
than they actually are due both to your height of eye and to the lack of vi-
sual references with which the distance between ships can be compared.
Even experienced pilots are often surprised when, after anchoring a ship
in what appeared to be close quarters, thny get into a launch to go ashore
and, from a more distant vantage point close to the water, look back to find
that the ships actually are quite far apart. Unfortunately, the master and
deck officers are rarely able to view their vessel from a launch, but they
can walk down to the main deck where the true distance between ships be-
comes mmediately apparent. Try this the next time you are concerned
;
about the distance between anchored ships.
It is sometimes difficult to actually measure the distance to other
vessels anchored close to your ship. Radar, while excellent in open an-
chorages, is often less effective for measuring absolute distance be-
tween closely anchored ships because it measures distance from your
radar mast to some not always definable point on the other ship, to an
accuracy of fractions of a mile, not yards or meters. Stacks and ship's
gear also obstruct the radar and ships anchored in those oiind areas are
not visible to the radar at ail Radar is usually more helpful to detect
changes in distance, such as when one ship or the other drags closer or
farther away, than it is to measure absolute distance between anchored
ships.
Estimate distance from other ships by eye using your ship's length as a
reference and measure the distance from other ships ahead and astern to
your bow or stern, not to your location on the bridge.
184 ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
Some pilots swear they can estimate distance more accurately by bend-
ing over and looking between their legs. Pilots and seamen often joke
about this technique but. quite frankly, it seems to work. It's probably
better to try it without an audience, though, as shipmates may think you
are a bit strange, standing bent over looking between your legs at ships
forward and aft, but it helpsso bend over and look.
It may be necessary for a ship lying at anchor in a crowded anchorage
to maneuver on the anchor using the engine, rudder, or bow thruster if
available, to swing clear of other ships as she turns to a new tide or a shift
in the wind. Calculate tide and current changes and watch the weather
and other ships closely. Have the engine and thruster ready well before
the calculated change and, in a particularly restricted anchorage, have a
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS 183
tug ordered and standing by to assist in turning. Don't wait until the other
ships start swinging to make these preparations.
The master may also decide to put down tv.*c anchors in a small anchoi -
age to limit the ship's swing. Mooring to two anchors may be the best ac-
tion under some circumstances and common methods for doing so are
discussed later in this chapter.
It may not always be possible to moor to two anchors in a crowded an-
chorage if other ships close by are riding Lo one anchor. They will move in a
wider circle and your ship, restricted by the second anchor, may not swing
clear. Either use one anchor, or bo ready to maneuver or to heave up the
second anchor if other ships start swinging toward you in such circum-
stances. Local practice is important, since all ships will generally follow
the custom of the port when anchoring or mooring so that all ships swing
together.
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS
Any number of seamanship books present the reasons for mooring and an-
choring to two anchors, so this text will briefly discuss only the ship-
handling aspects of these evolutions.
The running moor is a maneuver for putting down two anchors in line
while the ship has headway. The ship is brought to her final heading,
stemming the current and wind, and the first anchor is let go. That chain
is slacked as the ship continues moving slowly ahead to drop a second an-
chor. The first chain is then heaved in as the second chain is slacked so the
ship drops back to ride between both anchors. The two anchors can be laid
along the axis of a channel or in line with a current so the ship rides be-
tween and swings within nearly her own length to each turn of the tide.
The running moor is sometimes called the [Lying moor. The name is col-
orful, traditional, and unfortunately misleading since it conveys an image
of an action-packed, high-speed anchoring maneuver under something
less than perfect control. No competent shiphandler does a flying any-
thing and the term should be avoided. Walking moor might be a better
name!
The ship can also anchor to two anchors laid out ahead in a maneuver
similar to a running moor, as described in the section on five- and
seven-point moorings in chapter 9, perpendicular to the wind and current
using the same or different lengths of chain to minimize yawing, increase
holding power, or hold a ship's head to a swell to reduce rolling while work-
ing cargo. A similar method for anchoring to two anchors, for ships fitted
184 ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
chapter 9.
A standing moor or ordinary moor is similar to the running moor ex-
cept the ship comes to her final heading, backs until she has sternway,
drops her first anchor, and slacks the chain as she maneuvers astern to let
go the second anchor. The first chain is then heaved in while the second is
slacked until the ship rides between the two anchors. The standing moor
is more commonly used to lay anchors in line with a current since the
shiphandler has less control of a ship when going astern, while the run-
ning moor with steerage and headway is more cften used to lay anchors
perpendicular to wind and current.
Seamen are often reluctant to use two anchors for mooring or anchor-
ing because of problems clearing round turns in the chain, so you may go to
sea for years without mooring in this manner. Round turns are caused by
the ship repeatedly swinging to the current and wind in the same direc-
tion, clockwise or counterclockwise, wrapping the chains around each
187
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS
other so it becomes impossible to heave the anchors home. With a modi-
cum of seamanship and shiphandling skills, these turns cnu be prevented
by turning the ship in the opposite direction at cach turn of the tide o,
change in the wind (fig. 8-8).
Turn the ship by putting the rudder hard over arid Kicking the engine
ahead as needed, or have a tug push on the quarter or tow the stern around
on a hawser. Start the ship swinging in the preferred direction, putting the
current or wind on the proper side so it too pushes the ship around alter-
nately clockwise and then counterclockwise on successive tides. Seamanship
texts also discuss canting the ship using hard-over rudder, but the ship's en-
gine or a tug is usually more reliable and effective in turning today's larger,
more diverse ship types, which may not respond to the rudder alone.
Mooring to two anchors may be the best way to anchor under some cir-
cumstances, in spite of potential problems with round turns in the chain,
and every seaman should know how to prevent round turns and how to
clear them if they do occur.
STERN ANCHORS
By Captain Warren G. Leback, Master Mariner
Stern anchors are most commonly found aboard the great number of naval
landing and assault vessels built during and since World War II. These
anchors give an added measure of vessel control, prevent broaching due to
wind, swell, tide, and current, and are used to kedge off a beach.
Fig. 8-8. Prevent round turns when moored.
184 ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS 189
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS

Stern anchors probably came into use shortly after man put to sea. 4. The steering gear and engine must be used judiciously, especially
Kedge (stern) anchors were used to hold a ship of the line in position to pro- once the stern anchor is let go.
vide a steady platform when bombarding shore batteries or opposing 5. Throughout the maneuver the master must think ahead of the ves-
fleets in numerous naval battles during the sixteenth through the eigh- sel and adjust for changes in wind and current.
teenth centuries. One of the more memorable naval engagements in which
stern anchors were used was the Battle of the Nile where Admiral Nel- There is a significant risk of damaging the rudder and propeller with
son's Mediterranean fleet caught the French fleet at anchor in Akubir the stern anchor and its chain because of the stern anchor's location. Be
Bay. Nelson divided his fleet into two columns, ran down both sides of the certain all sternway is off the ship before letting the stern anchor go. Limit
French fleet and, using kedge anchors, positioned his vessels so they could sternway when heaving up so the chain leads aft with a light strain at all
pour deadly broadsides into the opposing fleet. The outcome changed Na- timesthe ship must not overrun the stern anchorand wait until the an-
poleon's plans to advance into the Middle East. chor is in sight and clear before putting any headway on the ship.
Unfortunately, few merchant vessels other than those designed for In
specific trade routes are presently fitted with stern anchors, so only a an open roadstead both bow anchors and the stern anchor are laid out
limited number of masters and deck officers have had an opportunity to in a "Y" pattern to form a three-point moor. The maneuver is straightfor-
use them. As with any gear that receives only limited use, there are nu- ward. After all planning and preparations for mooring have been completed
merous theories about the use of stern anchorssome correct and many 1. The ship begins her approach at the minimum speed required for
incorrect. steerageway.
A few steamship companies, including Grace Line, Inc. and El Paso 2. The moor is made, searoom permitting, with the bow to seaward.
LNG Company, fitted their vessels with stern anchors. Grace Line fitted Approach from sea to the left of the intended moor to take advantage
their four Santa Lucia class vessels, their post-World War II C-2s and cf the ship's ability to back and fill to the right. Make the approach
their C-2 combination passenger/cargo vessels with stern anchors. The as wide as searoom allows.
anchors were used to keep the ships in position while lying at anchor in a 3. Come up to point "A" as shown in figure 8-9 so the three predeter-
number of open roadsteads along the west coast of South America. mined bearings intersect.
El Paso LNG Company fitted their nine liquefied natural gas vessels
with stern anchors. These anchors are to be used in the event of either a
rudder or engine failure to slow the ship and give directional control and to
make it possible to anchor these large ships in the Chesapeake Bay and
the narrow channels of the Savannah River. They are of sufficient weight
and are equipped with the amount of chain needed to hold the 950-foot
ships in the strong flood and ebb tides found in these areas.
When using a stern anchor
1. The master must have confidence in his shiphandling ability and
understand the stern anchor's uses and limitations.
2. The mooring maneuver must be carefully planned in advance and
put on the chart with three predetermined reference bearings laid
down.
3. The maneuver must be reviewed with the other officers so they are
thoroughly familiar with the plan and its alternatives.
 i
190 ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
4. Proceed down the reciprocal of bearing line "B" with the port anchor
backed out and ready to let go. Back down as the ship nears the drop
point, take all headway off the ship, and let go the port anchor.
5. Back the ship slowly along the reciprocal of bearing line B" and
U reached, and disengage the starboard chain. Continue to heave on the port
turn her to bearing line "D."
6. Come ahead and proceed slowly down the reciprocal of bearing line
"D" while keeping the port chain slack until the drop point for the
starboard anchor is reached. Take off all headway and let go the
starboard anchor.
7. Back the ship to point "A" while controlling the ship with both an-
chors, then continue backing along bearing line "C" to the drop point
for the stern anchor.
8. Make sure all sternway is off the vessel so the ship cannot override
the anchor and chain, and let go the stern anchor.
9. Heave the bow anchors while slacking the chain aft until the ship is
riding to all three anchors and the three-point moor is complete.
To unmoor, slack the bow chains and heave the vessel astern using the
stern anchor. Bear in mind that you must pay out the bow chains slowly to
THE ANCHOR AS A SHIPHANDLING TOOL 191
control the vessel. (Remember, you must not overrun the stern anchor.)
Wait until the stern anchor clears the water and is in sight before moving
the ship ahfad. Heave both bv chains simultaneously until point "A" is
chain until the ship reaches a position approximately halfway between
point "A" and the port anchor drop point. Lock in the starboard anchor
again. Resume heaving; by the time the port anchor is aweigh, you will
have a slight strain oi) the starboard chain so the vessel will not sag down
on the beach.
The same sequence of maneuvers, performed while the ship is stem-
ming the current, is used to anchor a ship fitted with a stern anchor in a
river or restricted anchorage. One bow anchor may be sufficient in some
cases, but the maneuver is still performed in basically the same manner.
THE ANCHOR AS A SHIPHANDLING TOOL
The anchor is rarely used when handling a ship, and now usually seems to
be thought of as a tool of last resort to be used only in emergency situa-
tions. This is unfortunate since a ship can be maneuvered using an anchor
in ways not possible with only the engine, rudder, and tugs. The anchor is
called the "poor man's tugboat" for good reasonit is often more effective
than a tug.
When handling a ship with an anchoi, it is essential that the mate as-
signed to let go the anchor be well versed in the use of anchors and be thor-
oughly trained in handling ground tackle, letting go the anchor properly,
and putting out the correct amount of chain. The importance of having a
man on the bow who can handle the anchor and be relied upon to put out
the coirect amount of cha'n cannot be overstressed.
Perhaps the most fundamental misunderstanding about shiphandling
with an anchor is the belief that a ship sheers in the direction of the anchor
that is put down. This is not so. Sheering is not a significant consideration
when selecting the anchor to be used. The bow of a ship with headway is
steadied by the anchor regardless of which anchor is used, and is not
pulled in any particular direction. The hawsepipe, and hence the lead cf
the chain, is so close to the centerline of the ship as the anchor drags that
only a minimal pivoting moment develops (fig. 8-11).
The pivoting effect can become significant, however, if a large turn is
deliberately initiated using the engine and rudder after the anchor be-
gins to drag. The pivoting moment increases as the direction of the an-
chor's retarding force and the ship's fcrward momentum shift in opposite
184 A N C H O R I N G AND SHIPHANDLING W I T H A N C H O R S M O O R I N GA N DA N C H O R I N 193
GW I T HT W OA

directions away from the vessel's centerline and each other, as shown in
position 2 of figure 8-11.
This delayed pivoting effect occurs only after the ship develops a signif-
icant swing, and requires deliberate action by the shiphandler who must
start the ship swinging. The resultant reduction in the diameter of the
ship's turning circle is one of the desirable effects of anchor use when ma-
neuvering. The sheering or pivoting to one side is neither an immediate
nor an inevitable result of dropping a particular anchor. It does not occur
without deliberate action and, for practical purposes, the magnitude of
this pivoting force is equal for a turn to port or starboard regardless of
which anchor is put down.
There is some disagreement among mariners over which anchor to
drop (fig. 8-12). Some shiphandlers contend that the lee anchor, or inboard
anchor when docking, should be used because it leads under and against
the hull and therefore will hold better in a beam wind. They also claim 3. It is easier to work the ship up to the dock when using the offshore
that using this anchor puts less stress on the windlass brake due to the anchor since it does not tend to fetch up as it would when the ship
friction between the chain and the hull. Others feel that the windward an- works across and over an inboard anchor.
chor, or offshore anchor when docking, should be used since that anchor 4. The outboard anchor can be left in the water ready to heave the ship
leads clear of the hull and requires more chain before it digs in and holds. back off the berth, and can be heaved up without damaging the
The latter choice is recommended because chain, hull, or antifouling coating.
5. Heaving the chain hard against the hull may damage the chain and
1. The anchor should not hold. the ship's hull.
2. The chance of damaging the hull with the anchor is minimized if the 3
windward (or offshore when docking) anchor is used since the chain By using the outboard or windward anchor there is less chance that the
tends away from and clear of the hull. anchor will hold even if a little too much chain is inadvertently put in the
water. It is always possible to slack more chain, but a good docking will
1. Initial turning moment G' - A' is insignificant
come to a halt if the anchor fetches up and the ship has to stop to heave the
as anchor drags on short scope of chain.
2. If vessel deliberately swung, the turning chain back in.
moment G' - B' increases and sh r p pivots When the chain is heaved against the hull, each link bears against and
against .he anchor.
is bent around the relatively small radius of the hull in the area of the bow,
whether it leads across the stem, under the foot, or around a bulbous bow,
and the chain is therefore subject to damage. The presence of a bulb is rea-
son enough to avoid using the inboard or lee anchor.
The ease with which the offshoro anchor can be heaved up is an important
consideration if the anchor must be heaved home afler docking. The offshore
anchor comes up easier because of the more direct lead from hawsepipe to an-
chor, and without causing any of the aforementioned damage.
Some mariners are concerned that it might be difficult to stop the chain
Fig. 8-11. Pivoting effect of a dragging anchor. after letting go because of the ship's motion over the bottom. This concern
184 194
ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS MOORINGANDA N C H O R I N GWITHTWOA N C H O R S

is especially prevalent when handling larger ships. This is not a problem.

Static friction is three times greater than dynamic friction for an asbestos
brake band bearing on the windlass's drum. The brake has three times as
much holding power when the wildcat is stopped as when it is turning. The
chain only runs out, after the anchor strikes bottom, until it goes slack.
The brake is then set up. The anchor digs in as the chain again comes tight
and then is pulled free from the bottom before static friction is overcome,
dragging along as the flukes ball up with mud. Additional chain can then
be slacked to achieve the desired effect.
SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORSHOW MUCH CHAIN?
Have the anchors manned and ready to let go when maneuvering in re-
stricted waters. Should the anchor be required during a maneuver, let go
only enough chain to allow the anchor to first grab and then break loose
and drag. The anchor must not dig in and hold.
For the anchor to be most effective, an amount of chain equal to about
twice the depth should be put well in the water and the brake screwed up
tight. If necessary, the second anchor can also be let go with a like amount
of chain. The ship slows and stops as one or both anchors drags along the
bottom. at Contractor's Hill. A ship's windlass just doesn't have a large enough
There is a common misconception, especially in an emergency, that a brake to stop a loaded ship.
large amount of chain should run out so the anchor digs in and stops the The proper use of anchors is in danger of becoming a lost art. Be sure all
ship. To stop a vessel in this manner would require the relatively small deck officers understand what they are to do with the anchors, and espe-
brake on the windlass to overcome the inertia of the entire moving mass of cially how much chain to slack out, before they go forward to stand by. Too
your ship. It will never happen! The brake will probably burn out and all few mates do!
the chain will run out while the ship continues moving ahead. If the brake
does hold, the chain often parts as it comes tight. It is most unlikely that a DOCKING WITH AN ANCHOR
chain would be able to withstand the shock load and almost instanta- Most dockings can be done using an anchor rather than a tug, although
neously stop a moving ship, as it would be required to do if the anchor is al- the tug generally is more convenient.
lowed to dig in hard. Instead we want the anchor to break out and relieve When using an anchor as an aid in docking, sufficient chain is put out
the strain on the chain before its breaking point is reached. to eliminate headway when the engine is at dead slow or slow speeds. How
What a helpless feeling one has as the ship heads toward a bank with much chain is required? That can only be determined by increasing the
no engine to slow her headway while the mate on the bow lets the chain length of the chain a few links at a time until the desired effect is obtained,
run out to the bitter end in a cloud of dirt and rust! A deeply laden chemical since there are se\ eral factors affecting the ship and anchor, and their net
tanker was transiting the Panama Canal a few years ago when the ship's effect cannot be predicted. When the ship is held in position both laterally
wheel was put the wrong way by the helmsman. The ship dove for the bank and fore and aft, with the engines coming ahead slowly, you have put out
and anchors were ordered let go, only to have the chain continue to run as the proper amount of chain.
shot after shot passed over the wildcat. The chain did finally stop running Drop the anchor well before arriving at the berth and drag it into posi-
and the ship came to a stopbut only when she was hard against the bank tion. Done properly, the anchor takes nearly all headway off the ship since
184 ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
an amount of chain has been slacked that is sufficient to slow the ship when
the engine is stopped. The ship will make no headway until the engine revo-
lutions are increased to at least slow ahead. Spend sufficient time adjusting
the length of the chain, putting out a few links at a time until you feel you
have total control over the ship. It is obvious to the shiphandler when the
proper amount of chain is outtheship makes no headway at lower engine
revolutions, as you work her around the anchor with the rudder, and slowly
develops headway when revolutions are increased.
Since the ship slows and stops with her engine stopped, as the anchor
drags along the bottom, no twisting occurs and the ship remains shaped
up for the berth.
Theie is no reason that the engine cannot be put astern if needed, al-
though this is not usually necessary.
When docking with an anchor down (fig. 8-14)
1. The ship is eased straight ahead toward her berthadjusting en-
gine revolutions to maintain the desired speed and using the rudder
to maintain heading.
A how large the ship. The technique varies a bit with larger ships because of
v guish the aids or the bank on either side, and the ship is unable to proceed.
A conditions improve.
y
Fig. 8-14. Docking with an anchor.
MOORINGANDANCHORINGWITHTWOANCHORS 197
2. Reduce engine revolutions so tho ship loses headway and,
3. Use the rudder to change her angle of approach by moving the stern
t-twards or away frcm tne berth.
4. After her heading is altered, increase engine revolutions to move the
ship ahead, bringing the bow nearer the berth.
5. Reduce revolutions again so the ship loses headway and the bow
moves no farther ahead. Let the engine work slowly ahead and use
the rudder totl bring the stern laterally toward the pier or wharf.
In effect the bow and stern are moved separately as the ship is docked
while excellent control is maintained over the forward and lateral motion.
Revolutions are adjusted so the anchor either holds or drags and the ship
is moved nearly sideways or directly ahead as desired with a surprising
degree of control. The key to docking with the anchor is slacking sufficient
chain so the ship remains in position at low revolutions but moves ahead
as the revolutions are increased.
HOLDING A VESSEL WITH THE ANCHOR
Often a ship must proceed at a slow speed with a strong wind on the beam,
or maintain her position in a channel because of restricted visibility or the
late arrival of a tug. The anchor greatly simplifies this work, no matter
the increase in mass, but ships a thousand feet long are worked against an
anchor without difficulty.
A heavy rain squall, with strong winds and blinding rain, strikes the
vessel proceeding up a narrow channel. The rain reduces both visibility
and the radar's effectiveness, so the master and pilot are unable to distin-
This oan be a moment of freat stressor the anchor can be put down until
An anchor is let go and a shot of chain put well in the water. The brake
is set up while the engine is used ahead only to maintain the vessel's head-
ing, the ship losing headway due to the dragging anchor. When the
s l o w l y
ship is dead in the water her engine is put slow or half ahead and she
works against the anchor, additional chain being slacked as required until
the ship just holds her position while the quartermaster steers by compass
to maintain the heading, since no landmarks are visible. Those on the
bridge can now relax, adjusting the engine revolutions occasionally to allow
for changes in the wind while the ship, which had been setting sideways
184
A N C H O R I N G AND SHIPHANDLING W I T H A N C H O R S
out of the channel and not answering her helm, steadies up nicely with the
anchor down.
If a single anchor is not sufficient, a second anchor can be put down in a
similar manner. It is best to put that anchor down while the ship still has
some headway, so the chain is laid out properly and the anchor's flukes fall
flat, ensuring that the flukes do not set against the hull. The amount of
chain needed for one or two anchors depends on the profile of the hull and
superstructure, that is, the ship's "sail area," the type of bottom, and the
strength of the wind. Initially a shot is put in the water and additional
chain is slacked until the anchor takes charge of the bow, although the
steadying effect of the anchor is felt immediately after the anchor begins
to drag.
Use only a minimum amount of chain until the ship has lost nearly all
her way, since the holding effect of the anchor increases as speed is lost.
You don't want so much chain out that the anchor fetches up as the ship
loses headway.
ANCHORS TO ASSIST STEERING
When meeting another ship in a channel so narrow that there is danger of
sheering as the quarter feels the bank, or when negotiating a turn smaller
than the ship's tactical diameters, or when proceeding at slow speeds in a
strong wind so it is difficult to steer the shipuse your anchor. The anchor
steadies the bow laterally and retards the ship's headway despite higher
engine revolutionsor conversely, higher revolutions can be used to in-
crease the rudder's effectiveness without increasing headway.
Less chain is used so the ship maintains some headway as the anchor
drags along the bottom. Let go well before the critical point in the maneu-
ver so the anchor has time to ball up with mud and you have time to adjust
the amount of chain and achieve the desired effect. The length of chain is
increased a few links at a time until this balance is found. The amount of
chain is net critical so long as so much chain is not put out that the anchor
fetches up.
Once the anchor becomes effective, the ship turns in a much smaller di-
ameter and is easily controlled. The pivot point shifts forward so that the
ship pivots around a point nearer her bow. Advance is reduced, becoming a
factor of the scope of chain and revolutions used during the turn, that is,
the degree to which the anchor is allowed to drag.
Since the pivot point is farther forward, the stern initially swings in a
wider area than it would without the anchor, but the overall turning diam-
198
MOORINGANDANCHORINGWITHTWOANCHORS
eter is greatly reduced. Steering becomes more precise and the ship more
controllable due both to the restricted movement of the bow and the
greater flow over the rudder for a given speed made good over Lhe bottom.
ANCHORS TO BREAK A SHEER
Should the ship take a sheer, the anchor can be used to regain control and
prevent collision or grounding. It is important, though, that the anchor
not dig in when used at such a time, so minimize the amount of chain
slacked. If the anchor were to fetch up, the already present sheer would be
accentuated because the pivot point then shifts ahead to the hawsepipe,
and the suction of the quarter, in combination with the rotational momen-
tum already developed, takes charge.
When the anchor is dragging properly, the bow immediately steadies
up and the rudder becomes more effective, the stern lifts away from the
bank, and the sheer is broken. The anchor has both checked the swing of
the bow and retarded the ahead movement of the ship, while the engine
continues to come ahead forcing a maximum flow over the rudder to
quickly increase its effectiveness. Needless to say. the shiphandler has
also increased the engine speed to fu l ahead to break the sheer (fig. 8-15).
]
This same effect is used to assist a ship in negotiating a bend with a ra-
dius that is less than the ship's normal turning radius.
EMERGENCY USE OF THE ANCHOR
Today, the anchor is most often used for emergencies and it is an ex-
tremely effective tool for preventing groundings and accidents when the
4
1. Suction on the quarter cajses sheer.
2. Anchor is put down and bow steadies up.
3. Rudder becomes more effective so stern
lifts from the bank.
4. Sheer is oroken ana ship proceeds safoly.
184
ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
engine or steering is lost. Because the ship continues along her track
slowly losing headway after the anchor is down, she can be brought to a
controlled stop under most circumstances if there is sufficient searoom
ahead.
Two anchors can be used to increase the stopping force in an emer-
gency but neither anchor should be allowed to fetch up for the reasons ex-
plained earlier. If a stern anchor is available, it is manned in narrow
channels and used in the same manner as, and in conjunction with, the
bow anchors. The stern anchor is especially effective for stopping a ship in
a short distance while maintaining her heading, and holding the ship lat-
erally after headway is lost. Obviously though, if it is necessary to work
the ship around a bend or change her heading while stopping, the stern
anchor would not be an appropriate tool. For further discussion on the use
of stern anchors, see the section in this chapter entitled "Stern Anchors."
Some steering control can be maintained despite a loss of rudder power
by making use of the ship's natural behavior in conjunction with the an-
chor:
1. The ship can be turned to the right by backing the engine and taking
advantage of the tendency to twist in that direction.
2. The ship can be turned to the left by using bank suction on the star-
board quarter.
3. A conventional ship will turn into the wind when she has headway,
or lie at some large angle to the wind when dead in the water.
4. If a ship develops sternway she tends to back into the wind, after
which the anchor can be put down so the ship backs nearly straight
A recent grounding of a VLCC might have been prevented had the mas-
ter made use of this tendency of a ship to back into the eye of the windthe
ship would usually back into the same wind, which in this case blew her
onto the beach.
If dragging anchors cannot stop the ship before grounding, and if the
bottom is soft so there is no chance of damaging the hull wher the ship
goes aground, slack more chain when one to two ships lengths from the
shoal so the anchor or anchors are laid out and ready to pull the ship back
off. This decision has to be made only by the master at the moment of cri-
sis, but it is an option that is available. The shiphandler's responses to
such situations are more effective if possible emergencies are considered
before they arise and actions preplanned. When things go wrong, they go
200
MOORING AND ANCHORING WITH TWO ANCHORS
wrong in a hurry and reaction time is brief; by planning for such contin-
gencies, the response can be instinctive and immediate.
Putting the engine full astern is often the worst response if steering is
lost. The properly used anciior will stop a ship in a reasonable distance,
and backing should be minimized in such situations because of the ship's
tendency to twist and behave with less predictability.
Anchors are also the mariner's most effective tool when the engine is
lost. The rudder can be used so a ship can be steered and drifted until she
is nearly dead in the water. Do not be too quick to get the anchors down in
this case, since once the anchor takes charge much of the rudder's effec-
tiveness is lost due to the stabilizing effect of the dragging anchor. When
possible, wait until the ship loses stcerageway or until a straight reach
lies ahead before letting the anchor go io stop the ship.
Due to the stress of the moment, and despite the shiphandler's ac-
quired ability to function under pressure and make immediate decisions
for which he alone holds total responsibility, the master may hesitate to
use the anchors in an emergency situation. This hesitation is born of lack
of confidence. From time to time, get to the pilot station early and put an
anchor underfoot so that you can perform the maneuvers that have been
discussed. Let the other mates try them as well. Confidence comes with
practice.
LYING ALONGSIDE A BANK
At times it is necessary to anchor a ship in a narrow channel and be confi-
dent that she will not swing with the tide or lie across the channel and im-
pede the movement of other vessels. If the bank has a steep gradient and is
of a soft material such as mud or clay, the ship can be put alongside and
held with the anchor regardless of the direction of the wind and current.
If the current is from astern the ship is brought to the starboard side of
the channel and speed reduced to bare steerageway. Drop the outboard or
port anchor and slack the chain until the same control is gained as in pre-
vious maneuvers. Do not put out so much chain that the ship stops before
she is alongside the bank. If the anchor fetches up too soon, the current
from astern takes charge and causes the ship to get crosswise in the chan-
nel. Ease the ship ahead against the anchor and, as the ship nears the
bank, put the rudder to port. Reduce RPM or stop the engine and lay the
ship easily alongside at a slight angle to the bank. The stern lies against
the bank and the anchor holds the bow off as the current from aft strikes
the hull on the port side (fig. 8-16).
184 202
ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING W I T H A N C H O R S MOORINGANDANCHORINGWITHTWOA N C H O R S

Current However, should the ancnor be allowed to fetch up so all astern motion
is lost, the ship walks only to port. It's therefore important that only the
minimum chain required to steady the bow is used.
When using an anchor in this manner in a strong wind, a tug must also
be used aft on a hawser. The anchor holds the bow up to the wind while the
tug both pulls the ship astern and holds the stern up to the wind. In this
case, slack the chain until the bow no longer falls off as the tug pulls astern
and to windward. Due to the heavy strain on the anchor, the ship's engine
is needed to assist the tug during the maneuver. It will probably oe neces-
Fig. 8-16. Lying alongside a bank. sary to increase the amount of chain used once the ship begins moving
astern under these conditions, since the anchor balls up with mud and
Should the current change direction, come ahead with a few revolutions loses some holding power. When the bow starts to feel the wind, slack
and put the rudder hard to starboard to lift the stern. Let the ship fall back chainif the anchor fetches up, increase revolutions astern to work it
with the current, kicking the engine ahead as necessary to keep the stem free. The tug continues to pull throughout the maneuver, since it is pri-
off the bank until the ship is riding to her anchor. The eddy current between marily holding the stern to windward while assisting the engine to move
the bank and the hull then usually holds the ship a short distance off the the ship aft.
bank so she lies nicely until the next change in the current. The ship is later
put alongside as the tide turns and floods again, the procedure being re-
peated as necessary for as long as the ship needs to remain at anchor.
GOING ASTERN WITH AN ANCHOR
A ship being maneuvered astern for any distance can use an anchor un-
derfoot to steady the bow and make the ship back almost directly astern.
The anchor replaces a bow tug and the engine is used to move the ship
astern, either unassisted or with a tug on a hawser astern to tow the ship.
Skill is required when using the engine alone in this manner, since the
ship pivots to some degree when the engine turns r.stern ever though the
anchor is steadying the bow. As the ship backs with the anchor down the
resultant motion is almost directly astern, the stern walking to port at a
much lesser rate than it would when backing without the anchor under-
foot (fig. 8-17). When the stern does begin moving to port, the engine is
stopped and kicked ahead with hard-over rudder to bring the ship back to
the desired heading and then the backing maneuver is resumed.

Fig. 8-17. Moving a ship astern with an anchor.


CHAPTER NINE
SPECIAL MANEUVERS
Captain Ironsides was as cool as a cucumber. He moved
his ship about with geometric precision . .. th<? ship
seemed to perform a slow, formal dance to the accompa-
niment of whistles and kettledrums; every move fol-
lowed a rigid pattern.
Jan de Hartog, The Distant Shore
The morning is wet and still. A light mist born of chill night air still linger-
ing within the jungle's ferns and coconut palms rises vaporlike up the sides
of the cone-shaped hills. Even the hard case seaman lingers on deck to enjoy
this morning as his containership eases slowly toward Gatun Locks and
begins her crossing from the Atlantic to Pacific. The Panama Canal severs
the Isthmus of Panama, forever changing the patterns of world commerce
but altering not one bit of the tropic splendor of this land.
Thousands of ships each year parade up, over, and then down the far
side of the. spine of Central America, yet so professionally do the pilots and
others involved with this enterprise work that the innately impressive oper-
ation seems routine, almost mundane, to casual observers. To seamen
though, whether old hands or first trippers, the Panama Canal is fascinat-
ing. Ships anchor, berth, meet in narrow channels, lock up and down, and
maneuver in wind, tropic rain squall, fog, and spill current with and with-
out tugs; the canal is a microcosm of the shiphandler's world.
The pilot watches from the starboard wing, radio in hand, preparing to
put this ship smoothly into the lock with but 2 feet of clearance on each side.
His skills and confidence are a product of hundreds, even thousands, of
transits.
"South four, this is Gatun east side. We have your ship scheduled for
twelve wires, and will be back for her in about ten minutes."
"Roger."
A laconic reply, but all that is needed.
Time is paramount if the canal is to operate safely and efficiently so the
ship continues to ease steadily toward the lock, moving at the pace ofa slow
walk to arrive at the center wall simultaneously with the locomotives re-
204
CANALS AND LOCKS 205
turning down the mile long track from the ship ahead. Few words are spo-
ken. The silent lockage is a characteristic of the Panama Canal transit of
u)hich the pilots are justly proud.
Heaving lines drop from the ship to the small skiff lying off the now hor-
izontal arrow at the north end of the center wallthe Pacific lies just eight
hours away.
CANALS AND LOCKS
Mariners routinely handle ships in canals and locks throughout their ca-
reers at sea, be they the locks at the entrance to the tidal basin in Bombay
or Buenos Aires, or those at the Panama or Welland Canal. Each passage
is unique since specific approach and lockage techniques vary to suit the
conditions of a particular port or waterway. By understanding the prob-
lems and methods common to most of these facilities though, the mariner
can develop an appreciation of their operation.
Most seafarers transit the Panama Canal at some point, so this waterway
will serve as a basis for discussing shiphandling at all such installations.
This canal presents a composite of conditions found in most lock-type
canalsfresh- and saltwater sections, single and multiple locks carrying
ships both up and down, and a restricted channel with all its inherent
shiphandling problems.
A passage through locks can be divided into four segments: the ap-
proach, entrance, fill, and departure. During the lockage a ship is affected
by the same laws of hydrodynamics and the same effects of wind and current
as a docking vessel, and also the combined effects of the spill and turbidity
currents found to some degree at all locks. It is a common misconception
that there are no currents in the Panama Canal, or at other lock-type ca-
nals. There are, in fact, strong currents that can reach a velocity of 3 to 4
knots at the lock's entrance or jaws.
A huge amount of water flows from a lock chamber as its level is low-
ered, forming a spill current that follows a predictable pattern for which
the pilot must compensate during the approach (fig. 9-1). The spill current
is primarily a surface current and its effect varies with ihe ship's draft.
Many locks connect two bodies of water of different density. For exam-
ple, the last or sea-end lock at the Panama Canal moves the ship from the
canal's fresh water lake and locks to the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean salt wa-
ter. A complex density current forms when those lock gates are opened and
the heavier water on one side of the gates mixes with and displaces the
less dense water on the other s:'ae. While the surface pattern of the
206 SPECIAL MANEUVERS CANALS AND LOCKS 207

Smaller ships approach the center wall in the area of the jaws, or the en-
trance locks, and then bring the stern in toward the wall as the bow enters
the locks and the locomotive"? are made fust. Larger or more deeply laden
shins are kept closer to the center wall during the approach as shown in
figure 9-2 and, in the case of Panamax ships, the bow or the entire ship is
brought hard up against the center wall prior to the time the ship reaches
the entrance to the lock chamber.
Speed of approach is very important because the engine will have to be
kicked ahead to alter the ship's heading as the ship nears the jaws. So long
as speed is reduced to a minimum during the appioach (usually 1 to 2
knots is satisfactory), the engine can be used as needed without develop-
ing excessive speed at the entrance. Speed is critical at the Panama Canal
since the locomotives move at a maximum towing speed of 3 knots and
thus cannot put wires aboard a ship that exceeds that speed.
At the locks a ship must have only an officer and crewmembers forward
and aft to operate the line handling winches, and supply two mooring lines
at the bow and stern in case it is necessary to tie up at some point. The ca-
nal seamen supply all other gear. Other canals, such as the Welland Canal
turbidity current is similar to that of the spill current, below the surface and Saint Lawrence Seaway, require the ship to supply all gear and to
the heavier water forms a current flowing in the opposite direction, toward handle her own lines. Local rules must be carefully read to determine the
and under the lighter fresh water, affecting the ship in varying degrees and requirements of a particular waterway.
directions depending on her draft and the period of time that the masses of
the water have been mixing. In the Panama Canal specifically, the more
dense salt water outside the entrance to the first lock (the "sea entrance")
begins to displace the lighter fresh water in the chamber as soon as the
gates are opened. As the fresh water is displaced it flows out of the chamber
in a strong surface current reaching down to a depth of 20 to 25 feet.
Because of these currents, the pilot may have the gates kept closed until
the ship is almost to the jaws or entrance of the lock and until the bow wires
are aboard the ship and fast. At other times this current will be allowed to
dissipate before a large Panamax-class ship approaches the locks.
At the Panama Canal, ships follow an "S" pattern as they approach the
locks to compensate for this complex current pattern (fig. 9-2). Compare
figure 9-1 with figure 9-2 and it is obvious why ships approach in this man-
ner. The current flows strongly for about thirty minutes after the water
stops spilling from the chamber, the gates are opened, and the spill cur-
rent and density current combine to affect the approaching ship.
The distance between the ship and the center approach wall varies de-
pending on the ship size, the current strength, and the ship's draft. Fig. 9-2. Allowing for current during lock approach.
206
SPECIAL MANEUVERS
Communication is by walkie-talkie with hand signals to back up the ra-
dio in case of failure. The ship's whistle is also used to communicate a dan-
ger signal to the lockmaster and locomotives should some problem develop.
Anchors are kept ready for letting go, but must be stowed in the
hawsepipe, rather than backed out, so the wires and messengers will not
be fouled on the flukes.
Tugs are used in the same manner as discussed in previous chapters to
assist larger ships during the approach. The bow, or the entire midbody of
large, deeply loaded ships, is held against the fendering on the center wall
by the tugs and locomotives during the latter stages of the approach. This
minimizes the risk that the current will force the ship's bow into the
knuckle, as pilots caM the corner where the side approach wall meets the
side wall of the lock chamber. (See figure 9-2.) The tugs are kept working,
using the tug signals discussed earlier in this text, to adjust the tug's
power, and push to hull against the center wall until the bow is well into
the chamber.
Interestingly, there are significant differences between the methods
used by very experienced pilots putting the same Panamax-class ships
into the locks.
Some pilots put the entire ship against the wall. They hold her flat
alongside with the locomotives and tugs until the forward sections of the
parallel midbody pass inside the locks. The theory is that by keeping the
ship alongside the wall, the hull is as far as possible from the knuckle.
More important, because the ship is tight alongside, there is no way for the
current to get between the ship and the wall to force the ship away from
the center wall.
Other pilots believe this is quite wrong. They hold the bow alongside but
allow the stern to stay a few feet from the wall while they slide the ship into
the locks. This group believes the ship actually stays alongside easier if it is
angled toward the wall. If the bow does get off the wall, it can be easily
brought back alongside because water can flow freely astern rather than
being trapped between the hull and the wall. This seems to be borne out by
the fact that only one tug is needed to keep the ship alongside during the op-
erations and even that tug usually comes ahead only at a slow speed rather
than being used full ahead as is needed using the first method.
The second method is used by a growing number of pilots who find they
have less problem keeping the bow clear of the side wall if the stern is not
hard alongside. The point, though, is that both methods work well. Which
is best? The method the pilot feels most comfortable with or, as a pilot
208
CANALS AND LOCKS
might sav, "what works for you." There are obviously wrong ways to do a
job but, since thousands of Panamax ships have been put safely into locks
for the better part of a century using either method, it is reaJ'v only a mat-
ter of personal preference. Keep this in mind the next time someone in-
sists there is only one way to do a job. T'ain't so, as the aforementioned
variations in working by some of the finest shiphandlers in the world
clearly demonstrate. Again, it is only important to understand ship-
handling techniques and principles of hydrodynamics, plan ahead, use ex-
ternal forces to advantage, and to do the job in the manner wi'li which you
are most comfortable.
The lockage procedure is the same regardless of whether the pilot puts
only the ship's bow or the entire midbody alongside. Wires are taken from
the locomotives as the ship passes along the center wall, the number of
wires depending on the displacement and length of the ship as determined
using an empirical formula developed over nearly a century of operation.
Sidewall wires are taken aboard during the entrance stage of the lockage
and, when aboard, are used to center the ship and assist her in moving into
the chamber. The engine is used throughout the approach to move the ship
and to position the stern.
Larger ships must be driven into the lock, often at full ahead. Their
beam and draft fills the cross-sectional area of the chamber so that the wa-
ter cannot flow out as it is displaced by the entering ship and a piston ef-
fect is created.
Using the wires from the locomotive's two constant tension winches,
and the braking and towing effect derived from the undercarriage drive
that meshes into the drive rack, up to 70,000 pounds of pull is exerted on
the ship by each locomotive. The rack is located between the locomotive
tracks that parallel the chamber. The "mules" are positioned ahead of the
ship's chock to center and tow the ship, or abeam or abaft the chock to cen-
ter or brake the ship as necessary, depending on the instructions received
from the pilot over the walkie-talkie. A set of idler wheels under the loco-
motive locks into the cambered sides of the drive rack to ensure that the lo-
comotive i3 not pulled into the chamber.
All locomotives are shifted to a braking position abaft the chocks as the
ship nears the gate ahead and she is stopped in the chamber to await flood-
ing or filling. Due to the aforementioned piston effect, large ships practi-
cally stop themselves after the engine and locomotives are stopped. Often
a ship's master is needlessly concerned that the ship is going to strike the
gates ahead, not realizing that the vessel actually tends to stop on her
210 SPECIAL MANEUVERS FIVE-ANDSEVEN-POINTMOORINGS 225

own. In the Saint Lawrence Seaway and other locks without locomotives,
the vessel is stopped using the engine and piston effect alone, an effect
that increases rapidly as the blockage factor approaches unity.
The entrance phase complete, all locomotives shorten up their wires to
get the best lead to hold the ship centered as the chamber fills. The ?m-
mense gate valves are opened, the water flowing down the length of the
center and side walls and through lateral culverts beneath the ship. The
design and construction of this engineering masterpiece makes interest-
ing reading and several recommended titles can be found in the Bibliogra-
phy. The ship is usually held in the center of the chamber in the Panama
Canal while the water level is raised or lowered. In other waterways that
use ship's lines or wires rather than shore-based locomotives, the ship is
kept hard alongside the wall during the fill or spill.
Up and down lockages differ greatly. The ship lies quietly during a
down lockage as the placid water drains out from under her. During an up
lockage though, the ship surges heavily as the water comes into the cham- Fig. 9-3. Keeping sufficient angle as the ship clears the jaws.
ber at a high rate, either from the bottom or side depending on the design
of the lock. Filling from the bottom is preferable because the movement of bank described in chapter 2. By keeping sufficient angle, maintaining a
the water is then primarily vertical and the ship is less likely to be forced balance between the turning couple created by the rudder and the suction
into the wall. The positioning of the vessel, centered or alongside the wall, effects on her quarter as she moves along the wall, the ship is slowly
is peculiar to the lock system but in all cases the ship must be held in that steamed from the locks. Alternatively, some pilots choose to put the ship
position throughout the fill and not allowed to develop any athwartship against the center wall fendering and slide along until the ship is clear, es-
movement. A ship held alongside by proper fendering will not be damaged, pecially when moving larger ships that will usually be drawn onto the cen-
nor can there be any damage to a ship held in the center of the chamber. ter wall anyway. The previously discussed currents at the seaward ends of
When a ship starts to move about in the chamber though, the forces acting the locks assist a departing ship to clear the center wall and the ship can
on her sides become unbalanced and she begins to surge, developing mo- basically be steamed straight from the last or sea-end chamber.
mentum and probably being damaged as she comes alongside one wall or Since the ship obeys the same physical laws, and is handled in the
the other. same manner as for any other narrow channel during her passage across
The fill or spill is completed and the massive gates swing open as the Gatun Lake and through the narrow and rock-edged channel of Gaillard
ship moves ahead using her engine and the towing locomotives. A large Cut, any discussion of that phase of the transit would be redundant. Suf-
ship is farther assisted out to the locks by putting water into the chamber fice it to say that this transit offers an excellent opportunity for the mari-
behind her; she is "flushed out" of the chamber. The displaced water does ner to observe ship behavior when maneuvering and when meeting other
not then ha\ e to flow through the restricted area between the ship and the ships in confined waters.
lock walls and floor as the ship departs the chamberinstead a head of
water is created behind the ship to assist her in leaving. SINGLE-POINT MOORINGS
As the ship clears the jaws (fig. 9-3) she is put at an angle with the bow Few ports in the world can accommodate deeply loaded VLCCs and
away from the center wall. This angle helps to compensate for the imbal- ULCCs, so offshore oil terminals such as the LOOP terminal in the Gulf of
ance of pressures as the ship passes along the center wall after clearing Mexico are beirg constructed as a practical and efficient alternative. Be-
the chamber. The wall affects the ship in the same manner as the close ing a relatively recent innovation, these terminals have been visited by
212 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
FIVE-ANDSEVEN-POINTMOORINGS 225

only a small number of seafarers to date and only a few mariners nave
brought a ship into such a facility.
The LOOP terminal is typical of offshore ports using single-point
moorings. The facilities at LOOP lie in water ranging from 100 to 125 feet
in depth, approximately 19 miles off the Louisiana coast. The designated
port area is reached via a defined fairway under the guidance of a pi-
lot/mooring master.
After completion of a prearrival inspection to ensure that a visiting
VLCC or ULCC meets the statutory requirements for tank vessels, she is
brought into the terminal area in which three single point moorings (SPMs)
and the pumping platform are located. The ship is turned to the heading at
which she will lie after mooring is completed and brought up to the buoy.
Unless the ship has been at anchor in the vicinity of the port area, the
best indication of the required approach heading is the direction in which
the floating cargo hoses trail from the buoy. Coming from the anchorage,
the ship approaches on the heading at which she was lying while at an-
chor; the ship does not know whether she is swinging on the buoy or the laterally away from the buoy; the buoy remains at the same relative bear-
anchor and will lie at the same heading in either case. If coming from sea, ing fine on the port bow. This feel that the sliip is "in a groove" is one of the
approach straight up the hoses since they at least lie to a resultant of the best indications that the proper heading has been foimd. Instrumenta-
surface current and the prevailing wind. It would be advantageous to have tion, especially a Doppler log reading speed over the ground laterally and
a current meter at a mid-draft depth of 40 feet on the buoy anchor chain to fore and aft, is especially helpful at this point, since a heading that elimi-
supply subsurface current information, and such equipment should be in- nates all sideward motion over the ground can quickly be determined as
stalled on all SPMs in the future. well as speed over the ground towards the buoy.
Since tugs are not generally used, the ship must approach on a heading There is greater room for error in determining the approach heading if
that balances the forces of wind and current or she will be set away from tugs are available, but the technique for approaching and mooring re-
the buoy before the mooring lines and chafing chains are brought aboard mains the same.
(fig. 9-4). The relative effects of the wind and current depend not only on
their absolute forces and direction relative to the ship's heading but also Speed of approach is important of course, and by using methods dis-
on the ship's draft. Refer again to the discussion in chapter 5 on wind ver- cussed in previous chapters to slow the ship the approach can be com-
sus current forces. It would seem that, because of the VLCC's greater pleted efficiently while ensuring that speed is reduced to minimum
draft, the current would usually overcome the wind, but this is not the steerageway for the last few shiplengths of the maneuver. Most important
case. VLCCs have a great deal of sail area and even a 15-knot wind signifi- is the significant reduction of headway during large changes in course typ-
cantly affects the aporoach headingthat heading is a resultant of the ical with ships of this size; if the ship has to change heading during the ap-
wind and current in all but the lightest breeze. proach she can proceed at a greater speed prior to the course alteration.
The heading is adjusted during the final stages of the approach when Plan one large change of heading during the last stage of the approach
effects of the outside forces increase geometrically as the ship's headway rather than using a series of small alterations in course as would normally
decreases to the less than 1-knot speed that is necessary tc safely com- be done when approaching a berth. The ship can then approach at 3 to 4
plete this evolution. Once the proper approach heading is found, the ship knots until tlie course change, rather than approaching at 1 to 2 knots on
maintains that heading without a large amount of rudder and will not set her final heading, and the last 2 miles can be covered in about one hour
214 SPECIAL MANEUVERS FIVE-ANDSEVEN-POINTMOORINGS 225

rather than the two or more hours that would be required at 1 knot. Since
the approach with a VLCC is made over a distance measured in miles
rather than feet, these considerations are significant.
The ship is steadied on her final heading well before reaching the buoy,
since there usually are no tugs to check any residual swing after the ship
loses headway/steerageway. Despite their 75- to 80-foot drafts, VLCCs
ar.d ULCCs generally steer very well at minimal speeds with the engine
stopped, so this final approach can be made at very slow speeds. During
the final 600 feet of the approach, the crew heaves the pickup line aboard
under the direction of the assistant mooring master, the ship proceeding
with only minimum headway so she can be stopped when 100 feet from the
buoy. The pickup line brings the chafing chain aboard to be made fast
with either a chain stopper or Smit bracket (fig. 9-5). The chain stopper,
which resembles the traditional riding pawl assembly used for the ship's
anchor, is preferable to the Smit bracket since there are no connecting
links and shackles to handle and the mooring can thus be completed
faster and more safely.
The pickup hawsers are not to be used to heave the 350,000- to
600,000-ton ships to the SPM. The ship must be steamed to the buoy while Two service craft are generally used to assist during the mooring, one
these lines are used only to bring the chafing chain aboard. moving the hoses off to the ship's port hand and clear and the other bring-
ing the mooring lines to the ship to be brought aboard. The hoses and buoy
are kept on the ship's port bow so the ship can pass clear without damag-
ing the installation if there is any error in estimating the stopping dis-
tance required. The port bow is chosen because the ship's bow swings to
starboard away from the hose and buoy if the engine is put astern. Do not
have the boat pull the hoses clear to port until the ship has nearly reached
them, since the hose string is used to determine the approach heading.
A second pilot or assistant mooring master must be on the bow as the
ship approaches the SPM. When within a few hundred feet of the bow, the
buoy is no longer visible from the bridge and the assistant mooring master
then conns the ship, giving helm and engine orders via the walkie-talkie to
the mooring master. For this reason, the man on the bow should also be a
pilot qualified to handle ships of this size.
Communication is by UHF walkie-talkie with VHF backup. The ship
suppHes two 20-fathom messengers to bring the buoy pickup lines aboard
and any of the international standard mooring systems such as
j
1. Bow chain stoppers (fig. 9-7) designed to accept the 76.1-mm (3-inch)
Fig. 9-5. SPM pickup rope and chafing chain. section of chafing chain. (This is the preferred mooring system.)
216 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
2. Smit brackets built to Oil Companies International Marine Forum
(OCIMF) standard dimensions.
3. Mooring bitts suitably positioned and of adequate strength.
In all cases the ship must have two closed chocks leading fair to the moor-
ing equipment that are suitable for the 76.1-mm (3-inch) chafing chain.
A mooring line must be ready aft to be used by the workboat as re-
quired to hold the ship off the SPM during discharge. Constant attention
is required during the discharge operation to be sure the ship does not ride
up on the hoses and buoy. It is usually necessary to use the ship's engine
astern at 8-to-10 revolutions or a line boat pulling astern to prevent this.
Because the wind and current are usually at some angle to each other, the
ship sails up to and across the buoy, much as she tacks back and forth
across her anchor in an anchorage.
Despite her deep draft, a loaded VLCC is as much affected by the wind
as a smaller ship, since she presents a sail area of the same proportion to
the below water hull as any other vessel.
When the mooring is completed, the hoses are picked up from the water
and bolted up, using ship's gear under the supervision of the assistant
Fig. 9-7. Cham stoppers for mooring a VLCC at a single-point mooring.
SHIP-TO-SHIP LIGHTERING 217
mooring master. The equipment used for the actual oil transfer operation
is beyond the scope of this text.
Except in the worst of weather, it is possible for the ship to make up
and to stay at an SPM. The primary limiting factor is tne sea state during
the makeup as even moderate seas make it impossible for the line boats to
handle the hoses. .|
So long as speed is kept down to bare steerageway during the final ap-
proach, and the ship is put on a heading close to that at which she will lie
after mooring, the maneuver to make up at an SPM is a safe and straight-
forward task (fig. 9-8).
SHIP-TO-SHIP LIGHTERING
By Captain William Deaton, Lightering Master,
and Captain Marshall Irwin, Lightering Master
A great deal of offshore ship-to-ship lightering is being done throughout
the world, especially off the coast of the United States where the shallow
ports and the lack of offshore facilities make lightering necessary so oil
can be imported in very large crude carriers. Offshore lightering is less ef-
ficient than transfer via conventional multiple- or single-point mooring
facilities, but it is a workable substitute with which the mariner Lhould be
familiar. For clarity, the abbreviation VLCC as used throughout this sec-
tion includes both the very large crude carrier and her still larger relative,
the ultra large crude carrier.
Certain preparations are necessary prior to putting a smaller "off-
taker" (a smaller ship that accepts the oil from the VLCC) alongside a
VLCC. Under supervision of the lightering or mooring master, fenders are
rigged on the port side of the offtaker. These fenders are placed on the
olftaker even though it would be more expedient to rig them on the VLCC,
which will be receiving a number of ships as her cargo is discharged. By
having the fenders on the smaller ship when she comes alongside, the
shiphandler is able to ensure that the offtaker lands on the fenders. If the
fenders were on the VLCC it would be possible for the offtaker to land be-
tween fenders and damage one or both ships.
Two types of fenders are used while lightering. Four or more large
floating "Yokohama" type fenders, specially fitted for lightering, are
floated along the parallel inidbody of the offtaker, and two smaller "pillow"
type fenders are hung off, one at the shoulder forward and the other on the
quarter. Typically, the floating fenders are made fast by a wire that leads
218 SPECIAL MANEUVERS SHIP-TO-SHIP LIGHTERING 217

from a forward bitt on the ship's deck down to the first fender floating
along the ship's side. A mooring line joins each fender and another line
runs back up to a bit* the ship'^ after dock (fig. 9-9).
Have all the necessary equipment laid out and ready aboard both ships
before the operation begins. Walkie-talkies are used for communication
between the mooring.masters on the bridges of the two ships and between
the bridge, bow, and stern of each vessel. Have several long 3-inch mes-
sengers and sufficient heaving lines on hand forward and aft to run the
mooring lines.
Mooring lines with synthetic tails are laid out to be taken first from the
offtaker and later from the VLCC as the mooring operation is completed.
It is important that the wires have synthetic tails or pendants so the ships
can break apart quickly in an emergency. The weather can deteriorate
with surprising quickness and it may not t-hvays be possible to slack off
mooring lines so they can be let go. A small crew can handle synthetic tails
more easily and the synthetic tails absorb some of the shock of loading if
the ships do begin to work against each other after mooring. The tails can
be cut to break apart as a last resort in an emergency.
The mooring master aboard the offtaker has overall command of the
mooring while the second mooring master aboard the VLCC maintains a
steady course and speed as required by the offtaker. The VLCC steams
into the wind and sea at the minimum speed possible, only kicking the en-
gine ahead to maintain steerageway. This minimizes the hydrodynamic
effects between the two ships, especially the effect of the accelerated flow
between them that draws the ships together and causes them to land with
excessive force. These are full bodied, relatively low-powered merchant
vessels and the maneuver for putting these ships together is much differ-
ent from that described for underway replenishment maneuvers with
fine-lined, high-powered, highly maneuverable naval vessels. A constant
speed and heading are maintained by the VLCC while the light offtaker
comes alongside to make fast. If a cross swell makes it impossible to head
into both sea and swell and keep the ships from rolling, abort the lighter-
ing operation until the cross swell moderates.
The offtaker approaches the starboard side of the VLCC, remaining
wide until abeam of the flat parallel midbody of the larger vessel. It is very
important that the smaller ship stays clear of the VLCCs quarter, since
suction between the ships in that area will draw the offtaker rapidly into
the larger ship's quarter (fig. 9-10). When parallel to the VLCC's midbody,
so both ships are heading into the wind, begin easing the smaller ship
 SHIP-TO-SHIP LIGHTERING 221
220 SPECIAL MANEUVERS

Fig. 9-9. Rigging fenders for ship-to-ship lightering. Courtesy Gulf Oil
and Seward International.
Fig. 9-10. Keep the offtaker's bow clear of the VLCC's quarter while
going alongside.
alongside while using the wind as a tugkeep the wind on the starboard
bow to bring the offtaker alongside, or put the wind on the port bow if she
is closing too rapidly. The wind has a significant effect on the offtaker at
this point since she is light prior to loading.
Continue to keep the smaller ship flat to the VLCC as she lands to
spread the force of landing over the entire midbody of the offtaker. Land
on all the floating fenders simultaneously to create the maximum hydrau-
lic cushion between the ships to check up the lateral motion.
The offtaker first passes a forward spring to the VLCC, followed by two
headlines to work against while the remaining lines are run. The course is
then changed to put the wind on the offtaker's starboard bow to hold her
alongside.
Although the pattern of lines can vary depending on the deck layout of
the two ships, the suggested lines are (fig. 9-11)
1. Offtaker runs 5 headlines, 2 forward springs, 2 after springs leading
from the main deck forward to the VLCC, and 3 sternlines.
2. VLCC runs 3 wire headlines, 2 forward spring wires, and 2 stern
wires. Be sure to get 2 good spring lines run from the VLCC's main
deck in the area of her manifold, leading aft to the offtaker towing
springs, to tow the smaller ship daring the operation.
Always run all lines regardless of the weather conditions or prognosis
at the time, since the running of lines is a time consuming operation that
may not be possible later if the weather deteriorates.
If weather permits, anchor the VLCC prior to hooking up hoses. Use
minimum revolutions astern to stop the two ships, drifting headway off
the ships rather than backing, so that a combination of the momentum of
223 217
SPECIAL M A N E U V E R S
SHIP-TO-SHIP LIGHTERING

First lines (from offtaker)

Main deck spring
Two headlines
Two after springs

Fig. 9-11. General arrangement of lines for lightering.

the offtaker plus the quickwater moving up between the slaps as the
VLCC goes astern does not force the ships apart ana part their lines.
Should weather and sea conditions later change, the VLCC heaves up and
resumes steaming slowly on a heading that minimizes rolling. Steam at
minimum speed throughout the operation if it is not possible to anchor.
The rate-of-turn indicator is used to steer at minimum speeds, kicking the
engine ahead only to check any swing that develops. By maneuvering in
this manner the heading is maintained into the wind and sea while head-
way remains almost nil. Keep the wind and sea a point on the VLCCs port
bow during the transfer so the larger ship can provide a lee for the
offtaker.
The ships remain together for the transfer operation unless the sea
conditions deteriorate and the ships begin rolling. There is then a danger
of parting the ship's lines and hoses. Don't wait until the weather deteri-
orates so much that lines start to part, as it then becomes too dangerous
to let go, and a vessel finds herself in a position of being unable to stay
alongside and unable to let go safely. Watch the weather reports and lo-
cal conditions and break up the operation before conditions deteriorate
(fig. 9-12).
Keep the lines tight and the deck well lighted throughout the operation
as good seamanship dictates for any berthing situation. Retain the ballast
aboard the offtaker for as long as possible while oil is being transferred.
The sooner the offtaker develops a deeper draft, the sooner the wind's ef-
fect on her decreases and the operation stabilizes. Keep sufficient crew on
deck. The lines require more attention, and are more difficult to handle,
than at a terminal since the drafts of the two ship3 simultaneously change Fig. 9-2. Offtaker Esso Zurich lightering Esso Atlantic. Courtesy
in opposite directions. Exxon Corporation and Black Star Publishing.
224 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
It may be necessary to get underway on short notice to either steam as
a unit or break apart, so keep the engine ready to maneuver at all times.
When the transfer has been completed, let go all the VLCC's lines and
single up the offtaker's lines to two headlines, a forward spring, a breast
line aft, and the after main deck spring that leads forward to the main
deck of the VLCC. This line keeps the offtaker from sliding aft under the
VLCC's quarter, and is used to work against as the offtaker is broken
away from the larger ship, and will be the last line let go. Throw off the
headlines, then the lines aft as the bows begin to separate. If thei*e is no
wind, heave on the after breast line to bring the bow off, and then work
against the main deck spring line to develop a significant angle to the
VLCC. Steam slowly away from the larger ship, again keeping the wind on
the port or inner bow as the "poor man's tug," to separate the ships.
If the ships are already underway at the completion of the transfer, the
lines are taken in the same order, but the force of the wat er passing be-
tween the two ships is used to separate them as you hold the last spring
line aft. When there is sufficient angle between the ships, let go the last
line and depart without increasing speed until the ships are well sepa-
rated. Avoid increasing the flow between the ships as this would create
suction and draw them together again.
Done properly, the offshore lightering operation can be completed
safely, although care is required and none of the described precautions
should be overlooked. If there is any problem during a ship-to-ship trans-
fer, it is usually the result of complacency that develops after a series of
routine lighterings.
FIVE- AND SEVEN-POINT MOORINGS
By Captain Carl R. Dingier, Mooring Master
Five- and seven-point moorings are used primarily on the west coast of the
United States. Deep water is available close to shore so moorings can be lo-
cated y to 1 mile from the shoreline, making this type of facility attractive
2 master's direction. Before reaching the berth, the mooring master briefs
and practical. Five or seven mooring buoys are positioned to hold the ship
into the prevailing wind and sea and over the 10- to 16-inch submarine
hoses. The vessel moors under the direction of a mooring master, using
two bow anchors and ship's lines to the buoys lying abeam and astern.
Generally, the five-point moorings are used for ships to 35,000 tons while
the seven-point moorings accommodate ships to 165,000 tons. Tugs may
assist ships over 80,000 tons deadweight when mooring.
FIVE- AND SEVEN-POINT MOORINGS 225
Prior to arriving at the mooring the ship prepares the following:
1. Up to fourteen synthetic mooring lines (two lines for each buoy to be
used).
2. Both anchors, backed out below the forefoot and ready to drop.
3. Boom or crane and other hose handling gear at the manifold.
4. Good stoppers for all lines with extras for doubling up as needed.
5. Walkie-talkies on the bridge, forward, and aft.
The size of the lines depends on the deadweight of the ship, but they
must be a full coil in length so they can be run to the buoys without having to
marry more than one line together. Wires may be substituted for mooring
lines although the practice of mixing linos and wires varies from one termi-
nal to another. If wires are used they must be at least 800 feet in length.
Both anchors must be backed out and ready to let go, cWrly marked so
they can be placed accurately without the mate on the bow having to guess
how much chain is out.
Gear required at the manifold for handling the hoses includes a boom
or crane with a safe working load of at least 7 tons to pick up the hose;
buoy, hose, and chain bight slip ropes as specified by the port and mooring
master; a handy billy; and a boat hook. The boom must be rigged for its full
safe working load to handle safely the loads involved when picking up the
hoses since a 12-inch hose places a dynamic load of 4.7 tons on the gear,
while the load when handling a 16-inch hose is 7.2 tons. Wire runners
must be rigged and the gear and runner should be in excellent condition.
The ship must supply a wire pendant with a hook if a running block is used
so the launch crew does not have to handle the weight of the block when
picking up the hoses.
Quarters should be prepared for the mooring master and the launch
crew.
The lines and hoses are handled by the ship's crew under the mooring
the ship's master and officers on the mooring procedure and inspects the
gear that is going to be used.
There are some significant differences between berthing a ship at a
mooring and docking her, and the master must keep this in mind as the
mooring master is bringing the ship into the mooring. The vessel ap-
proaches on a heading approximately 90 degrees to the axis of the berth
along the line on which the anchors will be laid (fig. 9-13). Because the
226 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
mooring lies into the prevailing wind and the sea, the approach is usually
made with the wind and sea on the beam. This creates some problems for
the mooring master and means that higher speeds than might otherwise
be desirable may be required during the approach. The mate stands by the
offshore anchor that must be let go immediately at the mooring mastei'.s
command so it is precisely positioned relative to the mooring. When the
anchor is let go, all the required seven-to-nine shots of chain are allowed to
immediately run out.
Do not check the chain, since this will cause the ship to pivot on the an-
chor and may a!so possibly drag the anchor out of position. The ship's han-
dling characteristics change immediately as the anchor is put on the
bottom, since just the drag of the chain is sufficient to steady the bow and
shift the ship's pivot point forward, altering the ship's behavior relative to
the wind and her response to the engine and rudder. The mooring master
allows for this during the approach.
The ship carries her headway past the axis of the berth before stopping
and letting go the second anchor. The ship is not backed and filled into po-
sition for dropping the second anchor, she is swung and maneuvered into
Fig. 9t13. Berthing at multiple-buoy mooring.;.
FIVE- AND SEVEN-POINT MOORINGS 227
position. The amount of swing put on the ship orior to letting go the second
anchor is critical as the stern must be positioned so the ship's tendency to
back to port when going astern into the berth is allowed for. Let go the sec-
ond anchor and tighten the brake on the first anchor so it fetches up and
takes a strain. The ship goes astern while the anchors are used to assist in
steering the ship into position.
The stem moves in a direction that is opposite to the side on which the
anchor is held. Hold the port anchor and the strain on the chain causes the
ship to back to starboard hold the starboard anchor and the ship backs to
port. If the chain on both anchors is kept slack, the ship usually walks to
port, although the wind will affect the ship to some extent, as always.
This same technique of laying out and then steering with two anchors
is useful when making a Mediterranean moor.
Slack both chains as required as the ship backs into the mooring and
run the ship's lines to the buoys using the line boat. It is essential that ev-
eryone involved be safety conscious at this point so no cue is hurt while
putting out mooring lines. There is a heavy strain on these Rnes while
working into the mooring. The mates must be instructed to alert the
bridge before stopping off lines so the snip can be maneuvered to relieve
the strain until the lines are on the bit.ts. This is especially important aft
since the crew working on the stern cannot be seen from the bridge. If
there is a significant amount of strain double stoppers must be used.
Do not allow the propeller to be t'umed while the lires are going out ex-
cept by direct order from the mooring master. Since the mooring master is
communicating with the line boat by radio, the boat can tell him when the
lines are clear of the screw. The first line is usually a breast line from the
main deck on the up current or windwa rd side of the ship, followed by the
other lines as directed by the mooring master. The order of the lines de-
pends on the weather and current conditions. When all lines are out, a
strain is taken on both anchors to position the ship over the submerged
hose. The anchors form an equilateral triangle and hold the ship into the
predominate weather. (See figure 9-13.)
During the transfer operation, the mooring master works with the
crew to keeD the ship over the hose or hoses, now connected to the mani-
fold, adjusting for the change in draft as well as for any change in the
weather or sea conditions.
Based on his past experience, the i.iooring master advises the ship's offi-
cers concerning weather conditions ?nd the advisability of remaining at the
mooring and transferring cargo if the conditions deterioratea significant
 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
MEDITERRANEAN MOOR 229

responsibility in view of the time required to break up the mooring as op- \sith stern ramps, which commonly dock stern to the berth with anchors
posed to the possible consequences if the ship remains at the mooring too laid out ahead, are now in service, so more deck officers need to be familiar
long. The direction of weather and sea is as important as its state when with this maneuver.
making the decisionwnen the weather is from other than ahead, the The procedure for putting a tanker into a five- or seven-point mooring is
strain on lines becomes heavy, while as long as those forces are from ahead, also the most efficient maneuver for completing the Mediterranean moor.
the strain is on the anchors and the ship can remain longer at the mooring. The maneuver is described completely in the previous section and it would
The value of a mariner's experience in situations such as this is not fully ap- be redundant to repeat the steps for making a proper approach, laying out
preciated by the landsman, since ashore responsibility is usually shared the anchors, and backing into the berth using the anchors to assist in
and the results of a decision are rarely so immediate, be they right or wrong. steering. Ideally, the anchors are spread at an angle of 60 degrees so the
Keep the engine ready in case it is necessary to leave the mooring and bow is held in position regardless of wind direction. This may not be possi-
maintain a full watch both on deck and below. Maintain a continuous ble when maneuvering room is limited. Plan the mooring so the anchors
watch on the NOAA VHF frequencies since conditions can deteriorate rap- are let go far enough from the berth to give a good scope of chain, and drop
idly and sufficient warning is necessary if the ship is to break up the moor- them far enough apart so the chain and spread between the anchors form
ing before unsafe conditions develop. legs of an equilateral triangle. The ship should finally be moored with at
When transfer is completed the hoses are lowered back to the bottom least one shot more chain than would be used to anchor in water of the
and the lines singled up as the line boat trips the hooks on the mooring same depth as is found off the berth (fig. 9-14).
buoys. The ship then departs the mooring, the exiting maneuver varying Unlike the five-point moorings, a cargo berth is rarely built with any
depending on whether the ship is light or loaded. regard for prevailing wind and sea conditions, so these forces are more
A loaded ship brings the lines aboard in basically the reverse order commonly from some direction other than ahead. It is necessary to allow
from that in which they were run (assuming that the conditions are still for set and leeway to one side in these conditions, primarily by adjusting
the same), until all lines are gone and the propeller is clear. Heave the an-
chors as the breast lines are let go, using the engine and rudder as neces-
sary to hold the stern in the center of the berth. Come ahead as the anchors
come clear and steam away from the buoys.
A light ship takes in the lines in the same manner but uses the anchors
to compensate for her light draft while working clear of the berth. Heave
the starboard anchor short to two shots in the water and then heave on the
port anchor. Work against the starboard anchor while heaving on the port
to keep the ship's bow into the wind. The ship must not fall off the wind or
she will wind up on the buoys. As soon as the port anchor breaks free the
ship is driven out of the berth, dragging both anchors until clear. Heave
the port anchor home and then heave up the last two shots of chain on the
starboard anchor and proceed to sea.
MEDITERRANEAN MOOR
By Captain Earl R. McMillin, Master Mariner
Until the advent of roll-on vessels, the Mediterranean moor was used only
in less developed ports with limited facilities. Several RO/RO ships fitted
230 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
the amount of swing that is put on the ship prior to putting down the sec-
ond anchor, and by holding one anchor or the other as the ship backs to the
berth.
Plan the approach and mooring procedure with the mates who will be
stationed forward and aft. The mate forward must let go the anchor imme-
diately when ordered so the anchors are properly placed and then control
the chain precisely as the ship backs to the wharf. The mate aft must keep
the bridge informed of the bearing and distance from the ship's stern to
the berth as the ship backs to the pier (and more importantly the rate at
which the bearing and distance are changing) since RO/RO ships usually
have the bridge well forward where it is difficult to see the stern.
A line boat should be available so the stern lines can be run to the berth
as soon as possible, after which the ship is backed as the mate forward
walks the anchor chain out under a light strain and the crew aft heaves on
the stern lines. Keep the stern lines clear of the propeller since it must at
all times be possible to use the engine to hold the ship in position and then
stop her as the stern nears the stringpiece. The vessel in now under total
control and can be brought up close to the berth. Don't use the engine to
back the last few feetheave the ship astern so there is no chance of an ac-
cident from a delay in engine response.
Use sufficient lines or wires aft so a good strain can be taken on both
anchors after the ship is fast. Heave the chains partially out of the water
so the ship cannot move astern if there is any later change in sea or wind.
The stern is right up to the berth so it must not be possible for the ship to
move any further astern after the mooring is complete.
Reliable bow thrusters are available, and all ships fitted with a stern
ramp, which will commonly berth stern first, should be fitted with this
equipment. A thruster greatly simplifies positioning the bow prior to let-
ting go each anchor, and steering the ship as she backs to the berth. When
weather conditions and the layout of the berth require it, the ship fitted
with a bow thruster can lay out the anchors without being perpendicular
to the berth, moving the bow laterally with the thruster to get into position
for letting go the second anchor. Restricted maneuvering room may re-
quire this. Heretofore it was necessary at times to wait for favorable condi-
tions prior to berthing stern to a dock. The bow thruster makes it possible
to moor Mediterranean fashion in all but the worst conditions and no ship
that works cargo over the stern should be built without one.
Departure from the Mediterranean moor varies with weather condi-
tions, of course, but generally the ship takes in lines aft and immediately
WILLIAMSON TURNS 231
begins heaving on the windward anchor. Heave short to two shots and
then hea\ e on the lee anchor while steaming against the weather anchor.
Maintain position and heading so the ship isn't set back against the berth
as the anchors come clear of the bottom. Start moving the ship ahead as
soon as the lee anchor breaks free, heaving and dragging both anchors un-
til well clear of the berth. Heave the anchors home and proceed to sea.
WILLIAMSON TURNS
The classic Williamson Turn is described in most textbooks on seaman-
ship. The turn works well and is especially useful as ship size increases.
Ships with high block coefficients lose headway faster than smaller,
finer-lined vessels, and a VLCC will typically have lost most of her head-
way by the time she has reached her reciprocal course at the completion of
a Williamson Turn. Little astern maneuvering is then required to stop the
ship and pick up a person or object on the water. Because of this, and be-
cause of the predictability of the vessel's path, the Williamson Turn is
preferable to a round turn or other maneuver for putting a ship on a recip-
rocal heading.
The path that a ship follows during a Williamson Turn becomes even
more predictable if the variables of the maneuver are eliminated. For ex-
ample, instead of stating that the ship should be steadied up after she has
reached a course that is 60 to 65 degrees from the ship's original course, it
is preferable to state that the helm should be shifted at some predeter-
mined point and left in that position while the ship checks up and then
swings to the reciprocal of her original course. If the classic instructions
are followed, the turn is less predictable because the time to check the
swing and the amount of rudder used are dependent on the helmsman's or
deck officer's experience and judgment. The resulting track can vary
greatly.
Further, the classic turn always uses a 60-degroe change of heading as
a basis for shifting the helm. Ships have changed greatly so neither this
nor any o'her fixed point will suffice for all ships. The Williamson Turn
must be performed routinely during an ocean passage as part of the crew
emergency training, and the point at which the helm is to be shifted
should be determined by trial and error during those exercises. If a deeply
loaded, large beam tanker that is directionally unstable were to follow the
classic instructions, she would never return to her original track. If the
rudder is shifted when that vessel is 60 degrees from the initial heading,
she swings well past the desired point since it takes a great deal of time to
230 SPECIAL MANEUVERS WILLIAMSON TURNS 231

check the swing of 3uch a ship. The directionally unstable vessel then man-overboard maneuver used, the person or object in the water must be
turns more rapidly toward the reciprocal heading since her turning rate is watched at all times; this is even more important than the correct execu-
so much greater. tion of the Williamson Turn. If sight is lost of a person in th" water, \\ is ex-
A particular VLCC'. returned to her own wake when the rudder was tremely difficult to locate the person again in any but perfect conditions.
shifted when she was 35 degrees from her initial courseBy experimenta- By throwing a life ring and other available objects into the water as close
tion, this point and the amount of rudder needed to steady the ship were
defined so all variables were eliminated from the maneuver. In this case
the rudder was shifted hard over to check the swing when the ship's head-
ing was 15 degrees from the reciprocal. Similar tests should be done by the
master for his particular ship before the need to maneuver in an actual
emergency arises.
A Williamson Turn is defined as follows:
Put the rudder hard over toward the side on which the person has gone
overboard and keep it there until the ship is 35 to 50 degrees from the
initial heading. (The precise point for a particular vessel is to be prede-
termined by trial.) Shift the helm hard over in the opposite direction.
Keep the rudder in this position while the ship swings all the way
around toward the reciprocal of the ship's heading at the time the Wil-
liamson Turn began. When the ship's heading is 10 to 15 degiees from
the reciprocal of her initial course, at a point predetermined by trial,
shift the helm hard over again so the ship steadies up on the desired re-
ciprocal heading (fig. 9-15).
Note that only three movements of the rudder are necessary, and that
these changes in helm are at defined points that are not dependent on the
watch officer's judgment.
The engine speed is not changed during the Williamson Turn, al-
though the engine is put on standby so the engineer on watch can prepare
for maneuvering. By maintaining revolutions, the rate of turn is predict-
able, the ship returns to the desired point in the minimum time, and speed
is still sufficiently reduced. The ship is then stopped using maneuvers de-
scribed in chapter l. a

The man-overboard routine for a particular ship and crew are beyond
the scope of this book. It is stressed, though, that regardless of the

1 Captain Daniel H. MacElrevey, El Paso Arzew Maneuvering Trials.

2 Master Pilot Captain Brian Hope, El Paso Consolidated Maneuvering Trials.
235
SPECIAL MANEUVERS
to the person or object as possible, with a light, dye marker, smoke llare, or
other aid attached, the task of locating that person is greatly simplified. It
is important that a light be put into the water at night. There is no substi-
tute for repe.ted man-overboard drills, and during drills it becomes obvi-
ous just how difficult i: is to see a person or object in the water.
Using the described Williamson Turn, a VLCC returned to the original
location in eleven minutes and was making 4 knots when the reciprocal
course was reachcd, although the engine remained at full revolutions
throughout the maneuver, which began when the ship was making 19
knots. The ship was easily brought dead in the water at the desired point
so that a boat could be launched. 3 ships generally steer better at very low speeds when the engines are
TWIN-SCREW SHIPS
There is a misconception that twin-screw ships inherently handle better
than single-screw ships. This is not necessarily so.
The type of propulsion and the number, configuration, and location of
the rudder or rudders affect the maneuverability of twin-screw ships and
some twin-screw ships handle more poorly than single-screw ships in
routine operating situations. Older turbine-driven twin-screw ships with
single rudders usually handle like water-soaked logs. Most modern diesel-
propelled twin-screw vessels with either conventional propellers or con-
trollable pitch propellers, bow and stern thrusters and, in most cases, twin
rudders, are excellent handling ships.
Today, the twin-screw configuration is found primarily on passenger
vessels where it is used both to minimize vibration while operating w th : turned to starboard. By adjusting the revolutions of both the ahead and
higher horsepowers and greater speeds, and to facilitate maneuvering in
the smaller harbors increasingly frequented by cruise ships looking for
new and less spoiled ports.
Diesel- and turbine-propelled twin-screw ships exhibit the same engine
response characteristics, for the same reasons, described for single-screw
diesel and turbine ships in earlier chapters of this book. Diesel ships re-
spond more quickly to engine orders, so th^ effect of "kicking" a diesel-pro-
pelled twin-screw ship ahead for a short period of time to move the stern
laterally without gaining headway is significantly greater. Because of this
faster response, diesel-propelled twin-screw ships also react more quickly
than turbine ships when a master or pilot twists or turns the vessel within
1 Captain Daniel H. MacElrevey, El Paso Arzew Maneuvering Trials.
237
MANEUVERING TWIN-SCIUCW SHIPS
her own length using one engine ahead and the other astern or walks a
ship sideways by using the rudder in opposition to that twisting effect.
Twin-screw, twin-rudder ships are inherently more responsive at slow
speeds than ships with single rudders, regardless of engine type, since
twin rudders are located aft of the twin propellers and the flow of water
from the propellers passes directly over the rudder's surface. Without this
flow, the ship's rudder has little effect until the ship gains sufficient head-
way to create a flow over the surface of the rudder independent of the flow
from the propeller.
It should be noted that shiphandlers lind twin-screw, single-rudder
stopped than when they are coming ahead. When the engines are stopped,
the minimal flow past the rudder that does exist is not disturbed by the
turning propellers and the inherent directional stability of the spread pro-
pellers that counters the turning moment created by the rudder no longer
exists. Try stopping the engine if a twin-screw, single-rudder ship with
headway is behaving poorly at very slow speeds, instead of working one
screw against the other to twist the ship to a new heading.
MANEUVERING TWIN-SCREW SHIPS
If the propeller shafts are well separated, and especially if the ship is die-
sel- rather than turbine-propelled, a twin-screw vessel can be turned in a
very small area by working one propeller ahead and the other astern. By
using the port engine ahead and the starboard engine astern, the ship is
astern turning engines, increasing and decreasing speeds of either the
ahead or astern turning engine as appropriate to cancel any headway or
sternway that might develop, the ship can be turned literally within her
own length. Because a propeller is more efficient when turning ahead,
fewer revolutions are usually needed on the shaft turning in the ahead di-
rection to turn the ship while maintaining its position (fig. 9-16).
The twin-screw ship can be moved laterally using the engines in oppos-
ing directions ahead and astern to move the stern in the desired direction
while a tug or bow tliruster is used to move the bow in the same direction.
For example, to move a ship sideways toward a berth, the ou tboard propel-
lerthe propeller away from the dock or other structure toward which the
ship is to be movedturns astern, while the inboard propeller turns
ahead (fig. 9-17). The two propellers are then rotating in the same direc-
tion (clockwise or counterclockwise) but thrusting in opposite directions
230 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
Fig. 9-16. Turning a twin-screw ship to starboard.
(ahead or astern), simultaneously walking and twisting the stern toward
the berth without developing any headway or sternway. Ac the same time,
the tug or thruster is used to push the bow toward the berth so the ship
moves laterally and bodily toward the berth. Before landing on the pier,
the direction of rotation of ohe propellers is reversed to check the lateral
motion of the stern so the ship is laid gently alongside without the assis-
tance of a stern tug.
Obviously, the direction of rotation of the propellers is important
during this maneuver. Usually, outboard turning propellers are more
effective than inboard turning screws when moving the stern laterally.
A ship maneuvering starboard side to a berth uses the starboard screw
ahead and the athwartship component of force created by this clockwise
turning propeller walks the stern toward the dock. The port screw is
used astern and, since the left-hand screw turns clockwise when going
astern, the athwartship component of that screw's forces also walks the
stern to starboard. These forces complement the opposing fore and aft
flows from the two propellers, the starboard propeller operating ahead
and the port propeller astern in this case, that are minimizing the fore
and aft movement of the ship and also driving the stern to starboard to-
ward the dock.
Very good handling, high power, twin-screw, twin-rudder ships such
as naval craft, supply and research vessels, and very high-powered pas-
senger ships can be moved laterally without tug assistance or a bow
thruster by using a maneuver that, at first glance, seems to contradict ev-
erything said above. Consider again the situation described where the
ship is being moved toward a dock on the starboard side. To move these
special case, high-powered ships with twin rudders toward the dock, the
MANEUVERING TWIN-SCIUCW SHIPS 237
v V r r v ^ v i ^'.V.-v ii.'-W
Fig. 9-17. Moving a twin-screw ship laterally.
rudder is put hard left to move the stern to starboard, but the engines are
used in the opposite direction to the example abovein this case of high-
powered, twin-screw, twin-rudder ships, the port engine turns ahead and
the starboard engine turns astern to move the bow to starboard. The rud-
der and engines are then opposing each other with the net effect of moving
the ship laterally to starboard.
Consider the forces at work here. The rudder effect from the wash of
the ahead-turning engine flowing over the rudders put hard left creates a
force that moves the stern to starboard and the bow to port, as is normally
the case. At the same time though, the engines are operating in opposing
directions, the port engine is turning ahead and the starboard engine
astern, in a manner that would normally move the stern to port and the
bow to starboardthe opposite direction to that in which the rudder is try-
ing to move the bow and stern. The net effect, in the case of these very re-
sponsive ships, is that the rudder overrides the engine forces so the stern
moves to starboard, while the rudder and engine forces counter each other
to the extent that the bow does not move to port. The ship maintains, or
nearly maintains, its heading while the ship moves laterally to the right,
toward the dock on the starboard side.
Shiphandlers are again cautioned that this is a special case that is only
effective when handling very powerful twin-screw naval vessels, supply
boats, and passenger ships with large twin rudders that can develop the
strong opposing forces needed to move the ship in this manner. It does pot
usually work for the common merchant vessel. Most ships would simply
respond to the opposing engines, moving the stern toward the side on
which the propeller is turning ahead, with the rudder having little effect
except to reduce, to some extent, the turning <.'ffect created by the engines.
238 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
It may be necessary to increase the revolutions of one shaft, when ma-
neuvering twin-screw ships in a shallow channel, to compensate for an un-
equal flow of water to the screw that is closer to the bank or shoal, or when
one propeller is turning in the shallower area through a mud bottom. The
twin-screw ship in this situation is more likely to take a sheer than a sin-
gle-screw ship, due to the proximity of the offset propeller to the shallow
area, the restricted flow to the propeller and rudder in the shallower area,
plus the usual unbalanced forces experienced around any hull passing
close to a bank or shoal. It is also more difficult to recover from that sheer
due to the same reduced flow and imbalance of forces. The shiphandler
has to take special care and watch more carefully fur signs that the ship is
taking suction when maneuvering a twin-screw ship in this situation. One
such sign would be repeated, large rudder angles as the helmsman tries to
maintain a course along a straight reach in the channel. Another sign
would be the need for unusually large rudder angles to start a ship swing-
ing in a turn from one reach or straight section of che channel to another.
Another potential problem develops with twin-screw vessels when one
engine starts before the other, or when the revolutions are not matched
while the shi p is steaming. Especially when handling a motor ship, plan to
start one engine before the other and plan maneuvers to allow for the re-
sulting ship behavior. Start the second engine after the first is turning
ahead and, since you are now set up for the worst case, there will be 110
problem should either engine not start immediately. This imbalance has
less immediate effect while steaming since there is a good flow past the
rudder and it is possible to compensate for the sheering that results when
an engine doesn't start or the revolutions are not properly matched.
When near a dock or wharf, especially if the berth has a solid face, the
inboard screw can be used to advantage to lift the quarter and keep the
ship from going alongside prematurely. Put the inboard engine astern
when the quarter sets toward the berth. The off-center propeller twists
the stern away from the berth, and the quickwater moves up the side and
lifts the entire ship, just as it does when handling a single-screw ship.
There are several other concerns when maneuvering a twin-screw ves-
sel near to ana alongside a berth. As with a single-sciew vessel, you must
be aware of the propeller's position relative to any hazards, especially a
bank or shoal area and the berth itself. However, greater care is needed
with twin-screw ships because the propellers are placed off center, which
leaves them more exposed. On some modern twin-screw ships the propel-
ler blades are very near to or even outside the line of the hull. Be especially
1 MANEUVERING TWIN-SCREW S I 11 PS 2 3 9
t
alert that the ship does not develop any angle that will cause the propeller
to touch the berth or shoal. Take care that stern lines arc not fouled in the
propellers when fliey are sent ashore or trough' aboard, instruct the
ship's crew, linehandlers, and tug crews not to throw lines in the water
when undocking. Consideration must also be given to the placement of
tugs. Any tug working aft must be made up clear of the propellers, which
may prevent them from working as near to the stern as desired. It may be
preferable to have the after tug work on a hawser. Here, as always, the
shiphandler's must:rely on his experience and professional judgment.
An interesting variation that overcomes many of the disadvantages of
the twin-screw ship.and still allows the use of high horsepower propulsion
systems is the triple-screw design used on seme recent containerships.
The center shaft is used at maneuvering speeds, allowing the ship to be
handled like any other single-screw ship, and the outboard engines and
propellers are used only at high speeds when the ship will be in open water
where the disadvantages of a twin-screw ship are not important. The Ixsst
of both worlds is achieved for the naval architect and the mariner.
The twin-screw configurations with single and twin rudders were once
found primarily on passenger ships, where it was used both to minimize
vibration while operating with higher horsepower and greater speed and
to facilitate maneuvering in the smaller harbors frequented by cruise
ships. Twin rudder configurations have almost totally replaced the single
rudder for passenger ships.
There has also been a trend to replace the twin screw, twin-rudder con-
figuration beginning in the late 1990s when the cruise industry began fit-
ting many of the new, large cruise vessels with electric-podded propulsion
or Azipods. At the same time, other segments of the maritime industry be-
gan building more twin-screwed vessels, and it is now common to find the
twin-screw configuration aboard virtually any type of vessel when the ad-
vantages of that arrangement are great enough to justify the higher cost.
The VMax VLCCs are examples of vessels built to take full advantage
4
of the twin-screw configuration as a means for improving handling char-
acteristics. These ships are designed with an unu uaiiy wide beam for
c
their length to maximize ca-rying capacity. All other factors being equal,
increasing a vessel's length-to-beam ratio in this manner reduces the
ship's directional stability, with a significant adverse effect 011 the ship's
4These VMax ships are owned and operated 1>) Concordia Maritime Stena
Bulk.
240 SPECIAL MANEUVERS Lpw LENGTH-TO-BEAAl RATIO SHIPS 24 1

maneuvering characteristics. (See chapter 1 ana chapter 2 of this text.) To a general ship type as owners with ships calling at relatively shallow U.S.
counter the effects of this high beam-tc-length ratio, the VMax vessels are ports look for ways to increase carrying capacity.
twin screws and twin rudders mounted on exaggerated twin skegs placed VMax ships are built with a much larger beam than vessels of similar
as far outboard as practical. length. They are i,iUu ieet long with a beam of 230 feet. Vessels of similar
length have a beam 30 to 50 feet less. The length-to-beam ratio of the
LOW LENGTH-TO-BEAM RATIO SHIPS VMax ships is 4.8:1 versus an I /B of 5.5-6:1 for other VLCCs. For compari-
By Captain Daniel E. MacElrevey son, an 850-foot Panainax ship has a length-to-beam ratio of 8:1.
Delaware Bay and River Pilot Again, al! other factors being equal, a vessel with a low length-to-beam
ratio will respond poorly to its rudder. Masters and pilots report that this
A vessel's carrying capacity is one of the characteristics that determine is not the case with the VMax ships. What makes these vessels different?
whether the ship will be profitable on the route it serves. Quite simply, the The VMax vessels are fitted with twin skegs, twin rudders, and twin
larger the ship, the more cargo it can carry and the greater the operator's screwsplaced as far outboard as practical (fig. 9-18).
profit. Historically, technological breakthroughs have been necessary to The twir.-skeg/rudder arrangement acts to improve the ship's direc-
permit the construction and safe operation of larger ships. Today, port tional stability and also provides a much larger turning force than that of
constraints are the main limiting factor to increasingly large ships, and a single, centerline rudder. The VMax ships have a cut-away stern section
the most common constraint is channel depth.
Carrying capacity can be increased without increasing a ship's draft ei-
ther by increasing its length, its breadth, or a c ombination of the two. On
many routes, vessel length has been increased to the maximum practical
due to the physical constraints of the port itself. Unfortunately, increasing
the beam relative to the vessel's length reduces the length-to-beam ratio
(L/B ratio) and decreases its directional stability. It therefore requires
more rudder to check the turning vessel and steady on a new course. On
the positiv e side, this effect also results in a smaller turning circle than a
vessel of the same length but smaller beam. Vessels designed with a low
length-to-beam ratio usually require a great deal of attention in order to
be handled safely.
However, some recently built vessels demonstrate that it is possible to
design vessels with a low L/B that handle superbly. An example of this is
the VMax VLCC . It might have been more fitting to call these ships DMax
S

VLCCs as one of the goals in designing these tankers was to provide the
maximum carrying capacity possible without exceeding the channel re-
strictions of the Delaware Bay and River.
Ordinarily, individual ship classes ana types would not be discussed to
any length, but it appears the VMax ships are the first of what will become
Fig. 9-18. Modern VMax twin-screw vessel with skewed propellers and
high-efficiency rudders with skegs to maximize steering controls. Photo
5 Ibid. courtesy Concordia Maritime.
242 SPECIAL MANEUVERS MOVING UP TO LARGER SHIP? 243

that places the rudders at the extreme end of the submerged area, where
they are most effective. The cut-away stern also allows maximum water
flow bv the rudders and significantly reduccs vibration while underway
and proceeding at higher RPMs.
Contrary to expectations, these ships handle well due to that configu-
ration Compared to other similarly sized vessels, less rudder is needed to
stari a turn, the rudders are left on for longer before placing them amid-
ships and less rudder is used to check the ship's swing. Often, the rate-of-
turn decreases once the rudders are placed amidships. Additionally,
steerage is maintained for a long time with the engines stopped, and they
will remain on a nearly constant heading when backing with both engines.
Many pilots feel that the ships handle better than predicted by early simu-
lations, and they certainly handle better than other ships of similar size
and hull form.
To further improve maneuverability, the rudders can be used sepa-
rately at slower speeds. This is especially useful when swinging about af-
ter getting underway from anchor and when turning around to go
alongside a berth. By operating one engine ahead and the other astern,
the ships can be turned about in their own length. Using the rudder that is Fig. 9-19. VMax owner and architect consulted with ship officers and
on the same side as the engine going ahead while leaving the other rudder pilots to design efficient bridge equipment and controls and ensure
amidships enhances the twisting effect of the engines by taking advan- success of this new ship typo. Courtesy Concordia Maritime.
tage of the capability to split rudder control with this class of vessel (fig.
9-19). uations so that they occur on straight reaches and where channel width
The ships are noteworthy for several other reasons in addition to excel- permits. Even small angles of heel created during turns cause a consider-
lent handling characteristics. There is a complete redundancy in the oper- able increase in draft so the maximum allowable draft is reduced to 38 feet
ating and control systems to increase safety, two engine rooms separated as compared to a maximum draft of 40 feet for most tankers. Additionally,
by a fire bulkhead, and a fully integrated bridge that provides near 360 de- the combination of their beam and freeboard make it impossible to see the
gree visibility. When designing the VMax ships, the vessel owner and op- tugs on the offshore side of the ship when working from the inshore bridge
erator consulted river pilots, harbor pilots and tug companies, the loading wing, and, as with any twin-screw vessel, care must be taken when ma-
and discharge port authorities, and the chartering company to obtain in- neuvering near berths, when handling lines near the stern, and when
put on features most needed to make these ships successful. Further, they working with tugs aft.
worked with the RTM STAR Center in Florida to develop a simulator- These vessels have been extremely well received, and the demon-
based training course for bridge personnel and the river pilots that would strated success of this design makes it likeiv that many similar vessels
be handling the VMax ships. The pilots' association felt the vessels were will be constructed in the near future.
sufficiently different from other VLCCs to require its members to make
several trips with experienced pilots before handling them on their own. MOVING UP TO LARGER SHIPS
Although great effort was made to make these vessels extremely safe, The handling characteristics of VLCCs and ULCCs 'ire surprisingly simi-
there are still several considerations to be made when handling them. lar to those of smaller ships. Thesso Osaka tesLs demonstrated the excel-
Their extreme breadth necessitates planning meeting and overtaking sit- lent handling characteristics of very large ships, and the conclusions
245 243
SPECIAL MANEUVERS MOVING UP TO LARGER SHIP?

drawn from these tests have been confirmed by pilots and mooring mas- tions is obvious. The same head sea will set in the plat 's at the bow of a
ters who handle these ships. Especially appreciated by masters is the abil- VLCC without being felt significantly on the bridge. More deliberate
ity of these ships to steer at very low speeds with minimal u of the
c o thought therefore required when handling the larger ship, since it is
engine. not possible to conn her in a seaway by feel alone. Because of increased
Stopping distance changes geometrically as ship size increases, so it is mass and length the panting and slamming stresses, as the ship pounds
important that the shiphandler think even further ahead when altering in a head sea, are actually much greater even though the pounding itself
speed or maneuvering. These changes are exacerbated by the higher ton- may be hardly felt.
nage-to-horsepower ra tios typical of VLCCs. Some typical ratios might be The hogging, sagging, and wracking stresses that are not usually con-
sidered at sea aboard smaller ships now become important. A VLCC
works dramatically in a seaway as she alternately hangs suspended be-
VLUU = 380,000 tons displacement = y.o_ tween two crests at her ends and then is supported by the sea amidship
40,000 horsepower
,, carrier
. =80,000 tons displacement while her ends fall into the trough. Close attention to bending moments
Bulk - = 5.0 and sheer stresses is, of course, required while loading a VLCC, and at sea
16,000 horsepower the mariner aboard a VLCC must reduce speed and/or alter course to re-
_ , . , . = 65,000 tons displacement =1.1
Containership ,, duce severe hogging and sagging stresses that are rarely considered with
60,000 horsepower smaller ships. The mariner must recognize that the same sea state that
damages u smaller ship also damages a VLCC and reduce speed or alter
Obviously, while the displacement of modern ships is much greater,
their horsepower has not increased proportionally. It is no longer practical
to rely on engine power alone to stop a ship, but VLCCs and ULCCs can be
safely handled in restricted waters by planning ahead and using the tech-
niques previously described to slow a vessel. Too often the nonseafarer
makes much of the fact that more searoom is required to stop a large siiip
when, in reality, that ship will usually alter course to avoid a close quar-
ters situation, taking advantage of the excellent steering characteristics
of VLCCs to compensate for her relatively low backing power.
The large ship's maneuvering characteristics must be considered
when determining moderate speed in restricted visibility or areas of
heavy traffic. The COLREGS recognize this fact and stipulate that a ship's
maneuverability is a significant factor when determining safe speed at
any time. Since the VLCCs most effective response in a close quarters sit-
uation is an alteration of course rather than a reduction in speed, the mar-
iner must plan on this alternative when possible. If conditions make a
reduction in speed necessary, however, it will be immediately apparent
why safe speed for a VLCC in a close quarters situation is significantly
less than for smaller ships.
In addition to changes in handling characteristics, a VLCC is affected
differently by changes in sea conditions. A smaller ship pounds heavily
in a heao sea, so the need to reduce speed or alter course in those condi- Fig. 9-20.
246 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
course accordingly to ease the vessel even when these stresses are not ob-
vious from her motion.
Instruments are being tested that may in the future give mariners
more absolute information about the forces of the sea acting on a bull, but
presently experience is the best guide for the master or deck officer. Sea
sense, and the mariner's appreciation of the environment gained over the
years spent at sea, become extremely important when making qualitative
judgments such as when to ease a VLCC's motion in a seaway.
Shallow water effects are felt as the ship nears land or shoal and, since
the VLCC's draft is often twice that of the average ship, these effects are
felt sooner and in deeper water. The changes in the ship's directional sta-
bility, the larger diameter of her turning circle, and the increased twisting
effect are all felt in water that the mariner aboard smaller ships consid-
ered open and deep.
The COLREGS define (Rule 3.h.) a vessel as being "constrained by
her draft" when, because of her draft in relation to the available depth of
water, she "is severely restricted in her ability to deviate from the course
she is following." This should be interpreted to include not only restric-
tions on her track resulting from having to keep sufficient water under
her keel to avoid grounding, but also restrictions due to shallow water ef-
fects, which degrade the ship's maneuvering capabilities. There is some
uncertainty whether this is the present intent but such interpretation is
proper and consistent with today's understanding of hydrodynamics and
ship behavior.
In port, tne mass and hull form of the VLCC becomes more significant;
bottom effects increase as previously discussed, while the ship's reaction
time when correcting for the results of such effects is significantly longer.
The shiphandler must plan the passage and maneuvers, must think
ahead of the ship, with greater attention to these effects. It is stressed,
though, that there are no mysteries; very large ships obey the same laws of
hydrodynamics as other ships and the differences in behavior are differ-
ences in magnitude, not character.
Forward speed of a VLCC is more difficult to judge not only because
of the great er height of eye from which the shiphandler works, but also
due to the subtle differences betv/een proper and improper speeds
through the water with a ship of such mass. If the mariner is handi-
capped by lack of proper instrumentation, there is no option but to err
on the safe side when moving a VLCC and the ship must progress at
very slow speeds. When estimating safe speed of approach remember
MOVING UP TOL A R G E RSHIP?243
that a VLCC moving at less than 2 knots still requires more than a ship
length tc stop. Fitting large ships with state-of-the-art instrumenta-
tion mnkes it possible tc move such ships more expediently a= v. ell as
more safely.
Due to the greater mass, some adjustment in technique is required.
i
1. Tugs are less effective.
2. It is impractical to warp a VLCC alongside using ship's lines only.
3. A ship must be stopped further off the pier and pushed along side-
due to the need to land flat on the stringpiece or clusters.
4. Minimum lateral speed is important if the ship is to land without
damage.
5. Doppler speed indicators showing lateral motion as well as ahead and
astern speed are essential if the VLCC is to be docked expeditiously.
The ship must come alongside flat so the forces generated as the ship
lands are distributed throughout the length of the midbody and are ab-
sorbed by the maximum number of frames. The vessel's great length
makes this more difficult, perspective causing the bow to appear much
closer to the dock than the stern when actually the two ends are equidis-
tant from the stringpiece (fig. 9-21). Observe the rate of closing forward
and aft, rather than only the apparent distance off, since the relative dis-
tances forward and aft will appear to decrease at the same rate, even
though the distances themselves do not appear equal when the ship is par-
allel to the berth.
When the mariner steps aboard a VLCC for the first time there is of-
ten some trepidation about handling this different ship. The differences
are really only of scale and timingship behavior is no different and the
mariner will quickly adjust work habits to these differences in magni-
tude. No new skills are required, only greater attention to the advanced
planning needed to stay ahead of the ship and greater patience while
waiting for her to respond. With a good professional background, a com-
petent shiphandler can handle a VLCC as well as any other type of ship.
Too much is made today of qualifying a pilot for fvery different type of
ship that shows up at a pilot station, when it is general experience gained
over several years of doing gradually more demanding work that pre-
pares a shiphandler for a particular task, not two hours of observation
time aboard a "new" class of ship.
 SPECIAL MANEUVERS REPLENISHMENT AT SEA

Fig. 9-21. Allow for the "railroad track" effect when estimating a
VLCCs distance off a berth.
REPLENISHMENT A f SEA
A small but significant number of ships engage in replenishment opera-
tions at sea and this number can be expected lo increase if the trend
toward greater use of merchant ships to support naval operations contin-
ues. Transfer by helicopter will be considered separately and only ship-
to-ship transfer of eo,uipment, oil, and s'ores will be considered heroin.
For clarity, the ship that maintains course and speed during the ma-
neuver is designated the "large ship," because this ship is usually the
physically larger of the two vessels involved. The second vessel is the "ma-
neuvering ship."
Initial planning between the two vessels is done by radio. A base cou rse
and speed is determined to put the sea two points or. the bow of the "large
vessel" that will be away from the operation, to make a lee and minimize
rolling and yawing. The steering gear must be tested and inspected care-
fully prior to commencement of the operation, and a seaman trained in
shifting from bridge to local trick wheel steering must be stationed in the
steering gear flat. The "A" frame or other rig is set up end all accessory
gear is laid out. Sufficient crewmembers are assigned to the deck and
bridge, and a good helmsmanpreferably experienced in steering during
ship-to-ship transfer operationsis assigned to the wheel.
Usually the larger, or, in the case of naval vessels, the supplying mer-
chant ship, maintains the base course and speed throughout the evolu-
tion, and all maneuvering is done by the approaching ship. In a heavy sea,
it may be prudent to have the larger ship maintain course and speed, and
put the sea in the prescribed position, no matter which ship is doing the
supplying, to ensure the best lee for the transfei operation.
When within one half a mile of the large or steadied up vessel, the ma-
neuvering ship comes to a heading that parallels the large ship's wake.
Speed is adjusted to be about 3 to 5 knots greater than the speed of the
large ship and the approach is begun. Note that more speed is appropriate
lor this operation than for offshore lightering, when the maneuvering ship
actually goes alongside the large ship. There is interaction between ships
throughout the maneuver, butit is greatest as the bow of the maneuvering
ship passes the larger ship's quarter. This "danger zone" (fig. 9-22 ) should
be passed through before the speed of the maneuvering ship is reduced to
the final base speed to minimize the passage and ensure good rudder con-
trol while in it. High-powered naval vessels \.ill often approach at much
higher speeds and back down just before coming abeam, but this is not a
250 SPECIAL MANEUVERS
prudent approach when two merchant ships are involved. It is not practi-
cal for merchant ships to back down since the effect on steering will be
significant and their backing power is not sufficient to slow a ship from
the higher speeds used by the handier naval vessels. A lower-powered
merchant ship continues at a speed greater than that of the steadied up
ship until past the danger zone and then reduces engine speed and slowly
loses headway until she is moving at the base speed.
One hundred feet is generally a proper separation distance between
ships, although some rigs used for transfer require less separation. Don t
allow the ships to be pulled together by constant tension winches during
the transfer operation. The maneuvering ship heads a few degrees away
from the larger ship to compensate for the pull of these winches and also
for the suction effect between the two moving ships.
When in position abeam, the ships pass a distance line forward,
marked at intervals to assist in maintaining the required separation dis-
tance, and then pass the highline ar.o other rigging required for the re-
plenishment operation. Course is adjusted by giving the helmsman
headings to steer rather than using helm orders, to ensure that all
changes are minimal so the ships don't develop any radical swing while
alongside. The continued intership attraction while in this position,
caused by the reduced pressure as the water flows between the two
ships, presents no problem as long as the specified distance and slight
angle is maintained between the ships. If the ships get closer to one an-
other they could be drawn toge ther. The mariner can do little to counter
intership suction if the two ships are allowed to get too close, since this
HELICOPTER OPERATIONS 251
precludes the maneuvering ship getting sufficient angle away from the
larger ship to overcome the suction.
While alongside, the maneuvering ship adjust? speed a few revolutions
at a time to match her speed with that of the larger ship Do not make any
large changes in revolutions (such as would result from using the tele-
graph to change speeds). Use abeam bearings and watch the distance line
to maintain the ship's position during the transfer.
To depart, open the angle at the bow slightly and let the maneuvering
ship come slowly away from the larger ship, increasing revolutions only
enough to overcome any decrease in speed due to the change in heading and
rudder. Do not pass ahead of the latter ship since any machinery failure
would result in almost certain collision as the departing ship veers across
the other ship's bow. Don't increase ship's speed through the water until
well clear of the larger ship, as this increases the intership suction.
HELICOPTER OPERATIONS
It used to be that a helicopter was used only for emergency evacuation of a
sick or injured crewmember. This task was accomplished by hovering over
the ship and lowering a litter to the deck. Increasingly, helicopters are be-
ing ujed for crew changes and storing of VLCCs and ULCCs enroute from
port to portthe helicopter lands on the ship's deck to make the necessary
transfer of stores and crew.
In either case, it is preferable to put the ship on a heading and adjust
speed to create a 15 to 25 knot relative wind on one bow. This gives the
helicopter a headwind, minimizes the turbulence over the deck that would
be created by the ship's superstructure if the wind is put dead ahead, and
carries the stack gases to one side away from the approaching helicopter.
It is stressed that it is the relative wind that is important and a maneuver-
ing board plot should be done if necessary to find the heading that pro-
duces the desired relative wind direction and force. Often the necessary
heading is not obvious, especially if the true wind is stronger than the de-
sired 25 knots.
Communication should be established with the helicopter on VHF
as soon as practical so maneuvers can oe agreed upon. The helicopter
pilot may recommend course and speed changes. When the ship is roll-
ing more than a few degrees, and the helicopter is to land on deck for the
transfer, the master must warn the helicopter off since it is dangerous
to land under such conditions. If the helicopter is only to hover, this is
not a problem.
252 SPECIAL MANEUVERS

Lower the dipole antenna and remove any other obstructions prior to
the helicopter's arrival so they do not foul the helicopter's rotor blades dur-
ing the operation. An unobstructed deck area must be provided, clearly
marked with the internationally recognized letter "H" surrounded by a
circle to designate the clear area. Have the engine ready to maneuver in
case any problems develop during the operation. Hoist a flag forward and
another on the flying bridge so the pilot can judge the wind direction and
speed during the operation. Light the ship well so all obstructions and the
landing area are clearly visible, but use lights shining forward so they
don't blind the pilot as he approaches.
Do not touch a basket or litter when it is lowered. Allow the basket to
land on deck so the static charge is discharged before anyone handles it.
While putting a man or gear into the basket or litter do not secure it to the
ship in any way.
CHAPTER TEN
TRAINING
j.
!j ... the redeeming and ideal aspect of this breadwinning
is the attainment and preservation of the highest possi-
ble skill... It is made up of accumulated tradition, kept
alive by individual pride, rendered exact by professional
opinion, and, like the higher arts, it is spurred on and
sustained by discriminating praise.
That is why the attainment of proficiency, the push-
ing of your skill with attention to the most delicate
shades of excellence, it a matter of vital concern.
Joseph Conrad, The Mirror of the Sea

Like other professionals, the novice seaman must learn new concepts,
skills, laws, and practices; unlike other professionals, though, a seaman
must apply what is learned in a new environment, and become so adept at
living and working in that environment that once-alien reactions become
intuitivethe mariner develops "sea sense." Training for a maritime ca-
reer is therefore of greater depth than in many other professions, begins at
a more basic level, and must be continued throughout a mariner's career.
It is both formal through various private, union, and governmental facili-
ties, and informal through continuous self-study and contact with ship-
mates, be they peers or senior officers.
Formal training receives the most attention and is handled well in
most cases. Equally important informal training unfortunately geLs less
attention, yet it is through this type of training that a seaman learns pri-
orities and adjusts theory to reality.
Only rudimentary training in shiphandling and piloting is provided at
the maritime academies. Significant training in this area begins aboard
ship and is received from several sources including
ij
1. Masters and senior officers, primarily covering at-sea shiphandling
and anticollision maneuvering, and maneuvering at the pilot sta-
tion or anchorage.
253
254 TRAINING ONHOAIID TRAINING OF SHIP'S OFFICERS 255

2. Pilots and docking masters. Few mariners take the initiative re-
quired to tap this source of training, which is unfortunate since pi-
lots are proud of their skills and generally willing to share much
information. In reality, pilots primarily train other pilots.
3. Passive observation of shiphandlers at work, a laudable but rela-
tively unproductive exercise similar to learning heart surgery by
watching a transplant operation on television.
4. Study of textbooks and video training material, both personal and
company supplied.
5. Simulator-based training programs and scale model basin training
facilities, where a mariner or pilot can obtain a good grasp of
shiphandling and bridge operating procedures in both routine and
emergency situations.
ONBOARD TRAINING OF SHIPS OFFICERS
Every officer is serving aboard a multimillion dollar training aid. The
ship, and the company and personal material aboard her, are available to
the mariner; it is in the master's and company's interest to encourage use
of that training aid. Training opportunities are limited only by master's
imagination and initiative, and include out of shiphandling."
1. Bridge demonstrations and critiques of situations that arise and ac- Use all available time in the ship's schedule to train the ship's officers,
tions taken in those situations. using the techniques describedfor instruction in previous chapters. Select
2. Informal coffeetime discussions of professional subjects including scenarios that are commonly encountered and re-create them in an an-
shiphandling at sea and in port. chorage or open roadstead while waiting for a pilot or berth, allowing each
3. Planned training sessions covering anchoring, stopping a snip, con- officer to handle the ship and complete the planned maneuver. When rou-
ning techniques, making a lee for a pilot, Williamson Turns and tinely maneuvering the ship, explain to the deck officers what you are do-
man-overboard exercises, and other appropriate shiphandling skills. ing and whyaction taken in a particular situation and the reasons for
that action are not obvious to the less experienced officers unless you get
Training should start at the most basic level. Masters must insist that them involved. Point out how the ship backs into the wind or the bow falls
deck officers conn the ship to new headings at sea, rather than just giving off to starboard as the engine goes astern, since seeing this action once
the helmsman a new course to steer, so that they develop a feel for the ship makes a more lasting impression than reading about it a dozen times.
and the amount of rudder needed to handle her. Deck officers should han- Because of inexperience, too many deck officers suffer from the "don't
dle the ship when anchoring or picking up the pilot, while the master ob- touch" syndrome. The less experienced officer is not initially comfortable
serves and corrects the work as necessary. Every mate must be prepared with bridge equipment, so there is a very real hesitancy to use it. It is im-
for the duties of the next higher position, especially the chief mate who portant that these officers overcome this hesitancy or they can never be-
must do as much shiphandling as possible. A promotion is not an opportu- come proficient. If shipboard training accomplishes nothing else, it is
nity to start training. It is a recognition of skills already possessed. irreplaceable if the officer becomes more willing to take action.
256 TRAINING
Hold a "hands-on" session and encourage each officer to use the bridge
equipmentinsist that they repeatedly use the telegraph, whistle, put
the rudder hard over (yes, at sea speed... it will not damaee anything). Ex-
plain that each officer is just to grab on and use the gear repeatedly and to
its maximum, then stand back. Go ahead Mate, use the whistle ... sound it
again ... put the rudder hard over... put the engine astern, ahead, astern
again. Now that mate has started to be a useful and competent deck offi-
cer. Few drills will ever be more productive than these initial hands-on
sessions.
There is no magic to shiphandling, just experience, good sense, and
confidence in one's skills, and no one can become proficient until they are
totally comfortable using bridge equipment and making the ship respond
to their demands.
A new 1,000-foot ship went aground a lew years ago while maneuver-
ing to avoid fishing craft in the straits of Gibraltar. During the ensuing in-
vestigation the master was asked why he repeatedly altered course to
avoid one vessel after another rather than slowing or stopping the ship.
He replied that he wanted to go astern but hesitated because he didn't fc el
he could back the ship at the speed she was making without losing control.
He wasn't sure how his ship would behave if the telegraph was put astern!
A beautiful, new ship would not have settled on tt e rocks if a short, simple
hands-on session had been held aboard ship at some time during the mas-
ter's twenty years at sea.
Most ships have a video recorder on board, and several good training
films on all maritime subjects including shiphandling and ship behavior
are available for lease. Maritime academies and union school libraries
maintain source lists for such material, which can be obtained by a tele-
phone call if you do not already have addresses of suppliers. Companies
leasing or selling these films also advertise in maritime publications, such
as the excellent Safety at Sea and Professional Mariner magazines, which
should also be put aboard ship as training material. Obtain training films
for use throughout the fleet, in conjunction with training sessions and ma-
neuvers, to get the maximum benefit from an onboard training program.
Some masters combine fire and emergency drills with training ses-
sions, and hold the sessions prior to each drill. By gathering officers and
crew in the lounge and discussing a particular subject over coffee (the sub-
ject usually being complementary to the drill although this is not re-
quired), the crew and officers develop greater interest in drills and
training in general. The crew is soon requesting that specific subjects be
ONBOARD TRAINING CF PILOTS 257
discussed and contributed to the discussions. Most of the crew is involved
and interested in shiphandling and it should be included in this training
program.
Distribute educational material obtained from professional publica-
tions to ail onboard, licensed and unlicensed; your interest is contagious
and your satisfaction .great. A
ONBOARD TRAINING OF PILOTS
Even with modern simulation, there is still no better, more effective train-
ing for apprentice pilots than "hands-on" experience aboard ship. It has
become increasingly difficult for ship's officers to develop shiphandling
skills aboard larger, fast-turnaround ships with ever smaller crews, but
pilots, by the very nature of their work, still have daily access to the ulti-
mate training tool, the ship.
Unfortunately, there is presently a tendency to downgrade the impor-
tance of such training in favor of written tests and licensing, classroom
time, standardization of training requirements, and simulator training.
This only reflects a lack of understanding of piloting since the state of the
art of other teaching systems simply has not reached the level of sophisti-
cation required to replace shipboard experience.
Apprentice pilots must make full use of the ship, just as ship's officers
must use every opportunity to gain information on shiphandling from a pi-
lot. A great deal of money is being spent for pilot association-owned,
shore-based training facilities, which is commendable, but the ship itself
is not being fully utilized as a training aid. Use the various types of equip-
ment, including radars, in every possible mode, to keep skills current. Too
many pilots put the radar in the "head-up" presentation as soon as they
get to the bridge (even before getting a cup of coffee!) because that is the
only presentation with which they are comfortable. You can't always effec-
tively watch the relative motion of other ships when the radar is used in
the head-up presentation and the targets are changing their location on
the PPI (plan position indicator) as you maneuver, yet when feeling your
way up a narrow channel in the fog, there is less chance of error when op-
erating in the head-up mode. There is a proper time for each mode and the
ship is a laboratory in which to experiment (fig. 10-2).
Question the ship's officers about any new gear found aboard ship.
This is their field of expertise and they are trained in the use of such equip-
ment. Exchange your knowledge of shiphandling for information about
the ship's new equipment.
258 TRAINING ONBOARD TRAINING OF PILOTS 259

sages and trips on difficult ships to give the broadest possible base of expe-
rience and ensure the learning of good .vork habits. A specific pilot in the
association should be responsible fo: training, and continually review and
update training requirements to reflect the changes in ship types and lo-
cal conditions. Training, be it for the ship's officer or the pilot, is too impor-
tant to be left to happenstance.
There is a great deal of political pressure from within the industry to
standardize and formalize pilot training and have pilots work only under
a federal license. It is obvious to the working pilot that conditions are too
different in each port to adopt standard requirementsthat is the very
reason that pilotage services are needed as ships move from port to port.
There is, however, some basis for criticism at present as some pilot associ-
ations have no formal training program, and each pilot follows an infor-
mal path to qualify for his various licenses. Other associations have
formal training, strictly enforced standards that usually far exceed any
statutory requirements, and a system of peer evaluation that again is of-
ten more effective than any federally administered licensing scheme. In
self defense it is time that all pilot associations establish formal training
Fig. 10-2. Make use of state-of-the-art ship's equipment to continuously programs and definite standards to qualify an apprentice to serve as full
update shipboard skills. Courtesy RTM STAR Center.
Work with all of the navigation equipment including GPS units,
ECDIS, ARPA, fathometers, and Doppler equipment, and learn about the
latest type3 of steering gear so you are as familiar with them as the ship's
officers. Try to become comfortable and proficient in their use, especially
with the systems that are most useful for piloting and shiphandling. Too
often a pilot must ask for help to perform even the most routine of opera-
tions despite having had the opportunity to use the same piece of equip-
ment aboard other vessels. Further, most shiphandlers, ship's officers,
and pilots alike, tend to use the equipment in the open ocean and never de-
velop techniques they need when the rain squall hits while handling the
ship in a narrow channel. Overnavigrte, even though the last thing you
might need is a fix as you make your thousandth trip up the river on a clear
day; it sharpens your skills and may save you from having to rely on a less
than competent mate when the fog sets in on a strange ship.
When training an apprentice create opportunities to use tugs or an an-
chor in less common situations and insist that the apprentices occasion-
ally navigate b}' radar on clear days. Require multiple trips under difficult
conditions. Insist that an apprentice make a large number of night pas- very seriously."
260 TRAINING
pilot. If the associations don't do this, others will, and the piloting profes-
sion and the industry will suffer for it.
SHIPHANDLING SIMULATORS
Teachers have used oooks, lectures, and written tests to teach the theory
of shiphandling and other maritime skills for generations. Countless sea-
farers learned their trade through this traditional instruction and then
went directly aboard ship to apply their classroom knowledge in the real
world where most did an excellent job in a profession where skill develop-
ment was motivated primarily by tradition and professional pride.
This training served the industry well even though it failed to address
some serious gaps between theory and application that the mariner was
forced to fill by trial and error at sea. These gaps were at times sizable, as
most mates standing their first bridge watch alone will attest. Who forgets
that first watch when, after dropping the pilot and putting the ship on
course to her next port, the master stepped below leaving the new third
mate, alone and untested, to deal with navigation and traffic. The young
mate, who had read all the books and mastered countless exams, quickly
learned, during the next few proud but nerve-wracking hours, that a
sometimes horrifying gap exists between theory and application. Most of
us survive to serve without incident through a career stretching for years
and hundreds of thousands of miles at sea, but there is nc denying we all
would have benefited from some form of training that more closely resem-
bled that first watch at sea or first encounter with some new situation.
With simulation, mates, masters, and apprentice pilots have an oppor-
tunity to apply theory to real-world situations without being aboard ship,
and simulator-based instruction is now part of training in shiphandling
and bridge operations at the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, the state
academies, the union schools, private training facilities, and several sim-
ulator facilities worldwide.
These institutions realize that the simulator offers mariners the op-
portunity to experience, in a relatively short period of time, a multitude of
situations that would take years to witness "on-the-job." More impor-
tantly, these situations can be controlled and responses can be evaluated
and critiqued without bending a single plate of steel.
THE RULES OF THREES
An overview of simulation training as it impacts on shiphandling is p e- r 2. Transfer theory to real-world situations in a classroom environment.
sented in this chapter and the practice maneuvers in the book's last pages
SIMULATORS AS INNOVATIVE TRAINING AIDS 2 6 1
]
can be used as part of a simulator-based shiphandling program. More de-
tailed information about a curriculum and teaching techniques are out-
side the scope of this text and readers should consult specialized texts (see
the Bibliography), such as chapter 8 oHVatchstanding Guide for the Mer-
chant Officer, for a more detailed discussion on this rapidly developing
field. Complete reports of studies and guidelines for simulator-based pro-
grams have been produced at the CAORF facility at Kings Point and are
available for review.
Simulator training
\ follows two Dasic Rules of Threes:
There are three components to a good simulator programthe sim-
ulator, the instructor, and the curriculum.
There are three steps to effective simulator trainingclassroom
presentation of theory in a detailed briefing session, the training
exercises on the simulator, and an all-important debriefing session
where -)erformance is reviewed and critiqued.
Together, the three components and the three steps form a teaching
process that changes the very nature of instruction for several facets of the
work done by shipmasters, deck officers, and pilots as well as for operating
tasks performed by professionals in other demanding positions, such as
airline pilots and power plant operators.
Simulators are powerful tools for training in the very important opera-
tional work done on the ship's bridge and in the engine room, but simula-
tion is not a panacea. Mariners are generalise in an era of specialization
and simulator-based instruction is not, at least at this time, useful for
teaching every type of work that deck officers routinely perform.
SIMULATORS AS INNOVATIVE TRAINING AIDS
Simulators fill a long recognized gap between classroom instruction and
hands-on application of many operating skills including shiphandling,
rules of the road, radar, navigation, watchkeeping and bridge procedures,
and bridge resource management. For the first, time, with simulation, dy-
namic re al-world situations can be created in a controlled classroom envi-
ronment where ship's officers and pilots can
1. Practice new techniques and skills with an instructor and peers.
3. Deal with multiple problems concurrently rather than sequentially.
262 TRAINING SCALE MODEL-BASED SIMULATORS 263

4. Learn to prioritize those multiple tasks under the same high stress, SCALE MODEL-BASED SIMULATORS
changing conditions faced in actual shipboard operations. Scale model-based simulators at facilities in Grenoble, France; the South-
Shiphandling and many other facets of the merchant mariner's and pi- ampton Institute in the United Kingdom; and the presently closed United
lot's work are operating skills. The principles can be learned from books States Navy school in Little Creek, Virginia, use large scale models of var-
and lectures, but proficiency comes through practice. Before simulation, ious ship types to simulate actual ships and shiphandling situations. The
there was no way to complete the learning process without actually going student and shiphandler/instructor ride in the models (fig. 10-4) on rela-
aboard ship and working at the job. As stated elsewhere in this text, one tively large, specially designed lakes laid out with modeled channels,
does not learn to play the piano by reading about it, and professionals do- docks, locks, canals, mooring buoys, single-point moorings, and anchor-
ing operational work do not learn their craft through 'study and classroom ages to recreate a wide range of shiphandling activities.
instruction alone. Mariners master their craft by doing it aboard ship but,
with simulation, it is now possible to at least practice fundamentals, cor-
rect poor work habits, develop procedures, and demonstrate basic profi-
ciency before actually going aboard ship.
This is a major advancement in maritime training. Textbook instruction
can be put into practice and, at least as important, skills can be applied in
real-world situations where several tasks are done simultaneously, not
one at a time. Before simulation, shipboard skills were discussed and
tested sequentially, because there is no way to address several tasks si-
multaneously on paper or to learn the all-important art of prioritizing
work. In real life, deck officers and pilots deal with multiple operating
tasks simultaneously and, through practice, they learn to prioritize in-
stinctively and, most importantly, to shift priorities, in changing routine
and emergency situations.
Simulators are bringing a new dynamic into the classroom where expe-
rienced mariners or pilots teach skills using books and lectures with the
added dimension of real-time experience to actually teach operating skills
rather than just explain them.
TYPES OF SIMULATORS
There are two basic types of simulatorsmodel-based simulators in
which pilots and deck officers ride in large scale models while learning and
practicing shiphandling, and computer-based simulators using a bridge
mock-up and a computer-driven presentation. Computer-based simula-
tors use either an image of the selected geographic area generated com-
pletely by the computer with the ship's behavior programmed as an
overlaj', or a computer-generated image together with points of light pro- Fig. 10-4. A typical scale training model with riding positions for the
jected on that image. Each has advantages and disadvantages and both instructor and student. Courtesy the Southampton Institute, Maritime
types, properly operated, are very effective training tools. Operations Center. Photo by Steve Park.
264 TRAINING

The model-based simulator gives a dynamic presentation of bottom and

bank effects, wind and sea conditions, and intership effects created as two
ships pass. Scenarios are created to provide a wide range of shiphandling
experiences (fig. 10-5). The ship models respond to external wind and cur-
rent and behave like an actual ship when backed and turned. Anchor work
is practiced in the model-based simulator under normal and emergency sit-
uations in a very realistic environment where a real, albeit small, vessel is
maneuvered using an actual anchor. These are real floating craft in real
water behaving according to the laws of hydrodynamics, so the effect expe-
rienced by shiphandlers is correct even though it is scaled down.
Because the simulation is scaled down, neither the external effects nor
ship behavior can be in "real time." There is some difference of opinion
among experienced shiphandlers who have worked with both computer-
driven and model-based simulators as to whether this scaled behavior sig-
nificantly decreases the effectiveness of this training.
SCALEIS IT IMPORTANT?
Shiphandlers speak of "having a feel" for a shipbeing able to take the
correct action at the correct time based on an almost instinctive sense of a
particular ship's behavior. The ability to anticipate ship response at this
level is gained by actually handling similar ships for several years. It
would appear, therefore, that the lack of real-time response would be a ma-
jor disadvantage to any system that is being used to teach shiphandling.
In fact, most ship's officers and pilots insist they quickly adjust to this
scaled time, so it does not seem to degrade training. Further, any disad-
vantage that might exist is partially offset by the fact that many effects
and situations can be simulated, and actually felt, in a dynamic, scaled-
down vessel moving through the water, that cannot be re-created as effec-
tively using present computer-driven equipment. There seems to be gen-
eral agreement, especially among experienced pilots and shiphandlers
who have actually spent time on both types of simulators, that scale does
not degrade the effectiveness of scale model simulators as learning tools.
Computer-driven and scale model simulators each offer advantages and,
generally, the more experienced shiphandlers seem to have a greater ap-
preciation of scale-model training.
COMPUTER-BASED SIMULATORS
Computer-based, full- and part-task simulators are proliferating at mari-
time schools, union schools, and private training facilities worldwide as
262 TRAINING
ship bridge simulation becomes an affordable and effective marine train-
ing tool. This growth of marine simulation, and particularly ship bridge
simulation, is very much technologically driven as equipment develops to
fill a long-known need for a means to teach operating techniques that, be-
fore simulation, could not be taught in a classroom (fig, 10-6). Smaller,
faster desktop and mini-computers with greater memory capacity have
made it technically and financially practical to build equipment that sim-
ulates complex hydrodynamic models moving over realistic visual scenes
at a reasonable cost. Early simulation with rather basic, cartoonlike pre-
sentations and simplistic ship models have evolved into detailed and visu-
ally accurate scenes with complex models and multiple meeting and
crossing vessels. Limited ahead-view only screens have evolved into 240-
to 360-degree presentations that usually provide a view aft so the com-
puter-driven simulation is useful for pilots and deck officers.
There are two basic levels of computer simulators, defined by complete-
ness of the simulation and purposes served. Part-task simulators present a
Fig. 10-6. The modern simulation uses state-of-the-art high-definition
projectors to provide 360-degree photo-quality scenes. Courtesy RTM
STAR Center.
SCALEM O D E L - B A S E DSIMULATORS 267
limited number of features, typically one or two systems, a..d are intended
for training in a specific task such as radar, rules of the road, \RPA, or
cargo system training, where it is not necessary to use a more expensive,
complex full bridge simulation. Full-task simulators, alsc referred to as
full-mission bridge simulators, present a complete environment, such as a
complete engine control room or a full ship's bridge complete with naviga-
tion equipment, radar, steering stand, communications equipment, en-
gine control, and all the other systems that would be present in a modern
wheelhouse. A full task or full mission simulator is designed to create a re-
alistic environment in which the ship's officer or pilot can train and prac-
tice the same full range of tasks in a real-time scenario that they would
experience aboard ship in routine and emergency bridge watch situations.
Full-task simulators, regardless of type and builder, share a common
background. All begin with a mathematical model developed from data
collected in shallow water tests and sea trials of the class and type of ship
being simulated. The hydrodynamicist supplies the ship data to program-
mers who create a visual presentation that moves across a set of screens
re-creating vessel motion and the hydrodynamic and environmental ef-
fects suitable to the particular training session, limited only by available
computer memory and speed. Experienced pilots then spend many hours
working with the programmer and hydrodynamicist tailoring the model,
modifying the data-based presentation until it "feels" to the shiphandler
like the class of ship being modeled. This modification or tailoring of mod-
els is controversial and obviously unscientific but, with current simula-
tors and the maneuvering data available to the hydrodynamicist, it seems
necessary to blend the experienced mariner's intuitive evaluation with
the theoretical model to develop a sufficiently accurate simulation.
Simulators have a mock-up of a generic ship's bridge with some type of
front or rear projection visible forward of the bridge upon which the visual
scene and the ship's deck are either projected or developed (figs. 10-7 and
10-8). It is generally accepted that the simulator's bridge should re-create,
to the maximum extent possible, the actual shipboard environment. Most
facilities include a chart room, ship's passagewsys, and the usuai naviga-
tion equipment, reference books, and instruments found on a typical
ship's bridge. The visual presentation should present at least a 240-dcgree
field of visibility, since shiphandlers depend as much on a view aft, or at
least abaft the beam, as they do on the view ahead when moving ships in
pilot waters and close quarters situations (fig. 10-8). A greater arc of visi-
bility is desirable when working in very close quarters situations, and a
262 268
TRAINING SCALEM O D E L - B A S E DSIMULATORS

tures used by the shiphandler maneuvering in the port. Conditions of

restricted visibility, day and night scenes, the effects of wind forces on wa-
ter surface, buoy and navigational aids, and the sounds of whistles and
buoys are included in the simulstion.
Increased computer power makes it possible to simulate more com-
plete vessel behavior in given wind and current conditions and in response
to changing bank effects as a ship proceeds along a channel. Intership ef-
fects between passing ships are presented with reasonable accuracy al-
though computer-driven simulation is waiting for the next generation of
computers to be able to handle the complex calculations needed to repro-
duce fully the interaction of two ships passing. The most modern simula-
tors are also able to simulate at least the basic effects of dragging and
steaming on anchors and the use of an anchor in emergency situations.
The technique used to actually generate this visual presentation is of
more importance to the simulator operator than to the student. The simu-
lator user is more interested in the following:
j

Fig. 10-7. MITAGS simulator uses a hydraulic system to move the

wheelhouse platform and add roll, yaw, and pitch to the simulation,
Courtesy Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies.
view astern is now available in a few simulators for training in docking
and undocking.
Various ship types are simulated. Depending on the work to be done,
the mathematical ship model might be specific, such as when doing port
research or training for a new class of ship, or it might only simulate an av-
erage ship of a particular size or type for less specific instruction in bridge
operations and general shiphandling. Effects inherent to the ship, includ-
ing steering characteristics, engine response ahead and astern, effects of
backing, twisting, trim, draft, and directional stability or instability are
all included in the ship's program. Shallow water effects, the hydrody-
namics of bank and intership action, and external forces such as tugs,
wind, and current effects that change as the ship type and loading condi-
tions are altered, are overlaid on that ship's program. The ship and the Fig. 10-8. U.S. Merchant Marine Academy cadets gaining experience
forces affecting it are overlaid on a representation of the port or open wa- conning and handling ships underway on a real-time simulator.
ter maneuvering area that includes the visual cues and prominent fea- Courtesy United States Merchant Marine Academy.
270 TRAINING
1. The accuracy of the mathematical ship model over a full range of
maneuvers ahead and astern.
2. The detail or fidelity of the visual presentation.
3. The arc of visibility presented.
4. The accuracy with which the external forces are re-created to simu-
late the effects of wind, current, bank and shallow water effects,
intership action, and the effects of tugs and anchors.
5. The degree to which the simulator re-creates the bridge environment.
There is some debate concerning the need for highly specific mathe-
matical ship models and detailed visual scenes, and the impact of added
detail on the effectiveness of the simulator as a teaching tool. Academics
tend to feel detail is not as important as application while mariners, the
users, generally contend that realism is important to make the simulation
believable but, as computer power increases and cost declines, the debate
will probably become moot. Simulators will provide increasingly accurate
reproductions of the ship and the environment in which she operates sim-
ply because technology makes it possible to do so at ever lower costs.
State-of-the-art computers capable of presenting complex hydrody-
namic effects are now available at a reasonable cost so there are very few
areas where initial training cannot be provided using simulation. Simula-
tors can be used for training in techniques like the proper way to meet and
pass other ships in narrow channels with sufficient realism to be used for
initial training of pilots and ships' officers. The exception might be the use
of anchors for routine and emergency maneuvers, which is not currently
simulated with sufficient accuracy to be useful to a pilot or mariner.
On the other hand, the effects of dragging and maneuvering on one or
two anchors are poorly simulated at best. This is probably the case be-
cause programmers and design engineers don't appreciate the important
role anchors play in emergency and routine shiphandling and the lack of
sufficient real data that can be used for programming. The anchor looks to
them like a big parking brake. This shortcoming is significant because the
anchor is the primary tool in emergency situations when power or steering
is lost and, since simulators are touted as tools for teaching emergency
maneuvers, the effects of the anchor must be simulated accurately. The
most recent generation of simulators seems capable of doing this to a lim-
ited degree, but simulators will not reach their full potential as tools for
emergency training until the effects of dragging and working with an-
chors is fully and accurately documented and simulated.
COMPARISON OP MODEL AND COMPUTER SIMULATORS 271
COMPARISON OF MODEL AND COMPUTER SIMUTATORS
There are some advantages ?nd disadvantages to both model- and com-
puter-based simulators, independent of the operational differences be-
tween the two types.
Model-based simulators need several acres of natural or man-made
lake, so that there are limitations to where this type of facility can be lo-
cated. A suitable natural or man-made lake and a few acres of open land
are needed for the facilities, so the model facility may have to be estab-
lished in an inconvenient, and possioly expensive, location. Computer-
driven simulators can be set up literally anywhere without regard to prox-
imity to water or large areas of open land since only a few reasonably sized
rooms are needed for the equipment and bridge mock-up. The facility can
be built in a convenient, low-cost location although the site cost consider-
ation is at least partially offset by the high cost o"purchasing, maintain-
ing, and upgrading the computer-driven simulator and its software.
Model simulators are affected by weather, which can significantly re-
duce the time this type of simul ator is usable. This can be a significant dis-
advantage in areas with severe winters and a high percentage of rainy
days. Computer facilities can be used for training year round independent
of weather conditions, although some mariners claim the real-life envi-
ronment of model-based simulators adds to the learning experience.
The very low teacher-to-student ratio inherent in a model-based simu-
lator, where the instructor rides with only one or two mariners for several
days, makes this type of instruction expensive. The teacher to student
ratio is only marginally better for computer simulators, so neither type of
simulator has a significant advantage in this regard. It seems then that
there are no overriding advantages or disadvantages to one system over
the other and that each is more effective for teaching particular aspects of
shiphandling.
These designs end cos* differences tend to balance out, so the real con-
sideration is which type of simulator is most effective for teaching the par-
ticular subject matter. Pilots seem to prefer the model simulator that
effectively re-creates hydrodynamic effects, external forces, anchor work,
and ship behavior both ahead and astern in very close waters, since they
are more interested in the subtleties of shiphandling and operations in pi-
lot waters. Deck officers seem to prefer computer-driven simulators for
their ability to simulate particular ports and a familiar bridgelike setting
of a ship underway for training in bridge operations, navigation, rules of
272 TItAINING S1MULATOR VALIDATION 273

the road, and other operations more related to the work of a ship's officer. sured performance, review, and repetition after a deoriefing where each
Perhaps this io to be expected since the two user groups do have different recorded session is reviewed by participants and the instructor. Be critical
interests. of yourself and open-minded when reviewing recordo of eatn exercise so
If a generalization can be made, it is that there are advantages to the that subsequent simulator sessions do more than reinforce old, often im-
ship-model simulator for teaching the subtleties of shiphandling, while proper work habits (fig. 10-9).
the computer-driver, bridge simulator seems to be better for teaching
many of the other aspects of the deck officer's or pilot's work. In any case, SIMULATOR VALIDATION
advan tages of model simulation may be lost if the next generation of com- A simulator is of little use if the information presented is not accurate,
puter-driven simulators is able to re-create the effects that are presently since incorrect or misleading information is worse than useless: it can be
simulated most effectively using models. Until that time, the best facili- dangerous. The process of evaluating the accuracy of the simulation is
ties will probably use both computer-driven and scale-model simulators to known as validation.
teach those aspects of shiphandling for which each is most suitable. This is Studies of various means for measuring accuracy of the simulation
presently done at the Southampton Institute in the United Kingdom. and validating simulator facilities are ongoing in several countries but,
as yet, the criteria are nebulous at best, since the user is trying to catch
TOOLS OF SIMULATOR INSTRUCTION up with the fast changing technology while, at the same time, deciding
Modern simulators create an environment where performance can be i
demonstrated, measured, and replayed, so that recording equipment of
several types is important. The simulator changes the methods used to re-
view and test learning in much the same way it changes the nature of in-
struction itself, because simulator recordings provide an active, dynamic
measure of performance rather than the passive pass-fail written tests
used in the traditional classroom (fig. 10-9).
Typically, the tools used to record both performance and behavior un-
der routine and high-stress emergency conditions include
1. "X-Y" or similar plotters that reproduce a vessel's track and head-
ing.
2. Computer- or printer-generated graphs and tables of vessel speed,
engine and helm orders, rate of turn, and associated data i elated to
time.
3. Simulator playback capability, so that situations and performance
can be recreated for selected times.
4. Audio recording of pilot's or deck officer's orders and discussions
during a simulator run.
5. Video recording of participants' actions and use of equipment. Fig. 10-9. Control room of a state-of-the-art marine simulator with
computer input, monitors, and recording equipment to allow instructor
Use these records of cach simulator exercise in a debriefing session to and operator to manage and record the session for later debriefing and
review and compare performance with past sessions and accepted stan- evaluation. Courtesy Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate
dards. Skills are mastered on a simulator through this process of mea- Studies.
274 TRAINING
where simulators fit into the maritime training picture. Simulator vali-
dation is becoming increasingly important as simulators gain accep-
tance for required training, testing, and licensing, and as companies
increase their use of simulators for evaluating mates and masters for
promotion and retention.
THE SIMULATOR INSTRUCTOR
The instructor is the second and most important component of the simula-
tor package.
It is far too easy to overlook the instructor's essential role amidst the
bells, whistles, and flashing lights of a modern simulator but, as impres-
sive as it might be, the simulator is only a sophisticated teaching tool used
by an experienced mariner with the aptitude and training to teach a well-
planned course covering the various aspects of vessel operations and
shiphandling to cadets, pilots, and deck officers.
An uncodified but nationally and internationally accepted standard is
evolving that requires very skilled mariners as instructors rather than a
third mate waiting for a job at sea, or a retired military officer with two
years' sea time aboard military ships that are very different from today's
large and often underpowered deep draft merchant ships. Instructors
should be experienced pilots, master mariners, or maritime professionals
who have in-depth experience in the particular maneuvers being taught
and are also teachers trained in operating the simulator. At the better fa-
cilities, the instructors also have specialized training in adult education
and the techniques for using simulation effectively as a training tool.
When very specialized training is offered, the facility may use a team con-
cept with two instructors, one trained in teaching with simulators and a
second who is usually a professional with current experience in the spe-
cialty being taught.
Poor instruction only perpetuates the very shiphandling mistakes and
poor operating procedures that the pilot, mate, cr master came to the
course to overcome, and courses taught by anyone other than senior, expe-
rienced mariners with training as instructors do a disservice to this area
of maritime education.
Companies, pilot organizations, and the mariners using a facility
should consider the qualifications of the instructor as well as the capabili-
ties of the simulator when evaluating a simulator program, and simulator
facilities should budget for well-qualified instructors, not excessively ex-
pensive equipment. A simulator with limited capabilities in the hands of a
THE SIMULATOR CURRICULUM FOR DECK OFFICERS 2 7 5
skilled instructor with strong coarse material is an excellent training tool.
The best full-task simulator is a weak teaching tool in the hands of a poor,
professionally inexperienced instructor and an instructor who does not
take simulation seriously.
There are ongoing studies by the International Maritime Organiza-
tion, the U.S. Coast Guard, and several papers by various participants in
the international conferences on marine simulation concerning accredita-
tion of simulator instructors that will consider professional experience
and training but, as yet, no such standards are in place in the United
States. This certification should also include certification standards for
courses that train the trainer.
DEGREE OF INSTRUCTOR INVOLVEMENT
There are two schools of thought regarding the degree to which the in-
structor should be involved in the simulator exercise.
Some believe instructors should be on the bridge working with the stu-
dent group. The instructor would explain maneuvers and actively guide
the shiphandler or mate through the exercise so that each maneuver is
performed correctly.
Others feel the instructor should be at a separate operating console re-
moved from the students, who would go through each exercise independ-
ently after the briefing session. The shiphandlers and mates are allowed
to make mistakes and perform the exercise at their own pace, after which
the instructors and students go through a detailed debriefing critiquing
each other's work based on performance and records of the exercise. With
the plethora of excellent measuring and monitoring equipment available,
most facilities are using the latter method, which most students and more
experienced instructors generally agree is more effective. Specialized
courses sometimes use both alternatives. The expert simulator instructor
works at the console, while a second instructor with specific skills in the
subject matter taught works 011 the bridge.
THE SIMULATOR CURRICULUM FOR DECK OFFICERS
The curriculum is the third component of an effective simulator program.
It is interesting to watch experienced seamen get deeply involved in
well-planned shiphandling lessons on a real-time simulator presentation,
responding emotionally as the fog sets in or another ship approaches in a
narrow channel. This is perhaps the best testimony for the effectiveness of
such training.
274
TRAINING
On the job, deck officers do not routinely get enough closely supervised
shiphandling training or hands-on experience in pilot waters, even if they
glean as much information as possible from a pilot aboard their ship. For
them, simulation is especially important. Shipboard work is, to a large ex-
tent, a solitary task, and mariners often carry bad habits throughout their
career because there are limited opportunities in the normal course of a
voyage for someone to point out their errors. The simulator is valuable if it
does no more than provide a briefing and debriefing forum with peers, un-
der the supervision of experienced shiphandlers and shipmasters with no
obligations other than to teach professional skills.
As already stated, simulators are very effective aids for teaching a
multitude of subjects. This text focuses on shiphandling and considers
skills only to the extent that they impact on shiphandling. In this regard,
ship model and computer simulators are both very effective for teaching
basic shiphandling theory and specialized piloting and shiphandling tech-
niques, but more advanced shiphandling skills must be honed to the level
expected by the maritime community, and the public, by spending hun-
dreds of hours actually handling ships.
It is generally agreed that detailed, carefully developed scenarios that re-
flect situations a pilot or deck officer will encounter in the course of their work
should be used as a basis for instruction rather than a rote lesson. Plan a very
detailed scenario that includes all the navigation, radio communications,
and intraship communications, watch reliefs, and other routine events in an
arrival, docking, undocking, departure, or other evolution being practiced.
Based on discussions with experienced instructors and students, it is
apparent that scenarios that closely track real-world situations are more
effective than impossible situations that degrade the simulator session to
the level of a video game. Avoid the temptation to overdo problems to the
point where exercises become unrealistic, no-win situations, but include
all the work a shiphandler or pilot will have to do during the same evolu-
tion aboard ship so the work load and priorities reflect on-the-job experi-
ence. Ideally, the problems developed in those scenarios increase in
difficulty at the student's pace until realistic limits, rather than the limits
of the computer, are reached.
Subjects covered on the simulator vary depending on the intent of the
program, since a third mate needs material different from a master prepar-
ing to command a VLCC, but as a minimum the program should include
1. An introduction to general ship maneuvering characteristics.
276
THE SIMULATOR CURRICULUM FOR DECK OFFICERS
2. Basic maneuvers as discussed in the master's trials.
3. The Williamson Turn maneuver to demonstrate steering character-
istics.
4. Watchkeeping scenarios requiring maneuvering a ship at sea in
close meeting and crossing situations (both when aboard the giving
way vessel and the standing on vessel), stressing the importance of a
round-turn maneuver in such situations.
5. Maneuvers to arrive at a pilot station and make a lee to embark a pi-
lot in all types of weather and s^a conditions.
6. Maneuvering to make a lee to launch a lifeboat or recover a person
from the water.
7. Maneuvering in narrow channels and with traffic, including stop-
ping a ship in a narrow channel in the minimum time while main-
taining good control of the ship.
8. Use of tugs in narrow channels and while docking and undocking.
9. Response to own ship machinery failures and failures aboard ap-
proaching ships.
10. Methods for handling a ship with sternway, with and without strong
winds.
11. Comparison of high-sided versus low-freeboard ships and their be-
havior in strong winds.
12. If within the capability of the simulator, demonstrate techniques for
working with bank suction, intership action, and strong river cur-
rents.
13. Proper communication techniques using sound signals, running
lights, and radio, and stressing the importance of limiting such com-
munication only to necessary information.
Insist on proper procedures for every task and teach the full range of
work involved in a shiphandling exercise including navigation, rules of
the road in traffic situations, bridge organization, bridge resource man-
agement, a command presence, decision making and leadership skills,
and voyage planning techniques under routine and emergency situations,
not just shiphandling itself. All tnese skills impact on shiphandling. The
pilot or deck officer must master the entire package of professionals skills
and techniques of bridge resource management to use the crew and equip-
ment to advantage. Use the simulator's capability to its fullest extent so
that the mariner is practicing the skills in as close to a real-world environ-
ment as possible. That is the very essence of the simulator experience.
274
TRAINING
Bridge organization is discussed briefly in this text to the extent it im-
pacts on shiphandling, and some excellent texts on voyage planning and
bridge resource management are listed in the Bibliography Develop these
skills as part of the study of shiphandling since they are an integral part of
that work. The simulator is the most effective tool for putting the concepts
of voyage planning and bridge management into practice, both of which
are integrated into every well-planned simulator program.
Plan exercises under progressively worsening weather conditions with
increasing winds and reduced visibility. Analyze maneuvers done under
clear conditions compared with those done as conditions deteriorate. In-
corporate several lessons into one exercise as the ship is brought from sea
to a dock. Practice maneuvering in traffic, applying the Rules of the Road,
making a lee and picking up a pilot, and learn to work with tugs, communi-
cate, organize the bridge in pilot waters, and understand hydrodynamic
effects all in one exercise by being creative with carefully planned scenar-
ios. Be sure to do the same work under night conditions since the same
jobs appear different in the dark.
The simulator also makes seafarers, and particularly the younger
ship's mate, comfortable with the idea that a ship is designed to be maneu-
vered. This may sound basic, but too many deck officers are reluctant to
take action when a problem develops due to a stigma of inviolability at-
tached to the bridge and its equipment. Effective course material takes
this into consideration during training in shiphandling, maneuvering in
traffic, and bridge resource management. The "hands-on drill" discussed
elsewhere in this text is also applicable to the first day on a simulator and,
after several days of simulator training, the reluctance to maneuver
should be gone.
THE SIMULATOR CURRICULUM FOR PILOTS
As previously stated, deck officers and masters are having an increasingly
difficult time finding opportunities to practice shiphandling to the degree
needed to develop strong shiphandling skills. Fortunately, this is not the
case for pilots who have no problem accumulating shipboard experience.
By the very nature of their work, pilots have daily access to ships for train-
ing and practice of shiphandling and bridge management skills. They are
aboard ships in pilot waters, maneuvering, at all hours under all condi-
tions. They learn and practice their skills on a routine basis, under tute-
lage of experienced, skilled pilots at no cost other than their timethey
train aboard the ultimate ship simulator, the ship, and that training is free!
278
THE SIMULATOR CURRICULUM FORDECKOFFICERS
Simulators, in their present state of development, do not give pilots a
sense of depth and distance or the subtle visual cues and hydrodynamic ef-
fects needed to master close quarters shiphandling. It is still the ship that
best demonstrates all the nuances of ship behavior at the I jvel required to
develop total competence under all the conditions encountered by a work-
ing pilot. Simulators, in their present state, are effective tools to enhance
pilot skills but they don't replace the ship for most pilot training.
Simulators do not presently replace the traditional apprenticeship-ori-
ented training methods that have served pilots so well, and any claim to
the contrary does a disservice to the development and acceptance of simu-
lators, but they definitely are a useful tool for pilots for many purposes in-
cluding
1. Theory and basic techniques of shiphandling, including training in
emergency situations.
2. Bridge resource management and bridge organization.
3. Familiarization with new or unusual ship types not customarily
handled in a pilot's home waters.
4. As a lorum for pilots to demonstrate and compare various job tech-
niques with peers in a structured training environment.
5. Radar, ARPA, navigation, and communications training to update
knowledge of new equipment and techniques.
6. Port development and improvement studies to reconfigure ports
and establish parameters for handling new, larger, or unique ship
types.
7. New methods for dealing with specialized pilot tasks, such as han-
dling new or larger vessels and maneuvering in realigned channels
and new port configurations.
Technical reports from CAORF published ir. March 1985 discuss simu-
lator training for pilots in depth, and those reports provide an excellent
basis for planning a generic pilot training program. More definitive train-
ing must be developed in conjunction with the pilots' association for the
port or area simulated because piloting is inherently port specific and very
specialized. That is the very reason pilots exist. No one other than the pi-
lots themselves appreciate the techniques used and the local knowledge
needed to work safely and efficiently in a particular port.
Like ship's officers, pilots need training in navigation, radar, bridge
operations and bridge resource management, and emergency maneuvers.
274
TRAINING
Fig. 10-10. A typical modern simulator bridge includes full
instrumentation and interchangeable control systems for training on a
full range of ship types and propulsion systems. Courtesy RTM STAR
Center.
Apprentice pilots especially must make full use of the ship features and
equipment, rather than concentrating on shiphandling alone, since they
need the same training and experience in bridge operations as the third
mate. Again, scenarios should be planned to include all aspects of a pas-
sage through pilot waters, not just shiphandling techniques, even though
the pilot may be inherently more interested in the shiphandling aspects of
the exercise, and the scenarios must be challenging but realistic, so the ex-
ercise remains a job to be done rather than a game to be won (fig. 10-10).
Spend time discussing hydrodynamics and theory of ship behavior
with pilots who benefit from a better understanding of why ships behave
as they do ~ather than just knowing how they behave. An appreciation of
hydrodynamic principles and shiphandling gives pilots the basis for antic-
ipating ship behavior on the job rather than reacting to it.
280
THE SIMULATOR CURRICULUM FORDECKOFFICERS
Have the pilot role-play as master, working with another pilot to better
appreciate the master's position in the pilot-master relationship. Take a
ship into familiar ports. Broaden the pilots' experience by placing them in
challenging situations with larger ships and different ship types from
those being handled in the pilot's home waters. Use the recording and re-
play capabilities of the simulator to facilitate self analysis and peer cri-
tiques of not only the actual shiphandling performance but also bridge
demeanor and bridge resource management. Even the most skilled and
experienced pilots find, when reviewing graphs and videos of their exer-
cises, that they may give many unnece ssary orders or show signs of stress
that create unnecessary tension on the bridge in challenging situations.
Pilots are using the playback and review process routinely and pilot orga-
nizations are participating in bridge resource management courses on a
routine basis.
Bridge operations and resource management have become increas-
ingly difficult for pilots who work more and more with multicultural crews
without advance preparation to move a ship safely through pilot waters.
The pilot organizations recognize this and the American Pilots' Associa-
tion is promoting bridge management training for all pilots. In fact, pilots
1
insist that a simple requirement to communicate in a common tongue, usu-
ally English, would do more to increase marine safety than a wheelhouse
full of new instruments or a volume of regulations. Communications and
bridge orgaivzation remain a major challenge to working pilots, and simu-
lator exercises provide an excellent opportunity to sharpen the pilot's
skills in bridge resource management and communications.
Training exercises should include both vessel-specific exercises for
more senior pilots and nonspecific exercises for less experienced pilots
learning the basics of shiphandling using generic ships operating over the
pilot's route. Insist that all pilots involved in the course follow correct pro-
cedures and make every aspect of the training scenario as realistic as pos-
sible.
Pilots aie also using simulators for port studies, familiarization with
new vessel types, and as a orum with peers in the workplace, practicing
f
shiphandling exercises and exchanging ideas on their work. Pilots are
most familiar with ships that routinely call in the waters on which they
serve and, when radically differont types of sizes of ships begin serving
1APA Promotes BRM Training for Pilots. Washington, DC: American Pilots'
Association, October 5, 1993.
282 TRAINING BRIEFING AND DEBRIEFING SESSIONS 283

that port, they sometimes have to reinvent the wheel. Increasingly, pilots and plan the intended passage. Charts and tide tables must be studied
are getting together with peers from another port who have experience and a passage plan developed. The more carefully the passage is discussed
with that ship type and are using simulators as a tool for transferring and planned, the more beneficial the subsequent simulator period will be.
knowledge and experience wiihin the profession. This forum aspect of the After the simulator exercise, there should be a lengthy, carefully
simulator exercise provides a unique opportunity, since pilots normally moderated debriefing where bridge work is reviewed a id the perfor-
work alone with'little opportunity to critique each other's work and dis- mance of each of the individuals involved in the lesson is critiqued. Most
cuss shiphandling. Piloting is by nature a solitary job with little routine of the learning from a simulator session is done during this debriefing
contact between peers and the simulator can change thisserving as a when the users are led by the instructor to look critically at their perfor-
catalyst for professional discussion among pilots that can be quite benefi- mance and the results of their work and analyze what they might have
cial. done differently (fig. 10-11). The mates and pilots are usually allowed to
So, is simulation effective in improving piloting skills? The pilots must critique their own performance with guidance from the instructor using
think so since they attend both model- and computer-based simulators at reruns of selected sections of the passage, and a review of video, audio,
their own expense. They see the value of training that enhances their abil-
ities both in broad shiphandling skills and specialized areas peculiar to
their own port and work. Cost is an important consideration, though, since
simulators are expensive. Perhaps it is time for a nationally uniform
training surcharge on all pilotage fees that is retained by each association
to pay the cost of training and educating its members. This equalizes the
cost of training between ports and creates a fund so that even the smallest
associations can afford training paid for by the beneficiaries of that
trainingthe shipowner whose ships are moved safely and expediently in
that port.
THE THREE STEPS OF SIMULATOR TRAINING
As stated previously, there are three steps to simulator training: a briefing
session where theory and an outline of the simulator exercise are dis-
cussed in a classroom environment, the simulator exercise itself, and a de-
briefing session to review performance. Simulator training time seems to
be broken down about evenly between these three steps, so that only ap-
proximately a third of the total training time is actually spent on the bridge
simulator.
This is logical since instruction and appraisal is done by the instructor
through a well-planned course and, without intensive instruction ard
evaluation, the pilot, master, or mate would only be using simulator time
to practice and reinforce weak or improper work habits.
Fig. 10-11. Properly equipped debriefing room includes large area for
BRIEFING AND DEBRIEFING SESSIONS group discussion and equipment to play back key segments of the
Time must be allotted for a classroom briefing before each simulator pe- exercise and review graphs and printouts of maneuvers. Courtesy RTM
riod to discuss the theory and hydrodynamics involved in each problem STAR Center.
284 TRAINING
and chart records gives mariners a clear picture of what occurred during
the simulator exercise. Without this review, the period on the simulator
becomes a high-priced video game since the lessons are never really fixed
in the user's mind.
It is surprising how often mistakes are not recognized during the ses-
sion but immediately seized on and discussed during the debriefing. Even
the most experienced mariners and pilots often comment on work habits
they hadn't realized they had developed during years of work aboard ship.
This peer-to-peer review is especially helpful to experienced pilots and
shipmasters since they rarely have an opportunity to compare techniques
and develop improved work habits through discussion with their peers.
The third segment of the simulator training, the time actua lly spent on
the simulator, has already been discussed in preceding sections of this
chapter.
THE FUTURE OF SIMULATION
Simulation is a developing field. Technology, need, and application are
changing and improving rapidly as the simulator is more widely accepted
as a useful training and testing tool in the marine community.
Each generation cf simulator offers more accurate presentations and
better visual detail as more and faster computers are put into smaller
spaces at lower cost.
Several firms have built small simulators driven by desktop computers
for use aboard ship. This type of simulation is useful for learning the rules
of the road, ARPA and radar operation, basic navigation, and other skills.
Some companies provide software so ship's officers can use desktop simu-
lators to become familiar with a port before arrival. That said, the dream
of developing desktop shiphandling simulators has been elusive at best.
Shiphandling is an applied art, not a video game, and the restricted arc
of visibility, total lack of depth of field, and the plan view presentation
used in many cases has limited the usefulness of this equipment. Memory
capacity end computer speed continue to increase exponentially so it is
reasonable to expect such equipment to be useful at some point in the fu-
ture but, for now, shiphandlers should not place any faith in skills devel-
oped and practiced on desktop simulators.
Computers are developing because of universal demand. There is obvi-
ously a much smaller demand for research and data needed to increase the
usefulness of simulation for teaching and testing. Research is needed to
develop the human side of simulation and collect more complete data on
COMPUTERS FOR TESTING AND EVALUATION 285
the effectiveness of instruction and the degree to which simulator training
transfers to work aboard ship. Research is also needed on ship behavior in
shallow water. The accuracy oi mathematical models is still limited be-
cause cost and tight schedules make it difficult to collect data aboard ships
operating in shallow water and, without that information, much of the ba-
sis for current models is theoretical and extrapolated from deep water sea
trials and tank tests. The effectiveness of simulator training and testing
will increase as this information becomes a mailable.
COMPUTERS FOR TESTING AND EVALUATION
Computers will be used more for assessments and license examinations as
better testing criteria are developed. A great deal of work has been done in
this area in the past decade and reasonably objective evaluation criteria
has been developed for special purposes. For example, the RTM STAR
Center developed criteria that has been tested and, in the opinion of staff,
pilots, and state commissions proven useful for evaluating state pilots
prior to license renewal.
Simulators have been used for several years for deck officer license ex-
ams and pilot evaluations at maritime academies and union simulator fa-
cilities to test performance-based skills such as applied rules of the road
and performance as conning officer and officer of the watch in fog and
heavy traffic situations. The ability to evaluate a mariner's ability to prior-
itize tasks :'n realistic shipboard scenario is a major step forward in exam-
ining performance-based skills. The testing becomes more valuable when
situations are introduced that test the professional's ability to apply skills
under stress. Simulation is the best and, at present, the only method for
doing this.
The U.S. Coast Guard, the Maritime Institute of Technology and Grad-
uate Studies (MITAGS), the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy, the RTM
STAR Center, and other training facilities have completed studies and es-
tablished some criteria for this type of testing and evaluation. The Na-
tional Research Council's Marine Board has also completed intensive
studies and published recommendations for training and testing using
simulation.
The testing usually meets with initial skepticism from mariners who
feel there is some gap between shipboard performance and performance in
what they feel is an artificial environment in a simulator. In fact, those
same mariners and pilots usually change their opinion after experiencing
simulator-based testing. A good case can be made that pilots and mariners
286 TRAINING
benefit directly from this type of testing. There is a direct correlation be-
tween testing, licensing, and professional standards that raise the entry
threshold and protect jurisdiction for anyone moving ships in restricted
waters.
The International Maritime Organization recommends performance-
based testing of underlying skills rather than dependence on written
knowledge-based testing. This and other reports reflect a significant
2 cially seem to feel simulator training enhances shipboard experience but
change in testing methodology away from traditional written multiple
choice examinations that test memorization more than the ability to pilot
ships.
A cadre of senior mariners and pilots, independent from or contracted
to the U.S. Coast Guard are needed to administer these examinations. To
date, technological developments in simulation have outpaced the uses of
this equipment for testing and assessment.
The RTM STAR Center in Dania, Florida, continues to develop more
and better criteria through their computer-based examinations for unlim-
ited ocean master licenses and the Alaskan Pilot Evaluation Program de-
veloped for the state of Alaska. Criteria developed for that evaluation
include a point scoring system based on lengthy tasks related to piloting in
Alaskan waters that was developed jointly by the pilots and the facility.
The testing criteria were validated in several ways including having mul-
tiple instructors evaluate the same pilot independently. This was done
during trial evaluations and scores were almost identical in every case.
The policy of having pilots evaluate pilots is key to the success of that
Alaskan program. This peer review is a model for similar programs. There
are no hard and fast, right or wrong responses in a given test situation so
this application of simulation requires experienced peers to evaluate per-
formance.
SIMULATOR VS. HANDS-ON EXPERIENCE
In addition to license examinations, time spent in simula tor training is be-
ing considered as on-the-job experience when computing service require-
ment for original, upgraded, and renewed marine licenses. There is a
definite shift to a policy of equating written tests and licensing, classroom
time, and standardized training requirements with hands-on training,
and there are international and national precedents for substituting sim-
2 Review of the 1978 Standards of Training and Watchkeeping, IMO Subcommit-
tee on Standards of Training and Watchkeeping, Section 4.2.3, October 5, 1993.
SIMULATOR VS. HANDS-ON EXPERIENCE 287
ulalor and classroom time at some multiple of days credit for each day of
1 training/
There is serious doubt among professionals about this practice and
many feel simulation should be seen as an additional tool for raising stan-
dards to meet the requirements of an increasingly demanding profession
i rather than as a substitute for other experience and training. Pilots espe-
does not replace it.
Supporters of granting service credit at some ratio of equivalency con-
! tend the structured simulator experience provides better training than
onboard experience. Opponents of equivalency contend time aboard ship
is meant to provide experience, not training, and that it is irreplaceable
precisely because it is not structured. They maintain that broad and ran-
) dom experience seasons and prepares the officer for promotion and com-
mand. The latter group also feel tne work of mates, masters, and pilots
encompasses much more than just bridge operations, and reducing time
requirements also reduces important experience in areas not addressed in
1 a simulator exercise.
The U.S. Coast Guard currently grants up to six days' sea time credit
for each day spent on a simulator with a maximum credit equal to 25 per-
cent of the total required time being granted. Whether this practice con-
tinues in this form will probably depend on the findings resulting from
present studies and input from the industry. It is possible that, in the fore-
seeable future, mates will both prepare and be examined for upgraded li-
i censes on a simulator.
} Simulation has matured into a widely used and effective training tool
for teaching basic shiphandling and other bridge skills. Simulation's place
in maritime training is in a state of flux, but there is no doubt it will play
an increasing part in the education and testing process for mariners and
' operating professionals in many other high-skill fields.
3 Standards of Training and Watchkeeping 1978 Regulation 11/4, Aiticle IX,
(1) Equivalents, and CFR Title 46Shipping, Part 10 304Substitution of
training for required service.

CHAPTER ELEVEN
MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP AND
BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
If a pilot undertakes the Conduct of a vessel .. . and
fails of his Duty therein . . . and the Merchants Sustain
Damage thereby, he shall be Obligated to make full Sat-
isfaction for the same .. . and if not, lose his head.
Ruie 23, Laws of Olero
It must first be stressed that this chapter is not a legal treatise on the com-
plex relationship between shipmaster and pilot; it is a discussion of the
day-to-day working arrangements between two professionals. An excel-
lent discussion of the legal aspects of the master/pilot relationship can be
found in Law of Tug, Tow, and PilotageThis text was used as the princi-
pal reference for the discussion that follows.
At first glance the master/pilot relationship appears poorly defined.
Areas of responsibility seem nebulous and conflicting, with the master ap-
pearing responsible for much of the work performed by a pilot whom the
master does not select and is usually compelled by statute to employ. The
case law in this area further befogs the relationship, leaving the mariner
to figuratively "navigate under Rule Nineteen."
In practice, though, the master and pilot are experienced professional
seamen working together to complete a passage safely, understanding th e
relationship between their two positions that has evolved through custom
and practice over centuries. The arrangement works well and thousands
of ships are moved each year without incident. It is only when a casualty
occurs that this informal but well understood and workable arrangement
becomes unnecessarily complicated.
Alex L. Parks and Edward V. Cattell, Jr., Law of Tug, Tow, and Pilotage, 3d
1
ed., Centreville, Md.: Cornell Maritime Press, 1994. -
288
THE PILOT A HOARD SHIP 289
THE PILOT ABOARD SHIP
The pilot comes aboard to take charge of the navigation of the ship from
the pilot station to her destination, or to some intermediate point if multi-
ple pilots are used. The pilot moves the ship toward her destination using
both local knowledge and a degree of shiphandling skill that the seagoing
master generally is not expected to possess. Local knowledge is such a
broad term that it might be said to encompass the whole of the pilot's ex-
pertise, but at least it would include:
1. Local tides and currents.
2. Bottom and channel depths and configurations.
3. Courses, distances, aids to navigation, and significant geographic
features enroute.
4. Local customs and practices for snip movements.
5. Local weather patterns.
6. The shiphandling skills necessa ry to move vessels in the waters em-
ployed.
The pilot must, of course, possess many of the mariner's skills includ-
ing a knowledge of the rules of the road, navigation, and the use of all
forms of navigation equipment. Obviously then, the landman's picture of
the quaint old pilot standing at the master's side mumbling pithy bits of
local wisdom and advice, as the ship proceeds under the master's direction
toward her destination, is patently incorrect and unrealistic.
A clear distinction must be made between voluntary and compulsory
pilots. A voluntary pilot is one engaged for the convenience of the vessel. A
North Sea pilot employed to take a ship between the Rotterdam and
Bremerhaven sea buoys would be one example of a voluntary pilot. No
statute requires a ship to have a pilot aboard, but the master or owner may
hire a pilot to aid in making the passage expeditiously.
The owner, through the master, has great control over the voluntary
pilot. The pilot need not be hired in the first place, or the pilot's services
can be rejected during the passage and the vessel continue to her destina-
tion. The voluntary pilot is in a significantly different position aboard ship
than the compulsory pilot.'Practically speaking then, the master can feel
2Homer Ramsdell Transportation Company u. Cornpagnie Generate
Transatlantique, 132 U.S. 406 (1901)
2 9 0 MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP AND BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
much more free to advise or relieve a voluntary pilotthe voluntary pilot
is in much the same position as the ship's mates.
A compulsory pilot, on the other hand, is one that is required by law to
be aboard while the ship is navigating certain specified areas. Penalties
such as fines or imprisonment, or both, are the hallmarks of compulsory
THE PILOT ABOARD SHIP 291
pilotage laws. If a ship is allowed by statute to refuse the services of a pi-
lot provided she pays a portion of the pilotage fee, the pilotage is not com-
pulsory. 1
The relationship between master and compulsory pilot is in many
ways unique in that it is usually defined by custom, practice, and statute
rather than contract. While the pilot is generally neither an employee of
the ship nor a member of her crew, he is ultimately subordinate to the
master, although the degree of subordination is less than popularly per-
ceived. The public and the industry benefit from this working arrange-
ment and from the degree of overlapping responsibility that compels both
pilot and master to be concerned about a vessel's safety.
The compulsory pilot is not aboard in a purely advisory capacity. That
pilot is in charge of the navigation of the ship while aboard, and the ship's
crew is required to obey the compulsory pilot's orders relating to naviga-
tion unless the master determines it is necessary to intercede for reasons
yet to be discussed. A compulsory pilot is responsible for his own actions
and receives a significant fee because of this responsibility. In the pres-
ence of the compulsory pilot, a master's responsibility is not total and for-
ever. Both master and pilot have a job to do and bear an unusual degree of
responsibility not only to the vessel, cargo, and crew, but also to the public.
Except for American flag vessels operating in the coastwise trade un-
der enrollment, ships are requireu to have a pilot aboard in most inland
waters of the United States to provide local knowledge and shiphandling
skill. Most pilots are compulsory and it is that type of pilot that is referred
to throughout this chapter unless specifically noted otherwise.
An exception is found to the traditional master/pilot relationship at the
Panama Canal. The Panama Canal Authority accepts a greater degree of
liability in exchange for greater control of ships' navigation in that strate-
gic waterway. Inside Lhe locks of the Panama Canal the Authority is liable
for payment for injuries to the vessel, cargo, crew, or passengers arising
out of a passage through the locks under the control of employees of the
commission, unless the commission shows that the injury was caused by a
negligent act of the vessel. Outside the locks the Authority is liable for pay-
ment for injuries to a vessel, cargo, crew, or passengers when such injuries
are proximately caused by the negligence or fault of a Canal Commission
employee... provide d that in the case of a ship required to have a Panama
3 The Merrimac, 81 U.S. (14 Wall.) 199, (1872).
2 9 2 MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP AND BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGE-MENT
Canal pilot on duty, damages are only payable if at the time of injur)' the
navigation was under the control of the Panama Canal pilot.
Shipmasters should be awrrc of the manner in which the traditional
master/pilot relationship is distorted in this special circumstance.
THE MASTER'S RESPONSIBILITIES IN PILOTAGE WATERS
The master retains overall responsibility for the vessel and her operation,
for having a competent watch on duty and seeing that they perform their
work efficiently, for being sure a proper lookout is maintained, and for
compliance with all regulations and statutes including the rules of the
road (COLREGS). The master's authority is never completely in abeyance
even while a pilot (compulsory or not) has immediate charge of the ship's
navigation. The master is also responsible for his own professional compe-
tence, including having sufficient knowledge and experience to be able to
judge the pilot's performance and recognize significant pilot error, and to
have studied the local waters and be able to recognize known and pub-
lished dangers.
The master has a duty to advise or relieve a pilot in cases of
1. Intoxication.
2. Gross incompetence to perform the task at hand.
3. When the vessel is standing into danger that is not obvious to the pi-
lot.
4. When the pilot's actions are in error due to a lack of appreciation of
particular circumstances, including the limitations of the particular
ship being handled.
In carrying out these responsibilities the master may either advise or
relieve the pilot, at the master's discretion. In practice, there is a real bur-
den upon the master to justify relieving the pilot should some casualty re-
sult, so the action of relieving must not be arbitrary. There are several
ways to do a job and, while admittedly some are more expeditious than
others, the master must not relieve simply because he feels that he can do
a better jobthe pilot should only be relieved when the master feels,
based upon professional experience and training, that the vessel, crew, or
cargo is being placed in real and imminent danger because of that pilot's
present course of action. On the other hand, the master is negligent if ac-
tion is not taken when required. The master first objects to an action, then
recommends an alternative, and only in the rare case when the pilot re-
"RELEASE FROM LIABILITY"" FORMS 293
fuses to accept a recommendation does the master relieve a pilot in a
timely mannerwhile it is still possible to avoid an accident.
The decision about when to become involved is more difficult than the
absolute problem of whether it is necessary to do so. There is a natural re-
luctance to act because of the ramifications in case of a casualty, yet the
question of timing is most critical. Relief usually occurs when it is too
latewhen the situation has deteriorated so far that ever, the most com-
petent shiphandler could not correct matters and the master's effarts then
only complicate an already bad situation. There is no requirement that a
ship be in extremis before the pilot is relieved, only that the master fore-
sees danger should a present course of action continue.
It is imperative that the master be sufficiently skilled in shiphandling
to recognize a problem early, and have sufficient confidence in those skiiis
to take prompt and decisive action if it is necessary to relieve a pilot. The
correctness of action taken reflects the training and experience that a
master has had, and it is too late to compensate for years of neglcct in this
area at such a time. The decision to relieve a pilot is not an easy one, but a
master who instead stands by as the vessel heads for certain catastrophe
remains a responsible party and must take action. It is a judgment that
can only be made based on professional experience and is but one example
of why the title "shipmaster" bears a connotation of unusual responsibility.
"RELEASE FROM LIABILITY" FORMS
Occasionally a master is presented with a form to be signed releasing the
pilot from liability. These forms may be based on local practice or special
circumstances, such as a tugboat strike. The validity of these forms in a
particular case is questionable and depends on local laws and regulations
of which the master cannot reasonably be expected to have knowledge.
Inasmuch as the master may be under pressure not to delay the ves-
sel, and may not be able to consult with anyone about the advisability of
signing a release, he may elect to sign and note over the signature that
the release is "Signed under protest so that the vessel may proceed." An
entry to that effect should be made in the ship's log. Forward a copy of the
release to the owners so they can advise you about signing such docu-
ments in the future.
In any case, the form will have no immediate practical effect since the
master has ultimate responsibility for the ship in any case, and the docu-
ment in no way alters the master's conduct during the docking or other
work at hand.

295 MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP AND BRIDGE RESOIIRCE MANAGE-MENT
SOME PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The real world must be kept in mind when discussing a relationship be-
tween master and pilot. In practice, the pilot will not refuse to work more
safely, or to slow down, or use an additional tug when requested to do sc by
the master, so it is extremely rare that a conflict over relative authority
arises between pilot and master aboard ship. No reasonable pilot is going to
reject a master's request to work more safely, nor would any master object
to such a request by a pilot. This duality of interest works to the obvious ben-
efit of all concerned. As long as one of the two parties has an interest in
working safely, the ship is handled in a proper manner, and when both
work professionally the concerns of one tend to amplify those of the other.
It is a fact that very few casualties occur in pilot waters that do not in-
volve some degree of acquiescence on the part of the master. In many
cases, if the master had done no more than suggest that the pilot reduce
speed in fog or clarify a proposed meeting arrangement with an approach-
ing vessel, no accident would have occurred since the pilot will not refuse
to handle a situation more safely in such conditions. In most reports of ma-
rine casualties it is obvious that the master was reluctant to get involved
and allowed the pilot to act alone until it was too late to avoid an accident.
It is again stressed that the master must not wait until the situation is
hopeless before getting involved. It is time to get involved, to at least ques-
tion a pilot's intentions, at the first moment that there is any doubt about
the correctness of the pilot's actions.
What options do the compulsory pilot or master have when an irrecon-
cilable disagreement arises about a course of action?
The pilot can accept the master's recommendations, or take the vessel
to the nearest safe anchorage until the matter is resolved, or stand aside
and allow the master to complete the job. The master can relieve the pilot,
complete the maneuver if conditions require it, and then either return the
conn to the pilot or put the ship to anchor. It is again stressed, though, that
the master intervenes only when the pilot's work is endangering the ship,
cargo, crew, or assisting tugsnot because the master feels a job can be
done in another, more expeditious manner.
Let me reiterate for emphasis. It would be wrong to give an impression
that such differences occur with any regularity. They do not! Both the
master and pilot are professionals with a common interest and the fact is
that irreconcilable differences almost never occur because of the context
in which objections to a course of action are made.
299
BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR SHIPHANDLERS
Recently, the relationship between the master and pilot has been com-
plicated by the growth in popularity of the "team concept" of shipboard or-
ganization. The pilot is often said to be another member of a team that is to
navigate a ship from one point to another, as if the pilot were employed as
a crew member for the passage. This is clearly not the case with a compul-
sory pilot who is providing a one-time sendee to the ship, and it is unrealis-
tic to attempt to put any pilot into that position.
The team concept in its intended form is not new. The well-organized
crew has always operated as a team under the master, each member per-
forming assigned tasks to move the ship expediently from point to point,
and the concept is valid as long as it is kept in that context. The team is or-
ganized vertically with the mate and helmsman, engineer on watch, and
others involved in the navigation of the ship performing tasks as assigned
by the pilot, through the master. These tasks might involve machinery op-
eration, log and record keeping, position fixing, or radar plottingall jobs
being performed to support the master or pilot who has the conn. It is im-
portant to differentiate between this vertically organized team and a hori-
zontally organized committee. There is no place for the latter aboard
shipany concept that diffuses responsibility beyond the master or pilot
only confuses the relationship that exists between those two and is coun-
terproductive to safety and sound operation. The shipboard team should
exist only to supply information and assistance as assigned by the respon-
sible master or pilot.
BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR SHIPHANDLERS
Proper bridge organization is commonly referred to as Bridge Resource
Management (BRM). The organization is designed to reduce errors and
omissions through a system of checks and the delegation of duties.
Training in Bridge Resource Management is required by regulation
and the benefits of BRM are steadily being recognized in the maritime
community.
BRM evolved from Cockpit Resource Management that was developed
by the airline industry after studies revealed human error was a contrib-
uting factor in the majority of accidents. A training system was devised to
produce a coordinated effort among cockpit personnel, ensuring that each
member contribute in a specified manner to the safe flight of the aircraft.
There are differences between the cockpit of an airplane and the bridge of
a ship, but many of the practices developed by the aviation industry have
been adapted to fit maritime demands.

297 M A S T E R / P I L O T RELATIONSHIP AND BRIDGE RESOIIRCE MANAGE-MENT
This is not a text on BRM. The subject is discussed in this book to the
extent that it effects shiphandling. Readers should consult a text dedi-
cated to the subject for a more complete discussion of BRM affecting vessel
operations and day-to-day operations.
There are some key terms common to most discussions of BRM that are
pertinent both to BRM and to this text because they are also central to
good shiphandling practices including
- Error Chain: accidents are often a result of a chain of errors, a series
of minor mistakes or oversights, leading to a casualty.
Perceived World: Many times the initial errors in that chain go un-
detected because the conning officer is working in a perceived
world, that is, he is interpreting the event as he expects it to be
based on assumption or previous experience that may not be appli-
cable.
Error Recognition: The conning officer fails to recognize the errors
because of many factors including
A loss of situational awareness
Failure to set priorities
Inadequate monitoring
Failure to delegate tasks and assign responsibilities
Failure to use available data
Failure to communicate
Preoccupation with minor technical problems
The bridge team shares the workload, obtains and communicates rele-
vant information early, and monitors the vessel's progress by cross-check-
ing the decisions and actions of all members of the team within the context
of the master/pilot relationship.
As previously mentioned, vessel operators must not confuse teams
with committees. A committee makes joint decisions and enjoys some
equality of decision-making responsibility. A ship's bridge requires disci-
pline, a defined chain of command, and a clear understanding as to which
officer has the conn, that is, who is in charge.
Proper BRM formalizes the roles of the participants but it does not al-
ter the custcmary roles and relationship between the master and pilot as
appropriate for the particular waters in which the vessel is operating.
This is equally true when the pilot has gone ashore and the master or a
deck officer is in charge of shiphandling and navigation important in re-
299
BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR SHIPHANDLERS
stricted waters. The team supports and provides feedback to the ship-
handler.
From time to time experienced pilots board ships where inappropriate
BRM practices lead to confusion regarding the pilot's role relative to the
ship's bridge team. In fact, the master-pilot relationship is not altered un-
der law or the practice of good seamanship, as described in this chaptei re-
gardless of what might be stated in a ship's operating manual since ships
operate in a larger world where custom, practice, and precedent prevail.
The pilot comes aboard to take the conn, lead the bridge team as he finds
it, and assume responsibility subject only to a master's obligations to re-
lieve the pilot in specific circumstances discussed in this chapter.
On a properly organized bridge, each member of the bridge team serves
as a filterremoving extraneous information and duties so the conning of-
ficer is able to focus on safe movement of the vessel. The roles of bridge
team members are discussed in several sections of this text and in the
many BRM courses now available to ship's officers. The master and pilot
delegate tasks and accepts an open flow of information from bridge team
members. The shiphandler, be it the master or the pilot in pilot waters, re-
ceives timely, pertinent information from the supporting bridge team in
order to make proper decisions.
It is noteworthy that the bridge team has additional responsibilities in
pilot waters, that is, under watch condition 4 as discussed below in this
chapter. The pilot's requirements are more intense and fluid in nature as
events occur more quickly and there is less leeway for error in pilot waters.
For this reason, pilot associations have teamed with the best simulator
schools to develop bridge resource management courses specifically for pi-
lots. Shipmasters engaged in trades where they are responsible for ship-
handling and piloting in narrow channels and inland waters should also
take these courses that are designed when bridge team members have the
responsibility for shiphandling regardless of whether a pilot or master is
conning.
As previously discussed, the state-licensed, compulsory pilot brings
aboard his or her own responsibilities as a third party responsible to the
state and federal government as well as for the safety of the vessel, its
cargo and crew. The pilot is charged by the commissioning authority to
navigate in the best interests of the state and local environment. Sound
BRM organizatior formalizes the responsibilities of everyone working on
the bridge, serving as lookout, or performing other duties as a team in sup-
port of the pilot to fulfill that responsibility.
2 9 8 MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP AND BRIDGE RESOIIRCE MANAGE-MENT
What constitutes a bridge team? Basically, it consists of anyone
needed for the safe navigation of the ship and may includethe master,
deck officers, unlicensed crew, and the pilot. The bridge team must be of
sufficient size to perform normal bridge duties, which BRM groups into
fhree general areas:
1. Collision AvoidanceDetecting and avoiding other vessels and ob-
jects.
2. NavigationKeeping the vessel safely clear of shoal water, close to
her intended track, and near to on schedule.
3. AdministrationRoutine watch duties such as communications,
log keeping, and supervising watch personnel. 4
The size of the bridge team varies based on the watch condition, which
is dictated by the environment in which the vessel is operating. The envi-
ronment includes factors such as weather, traffic, and vessel location. The
following chart shows an example of watch condition criteria.
Watch
Condition Ship's Environment
Visibility Waterway Traffic
1 Clear Offshore Light
2 Reduced Restricted Moderate
3 Reduced Restricted Heavy
4 Reduced Pilotage Heavy
The watch condition may be determined by a combination of factors.
For exampls, if a ship were operating in clear visibility, in light traffic, and
in pilotage waters, the watch condition would be 4. In a basic sense, as a
situation becomes more information intensive and/or less error tolerant,
more people are required to perform bridge duties safely.
The size of the bridge team increases as the situation intensifies, and
the following chart illustrates the way in which duties are divided as team
size increases.
4Bridge Team Management, Maritime Institute for Training and Graduate
Studies, and American President Lines, LTD., Linthicum Heights, Maryland,
1992.
5Ibid.
BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR SHIPHANDLERS 299
Bridge Duty 6
Watch Collision Other j
Condition Conn Avoidance Radio Comm.'s Nr.i'igctio.. Duties j/Ze/m LoVriOu I
1 Watch officer A13
2 Master Watch officer AB AB/OS
3 Master Watch officer AB AB/OS
4 Pilot Master Watch officer AB AB/OS
Note: "Other Duties" may include record keeping, tending the engine-
order telegraph and/or thruster controls, monitoring equipment, etc.'
The division of duties is similar to the concept of triage. As the situa-
tion warrants, additional personnel are added so that the person conning
can focus on the task at hand. There is considerable overlap of duties,
which allows members to cross-check each other. It might be better if this
chart were drawn with hatched lines to show that the division of duties is
not static or exclusive to a particular officer or crew members. Effective
BRM dictates that duties are divided based on the expertise of team mem-
bers. For example, the pilot may handle most of the radio communications
during a passage, but he may delegate less essential communications to
the master or watch officer. If the master deems it necessary, there may be
two watch officers sharing navigation and other duties.
Unfortunately, in the real world the number and duties of bridge team
members are often less than ideal when ships are sometimes under-
manned and crews inadequately trained. Watch condition 4 may include
only the pilot, a solitary mate, and a helmsman. Solid BRM techniques are
even more important in these situations when pilots and shiphandlers
must adapt ideal practices to existing conditions and use available per-
sonnel to safely accomplish the task at hand. There are also conditions
when the available bridge team is unacceptable. Trained and experienced
professionals recognize that point and put a ship to anchor until the bridge
is adequately manned. Always insist on proper manning for a given situa-
tion regardless of how vehemently others might object.
6 Ibid.
7 Bridge Team Management, Maritime Institute for Training and Graduate
Studies, and American President Lines, LTD., Linthicum Heights, Maryland,
1992. (Note: Several sections of this chapter were adopted from the MITAGS
course material.)
300 MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP AND BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAOE-MENT
Watch condition 4 begins once a pilot comes aboard. The conn is ex-
changed after completing the Master/Pilot Exchange (chapter 1). Tnis ex-
change of information familiarizes the crew with the pilot's role aboard
the ship and prepares bridge team for the passage ahead. It helps to form
the "shared mental model" required for effective BRM.
Bridge Resource Management principles recognize conditions aboard
ship are dynamic. Well-managed bridge teams are trained to adopt to
changing conditions. The Master is responsible for that training so he or
she should schedule meetings at various stages of a voyage including
1. Pre-voyagePrior to sailing, the master and deck officers meet to
discuss the voyage plan, to identify potential problems, to ensure
that everyone is "on the same page," and ensure that members are
aware of their duties and responsibilities.
2. Post-voyageUpon completion of the voyage, the team meets to
share suggestions for improving bridge team performance and to
remedy any individual or team weakness.
3. MonthlyThe master should conduct monthly meetings to rein-
force proper BRM practices, to provide leadership training, and to
encourage open discourse among team members.
4. SpecialThe master may choose to conduct special meetings to dis-
cuss emergency procedures, to resolve problems as they arise or to
provide training opportunities.
Experienced mariners realize that the principles of passage planning
and the concept of a bridge team are not new ideas. These are all tech-
niques that have been practiced for generations aboard well-run ships.
Certainly, each of us can identify particular masters, pilots, and officers
who were proficient in them. These individuals were identified as true
professionals or "good" captains, and it was a pleasure to serve with them.
BRM training simply formalizes the bridge organization that, in the past,
was put in place in an inconsistent manner depending on the individual
shipmaster's ability to implement sound leadership skills.
Professional shiphandlers should add a text dedicated to Bridge Re-
source Management to their professional library. The value of BRM is
widely recognized and shiphandlers need to understand and work within
that organization to move ships most efficiently and safely in pilot waters.
(See also the discussion of BRM aboard Azipod and other centralized
and automated control vessels.)
THE COST OF RESPONSIBILITY 301
THE COST OF RESPONSIBILITY
Authority, responsibility, and liability aie inseparable, so fault will inevi-
tably be assigned after any casualty according to perceived responsibility.
Fortunately, the day when pilots and mariners paid with their lives for er-
rors is ;ong past, so present day penalties are primarily in the form of lost
income or fines.
Perhaps these penalties satisfy a perceived need to enforce standards
of performance and assign blame. Unfortunately, it is inevitable that they
become a consideration when the master thinks about relieving a pilot.
The penalties might in fact be counterproductive since their existence can
cause the master to delay in taking corrective action. In any case, it is
doubtful that they serve any real purpose since casualties usually are the
result of errors in judgment rather than gross negligence or intentional
misconduct. To make matters worse, the penalties are assigned after the
fact by a third party who usually has only a limited appreciation of the ma-
rine profession and the context within which the mariner's judgments are
made and actions are taken. Unfortunately, there is no reason to expect
this situation to change.
It is essential that neither the master nor the pilot get too bound up in
considerations of legality and liability in the course of their work. While
these considerations are significant, there is an overriding professional and
moral obligation for both of them to exercise all their professional talents
to safely and expeditiously move ships. Both must appreciate the circum-
stances under which they labor, but their actions should be instinctive
and in the best interests of the ship in which they are serving. When the
master or pilot hesitates to act as they see proper because of concern for
some later review or liability, it is time for them to seek some other career.

CHAPTER TWELVE
VESSEL OPERATIONS
Many officers spend much time in perfecting themselves
in deep sea navigation, where the ship is not endan-
gered, but make no effort to acquaint themselves with
conditions such as tides, currents, etc., when coming
into port, because the Captain or pilot will then be tak-
ing responsibility. This is where danger really exists. . . .
Merchant Marine Officer's Handbook
PLANNING THE PASSAGE
Columbus wasn't sure what he would find at his destination or what
would be encountered en route, but he planned his passage with meticu-
lous care and made the best use of information available at that time. He
planned a stop at Gomera in the Canary Islands, and a track down the
twenty-eighth parallel, which he felt would take him to his destination.
Through the centuries masters and ships' officers have continued to plan
each passage using all available information to safely and expeditiously
reach their destination. Passage planning is neither new nor any less im-
portant today whether a passage is offshore or in pilot waters.
Further, as discussed in chapter 7, the need to plan a passage does not
diminish with experience on a particular route or body of water; too often,
a mate or master neglects planning because "I've made this run a hundred
times." This is illogical, since no one plans a passage more thoroughly
than a pilot who has probably made a thousand trips over a route. Because
of the pilot's competence and experience, the planning may at times seem
effortless and sketchy although, in fact, the pilot has planned the passage
in great detail; an apparent contradiction since the pilot already has such
detailed knowledge of the area being navigated. The fact is the mariner
may not have sufficient local knowledge to appreciate the planning that is
required. The pilot checks currents and tides at several points, not just at
the pier as the mariner tends to do, ana compares dead reckoning to actual
positions continuously during a passage. Notices to mariners are checked
even though the aids long ago became so well-known that positions are
302
PLANNING THE PASSAGE 303
Fig. 12-1. "Look, Chris, just because the Satnav is kaput is no reason to
scrub the voyage."
reconciled almost without conscious thought. Distances off points and
aids are checked, times for standing by the anchors and taking tugs are
discussed, times for rising and setting of the sun and moon are computed
because of their effect on available light during a passage, and weather
conditions along the route are studied. If the pilot considers all this work
essential, it is only logical that the mariner who is less familiar with an
area should plan at least as carefully.
The hazard of overplanning and its effect, on handling the ship must
also be consideredand more significantly, the dangers of following an in-
flexible passage plan regardless of conditions that develop. Do not plan
the placement of every mooring line at the dock and then attempt to
blindly follow that plan regardless of the 30-knot wind that develops off
the dock after the planning is done, or despite the freshet found to be run-
ning across the berth. Select an area to anchor, but use your professional
skill to adjust when you find a ship anchored in your planned location.
This may sound obvious, yet a few years ago a ship's mate religiously fol-
lowed an overly detailed passage plan until the ship's bow was 50 feet over
the Cristobal breakwater! It is not uncommon for a pilot to board a ship
and find bridge personnel overly concerned because another ship has
stopped ahead on the preplanned track line that "we have to follow." The

304 VESSEL OPERATIONS
plan is meant only as a formalized dead reckoning and does not replace
good seamanship, navigation, and shiphandling ability.
The at-sea passage plan begins in an abstract tabular format that in-
cludes
1. Planned track with waypoints and junction points.
2. Courses to steer from point to point, or between waypoints.
3. Distances from point to point, and for the passage.
4. Estimated time of arrival at various points computed for selected
speeds at half-knot intervals.
5. Lights and aids to navigation expected en route, with characteris-
tics and range of visibility.
6. Notations of banks, shoals, and other points of particular interest.
7. Port and pilot requirements, VHF working frequencies and report-
ing requirements, times of high and low water at the port.
8. Set and drift expected from ocean and local currents.
9. Particular information required by any unusual conditions existing
along the track.
10. Local vessel traffic control practices and requirements.
THE COURSE CARD 305
This information is also put on all the necessary charts as a reference
that will remain throughout the passagea graphic plan that is even
more important and useful than the tabular plan, since good navigation
practice calls for all navigation to be done directly on the charts of an area.
As the passage plan is laid down on the chart, the charted data is com-
pared to the tabular plan for errors or unforeseen dangers along the
planned route. Put this information on the chart in ink so it will remain in
its original form. This avoids the cumulative errors that occur when pen-
ciled courses are continually shifted as fixes are obtained during a pas-
sage. Daily navigation is done in pencil for comparison with the planned
track. Lay down arcs of visibility for all lights that will be used, and put all
distance, course, expected currents, and other information tha* is shown
on the tabular plan into the chart.
Additional information is required in pilot or inland waters including
1. Courses and distances in each reach or leg of a port passage.
2. Each turning point, with a reference buoy or bearing and distance
off a prominent aid or point of land.
3. Set and drift at several significant points along the route.
4. Time of high and low water at similar points.
5. Location of anchorages, pilot boarding areas, and the location where
tugs will be met and made fast.
6. Shoals and hazards, highlighted to bring them to the navigator's at-
tention during the passage.
Again, everything except the times of tides and current changes should
be in ink, both to avoid mistakes and to save future work, since the courses
and distances will not be lost when the chart is erased and will be avail-
able for subsequent passages.
THE COURSE CARD
In addition to the chart, a pocket-size course card (described in chapter 7) is
prepai ed by the master for reference during the passage to or from the dock
(fig. 12-3). The pocket card minimizes distraction from the ship's operation
and allows the master to remain at the centerline window to conn the ship
or observe the pilot's work rather than having to shift between the wheel-
house and chartroom. The pilot has a course card even though he is able to
draw the chart of the port from memory; how can the master effectively
306 VESSEL OPERATIONS 13 RIDGE DESIGN 307

conn the ship without one? The card shows the reaches in order with the 1975, to develop practical criteria for bridge design. The study has since
1

course, length of the reach, turning point at the end of each reach, and the
characteristics of turning point lights noted. Put the information on one or
two 3-by-5-inch cards, which are kept in the shirt pocket. The cards are
meant to supplement the charted information and to minimize distracting
trips to the chartroom, rather than to replace the use of the charts com-
pletely The card must cover the entire area between the sea and dock, not
just the portion of the passage that is made without a pilot.
This card will be especially appreciated when that heavy rain squall or
fog sets in midway down river and the master needs only to glance at the
course card to check the heading as the ship feels her way to sea.
BRIDGE DESIGN
Good bridge design is essential if the mariner and shiphandler are to work
safely and effectively. It is difficult to use improperly located equipment,
or to bring a ship onto a range that can't be seen because of obstructions
placed in the shiphandler's line of sight. The mariner must insist that na-
val architects give the same consideration to good bridge design as is given
to hull and engine room design, so the bridge is planned to fit the deck offi-
cer's and pilot's work habits. The cost of installation should be secondary
to good design and ease of maintenance; the bridge layout affects the oper-
ation and navigation of the ship throughout her life.
An excellent study was done by a committee of master mariners and pi-
lots chaired by Captains Wilbur H. Vantine and Robert D. Valentine in
P I L O T V H P \(e 4 r2-
S E A TO M6WTOWM WHARF
1
been adopted by the International Maritime Pilots' Association, has been
reviewed and approved by over two hundred ship designers, builders, and
owners, and was included by IMO m the internationally accepted stan-
dards for bridge design. This study is available from those groups and
should be consulted by mariners, naval architects, and operations manag-
ers when designing or updating a ship's bridge. Design criteria are pre-
sented, rather than a standardized bridge design, so there is no risk of
institutionalizing p.-esent-day technology.
Standardized designs are neither necessary nor practical; different
types of vessels, their manning scales, and their intended service all affect
design so that an "all ship" bridge is not feasible. Guidelines and minimum
requirements do have value though, especially if developed by experi-
enced seafarers and pilots so that design fits use, and good work habits do
not have to be compromised to adapt to impractical design. A small,
bridge-controlled coaster that docks with one man on the bridge requires a
more centralized layout than a VLCC, and the height and open design re-
quired with a 900-foot-long containership is not necessary for the coaster.
It is counterproductive, then, for any study to be overly specific: only those
features desirable on all vessels should be presented.
Aboard new ships, miniaturized equipment should be grouped in clus-
ters or stations that don't interfere with the shiphandler or mate on
watch. It is now technically possible to place all bridge equipment in one
console, but this is counterproductive since several people must then work
in one area. Gear should be grouped by use so it isn't necessary to move
from one side of a 100-foot-wide wheelhouse to the other to perform a sin-
gle task, and place each console-mounted group in that area of the wheel-
house where it is most useful (fig. 12-4).
No two mariners or pilots will agree on the exact placement of bridge

FROM TO CHARTACTS&SNC COURSE DT^TT

L.T. TOWER. BUOf-HS Q<F\- R. 311 2 - 4 equipment, but there are general principles upon which all experienced
8UCTY*A ATFFL.W. 3J9 1.9 pilots and mariners Iconcur:
BUOY | T j o j e s pr. <SP. 3-2.7 2 - 7
JONGS PT. BUOY'S^R" OK. PL. W 32/2- A.2. 1. A clear view must be provided on the centerline, or as near the cen-
BUOY * I 7 W F'-.W. & see.) 3 3 7 3 - 6 terline as possible, from the wheelhouse to the stern.
B0oY*i7PR" BASJSL 3 3 2 - /.<? 2. The wheelhouse windows must be large and give a clear all-around
SASIN DOCI<*6 32-2- OS view of the horizon, with as few bulkheads and pillars as possible.
TBTALDIST: /5.7MI.
VARIATION 3-S>
1Wilbur H. Vantine, "Good Bridge Design from a Master Mariner's Point of
Fig. 12-3. Pocket course card. View," pg. 99-104.
306
VESSEL OPERATIONS 308
13 RIDGE DESIGN

10. A clear walkway is needed from one bridge wing to the other,
through the wheelhouse, with all equipment other than the conning
statin loeated alt of the walkway.
Naval architects seem to have a misconception about the helmsman's
duties, so a significant number of modern ships have the wheel located for-
ward at the wheelhouse windows. Ships with the wheel in this improper
location seem inevitably to sign on a helmsman who is 7-feet tall, making
it physically impossible for the master or pilot to see! On future ships the
helm station should be placed weil back from the window and equipped
Wxth a gyro repeater, gyro pilot controls, rate-of-turn indicator, and wheel
and ruader angle indicators (fig. 12-5).
If your ship's helm station is improperly located adjacent to the wheel-
house windows, give the helmsman a stool to sit on in pilot waters. The pi-
lot or conning officer can then at least see over the helmsman's head.
Arrange a conning station around the centerline windows, the equip-
ment being bulkhead-mounted over the windows and on a console aft of
i
Fig. 12-4. Group bridge equipment in clusters in appropriately located
consoles to increase efficiency of the bridge watch crew and conning
officer or pilot. Courtesy Kvaerner-Mass Yards.

3. There must be unobstructed access to the centerline wheelhouse

windows-, so the shiphandler can see both forward and abeam with-
out having to move around the wheelhouse.
4. A conning station is required around the centerline windows.
5. At sea, navigation equipment shoula be located so there is as near to
a 360-degree clear view as possible from the chart table.
6. The helmsman's station should be located on the centerline well
back from the windows.
7. A ship control console is required near the center of the wheelhouse,
located well back from the windows, where the officer on watch can
clearly hear all helm and engine orders.
8. The wheelhouse should be soundproofed; too many casualties occur
because the mate or helmsman cannot hear orders clearly.
9. A conning station is required on each bridge wing. Fig. 12-5. A proper helm station. Photo Sperry Marine Systems.
310 VESSEL OPERATIONS PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT 311

the window facing forward to keep access to the windows clear. It is impor-
tant that the shiphandler and mate on watch have an unobstructed view
ahead and abeam while working. This becomes especially significant when
a light rain covers the windows with heads of water and it is impossible to
see out without getting right up to the glass. This simple detailproviding
unobstructed access to the centerline windowsmaterially increases the
margin of safety when handling the ship. If you can't get up to the bridge
windows aboard your present ship, it might be possible to move a bulk-
head table or other equipment to create the needed access.
This conning station is designed to group in one location all the equip-
ment needed for shiphandling. Any changes you can make in your present
ship, such as shifting a tachometer, VHF transmitter, fathometer, or rud-
der angle indicator so they can be used while you remain at the center win-
dows will be worth the effort. Even if only a few pieces of gear are shifted, Fig. 12-6. This modern bridge design provides unobstructed access to
you can create at least a minimal conning station. The optimum station the wheelhouse windows and a clear view ahead of the vessel. Courtesy
would include a digital fathometer, VHF transceiver, wind direction and MV Happy River, Merwede Shipyard.
force indicators, whistle control, Doppler speed indicators, bow thruster
controls, gyro repeater, tachometer, rate-of-turn indicator, and rudder an-
gle indicator. The radar/CAS should be placed to starboard of this loca- and accidents. Use an answerback system so Lhe mate and helmsman can
tion, good seamanship dictating that the horizon off the starboard bow of a acknowledge orders, either via a talkback hailer arrangement or a walkie-
ship should be visible from the radar, so it can be used by the officer work- talkie. Japanese ships routinely have a microphone mounted at the steer-
ing at the conning station. If this equipment is placed at one station, the ing console so the helmsman can repeat commands back to the conning of-
mate or pilot can obtain needed information without having to move about ficer on the bridge wing, and you could easily fit such equipment aboard
the wheelhouse. This is important, since it is difficult to remain oriented your present ship.
to ship motion, particularly lateral motion, if the shiphandler must con- Mariners and pilots should be consulted when designing the bridge
tinually move from one location to another to work (fig. 12-6). Japanese layout prior to construction of a new ship; once the ship is built, seamen
ships generally have such well-arranged conning stations that they could can make changes only where practical and then work around remaining
be a model for ships of other nationalities. restrictions placed upon them by poor design. Mariners must insist,
A similar station should be placed on each wing. Less equipment is through the Council of American Master Mariners and other professional
needed at this station, since the pilot or master normally works from the groups, on having some impact on future design and regulation of the
bridge wing only when embarking or disembarking a pilot, or conning ship's bridge and its equipment. Even if no change is made in bridge de-
alongside a dock, a small boat, or other vessel. A tachometer, gyro re- sign other than countering the trend toward blocking access to the wheel-
peater. the VHF and internal communications handsets, rudder angle in- house windows with a helm station and operating console, a major
dicator, and bow thruster controls should be placed here. If the telegraph improvement in design will have been made.
is not visible from this station, a smali repeating indicator is needed on the PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT
wing If your ship lacks these wing indicators, have them installed.
Aboard larger ships, or ships with a high level of bridge noise, a communi- Laptop Systems and DGPSGeneral
cations system is needed between the bridge area, helmsman, and mate on More and more often, pilots are bringing aboard laptop navigation sys-
watch to eliminate the shouting that leads to misunderstood commands tems and other aids specially designed for a particular port. Miniaturized
312 VESSEL OPERATIONS PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT 313

electronics make navigation equipment smaller, less expensive, and more

portable so systems can be designed with software and features that are
port specific and extremely useful. In some ports, pilots are now able to op-
erate in ice, fog and other conditions that would have closed a port in the
past because they have these specially designed and extremely accurate
systems.
It is important to note that the systems discussed in this section are not
simply laptop computers with off-the-shelf chart programs. These are spe-
cially designed navigation systems. The equipment, programming, and
upgraded charts are expensive, but pilot associations and ports are realiz-
ing that this investment provides a payback ir increased safety, greater
port efficiency, and improved navigation many timas the cost of the sys-
tem. Commercial programs are basic aids to navigation but they will not
provide the degree of accuracy or other features discussed in this section.
These pilot systems are evolving year-by-year under various equip-
ment names but all share some common features to provide pilot-specific
information for
Navigation
Shiphandling in channels
Communications Fig. 12-7. Pilot laptop showing the Panama Canal CTAN system with a
Traffic management display of all traffic movements to scale in real tiuie plus an abundance
Speed measurement of navigation information. Note the accuracy of the system as
Vessel location and detection demonstrated by the ship moving down the center wall of Pedro Miguel
Transponder and vessel identification Locks. Courtesy Panama Canal Authority.
Active vessel traffic management
An example of such equipment is found at the Panama Canal where pi- ceive radio information between ships via a system of shore-based trans-
lots are using CTANS (Ccmmunications, Traffic Management, and Navi- ceivers and repeaters. The system processes the ship's movement as
gation System) that does all this end more. The system was developed in measured by sequential DGPS calculations of ship position to calculate lo-
the late 1990s by a pilot team working with the Panama Canal Commis- cation, speed, and course. That information is broadcast from ships, tugs,
sion and experts from the Volpe Center in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to and launches underway in Panama Canal waters to a centralized location,
increase efficiency and safety in the Panama Canal. where it is combined with similar information from other vessels and
When using the CTAN system, each pilot brings aboard a single case rebroadca-st back to all ships simultaneously.
containing a combined satellite and UHF antenna, a laptop computer, and Each ship broadcasts an identifier and preprogrammed information
a unit that combines a radio transceiver, DGPS equipment, and software including speed, course, draft, length, beam, antenna location, cargo type,
to allow everything to interface (fig. 12-7). pilot name, and other information entered when the ship entered the sys-
Within minutes after coming aboard, the unit is set up and the system tem. The information is used to generate a graphic presentation of the ship
is receiving the signals to support DGPS navigation and transmit and re- on every computer screen in the system. The rebrcadcast signals include
310 VESSEL OPERATIONS
information from every ship moving in the Panama Canal to provide a con-
tinuous, real-time presentation of the entire waterway and all traffic. Ships
are shown to scale rather than as simple blips on a screen so pilots "see" ac-
tual ship locations and movements tliroughout the Canal. Information that
is essential for safe and expedient maneuvering and navigation that was
previously unavailable or obtainable only through input from a third party,
is now readily available in display directly accessible to the pilot (fig. 12-8).
It is important to note that DGPS-based laptop systems are additional
navigation aids that provide additional information to experienced mari-
ners. This standard caveat applies as much to the DGPS systems as it does
to other navigation equipment used by mates, master, and pilots. The
DGPS laptop system is merely an additional tool used to move ships more
safely and efficiently. The pilot should set up the laptop system so it may
be used in conjunction with the radar and other ship's equipment. Re-
member, like anything mechanical, the systems are still subject to break-
down, and despite all their "gee-whiz" features, they will not detect any
Fig. 12-8. Diagram of typical laptop-based system with DGPS positions
and ship data broadcast to repeaters and rebroadcast to all ships
simultaneously to provide real-time area-wide information. Courtesy
Panama Canal Commission.
PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT 315
vessel moving without the system on board such as that yacht drifting into
your path or an off-station buoy lying in the channel.
Pilots must still look out the window!
Laptop Systems and DGPSNavigation and Piloting
Laptop-based navigation systems designed or modified for pilot or ship-
handlers' use in a particular port brings inland navigation and piloting to
an entirely new level. The systems have many uses and are accurate to the
point where ships piloted by experienced and trained shiphandlers and pi-
lots can navigate in restricted visibility, ice, or other situations when aids
to navigation are not present or visible. The axis and limits of the channel,
charted positions of buoys and ranges, and readouts of distances from the
centerline and distance to a course change are presented graphically on
the laptop screen. Ships can navigate in all weather once users gain confi-
dence in the accuracy of the system.
To demonstrate this capability, several pilots navigated ships through
the winding Gaillard Cut in Panama uiing only the laptop presentation.
They went through the narrow, twisting eight-mile-long Cutmaking
turns, adjusting for bank suction and steering through each reach while
standing in the chartroom. The extremely accurate graphic presentation
of channel limits, shoreline, the axis of the channel, and own-ship shown
to scale using the known antenna location and the position of the ship's
bow and stern make it possible for skilled shiphandlers to proceed in fog or
heavy rain that closed the Panama Canal when ships used radar and con-
ventional instrumentation.
Is the system really accurate enough to be used in this manner? De-
signers for these pilot navigation and communications systems acknowl-
edge accuracy to within a couple meters. In fact, pilots find the specially-
designed systems to be accurate within a foot or two if the information is su-
perimposed on extremely accurate charts. The Panama Canal is a good
test area to demonstrate that accuracy. The constantly updated and very
accurate surveys collected during a century of construction and operation
provide extremely accurate data that was programmed point by point by
Volpe programmers to create extremely accurate electronic charts. By vi-
sually comparing the clearance between a ship's hull and the walls of the
canal locks with the distances shown on the laptop presentation, it is obvi-
ous that the system is accurate to within a foot or less.
The charts are the limiting factor when determining the accuracy and
usefulness of the laptop presentation. Off-the-shelf electronic charts and
310 VESSEL OPERATIONS
handheld or laptop computers are not acceptable for the uses described in
this chapter. Standard charts available for handheld computers are con-
venient for routine navigation but only special purpose DGPS-based pilot
systems can provide information on other ships and own ship with the ac-
curacy required for the uses discussed in this section (fig. 12-9).
The specially designed laptop-based navigation systems are a great
advance for inland waters navigation as demonstrated by pilot systems
used 011 the Delaware River, Tampa, the Chesapeake Bay, and other ports
where true pilot navigation systems are operational. Even DGPS systems
that show only own ship and the channel axis and boundaries in real time
make all weather navigation possible. Ports remain open in the winter ice
when, in the past, they closed, and ships move in fog and narrow channels
even though ranges and buoys are not visible.
Most systems also supplement the graphic-chart presentation with
continuously updated and accurate readings of the distance to waypoints
and the distance right or left of the centerline and passing ranges in a
channel. The system is even more useful when the laptop receives and
Fig. 12-9. Typical laptop display for special purpose pilot navigation
system. Photo courtesy Raven Industries and Pilots for the Bay and
River Delaware. . the basic and ancillary systems and the information provided is known. It
PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT 317
presents information to show course, speed, draft, location, and meeting
points from other ships. Those systems can be used for more complete pas-
sage planning and active traffic management.
The capabilities of such systems are still evolving. It is. not an exagger-
ation to say the laptop-based DGPS systems take piloting services and in-
land navigation of large vessels to a new level. In the past five years,
typical systems have added
Rate-of-turn indication.
Automatic calculation of ship meeting points that adjusts cont inu-
ously as ships alter speed and course.
Extremely accurate calculation of own vessel speed with graphic
and audible presentation that is useful in close quarters situations
such as v> hen approaching a dock or lock without the limitations of
Doppler systems.
Constant readout of distances from centerline and to waypoints.
Weather, tide, and current information broadcast directly from in-
struments located at strategic points to the ship.
Real-time information regarding tugs and availability of docks pre-
sented in a graphic format.
Ship-to-ship and broadcast email capability for pilot communica-
tions.
Direct readout of other ship's course and speed with greater accu-
racy, without the time delays required by radar-based collision
avoidance systems.
Range and bearing to shore and other vessels measured past bends
or obstructions in a channel based on either straight-line measure-
ments or following the axis of a channel, which is often much more
useful.
Direct DGPS-generated own-ship positions on extremely accurate
electronic charts prepared for pilot use in a portable presentation
that pilots can move about the wheelhouse or to the bridge wing as
work requirements change.
Independent pilot carry-aboard systems have several advantages that
benefit both the shiphandler and the ship. First, the pilot-provided equip-
ment is independent of all ship's equipment so its capability and controls
are consistent from one ship to another. The pilot can have confidence in
310
VESSEL OPERATIONS
is a fact that the condition and maintenance of shipboard equipment var-
ies significantly from one ship to another. If the equipment is shoddy or
nonfunctioning, the vessel cannot proceed until repairs are made or substi-
tute equipment is provided from ashore. The use of a laptop system operat-
ing independent of shipboard equipment provides a degree of redundancy
that improves safety. Also, the ability to quickly obtain a replacement for
the laptop-based and portable pilot system should it fail is an obvious ad-
vantage over fixed shipboard equipment that depends on redundancy and
maintenance for measure of reliability. This is also a good reason to mini-
mize integration between the pilot's system and shipboard systems since
the systems are redundant rather than interdependent.
In practice, the DGPS system provides very useful information with
only broadcasted data and information calculated by the DGPS. Chart in-
formation, speed calculations, and navigation information is at least as
good directly from the laptop system as the information provided by inte-
grating ship's equipment into the laptop system. Accuracy does improve
significantly at very slow speeds with additional input from a flux-gate
compass or other heading reference.
The impact on safe and efficient ship movements of a system that
moves an almost infinite volume of directly measured reai-time informa-
tion to a shipboard laptop receiver in a graphic format cannot be exagger-
ated. In fact, it is impossible to provide this volume or type of information
via spoken broadcasts or printed lists. The impact of this equipment on
VTS is discussed elsewhere.
Laptop Systems and DGPSShiphandling
In addition to collecting and distributing useful traffic and navigation in-
formation, the DGPS-based navigation system is also a valuable ship-
handling tool. The uses for shiphandling are evolving as pilots and
masters gain experience using the systems in restricted waters.
Making Turns: The DGPS-based chart presentation can be used to make
accurate turns in channels. Shiphandlers have been using radar presen-
tation to make turns for many years. When using the radar, pilots fre-
quently start a turn when the ship reaches some known distance off a
fixed point ahead. These reference points are learned by trial-and-error
and refined through use. Every pilot learns one or more reference points
for every turn on a passage. The variable range marker (VRM) is set at
some known distance, and the turn is started when the VRM touches the
318
PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT
reference point. The electronic bearing line (EBL) is commonly used to
monitor the ship's progress through a turn. By setting the EBL on the nex~
courtse, the pilot can watch as the EBL falls into the next range. The helm
is put over as the EBL nears the desired track and the rate-of-turn is ad-
justed so the EBL falls on the desired location in the channel when tho
turn is finished.
The DGPS-based system is even more useful for this purpose because
of the increased accuracy and the improved presentation although the
method employed when using a DGPS-based system is very similar. The
majority of laptop systems display the distance to the intersection of chan-
nel legs, either as Distance to Go, Distance to Waypoint or some similar
term, and they display the distance of the antenna from the channel cen-
terline or the desired track lino. In lieu of using the VRM and EBL, the pi-
lot uses the distance to the intersection when starting the turn and
distance off the centerline of the next leg to adjust the rate-of-turn. In ad-
dition, the range and channel are presented on a laptop screen independ-
ent of line of sight so the system "sees around corners" and the rate-of-turn
can be adjusted to put the EBL on the next range even though the reach or
channel is behind a hill or other obstruction. (See figure 12-10.)
Again, through practice, the pilot learns at what distance from the Ln-
tersection he or she prefers to start the turn using the laptop system. This
starting point is normally anywhere from 2 / to 3 ship lengths from a turn
J
2 T
but it will vary depending on any number of factors including ship size and
hull form, direction and strength of the current, ship's speed and even
from pilot-to-pilot. Many experienced pilots find they can even make turns
by simply watching the ship's position and orientation in the turn and ad-
justing the rate-of-turn when the laptop presentation shows the channel
and ship's hull to scale. Many DGPS-based sets display this information
in that form. It must be noted that the information is most useful at very-
slow speeds when the system has a heading reference generated from a
compass or gyro interface.
Meeting Points: The better systems also provide continually updated
graphic presentation of meeting points of vessels being monitored. The
system calculates each ship's future positions and the point at which they
will meet using programmed information about courses in the channel
and assuming constant speed. This calculation is different from a CPA cal-
culated using radar-based systems. Radar-based systems assume both
constant speed and straight-line course so CPA calculations are only
310 VESSEL OPERATIONS
PILOT NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT 321

useful in open water. The pilot system includes software and electronic was the best possible process when the passive vessel traffic systems were
charts so meetings are calculated along the course of a channel with multi- designed. New DGPS-based real-time systems make the improved, inher-
ple turns. The pilot system measures both straight-line distances and dis- ently safe and more efficient active VTS practical where the end uocr, the
tances along the centerline of a channel so meeting points can be calculated master or pilot, has an active role in traffic management using unfiltered
using the DGPS pilot system even though the ships are changing course. and uninterrupted information passed directly from one vessel to another.
This capability to predict meeting is particularly useful when ships Using active traffic management principles, the master or pilot can ar-
must meet or overtake in narrow channels and particularly in channels range safe and expedient meetings based on weather, ship type, and maneu-
where the vessels are not visible to each other. The process is simple. Se- vering characteristics of both own-ship and the other ship. Before these
lect the ship being met and initiate the meeting point calculation. The sys- laptop navigation and communications systems were available, the master
tem usually shows the meeting point as a small circle or ellipse. Adjust or pilot relied on simplistic data inherent in the passive systems based on ra-
speed and watch the meeting circle shift as the system continuously recal- dio transmissions at designated checkpoints. With active systems, the deci-
culates the point where ships will meet and pass. The meeting is arranged sion makers are experienced mariners aboard ship with firsthand immediate
with extreme accuracy, within a couple hundred feet, by adjusting speed knowledge of each ship's characteristics and external effects at the time the
in this manner and observing the resultant change in the meeting point. sliips are meeting because the data needed to arrange meetings mid manage
Laptop Systems and DGPSTraffic Management traffic is now moved into the hands of the end user aboard ship (fig. 12-10).
Traffic management moves to the next generation using two-way DGPS
systems. The end user, the master or pilot, now has an active role in traffic IIMlV\|uf Mi I Wlt - l
management. The shipboard user has better real-time data for ship posi- WBXHSBBSXUBM
tion, speed, course, and other data than the shore-side traffic control
watch officer using traditional reporting systems.
All ships and, when applicable, the shoreside centers have the same
complete real-time information. When equipped with a complete DGPS
graphics-based system, the pilot and ship master also have a constantly
updated presentation of meeting points for other ships being tracked as
previously discussed. No distractions. No delays. No chance of error due to
misunderstood or incomplete information. Meetings are arranged in ap-
propriate locations by two shiphandlers using the graphic presentation
with no chance of the errors inherent in passive systems that introduce a
third party, the shoreside traffic coordinator, in the decision-making loop.
The value of this type data is most appreciated when the pilot adjusts
course and speed and watches the meeting point immediately change so
pilots and masters know the effect of any change with certainty.
Pcssive vs. Active Traffic Management
Traditional passive traffic management systems rely on filtered informa-
tion relayed by radio or, in more modern systems, using AJS (Automatic
Indentification System) to provide information on the ECDIS or radar Fig. 12-10. Unlike radar, laptop navigation systems show ships behind
presentation. Information passed to ships is, by definition, filtered de- hills, around corners, and miles ahead in a winding channel. Courtesy
pending 011 standard procedures or the judgment of the controller. This Panama Canal Authority.
306 322
VESSEL OPERATIONS 13 RIDGE DESIGN

Laptop-based DGPS presentations that receive and display positions torted as height of eye increases. The ship appears to be moving much
and data for other ships differ from radar because they are not line of more slowly and to be much closer to points of reference than it actually is.
sight. This means active traffic management by the shipboard end user is The height of eye aboard a modern LNG ship, for example, is 110-to-130
appropriate in almost all situations regardless of the configuration of the feetworking from that height is similar to working from the roof of a ten-
port or the channel. The bridge team can watch vessel movements miles to-twelve-story building.
away around bends and behind hills using the DGPS pilot system. They Automobile carriers, LASH ships, RO/RO, smaller passenger vessels,
know the location of every vessel in the system and the effect of every and similar ships commonly have the wheelhouse placed extremely close
speed and course change. No more simplistic "MV ABC just passed buoy 1" to the bow. Working 75 feet from the stem makes it difficult to estimate
or other limited and relatively useless information from shoreside centers turning rates, so work looking aft, "Great Lakes fashion," when maneu-
when traffic management shifts from a passive shoreside-based system to vering in restricted areas and narrow channels. It is especially important
the active shipboard-based system. that these types of ships have a clear view from the wheelhouse to the
Technology has made the passive shoreside-based VTS systems obso- stern, both from the bridge wings and from amidships, and that the bridge
lete. In the Panama Canal, for example, the pilot has the ability to see any wings extend outboard to the maximum beam of the ship so the parallel
section of the canal in real time and can plan to arrive at an anchorage or midbody is visible. Some arrangement must be provided that overcomes
arrange a meeting miles away while looking at scale presentations of ship the short bridge-to-bow distance that greatly reduces perspective. Most
movements as they are occurring. They watch ships leaving the locks, commonly, markers are placed on the centerlinea pole or high vertical
moving in the channel behind hills and around bends, and see the location jackstaff at the bow and a marker on the centerline window in the wheel-
of ships at anchor before arriving at the lock or anchorage. houseto provide a "gunsight effect" to make small changes of heading
It is noteworthy that these systems provide pilots with the navigation more obvious. Since competent shiphandlers normally watch the stern
aids recommended by the National Research Council Marine Board in the as much as the bow when working, a wheelhouse located in the extreme
definitive study and report Minding the Helm that was issued in 1994.' forepart of the ship presents no significant obstacles, as long as the bridge
is properly designed (fig. 12-12).
BRIDGE HEIGHT
Bridge height is a critical design consideration. Several years ago, a major
European containership operator put a class of vessel into service with a
wheelhouse so low that the tops of the containers were above the lower
part of the wheelhouse windows, making it physically impossible to conn
the ship from that location. The ship was a masterpiece of engineering, yet
the pilot worked hanging over the bridge wing like an old-time locomotive
engineer. The wheelhouse must be raised, even if it requires an extra un-
used deck, so the berth alongside and areas ahead are visible at a reason-
able distance. This is especially important aboard bridge aft ships, since
that design restricts visibility over the bow under the best of conditicns.
Keep in mind when working from the greater bridge heights common
aboard modern ships that distance and speed of advance are greatly dis-
2National Research Council Marine Board, Minding the Helm: Marine
Navigation and Piloting, Washington, D.C., National Academy of Sciences,
1994.
324 VESSEL OPERATIONS NIGHT VERSUS DAYLIGHT MANEUVERING 325

4. Unlighted buoys and shoreline are no longer visible, so more reli-

p time of moonrise and moonset for the night in question, and, given a
Fig. 12-12. Ships with a bridge well forward need a centerline marker.
Prepare a visibility diagram for every ship you serve aboard, showing
areas not visible from the wheelhouse in light and loaded conditions, with
and without containers if carried, and post the diagram in the wheel-
house. The diagram is simple to construct using basic trigonometry and
the basic ship dimensions such as bridge height, bridge-to-bow distance,
ship's beam, etc. The diagram is especially helpful when maneuvering
around piers and in restricted channels (fig. 12-13).
ance must be placed on radar presentation and local knowledge to
stay clear of shoais and banks.
5. A poorly lighted stringpiece must be avoided by instinct because it is
not visible during docking.
i
Even the smallest increase in light helps, since some degree of depth
perception is regained. Do not make a passage without computing the
chance, delay a particularly difficult passage until daybreak if there is not
at least a gibbous moon at the needed time. The ship's ETA is often an indi-
cation of the master's experience, Since a more seasoned shipmaster ap-
preciates the problems caused by darkness and delays arrival until
daybreak when there is no real need to arrive at an earlier hour.
Some degree of experience is needed on a dark night at sea to estimate
distance from other ships, especially when masthead and range lights are
poorly placed, although radar overcomes this problem to a great extent,
and darkness is now much less a problem in open water navigation. Make
it a practice to estimate distance off before going to the radar so you can de-
velop the ability to judge distance visually with reasonable accuracy. This
skill is greatly appreciated when the radar goes do wn or when conning by
eye in an anchorage or congested area. Younger mariners especially need
to make a conscious effort to develop this ability, since they do not acquire
"KISO MARU" INVISIBLE DISTANCE

NIGHT VERSUS DAYLIGHT MANEUVERING

Darkness creates new problems for the shiphandler and there are two
pilotages in any watera daylight and a night pilotage.
1. Speed and distance become more difficult to estimate, since depth
perception is lost at night, and relative size and changes of relative HEIGHT 7 9 rt Iblft}
motion must be used to judge distance. ^V. R MS
o f Antenna /
DLSPLACEME'FT DWA/T
(Antenhr Jjown
IWVIS A.E O'SIANCF WHEEL MOL-SE URTRO
2. It is even more important to look abeam or aft at night than during CONDI II ON S\.
MOULD
METRIC TONS ME TEH
RSW VCRTR
the day, since it is impossible to estimate speed during hours of 0 I0 ? 0
DESIGNED 4 7.9 5 6 10 6 2 317 255 39 8
darkness by looking ahead of the ship. SCANT FULL 5 4.676 11.70 297 23 3 37 5
3. On a clear night objects appear closer, yet when visibility deterio-
rates they appear further away. Fig. 12-13. Post a visibility diagram on the bridge.
326 VESSEL OPERATIONS
it by necessity, as did the senior officers who stood watches before radar
was so widely accepted.
Depth perception is a result of binocular vision and unconscious evalu-
ation of relative position. When thi3 ability is lost at night, the mariner
substitutes other techniques:
1. Relative size is an indication of distance. For example, the height of
a buoy, and thus its distance off can be estimated at night since the
light marks the top, while the reflection of that light on the water
shows the base of the buoy.
2. Relative motion is quite helpful since at more than 2 miles' distance
a buoy will appear nearly stationary, at 1 mile its change in bearing
becomes more noticeable, and when the buoy is close at hand its
movement nearly equals the speed of the ship.
3. Brilliance is helpful, but can be deceiving since it is affected by so
many factors, such as atmospheric conditions, the aspect of the
light, and motion of the light in the case of a buoy.
4. Techniques such as computing the arc of visibility and bobbing a
light are applicable at greater distances than the shiphandler is
generally concerned with, but can be used on occasion.
To expand on the importance of rate of changes in relative bearing, con-
sider a ship turning inside a buoy. The apparent motion of the buoy is sig-
nificantly greater as its distance from the ship decreases, and thus the
change in motion can be used with reasonable accuracy to estimate the
change in distance from the buoy as the ship turns. Againpractice esti-
mating distance in these conditions before looking at the radar and the
skill of handling a ship at night comes quickly.
RECORD KEEPING
The keeping of logs and records of maneuvers is inherent in proper
shiphandling, although the two tasks often conflict when the record
keeping becomes redundant or unnecessary ly complicated. Proper orga-
nization and the use of autologging relieve the mate of some of the admin-
istrative chores, 30 more attention can be given to the navigation of the
ship. Give priority to navigation rather than getting so involved in record
keeping that problems are not recognized and acted upon. It is more im-
portant to avoid a casualty than to record the exact time of impact.
RECORD KEEPING 327
i
Good work habits develop with experience. Remember vour first
undocking as a cadet cr green third mate? There seemed to be myriad of
tasks to accomplish and details to be noted and logged. With time, these
responsibilities become second nature until, while accomplishing every-
thing required, you had time for coffee and perhaps swapping sea storic-s
with the pilot. When record keeping is properly organized, it can be done
concurrently with other tasks and consumes little time. This sort of orga-
nization is essential while maneuvering in pilot waters.
Every ship should be fitted with an automatic bell logger. The mate's
time is better spent checking the tachometer and rudder angle indicator to
see that helm and engine orders are properly executed than in continu-
ously recording the bells.
Eliminate all the separate books and limit all record keeping to one
scratch log/workbook and the chart when in pilot waters. Important data
is transferred to the deck log at a later convenient time and the mate does
not have to shuffle bell books, navigation books, logbooks, sounding books,
and whatever other record books might be required by company policy.
Keep che book neat, but don't waste time with elaborate entries that divert
attention from the shiphandling and navigational duties at handafter
all, the book is called a "scratch log."
Refer to any of the classic navigation or seamanship texts for more de-
tailed information about what should be included in the deck log when in
pilot waters, but be certain to include
1. Times and locations of course and speed changes, and times of
changes to diesel fuel or maneuvering speeds.
2. Time of passing abeam of important lights, landmarks, buoys mark-
ing the end of a reach or other significant location, and the bearing
and distance of those aids.
3. Times of encountering significant changes in depth of water under
the keel.
4. Important meteorological information such as visibility, passing
showers, fog. wind force and direction.
5. Engine maneuvers (recorded by the automatic bell logger).
6. Time of passing conning responsibility between master, pilot, and
the deck officers.
7. Significant radio transmissions, such as those for making passing
arrangements with ships being met or overtaken.
328 VESSEL OPERATIONS

Note all the navigational information first on the chart, and then put
essential information into the scratch log. Compare each position with the
DR and the inked passage courses and notify the master and pilot of any
set indicated. Don't end your duties with recording information while the REVIEW QUESTIONS AND
vessel is set toward a shoal that only you are aware of, and don't assume PRACTICE MANEUVERS
that the pilot is aware of the situationtell the master or pilot about
itinformation is gathered so you can supply it to the officer conning, not
just so it can be recorded for historical interest. j .
Keep the passage plan nearby for reference and have it preplotted in Page numbers in parentheses indicate where in the text the answers may
ink on the charts used. This greatly reduces record keeping while maneu- be found.
vering, and serves as a check on the ship's actual progress as compared to CHAPTER 1. ARRIVAL
the passage plan. Graphic records are often more meaningful, and mini-
mize the need for many distracting tabular records. Avoid redundant Review Questions
work by keeping the scratch paper off the chart table. Enter bearings and 1. In day-to-day work, the most useful unit of measurement for estimating turn-
other information directly into the scratch log rather than putting them ing circles and other distances is the ship's own length. (Page 10;
first on scratch paper, and reduce logging chores by nearly 50 percent. a. true
This helps you to record all necessary data without taking excessive time b. false
away from priority tasks. The scratch log is just that, a rough notebook for 2. In shallow water, a ship's turning circle is (Pages 10 and 17-18)
later reference, so anything of interest can be recorded in it while avoiding a. larger
distracting and time-consuming double work. b. smaller
c. the same
3. An average-size ship's turning circle is usually slightly when the
ship turns to the right than when she turns left. (Pages 10- 11)
a. larger -
b smaller
c. the same :

4. A VLCCs turning circle to the right is usually her turning circle to

the left. (Page 11)
a. larger than
b. smaller than
c. nearly the same as
5. When revolutions are increased during a turn, the tactical diameter becomes
(or stays) ^Page 11)
a. larger
b. smaller
c. the same
6. For a given rudder angle and engine speed, the rate of turn as tne
depth of water decreases. (Pages 10 aad 18)
a. increases
b. decreases
c. does not change
329
340 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS 331

7. A ship can be backed and filled in the smallest area when turned tc the left. 13. The concept of using the "most effective maneuver" is important because
(Pages 11-13) (Page 17)
a. true I. the ship is maneuvered using the minimum number of engine and rudder
b. false orders.
II. several tasks are accomplished simultaneously.
8. You are aboard an average-size, loaded, house-aft tanker proceeding through III. it simplifies maneuvering because only one task is completed at a time.
an open roadstead. The wind is blowing hard enough to overcome the normal a. I and II .
twisting effect when your ship's engine goes astern. When you back your ship b. I and III
you would expect her to (Page 14) c. Ill only
I. head into the wind while she has headway and back into the wind when she d. none of the above
has sternway. 14. How would you expect the following shiphandling characteristics to change
II. head away from the wind while she has headway and back away from the as your ship moves from deep to shallow water? (Pages 17-20)
wind when she has sternway. A. tactical diameter. a. increase
a. I only B. twisting effect when backed. b. decrease
b. II only C. rate of turn. c. no significant change
c. both I and II D. speed loss during large course changes.
d. neither 1 nor II E. speed loss when engine stopped.
9. Assuming there are no extraordinary wind, current, or bank effects, a ship F. directional stability.
should be swinging moderately to before her engine is put astern. 15. How would you expect the following to affect directional stability? (Pages
(Pages 14-15) 18-20)
a. starboard A increased length. a. more positive (or less negative)
b. port B. increased beam. b. less positive (or more negative)
C. increased drag. c. no significant change
10. A bow thruster is sometimes preferable to tugs because (Pages 15-16) D. decreased underkeel clearance.
I. it is located at the extreme end of the vessel. E. increased block coefficient.
II. it is always available. F. more full sections forward.
III. it is equally effective at slow and fast speeds. G. increased rudder angle.
a. I and II H. ship trimmed by the head.
b. II and III I. increased squat by the head.
c. all of the above 16. Ships with large block coefficients are more likely to trim by the head in shal-
d. none of the above low water. (Page 19)
11. Using a bow thruster has its disadvantages: (Pages 15-16) a. true
I. it usually provides less power than a tug. b. false
II. it has no effect on headway to slow or hold a ship. 17. Which of the following statements is/are true for ships with negative direc-
III. it can only be used at very light drafts. tional stability? (Pages 18-20)
a. I and II I. a larger rudder angle is needed for a longer period of time to start a turn.
b. II and III II. a larger rudder angie i* needed for a longer period of time to steady up after
c. all of the above a turn.
d. none of the above III. the ship's rate of turn increases when the rudder is put amidships during
a turn.
12. A bow thruster is usually quite effective at speeds of up to 5 knots. (Pages a. I only
15-16) b. I and III
a. true c. all of the above
b. false d. none of the above
340 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS 333

18. The only effective way to slow a ship is to stop the engine and, if necessary, go II. graphic communications such as CTANS and interactive DGPS presenta-
astern. (Pages 24-26) tions.
a. true III. radar and AliPA
b. fahe IV. whistie signals
a. I and IV above
19. A VLCC makes a hard-over turn. You would expect her to lose nearly per- u. I and III above
cent of her headway when her heading changes by 90 degrees. (Page 25) c. All of the above
a." 10
b. 20
c. 25 Practice Maneuvers
d. 50 1. Make a hard-over turn in deep wate- and use the wake to measure the ship's
20. A ship is on your port bow in a crossing situation and her bearing is steady. tactical diameter. A brightly painted oil drum can be used as a reference or
You reach the point where you doubt that collision can be avoided by her ac- the diameter can be measured by radar using the display of the sea return
tions alone. Usually, it would be better to (Pages 25-26) generated by the ship's wake. How does the diameter of the turning circle
I. back down compare with the ship's length?
II. make a round turn Make the same turn in shallow water (a depth less than 1.25 times draft;
a. I only and measure the turning ci.xle. How does the diameter of the turning circle in
b. II only shallow water compare with that observed in deep water?
c. both I and II 2. Your ship is dead in the water. Put the rudder hard over and put the engine
d. neither I nor II progressively from slow, to half, and then to full ahead so the ship executes a
21. A combination pilot ladder/accommodation ladder is required when the dis- complete circle with the revolutions increasing through the entire 360 de-
tance from the water to the top of the ladder exceeds feet. (Page 29) grees. Use the wake as in maneuver 1 above, to measure the diameter of this
a. 10 turn. Now, leave the engine on full ahead and again measure the turning cir-
b. 20 cle diameter while making another complete 360-degree turn with the engine
c. 30 speed unchanged (a steady state turn). How docs the diameter of the acceler-
d. 50 ating turn compare with that of the steady state turn?
22. A modern containership has more sail area than a full rigged sailing ship. 3. Perform the master's maneuvers described in chapter 1 while one of the ship's
(Page 34) mates collects data on your ship's characteristics using a data sheet similar to
a. true figure 1-2 on page 9. Analyze these data and compare the rate of turn, time to
b. false stop, change of heading when stopping and backing, and other important
characteristics with the data collected aboard other ships you have maneu-
23. The ship's call letters should be transmitted frequently when communicating vered. Study all the pertinent information so you have some feel for your ship
by VHF and, in any case, at intervals of (Pages 36-37) and can predict her behavior with reasonable accuracy.
I. before and after every transmission during a series of transmissions with 4. This exercise will give you a feel for, and appreciation of, using hard-over rud-
another ship. dei- to reduce speed. First, measure your ship's speed approaching an open an-
II. at ten minute intervals. chorage or pilot station. This can be done with a Doppler log, or the ship's
III. before the first transmission and after the last transmission of a VHF con- ARPA (p'otting a fixed point while the ship"; speed is manually input t3 0
versation regardless of length. knots so the ""computed speed" ot the fixed object is then your ship's speed), or
a. I only by any other method you migh t choose. A series ofsimple fixes at frequent in-
b. II and III above tervals can be used to at least get a rough measure of speed and changes in
c. Ill only speed. Obviously, you can't accurately determine absolute speed with the lat-
24. Mariners have several means for communicating ship's actions and inten- ter method, but changes in speed will be quite apparent to the experienced
tions including (Pages 36-39) mariner and this exercise can still be very useful even ifyour ship isn't fitted
I. verbal communications such as VHF radio with equipment to measure speed accurately.
340 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS 335

Put the rudder hard over and change the ship's heading by at least 45 de- a. all of the above
grees. Measure the ship's speed again and calculate the reductiun in speed. b. I and II only
Repeatedly shift the rudder from hard over to hard over while continuing to c. I and III only
measure or estimate speed through the water and changes in speed until the
ship's headway is significantly reduced. 4. Shiphandlers should reevaluate any maneuver requiring the repeated use of
5. When searoom permits, make a practice of putting the rudder hard over to- the engines or ihrusters at half and full power. (Page 55;
ward the lee side (toward the side on which a pilot is boarding) a short time be- a. true
fore the pilot begins boarding. Observe how this sweeps a smooth lee for the b. false
pilot and makes boarding quicker and safer. 5. When steering using Azipods in the A. Sea mode, the pod is turned to port to
turn the ship to starboard. (Page 61)
CHAPTER 2. SHIPHANDLING IN A CHANNEL a. true
Review Questions b. false Ii
1. To break a sheer in narrow channels a pilot should (Page 47) 6. Although Azipods may be placed in virtually any position, there are three po-
a. reduce engine revolutions sitions that have been found to be most effective in practical use. They are
b. increase engine revolutions (Pages 61-63)
c. turn away from the bank and increase distance a. mode, which is used in open waters
d. increase rudder toward the bank b. mode, which is useful in narrow channels
e. both a and c c. mode, which is used as the ship approaches the berth
f. both b and d 7. When operating i n Harbor mode, the pods are placed at 45 degrees in opposi-
2. Your vessel is steaming parallel to a shoal or bank. How does she behave? tion to each other. The vessel is turned to port by moving the control
A. her bow moves away from the bank or snoal. (Pages 47-48) ahead and pulling back on the control. (Page 62)
a. true a. port, starboard
b. false b. starboard, port
B. her stern moves toward the bank or shoal. (Pages 47-48)
a. true 8. When in Docking mode and going port side to the berth, the pod is
b. false placed parallel to the centerline, and the pod is placed in tiie 3
C. her midbody moves laterally away from the bank. (Pages 47-48) o'clock position with the propeller . (Pages 62-63)
a. true a. port, starboard, inboard
b. false b. port, starboard, outboard
D. competent shiphandlers don't just react to the ship's behavior and decide c. starboard, port, inboard
on a courr.e of action after a situation develops; they think ahead, anticipate d. starboard, port, outboard
situations,and plan alternative maneuvers. (Page 49) 9. When researching various methods for standardizing Azipod commands,
a. true some pilot groups found it worked well to use (Pages 6364)
b. false I. standard steering and engine commands in the At Sea mode.
E. ships with variable-pitch propellers steer best if speed is reduced quickly. II. standard steering and engine commands in the Harbor and Docking
(Page 52) modes.
a. truc- III. clock positions and percentage of full power for all modes
b. false IV. clock positions and percentage of full power for Harbor and Docking
3. Advantages of omnidirectional propulsion systems over conventional sys- modes
tems include (Page 53) a. I and II above
I. greater safety b. Ill above
II. increased maneuverability c. I and II above
III. reduced reliance on traditional shiphandling skills d. I and IV above
340 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS 3 3 7

10. When operating under computer control, the shiphandler is controlling A rate-of-turn indicator usual'y indicates turning rate in per second or
(Page 65) per minute. (Page 83)
a. revolutions per minute of the pod and thruster and direction of the a. meters/feet
thruster and pods forces. b. tenths of a degree/degrees
b. resultant power, speed, and vessel movement. c. degrees/degrees
11. Experienced mariners limit the uue of computer control when maneuvering d. feet/feet
near docks and fixed objects. A good rule-of-thumb id to change from auto- 17. A ship changes draft when moving into shallow water. The change in mean
matic to manual control when within of a hazard. (Page 66) draft is known as . The hull rotation about the transverse axis and
a. three ship lengths resulting change in draft forward or aft is known as . The in-
b. 100 feet crease in deep draft, forward or aft, if called . (Page 85)
c. one ship length a. squat, trim and sinkage
12. Standardized commands for maneuvering Azipod vessels are important be- b. sinkage, trim and squat
cause (Pages 67--70) c. sinkage squat and trim
I. lack of standard commands makes it impossible to follow recommended 18. The increasing pressure drop under a hull and the corresponding increase
Bridge Resource Management practices. in squat caused by water flowing under the hull at increased velocity as
II. lack of standard commands makes it necessary to have a single person both ship's speed increases, follows a basic principle of physics known as the
conning and controlling engine and thruster movements. ! Principle. (Page 85)
III. pilots and deck officers lose situational awareness when standard com- Ships always trim by the stern in shallow water. (Pages 90-91)
mands and conning practices are not used. a. true
IV. the pilot cannot fulfill requirements under law to control the vessel or pro- b. false
vide sufficient controls to be held responsible for maneuvering in many situa- 20. The pilot or ship's officer can reduce sinkage and squat by reducing the (Pages
tions without standardized commands. 96-97)
a. I above I. block coefficient
b. I and II above II. speed
c. all of above III. blockage factor
13. The tactical diameter and turning rate can be precisely adjusted during a IV. the rate and period of acceleration
turn by visually aligning an external fixed object, such as a buoy or point of a. all of the above
land, with a reference point aboard ship. b. none of the above
A. the tactical diameter is when the object moves ahead relative to the c. II and IV only
shipboard reference point. (Pages 75-77) d. II only
a. increasing 21. Squat for a given speed and hull condition in confined water is that in
b. decreasing open water. (Pages 87-88)
B. the rate of turn is if the object moves ahead more rapidly. (Page 56) a. half
a. increasing b. twice
b. decreasing
14. It is best to overtake and paas close by another ship in a narrow channel at a 22. A useful formula for calculating aoDroximate sinkage in open water is (Pages
very slow speed, while the overtaken ship should increase her speed before 87-88)
being passed. (Page 80.' Squat (feet) = block coefficient (speed in knots V30
a. true A. calculate squat for a ship having a block coefficient of 0.8 proceeding at 6
b. false knots in open water.
15. The clicking sound made by the gyrocompass should be eliminated as it dis- B. calculate squat for the same ship proceeding at the same speed in a re-
tracts the pilot. (Page 81) stricted channel.
a. true C. calculate squat for the same ship proceeding at 12 knots in a restricted
b. false channel.
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REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS

23. Undcrkeel clearance is influenced by several factors including (Page 95) puts tiiis buoy or point in line with the edge of a wheelhouse window, and turn
your ship around this reference point without changing the rudder angle.
Closely watch the object's relative motion as thp ship turns. Did it move for
I. v e s s e l 3 p e e d

II. channel dimensions

III. changes in engine revolutions v.aiu or aft reiuiive to tne reference point as the ship turned? How did the
TV. vessel interaction ship's distance from the reference object change in each ca-e? How did the
a. I, II and IV only change in your ship's rate of turn affect the rate of relative motion of the refer-
b. I and II only ence object?
c. II and III only 5. Make the same type of turn around the same or similar reference point and
d. all of the abeve adjust the amount of rudder being used to keep the buoyfixedin position rela-
24. Underkeel clearance is reduced significantly when two shipspas3 in a narrow tive to your shipboard reference point. Did the ship then maintain the same-
channel because squat increases % to % or even more depending approximate distance off the reference object? You are now making controlled
on ship speed and distance of separation. (Pages 95 and 98) turns.
a. 10%/25% 6. Carefully note the location of buoys and points, relative to your ship's pivot
b. 25%/25% point, as a pilot begins each turn in a narrow channel. Develop a feel for the
c. 50% to 100% time at which turns should be started. (Note: Most inexperienced ship-
d. none of the above handlers begin a turn too soon.)
25. Underkeel clearance is reduced significantly as a ship accelerates and squat 7. Closely watch the rudder-angle indicator as your ship meets and passes other
increases as much as %. (Pages 95 and 97) ships in a narrow channel. Was more or less rudder used as the bows passed,
26. Wide-beam ships increase draft significant when they roll, so rolling may or when the ships were abeam, or when their sterns were passing? Was the
have a greater impact on underkeel clearance than draft. (Page 95) rudder toward or away from the other ship?
a. true 8. Watch the rudder- ingle indicator each time your ship overtakes and passes
b. f a l s e
other vessels in a narrow channel. Note also any changes in engine speed
27. Changes in the shape of a channel have no affect on squat as long as the block- made by the pilot while the other ships are being passed. Were the rudder and
age factor does not change. (Pages 95 and 98) engine used in the manner described in shiphandling texts?
a. true 9. Make a habit of listening to the clicking sound of your gyrocompass while
b. false turning. It will soon become second nature and you will immediately know
Practice Maneuvers when your rate of turn is increasing or decreasing and to what degree.
1. Closely observe the rudder angle indicator as a ship passes near banks and 10. Have the forward and after tugs read your draft as closely as possible while
points of land. Compare the amount of rudder needed to hold a ship steady on your ship is moving at 6 to 10 knots and again when they have made up and
her course as the bow passes each point of land with that needed when the youi ship is proceeding at bare steerageway. Note both sinkage (change in
stern reaches the same point. mean draft) and squat. Does your ship squat by the head or by the stern? How
did this compare with your computed sinkage using Barrass's formula?
2. Compare the amount of rudder and duration of time it is applied when start-
ing a turn with the amount and time needed to check a ship's swing at the
completion of the turn. Do this when your ship is trimmed by the head, and CHAPTER 3. USE OF TUGS
when she is trimmed by the stern. Is she directionally stable or unstable in
each case? Review Questions
3. Observe the change in rate of turn after the rudder has been put amidships for 1. Prepare a pketch showing how a tug is typically made fast alongside in a U.S.
each case described in maneuver 2. Does the rate increase or decrease? Is your port, using two lines. Label the backing line (head line) and the come ahead
ship directionally stable or unstable? line (spring line). (Page 104)
4. Select a buoy or point that lies on the inside of a turn while making routine 2. Make a similar sketch showing the tug made up with three lines, labeling the
maneuvers at the pilot station or in an anchorage. Stand in a location that come ahead and backing lines as well as the additional stern line. (Page 10-l)
340 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS 3 4 1

3. A tug being used for ship work can only be used to move a ship's bow or stern 3. Generally, the less experience shiphandlers have, the they work. (Page
laterally. (Page 106) 118)
a. true a. faster
b. false b. slower
4. You are docking a ship using two tugs. You have the quarter tag stand off un- 4. Quickwater ipropeller wash when backing) moves ahead at pbout the same
til just before the ship enters the slip. Give two reasons for this. (Page 108) speed as the ship when the ship is making about knots. (Pages i 19-20
5. Match the following signals with one or more tug responses. (Page 105) a. 1
A. increase to full power. a. one blast
B. tug is dismissed. Let go. b. two blasts
C. if working, stop. c. three blasts 5. Quickwater begins to move forward, up the ship's side, when the ship is mak-
D. if pushing, increase power. d. series of short blasts ing a speed of approximately knots, and the quickwater reaches the
E. come ahead dead slow. e. one long, two short blasts ship's midships section when the ship is moving at a speed of knots.
F. back the tug, normal power. f. one long blast (Pages 119-20)
G. if stopped, come ahead. a. 1/0
H. not a tug signal. b. 2/1
I. if stopped, come ahead. c. 3/2
J. if backing, increase power.
6. A bow thruster used correctly will have the same effects on the ship as a tug 6. An experienced shiphandler always looks at objects ahead of the ship when
made fast on the Bhip's bow. (Page 106) estimating speed during a maneuver because it's difficult to detect movement
a. true by looking abeam or abaft the beam. (Pages 120-2")
b. false a. true
b. false
7. A tug's lines don't have to be heaved up tightly, when she is lashed up along- 7. Why is it better to approach the berth with less angle when docking a ship
side to work, if she has good leads for both spring and head lines. (Pages with a right-hand propeller starboard side to the dock? (Page 122)
111-12)
a. true 8. Sketch two alternative methods for making tugs fast when backing into a slip
b. false starboard side to the pier. (Pages 124-25)
CHAPTER 4. APPROACHING THE BERTH 9. Ships docking at a wharf in strong current can expect to be set off the berth
just as they come alongside because of the and the , especially
Review Questions when there is a bank or solid face below the wharf. (Pages 126-27)
1. It is important that the pilot keep moving about the wheelhouse so as to al- a. hydraulic cushion/Bernoulli effect
ways have a good view of every part of the ship while docking or doing other b. Bernoulli effect/eddy current
work. (Pages 115-16) c. hydraulic cushion/eddy current
a. true 10. It is best to think of a ship as being docked stern first when she is docking with
b. false the current from astern. The docking is done as if the ship were moving
2. There ere several techniques a shiphandler can use to hold a ship in position relative to the . (Pages 126-27)
in a channel or other confined area, including (Page 113"> a. ahead/water
I. steain cn the anchor al slow engine speeds. b. ahead/bottom
II. anchor to a short scope of chain with the current from ahead. c. astern/water
III. simply back and fill in the channel. d. astern/bottom
a. I only 11. When docking at a wharf with the current from astern, the is used to
b. II only move her laterally the last few feet to the berth. 'Page 111)
c. Ill only a. current
d. all of the above b. engine
340 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS 343

12. Your ship is docking port side to a wharf parallei to the channel. There is a 2. A 1-knot current exerts the same force on a given surface area as knot 5;
strong ebb current running as you come alongside, and tugs are made fast at of wind. (Page 130)
the bow and stern. (Page 127) a. 1
I. the tu.^s should come full ahead at ? 90 degree angle to the ohip to pin the b. 10
ship tighL alongside and prevent movement while line? are run. c. 20
II. the tugs should work at an angle toward the ship, into the current, to hold d. 30
the ship both alongside and in position. 3. A ship moving at 2 knots moves approximately in one minute. (Pa^e
III. the tugs should come ahead parallel to the ship's side, against the current, 132)
to hold the ship in position while lines arc run to keep the ship alongside. a. 50 feet J .
a. I only b. 100 feet
b. II only c. 200 feet.
c. ITI only d. 200 yards
d. either I or III
Practice Maneuvers 4. Lateral motion can be caused by (Pages 132-33)
1. Try to handle your ship without moving around the wheelhouse more than is I. wind and current
absolutely necessary. Notice how your feel for the ship's movements (and es- II. turning the ship
pecially lateral movement when turning, backing, working in currents, or us- III. extended use of tugs
ing tugs) is significantly improved when you aren't constantly moving around a. I and II
the wheelhouse. b. I and III
c. all of the above
2. Make use of every opportunity to practice handling your ship at minimum d. ships do not move laterally
speed. Stop the engine and keep her on course while approaching an anchor-
age or pilot station, using hard-over rudder as headway is lost. Be patient, 5. You are docking a ship with a right-hand propeller and she is about to come
watch the stem or jackstaff closely to detect movement as soon as possible, alongside and be stopped, in position, at the berth. The ship should be set up
and learn how slowly your ship can be handled. When she no longer answers for backing to allow for, and use to advantage, the normal twisting effect as
to rudder alone, use short kicks on the engine to start and check swing, and the ship goes astern. This is most commonly done (Pages 133-34)
practice until you can handle your ship at less than 1 knot in all but the worst I. when docking starboard side to, by "kicking" the engine ahead with hard
conditions with a minimum of engine maneuvers. Anyone can handle a sh p ; port rudder before going astern.
at sea speed! II. when docking port side to, by "kicking" the engine ahead with hard star-
3. Look over the side and check the position of the quickwater every time you board rudder before going astern.
back the engine to slow or stop your vessel. Use the location of the quickwater III. when docking port side to, by going astern to take off headway and bring
to estimate headway when approaching an anchorage, berth, or pilot station. the ship alongside.
(Read pages 119-120 for approximate speeds vs. quickwater position.) e. both I and II
b. both I and III
4. If your ship is fitted with a Doppler log, check your speed through the water c. Ill only
when the quickwater is moving forward at the same speed as your ship, when d. none of the above
the quickwater starts moving forward along the ship's hull, and when the 6. It's important to always put the rudder amidships before the engine starts
quickwater reaches amidships. turning astern. ("Page 134,>
CHAPTER 5. DOCKING a. true
Review Questions b. false
1. A competent shiphandler plans a job so that wind and current can be used as 7. Quickwater can have a significant effect, forcing the ship away from the berth
aids to maneuvering rather than forces to be overcome. (Page 129) when docking starboard side to. (Pages 134-35)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false
340 344
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS

8. Ships must usually be forced into a berth and maneuvered using full revolu- 4. You are about to undock a ship berthed port side to at a wharf. Ships are
tions ahead and astern, because shiphandling is not a subtle art. (Page 136) terthed close ahead and astern, so the ship must be moved laterally to star-
a. true board, away from the berth, to clear those ships. Only one tug is available. De-
b. false scribe one way to accomplish this. (Pages 142-44)
9. Which of the following statements abojt "landing a ship alongside a berth A. the tug could be made fast with at leait one backing line from the
is/are true? (Pages 136-37) tug's bow.
I. a ship should be parallel to the pier when 3he lands alongside so all frames a. forward
along the parallel midbody can absorb equally the force of landing. 'o. aft
II. a ship should be at an angle to the pier when she lands alongside the wharf B. the tug at a 45-degree angle toward the stern, while the ship's engine
or pier to minimize the effects of quickwater as she stops. turns ahead and her rudder is put hard to .
a. I only a. comes ahead/starboard
b. II only b. backs/starboard
c. both I and II c. comes ahead/port
d. neither I nor II d. backs/port
5. Your ship is docked starboard side to her berth. A tug is made fast on the port
Practice Maneuvers bow and the last line has been let go. The ship has a right-hand turning pro-
peller. There is no ship berthed astern. The ship's engine is put astern. (Pages
1. Measure the time required for your bridge to move between bollards on the 144-46)
pier. Estimate the distance between bollards by comparing that distance with A. the stern will move the berth unless there is a strong current or wind
your ship's beam. What was your ship's speed of approach? countering the propeller's ctTect.
a. toward
2. Work to become more aware of lateral movement. Make a practice of stand- b. away from
ing on the centerline when approaching a berth and watching natural ranges B. the bow moves the berth as the ship's speed increases.
(corners of buildings, stacks, flagpoles, rooflines, etc.) for changes that indi- a. toward
cate lateral movement. b. away from
C. the tug will to steady the ship as she moves astern out of the berth.
a. back
CHAPTER 6. UNDOCKING b. come ahead
Review Questions 6. Your ship is berthed port side to her berth. One tug is available and is made up
on the starboard bow. There is no ship berthed astern, but you will need to
1. Undocking is, by its very nature, a simple maneuver that requires less plan- back approximately 300 feet to get clear of the ship. Describe one way to do
ning than a docking. (Pages 139-^40) this job. (Page 145)
a. true A. the tug comes .
b. false '. ahead
b. astern
2. In a ballasted condition, it's usually better to have too much drag than not B. this moves the ship's toward the berth.
enough, if such trim is necessary to get the propeller and rudder well sub- a. bow
merged. (Pages 14041) b. stern
a. true C. the tug continues until the ship is at a significant angle to the pic-r.
b. false a. pushing
b. pulling
3. It is best to approach a potential hazard such as a pier or a shoal stern first be- D. this is necessary because the stern will move the pier when the en-
cause you can always put the engine ahead to reduce sternway. (Page 150) gine goes astern and the ship backs from the berth.
a. true a. toward
b. false b. away from
340 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS 347

7. A ship's bow can be moved or canted toward a pier before undocking by (Page a. true
145) b. false
I. pushing with a bow tug. 2. Safe speed at departure is to a large extent determined by (Pagec 157-59,
II. letting go the forward spring and then heaving on the headline. I. the shipbuilder's experience and confidence in his shiphandling
III. coming ahead dead slow against the spring line with the rudder hard over ability.
toward the dock. II. the depth of water, the speed of departing traffic, and the weather
a. I only conditions.
b. I and II a. I only
c. I and III b. II only r
d. all of the above c. all of the above
8. Face when moving a ship stern first. (Page 152) d. none of the above
a. ahead 3. By increasing ship speed and moving faster than other departing traffic, the
b. astern shiphandler significantly reduces the potential for collision. (Pages 158-59)
9. When turning in a tidal basin, it's usually best to (Pages 152-53) a. true
I. turn the ship with some headway to complete the maneuver in the least b. false
time and to minimize effects of currents. 4. Modern bridge equipment has ma de it possible for the ship's master to conn a
II. turn the ship in the up current side of the basin to avoid being set out of the ship to sea with little or no assistance from the other ship's officers. (Pages
basin before completing the maneuver. 159-00)
III. have as much way off the ship as possible before starting to turn in a ba- a. true
sin. b. false i
a I only
b. I and II 5. Passage planning that stresses a pocket course card, formal pilot/master ex-
c. II and III change of information, and charts with preplanned courses, turning bearings,
d. none of the above distances, operating notes, and other navigation information noted in ink is
10. Ships fitted with variable-pitch propellers respond in a manner than preferable to pages of written instructions. (Pages 161-62)
ships fitted with conventional propellers when the engine goes astern. (Pages a. true
150-51) b. false
a more predictable
b. less predictable CHAPTER 8. ANCHORING AND SHIPHANDLING WITH ANCHORS
11. Variable-pitch ships should be fitted with propellers. (Page 151) Review Questions
a. right-hand 1. A competent shiphandler can anchor safely in any anchorage and never has to
b. left-hand lay off for conditions to improve. (Page 165)
12. Always dismiss the forward tug as soon as possible to reduce tug charges. a. true
(Page 155) b. false
a. true 2. Anchoring is one continuous evolution and considering it in parts makes it
b. false unnecessarily complicated. (Pages 166-67)
CHAPTER 7. DEPARTURE a. true
b. false
Review Questions 3. Allowance should be made one degree at a time for set and leeway when ma-
1. The pilot's duties include clarifying the intentions of other ships ana making neuvering at slow speeds in an anchorage. (Page 168)
safe meeting arrangements with those ships, and the master should not re- a. true
lease the pilot at departure until this is done. (Page 157) b. false
340 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS 349

4. A ship moving at 3 knots moves about feet ahead in one minute. (Page c. when at/at all times
169) d. before reaching/at all times
a. 50
k 100 12. \Jways place the anchor halfway between ships anchored ahead and astern
c. 200 so your ship will lie at an equal distance from all ships when >our anchor
d. 300 fetches up. (Page 180)
a. true
5. A ship 600-feet-long, moving at 3 knots, would require about minutes b. false
for her entire hull, bow to stern, to pass a fixed point. (Page 169)
a. one 13. Ships at anchor always appear your ship than they are actuallv King.
b. two (Page 183)
c. three a. closer to
d. four b. farther from

6. A 1-knot current on the beam sets a 600-foot ship about feet in that 14. There is significant risk of damaging a ship's rudder and propeller with a
amount of time. (Page 169) stern anchor. Make sure the ship is before letting go a stern anchor
8. 100 and that sternway is when heaving the stern anchor. (Page l&y)
b. 200 a. moving astern/increased
c. 300 b. stopped/minimized
d. 600 c. moving astern/minimized
7. A ship can turn and maneuver to depart from a crowded anchorage by heav- d. stopped/increased
ing short and maneuvering on her anchor. (Page 171) 15. It's important to use the proper amount of chain when handling a ship wun
a. true her anchor. Used correctly, the anchor will drag along with considerable re-
b. false sistance, but it won't dig in and hold. (Page 194)
8. Ships lie at anchor on their final heading (Pages 173-74) a. true
I. lying to the strong force, wind or current, affecting the ship. b. false
II. lying to the resultant of all forces acting on the ship. 16. It is unusual for anchors to l>e used in day-to-day shiphandling because an-
III. lying into the current. chors are ineffective with today's larger ships. (Page 191)
a. I only a. true
b. II only b. false
c. both II and III 17. An anchor is only used for shiphandling in emergencies when m a n e u v e r i n g
d. all of the above today's larger ships. (Page 191)
e. none of the above a. true
9. List three reasons why it is preferable to have the ship on her final heading b. false
before letting go. (Page 174)
18. A rhip sheers immediately and violently to the side on which an anchor is
10 The difference between the apparent motion of closer ships or objects and far- dropped. (Page 191)
ther objects or the shoreline can be used to accurately detect lateral motion a. true
and motion ahead and astarn. (Pages 176-77) b. faise
a. true
b. false 19. The offshore anchor is recommended when docking a ship because (Pages
192-93)
11. Go astern to estimate ship's speed through the water the final an- I. there is more chance of the anchor digging in and holding.
choring location, when anchoring . (Page 179) II. there is less chance of damaging the hull and chain.
a. when at/at night III. the offshore anchor may be used later to heave off the berth and undock
b. before reaching/at night with minimum damage to hull and chain.
340 350
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS

a. I only and that there is no immediate or violent change in the ship's heading
b. II only when the anchor is used.
c. both 11 and III c. Come dead slow or slow ahead and use the ship's rudder to maintain
d. all of the above the ship's heading across the wind. Slack out more chain if necessary
e. none of the above so the ship remains dead in the water at low RPM and note how tne
20. Static friction (when the wildcat is not turning) between the asbestos brake ship's heading and posit on can bo maintained, even when lying acros =
:

band and the windlass's brake drum is approximately times as great
as dynamic friction (when the wildcat is turning). (Page J.94)
a. two
b. three
c. five
d. ten
21. When docking with the anchor, using the correct amount of anchor chain
(Page 195)
I. the bow is steadied.
II. the ship loses headway when the engine is stopped.
III. the ship responds to her rudder without gaming headway at low RPMs.
IV. the ship can be moved ahead by further increasing revolutions.
a. I only
b. II and III only
c. all of the above
d. none of the above
22. A ship can be turned in a considerably smaller area using an anchor. (Page
198)
a. true
b. false
23. In an emergency, let go at least one anchor with enough chain to be certain the
anchor will dig in and hold, and not drag, as the ship moves ahead. (Page 194)
a. true
b. false
Practice Maneuvers
1. Select a pilot station or anchorage with a fairly uniform sand or mud bottom
and a depth 10 to 20 feet greater than your ship's draft. Arrive an hour or more
before the ship's pilot time and practice using the anchor.
a. Head across the wind and stop the engine. Try to steer using the rudder
alone as the ship loses headway. Note the wind's effects on the ship
b. Come ahead, if necessary, and increase the ship's speed to approxi-
mately 2 knots. Stop the engine and let go the windward anchor and
one shot of chain well in the water. Slack more chain, as necessary, un-
til the drag of the anchor begins reducing the ship's headway (a length
of chain equal to approximately twice the depth of water). Ncte how
the ship is steadied by the anchor as compared to maneuver la above
the wind.
d. Increase revolutions until the ship begins moving ahead again and use
the rudder to maintain the selected heading across the wind. Increase
and reduce revolutions to increase and decrease the ship's headway.
Observe the ship's behavior under ccntrol of the anchor, including the
change of headway when engine RPM is changed; the time required
for the ship to lose all headway when the engine is stopped; and speed
through the water at a given RPM with the anchor on the bottom, as
compared to the speed at the same RPM witnout the anchor.
e. Reduce to dead slow ahead, and when the ship is dead in the water, use
the rudder to change heading to port and starboard. Note the effect of
rudder on rate of turn and how quickly the ship steadies up with the
rudder amidships. Also pay attention to the forward shift of the pivot
point toward the bow; the reduced diameter of the ship's turning cir-
cle; and leeway, or, more accurately, the lack of leeway as the ship is
held on a particular heading.
f. Increase and decrease RPM and again alter the ship's heading, this
time with headway. Note that it's possible to make very controlled ma-
neuvers by coming ahead on afixedheading to move the bow toward a
desired point, and by reducing RPMs until headway is lost and then
using the rudder to move the stern to one side or the other, as might be
done to come alongside a berth.
All this should help you develop an understanding of, and a feel for,
shiphandling under the control of an anchor. Think how useful maneuver lc
would be while holding a ship awaiting tugs or improved weather conditions.
Ship behavior demonstrated in Id would be useful in very narrow channels or
in reducing speed without backing (or when you've lost the engine) while the
practice in le becomes important when you have to maneuver in a narrow-
channel or into a narrow berth without a tug (by choice or circumstances), or
need the anchor to break a sudden sheer while proceeding up the channel
from sea. Maneuver If puts it all together and shews how a ship can make con-
trolled maneuvers or come alongside a berth or another vessel under perfect
control, using an anchor even when conditions ere less :han ideal.
Hold your ship in position using the anchor and a short scope of chain while
waiting foi the pilot to board. This maneuver is most advantageous with a
light ship in bad weather and you should try it at every opportunity to gain ex-
perience in all conditions of wind, tide, and ship's draft.
a. Reduce speed to bare steei ageway and put down one or two shots of
chain (depending on the depth of water). Steam on the anchor, adjusting
 340 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS 3 5 3

the rudder angle and engine revolutions to head the ship into Lhe pre- 5. During ship-to-ship lightering operations, there is less chance of damage if
vailing wind and sea. the Yokohama fenders arc rigged on the VLCC rather than the offtaker. (Page
b. Adjust RPM and slack a bit more chain, if necessary, and continue 217)
coming ahead against the anchor. Hold the ship stationary relative to a. true
the bottom on the same heading into the prevailing wind and sea. b. false
c. Put the rudder hard over as the pilot boat approaches and increase en- 6. It is important that mooring wires used by ships engaged in ship-to-ship
gine RPM to change heading across the wind and sea/swell and make a lightering have synthetic tails or pc-ndants. (Page 219)
lee for the pilot. Depending on circumstances, you could begin heaving I. even though they make the wires more difficult to handle.
the anchor after the pilot boards or steam on the anchor to b ring the II. because they make it possible for ships to break apart m> re quickly in an
ship around to the initial course toward the channel while awaiting emergency.
the pilot's arrival on the bridge. III. because they absorb some of the surge that might otherwise part the
This is certainly a lot safer and easier than backing and filling for half an wires.
hour in a crowded anchorage while awaiting the pilot launch! a. I only
CHAPTER 9. SPECIAL MANEUVERS b. II and III
Review Questions c. Ill only
d. Synthetic tails should not be used for this purpose.
Currents at the entrance to locks can be caused by (Pages 205-6)
I. spilling of water from the chamber. 7. When approaching the offtaker, the VLCC proceeds at possible speed.
II. difference between the density of the water in the chamber and the water (Page 219)
outside the chamber. a. maximum
a. I only b. least
b. II only 8. During this part of the operation, the VLCC should head the prevailing
c. both I and II wind and swell. (Page 219)
d. neither I nor II a. into
The best heading for approaching a single-point mooring is indicated by the b. across
heading of anchored ships and the reciprocal of the direction in which the 9. At the same time, the offtaker the VLCCs quarter and comes alongside.
floating hoses trail from the buoy. (Page 212) (Page 219)
a. true a. stays close to
b. false b. keeps clear of
The wind has little effect on VLCCs, bo these ships approach single-point 10. Anchors can be used to steer a ship backing to a berth or mooring, because the
moorings directly into the current. (Page 212) ship's stern will move to port if the starboard anchor is held, and to starboard
a. true if the port anchor is held. (Page 227)
b. false a. true
The safest, most expedient approach to a single-point mooring is made by b. false
(Pages 213-14) 11. When making a Mediterranean moor, the ship should back with her engines
I. heading directly at the mooring, keeping the buoy drad ahead as ship's en- until in position, close up to the berth, before running any lines. (Paee 230'
gine gees astern and stopping near the pickup buoy. a. true
II making a significant course change, preferably to port, to come to the final b. false
approach heading, and then keeping the buoy fine on the port bow us the ship
approaches the SPM. 12. Departing a multiple-buoy mooring or Mediterranean moor, it's usually best
a. I only to (Pages 228 and 230-31)
b. II only I. heave, the weather anchor short.
c. either I or II II. steam on the weather anchor as required while heaving home the lee
d. neither I nor II anchor.
340 354
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS

III. steam away from the mooring as soon as the lee anchor breaks free, heav- 22. Hydrodynamic effects are different for VLCCs. (Page 247)
ing on and dragging both anchors until well clear of the buoys or berth. a. true
a. I only b. false
b. Ii and TII <mly 23. VLCCs are less easily damaged when coming alongside a berth. (Page 247)
c. all of the above a. trua
d. none of the above b. false
13. Williamson Turns are less effective with a VLCC because she maintains her 24. VLCCs should be closer to a berth than smaller ships before mooring lines are
speed longar and the vessel's path of travel is less predictable. (Page 213) sent ashore. (Page 247)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false
14. When making a Williamson Turn, a ship should always be steadied up 60 de- 25. Longer ships are more difficult to bring flat alongside because perspective
grees from her initial heading before starting a hard-over turn in the opposite makes the farther end appear much closer to the berth than the closer end
direction. (Pages 231-32) (the "railroad track" cfTect). (Pages 247-48)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false
15. Twin-rcrew ships fitted with single rudders are generally more responsive at
slow speeds through the water when the engines are stopped. (Page 235) Practice Maneuvers
a. true The Williamson Turn is used for man-overboard emergencies and for routine vessel
b. false maneuvers, both to bring a ship back to a desired point with a minimum of maneu-
16. Twin-screw ships can be moved laterally toward a berth by pushing the bow vering and to help mates and masters appreciate a ship's handling characteristics
with a tug or bow thruster and backing the engine while coming at full speed at sea. Turning circles, the time and amount of rudder needed to make
ahead on the other engine. (Pages 235-36) and check turns, and the amount of speed a ship loses making large course changes
a. inshore can all be demonstrated during a Williamson Turn,
b. offshore ii
1. Paint an oil drum or other object bright orange so it can be easily s<sen and
17. VLCCs generally steer well at very slow speeds. (Page 244) used as a reference during the Williamson Turn. Puncture both ends of a
a. true 5-gallon paint pail and attach it to the drum with small diameter line. The
b. false pail serves as a drogue to minimize wind drift during the exercise. Also, pre-
18. VLCCs usually go astern to avoid close quarters situations. (Page 244) pare a data sheet, like the one described in chapter 1 for the master's maneu-
a. true vers, to collect data during the maneuvers. The information will be useful
when studying the ship's performance and comparing handling characteris-
b. f a l s e
tics under different conditions of loading.
19. "Safe speed" is the same for all sizes of ships. (Page 244) 2. Muster the crew prior to starting the Williamson Turn, and explain the ma-
a. true neuver and its purpose as both a man-overboard drill and a shiphandling ex-
b. false ercise. The details of the man-overbc3rd procedure are outside the scope of
20. Shallow water effects ure felt at greater depth-to-dralt ratios by loaded this book, so only the shiphandling aspects of the maneuver will be discussed
VLCCs than by smaller ships. (Page 246) here.
a. true 3. Throw the drum or reference object over the side, note the ship's base course,
b. false put the rudder hard over, and start the turn as described on page 232. Mea-
21. The term "constrained by draft" should take into consideration both shallow sure the time required for the ship to begin turning after the rudder is put
water effects and danger of grounding. (Page 246) hard over and compare the advance and tactical diameter with the ship's
a. true length, as the ship turns, using the drum as a reference. This information will
b. fa'se be helpful both for maneuvering in close quarters situations a t sea and in any
340
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS 356

future emergency situation that might arise. The time to turn, the tactical di- CHAPTER 10. TRAINING
ameter, and the advance will probably be significantly less than you expected.
4. Continue the maneuver, shifting the helm from hard over to hard over when Review Questions
the heading has changed 55 degrees from the base course (po: nt "A" in figure
9-15). Note the heading when the ship steadies up and begins swinging in the 1. Onboard training and experience is important bccause (Pages 2oS-54;
opposite direction. Calculate the number of degrees that the ship swings be- I. it is impossible to teach some marine skills in a classroom.
fore she checks up and you'll know the arc of swing required to steady up from II. priorities needed to apply theory to real-world situations can only be
a bard-over turn. learned onboard the ship.
III. masters and senior officers can transfer the lessons gained from experi-
5. Keep the rudder hard over as the ship turns through a circle toward the recip- ence through shipboard training.
rocal of her initial heading. Apply the arc required to check her swing, as cal- IV. it's possible to learn most skills, such as shiphandling, simpl; by watching
culated in maneuver 2 above, and when the ship's heading is that number of senior officers and pilots at work.
degrees from the desired final heading (the reciprocal of tho initial heading), a. I only
reverse the rudder hard over again. The ship should check up on, or near, the b. both I and III
final heading as the ship returns to her starting point alongside the reference c both II and III
oil drum. d. IV only
Example: Object overboard on the starboard side, rudder hard right to
turn the ship to starboard. 2. Deck officers can't become effective watch officers and shiphandlers until
(Pages 255-56)
Original course 030 degrees - I. they have twenty years' experience at sea.
Initial change of heading +55 II. they have "hands-on" drills and feel comfortable using equipment.
Heading to shift helm ("A") 085 III. they learn not to touch equipment unless absolutely necessary.
Ship steadies up 095 a. I only
Arc to check swing (difference) 10 b. II only
c. Ill only
Final (reciprocal) heading 210 d. I and III
Arc to check swing 10
Heading to shift helm ("B") 220 degrees 3. Simulators are innovative training aids because they make it possible to
(Pages 261-62)
The ship will have 'completed the Williamson Turn in a predictable manner with I. learn to prioritize tasks and perform several tasks concurrently.
the least possible helm movements (three) and thus the minimum of variables. II. watch experts work.
Note the total time to complete the maneuver, the speed through the water at the III. transfer classroom theory to real-time situations.
end of the maneuver, and the distance and bearing from the starting point. If de- IV. learn most shipboard work without spending a great deal of time aboard
ship.
sired, back down and stop the ship as close to the starting point as possible. a. I only
6. Perform the maneuver again using an initial change of heading at point "A" of b. II only
35 degrees. Did your ship return closer to or farther from her starting point c. II and IV
using this smaller initial course change? The required initial change of head- d. land III
ing is, to a large extent, determined by the ship's directional stability, and the
more positive the directional stability, the farther the ship ihould be allowed 4. Simulator ":ype is more important than instructor experience when judging
to swing before shifting the helm at "A." potential oenefits of a training facility. (Pages 274-75)
Practice this maneuver at light and loaded drafts, in various conditions of a. true
trim, and let all the ship's officers perform Williamson Turns so everyone b. false
learns the procedure. A great deal can be learned about shiphandling param- 5. Professional instructors are preferable to professional mariners at simulator
eters and the effects of various loading and trim conditions by comparing the training facilities. (Pages 274-75)
turning rate, most effective change of heading at point "A," tactical diameter, a. true
advance, etc. b. false
340 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS 3 5 9

6. The following mariner's skills could be improved with simulator training: CHAPTER 11. MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP
(Pages 277-78) Review Questions
A. shiphr.ndling.
a. true 1. it isn't particularly important that pilots possess traditional seagoing skills,
b. false because their main task is advising shipmasters of courses and speeds from
B. rules of the road applications and maneuvering with other ships. point to point. (.Page 289)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false
C. bridge organization. 2. A pilot whose services are required by law is a pilot. (Pages 290-91)
a. true a. compulsory
b. false b. voluntary
D. watc.hkeeping practices.
a. true 3. A pilot taken at the master's option is a pilot. (Page 289)
b. false a. compulsory
E. restricted visibility navigation. b. voluntary
a. true
b. false 4. A compulsory pilot is aboard in a purely advisor}- capacity and as such has 110
F. emergency procedures. responsibility or liability for his actions. (Page 291)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false
G. ship-to-ship communication procedures. 5. There are no significant differences between the responsibilities of the com-
a. true pulsory and the voluntary pilot. (Page 289)
b. false a. true
7. The computer-based simulator is an advancement that is replacing the b. false
ship-model type simulator at most training facilities. (Pages 271-72) 6. Should the shipmaster immediately relieve the pilot in the following situa-
a. true tions? (Pages 292-93)
b. false A. the pilot is intoxicated.
a. yes
8. The most important component of the simulator course is the (Page 274) b. no
a. simulator B. the pilot demonstrates gross incompetence.
b. instructor a. yes
c. the curriculum b. no
d. all of the above C. the master knows a more expedient way to complete the maneuver at hand.
a. yes
9. Performance-based testing on simulators should overload the student with b. no
scenarios that are more difficult than real-world situations. (Page 276) D. the vessel is standing into danger that is not obvious to the pilot-.
a. true a. yes
b. false b. nc
E. the pilot's actions are ir error due to circumstance? or the limitations of the
10. Time shouid be divided between the briefing, simulator session, and debrief- sxiip being handled.
ing approximately (Page 282) a. yes
a- KM,i b. no
F. the master recommends a change that the pilot rejects.
c- /4.X./2 a. yes
d. the debriefing is only necessary if students make many errors. b. no
340 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS 361

G. A master must wait until the ship is "in extremis'' before relieving a com- CHAPTER 12. VESSEL OPERATIONS
pulsory pilot. Review Questions
a. true
b. false
1. Formal plans are only needed if the master and mates have not recently made
7. It is essential that the master be a competent shiphandler because, under cer- a passage in a particular area. (Page 302)
tain circumstances, he has a responsibility to relieve a pilot in a timely and ef- a. true ! 1

fective manner. (Page 293) b. false i

a. true 2. Passages can be overplanned. An inflexible passage plan, without alterna-
b. false tives based on professional planning and judgment, is as dangerous as no
plan at all. (Pages 303^1)
8. The traditional overlapping of responsibility between the master and pilot a. true :
prevents many accidents. (Page 294) b. false
a. true !i
b. false 3. Review the types of information that should be included in proper inland wa-
ters passage plans. (Pages 3045)
9. Irreconcilable differences between master and pilot occur often in the course 4. Passage plans and routes should never be put on charts in ink because that
of moving ships in pilot waters. (Page 294) would make the chart less useful for future voyages. (Page 305)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false
10. Penalties and liabilities for accidents that could occur should be foremost on 5. Competent masters don't prepare and carry pocket course cards because they
the mariner's mind when deciding on a course of action. (Page 301) memorize charts and passage plans from sea to the dock. (Pages 305-6)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false
6. All bridges should be standardized with identical layouts and equipment.
11. Bridge Resource Management is designed to reduce errors and omissions (Page 307)
through a system of checks, the delegation of duties, and joint decision-mak- a. true
ing by a group of vessel personnel referred to as the bridge team. (Page 295) b. false
a. true
b. false 7. There should be a clear view forward from large, unobstructed centerline win-
dows. (Page 307)
12. The bridge team shares the workload, obtains and ccmmunicates relevant in- a. true
formation early, and monitors the vessel's progress by crosschecking the deci- b. false
sions and actions of all members of the team within the context of the 8. The quartermaster's station shouid be as close to the forward wheelhouse
master/pilot relationship. (Page 296) windows as possible, (rages 308-9 i
a. true a. true
b. false b. false
13. BRM has changed traditional pilot responsibility for overall vessel control 9. Instruments should be clustered by use and placed where the user (mate,
and protection of the public interest, and the local environment by integrating master, pilot, quartermaster) can use them without being diverted from other
the pilot into the joint decision-making bridge team. (Pages 296-97) work. (Page 307)
a. true a. true
b. false b. false
340 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PRACTICE MANEUVERS REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PltACTICE MANEUVERS 363

10. A conning station should be organized with equipment mounted on a bulk- 17. There are several distinct advantages to having active traffic management us-
head, console, or to keep windows clear. (Pages 309-10) ing two-way DGPS-based systems versus information from a shore-based pas-
a. true sive traffic management system. These advantages include (Pages 320-22)
b. false a. information is real time.
11. Instruments and equipment should be kept off bridge wings. (Page 310) b. information is unfiltered and uninterrupted.
a. true c. information is not line of sight.
b. false d. al! of the above.
12. Which of the following statements are true regai ding the effect of bridge loca- 18. There are significant differences between shiphandling in daylight and at
tion on shiphandling? (Pages 322-24) night. Which of the following are true? (Pages 324-25)
I. points of reference appear closer as bridge height is increased. I. loss of depth perception at night makes it more difficult to estimate dis-
II. your ship appears to be moving more slowly as height of eye increases. tance.
III. turning rate is more difficult to detect when looking ahead from a bridge II. speed cannot be determined at night by looking ahead.
located close to the bow. III. speed cannot be determined at night by looking abeam or a' aft the beam.
IV. visibility is improved when the bridge is higher and closer to the bow. IV. lights and aids appear farther away on clear nights.
a. I and II only a. I and II only
b. I and IV only b. Ill and IV only
c. all of the above c. all of the above
d. none of the above d. none of the above
13. Any laptop system using DGPS and off-the-shelf software and charts can be 19. Which of the following is/are true regarding record keeping? (Pages 326-27)
used to navigate in ice, fog, rain, and other conditions that would have closed I. logs and records are important aspects of proper vessel operation.
ports in the past. (Pages 312 and 316) II. logs and record keeping often conflict with shiphandling, and redundant
a. true paperwork must be eliminated.
b. false a. I only
b. II only \
14. DGPS laptop pilot navigation systems have the same line of sight limitations c. both I and II
as radar so traffic cannot be seen beyond obstructions or beyond the radar ho- d. neither I nor II
rizon. (Page 319 and 322)
a. true
b. false
15. DGPS pilot systems are limited by (Page 315)
I. line of sight target detection
II. chart accuracy
III. communication with other vessels
IV. ability to present accurate information on "other ship" course, speed and
location
a. I above
b. II above
c. all of the above
d. none cf the above
16. Modern laptop-based DGPS navigation systems are extremely accurate and
reliable, allowing pilots to navigate safely in any condition regardless of the
accuracy or reliability of the ship's navigation equipment. (Pages 314-15)
a. true
b. false

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Armstrong, Malcolm C. Pilot Ladder Safety. Woollahra, N.S.W., Austra-
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Barrass, C. B. "Ship Squat and Its Calculation." Safety at Sea magazine,
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Brady, Edward M. Tugs, Towboats, and Towing. Centreville, Md.: Cornell
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Cahill, R. A. "The Avoidance of Close Quarters in Clear Weather." Journal
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Cameron, Ian. The Impossible Dream, the Building of the Panama Canal.
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Crenshaw, R. S., Jr. Naval Shiphandling. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Insti-
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Daggett, Larry and Christopher Hewlett, et al. Dynamic Squat and Under
Keel Clearance of Ships in Confined Channels. Vicksburg, Miss., 2003.
Daggett, Larry and Christopher Hewlett. Study of Ship Squat in the Pan-
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EMRI, Steering Control Systems and Azipod Operations. Herlev, Den-
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Gray, W. O. ESSO OSAKA Maneuvering TrialsShallow Water Maneu-
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364
BIBLIOGRAPHY 365
International Maritime Organization (IMO). Standards for Training and
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La Dage, John H. Modern ships. Cambridge, Md.: Cornell Maritime
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MacElrevey, Daniel H. El Paso Arzew Maneuvering Trials. Cove Point,
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MarineSafety International. Ship Performance Data for VLCC's. New
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Maritime Institute of Technology and Graduate Studies and /merican
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Meurn, Robert J. Watchstanding Guide for the Merchant Officer. Centre-
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National Research Council Marine Board. Minding the Helm: Marine
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I . Ship Bridge Simulator Training. Wasliington, D.C.: National
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Reid, George H. Shiphandling with Tugs. Centreville, Md.: Cornell Mari-
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Resolution of the American Pilots' Association. Role of the Pilot and the
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RTM STAR Center. Alaska State Marine Pilot Training and Evaluation
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Ship Performance Data for VLCCs [Training Manuall. La Guardia, N.Y.: Acceleration, underkeel clearance,
MarineSafety International, 1981. 87,95, 97-98
Swift, A. H. Bridge Team. Management, A Practical Guide, The Nautical Access: bridge windows, 308, 310; im-
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Institute, 1993. Accuracy, simulator model, 235
United Kingdom Board of Trade. "Navigation Safety /Guide to Planning & Acquiescence, of master to pilot, 294
Conduct of Passages, '' MN854. Advance, 44, 74, 75, 76, 178-79
Vantine, Wilbur H. "Good Bridge Design from a Master Mariner's Point of Advising pilot, master's duties,
View." Ship Operation Automation, ed. by Pitkin, Roche, and Wil- 40-43 3940, 300
liams. New York: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1976. "A" frame, 249
Werner, Norman A. "A View from the Bridge." The Panama Canal Review, Aids to navigation: uses, 75-77, 172;
spring, 1976. simulating, 269
Alaskan Pilots, evaluation and li-
censing, 286
American flag, pilot requirements,
291
Anchor chain, 162; amount of, 176
Anchoring: mentioned, 16; in steps,
166; planning, 166-77; in deep
water, 170-71; final heading,
173-75; wind/current abeain, 168,
175-76, 177; wind/current astern,
175-76, 177; basic, 176; approach
to, 176-77; determining speed,
179; mooring and anchoring,
185-89; with stern anchor,
187-90; alongside bank, 201-2;
lightering, 221-22; model-based
simulators, 263, 271
Anchors: standing by, 7; preparing,
23- pilot information for, 40; to
hold ship, 118, 197; to steer, 198,
227; at wharf, 126; in wind, 132,
367
16S-69; undocking, 139; to turn,
148; to turn short, 154, 170, 171,
176, 198; walking out, 171; easing
chain, 176; placing, 179-81; dig-
ging in, 182-83; swinging room,
183-85; laying out 181-82;
amount of chain, 194-96; brake,
176, 194; for shiphandling, 191,
194; steadying bow, 198; select-
ing, 172, 192-93; stopping ship,
194; holding ship, 118, 197; re-
stricted visibility, 197; steadying
effect, 198-99; strong wind, 169;
fetching up, 194, 198; meeting
ships, 198; stopping sheer, 199; in
a bend, 199; narrow channel, 198;
in canals, 208; approaching moor-
ing, 224-25; 5-point moorings,
224-28; backing, 202-3, 226-27;
Mediterranean moor, 228-31;
simulating, 263-64, 269;
shiphandling simulated, 263,
269-71
Anchor underfoot, backing, 202-3
Angle, to berth, 239
Angle of approach: port side to,
122-23, 133; starboard side to,
122-23, 133; discussed, 122-24;
affected by wind, 130-32;
twin-screw ship, 239
Answer back system, 311
Approach: speed, 118-21; port side
to, 122-23; starboard side to,
122-23; bow in slip, 123; stern in
368 INDEX INDEX 369

Approach (continued)
slip, 124-25; lightering, 221-22;
5-point moorings, 225; at sea re-
plenishment, 249-50
Approaching berth, discussed, 122
Approaching wharf: current ahead,
126; current astern, 127
Areas of immersed sections curve, 73
ARPA: training, simulator, 267; for
pilots, 279; mentioned, 39, 81. 92,
258,284
Arrival: preparation for, 7, 22-23;
timing, 118
Arriving early, importance, 118
Assistant mooring master, qualifica-
tions, 215
Astern: movement with anchor,
202-3; simulated maneuvers, 277
Audible gyro, importance, 81
Auto-logging, 326-27
Automatic Identification System, 38
Azipod, 8, 239; commands, 63-64;
discussed, 52-70; bridge resource
management, 67-69. See also Di-
rectional propulsion systems
Backing and filling: described, 11-13;
tests, 11-13; to make lee, 28; to
anchor, 170, 171,179
Backing: discussed, 13-15; setting up
for backing, 14, 133; from slip,
144-48; hazards, 150; to anchor,
180-81, 182; strong wind, 35-36
Backing engine, effects simulated,
268, 277
Backing "into the wind," 15, 35-36,
168, 169
Backing line, 103
Backing tug, effects, 106
Ballast condition, 140
Ballasting: forward, 140; lightering,
222
Bank cushion, 21, 47; simulated. 269;
as feature, 270; training, 277
Bank effects: backing, 14;
twin-screw, 238; sheering, 47-48;
simulating, 270; as feature, 270;
training, 277
Bank suction: vs. bank cushion, 21-22;
discussed, 21-22, 47-48; passing
and meeting, 48; simulated, 270; as
feature, 270; training, 277
Barrass, PhD, C. B., 87, 88, 89, 94
Base course, at sea replenishment,
249
Basin, turning in, 151-53
Beam limit, meeting in channels, 78
Bell book, 40, 327
Bell logger, 326-27
Bend, turn in using anchor, 199
Bernoulli effect: 47, 85; discussed
85-86
Berthing, twin-screw, 236-38; land-
ing twin-screw, 238; exposed pro-
peller, 238; excess angle, 238
Bight, use undocking, 141
Blockage factor: defined, 85; effects,
85-87, 94; formula, 86; handling
characteristics, 90
Block coefficient: directional stabil-
ity, 20, 71; squat, 88, 94-95; ef-
fect on steering, 71, 90; trim,
90-91; discussed 85-87
Bottom contours: affecting backing.
15; discussed, 20-21, 47-48
Bow, in mud turning, 154
Bow stresses, VLCC, 245
Bow thruster: advantages, 15; dis-
cussed, 15, 144; compared to tug,
15; table for, 15; vs. ship's speed,
16; in anchoring, 165; Mediterra-
nean moor, 230; twin-screw ships,
235-36; moving ships laterally,
235-36
Bow tug: stern in approach, 124, 125;
undocking, 143, 145; substituting
anchor, 191, 195-97
Brake, anchor, 176, 194
Brake band, 194
Break up, lightering, 224
Breast lines, 127, 138; lightering, 222
Bridge: manning, 160; team, 16,
295-300; work, 159-60; simu-
lated, 270; as feature, 270, 272;
importance, 272; organization,
278; procedures, 278; supporting
master/pilot, 295, 297; aft visibil-
ity, 323
Bridge console, 308-9
Bridge control, single person, 67-68
Bridge design: VMax, 242; discussed,
306-11; visibility, 307-8, 311; af-
fecting bridge work, 306; consul-
tation for, 311
Bridge equipment, 81, 160, 306-11
Bridge fonvard, 323
Bridge height, 322-24
Bridge markers, 135
Bridge procedures, 261, 275, 282-84;
for pilots, 279-81 :
Bridge Resource Management: and
Azipods, 67-69, 295-300; for
shiphandlers, 295-300;
shipmaster, 298-300; watch con-
ditions, 298-300. Common terms:
shared mental model, 300; error
chain, 296; perceived world, 296.
Error recognition, bridge team:
duties, 298-99; members, 298;
team size, 298-99; purpose, 296,
297; training for pilots, 295; af-
fect on master/pilot relationship,
296-97; team vs. committee, 295,
296; pilot aboard, 300
Bridge team: and Azipods, 68; vs.
committees, 296; piloting, 68,
296-300; watch conditions,
298-300
Bridge wings, 308, 310
Briefing, simulator instruction, 261,
275,282-84
Bulbous bow, 23, 174, 193
Buoys: use of in shiphandling, 75-77;
turning on, 75-77; strong cur-
rents, 77
"By the head": affecting steering,
71-73; vs. directional stability,
19,71-73
Camels, 123, 131
Canals, crew duties, 2u7
CAORF, simulator facility, 231, 279
Centerline markers, 323
Chain: handling, 176; laying out,
181-82; clearing turns, 186-87
Chain stoppers at SPM, 214-16
Changing fuel to maneuver, 162
Channel: holding position in, 118; us-
ing buoys, 75-77; configuration
affecting squat, 85-86, 92, 94-95;
configuration, affecting underkeel
clearance, 95; width, meeting
ships, 77, 98-99
Charts: discussed, 162; as passage
plan, 162, 305
Checking swing, 18, 73
Chief mate training, 160, 254
Chocks, for use at SPM, 216
Clear view, at work area, 307-8. 310
Clear water, backing towards, 150
Clearance, underkeel: discussed,
92-100; summarized test find-
ings, 95; safe speed for, 95-96; ef-
fects of stability on, 95, 96-97;
and acceleration, 95, 97; when
meeting and passing, 95, 98-99;
when overtaking, 95, 100
"Clicking" gyro, use of, 81
368 INDEX
Close quarters, 159; speed in situa-
tion, 158; with VLCC, 244; simu-
lated, 267
Coastwise pilotage requirements,
291
COLREGS, affecting VLCCs, 246
Combined beam in narrow channels,
78
Come ahead Hne, 103
Coming ahead from slip, 148
Commands: Azipod, 63-64; standard-
ized, 54, 57, 63-64
Communications: discussed, 23,
36-39, 105, 215, 219, 251; steer-
ing gear flat, 23; with tug, 105; at
SPM, 215; lightering, 219; with
helicopter, 251; simulator train-
ing, 277, 278
Communications Tracking and Navi-
gation System, 38, 39, 312
Compulsory pilot: discussed, 288-91;
relationship to master, 291-93
Computer-based simulators: types
discussed, 266-67; model develop-
ment, 268-70;advantages,
261-62, 271; disadvantages, 271;
features, 267; compared, 271;
preferences pilot vs. deck officer,
271; validation, 273-74; instruc-
tor, 274-75; deck officer curricu-
lum, 275-78; depth perception,
279; enhancing pilot training,
282, 287; testing with 285-87
Computer control: for Azipods, 66;
discussed, 66-67
Concurrent tasks, 261, 267; testing,
285
Conn, 39, 45, 157, 254
Conning station: layout, 310; locat-
ing, 308-11
Console controls, Azipods: pilot-mas-
ter relationship, 69-70; bridge re-
source management, 67-68; and
standard bridge commands, 70,
308-11
Consoles: placement. 307-11; clear
of windows, 307, 308-9, 310,
311.
Containerships, 33-34, 82, 244, 322
Controlling emotions, 115-17
Cost, paying for pilot training, 271,
278, 282
Council of American Master Mari-
ners, 311
Course card, 7, 161-62, 172, 305-6
Course changes, 159, 254
Course material foi simulators,
275-82
Courses inked, 161-62, 304
Cross-sectional area, 70, 86, 87, 89,
90
Cross swell: making a lee in, 27;
lightering, 219
Current: actual vs. predicted, 49;
turning in, 77; mentioned, 117,
129-30, 142-43,144, 154,
168-69; from astern, 126-27, 177,
201; as tool, 129-31, 168-69; com-
pared to wind strength, 130,
168-69; undocking, 142-43, 144;
final heading, 174; affecting ma-
neuvering, 168-69; when moored,
137; planning for, 168-69, 171;
simulating, 269; as criteria, 270;
instruction, 277
Current tables, 117
Curriculum: simulators, 260; deck of-
ficers, 275-78; scenarios, 276,
277; pilots, 278-82
Curve of immersed sections, 73
Cushion effects, 21, 47, 78, 134, 221;
twin-screw, 237, 238
Daggett, PhD, Larry L.: work of, 84
INDEX
"Danger area" during at sea replen-
ishment, 2-19-50. See also
Ship-to-ship lightering
Darkness affecting piloting, 3i4-25
Data: sheet, 9: model tests, 45, card,
139
Day vs. night, 324-25
Deaton, Captain William, 217
Debriefing: simulator instruction,
261, 272, 273, 282-84; impor-
tance, 261, 283
Deck log, 326-28
Demonstrating: proficiency, 257, 259,
262; pilots, 257, 259, 262, 28i
Departing: from between ships, 143,
149; from port, 156-62; from
moorings, 228; Mediterranean
moor, 230-31; at sea replenish-
ment, 251
Depth of water: effects, 8-9, 17-18,
20, 22, 170, 178; vs. speed, 158;
affecting maneuvering, 17-18,
20-22, 85-100; and anchoring,
170-71
Depth perception, 279
DGPS: to measure squat 81;
underkeel clearance tests, 94-95
DGPS-based navigation systems:
312-15; accuracy, 315; capabili-
ties, 317; for shiphandling,
318-20; for traffic management.
320-22. See also Laptop naviga-
tion systems
Diameter of turning basin, 153-54
Diesel engine, handlmg twin-screw,
234
Diesel oil for maneuvering, 40, 162
Diesel propulsion: backing, 26; ma-
neuvering, 40, 49; affecting steer-
ing 49; dead slow ahead, 143,
14C; mentioned, 143, 145
Digital fathometer, 81, 310
371
Dingier, Captain Carl R., 224
Direction of rotation: propeller, 51,
120, 122, 150: variable-pitch pro-
peller, 51, 150-51; directional
control, stern anchor, 188
Directional propulsion systems:
types, 52; advantages, 53; con-
cerns, 53-54; design, 55-56; con-
trols, 56-58, engine modes,
59-60; At Sea mode, 59; Harbor
(Maneuvering mods), 60; At-Sea
pod configuration, 61; Harbor pod
configuration, 62; Docking pod
configuration, 62-63; standard-
ized commands, 63-64, 70; com-
puter control, 64; me ship length
rule, 66; and BRM, 67-69; and
master/pilot relationship, 69-70
Directional stability: defined, 18;
shallow water effects, 18; men-
tioned, 19, 20, 140, 23910; trim
effects, 70-72; instability used to
advantage, 72-73; instability dis-
cussed, 73, 83, 232; for VLCCs,
72, 239-41, 246; for VMax ships,
23941; twin-screw, 235; simu-
lated, 268
Disagreement, master and pilot, 294
Displacement, 86; affecting
shiphandling, 244
Distance estimated at night, 324-25
Distance line, 250
Docking: shaping up for, 14, 122;
bow-in, 123; current from astern,
126-27; stemming tide, 126; pil-
ing clusters used port side to,
122, 123, 131, 133-34; piling
clusters used starboard side to,
122, 123, 133, 134; stern in,
124-26; with anchor, 193,
195-97; twin-screw ship, 235-39;
wind and current, 129-32;
368
INDEX
Docking (continued)
landing twin-screw, 237-39;
twin-screw cushion, 238; angle to
berth, 122-23, 127, 239; simu-
lated, 268, 2S9
Docking plans, 117-18
"Don't touch syndrome," 255, 278
Doppler speed log, 81, 82, 119, 120,
258,310,317
Draft: discussed, 19; affecting direc-
tional stability, 19-20; vs. depth,
85
Drag: discussed, 20, 70-72, 140; af-
fecting directional stability, 20,
70-72
Drills for man overboard, 231-34
Dynamic friction, anchor brake, 194
Dynamic instruction, simulation, 261
Eddy currents: discussed, 49, 126,
127, 137, 202; in bend, 49; going
alongside, 137
Effective maneuver defined, 17
Electronic charts, onboard pilot
training, 258
Emergencies: discussed, 23, 194,
199-200; breaking up lightering,
224; evacuation by helicopter,
251-52; simulated, 269-70, 277,
279
Engine: overuse, 65; starting
twin-screw, 238
Engine astern to stop, 13-14, 24
Engineer for steering gear, 23
Engine failure: discussed, 150,
199-200; use of stern anchor, 200
Engine opposing tug forces, 142-43,
144, 149
Engine response, simulated, 268
Engine revolutions: uses, 44, 52, 132,
134; vs. ship's speed, 132; steer-
ing effects. 44, 52
Engines used, tug on hawser, 110-11
Enrollment, pilot requirements, 291.
See also Compulsory pilot
Equipment: grouping, 308-9; simula-
tor evaluating, 272, 273, 285-86;
simulated failures, 278
Equivalency, 286-87; simulation vs.
sea time, 286
Error chain: and Azipods, 69; BRM
for pilots, 296
Errors in judgment, 301
Eryuzlu and Hauser: squat formula,
90; mentioned, 88, 90
Esso Osaka tests, 22, 243
Evaluation, simulator, 270; by simu-
lator, 272, 284-85; pilot perfor-
mance, 281-82, 286; evaluator
qualifications, 286-87
Excessive speed, 118
External effects, simulation, 267-70.
See also Simulator
Facing aft, 112, 152
Fair tide, 49-50
Fathometer, 81, 258, 310. See also
Digital fathometer
Feedback: and bridge resource man-
agement, 68; regarding Azipod
control, 68
Fidelity, simulator model, 270
Final heading: discussed, 172-73; wind
and currents, 174; advantages,
174: bulbous bow, 174; determin-
ing, 175; alternatives, 175; recip-
rocal, 175; anchoring off, 175-76
Finesse docking, 136
Fire and emergency drills, 256. See
also Drills for man overboard
Flare affecting tug's maneuvers, 104
Flashing light, 36
Flow over rudder, 47, 80, 199
Flow, rudder effect, 235, 238
INDEX
Forum, 276, 279
Forwaid sections, directional stabil-
ity, 18-20. See also Directional
stability
Forward tug dismissal, 155
Freeboard vs. wind, 31-32, 34-36,
129-30
Freshets, 49
Full sections: affecting directional
stability, 19-20
Full task simulator, 267
Future of simulation, 284-85
Gaillard Cut, 48, 109,211
Gear for 5-point moorings, 225
Going alongside, 136-37
Going astern, maintaining control,
133-34
Grenoble, 263; model-based simula-
tor, 263
Gross negligence, 292, 301
"Gunsight effect," 323
Gyrocompass, 81, 309, 310;
shiphandling tool, 81
Hand signals, 115,116
"Hands-on" drills, 255, 256, 257; sim-
ulated, 260-61, 276, 286-87
Harmonic vibrations, 158
Hawser: uses, 111; for tugs, 110-11
Head currents, 49; docking, 126;
undocking, 142-44
Heading for helicopter operations, 251
Headway for steering, 51
Heaving off beith, 145, 193
Heavy oil vs. maneuvering, 40,162
Height of eye effects, 322-24
Helicopter maneuvering plot, 251;
operations, 251-52
Helm orders, 115,116
Helm station: discussed, 309; equip-
ment, 309; location, 308
372
Helmsman: training, 73; using rate
of turn indicator, 83; duties, 309,
311
Hewlett, PE, J. Christopher: work of,
84
High power ships: response, 230-37,
239; walking ship, 236-37
Holding: alongside pier, 15, 137-38;
in channel, 100, 118; with tugs,
118; with anchor, 118, 188,
197-198
Horizontal bridge team, 295. See also
Bridge
Huuska and Tuck: squat formula, 89;
mentioned, 88, 89
Hydraulic cushion: discussed, 126,
137; lightering, 221
Hydrodynamic effects: model-based
simulators, 264; computer simu-
lators, 267-70; pilot training,
230
Hydrodynamicist, simulators, 267
Ice on pilot ladder, 29
Identification by VHF, 37-38. See
also VHF
Imminent danger: relieving pilot,
292-293; in extremis, 293
Inboard anchor, 192-93
Inboard propeller, 237, 238; walking
ship, 234-36, 237; checking lat-
eral motion, 238
Information in pilot waters, 4043,
302, 305
Inked courses for charts, 161-62, 305
Instructor: simulator, 261, 274-75:
as component of simulation, 274;
importance, 261, 274; team con-
cept, 274; qualifications, 274;
training, 274; accreditation, 274;
involvement, 275; in debriefing,
283
368
Instrumentation: discussod, 8183;
seaman's eye 81; gyro, 81; DGPS,
81; radar, 31; rate of turn indica-
tor, 81-82; limiting bridge visibil-
ity, 81, for VLCCs, 246; in bridge
design, 306-11. See also Bridge
equipment
International Maritime Organization
(IMO), 28, 40, 275, 286, 307
International Maritime Pilots' Asso-
ciation, 307
Intership action: meeting, 77-80,
98-99; simulated, 264, 268-70,
277
Intership effects: model simulators,
264, 268, 269; simulator training,
277
Irwin, Captain Marshall, 217
Ives, Captain Paul, 52
Jackstaff as steering aid, 323
Keel clearance, affecting steering,
17-18
Kicking engine: to steer to wind, 35;
to steer at slow speed, 118; twin
screw, 234
Ladder, for pilot, 28-30, 33
Landing alongside: discussed,
133-34, 136-37; landing flat,
136-37
Laptop navigation systems: dis-
cussed, 311-22; common features,
312; design requirements, 312,
313. For navigation: charts accu-
racy for, 315- 16; capabilities,
317; independent of ship's equip-
ment, 317-18; CTANS, 312-14;
for pilots, 311-15; real time, 317.
For shiphandling: making turns,
318-19, meeting points, 319-20;
INDEX
"Not line of sight," 319; for traffic
management, 320-22. See also
DGPS-based navigation systems
Large ships, simulator pilot training,
81-82
Lash up: defined, 111-12; uses,
112-14; to reduce tug use, 112-13
Lateral motion: bank effect, 21, 47;
narrow channels, 47; mentioned,
21, 47, 82, 125, 130; discussed,
21, 47, 125, 131, 132; causes, 132;
detecting, 82, 132-33; twin-screw
ships, 235-36; high-power ships,
237; checking, 78,130, 134, 238
Late turns discussed, 74
Leback, Captain Warren G., 18'i
Lee anchor, 192-93
Lee for pilot, 26-28 <
Leeway during approach, 122, 123,
133
Left turn: discussed, 10-11; disad-
vantage when maneuvering, 11
Length affecting directional stability,
20
Length/beam ratio, 20, 239, 240; and
VMax ships, 240-42; directional
stability, 240; turning circle, 240;
handling characteristics, 240-42;
VMax vessels, 240-43
Letting go anchor for docking,
131-32, 192-93, 195-97
Liability: in Panama Canal locks,
291; outside Panama Canal locks,
291-92, pilot, 293, 301
Lifting quarter of twin-screw ship,
238
Light ship departing moorings, 228
Lightering: discussed, 217-24; moor-
ing lines, 221-22
Limits: for speed, 90; for mooring at
SPM, 213-14; lightering, 219, 222
Lines, fouling twin-screws, 239, 243
INDEX
Little Creek, Virginia, model-based
simulator, 263
Local knowledge: importance, 117,
159, 302-3; defined, 289
Lock wall suction, 211
Lockage: density current, 205-6; ap-
proach, 207-8; discussed, 209-10;
techniques, 209-10; piston effect,
209; wall effects, 207-11; filling,
210; departing, 210-11; flush out,
210
Lookout in pilotage waters, 292
LOOP terminal, 211, 212
Loss of engine: stopping ship, 25, 26,
199-201
Low length-to-beam ratio ships: and
directional stability, 239, 240;
handling, 240-42; VMax ships,
240-43
Making fast, 137-38
Making lee, simulator training, for
pilot boarding 276, 278; for life-
boats, 277
Maneuvering: most effective, 17, 65;
pilot station, 26-28; information,
38, 40-42; in channel, 74-77, 100:
Azipod, 5455, 59-63; excessive
power, 55; computer-controlled,
64-67; fuel,162; simulated traffic,
277-78; night vs. daylight,
324-26
Maneuvering characteristics: impor-
tance of, 43-44, 165, 255-56;
learning, 165: changes in, 13,
18-20. 170-71; wind effects,
31-36, 129-32; departing anchor-
age, 171
Maneuvering plot for helicopter oper-
ation, 251
Maneuvering ship, replenishment at
sea,247,249-51
375
Manning bridge. 159-60. 298-300;
anchor, 173
Man overboard. 231-34: drill. 221
Manrcpep, 30
Manual controls, use, 66
Master: trial maneuvers, 7-9; rela-
tionship to pilot, defined, 288,
291; relationship to pilot in prac-
tice, 69-70, 292, 294-95,297;ex-
ercising responsibility, 292;
disputing pilot's actions, 292-93
Master's trials: simulator, 276-77
Mate's duties: on watch, 159-60,
326-28; anchoring, 172,
181-82
Maximum submerged area, 72-73
McMillin, Captain Earl R., 52, 228
Measuring: performance b} simula-
tion, 261-62,272-73,282-84;
equipment, 272-73, 282-84; test-
ing, 285-286
Mediterranean moor: discussed,
228-31; anchors, 229; mate's du-
ties, 230; departing, 230-31
Meeting ships in channel: discussed
57-58, 59; 77-80; underkeel
clearance, 98-100; planning with
pilot DGPS laptop, 319-20
Meeting, simulated in a channel,
264, 263-69, 270, 271, 276-77
Mental model: bridge resource man-
agement, 68; regarding Azipod
control, 68
Messengers: at SPM, 214; for tug
lines, 155
Midships section affecting
shiphandling, 86, 87-88; and
squat, 87-88
Model-based simulators: discussed,
262-66, 271-72; advantages,
263-64; hydrodynamic effects,
263-64; anchor work, 264;
368 INDEX
Model-based simulators (continued)
model accuracy, 266-70; limita-
tions, 271-72; disadvantages,
270, 271-72; compared to com-
puter simulation, 271-72; prefer-
ences, pilot vs. deck officer, 271
Modes: Azipod, 59-63
Mooring: discussed, 185-87; running
moor, 185; flying moor,185; meth-
ods, 185-87, spread unchors, 186;
standing moor, 183; clear hawse,
185-86; clearing chain, 187; five-
and seven-point, 224-28
Mooring bitts at SPM, 215-16
Mooring lines: discussed, 117,
136-37, 141; lightering, 219-22;
5-point mooring, 224-26;
twin-screw ship, 239
Mooring master's duties, 212-17,
219-22; 5-point and 7-point moor-
ings, 224-28
Most efficient maneuvers, 65
Motion: detecting general, 28, 82-83,
118-21, 132-33. See also Lateral
motion
Moving: astern, 15; laterally, 132-33,
144-48. 150; with tug, 144-48;
ship sideways, twin-screw,
235-37
Mules in Panama, 207, 209-10
Narrow channel: backing in, 13-15,
133-34; discussed, 47-46, 74-77;
meeting ships, 77-80; holding po-
sition, 118; using anchor, 197-99,
201-3; simulated maneuvers,
270, 276-77; holding simulated,
277; twin-screw, 238
Navigation: anchoring, 172; by eye,
172-73; leading marks, 172,
176-78; simulation, 261-62; com-
pared by simulator type, 271
Navigation training for pilots,
257-60
Navigational aids, simulating,
268-69
Negative directional stability. See Di-
rectional stability
Neutral directional stability. See Di-
rectional stability
Night: estimating speed at, 28,
118-21; vision, 42; passage,
324-26
Notice to mariners, 302
Offshore anchor. See Anchors
Offshore lightering: discussed,
217-24; offtaker, 219-22; depart-
ing from, 224
"One ship length" rule, 66
Open stern, 19 , ulators, 267; simulated boarding,
Outboard propeller, walking ship,
225-37
Overtaking, 80; vs. underkeel clear-
ance, 100
Overuse of engines, 65
Panama Canal: squat tests, 92-100;
underkeel clearance, 95-100; dis-
cussed, 204, 205-11; locomotives,
207, 209; locks entrance, 206-9,
208-10; locks departure, 210-11;
master/pilot relationship, 291-92
Part task simulators, discussed,
266-67
Passage planning: discussed, 17,
161-62; for anchoring, 165, 166,
167-69; for maneuvering, 169-71;
briefing officers, 172, 180; need
for, 302-3; excessive, 303; on
charts, 305; affecting record keep-
ing, 326-28
Peer review, 276, 279, 280-81, 282,
283
INDEX
Penalties: master's errors, 301; pen-
alties counterproductive, 301
Performance-based testing, 285-86;
vs. written examinations, 286-87;
criteria, 286
Permanent crews, 128-29
Perspective, docking and undocking,
247
Pilot-Master relationship: simulator
training, 281; and Azipods,
69-70; bridge resource manage-
ment, 297; exchange of informa-
tion, 40-43
Pilot(s): maneuvering at pilot sta-
tion, 26-28; embarking, 28-31;
ladder, 29-30; hoist, 30;
on-board training, 257-60; fed-
eral licensing, 259; tailoring sim-
276-77; curriculum, 278-82;
onboard vs. simulated training,
279; simulator enhanced train-
ing, 279; simulator as forum,
279; duties, 251-52; responsibil-
ity, 289-92; relief by master,
292-94
Pilot laptop systems: general,
311-15; for navigation, 315-18;
design requirements, 312, 313;
features, 31415, 317; chart accu-
racy, 315-16; system accuracy,
315; real time, 317; communica-
tions, 317-18; vs. radar, 319; line
of sight, 319; for shiphandling,
318-20; traffic management
320 -22
Pilot responsibility: statutory, 69;
and pilot master relationship
69-70; regarding terrorism, 69;
and Azipods, 69-70; bridge re-
source management, 297
Pilot testing, 285
377
Piston effect, 85-87, 90
Pivoting point: discussed, 72 92, 142,
:
148, 152, 198-09; turning in a
channel, 74-75; anchor affecting,
191-92
Planning ahead for wind, 35-36; dis-
cussed, 49, 129-32, 107-8, 170;
Azipod systems, 65, 68; passage,
42, 161-62; docking, 123, 130-31;
undocking, 139; anchoring, 166,
167-68; stern anchor, 187-89;
Mediterranean moor, 229, 230;
with VLCC, 243-44
Pocket card for pilot waters, 172,
305-6
"Poor man's tug", 191, 224
Port studies, using simulators,
281-32
Positive directional stability. See
Directional stability
Preplanning. See Passage planning
Preprinted docking forms, 117
Pressure drop causing sinkage, 85
Priorities in shiphandling, 262, 276
Prioritizing, practice, 262; demon-
strating ability to, 276
Procedures, watchkeeping, 261, 277
Professionalism: discussed, 46-47;
defined, 46; learned trait, 46;
teaching, 46^17, 253-57; on simu-
lator, 277
Proficiency, demonstrating, 262
Profile design, 51
Propeller: wash, estimating speed,
28; direction of rotation, 56,
151, 236; design, 51-52; separa-
tion effects, 250; twin-screw,
234-40; variable-pitch, 51-52,
150-51; and lines, 227, 228,
230
Propulsion systems, 50-70
"Pulling water," 90
368 INDEX
Qualifications, 274-75; simulator in-
structor, 274
Quickwater: to determine speed, 119,
120; discussed, 134-35; position
of, 119-20; cushioning effect, 137;
lateral motion, 134; planning for,
134; when undocking, 141-42,
144; when docking, 133, 134;
when anchoring, 180, 181, 182
Radar: 39, 80, 81, 119, 183; and
bridge design, 310; simulator in-
struction, 261, 267; pilots,
257-58, 279
Radio use, 3S-39, 105, 125, 249
Ranges used when turning, 154, 161,
176
Rate of turn: changes in, 10, 18; indi-
cator use, 61-64, 192, 267; back-
ing and filling, 12-13
Rate-of-turn indicator: 83, 84, 222,
309, 310; using gyro for, 81; steer-
ing with, 222
Realism, importance for simulation,
270
Real-time simulation, 262
Recording fathometer use, 81
Record keeping: 295, 299, 326-28; vs.
shiphandling, 327; unnecessary,
327
Reducing headway: narrow channel,
118; discussed, 2426; by change
of heading, 17, 25; VLCC, 25; us-
ing tugs, 106-7, 109, 118, 126; us-
ing anchors, 185, 190, 195-97:
using Williamson turns, 231-32;
rudder, 12; maintaining control,
14; methods, 24; round turn ma-
neuver, 25-26
Relative bearings: turning, 75, 326;
changes in, 326
Relative motion, 119, 257, 324, 326
Relative wind for helicopter operation.
See Helicopter maneuvering piot
Release from liability: discussed, 293;
signing, 293
Releasing pilot, 157
Relieving pilot: compulsory, 294; vol-
untary, 289-90
Responsibility: compulsory pilot,
69-70; master/pilot, 288, 291-92
Restricted visibility, 82, 197, 315
RO/RO ship mooring, 228-31
Rolling: 92; in narrow channels, 95;
rudder-induced, 97; lightering,
222
Rotation, twin-screw propellers, 236
Round turn: slowing ship, 25-26;
making lee, 26-28; discussed, 26;
vs. Williamson turn, 231; simula-
tor instruction, 277. See also SPM
RTM STAR Center: VMax ships, 242;
testing criteria, 285, 286
Rudder, effectivenejs, 11, 47, 50-51,
198-99, 201, 234-35, turning, 74;
overuse, 134; failure, 188;
twin-screw vessels, 234-40; stop-
ping engine, 235;flow,235; types
of, 50-52; VMax rudder configu-
ration, 24142; split rudders, 242
Rudder angle indicator, 309, 310,
327. See also Bridge equipment
Rules of threes: simulation, 260-61;
simulation components, 261; in-
struction steps, 261; instructor as
component, 274-75; curriculum,
275-82; steps of training, 261-62;
briefing and debriefing, 282-84
Rules of the Road, 80, 289, 292; sim-
ulation, 267, 271, 277, 278, 284,
285
"Safe speed," 95; VLCC, 244, 246
Sail area, 31-32, 169, 198
INDEX
Sail training, 36
Sonic, importance for model simula-
tors, 264
Scale model simulators: discussed,
262-64, 271-73; advantages, 264;
anchor work, 264; limitations,
264; importance of scale, 264; ca-
pabilities, 264; compared to com-
puter simulators 271-72;
disadvantages, 264, 271; prefer-
ence of pilots, 271; preference of
deck officers, 271-72
Scenaiios, simulator, 276, 277-78;
for pilot training, 272, 278-82
Scratch log: use, 327, 327-28; elimi-
nating scrap paper 327; reducing
paperwork, 328
Seamanship, 54, 59,187, 310
Searoom: requirements, 168; allow-
ance, 168-69, 178; restricted 171;
at anchor, 179-81; determining at
anchor, 183-85; swinging room,
183-85; swinging clear, 184-85
"Sea sense," 163, 175, 246, 253
Sequential, testing, 262; skill appli-
cation, 262
Set: approaching berLli, 91, 130-31;
at wharf, 126; vs. drift and lee-
way, 130; unlocking, 142; in turn-
ing basin, 152-54;
computer-controlled systems, 65
Shallow channel, twin-screw, 238
Shallow water: discussed, 7; affecting
backing, 11; effects general,
17-18, 21: data, 44; VLCC, 22,
246; effects simulated, 267: as
feature, 270
Shed doers affecting wind, 147
Sheer, 191-92, 199
Sheering, twin-screw, 238
Ship as training aid: for ship's offi-
cers, 254-57; for pilots, 257-60
379
Shipboard management, 128-29
Shipboard training, 254-60
Ship characteristics. 43-45
Shiphandling: as art, 3, 136; anchor
as tool, 191-94; skills vs. tug use,
105-6: importance of traditional
skills, 102; simulator instruction,
261-62; simulation, 264-71, 277;
simulated anchor, 269; instruc-
tional curriculum, 275-82; for
deck officers, 275-78; for pilots,
278-82; skills vs. pilot/master re-
lationship, 292-93; using instru-
mentation, 80-83; laptop systems
and DGPS, 318-20; simulators,
260
Ship length rule: 66-67
Ship-to-ship lightering: discussed,
217-24; preparations, 217; equip-
ment, 219; fenders, 21,-18, 220;
mooring lines, 219, 221, 222
Ship trial data, 43-45
Shoaling: affecting shiphandling, 42,
81; and quickwater, 134-35, 142;
turning basin,153; twin-ships, 238
Shottel tug, 110
Signals. See Hand signals; Whistle
signals
Simulator: practicing turns, 75; in-
novative training aid, 261-62;
computer-generated, 257,
264-70; comparison of model
and computer, 271-72; tools of
instruction, 272-73; briefing
and debriefing sessions, 282-41;
validation, 273-74; vs.
hands-on, 286-87; advantages
of, 260, '261; components of in-
struction, 225, 226, 238, 239,
240-43; general discussion of,
225-36; rule of threes, 260-61,
282; vs. classroom, 261-62;
368 INDEX
Simulator (continued)
as a forum, 276, 279, 281, 282;
limitations, 261, 270;
modei-based, 2 /1-72; types dis-
cussed, 262; computer-based,
264-70; field of view, 266; disad-
vantages, 261, 270, 279; impor-
tance of realism, 270; playback
capability, 272, 281; instructor
qualifications, 27475; validation,
273-74; instructor involvement,
275; for deck officers, 275-78; for
pilot training, 278-82; for testing,
285-86; Alaskan pilot program,
286; future of, 284-85
Simultaneous tasks, 267
Single point moorings: discussed,
211-17; riding up, 216, See also
SPM
Single rudder, twin-screw, 234
Singling up, 141
Sinkage: defined, 83; discussed,
83-85, 89; component of squat,
85; calculating, 88-89
Situational awareness: bridge re-
source management, 68; and
Azipods, 62
Slewing to reduce headway, 25
"Smelling" bottom, 21
Solid-face wharf, twin-screw ships,
238
Southampton Institute, model-based
simulator, 263, 272
Spade rudders, 51
Speed: measuring slow rates of, 132;
affecting bow thruster, 16; reduc-
ing, 121; steerageway, 35-36;
narrow channels, 47-48; meet-
ing, 78-80; overtaking, 80; shal-
low water, 85-88, 158; vs.
blockage factor, 86, 88; tug on
hawser, 111; vs. ability, 118;
approaching berth, 118-19; de-
termining, 119-21, 132;over
ground, 11.9, 121; through water,
119-21; and squat, 86-87; wind
effects, 130, 168; at departure,
157-59; instructor, 274; curricu-
lum for deck officers, 275-78;
curriculum for pilots, 278-82;
anchoring, 264; measuring slow
rates of, 132
SPM: current meters, 212-13; wind
effects, 212, 216; current effects,
212-13; external forces, 212; ap-
proach, 212; reducing speed, 213,
214, 217; chafing chain, 214; pick
up line, 214; chain stoppers, 214;
Smit brackets, 214, 216; mooring
equipment, 216
Spring line, 111, 123, 145, 147, 148,
274
Squat: discussed 18; basics, 83-87;
defined, 83, 85; calculating,
87-90; vs. sinkage, 83, 84; com-
mon useage, 85; cause, 85; illus-
trated, 87; open water, 87-88;
shallow water, 88; vs. speed,
86-87, 90, 95-96; by the head, 85,
90; by the stern, 85, 90; vs. cargo
capacity, 91; blockage factor, 85,
87, 90
Stability: directional discussed,
18-20; impact on underkeel clear-
ance, 96-97; simulating direc-
tional, 268
Stability and trim booklet, 73
Standardized commands, 63-64
Starting engine: twin-screw, 238
Static friction of anchor brake, 194
Steaming: on anchor, 118; lightering,
222
Steam turbine: steering characteris-
tics, 51-
INDEX
Steering: anchors assist in, 198-99;
astern, 151-52; bow thruster,
15-17; shallow water, 17, 158;
VLCCs, 22, 244; standing by
gear, 22-23, 249; from steering
gear flat, 22, 23, 249; engine
stopped, 22, 26; steerageway, 25,
80, 118, 189, 201,213, 214,217,
219; trimmed by the head, 71, 73;
lightering, 219; at sea replenish-
ment, 249; simulated, 315; wind
effects on, 31-36
Stemming current: at wharf, 126;
docking, 121; stern anchor, 191;
anchor, 155
Stern: bank effect, 47; tug, 108, 125,
154; motion to port, 133-34; to-
wards danger, 150; in approach-
ing pier, 124-26
Stern anchor: emergency use,
199-201; danger to rudder and
propeller, 189; heaving up, 189;
use, 188-91; open roadstead,
189-90
Stern tug: uses, 108; standing off,
108, 125; dismissing, 154-55
Sternway: steering with, 12, 200;
handling 15; digging in, 182-83;
wind effects, 35, 36, 168; with
stern anchor, 189, 190; with an-
chor, 176; simulated maneuvers,
277; reduce, 151,152; laying out
the chain, 181-82
Stoppers at moorings, 215, 216
Stopping ship: shallow water, 13-14;
distances, 244; lashed up tug,
112; maneuvering in channel,
100; maintaining heading, 14-15;
with anchor, 179, 182, 200; on
simulator, 277; reducing head-
way, 24-26; as safety measure,
159; moorings, 226-27
381
Suction: discussed. 47-48, 219, 238;
meeting in channel, 48, 78
Surging at dock, 137-38
"Sweeping a Ice," 27-28
Swing room at anchor, 183-85
Synthetic tails/pendants, 219
Tailoring, simulator models, 267
Teaching techniques, simulation,
274-75, 281; curriculum, 291-95
Team: crews, 4, 37, 42, 54, 57, 65,
109-10, 171; bridge, 296-300;
concept, 295; multicultural, 281
Terminology: standard for Azipod,
57; for conning, 63-64; and BRM,
67-09
Terrorism: pilot-master relationship,
69
Testing, with simulation, 262, 272,
285-86; validated, 238; perfor-
mance based, 286; criteria, 286;
methodology, 286; pilot, 285; deck
officers, 286; simulator, 28586
Thinking ahead: 49
Tide and current, 49-50
Tonnaga'horsepower ratio, 244
Torque, 140, 144-46
Traditional skills: importance, 54, 70:
vs. equivalency, 287
Traffic management: pilot navigation
equipment, 312, 316-17; simu-
lated maneuvers, 320-22; laptop
systems and DGPS, 320-22; pas-
sive vs. active, 320-21; filtered
information, 320
Training: onboard for ship's officer,
254-57; helmsman, 73; for
non-traditional systems, 70; unit
crew, 128-29; anchors, 191,
200-1; Williamson turn, 231-34;
discussed, 253-54; formal vs. in-
formal, 253-54; sources, 253-54;
368
INDEX
Training (continued)
onboard for pilots, 257-60; by
over navigation, 258; structured
environment, 260, 261, 270, 279;
pilot training in structured envi-
ronment, 279, 287; pilot training
surcharge, 282; for VMax, 242
Transfer, skill, 282, 285
Trial data: collecting, 9; maneuvers,
11, 14, 17, 71, 74, 80, 97, 165, 179
Trim: shallow wcter, 18; affecting di-
rectional stability, 19, 71; tactical
diameter affected, 70; general ef-
fects, 70-73; by the head, 71;
wind effects, 71; as component of
squat, 85; defined, 83; effect of
block coefficient, 90-91; simu-
lated, 268
Triple-screw propulsion, 239
Tugs: making up a, 103-5; docking or
undocking, 103; alongside, 103,
106; stern line, 1034; on hawser,
104, 109, 110-11; patented drive,
104, 105; communicating with,
105, 111; use discussed, 105-7;
bow, 107; stern (after tug), 108;
two bows, 108-9; astern, 109;
safety, 109-10; lashing up,
111-13; helm orders, 112; twin
screw, 104; compared to bow
thruster, 15; lines, 105; at stem,
107; effects on ship, 106, 107,
108, 109; minimize use, 105-6; in
current, 107, 126; stem to stem,
107; docking stern in, 124-26; at
wharf, 127; pivoting ship, 144;
dismissing, 154-55; to anchor,
171; with twin-screw ships,
235-36; simulating, 268, 277
Turbine: steering, 51; sea speed, 162;
going astern, 51; engine, handling
twin-screw, 234
Turning couples, 211
Turning diameter: right turn, 9; left
turn, 10-11; backing and filling,
11-13; shallow water, 6, lu, 17-18,
25, 246; discussed, 18, 51, 70-71,
74, 152, 192; in anchorage, 198-99;
VLCC, 72, 214, 231, 232, 234
Turning rate: at equilibrium, 12-13;
buoy as indicator, 75
Turning to sea, 151-54
Turning, twin-screw, 23540
Twin-rudder, 235, 236
Twin-screw: tugs, 72, 73, 104; disad-
vantages, 234-35; turning,
235-40; ships discussed, 234-40;
compared to single-screw, 234;
diesel vs. turbine, 234; sin-
gle-rudder, 234; twisting, 235,
236; rudder flow, 235; inboard
turning vs. outboard turning, 236
Twisting effect: backing, 14; dis-
cussed, 94, 133, 146, 175; VLCC,
246; simulated, 268; backing from
a slip, 146; turn to starboard,
178; twin screw, 235, 236
ULCC: single-point moorings,
211-12; handling, 214, 244. See
also SPM
Undocking: tug lashed up, 11213;
planning, 13940; current astern,
142; turning to sea, 151-54; "one
ship length rule," 66; skills, 70,
140, 239, 327; berthed port side
to, 14546; slack water 144; sim-
ulated, 268; draft and trim in bal-
last, 140-41; singling up, 141;
using quickwater, 14142; from
wharf, 14244; backing from slip,
14448; coming ahead from slip,
148; coming off parallel to berth,
149
INDEX
Underkeel clearance: discussed,
92-100; measuring, 92-93; ana-
lyzing. 92-95; components of, 95;
safe speed, 95-96; and stability,
96-97; acceleration and, 97-98;
meeting and passing, 98-100;
overtaking 100 >
Unit crews, 129
Unmooring: stern anchor, 190-91
Unstable, simulated directional,
268-69
Unstable ship. See Directional stabil-
ity
Valentine, Captain Robert D., 306
Validation, simulator model, 273-74
Vantine, Captain Wilbur H., 306
Variable pitch: discussed, 51-52, 112;
steering, 52; astern, 51; docking,
51; flow to rudder, 51-52; vs.
fixed propellers, 150-51; vs. tur-
bine, 51; left-hand turning,
150-51
VHF: use cf, 27, 36-39; at arrival, 25,
37; at departure, 159-60; in traf-
fic, 36; call identification, 38; with
helicopter, 251; avoiding bad situ-
ations, 36, 138, 228; relaying in-
tentions, 39, 159; as backup, 215;
as conning station equipment,
310; practices, 36-37
Vibration in shallow water, 17, 90, 158
Video: simulator tool, 272, 276, 281;
training material, 254; recorder,
256; debriefing, 283-84
Visibility, simulating, 267; arc of,
267; bridge height, 322-24; dia-
gram. 289
Visibility: VMax, 87-88; bridge de-
sign, 306-11
VLCCs: diameter of turn, 10, 246;
shallow water, 22; reducing head-
382
way, 25: low speeds, 214; steer-
ing, 62: SPM, 215-17; sail area,
212, 216; ship-to-ship lightering,
217-24: Williamson turn, 231--34;
handling. 22, 193-94, 243-47;
stresses. 24546; helicopter oper-
ations, 251-52; storing, 251;
bridge design, 307; calculated to-
tal squat, 87-88. See also ULCC
VMax: 240-43; carry capacity, 240;
description, 24012; handling,
239; breakthrough design, 241;
rudder/skeg design, 240
Voith-Schneider, 52, 104, 110
Voyage planning, simulator training,
278
Walking: at berth 142; moor, 185;
stern, 202; twin-screw ships,
235-36
"Walking the stern": twin-screw, 144
Watchkeeping experience: simula-
tion, 261, 277; instruction, 261
Watchkeeping: training, 275-8; pilot
waters, 278-82
Waterway Simulation Technology,
Inc.: work of, 92-100; measure-
ments speed vs. squat, 95; vs.
block coefficient, 94; measure-
ments of ships meeting, 98-99
Weather conditions: SPM, 217; light-
ering, 221-22; 5-point moorings
227-28; using anchor, 197-98
Wharf: importance of solid face, 238;
approaching'with current astern,
126-27
Wheelhouse windows, 307-11, 322
Whistle signals: communication, 105;
in simulator training, 256, 274;
importance of, 38, 39, 159, 208
Williamson turn: defined, 232; vari-
ables, 231-32; simulator, 277
384
Winches, 105, 110, 141, 207, 209.
250
Wind: moving ship astern, 15, an-
choring, 168-70; effects dis-
cussed, 31-36, 117, 122, 129-32,
197-98, 200; "feeling," 129; "tak-
ing charge," 130; vs. current,
130-31; as tool, 129-32; docking,
123, 130-31; undocking, 139;
leaving berth, 146-48; lightering,
221, 224; indicators, 310; simulat-
ing, 269; as feature, 270
Wind effects: discussed, 14, 31-36;
affecting handling, 31-63, 165; at
INDEX
reduced speeds, 35; using to
advantage, 129-32, 168-70; af-
fecting final heading, 168; back-
ing from a slip, 146-48;
simulated, 242
Windlass to stop ship, 171, 195
Wires at 5-point moorings, 225
Work habits: correcting, 247, 262,
282; importance of, 306, 327;
shiphandling, 284, 307
X-Y plotter, for simulator, 272
"Zero pitch" steering, 52
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Daniel H. MacElrevey was raised near the Delaware River where he de-
veloped an interest in the sea watching the ships come and go from the
port of Philadelphia. He graduated from the U.S. Merchant Marine Acad-
emy in 1933 and went to sea as a deck officer with Moore-McCormack
Lines aboard cargo and passenger ships trading to South and East Africa,
South America, and northern Europe. He also worked with the same com-
pany in marine operations and stevedoring in New York.
He and his family moved to Panama in 1970 where he worked as a Pan-
ama Canal pilot for eight years. Living in Panama provided the opportu-
nity for him to pursue another strong interestocean sailingand later
he and his family lived aboard and cruised before he returned to sea. He
subsequently spent four years as master of LNG vessels with El Paso Ma-
rine Company and served as mooring master for VLCCs at the Louisiana
Offshore Oil Port.
Captain MacElrevey resumed a career in Panama and spent more
than 24 years piloting ships in the Canal and the ports of Balboa and
Cristobal. He has also become very involved in the use of simulation for
shiphandling training and evaluation including service as a member of
the Committee on Ship Bridge Simulation Training sponsored by the Na-
tional Academy of Science's Marine Board in 1993-95. He was chairman
of the Panama Canal Pilot Association's technical committee while work-
ing on studies of ship behavior and squat in narrow channels with Water-
way Simulation Technology, Inc. and developing a real-time vessel traffic
and communications system fcr pilots (CTANSj with the Department of
Transportation's Volpe Center. Captain MacElrevey retired from his posi-
tion as pilot and port captain at the Panama Canal in 1998.
MacElrevey provides consulting, training, technical writing, and ship-
handling services to the marine industry through Offshore Services Com-
pany, which he formed in 1980. Current woik includes services as
consultant and expert witness for various maritime law firms and simula-
tor-based training for pilots and ship's officers including a contract at the
385
386 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

RTM STAR Center in Dania, Florida, for training and performance evalu-
ation of Alaska state pilots.
Daniel E. MacElrevey celebrated his second birthday aboard the S.S.
Cristobal, while enroute to Panama. His early childhood was spent living
near the locks of the Panama Canal and it was there that he developed his
fondness for ships and appreciation for the mariners who guide them. He
made his first transit of the Panama Canal with his father at age eight.
Following this trip he declared his intention to one day be a pilot.
Dan's family left Panama in 1977, living aboard their boat for a year
before settling in Cape May, New Jersey. Dan developed his love of life on
the water during subsequent summers spent sailing on the waters of the
Delaware and Chesapeake Bays, and racing small boats in New Jersey.
He graduated from the U. S. Merchant Marine Academy in 1990 and
went to sea with Mormac Marine Transport as a deck officer aboard tank-
ers engaged in the charter trade. During his time as deck officer with
Mormac, he traveled to many ports on both coasts of the United States, to
Canada, to South and Central America, the Caribbean, Europe, northern
Africa, parts of Asia, and the Mediterranean.
In 1994, Mr. MacElrevey began a three-year apprentice program with
the Pilot's Association for the Bay and River Delaware. In addition to
making trips with experienced pilots, his training included simulator-
based classes at M1TAGS in Maryland and at the STAR Center in Florida,
and manned-model instruction at the Southampton Institute in England.
He is now a first-class pilot handling ships in the Delaware Bay and River,
guiding ships through the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, and docking
ships at berths in Salem, New Jersey.
Dan was first involved with Shiphandling for the Mariner as a teen-
ager, checking for spelling mistakes by reading sentences from the text
backwards, and he is tremendously honored to have worked with his fa-
ther on this fourth edition. Ships and equipment evolved during the past
twenty years, but the text remains current because shiphandlers share
their specialized skills with their peers. Dan hopes those who read this lat-
est edition will continue that tradition.
Daniel E. MacElrevey lives in one of the oldest pilot towns in the
United StatesLewes, Delawarewith his wife, Dana, and their two
children, Austin and Madison. Their home is a short distance from the pi-
lot station at the entrance to the Delaware Bay. A love of the sea and the
practice of shiphandling have passed to the next generation.