Wheat

Wheat (Triticum spp., most commonly T. aestivum)[1][2] is a cereal grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis),[3] originally from
the Levant region but now cultivated worldwide. In 2014, world production of wheat was 729 million tonnes, making it the third most-
produced cereal after maize (1.038 billion tonnes) and rice (741 million tonnes).[4]
This grain is grown on more land area than any other commercial food (220.4 million hectares, 2014).[5] World trade in wheat is greater
than for all other crops combined.[6] Globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetal protein in human food, having a protein content of
about 13%, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals and staple foods. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was
first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE.

Origin
Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, as mutant forms ('sports')
of wheat were preferentially chosen by farmers. In domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds (inside the spikelets) remain attached
to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter and disperse the
spikelets.[7] Selection for these traits by farmers might not have been deliberately intended, but simply have occurred because these traits
made gathering the seeds easier; nevertheless such 'incidental' selection was an important part of crop domestication. As the traits that
improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plant's natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat
cannot survive in the wild.
Cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent after about 8000 BCE. Jared Diamond traces the spread of
cultivated emmer wheat starting in the Fertile Crescent sometime before 8800 BCE. Archaeological analysis of wild emmerindicates that it
was first cultivated in the southern Levant with finds dating back as far as 9600 BCE.[8][9] Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests
that it was first grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of einkorn wheat in settlement sites
near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria, suggest the domestication of einkorn near the Karacadag Mountain Range.[10] With
the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to
7500 years BCE.[11]
Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 (at Cayonu) and 8400 BCE
(Abu Hureyra), that is, in the Neolithic period. With the exception of Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 dated remains of domesticated
emmer wheat were found in the earliest levels of Tell Aswad, in the Damascus basin, near Mount Hermon in Syria. These remains were
dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BCE. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did
not develop this form of emmer themselves, but brought the domesticated grains with them from an as yet unidentified location elsewhere.[12]
The cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and India by 6500 BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000 BCE, and Germany and Spain by
5000 BCE.[13] "The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven and developed baking into one of the first large-scale
food production industries." [14] By 3000 BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. A millennium later it reached China.
The oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400-6200 BCE,
recovered from atalhyk .[15] The first identifiable bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been
identified using DNA analysis in samples from a granary dating to approximately 1350 BCE at Assiros in Greek Macedonia.[16]
From Asia, wheat continued to spread throughout Europe. In the British Isles, wheat straw (thatch) was used for roofing in the Bronze Age,
and was in common use until the late 19th century.

Farming techniques
Technological advances in soil preparation and seed placement at planting time, use of crop rotation and fertilizers to improve plant growth,
and advances in harvesting methods have all combined to promote wheat as a viable crop. Agricultural cultivation using horse
collar leveraged plows (at about 3000 BCE) was one of the first innovations that increased productivity. Much later, when the use of seed
drills replaced broadcasting sowing of seed in the 18th century, another great increase in productivity occurred.
Yields of pure wheat per unit area increased as methods of crop rotation were applied to long cultivated land, and the use
of fertilizers became widespread. Improved agricultural husbandry has more recently included threshing machines and reaping machines
(the 'combine harvester'), tractor-drawn cultivators and planters, and better varieties (see Green Revolution and Norin 10 wheat). Great
expansion of wheat production occurred as new arable land was farmed in the Americas and Australia in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Genetics
Wheat genetics is more complicated than that of most other domesticated species. Some wheat species are diploid, with two sets
of chromosomes, but many are stable polyploids, with four sets of chromosomes (tetraploid) or six (hexaploid).[18]

Einkorn wheat (T. monococcum) is diploid (AA, two complements of seven chromosomes, 2n=14). [1]
 Most tetraploid wheats (e.g. emmer and durum wheat) are derived from wild emmer, T. dicoccoides. Wild emmer is itself the result of
a hybridization between two diploid wild grasses, T. urartu and a wild goatgrass such as Aegilops searsii or Ae. speltoides. The
unknown grass has never been identified among now surviving wild grasses, but the closest living relative is Aegilops speltoides.[citation
needed]
The hybridization that formed wild emmer (AABB) occurred in the wild, long before domestication, [18] and was driven by natural
selection.
Hexaploid wheats evolved in farmers' fields. Either domesticated emmer or durum wheat hybridized with yet another wild diploid grass
(Aegilops tauschii) to make the hexaploid wheats, spelt wheat and bread wheat.[18] These have three sets of paired chromosomes, three
times as many as in diploid wheat.
The presence of certain versions of wheat genes has been important for crop yields. Apart from mutant versions of genes selected in antiquity
during domestication, there has been more recent deliberate selection of alleles that affect growth characteristics. Genes for the 'dwarfing'
trait, first used by Japanese wheat breeders to produce short-stalked wheat, have had a huge effect on wheat yields world-wide, and were
major factors in the success of the Green Revolution in Mexico and Asia, an initiative led by Norman Borlaug. Dwarfing genes enable the
carbon that is fixed in the plant during photosynthesis to be diverted towards seed production, and they also help prevent the problem of
lodging. 'Lodging' occurs when an ear stalk falls over in the wind and rots on the ground, and heavy nitrogenous fertilization of wheat makes
the grass grow taller and become more susceptible to this problem. By 1997, 81% of the developing world's wheat area was planted to semi-
dwarf wheats, giving both increased yields and better response to nitrogenous fertilizer.
Wild grasses in the genus Triticum and related genera, and grasses such as rye have been a source of many disease-resistance traits for
cultivated wheat breeding since the 1930s.[19]
Heterosis, or hybrid vigor (as in the familiar F1 hybrids of maize), occurs in common (hexaploid) wheat, but it is difficult to produce seed
of hybrid cultivars on a commercial scale (as is done with maize) because wheat flowers are perfect and normally self-pollinate. Commercial
hybrid wheat seed has been produced using chemical hybridizing agents; these chemicals selectively interfere with pollen development, or
naturally occurring cytoplasmic male sterility systems. Hybrid wheat has been a limited commercial success in Europe (particularly France),
the United States and South Africa.[20] F1 hybrid wheat cultivars should not be confused with the standard method of breeding inbred wheat
cultivars by crossing two lines using hand emasculation, then selfing or inbreeding the progeny many (ten or more) generations before
release selections are identified to be released as a variety or cultivar.
Synthetic hexaploids made by crossing the wild goatgrass wheat ancestor Aegilops tauschii and various durum wheats are now being
deployed, and these increase the genetic diversity of cultivated wheats. [21][22][23]
Stomata (or leaf pores) are involved in both uptake of carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere and water vapor losses from the leaf due to
water transpiration. Basic physiological investigation of these gas exchange processes has yielded valuable carbon isotope based methods
that are used for breeding wheat varieties with improved water-use efficiency. These varieties can improve crop productivity in rain-fed
dry-land wheat farms.[24]
In 2010, a team of UK scientists funded by BBSRC announced they had decoded the wheat genome for the first time (95% of the genome
of a variety of wheat known as Chinese Spring line 42). [25] This genome was released in a basic format for scientists and plant breeders to
use but was not a fully annotated sequence which was reported in some of the media. [26]
On 29 November 2012, an essentially complete gene set of bread wheat was published. [27] Random shotgun libraries of total DNA and
cDNA from the T. aestivum cv. Chinese Spring (CS42) were sequenced in Roche 454 pyrosequencer using GS FLX Titanium and GS FLX+
platforms to generate 85 Gb of sequence (220 million reads), equivalent to 5X genome coverage and identified between 94,000 and 96,000
genes.[27]
This sequence data provides direct access to about 96,000 genes, relying on orthologous gene sets from other cereals. and represents an
essential step towards a systematic understanding of biology and engineering the cereal crop for valuable traits. Its implications in cereal
genetics and breeding includes the examination of genome variation, association mapping using natural populations, performing wide
crosses and alien introgression, studying the expression and nucleotide polymorphism in transcriptomes, analyzing population genetics and
evolutionary biology, and studying the epigenetic modifications. Moreover, the availability of large-scale genetic markers generated through
NGS technology will facilitate trait mapping and make marker-assisted breeding much feasible.[28]
Moreover, the data not only facilitate in deciphering the complex phenomena such as heterosis and epigenetics, it may also enable breeders
to predict which fragment of a chromosome is derived from which parent in the progeny line, thereby recognizing crossover events occurring
in every progeny line and inserting markers on genetic and physical maps without ambiguity. In due course, this will assist in introducing
specific chromosomal segments from one cultivar to another. Besides, the researchers had identified diverse classes of genes participating
in energy production, metabolism and growth that were probably linked with crop yield, which can now be utilized for the development of
transgenic wheat. Thus whole genome sequence of wheat and the availability of thousands of SNPs will inevitably permit the breeders to
stride towards identifying novel traits, providing biological knowledge and empowering biodiversity-based breeding.

Plant breeding
In traditional agricultural systems wheat populations often consist of landraces, informal farmer-maintained populations that often maintain
high levels of morphological diversity. Although landraces of wheat are no longer grown in Europe and North America, they continue to be
important elsewhere. The origins of formal wheat breeding lie in the nineteenth century, when single line varieties were created through
selection of seed from a single plant noted to have desired properties. Modern wheat breeding developed in the first years of the twentieth
century and was closely linked to the development of Mendelian genetics. The standard method of breeding inbred wheat cultivars is by
crossing two lines using hand emasculation, then selfing or inbreeding the progeny. Selections are identified (shown to have the genes
responsible for the varietal differences) ten or more generations before release as a variety or cultivar. [29]
The major breeding objectives include high grain yield, good quality, disease and insect resistance and tolerance to abiotic stresses, including
mineral, moisture and heat tolerance. The major diseases in temperate environments include the following, arranged in a rough order of
their significance from cooler to warmer climates: eyespot, Stagonospora nodorum blotch (also known as glume blotch), yellow or stripe
rust, powdery mildew, Septoria tritici blotch (sometimes known as leaf blotch), brown or leaf rust, Fusarium head blight, tan spot and stem
rust. In tropical areas, spot blotch(also known as Helminthosporium leaf blight) is also important.
Wheat has also been the subject of mutation breeding, with the use of gamma, x-rays, ultraviolet light, and sometimes harsh chemicals. The
varieties of wheat created through these methods are in the hundreds (going as far back as 1960), more of them being created in higher
populated countries such as China.[30] Bread wheat with high grain iron and zinc content was developed through gamma radiation
breeding.[31] Modern bread wheat varieties have been cross-bred to contain greater amounts of gluten,[32] which affords significant
advantages for improving the quality of breads and pastas from a functional point of view. [33] Gluten is appreciated for its
unique viscoelastic properties.[33] It gives elasticity to dough and is responsible for doughs gas-retaining properties.[

Hybrid wheat
Because wheat self-pollinates, creating hybrid varieties is extremely labor-intensive; the high cost of hybrid wheat seed relative to its
moderate benefits have kept farmers from adopting them widely[34][35] despite nearly 90 years of effort.[36] F1 hybrid wheat cultivars should
not be confused with wheat cultivars deriving from standard plant breeding. Heterosis or hybrid vigor (as in the familiar F1 hybrids of
maize) occurs in common (hexaploid) wheat, but it is difficult to produce seed of hybrid cultivars on a commercial scale as is done
with maize because wheat flowers are perfect in the botanical sense, meaning they have both male and female parts, and normally self-
pollinate.[29] Commercial hybrid wheat seed has been produced using chemical hybridizing agents, plant growth regulatorsthat selectively
interfere with pollen development, or naturally occurring cytoplasmic male sterility systems. Hybrid wheat has been a limited commercial
success in Europe (particularly France), the United States and South Africa.

Naming
There are many botanical classification systems used for wheat species, discussed in a separate article on wheat taxonomy. The name of a
wheat species from one information source may not be the name of a wheat species in another.
Within a species, wheat cultivars are further classified by wheat breeders and farmers in terms of:

Growing season, such as winter wheat vs. spring wheat.[41]

Protein content. Bread wheat protein content ranges from 10% in some soft wheats with high starch contents, to 15% in hard wheats.
The quality of the wheat protein gluten. This protein can determine the suitability of a wheat to a particular dish. A strong and elastic
gluten present in bread wheats enables dough to trap carbon dioxide during leavening, but elastic gluten interferes with the rolling
of pasta into thin sheets. The gluten protein in durum wheats used for pasta is strong but not elastic.
Grain color (red, white or amber). Many wheat varieties are reddish-brown due to phenolic compounds present in the bran layer which
are transformed to pigments by browning enzymes. White wheats have a lower content of phenolics and browning enzymes, and are
generally less astringent in taste than red wheats. The yellowish color of durum wheat and semolina flour made from it is due to
a carotenoid pigment called lutein, which can be oxidized to a colorless form by enzymes present in the grain.

As a food
Raw wheat can be ground into flour or, using hard durum wheat only, can be ground into semolina; germinated and dried creating malt;
crushed or cut into cracked wheat; parboiled (or steamed), dried, crushed and de-branned into bulgur also known as groats. If the raw wheat
is broken into parts at the mill, as is usually done, the outer husk or bran can be used several ways. Wheat is a major ingredient in such foods
as bread, porridge, crackers, biscuits, Muesli, pancakes, pies, pastries, cakes, cookies, muffins, rolls, doughnuts, gravy, boza (a fermented
beverage), and breakfast cereals (e.g., Wheatena, Cream of Wheat, Shredded Wheat, and Wheaties).
Nutrition
In 100 grams, wheat provides 327 calories and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of multiple essential nutrients, such
as protein, dietary fiber, manganese, phosphorus and niacin (table). Several B vitamins and other dietary minerals are in significant content.
Wheat is 13% water, 71% carbohydrates, 1.5% fat and 13% protein. Glutenproteins constitute about 80%90% of the total protein

Production and consumption

In 2015, global wheat consumption was 720 million tonnes. [77] Wheat is the primary food staple in North Africa and the Middle East, and
is growing in uses in Asia. Unlike rice, wheat production is more widespread globally though China's share is about 17% of the world
total.[4]
"There is a little increase in yearly crop yield comparison to the year 1990. The reason for this is not in development of sowing area, but the
slow and successive increasing of the average yield. Average 2.5 tons wheat was produced on one hectare crop land in the world in the first
half of 1990s, however this value was about 3 tons in 2009. In the world per capita wheat producing area continuously decreased between
1990 and 2009 considering the change of world population. There was no significant change in wheat producing area in this period.
However, due to the improvement of average yields there is some fluctuation in each year considering the per capita production, but there
is no considerable decline. In 1990 per capita production was 111.98 kg/capita/year, while it was already 100.62 kg/capita/year in 2009.
The decline is evident and the per capita production level of the year 1990 can not be feasible simultaneously with the growth of world
population in spite of the increased average yields. In the whole period the lowest per capita production was in 2006." [78]
In the 20th century, global wheat output expanded by about 5-fold, but until about 1955 most of this reflected increases in wheat crop area,
with lesser (about 20%) increases in crop yields per unit area. After 1955 however, there was a ten-fold increase in the rate of wheat yield
improvement per year, and this became the major factor allowing global wheat production to increase. Thus technological innovation and
scientific crop management with synthetic nitrogen fertilizer, irrigation and wheat breeding were the main drivers of wheat output growth
in the second half of the century. There were some significant decreases in wheat crop area, for instance in North America. [79]
Better seed storage and germination ability (and hence a smaller requirement to retain harvested crop for next year's seed) is another 20th
century technological innovation. In Medieval England, farmers saved one-quarter of their wheat harvest as seed for the next crop, leaving
only three-quarters for food and feed consumption. By 1999, the global average seed use of wheat was about 6% of output.
Several factors are currently slowing the rate of global expansion of wheat production: population growth rates are falling while wheat
yields continue to rise, and the better economic profitability of other crops such as soybeans and maize, linked with investment in modern
genetic technologies, has promoted shifts to other crops.

Farming systems
In the Punjab region of India and Pakistan, as well as North China, irrigation has been a major contributor to increased grain output. More
widely over the last 40 years, a massive increase in fertilizer use together with the increased availability of semi-dwarf varieties in developing
countries, has greatly increased yields per hectare. In developing countries, use of (mainly nitrogenous) fertilizer increased 25-fold in this
period. However, farming systems rely on much more than fertilizer and breeding to improve productivity. A good illustration of this is
Australian wheat growing in the southern winter cropping zone, where, despite low rainfall (300 mm), wheat cropping is successful even
with relatively little use of nitrogenous fertilizer. This is achieved by 'rotation cropping' (traditionally called the ley system) with leguminous
pastures and, in the last decade, including a canola crop in the rotations has boosted wheat yields by a further 25%. [80] In these low rainfall
areas, better use of available soil-water (and better control of soil erosion) is achieved by retaining the stubble after harvesting and by
minimizing tillage.[81]
In 2009, the most productive farms for wheat were in France producing 7.45 metric tonnes per hectare (although French production has low
protein content and requires blending with higher protein wheat to meet the specifications required in some countries). The five largest
producers of wheat in 2009 were China (115 million metric tonnes), India (81 MMT), Russian Federation (62 MMT), United States (60
MMT) and France (38 MMT). The wheat farm productivity in India and Russia were about 35% of the wheat farm productivity in France.
China's farm productivity for wheat, in 2009, was about double that of Russia. [82]
In addition to gaps in farming system technology and knowledge, some large wheat grain producing countries have significant losses after
harvest at the farm and because of poor roads, inadequate storage technologies, inefficient supply chains and farmers' inability to bring the
produce into retail markets dominated by small shopkeepers. Various studies in India, for example, have concluded that about 10% of total
wheat production is lost at farm level, another 10% is lost because of poor storage and road networks, and additional amounts lost at the
retail level. One study claims that if these post-harvest wheat grain losses could be eliminated with better infrastructure and retail network,
in India alone enough food would be saved every year to feed 70 to 100 million people over a year.

Crop development
Wheat normally needs between 110 and 130 days between sowing and harvest, depending upon climate, seed type, and soil conditions
(winter wheat lies dormant during a winter freeze). Optimal crop management requires that the farmer have a detailed understanding of each
stage of development in the growing plants. In particular, spring fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and growth regulators are typically
applied only at specific stages of plant development. For example, it is currently recommended that the second application of nitrogen is
best done when the ear (not visible at this stage) is about 1 cm in size (Z31 on Zadoks scale). Knowledge of stages is also important to
identify periods of higher risk from the climate. For example, pollen formation from the mother cell, and the stages between anthesis and
maturity are susceptible to high temperatures, and this adverse effect is made worse by water stress. [91] Farmers also benefit from knowing
when the 'flag leaf' (last leaf) appears, as this leaf represents about 75% of photosynthesis reactions during the grain filling period, and so
should be preserved from disease or insect attacks to ensure a good yield.
Several systems exist to identify crop stages, with the Feekes and Zadoks scales being the most widely used. Each scale is a standard system
which describes successive stages reached by the crop during the agricultural season.
Diseases
There are many wheat diseases, mainly caused by fungi, bacteria, and viruses.[92]Plant breeding to develop new disease-resistant varieties,
and sound crop management practices are important for preventing disease. Fungicides, used to prevent the significant crop losses from
fungal disease, can be a significant variable cost in wheat production. Estimates of the amount of wheat production lost owing to plant
diseases vary between 1025% in Missouri.[93] A wide range of organisms infect wheat, of which the most important are viruses and fungi. [94]
The main wheat-disease categories are:

Seed-borne diseases: these include seed-borne scab, seed-borne Stagonospora (previously known as Septoria), common bunt (stinking
smut), and loose smut. These are managed with fungicides.
Leaf- and head- blight diseases: Powdery mildew, leaf rust, Septoria triticileaf blotch, Stagonospora (Septoria) nodorum leaf and
glume blotch, and Fusarium head scab.[95]
Crown and root rot diseases: Two of the more important of these are 'take-all' and Cephalosporium stripe. Both of these diseases are
soil borne.
Stem rust diseases: Caused by basidiomycete fungi e.g. Ug99
Viral diseases: Wheat spindle streak mosaic (yellow mosaic) and barley yellow dwarf are the two most common viral diseases. Control
can be achieved by using resistant varieties.
Pests
Wheat is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterflyand moth) species including the flame, rustic shoulder-
knot, setaceous Hebrew character and turnip moth. Early in the season, many species of birds, including the long-tailed widowbird, and
rodents feed upon wheat crops. These animals can cause significant damage to a crop by digging up and eating newly planted seeds or
young plants. They can also damage the crop late in the season by eating the grain from the mature spike. Recent post-harvest losses in
cereals amount to billions of dollars per year in the United States alone, and damage to wheat by various borers, beetles and weevils is no
exception.[96] Rodents can also cause major losses during storage, and in major grain growing regions, field mice numbers can sometimes
build up explosively to plague proportions because of the ready availability of food. [97] To reduce the amount of wheat lost to post-harvest
pests, Agricultural Research Service scientists have developed an "insect-o-graph," which can detect insects in wheat that are not visible to
the naked eye. The device uses electrical signals to detect the insects as the wheat is being milled. The new technology is so precise that it
can detect 5-10 infested seeds out of 300,000 good ones.[98] Tracking insect infestations in stored grain is critical for food safety as well as
for the marketing value of the crop.

Health Benefits

WheatThe Whole Truth

The health benefits of wheat depend entirely on the form in which you eat it. These benefits will be few if you select wheat that has been
processed into 60% extraction, bleached white flour. 60% extractionthe standard for most wheat products in the United States, including
breads, noodles and pastas, baked goods like rolls or biscuits, and cookiesmeans that 40% of the original wheat grain was removed, and
only 60% is left. Unfortunately, the 40% that gets removed includes the bran and the germ of the wheat grainits most nutrient-rich parts.
In the process of making 60% extraction flour, over half of the vitamin B1, B2, B3, E, folic acid, calcium, phosphorus, zinc, copper, iron,
and fiber are lost.

Since 1941, laws in the United States have required "enrichment" of processed wheat flour with vitamins B1, B2, B3 and iron in response
to the problems created by 60% extraction. Since not nearly as much of these B vitamins and iron are replaced as are removed from 60%
extraction flour, "enriched" seems an odd word to describe this process.

If you select 100% whole wheat products, however, the bran and the germ of the wheat will remain in your meals, and the health benefits
will be impressive! Our food ranking qualified whole wheat (in its original non-enriched form) as a very good source of dietary fiber and
manganese, and as a good source of magnesium.

The many benefits of whole wheat products are being recognized more and more by consumers. Even though many health-conscious
individuals have been cutting back on their intake of total carbs and refined wheat products (by about 10% between 1997-2007), the demand
for whole wheat products has actually increased during that same time period. This trend fits in well with a Mediterranean diet approach to
health, which looks to lower overall carbs but higher whole grains, including whole wheat.
Women Who Eat Whole Grains Weigh Less

A study published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition underscores the importance of choosing whole rather than refined wheat to
maintain a healthy body weight. In this Harvard Medical School / Brigham and Women's Hospital study, which collected data on over
74,000 female nurses aged 38-63 years over a 12 year period, weight gain was inversely associated with the intake of high-fiber, whole-
grain foods, such as whole wheat, but positively related to the intake of refined-grain foods, such as products made from refined wheat. Not
only did women who consumed more whole grains consistently weigh less than those who ate less of these fiber-rich foods, but those
consuming the most dietary fiber from whole grains were 49% less likely to gain weight compared to those eating foods made from refined
grains.

Whole Grains Reduce Risk of Metabolic Syndrome

First we were told, "Don't eat fat, and you'll stay trim." After following this advice only to see obesity expand to never before seen
proportions, we're told by the food gurus, "Eating fat is fine. Shun carbohydrates to stay slim."

In our opinion, neither piece of dietary advice is complete, accurate or likely to help us stay slim or healthy. Just as different kinds of fats
have different effects in our bodies (e.g., saturated and trans fats are linked to increased risk for cardiovascular disease while omega-3 fats
decrease cardiovascular disease risk), some carbohydrates, such as whole grains, are healthful while others, such as refined grains and the
foods made from them, are not.

The latest research is clearly supporting this vital distinction. Refined grains and the foods made from them (e.g., white breads, cookies,
pastries, pasta and rice) are now being linked not only to weight gain but to increased risk of insulin resistance (the precursor of type 2
diabetes) and the metabolic syndrome (a strong predictor of both type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease), while eating more wholegrain
foods is being shown to protect against all these ills. Common features of the metabolic syndrome include visceral obesity (the "apple
shaped" body), low levels of protective HDL cholesterol, high triglycerides, and high blood pressure.

In one of the most recent studies, which appeared in Diabetes Care, researchers who analyzed data on over 2,800 participants in the
Framingham Offspring Study, found that the prevalence of both insulin resistance and the metabolic syndrome was significantly lower
among those eating the most cereal fiber from whole grains compared to those eating the least.

Prevalence of the metabolic syndrome was 38% lower among those with the highest intake of fiber from whole grains. Conversely, study
subjects whose diets had the highest glycemic index and glycemic load, both of which are typically low in whole foods and high in processed
refined foods, were 141% more likely to have the metabolic syndrome compared to those whose diets had the lowest glycemic index and
glycemic load. In other words, compared to those whose diets were primarily composed of whole high fiber foods: whole grains, legumes,
vegetables and fruits.

The researchers concluded, "Given that both a high cereal fiber content and lower glycemic index are attributes of wholegrain foods,
recommendation to increase wholegrain intake may reduce the risk of developing the metabolic syndrome." Our perspective at the World's
Healthiest Foods is that a way of eating that relies on the healthiest foods from all the food groupsthe whole foods that contain the
healthiest fats, carbohydrates and proteinsis the most effective, intelligent, and most enjoyable way to not only lower your risk of
developing the metabolic syndrome, but to stay slim, vital and attractive throughout a long and healthy life.

Whole Grains Substantially Lower Type 2 Diabetes Risk

Whole grains are a rich source of magnesium, a mineral that acts as a co-factor for more than 300 enzymes, including enzymes involved in
the body's use of glucose and insulin secretion.

The FDA permits foods that contain at least 51% whole grains by weight (and are also low in fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol) to display
a health claim stating consumption is linked to lower risk of heart disease and certain cancers. Now, research suggests regular consumption
of whole grains also reduces risk of type 2 diabetes. (van Dam RM, Hu FB, Diabetes Care).

In this 8-year trial, involving 41,186 particpants of the Black Women's Health Study, research data confirmed inverse associations between
magnesium, calcium and major food sources in relation to type 2 diabetes that had already been reported in predominantly white populations.

Risk of type 2 diabetes was 31% lower in black women who frequently ate whole grains compared to those eating the least of these
magnesium-rich foods. When the women's dietary intake of magnesium intake was considered by itself, a beneficial, but lesser-19%-
reduction in risk of type 2 diabetes was found, indicating that whole grains offer special benefits in promoting healthy blood sugar control.
Daily consumption of low-fat dairy foods was also helpful, lowering risk of type 2 diabetes by 13%.
Whole Wheat's Betaine Lessens Chronic Inflammation

People whose diets supplied the highest average intake of choline (found in egg yolk and soybeans), and its metabolite betaine (found
naturally in beets, spinach and whole wheat), have levels of inflammatory markers at least 20% lower than subjects with the lowest average
intakes, report Greek researchers in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (Detopoulou P, Panagiotakos DB, et al.)

Compared to those whose diets contained <250 mg/day of choline, subjects whose diets supplied >310 mg of choline daily had, on average:

22% lower concentrations of C-reactive protein

26% lower concentrations of interleukin-6
6% lower concentrations of tumor necrosis factor alpha

Compared to those consuming <260 mg/day of betaine, subjects whose diets provided >360 mg per day of betaine had, on average:

10% lower concentrations of homocysteine

19% lower concentrations of C-reactive protein

12% lower concentrations of tumor necrosis factor alpha

Each of these markers of chronic inflammation has been linked to a wide range of conditions including heart disease, osteoporosis, cognitive
decline and Alzheimer's, and type-2 diabetes.

In an accompanying editorial in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition entitled, "Is there a new component of the Mediterranean diet
that reduces inflammation?," Steven Zeisel from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill noted that choline and betaine work together
in the cellular process of methylation, which is not only responsible for the removal of homocysteine, but is involved in turning off the
promoter regions of genes involved in inflammation.

"Exposure to oxidative stress is a potent trigger for inflammation. Betaine is formed from choline within the mitochondria , and this
oxidation contributes to mitochondrial redox status ," Zeisel continued.

"If the association between choline and betaine and inflammation can be confirmed in studies of other populations, an interesting new
dietary approach may be available for reducing chronic diseases associated with inflammation," he concluded.

Recommended daily intakes of choline were set in 1998 at 550 milligrams per day for men and 425 milligrams a day for women. No RDI
has been set for betaine, which, since it is a metabolite of choline, is not considered an essential nutrient.

Practical Tip: Egg yolks are the richest source of choline, followed by soybeans. Spinach, beets and whole wheat products are primary
sources of betaine. (Olthof MR, van Vliet T, et al. J Nutr)

Whole Grains Help Prevent Gallstones

Eating foods high in insoluble fiber, such as cereals and breads made from whole wheat, can help women avoid gallstones, shows a study
published in the American Journal of Gastroenterology.

Studying the overall fiber intake and types of fiber consumed over a 16 year period by over 69,000 women in the Nurses Health Study,
researchers found that those consuming the most fiber overall (both soluble and insoluble) had a 13% lower risk of developing gallstones
compared to women consuming the fewest fiber-rich foods.

Those eating the most foods rich in insoluble fiber gained even more protection against gallstones: a 17% lower risk compared to women
eating the least. And the protection was dose-related; a 5-gram increase in insoluble fiber intake dropped risk dropped 10%.

How do foods rich in insoluble fiber help prevent gallstones? Researchers think insoluble fiber not only speeds intestinal transit time (how
quickly food moves through the intestines), but reduces the secretion of bile acids (excessive amounts contribute to gallstone formation),
increases insulin sensitivity and lowers triglycerides (blood fats). Abundant in all whole grains, insoluble fiber is also found in nuts and the
edible skin of fruits and vegetables including tomatoes, cucumbers, many squash, apples, berries, and pears. In addition, beans provide
insoluble as well as soluble fiber.
Whole Wheat Gets You Going

Wheat bran is a popular bulk laxative. A third of a cup per day is all that is needed. Research studies support this popular practice. A fiber-
rich diet, primarily composed of whole wheat breads, cereals high in bran and supplemental "millers bran" was shown to alleviate the
symptoms of diverticular disease (pain, nausea, flatulence, distension, constipation, etc.) in 89 percent of patients enrolled in a study which
examined the effects of fiber on bowel regularity. Diverticular disease, a condition often marked by inflammation and lower abdominal
pains in which chronic constipation and excessive straining results in a sac or pouch in the wall of the colon, is typically treated with dietary
roughage such as cereal fiber (i.e., wheat bran), fruit and vegetable fiber, and plenty of fluids.

Whole Wheat Promotes Women's Health and Gastrointestinal Health

The benefits of wheat's bran portion don't stop here; it has also been shown to function as an anti-cancer agent. Wheat bran is thought to
accelerate the metabolism of estrogen that is a known promoter of breast cancer. In one study, pre-menopausal women, ages twenty to fifty,
who ate three to four high fiber muffins per day made with wheat bran, decreased their blood estrogen levels by 17 percent after two months.
The women eating corn bran or oat bran did not show the same benefits.

Interestingly, whole grains such as wheat also contain lignans, which are phytonutrients that act as weak hormone-like
substances. Lignans occupy the hormone receptors in the body, thus actively protecting the breast against high circulating levels of hormones
such as estrogen. By accelerating the metabolism of estrogen and occupying estrogen receptors in the body, the components of wheat appear
to have a dual function in protecting women against one of the leading causes of cancer death.

The fact that only wheat bran, and not corn or oat bran, is beneficial in preventing cancer-promoting changes in the colon, provides additional
clues that wheat bran contains something special that makes it a true cancer fighter. Only the bran from wheat has been shown to reduce the
concentration of bile acids and bacterial enzymes in the stool that are believed to promote colon cancer.

The protective dose for colon cancer may be more than 28 grams a day, since men who ate this amount had only one-third the rate of colon
polyps (precancerous tumors) compared to those who ate only 17 grams/day. The amount of wheat bran needed for protection from other
cancers is still unknown, but based on the health benefits of this food, it may be wise, if you are not sensitive to wheat or gluten, to include
several servings of whole wheat grain foods such as bread, pasta, and bran cereals every day in your diet.

Fiber from Whole Grains and Fruit Protective against Breast Cancer

When researchers looked at how much fiber 35,972 participants in the UK Women's Cohort Study ate, they found a diet rich in fiber from
whole grains, such as whole wheat, and fruit offered significant protection against breast cancer for pre-menopausal women. (Cade JE,
Burley VJ, et al., International Journal of Epidemiology).

Pre-menopausal women eating the most fiber (>30 grams daily) more than halved their risk of developing breast cancer, enjoying a 52%
lower risk of breast cancer compared to women whose diets supplied the least fiber (<20 grams/day).

Fiber supplied by whole grains offered the most protection. Pre-menopausal women eating the most whole grain fiber (at least 13 g/day)
had a 41% reduced risk of breast cancer, compared to those with the lowest whole grain fiber intake (4 g or less per day).

Fiber from fruit was also protective. Pre-menopausal women whose diets supplied the most fiber from fruit (at least 6 g/day) had a 29%
reduced risk of breast cancer, compared to those with the lowest fruit fiber intake (2 g or less per day).

Practical Tip: As the following table shows, it's surprisingly easy to enjoy a healthy way of eating that delivers at least 13 grams of whole
grain fiber and 6 grams of fiber from fruit each day.

Food Fiber Content in Grams

Oatmeal, 1 cup 3.98

Whole wheat bread, 1 slice 2

Whole wheat spaghetti, 1 cup 6.3

Brown rice, 1 cup 3.5

Barley, 1 cup 13.6

Buckwheat, 1 cup 4.54

Rye, 1/3 cup 8.22

Corn, 1 cup 4.6

Apple, 1 medium with skin 5.0

Banana, 1 medium 4.0

Blueberries, 1 cup 3.92

Orange, 1 large 4.42

Pear, 1 large 5.02

Prunes, 1/4 cup 3.02

Strawberries, 1 cup 3.82

Raspberries, 1 cup 8.36

*Fiber content can vary between brands. Source: esha Research, Food Processor for Windows, Version 7.8

Cereal and Fruit Fiber Protective against Postmenopausal Breast Cancer

Results of a prospective study involving 51,823 postmenopausal women for an average of 8.3 years showed a 34% reduction in breast cancer
risk for those consuming the most fruit fiber compared to those consuming the least. In addition, in the subgroup of women who had ever
used hormone replacement, those consuming the most fiber, especially cereal fiber, had a 50% reduction in their risk of breast cancer
compared to those consuming the least.

Fruits richest in fiber include apples, dates, figs, pears and prunes. When choosing a high fiber cereal, look for whole grain cereals as they
supply the most bran (a mere 1/3rd cup of bran contains about 14 grams of fiber). Enjoy a cup of bulgur wheat as part of your lunch or
dinner, and, for just 151 calories, you'll have consumed more than a third of your RDI for fiber.

Whole Grains and Fish Highly Protective against Childhood Asthma

According to the American Lung Association, almost 20 million Americans suffer from asthma, which is reported to be responsible for over
14 million lost school days in children, and an annual economic cost of more than $16.1 billion.

Increasing consumption of whole grains and fish could reduce the risk of childhood asthma by about 50%, suggests the International Study
on Allergy and Asthma in Childhood (Tabak C, Wijga AH, Thorax).

The researchers, from the Dutch National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, Utrecht University, University Medical Center
Groningen, used food frequency questionnaires completed by the parents of 598 Dutch children aged 8-13 years. They assessed the children's
consumption of a range of foods including fish, fruits, vegetables, dairy and whole grain products. Data on asthma and wheezing were also
assessed using medical tests as well as questionnaires.

While no association between asthma and intake of fruits, vegetables, and dairy products was found (a result at odds with other studies that
have supported a link between antioxidant intake, particularly vitamins C and E, and asthma), the children's intake of both whole grains and
fish was significantly linked to incidence of wheezing and current asthma.
In children with a low intake of fish and whole grains, the prevalence of wheezing was almost 20%, but was only 4.2% in children with a
high intake of both foods. Low intake of fish and whole grains also correlated with a much higher incidence of current asthma (16.7%).
compared to only a 2.8% incidence of current asthma among children with a high intake of both foods.

After adjusting results for possible confounding factors, such as the educational level of the mother, and total energy intake, high intakes of
whole grains and fish were found to be associated with a 54 and 66% reduction in the probability of being asthmatic, respectively.

The probability of having asthma with bronchial hyperresponsiveness (BHR), defined as having an increased sensitivity to factors that cause
narrowing of the airways, was reduced by 72 and 88% when children had a high-intake of whole grains and fish, respectively. Lead
researcher, CoraTabak commented, "The rise in the prevalence of asthma in western societies may be related to changed dietary habits."
We agree. The Standard American Diet is sorely deficient in the numerous anti-inflammatory compounds found in fish and whole grains,
notably, the omega-3 fats supplied by cold water fish and the magnesium and vitamin E provided by whole grains. One caution: wheat may
need to be avoided as it is a common food allergen associated with asthma.

Phytochemicals with Health-Promoting Activity Equal to or Even Higher than that of Vegetables and Fruits

Research reported at the American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) International Conference on Food, Nutrition and Cancer, by Rui
Hai Liu, M.D., Ph.D., and his colleagues at Cornell University shows that whole grains, such as whole wheat, contain many powerful
phytonutrients whose activity has gone unrecognized because research methods have overlooked them.

Despite the fact that for years researchers have been measuring the antioxidant power of a wide array of phytonutrients, they have typically
measured only the "free" forms of these substances, which dissolve quickly and are immediately absorbed into the bloodstream. They have
not looked at the "bound" forms, which are attached to the walls of plant cells and must be released by intestinal bacteria during digestion
before they can be absorbed.

Phenolics, powerful antioxidants that work in multiple ways to prevent disease, are one major class of phytonutrients that have been widely
studied. Included in this broad category are such compounds as quercetin, curcumin, ellagic acid, catechins, and many others that appear
frequently in the health news.

When Dr. Liu and his colleagues measured the relative amounts of phenolics, and whether they were present in bound or free form, in
common fruits and vegetables like apples, red grapes, broccoli and spinach, they found that phenolics in the "free" form averaged 76% of
the total number of phenolics in these foods. In whole grains, however, "free" phenolics accounted for less than 1% of the total, while the
remaining 99% were in "bound" form.

In his presentation, Dr. Liu explained that because researchers have examined whole grains with the same process used to measure
antioxidants in vegetables and fruitslooking for their content of "free" phenolics"the amount and activity of antioxidants in whole grains
has been vastly underestimated.

Despite the differences in fruits', vegetables' and whole grains' content of "free" and "bound" phenolics, the total antioxidant activity in all
three types of whole foods is similar, according to Dr. Liu's research. His team measured the antioxidant activity of various foods, assigning
each a rating based on a formula (micromoles of vitamin C equivalent per gram). Broccoli and spinach measured 80 and 81, respectively;
apple and banana measured 98 and 65; and of the whole grains tested, corn measured 181, whole wheat 77, oats 75, and brown rice 56.

Dr. Liu's findings may help explain why studies have shown that populations eating diets high in fiber-rich whole grains consistently have
lower risk for colon cancer, yet short-term clinical trials that have focused on fiber alone in lowering colon cancer risk, often to the point of
giving subjects isolated fiber supplements, yield inconsistent results. The explanation is most likely that these studies have not taken into
account the interactive effects of all the nutrients in whole grainsnot just their fiber, but also their many phytonutrients. As far as whole
grains are concerned, Dr. Liu believes that the key to their powerful cancer-fighting potential is precisely their wholeness. A grain of whole
wheat consists of three partsits endosperm (starch), bran and germ. When wheator any whole grainis refined, its bran and germ are
removed. Although these two parts make up only 15-17% of the grain's weight, they contain 83% of its phenolics. Dr. Liu says his recent
findings on the antioxidant content of whole grains reinforce the message that a variety of foods should be eaten good health. "Different
plant foods have different phytochemicals," he said. "These substances go to different organs, tissues and cells, where they perform different
functions. What your body needs to ward off disease is this synergistic effectthis teamworkthat is produced by eating a wide variety of
plant foods, including whole grains."

Lignans Protect against Heart Disease

One type of phytonutrient especially abundant in whole grains including whole wheat are plant lignans, which are converted by friendly
flora in our intestines into mammalian lignans, including one called enterolactone that is thought to protect against breast and other hormone-
dependent cancers as well as heart disease. In addition to whole grains, nuts, seeds and berries are rich sources of plant lignans, and
vegetables, fruits, and beverages such as coffee, tea and wine also contain some. When blood levels of enterolactone were measured in over
800 postmenopausal women in a Danish study published in the Journal of Nutrition, women eating the most whole grains were found to
have significantly higher blood levels of this protective lignan. Women who ate more cabbage and leafy vegetables also had higher
enterolactone levels.

Significant Cardiovascular Benefits for Postmenopausal Women

Eating a serving of whole grains, such as whole wheat, at least 6 times each week is an especially good idea for postmenopausal women
with high cholesterol, high blood pressure or other signs of cardiovascular disease (CVD).

A 3-year prospective study of 229 postmenopausal women with CVD, published in the American Heart Journal, shows that those eating at
least 6 servings of whole grains each week experienced both:

Slowed progression of atherosclerosis, the build-up of plaque that narrows the vessels through which blood flows, and
Less progression in stenosis, the narrowing of the diameter of arterial passageways.
The women's intake of fiber from fruits, vegetables and refined grains was not associated with a lessening in CVD progression.
Prevent Heart Failure with a Whole Grains Breakfast

Heart failure is the leading cause of hospitalization among the elderly in the United States. Success of drug treatment is only partial (ACE
inhibitors and beta-blockers are typically used; no evidence has found statins safe or effective for heart failure), and its prognosis remains
poor. Follow up of 2445 discharged hospital patients with heart failure revealed that 37.3% died during the first year, and 78.5% died within
5 years.

Since consumption of whole grain products and dietary fiber has been shown to reduce the risk of high blood pressure and heart attack,
Harvard researchers decided to look at the effects of cereal consumption on heart failure risk and followed 21,376 participants in the
Physicians Health Study over a period of 19.6 years.

After adjusting for confounding factors (age, smoking, alcohol consumption, vegetable consumption, use of vitamins, exercise, and history
of heart disease), they found that men who simply enjoyed a daily morning bowl of whole grain (but not refined) cereal had a 29% lower
risk of heart failure. Isn't your heart worth protecting, especially when the prescriptiona morning bowl of hearty whole grainsis so
delicious? For quick, easy, heart-healthy, whole grain recipes, click The World's Healthiest Foods, and look at the "How to Enjoy" section
in any of our grain profiles.

A "Germ" that Promotes Health

Wheat bran is not the only star when it comes to the health benefits of wheat; wheat germ definitely deserves its "health food" reputation.
The germ is the vitamin and mineral rich embryo of the wheat kernel that is removed during the refining of whole wheat grains to white
flour. Packed with important B vitamins, such as folate, thiamin, and vitamin B6, and the minerals zinc, magnesium, and manganese, wheat
germ is a top-notch food that can be easily incorporated into casseroles, muffins, and pancakes or sprinkled over cereal or yogurt.

The wheat germ also has a high oil content, and subsequently a high amount of vitamin E, a powerful antioxidant that helps protect the oil
in the wheat germ from quickly becoming rancid. Vitamin E functions in a similar manner as a fat-soluble antioxidant in the human body
where it helps protect fat-containing substances including cell membranes, brain cells, and fatty molecules such as cholesterol from damge
by free radicals. Fats and cholesterol are very susceptible to free radical damage, a process that occurs when they are exposed to oxygen.
When damaged, fats and cholesterol form toxic derivatives that, if left unchecked, can damage the structures of which they are a part and,
in the case of cholesterol, contribute to the formation of atherosclerosis, a form of coronary artery disease. Vitamin E, when present in
sufficient quantities, readily blocks these toxic derivatives.

Vitamin E not only protects fats, cholesterol and all cell membranes from damage, it is also important for immune system function, cancer
prevention and blood glucose control in both healthy and diabetic individuals.

Meta-analysis Explains Whole Grains' Health Benefits

In many studies, eating whole grains, such as whole wheat, has been linked to protection against atherosclerosis, ischemic stroke, diabetes,
insulin resistance, obesity, and premature death. A new study and accompanying editorial, published in the American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition explains the likely reasons behind these findings and recommends at least 3 servings of whole grains should be eaten daily.

Whole grains are concentrated sources of fiber. In this meta-analysis of 7 studies including more than 150,000 persons, those whose diets
provided the highest dietary fiber intake had a 29% lower risk of cardiovascular disease compared to those with the lowest fiber intake.
But it's not just fiber's ability to serve as a bulking agent that is responsible for its beneficial effects as a component of whole grains. Wheat
bran, for example, which constitutes 15% of most whole-grain wheat kernels but is virtually non-existent in refined wheat flour, is rich in
minerals, antioxidants, lignans, and other phytonutrientsas well as in fiber.

In addition to the matrix of nutrients in their dietary fibers, the whole-grain arsenal includes a wide variety of additional nutrients and
phytonutrients that reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Compounds in whole grains that have cholesterol-lowering effects include
polyunsaturated fatty acids, oligosaccharides, plant sterols and stanols, and saponins.

Whole grains are also important dietary sources of water-soluble, fat-soluble, and insoluble antioxidants. The long list of cereal antioxidants
includes vitamin E, tocotrieonols, selenium, phenolic acids, and phytic acid. These multifunctional antioxidants come in immediate-release
to slow-release forms and thus are available throughout the gastrointestinal tract over a long period after being consumed.

The high antioxidant capacity of wheat bran is 20-fold that of refined wheat flour (endosperm). Although the role of antioxidant supplements
in protecting against cardiovascular disease has been questioned, prospective population studies consistently suggest that when consumed
in whole foods, antioxidants are associated with significant protection against cardiovascular disease. Because free radical damage to
cholesterol appears to contribute significantly to the development of atherosclerosis, the broad range of antioxidant activities from the
phytonutrients abundant in whole-grains is thought to play a strong role in their cardio-protective effects.

Like soybeans, whole grains are important sources of phytoestrogens, plant compounds that may affect blood cholesterol levels, blood vessel
elasticity, bone metabolism, and many other cellular metabolic processes.

Whole grains are rich sources of lignans that are converted by the human gut to enterolactone and enterodiole. In studies of Finnish men,
blood levels of enterolactone have been found to have an inverse relation not just to cardiovascular-related death, but to all causes of death,
which suggests that the plant lignans in whole grains may play an important role in their protective effects.

Lower insulin levels may also contribute to the protective effects of whole grains. In many persons, the risks of atherosclerotic cardiovascular
disease, diabetes, and obesity are linked to insulin resistance. Higher intakes of whole grains are associated with increased sensitivity to
insulin in population studies and clinical trials. Why? Because whole grains improve insulin sensitivity by lowering the glycemic index of
the diet while increasing its content of fiber, magnesium, and vitamin E.

The whole kernel of truth: as part of your healthy way of eating, whole grains can significantly lower your risk of cardiovascular disease,
obesity and type 2 diabetes. Enjoy at least 3 servings a day. No idea how to cook whole grains? Just look at the "How to Enjoy" section in
our profiles of the whole grains, or for quick, easy, delicious recipes, click on this link to our Recipe Assistant and select whichever whole
grain you would like to prepare.

Sourdough breada Better Source of Minerals and Potentially Better Tolerated by Persons with Wheat-Related Health Problems

Choose sourdough for the best nutrition among commercially baked breads, suggests a study published in the journal Nutrition.

This animal study compared mineral absorption from different breads: reconstituted whole wheat flour (white flour plus bran, a typical
formulation), yeast bread and sourdough bread. Of all three breads, not only was the content of phytate, which prevents absorption of
calcium, lower in sourdough, but the absorption of iron, zinc, and copper was enhanced. Another study, published in Applied and
Environmental Microbiology showed that sourdough bread fermented with the help of selected Lactobacilli, nontoxic flours, and a long
fermentation time was fairly well tolerated by a group of 17 persons previously diagnosed with celiac disease. Although the purpose of this
study was to help develop a prototype wheat bread product that might be tolerated by persons with wheat sensitivity, the results of this study
seem promising for future attempts to prepare wheat in a natural way that may improve its tolerability.

Description

Wheat is ubiquitious in our culture in the food culture of North America as well as other regions around the world. Bread, pasta, bagels,
crackers, cakes, and muffins just begin to describe the list of foods made with this grain.

Wheat is generally classified as being either spring or winter wheat. Within these two groups, the wheat can be further defined as being
either hard or soft, depending upon the grain's texture. The colors of the grains of wheat are white or red with reflections of amber.

Wheat, in its natural unrefined state, features a host of important nutrients. Therefore, to receive benefit from the wholesomeness of wheat
you need to choose wheat products made from whole wheat flour rather than those that are refined and stripped of their natural goodness.

The genus name for wheat, from which all wheat species are derived, is Triticum.
History

Wheat is an ancient grain. Thought to have originated in southwestern Asia, it has been consumed as a food for more than 12,000 years. As
it was looked upon as the Staff of Life, it played an important role of religious significance and was part of the sacred rituals of many
cultures. Greek, Roman, Sumerian and Finnish mythology had gods and goddesses of wheat. This exceptionally nutritious grain is still
considered to be sacred in some areas of China.

Wheat was not native to the Western Hemisphere and was only introduced here in the late 15th century when Columbus came to the New
World. While wheat was grown in the United States during the early colonial years, it was not until the late 19th century that wheat
cultivation flourished, owing to the importation of an especially hardy strain of wheat known as Turkey red wheat, which was brought over
by Russian immigrants who settled in Kansas.

As rice has been the dietary staple of Asia, wheat has served this role for many of other regions of the world. It is estimated that approximately
one-third of the world's people depend upon wheat for their nourishment.

Today, the largest commercial producers of wheat include the Russian Federation, the United States, China, India, France and Canada.

Nutritional Profile

Whole wheat is a very good source of manganese and dietary fiber. It is also a good source of copper, magnesium and pantothenic acid.