Water Demand and QuantitY

5.1. INTRODUCTION
Before clesigning a proper water works project, it is essential
to determine the quantity of water that is required daily. This involves
the determination of the following items.
L, Pryulntion determinqtion, Determinatiou of population is one
of the most important factors in the planning, if the project has
to serve the community for a certain design period. Normally, a
design period of 20 to 40 years is selected. Whai will be the population
at the end of the design period, is the basic question. This can
be achievecl by using various methods for population forecast.
2, Rate of demand. The water consumption in a city may
be conveniently divided into the following categories : (r) domestic
(ir) trade (rii) agricultural (iv) public and (v) losses. The total con-
sumption of ,water depends upon several factors, such as climatic
condition, cost of water, living standards of the inhabitants, pressure
in the pipelines, type of supply etc."{The total quantity of water
required divided by the total population givesper capita water demandJ
The accurate measurement of consumption is. often very difficult
because standards of supply and maintenance vary widely.
5.2. DESIGN PERIOD
Generally, water supply projects are designed for a design
perioGof 20 to 40 years, after their completion. The time lay between
the design and completion should not be more than 2 years. In
some specific components of rhe project, the design period may be
snodified. Different segments of water treatment and distribution sys-
74
75 WATER SUPPLY ENCINEERING

tems may be approximately designed for differing periods of time

using differing capacity criteria, so tlat expenditure far ahead of
uiility is avoided. Table 5.1 gives the design periods far various com-
p9lents of a water supply project.
TAALE 5.I
DESIGN PERIODS FOR PROJSCT COMPONENTS

Cmponcd Dcsign pcrid

Carc)

I Storage by dams 50

z. lntiltration works 30

3. Pump sets
(r) All prime morers f,ccpt electric motors 30
(u) Electric motors and PumP l5
4. Water trcatment uqits 15

5. Pipe connections to thc seireral treatment units 30

and other small aPPurtenances
6. "Raw water and clear watcr conveying mains 30

7. Clear'i.t., resewoirs at the heail works, 15

balancing tanks and service reservoirs (over
head or ground loret)
8. Distribution qntem 30

5.3. POPUI"A.TION FORECAST

The data about the present population of a city undcr question
can alwaw be obtained from the records of the municipality or civic
body. XorJeuer, a water supply project is designed to cater the
needs of the community uPto the end the design period which may
extend upto 2 to 4 decades, before the project is abandoned or
enlarged by reason of inadequacy. There are several methods for
popuiation-for"ott, but the juclgment must b-e exercised.by.the engineer
as to which melhod is most-applicable for a particuiar locarion.
The increase in population of city depends upon several factors such
as living conditioni of the city and its environs, industrial potential,
state oi development, location with respect to road and rail links,
climatic conditions etc. The entire population
-in of a city may not
'be evenly distributed, due to variations the land use pattern and
available facilities etc. \\e population density, indicating the number
of penons per unit area, an( the distribution of population should
also te studied for efficient design of the distribution system.
Following are some of the important methods of population
forecasts or population projections :
 WATER DEMAND AT.ID QUAT.{TITY 76

1. Arithmetical increase method.

'it' l.

2. Ceometrical increase method.

3. Incremental increase method.
4. Decreased rate of growth method.
5. Graphical extension method.
6. Graphical comparison method.
7. Tnning method or master plan method.'
8. Ratio and correlation method.
\
9. Growth composition analjris method.-/
l. Arithmetical Incrr:*se Method
This is the most sirnple method of.population forecast, though
it generally gives lowdr results. In this method, the increase in
population from decade to decade is assumed constant.|$athematically,
this hypothesis may be expressed as

4=x
dt.
1 ...(5.1 a)

where the rate of change of population and K is a @Rstant.

ff "
From the census data of past 3 or 4" decades, the increase in population
for each deede is found, and from that an average increnient is
found. For each buccessive future deede, this average increment
is added.i-The future populatio\ Pn aftet n decades is thus given
by
...15.1;
where Pn = nrtot. potpuf.tion at the end of n decades
P = present population,
/ = average incremGnt lor a decade.l
This method should bd. used for forecasting population of
those large cities, which have reached their saiuratiqn population.
2, Geometrical Incrcase Method or--Unlform 'Perrentage
Crowth Method
lln tnis method, it is assumed that the paeentage kcrease in
fopulation from decade to depde is onstantf From the popularion
data of prgvious three or four decades, ttre percentage increase in
population is found and is average is found. tlf /, is ttre average
pcrocntsge incrcase pcr decrdg or rr is t&e increasc per decade
rptcsscd as ntlq thc populatlon 4 after n decades is given by
77 WATER SUPPLY ENG INEERING

pn=r(r +rfi)"=t(r *t)' {

-,.J
...(5.2)

Eq. 5.2 can be derived very easily as under :

Let P. b.e-the prg$gnt population and Pr be the population
after one decade.

rhen, pr=t*# P=P(t *#)' ...(')

Similarly, population Pz after two decades is

Pz=Pr * Sr' (t*#)' =P('.#)

= Pr . .. (ir)

,, Hence Pnir (t *'#)

, While the arithmetical average method is analogous to the
'simple intereit method', this method is a4alogous to the compulation
of income by the 'compound interest method'. This method gives
htgher results since the percent increase never remains constant but,
inStead, deueases when the growth of the city reaches to saturation.

[fftt value of r, can be -found from the expression

- -lPn\t'" -1, I
o= [7,|
fef,erhativelylt, can be determined by computing the average
of groYwth rates of several known decades of the past :
incrgqse
!n pop_ulqtion
for each decade. i
L ' = original population
T , -
ffno*in1rr, rz.....rn for each decade, the average value rr can
be found ei(her by arithmatic average method or by geometric average
,:

methd :

(t) By arithmatic average method :

,t=T11* 12 + ... ...rn ..,(s.2 b)

(b) By geometric average method

-:
t'n
\ = (rr.rz
I

. t") ,..(5.2 c) I

\/
Tbe field engineen use the arithmatic average method for
computing r, (or Ir) since it gives slighily higlwr (and hence safer)
 Qualify of Water

ll

6.1. INTRODUCTION
fire primary objective of water treatment and purification is
to collect water from best available source and subject-it to processing
which will ensure water of good physical quality, free from unpleasant
taste or odour and containing nothing which might be detrimental
to healthr lt is nor possible to find absolutely pure water
jn nature.
Chemicaily put","atbt is the one which contains two Parts of.hydrogen
and one pait of oxygen. Water drops just emitting out of the clouds
-as
may be ionsiOereO chemically pure water' but as the drops fall
Oown they labsorb some gases and other matter. It is however not
essential io have chemically pure water. Sometimes presence of some
minerals give good taste to water. Supplies of water may be obtained
upon rivers; lakes, or springs;JDepenging largely
by drawiilg diiectly-from
up,on the iources which they are derived, fthe various waters
so obtained may differ greatly in purity and suitability for the
purposes
for which they are reqltireO. Un-dergiound water may contain much
matter dissolveO from'state through which it passes; Shallow wells
are much more prone to bacterial pollution than are deep wells'
Streams and rivers collect impuritiei from the earth and through
the discharge of sewage and industrial effluents and these are carried
io ponOs, i-akes and ieservoirs.lln the Plst, there have been many
c.sA of recurring epidemics of enteric fevers traceable to drinking
water supplies.
The following are important requirements of water for domestic
use :

101 .
QUALITY OF WATER r02

1. [t should be colourlass, and sparkting clear. It must be

free from solids in suspcnsion and must nol deposit ir

sediment on standing.
Z. It should be of good taste, free from odour.
3. It should be reasonably soft.
4. It should be plentiful and cheap.
5. It shoultl be free from disease protlucing bacteria or
organisms.
6. [t should be free from objectionable clissolved gases, su!h
as sulphuretted hydrogen. It should, however, have suf-
ficient quantity of dissolved oxygen.
, 7. It should be ,free from harmful, salts.
8. It should be free from objedtionable mincrats, such {ts
iron, manganese, lead, arsenic and other poisonous mci:rls.
g. It should be free from radio-active substancc such as radium.
stronsium etc.
10. It shoulJ be reasonably free from phenolic compouncls.
chlorides, fluoride and iodine.
11. It should not lead to scale formation ancl should be non-
corrosive
The above requirements are only qualitative. The quantitativJ
requirements are given in the 'subsequent articlcs.
6.2. COMMON IMPURITIES IN WATER AND 'I'ITEIR EF}'ECT
Impurities in water are classified into three heads :

(t) Suspenderl impurities.

(ri ) Dissolved impurities.
(t;) Colloidal impurities.
Suspended impurities are;thosewhich rtormally rcmirin in suspcn-
sion. Thiy are microscopic alo matc;;;;iurbid.' Dissotved inr-
purities are not visible, but they are large since water is good solvenr.
They eause bad taste, hardness and alkalinity. snmetimes, they are
harmful. colloidal impurities'are electrically charged. Due to this,
the colloidal particles, usually ver' 'rnall in size, remain in constarit
motion and do not settle. Table 6.1 gives summary of various suspended
and dissohed,impurities.
103 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

TABLE 6.I. STISPENDED AITD DISSCILVED IMPURTTIBS

I Suspcnded (a) Bacteria Some cause diseass

lmpurlths Odour. colour, tuttidity
(b) Algae, Protozoa
(c) Silts Murkiness or turbidity
2 Dbsohcd (o) Satr Alkalinity
lmpurlllcs (r) C-alcium '-Bicarbonate
Alkalinity, hardness
and l-C.arbonate Hardness
Magnesium [-Sutptrare Hardness, corrosion
t4hloride
Allcalinity, softening effect
BffiI.:* Alkalinity, rcfiening effect
(r,) Sodium Foaming in boilcrs
Dental tlurcis or mottled
S*:: enamel
L.n,ono. Taste

(b) Metak and CotnPoutrds

(i) lron oxide Taste red colour, corrosive-

ness, hardness

(ii) Mangancsc Black or broYn colour

(,r) Ltad Cumulativc poisoning

(ir) Arscnic Toxicity, poisoning
(v) Barium Toxic effect on hcart,
ncrvcs

(vr) Cadmium Toxic, illncss

(vtrt) Qnnide Fatal

(viii) Boron Affcct central nervous

s)4stem

(ir) Selenium Highly toxic to animals,

fish

Discolouration o[ skin;
cyes
'Blue baby conditions;
infant poisoning; colour;
acidity

FOrYgco C.orrcirreocss to Eetals

(O Grc rcErboo dkxide
L+tJrdr%co rutphHc
Acidity, cotruiwocsc
Odour, acidity, ootro-
rirrcncsr
 QUALITY OF WATER 104

6.3. QUALITY OF SOURCE

Natural 'ivater is available from lhe following sourCes :
(t) Pure water
(tt) Rain water
(iir) Surface runoff water
(iv) River water.
(r) Lakes and pond water, swamp water.
(vi) Ground water
Fig. 6.1 Shows the characteristic properties of natural water
in hydrologic rycle.

AT}'OSPHERC }TOFTURE

WIND
RECIPITATION
-
SPRING WATER

GROUND WATER LAKE

v't I. SEAWATER SALTS

I
F
Z PRECIPTTANON oAsEq vAPouRs, PARTICULATES,
SALT NUCLEI, RADTO.A(TIVE FALL
-l OUT
fr
/
tz 3. SUMACE RUNOFF PARTTCULATES, ORCANIC. MATTER,
NITRATES,, PHGPHATES, BIOCIDES
g.
4. GROUND WATER CARBONAIES,. CHLORIDES A}{D SULP.
n SPRING WATER HATES OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM;
IRON AND MANGENESE; SOz; Hd
E
d,
a"\
5. I.AIG WATER
t, AI5AE, ODOURS, TASTES
lr

x 6. SWAMP WATER : @LOUR ODOUR$ TASTES

O
7. RIVER WATER : PARTTCULATES ; ORGANIC, MATTER;
WASTE WATERS

FIG. 6.I. C}IARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF NATURAL

WATERS IN HYDROI-OGIC CYCLE
 105 WATER SUPPLY ENCINEERINC

1. Purc water : Chemically pure water is a combination of

:
two elements hydrogen and orygen, with a chemical symbol F'Iz O
and chemical name as hy*ogen as-
monoxide. It is not possible to find -

absolutely pure water in nature. Also,

it is not economically ,feasible to
manufacture pure water in this form.
However, puro water is entirely free
from alt the three tyPes of impurities
mentioned in $ 6.1.
2, Rain water : When Preci-
pitation take place, the rain water,
falling through atmosphere absorbs MOLECULE
various gases and rrapours which are
normally present in the atmosphere. FIC. 6.2. SCFIEMATIC DTAGRAM
OF..R MOTECULE OF WATER
Thus,. rain water absorbs oxYgen,
nitrogen, carbon-dioxide, rare gases, sweeP particulates, salt nuclei
(principally chlorides), radio-active fallout etc.
'3. Sur{ace runolf water : When the rain water falling on
the ground surface takes the form of 'surface runoff ', it picls up
partilulates (silt and clay), brganic matter, nitrates, phosphates etc.
The characteristics of the surface runoff water thus depends upon
the topAgraPhy and vegetation of the catchment, along with land
use ariO hanagement. Thtrs the surface runoff water contains
(a) lmineral and orgnic particrrlates picked up by erosion
(D) soil bacteria and other organisms
(c) salt and soluble substanes, agd
(d) natural and synthetic fertilizen.
4. Rlver water : Sincc the surface funoff water normally joins
the rivers and streams-, the characteristics of river water are Practically
the same as those of surface funoff water. However, if the river
receives the municipal and indwtrial waste waters, additional pollution
parameters are added to it
5. Iake and Pond water : When water is ponded in lakes
and resewoin, algae and similar other organisms grow on the surface,
giving rise to'odors, tastes and olour. Decaying vegetation. further
inpoiity these elements. In addition to this, thermal stratification
takes place in rcservoin r6ulting in
(t) low disohed oxygen
(d) dissgtution of iron and mangans
(rr) production of H2 S
QUALITY OF WATER 106

(iv) increase in COz atid

(r) reduction in pH of water.
6, Ground water into the ground
: When. rain water infiltrates
to join the watei table, it becomes 'ground water'. Ground water
has the following characteristics :
(a) It absorbs gases of decomposition and degradable organic
matter (such as Hz S, methane) within the pores of soil mantle through
which it percolates.
(b) In earth strata which in rich is organic matter, oxygen
is removed from percolating water and COz is added.
(c) Ground water has lower pH value.
(d) Soil minerals are dissolved in ground water. C:rbonates,
sulphates, and chlorides are added, resulting in hardness.
(e) Ground water may contain iron and manganese ln soluble
form.
Effect of Impoundment on water quality
When water is impounded in the reservoirs, specially for storage
purposes, irs characteristics are changecr The impoundment may
produce both beneficial as well as detrimental effects on water quality,
and these effects are summarised in Table 6.2.

Beneficial effects
1. Reduction in turbidity at upper levels, because of reduced
velocities and long detention time.
2. Reduction in hardness &used by algal carbon dioxide and
subsequent precipitation of caicium carbonate
3. Organic oxidation.
4, Reduction in B.o.D. carsed by biodegradation during
storage.
5. Colour reduction due- to settling silts.
6. Reduction in coliform density due to natural die off during
storage.

Detrimental Etfects.
1. l,owe.r atmospheric reaeration caused by ieduced vetocities
and increased depth.
z, Increased argar blooms with resultant taste and odour
problems, in addition to the aesthetic aspct.
3. Back up of pollutsnts present ln r-he receMng water.
107 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

4. Therma! stratification resulting in row D.o., dissolution

of iron and manganese, produttion of Hz S, increabe in
COz and reduction in pH.

INFLUEFT.E oF rn *J$3f"St oN wArER euA,.rry

Wtts Ddrirl,cnls

1. Tbrbidity rcduction l. I-c*s mixing and lcss reacration.

L Hardness reduction L Algal blooms : bad taste and
odour
3. Organic oxidation 3. Back up of pollutants
4. B.O.D. reductbn 4. Thermal stratification
5. Colour reduction (r) lnw dissolved oxygen
6. C.oliform reduction (u) Iron and mangenese dissol-
ution
(rii) llydrogcn sulphide produc-
tion
0r) lncreasc in COz
(v) Reduction in pH.

Thermal stratilication
Thermal stratificatign is the term which is applied to the variation
in the temperature of, the impounded water with depth. Fig 6.3 shows
thermal stratification in a reservoir, during summer. The entire depth
can be divided into three zonqs: (t) Epilimnion 00 Mesolimnion
(or thermocline) and (nt) Hypolimnion.

WATER
+- INFLOW
EPILIMNION 80' F

MESOLIMNlor{
30'F TO 63'F

HYPOLIMNION
< 3CF

RG. 63. SUMMER STRATIFICATION.

(f) Epiliumhn: This is the top zone, 6 to 15 m deep according
to depth of resenoir. The water in this zone is of good quality,
baving high dissoh/ed oxygen.
QUALITY OF WATER 108

(ii) Maolinnion (or Tlumoclfutc). It is a zone, 3 to 6 m deep,

having rapidly changing temPerature at the rate of 1" C or more
-change
per 1- m in depth. The primary disadvantage of this zone
is that the orygen content is depleted through microbial activity.
Since there is no .opportunity of reaeration, anearobic conditions
are set in with an increase in iron, carbon dioxide, manganese,
Hr S rasre and odour. All these are potentially detrimental to water
quality.
(rtt) Hypolimnion : This is the bottom most zone which is
cold. It has practically no dissolved orygen. It has very high dissolved
iron and madganese. Anaerobic conditions exist in this zonc. Also,
there is an increase in COz and decrease in pH.
5.4. WATER ANALYSIS
Various types of impurities,present in water can be,dctermined
by water analysis. This analysis is done both for raw water'as well
as treated or purified water. The examination of raw water will enable
us to determine the outline or processes of water purification. Water
analpis of purified water is done to know whether the degree of
purification has reached the required standards or not. Following
are the purposes of water analpis of raw water and purified water:
1. To classiry the waterwith respect to general level of mineral
constituents.
2, To determine the degree of clarity and ascertain the nature
of matter in suspension.
3. To determine the chemical and bacteriological pollution
of water.
4, To determine the presence/absence of an excess of any
particular constituent affecting potable quality and general
use.
5. To determine the level of organic impurities.
6. To. set the outlines of purification process and speci$
various stages in''it.
7. To ascertain whelher purification'of water has reached
thg requirerl stantdards' or not.'
Thus to summarise, u,amination of .r%rter is vsed to classtfy,
prescribe treatment, control teatment and puification"processes and
maintain public supplies of an appropiate standard of organic quality,
claity and palatability.
The examination of water may be divided into three classes:
1. Phy'sical Examination. ,L chemical examination.
3. Microbiotogical examination.
 WATER SUPPLY ENC INBERING
109

sampttng. The proPer collection of water sample entails the

most careful druidera'tioir of all relevant circumstances, as rejards
.h"d of sampling point, method of collection and frequency of
tJing. frequincy-ot testing directly depends uPon the variability
of quitiry pi rarrivater-ih0 to the hazards of pollution. .For deep
unOlrground water, whgre'chances of pollu-tion are less, the testing
may UE less frequent. In the case of impounded water, where chemical
and pnysicaf oata are intimately related to biological investigation,
seasonal factors and pollutional aspects determine how often
a river
water is to be examiireO.:-The samples should be collected in clean
and sterilized bottles having stoppen. The water and the bottle
should not be touched while gollecting the sample'
55. PITYSICAL EHMINATION
,These consist of (r) Colour test (ti) tas'te and odour test
(nt) temperature test, and (iv) turbidity test'
1. COLOIIR TEST
colour due to leaves, Pst: logs and ot]her organic
[wrt", gets its
true solution or in coiloidal suspension. Colour
mattei either- in
can be measured against various standards or scales such as Hazen
or Platinic ctrloiide"scale, Burgess scale or cobalt scale using a tin-
;;;;;;:) rt. apparent.cololr of water due tq turbidity is first
sample. of
;il;;;'uy."n,t'iiuging. This is achieved by plaging the
water in a centrifugi a-nd- rot"ting it at a vry high speed. so that
matter'
the vortex caused du-e to centrifuge action spills out suspended
t
Tir; r."ipf" itr"n ready for dJtermination of its true colour, using
a tintometer. The instiument has an eye'piece with two holes' A
while
the slide of. standard coloured water is seen through one hole,
the slide of the water to be tested is seen through the other hole'
for
A number of slides of standard colour in water are kept. ready
.";iltison. Ttre intensity of colour in water is measuredofincolour
terms
of aiUirary unit of colour on the'cobalt scale' The unit
is that pr6OuceO Uy one miltigram of platinum cobalt in one litre
cf distilld water.Cfot publifwater stipply, the number on cobalt
scale shourd noi ri..ro 20, and should- ireferably be. less
than 10.
According to IS 3O25- I%4:; if 1.245- g oi potassium chloroplatinate
.oO 1,0 E of coUatt chloride are'dilsohth in diStilled water ahd
diluted to 1 li6e, it has a colour of 500 Hazen units' )
2. TASTE AND ODOUR,TESTS
Taste and odour tests are of prime importano .tn assessing
the palatability of water. They qay. b9 .there due to the presence
of mineral salts, tarry substancts, industrial wastes, domestic sewage'
QUALITY OI..WATER 110

decomposing organic matter, certlin types of microscopic organisms

or chemical compounds such as' phenols etc. However, (taste anct
odour are the most difficult physical characterisrics to mbasurc in
any numerical sense bccause of personal factors related to taste ancl
odour, atmospheric conditions of impurity, temperature and-humidity,
odour is meaured in terms of thresh hald odour number.\ This is
numerically equal tc thevolume of sample of water in cubic 6ntimetres
rcquired to be added to 100 c.c. of odour free fresh water when
the mixure just starts giving the typical smell in the diluted samplc.
Fclr example, if 6 c.c. of water added to 100 c.c. of fresh water
. does not give any odour, while if more than 6 c.c. of water when
aclded to 100 c.c. of water gives odour in the diluted sample, ihe
thresh hold number will be 6. For public water supply, thresh hokl
number shoultl not be more than 3. The tcst is conductecl at 20"C.
Alternativcly, the odour tcst may bc carricd out by inhaling thruugh
lwo tubes of an instrument called Osmoscopc. It consists uf l\\,o
]0 mm clia. glhss tuhes 30 cm long iiept ubnut 8 mm rp!,rr. Ther
lower end of each tube is plain and is held slightly above warcr.
surface while thc upper beveled end can be inserted in the nostril,
Diluted water samples in the ratio of l:2, 1:4, 1:8, 1:16 etc. arc
prepared. One tube is kept in a flask containing one of the above
diluted watcr sample, while the other tube is kept in the flask containing
original water sanrple. The mixure with greatest dilution is testecl
first, anil rhcn othcrs with lesser and lesser dilution. The mixure
giving first detectable oclour will be taken as thresh hold odour, while
the numbc:r of aclclitions of fresh water in such ryrixure 'is knou.n
as odottr-intensirv* or pO value. Following tablc gives the oclour in-
terpretation of the pO values :

pO value Meaning
0 No perceptible odour.
1 Very faint odour, detectable only to
trained obsewer.
2 Faint oclour, detectable to average per-
son only if he is told.
3 Distinct odour, readily detectable by
most people.
4 Very distinct 'odour.
5 Strong and intense odour.
6 Bstremely strong odour.
3. TEIVIPERATURE TEST
Tf9 lemperature of warcr to be supplied shoulcl be between
lfc to 20"c.
f.*p".t.ture higher rhan zs,c is considered objec-
tionable" It can be mea'sured with ordinary thermome(en graduated in
 WA1ER SUPPLY ENG INEERING
111

0.1oC, range 0 to 5tr. Qn case of large bodies of surface waler,

where it is required to record temPerature at a certain depth, 'broken
capiltary thermometer' rs,rs"d.) At dePths greater than 15 m, a ther'
mo-couplr may bi used. (Temperature measurements are sometimes
imponant tp identiry the magnitudeof density,viscosity, vapour Pressure
and surface tension of water.)Ottrer factors such as saturation values
of solids and gases dissolved in it,. B.O.D. values and the biological
activities aie dependent on temp-eralure of water.
4. TURBIDTTY TEST
Turbidity is imparted by the colloiclal matter Present in water.
The colloidal matter may be clay and loam or microscopic organisms'
It is a measure of the resistance of water to the passage of light
through it. Hgnce turbidity is estimated against standard suspensions
of a ,Ciuceous material such,,as Futler's earth, the silica scale being
based on standardization by photometric means. The standard unit
of turbidiy is the turbidity produced_by on Part of Fuller's earth
in a millid,n parts of distilled water. Turbidity is expressed in terms
of parts of suspended matter per million parts of water by weight'
abbreviated as p.p.m. One unit or 1 P.p.m. is equivalent to I mg
per litre. The peririssible turbidity of domestic water mav be between
5 to 10 p.p.m.
The following are common methods of measurirtg turbidity
of water : (i) by iurbidity rod (tt) by Jackson's turbitrirneter (ttt)
by Baylis turbidimeter (tr) by Nephelometers'
I
(ij Turbidity Rod. Turbidity rod is used for measuring turbidity
of watii in the field. It consists of a graduated alumininum rod,
about 20.3 cm in length, at the upper end of which is attached
a graduated non-stretctraUte taPe of- about lZ.2 cm long. At the
lorier end of the aluminium rod, a screw containing a . Flatiirum
needle (of I mm diameter and 2.5 crn length) and nici,ll..ring
^
is inserted. The gaduated tape has a mark at its 1op. e1d spt \i[11S
the position of d1,e Ouring the test. In order to find the tu''bitlity'
the lower end oi the rod is gfadually immersed in wateilvhose
turbidity is to determined. eye is ftpt constantly at n9 nrarked
positiori and .the platinum nieOte is watched. The rod is ntoved
Stowty in water tiit the platinum needle i*t {is-aRpears ftom the
vision due to turbidity of water. The readigg of the graduated tapg
near the water surfa'ce directly gives turbldity in P.p.m. The rod
gives only rough value of the turbidity of water.
(ti) JscJ$on's Turbldimcter, This is a iaboratory aPParatus
which is tsed to measure turbidity when it is'more than 25 P'p'T''
and preferably when it is more than lm p.p.m. It consists of a
QL'n l-l'l'\' ( )t: WA'['ER rtz

PO6ITION OF
1-I
EYE

I
?'? GRADUATED
TAPE

GRADUATED GRADUATED
ALUlT|MUM GLASS TUBE
ROO METAL
CONTAINER

METAt.|
STANd

STANDARD
NI.CKEL CANOLE
RING

PLAT]NUM NEEDLE

FIG. 6.4. TURBIDITY ROD FIG. 6.5. JACKSON'S TI.'RI]IDIMETER

metal stand -holding a metal container ind a gracluated glass tube
in it, as shown in Fig. 6.5. A standard candle is placed below the
stand. The water sample is poured in the sample and the image
of the flame of the standard candle is seen through the turbid water
in the glass tube. The level of water in the glas tube is gradually
increased till rhe image of the flame ceases to be seen. rne neigtri
of water column, measured in the graduated glass tube provides
the measure of the turbidity of the water. The longer the light
path, the_lorver the turbidily; a light parh of 21.5 cm corresponos
to 100 JTU (Jackson Turbidiry unir) -while light path ,of 10.8 cm
corresponds to 2m JTU wheie ! JTU = f F.p.i. ,
(iii)
Baylis Turbidimeter. This is a very. a@urare instrumenr
and is,preferred when turbidity of the sampl6 is less.than 5 units.
It rcnsists of a- gahansied ir6n box in whish nro glass .tubes urb
\rp, ar one end lnd a zsO watt bulb wiitr renec(ir, ir pi..ra ar
the other end as shown in Fig. 6.6. one tube contains standard
solution of known turbidity while in the other tube the water sample
is kept. The tube is held firmly in a platform with beveled horrx
at its bottom end. The tubes are surrounded on all its four sides
StlT:: ptares, and ar is bottom- uy r *nite opat glass prate.
of blue cobalt plates, blue light -is cast in both'the rubes,
neca$e T!111
 WAfER SUPPLY ENOfi EERINC
Ltt
and a omparison is made. lf $e tig{g'ryrs, another tube containing
iundard iolution of differerit' turUiOity is introduced in the place
of the first one till the colour in both the tubes match. The standard
solution at this stage give the turbidity of the gi-ve1 w-1ter sample'
Th; GtbiOity'ig- either as p.P'm. or BTU (Baylis' Turbidity
"*pio;ed
Unit), tiotfr being equivalent.

STANOARD
soLuTloif WATER SAMPLE
REFLECTOR

ELUE COSALT PLA-

TES ON ALL SIOES

PLATFORM
WITH
BVELED
HoLEs
WHITE
oPAL GLASS PLATE

FIG. 6.6.. BAYLIS' TURB.TDIMETER

(iy)Nephelometers:Nephelometersarethemaderncommerical
"rh; -i".1/*,
n Aiaili\t*r, fi;itn ,n. [ghi intensity is measured at right anlges
; ray in conirast ro rhe conventional turbidimeters
(describeO earrie4 in which t-he Jight inte.nsity
is measured after the
same pases tii.igni through thJ turUid water'
To achieve this'
measures the intensity
nephelometqrs use photometers. A photometer
is scattered
of tight passing through the turbid water, after the same
at right angles to tnJinciOent ray. The value of turbidity
measured
by a nephelomerer is generally lxpressg as NTU
(Naphelometric
turbidity unit). Since fdrmazin'Pglyme.r i. *d as reference turbidity
units are also sometimes
standard sus,pension, naphetomeirii turbidity
referredtoasFTU(Formazinturbidityunit).
6.5. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
Chemical tess are carried out to determine
the following :
(iv) PH value'
(f) Total soliG. (ri) Chlorides' (tu) Hardness.
and its com-
(v) Meiils and other chemical substances' (vf) Nitrogen
pounds. (tu) Dissolved gass'
r. TOTAL SOIIDS
solids are
In'this test, the suspended, dissolved and colloidal
separately and then .OA.O together to
get total solids'
dctermined
QUALITY OF WATER
tl4
High solid contents indicate either contamination or presence of
excessive mineral matters. The amount of total solids should preferably
be less than 500 p.p.m. In order to determine the suspended solids,
water is filtered through fine filter paper. The material retaihed
on the filter is dried and weighed. In order to determine dissolved
and colloidal solids, the filtered sample of water is evaporated and
the dry residue left is weighed. A platinum dish is used for this
purpose. In order to determine faed solids' (Le.total solids exclusive
of organic matter), the total solids obtained by filtering and evaporaring
are kept in the platinum dish and held over a Bunsen flame till-
*'ery part of solids is raised to a bright red heat. The organic matter
is burnt off in this process and only inorganic matter is left behind.
The dish is cooled, and weight of the matter remaining behind gives
the amount of 'fixed solids' which ciln tre expressed in p.p.m.
2. CHLORIDES
The test is primarily carried out to determine the content
of sodium chloride in water. Rain water carries small annount of
chloride derived from the ocean. Natural s:urface waters derive
chlorides from oil-field wastes, salt water, mineral deposits etc., and
the normal contents of chlorides in these may be of the order of
10 to z0 p.p.m. Greater amounts arise either from the 'natural
occurrence of chlorides in the geological' strata @ncerned, or in
the case of rivers, from the entry of sewage effluents'hnd wastes.
Chlorides are estimated by titration with standard silver nitrate sblution
using potassium chromate'as indicator. For this, 50 c.c. of water
sample is raken by a pipetre, in d porcelain dish, and nvo or three
drop of potassium chromate solution is added to the water in thb
dish. The water sample is then titrated with standard solution of
silver nitiate.
3. }HRDNESS
The hardness of water is due to presence . of certain salts,
such as carbonates, bi-carbonates, chlorides and sulptiates, of calcium
and magnesium dissolved in it. c.a,lcium and malnesium salts are
sqaP.destroying and are therefore the prime constitueqts concerned
with, hardness. Total hardness is compoiec or two co-mpiinents
porary hardness, and permanent hardness. Temporary hardness, - tem-
also
known as carbonate hardness, is due to the presence of carbonates
and bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. It is easily removed
bg,rlTg rhe wa.rer and by addin! fime to warer. r\e permaneftt
P_r,|!:l
nardness, aho called 'non'carbonate hardness', is due
to oresence
of sulph?t9s, chlorides. and nitrates of calcium ada ,.*;iil:'L
cannot be removed by boiling anq requires rp""iri *"itr.fir
r'r-'*t*,"i
115 WATER SUPPI-Y ENCINEIR ING

softening. Hardness is expressed either in p.p.m. or in terms of dcgrecs'

of hardness. Water is said to have one degree of hardncss when
its soap destroying power is equivalent to the effect of 14.25 milligrams
of calcium carbonate in one litre of water (or gram of calcium I
carbonat.e in .o.ne imperial gallon). Thus degree of hardness is I
cquivalent to 1 P.P.m.
Table 6.3 gives'the nature of water and their scale of hardness
in degrees. Table 6.4 gives the hardness in P.p.m. and the corresponding
nature of water.
TABLE 6.3.

S. ilo. Dcgncotlurdncss Nqlure of*uter

I I Extremely soft water

2 2 Very soft water
3 3 So[t water
4 6 Reasonahly soft watcr
5 7 Reasonably hard water
5 9 Hard water
7 l1 Very hard wbter
8 15 Excessive hard waler
9 17 Too hard to use.

TABLE 6.4.

Claet I 2 3 4

Hsdw 0-55 56-100 l0l-200 201-500

D',n
Cbss 6nla Soft Slightty Moderately Very hard
hard hard

There are three methods of determining total hardness of water

(r) Clark's method, (r0 Hehner's method. (fi) Versenate method.
(i) Clork's ndM. based on the
Thi$ method is based prem$e tnat
the prem$e thar
hardnes-producing substancs' react s'i_th soaP a.n! fgrm' insoluble
compounis Uefore-latter is produced. Hence total hardness is found
by determining the standard-soap solution required to obtain a per-
manent lather with th water sample of knmm volume with constant
shaking. Thb nthod has beoome oholete.
(O IIAlds ndhod. In this methd the. temPorary hardness
is deteiniincd by tttration_with a standard solutio-n of sulphuric acid,
using mcthyl oringc as iiiiicator. To determine the Permanent hard'
nesslstandird sodium carbonate solution is added to the water sample
and evaporated to dryness. Tbe amount of sodium carbonate in
QUALITY ()F Wr\'fflR tt6
excess overthat required to convert the sulphates and chlorides into
carbonates gives the permanent hardness.
(iii) Venenate method, In this method, hardness is cletermined
by titrating against Di-Ethylene diamine tetracitic acid (EDTA) solu-
tion, using Erio chrome Block T as indicator at pH 8.5 to ll.
For potable water, hardness of water should be more than
5 degrees but less than 8 degrees. Excessive hardness is objectionable
because (i) great deal of soap is gequired for washing clothes etc.,
(it) scale is formed in boilers and hot water heating syrtems and
(ttt) corrosion and incrustation of pipe lines and plumbing fixures
is promoted.
4. HYDROGEI{ loN CONCENTRATION (pH VALUE)
The hydrogen-ion concentration or pH value of water is a
measure of degree of acidity or alkalinity of water. In water, some
of the molecules (H, O) are dissociated into two ions - the hydroxyl
OH-) ions or anions which are negatively charged and the hydrogen
H+; ions or cations which are positively charged. The concentration
of the luto free or unconbined components is extremely small, but
it is governed by the followinglaw of nrass action in physical chemistry
Concentration of cations x Concentration of anions
= Constant
Concentrat ion of 0ndissociated molecules
Since dissociation of water is only very slight, the conceRtration
of undissociated molecules (ie. the denominator) may be taiien as
l$OVo or unity. Hence we have :
(H*) x (oH-; =
Ionisation constanr ...(6.1)
When concentrations in the above equation are expressed in terms
of gram igns per litre, this constant is l0-r1 at 21"C.
(H*) x (oH-) = l0-ro ....(6.t a)
For absolutely pure water_, concentrations of hydroxyl and
hydrogen ions is equal, and at zloc, its rralue is l0'? e?ch.' Thus,
(10- t gm H-ion; x (10- ? gm of OH-ion)
= l0-
r'! ...(6.1 D)
From Eq. 6.1 (a), if the concentratioh of H-ions is known,
the @neentration of oH ions can be easily fgund. For example,
if con@nrration of H ions is r0- 1 @ncenrration of oH ions will
' s
be 10- so thar Eq. 6.1 (a) is satisfidd. water beoomes acidic whdn
@ncentration of H ions is increased, and altu;lina when.conoentration
of H ions is decreased. Becarse of vely.low ralue eif H-ion (or
oH-ion) con@ntration, ,this figure is inconvenient to be tsed, and
Lt7 WATER SUPPLY ENG INEERING

insteacr a term pH value has becn introduced. pH valuc is the logarithm

of the reciprocal of hydrogen ion con@ntration.

Thns pH =- logro (H) = tot,u6 ...(6.2)

Similarly, pOH value of ,water by definition can be expressed as

I
pOH =- logro [OHl = togro (OH) ...(6.2 a)

Hence ftom F4. 6.1 (a)

logro (pH + POH) = lsgle 14
or PH+POH =14 ...(6.2 b)
7
For pure water (H), = 10-
'1
pH=logro7;,=7
Water becomes acidic when
hydrogen ion concentration in-
- MAx AcrDrrY 7 5), in
creases (say, from 10- to 10-
lr
T that case, the pH value is dec-
2,
I
reased from 7 to 5. Fig. 6.7 gives
3' ACIDIC WATER the pH scale indicating the range
4, of acidity or alkalinity of water. For
5, water with maximum aciditY, PH
6, value is zero, while for water with
7-- NEUTSAL ma,rimum alkalinitY, PH value is
8.
WATER t4.
Acidic water causes tuber-
9
culation while alkaline water causes
to
incrustation.'For potable waters,
tl the pH valuc should be between
t? 6 to 9, and pret'erablY between 7
t3 and 8.5.
14' -MAX ALKALIMTY Measurement of PH value.
pH measurement is imPortant since
FIG. 6.?. pH SCALE it provides means of classiffing dnd
of corelating othdr characteristics or behaviours such as corossive
acitrvity or other inter-related factors controlling biological fuaction
in a boity of warer. Is knowledge is also helpful in controlling softening
and coa$flation Prooesss in water treatment. There are two methnd.s;
of detedining iH value of water : (l) Colourimetric method, and
(O Electrometric method.
 Disinfection

I I.1. IN'I'RODUCTION
when water comes out of filter plants. it may contain bacterla
ancl othcr micro-organisms, some of which may be pathogenic' It
is rherforc neccssary to disinfect wagrhlg"\i$-Plcteria 1"J other
micro-organisms, and thus prevent wafrer-borne dlseases. hlO-wever,
clisinfection is not a substitute for filtration. Disinfection follows
filtration. When the aim is to kill all the micro-organisms in water
so as to make it sterile, the process is known as sterilization.'The
aim ofdis infection,h6ffiGr, is to reduce the number of micro-organisms
to a safe limite. Disinfection usually requires complicated rnechanisms
that need the attention of skilled operators to avoid breakdown and
incorrect dosage.
Su itability of disinfectant
Disinfectant is a substance that is used for disinfection of
waGr. A water disinfectant shogld meet the fotlowing requirments.
.ti|.z'q
l.- The disinfectant/sliould be effective in killing $e micro-
organisrns@y4q umhfn t_he co$lact
time availabte;f tre raiiEe of water ten0 pera t u res encou n tered
and the anticipated fluctuations in composition, ooncentra-
tion and condition of water being treated.
Z. The disinfectant should be readily available at reasonable
cost.
3. It should be safe to handle, and its method of application
should be simple.

53
54 ?.6a wATER SUPPLY exdgeeRrNc
h.g^{'
'i' the water toxic, qUralatable
4. It should not rgndef or ob-
j ect i o nab te, es$er bU .g6",gtr*i*, fo r JGJrr tentted use.
5. It should have ability to pUrsisbin residual concentrations
as a safeguard against leconilrgination.
Mechanism of diSinfection , r r ",)
)LF
\\e disiufectant either destroys or inactivates the micro-orga-
nismsu by way of the following four mechanisms :
(i) Darnage to cell wall of micro-organisms
iti) Alteration of cell permeability
(iu) Changing the colloidal nature of the cell protoplasm, and
(iv) Inactivation of critical enryme systems responsible for
metabolic activities.
i1.2. METHoDS oF DISINFEcTIoN
Various methods of disinfection can be broadly classified under
two heads : (a) " physical methods, and" (b) chemical methods.
(a) Fhysical methods
a

Phlsical methods include the following :

1. Disinfection by heat : Boiling of water

2. Disinfection by light : Sunlight is a natural disinfectant.
Inadiation by ultraviolet roys intensifies disinfection.
(t) Chemical methods
Chemical methods of disinfection inctude the following.
l. Oxidizing ctumicab : They comprise
(t) The halogens - chlorine, bromine and iodine
(tr) Ozone, and
(tti) Other oxidants such- as pottasium Permanganate and
hydrogen peroxide
2. Metal iorls : Such as silver and copper ions. Silver ions
are bacrericidal, though they are neither viricidal nor g6ticidal. Dis-
infection with silver lons is generally done in low concentration-
as low as 15 pg per litre (parts per billion), and hence the process
is very slow.
3. Alfulis and acids: It is well known that Pathogenic bacteria
do not tast long in highly alkaline (pH >11) or highly acidic (pH
3) waten. The iestrociioir of bacteria by carntic lime incidental to
lime softening is an examPle.
4. Surfoa odive clsmimb : Among surfaclayrt' the catioinic
detagents are only weakly destructive. The neutral detergents occupy
an intennediate position.
DISINFECTION

outofthevariousmelhodsmentionedabovefordisinfection'
works Practice'
chlorination is*ort commonly adopted. Hence in water
rhe rerm chlorination is sometimes used in place of
disinfection'

11.3. MINOR METIIODS OF DISINFECTION

These include the following methods : (1) Boiling.methoc
(z) Excess lime treatment (3) Silver treatment (4) Ultra-vioiet
rai
ir"ut*.nt, ancl (5) Potassium permanganate tratments.
in the
l. Boiling Method : This method is the most effective all
complete sterilization of water, since. boiling of water kills
the
bacteria and other micro-crganisms. However, this is not possible
on large scale, as'for publiiwater supplies. During ep.idemics, the
consumers are advised to boil the water before drinking it'
2, Excess Lime Treatment : It has been found that when
pH of water is greater than 9.5, E-coli present in water will die"
il.nce when enolrgh.lime is added to bring, the pH to this figure,
sterilizarion of E-ioli ancl other bacteria occurs. The removal of
bacreria is upto 99.93 or even lffi%. However, the excess lime has
ro be remgvetl by suitable rnethod of recarbonation, before supplying
it to the consumers. The necessary dose of lime is between 10 to
20 ppm of calcium oxide.
3. Silver Treatment : Water can also be disinfected with
silver by the electro-catadynic action or oligodynamic action. Silver
when immersed in water has been obsewed to exert an 'inhibiting
action on bacterial life. In this approach, silver ions, with or without
'activators' such as palladium or gold, are deposited on particles
of granular activated carbon, a material which has an exceptionall,v
high surface area for the deposit of silver. Bacteria laden water con-
tacting thb silver irnpregnated carbon release minute quantities of
silver - from 25 to 40. parts per billion (ppb) which serves as a
disinfectant. The contact time varies from 10 to 60 minutes. However,
sincesilver is costly, this method m-ay be used only in small installations
or for private indMduat houses.
4, Ultra-Vlolet Ray Treatment : The ultra-voilet ray offers
an effective metho0 for sterilization of water, since the light is effective
in killing both the active bacteria as well as spores. Though sun
is the most powerful source of ultra-voilet rap, it requires a large
expospre area and long time. Hence ultra-voilet rdys are generated
by machincs consisting of mercury-vapour lamps enclosed in a quarta
globe. The destructive power of the rap begins in the blue-green
region of the spectrum with a wave length of 0.49&p and increases
in effectivencss to 0.149 p. For disinfection to. be effective, water
shouid flow in a thin clear film close to the sterilizing ray.. The
56 WATER SUPPLY ENCINEERING

depth of water should not exceed l0 cm, it should be colourless

and its. turbidity should not be more than 15 to 20 ppm. The method
is costly, and hence not commonly used except for-private buildings,
office buildings, institutions, and particularly swimming pools d..
5. Potassium permanganate treatment : This is a common
rnethod of disinfection in rural areas, where mostly the warer supplies
are from wells which con'tain leser amounts of bacteria. Pottassium
permanganate (K Mn Oc) is dissolved in a bucket of well warer, and
th bucket full of this water.is mixed with the well water thoroughly.
Potassium permanganate not only kills the bacteria but it also helps
in oxidising the taste producing organic matter. The normal dose
I
of KMnO4 varies from to 2 mg/l with a contact period of 4 to
6 hours. Addition of K Mn Oa to Water imparts it some pink colour.
However well water should not Fe used during the first 48 hours
of the addition of K Mn Oa to it.
I[.4. CHLORINATION
The use of chlorine has become practically uliversal in the
drsinfection of water. It is cheap, reliable, and presents no great
difficulty in handling. According to AWWA,, the'earliest recorded
use of chlorine directly for water disinfection was on an experimental
basis, in 1896 at lnuisville, and in 1897 at England. Its.fint cbntinuous
use was in Belgium, in l9$2, for the dual objectiveof aiding co4gulation
and making water biologically safe.
The precise action by which chlorine. kills baeteria in water
is not kr{own: Several theories have been put fonvard. A commonly
accepted theory is the En4tma.tic Hypothesrs. Ac@rding to this, chlorine
compounds fohned when chlorine is added to wa,ter, interfere with
certain enzymes in the bacterial cells which are vital'for the support
ci iife. Er zymes invloved are created within the cell plasm, and
-
hence action of disinfection proceeds in two stages (t) penelration
of rhe cell wall by the disinfectant, and (.t+its reaction with the
enzymes.
When chlorine is dissolved in water at temPeratures between
4g"F and 2L2oF, it reacts to form hypochtorous and hydrochloric
acids within few seconds :
Clz *
Hz
HOCL + HCI (Hydrolysis) "'(11'1)
The hypochlorous acid, HOCI, ionizes or dissociates into
trydrogen (H*) ions and hypochlorite (OCl-) ions :
FIOCI <r H+ + OCI- (Ionization) "'(lI'2)
rhe hypochlorous acicl anrl the hypochlorite ions which
It is
accomplish disinfeition. Thus, rvhen chlorine is added to water, all
 DISINFECTION JI

too \

90 \ to

80 \

20'c--J I
70

60 \\

\ 30E
350
T
* *
40 @
'\u
\ 70
\
?o
Fo't 80

to
\\
\
\
il
pH

IrlG. ll.l. FORMATION OF HOCI AND OCI AT VARIOUS pH LEVELS.

the three (r.e., elementalchlorine, hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite
ions) are forme_d: and they remain the equilibrium at different con-
necentrations depending upon the pH of water which controls the
amount of dissociation. The chlorine existing in water as hypochlorous
acid, hypochlorite ions and molggular chlorine is defined a${rge auailable
cbladne- &qjgoal i irinfrgtion *gffig!_ggcy depends upon the ratio
of hy e ite ions, being grearer at a
bigh ratio. Ai pH < 5, chlorine exists as elemental or molecular
ehlori*e:-Ar-pH'biewCen 5 to 10, it remains in the form of both
-+pffireirs*acid qod hlrpocllloritb ions ihe concentration of the
-
former being reduced and ihatonhd tltter iS increased as pH increases,
W-+Hr-:rq{ pH->-"10, orly hypochlorii+ irans exist.
-t!m_es
-hypoehlsrsus-aejd.
.sjnceJhe qbout
!s g0 as. effective as the
hypochlorite ions, the pH or tfie watei to ue treated should be
maintainQd ar j6-Tms*:? - Ia
"p_igiqp! lieat ionization of Hocl.
Ttr.e hypochlorire salts also ionize in water and yield hypo-
.
chlorite ions, which establishes equilibrium with tryorogin
ion! :
s8 WATER, SUPPLY ENGINEERINC

Ca(OCl)z*ZHzO 2HOCI +C-a(OH)2 ...(r 1.3)

NaOCI-* HzO -+ HOCI * NaOH ...(r 1.4)
Thorlgh the increase in pH value reduces the germicidal ef-
fieienry, one recnt study (Berg, 1972) reports that poliovirus was
rnore rapidly inactivated at pH
torm of OCL* rather than HOCI.
Chlorine demand
Chlorine and chlorine compounds, by virtue of their oxidising
power, first reacts with organic as well as inorganic inpurities prbsent
in water. The amount of chlorine consumed in the oxidaticn of
these imgurities, before any disinfection is acheieved, is known as
chloine hemand of water. After the chlorine demancl is fulfillc'|,
chlorine will appear as ftee available residual chloine (i.e. the one
existing i1 water as hypochlorous acid or hypochlorite ions). The
ftee av$ilabte residua! chloine will then serue as disinfectant to kill

chemical reactions and leave.j.gme amqun!-.o

as residual' for the disinfactiotl-bfjualer--ch lorin' demand is, therefore,
"6ewvec:n
the diffefen:CA amount of chlorine added to water and
the quantity of free available chloine remaining at the end of a specifier)
cCIntact peiod.
Cenerally, most waters are satisfactorily disinfected if the free
available residual chlorine is about 0.2 mgflitre at thc encl of 10
minutes contact Period.
1T.5. FORMS OF APPLICATION OF CHLORINE
Chlorine may be applied to water in one of the following
fcrms :

(t) As bleaching powder Gr hypochlorite

(,i) As chloramines
(tt,) As free chlorine gas
(i r) As chlorine dioxide.

l.Bleachingpowder.Bleachingpowder.orcalciumhypo-
cfirlorite, Ca(OCl)2, is a chlorinated lime containing
about T r%
of available chlorine, when freshly made. When chlorination was
iliu, intioOucen, bieaching powder was exclusively usgd'. However'
slorage
during
trleaching powder is not stiOfe, and it loses its strength
or- .rpro"uie of air" It is therefore used only on sman
installations
or under emergency conditions. Equation 11.3 indicates the
reaction
DISINFEgf ION 59

with bleaching powder while Eq. 11.4 gives the reaction with sodiunn
hypochlorire NaOCl. The process of chlorination with hopochloritcs
is fnown as hypochloination Commerical cornpouncls such as HTF{
(high test hypochlorites), Pittchlor, Pittcide, Hoodchlor etc. are useil
instead of bleaching powder. The high-test hypochlorites, having an
available chlorine contents of 65 rc 7AVo, are stable, easily solt:hlc
and free flowing and nonhygroscopic. The oxidizing power c'i
hypochforite is represented in terms of available chlorine.
Hypochlorites are applied
'to water as a solution by means
of hypochlorite feeding apparatus. Fig. 11.2 shows an emergenq feeder
consisting of a solution tank connected to a constant level feeding
tank. The doze of the solution is adjusted by means of an adjustable
pinch clamp.

SOLUTION TANK
(EIARREL ORIJTi Of, BOX
RUBBER LINED)

STRAFIER

RUBBER OR
PLASTIC TUBE
RUEBER OR
H-AsTIC TU8E.
TAELE PITH

$t-ruxneu
0l ro wATER suppLY
FIG. 11.2. EMERGENCY FEEDER FOR HYPOCHI,ORITES
2, chloramines. chloramines are the compounds of ammonia
and chlorine. The widespread adoption of chlorine-ammonia treat-
ment followed recognition that the combination of chlorine and am-
monia produced a more stable disinfecting residual than produced
by chlorine alone and that the process could be applied to iimit
the-d_e_velopment of objectionable tastes. In this treatment,
ammonia
as NHr is added ro rhe warer just before rhe qhlorine is applied.
P. Tull proportigry ar9 I part of ammonia to 4.5 parts of chlorine
by weight. The following ieactions take place :

HzO*Clz=HCl +HOCI ...(11.s)

NHr + Hocl = Hzo + NH2cl (Monochloramine) ...(11.6)
 i

5S WATER SUPPLY ENG INEERINC

NHzcl+ Hocl = Hzo * NHCtz (Dichroramine) ...(il.7)

NHCIz + HOCI = F{zO * NClr (Trichloramine) ...(11.g)
The formation of a particular type of chroramine depends
llpon the pH range of -water as indicated below :
pH Range Chloramine formed
<4.4 Trichloramine or (Nitrogen trichloride)
onlv.
4.4 to 5 Dichloramine only.
5to8 Both monochloramine and dichloramint
in equal quantities at pH 7.
>8.5 Monochloramine only.
Though ammonia dissolvetr quickly in water, but it does not
diffuse easily. Hence it should be mixed with the help of mechanical
t
means, atleast 20 minutes to hour earlier than the application
of chlbrinp. Ammonia may b'e used in the form of gas or liquid
or as ammonium sulphate or as ammonium chloride. Since the dis-
infecting reactions are much slower with chlorine and ammonia than
with chlorine alone, a contact period af.2 hours should be provided
before the water is used..

The following are the advantages of chloramine-ammonia treat-

ment :
1. It is more effective than chlorine alone. Also, its bacte-
ricidal effecr persists for a longer duration. The residual
chlorine may be upto 60 to 90% of the chlorine added,
even after 20 hours.
Z. It prevents bad taste and odour, Particularly those due
to phenols.
3. The quantity of chlorine required becomes less, esy'ecially
if organic matter'is present in large amounts'
4. Water treated with this causes less irritation to nose and
eyes. Hence it is more useful in treatingwater for swimiming
pools.
5. There is no danger of overdose.

Frce Chlorine. Chlorine is generally applied in gaseous

3.
form or in liquid form. Gaseous chlorine is a greeni5ft-yellowpoisonous
substance, with a typical odour, and is about 2.48 times treavier
than air. Liguid_ chiorine is amber coloured oily liquid and abo.Ut
1.44 times as heavy as water.' Unconfined liquid chlorine rapidly-
vapourises ro gas; i volume of liquid yields aoout 462 volumes of
gas. When chlorine gas is subjected jo a. Pressure of 7 kg/cmz, it
ir coverted into liquid. Hence chlorine is stored and supplied in
DISINFE,CTION sl,

liquid form in metal containers under pressure of 10.5 kg/ cmt' Since
liquid chlorine is highly corrosive, the cylinders containing liquitl
chlorine are provided with special fittings. The rylinders are built
to withstand bursting pressures of 35 kg/cm2 corresPonciing l{r a
temperature of 190" F.
Chlorine gas is respiratory irritant. It can cause varying degrees
of irritation to skin, mucous membrane and respiratory systern, i;l
extreme cases, death can occur from suffocation. Hence it is desirabie
to have gas masks in good condition available wherever chlorine
is stored or used. Liquid chlorine may cause skin and e)'e burns
upon contact with these tissues. Dangerous compounds may be formed
when chlorine comes in contact with other gases. If the room is
poorly ventilated and contains'carbon monoxide, escape of chlorinc
may result in the formation of phosgene - a highly toxic gas. F{e nct
chlorine cylinders should be stored,in a cool well-ventilaied iil,.)i-,
The Chlorinc dose dcpends upon the fiiiio..r'ing flact;,r'
(i) Organic matter present in water to be clisinfuc!;i:,
(tt) pH value. of water.
(ttt) amount of carbon di-oxide present in water,
(tu) temperature.
and (u) time of contact.
Our of these, the pH of water has the most important fole to plav.
The State of New York recommends that for drinking water ar pH
J.0, the concentration of free available chlorine after 10 minutes
d'etention time should be 0.2 nigAitre, while at pH equai ro I.ir.
it should be 0.4 mg/litre. At the pH of 7 and I the recommendei
combined'available chlorine residuals are 1.5 and 1.8 mg/litre, respec-
tively after a contact period of 60 minutes.
4. chlorine Dioxide (clo2). According ro Ridenour and Inglos
(1947), bactericidal properties of chlorine dioxide is grearer than
chlorine. The chlorine dioxide gas is unstable, and is therefore produceel
at the point of use by passing chlorine gas through sodiurn chlorite,
The following reaction takes place :
2 NaClOz * Clz = 2NaCl * 2ClOz ...ii i,gi
Until present rime, the use of chtorine dioxicle has been limired
to special water treatment applications such as oxidation of iron.
mangane'sp, and phenolic and chlorophenolic compounds,
for control
of algae. Chlorine dioxide theroetically has about Z.S times
the oxitting
power of chlorine. It does not react with organic maferials
to produce
chloroform, a potentiar'carcinogen. It abJ ooes not react with am=
62 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

monia. It is entirely harmless in aqueous soiution. The dosage of

chlorine dioxide varies from 0.5 to 1.50 p.p m. and its action is
unaffected by pH r.ralues benveen 6 to 10. Its efficiency is not impaired
{as is that of Hocl) by a high pH environmenr. It is highly effective
fcr the control of certain taste and odour problems. However, clue
to its high cost of production and application, it is rarely applied
sole$ for the purpose of disinfection.
Example 11,1. Calculate the quantity of bleaching powder required
per doy for disinfecting 4 million lineslday. The dose of chlorine has
to be 0.5 p.p.m and the bleaching powder contains 30Vo of available
chlorine.
Solution:
Chlorine required @ 0.5 p.p.*.
0.5x4x106
105
-2 kg.

Since the bleaching powder contairc 3AVo of chlorine, amount

of bleaching powder
2
= l=lffi
JT,,
= Q,67 kg.
Exampte 11,2. Chlorine l$age in the teatncnt of 25000 mtlday
is 9 kglday. The residual chlorine after 10 minux contact is 0.2 mgll.
Calculate the dosage in milligrans per lite and the chlorine dematd
of the water.
Sol'ution.
Watbr treated Per = 25000 m3
daY
= ]J x 106 litreslday
Chlorine consumed Per daY = ! kg.
=9xld mg/day

.'. Chlorine used Per litre of water : 9

"
10t,

= 035 rngll
Also, residual chlorine = 0.2 mg/l
Chlorirc demand = 036 - 0'2= 0'16 ngfi
11.6. APPLICATION OF CHI'RINE
There are two methods of application of c,hlorine to water
to be disinfected :

(r) ctrlorine trs nsy b fed dirgctty to the Point of application

to the water supplY' or
DISINFEgfION

(li) The in a small flow of water

gas may be first dissolved
and the solutioi is thln fed to the point of application. The first
method is less expensive but is unsatisfactory because of poor diffusions
of chlorine in water. AIso, it is found that at temperatures below
49.2" F ( l0"C) crystalline hydrates of ice of. chlorine gas are formed,
Hence when chlorine is directly fed through pipe lines and if tempreature
falls down, choking of pipes leading chlorine may take place. Hence
only second method is used. Chlorine is fed or applied through
appararus known as chlorinator- A satisfactory chlorinator should
be able to feed chlorine at the desired rate irrespeetive of the changes
in the pressure in the supply cylinder.
Fig. 11.3 shows the diagramr.neticsketch of an automaticvacuum
chlorinator. It essentially consists of a glass bell jar (ra) placed in
tray (8) in whibh a. water seal is maintained with some constant
water level. Chlorine gas is supplied to"the bell jar from the chlorine
cylinder through a float conttolled needle valve (C).
8LL JAR (A)
FLOAT CONTROLLED
NEEDL E VALVE (C }

ltl G

EH CTOR
ii
uu

FIG. 11.3. AUTOIT{ATIC VACI'Jtnil CHT ORINATOR

when weter ftoq/s through ejector (F), racuum is created, due
to which the chlorine present in bcll jar-enten the glass orifice
mry ($ which encloecs a tirbe tp) fr.Arg thl solution of chlorine
and'water to the eJeaor. A scale is prwiceo on or near the glass
:fT
water llD*.
(E) ro mcssurc the quanity of cnorine *iog rJ.ine
lercl in the $ass orifice iube abore the nater lerrcl
bell jar gives a measure of the differential lead on the
in the
orifice. The
64 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERTNG

chlorine-water solutbn frstrr.'*the ejectar is fed directly to the main

flow of water. A vacuu"m relief valve is also provided.
!.3..?" FORMS GF CHLORINATION
Dependi4g upon- -the stage at whjctr' chlorine is applied to
water, chlorina',tion may be of the following forms :
(1) Plaih chlorination.
(2) Pre-chlorination.
r{3)' Post-chlorination.
{4} Double or multiple chlorination.
{5) Break point chlorination.
t6j $uper chlorination.
{7} Declilorination.
l-
Plain Chlorination. Ptiin chlqrination is the application
*f ahlorine to plain or raw water supply as it enters the distribution'
sysrern. It.also includes the chlorination of raw waters in 13nlE5 or
reservoirs to check the growth of weeds, organic matter' algae,
=e4$
bacteria. It also removes colour and odour from water. Plain chloriha"-
tion to untreated water is resorted to when water is relatively clegr,
with turbidities less than 20 to 30 P.p.m..The normal dose is betwedn
0"5 to 1 p.p.m.
Prechlorination. It is the application of chlorine to water
Z.
bef*re its treatment - specially before filtration. Sometiines, chlorina-
tion is done before the raw water enters the sedimentation tanks.
This hefus in reducing the amount of coagulants required beacuse
i:f thg oiiCization of oiaganic matter. In alkaline water, chlorination
rnav Drecede aeration. The dose of chlorine should be so adjusted
rttai ivater has a chlorine residual of 0.1 to 0.5 p.p.m. when it enters
the filter plant.
Prechlorination has the following advantages :
1. It reduces the quantity of coagulafits required.
2" It reduces the bacterial load on filters.
3.Ithelpsinmaintaininglongerfilterruns.
4. It conrrols the algae and planktons in basins and filters'
5. it prevents putrefaction of 'sludge in settling basins'
6. It eliminates tastes and odour'
Chlorine Residual
satisfactory disinfection,- qt-"thlo.tination is done so
as
(i) For
to maintain 0.3 to 0.a mgl ftee avaitatte chlorine throughout the
ireatment.
DISINFITgf l()N *3,3

(ri) At normal pH values, the free available residual at plant

effluent should be A.2 to 0.3 mg/I.
(ttt) At higher pH of 8 to 9, the free available residual, required
for .o*pi.t. Ua'cteriat kill, with 10 minutes contact time, should
be 0.4 rnlf . However, for 30 minutes contact time, the dosage reduce:;
to 0,2 to 0.3 mg/l.
(tu) For inactivation of cysts of E. histolytica, higher iJtr':es
of 0.5 mg/ may be required.
(v) If the raw water is infected with nematodes, water shouid
tre preitrlorinated for 6 hours to maintain a free available residual
of 0.4 to 0.5 mg[, to render the nematodes immobile, so that thev
(:an be removed by settling processes.
3. [)ost chlorination. It is the application of chlorine to watcr
after its treatment. This is the standard form of chlorination in rvhich
chlorinc is atldcd td water as it lcavcs the'rapid filtcrs and bcftlrcr
it enters the <listribution system. The dose of the chloripe shr.rultl
besoadjustecl that the residual chlorine is about 0.1 to 0.2 p.p.n1
before water enters the distribution systcm. It is useful for prolcclr'.,rr
against contamination from cross-connections.
4,Double or mriltiple. chlorination. Double or m.ultiple
chlorination refers to the application of chlorine at two or more
points in the purification process. Generally, double chlorination
is resorted to, in which chlorine "is applied just before water enters
the sedimentation tanks, and after it teaves the filter plants. lhis
is done specially when raw water is highly contaminated and contains
large amounts of bacterial life and other organic matter. The advantages
of double chlorination are similar to those of prechlorination. In
addition, the maintenance of two chlorinating plants serves as a
factor of safety.
5.
Break Point Chlorination. When chlorine is appliecl ro
water, two actions take place one after the other :
(t) It kills bacteria and disinfection is effected, and
(tt) It oxidizes the organic marrer. when chlorine is added
to pure water which has no chlorine demand; a curve, such as line
A io Fig. 11.4; is obtained between the applied chlorine and residual
chlorine relationship. Generally, however, t"ater has a chlo.rine demand,
with the result that a curve B (Fig. 11.4) is obtained between resiclual
chlorine a.nd a.pplied chlorine. The chloiine first perfcrms the ftrnction
of rcmoving bacteria. During the clisinfection process, the amount
of residual chlorine will be lesg in thq beginniirg by stage
I in Fig. 11.4), during which various ctremidts such lmaitco
as ions of ferrous
iron, sulphides or nitrites present in water, will be'oxi,rised, whire
66 WATER SUPPLY ENOINEERING

(9
tst
l d2
a
n
;
l|-$ rd
G
o
=
F
I
EF
JJ

if-"
Cl
td
C\ 5S
l!
z ol r: :l urQ
u|n
rtl I
E
o zl o (, EU
J
I
u
J
l,G
Ei

3
a it9',
o
UJ
E ?7
APPLIED CHLORINE. p.p. m.

FIC. I1.4. BREAK POINT CHLORINATION

during stage II, the combined residual chlorine will gradulttY increase
as the demand for ilisinfection is satisfied, till a point C is reached
where the amount of combined residual chlorine will be maximum.
This stage of'point C is sometimes accompanied by bad taste and
odour. Stage it reflects the forming of combined residuals as the
ammonia or amines react with HOCI that has formed. Further increase
in the applied chlorine will result in decrease in the residual chlorine,
indicating,lr. beginning of the second action, ia oxididation of organic
matrer plesent In *aGr. During this acrion, the relation between
applied-residual chlorine is represented by curve CD, wherein free
ciriorine breaks down chloramines changing them to nitrogen com-
pcunds while the chlorine residual actually drops: .At. poin^t D,
the
trad smell and taste suddenly disappear and the'oxidation of
organic
matter is also complele. tfte resiOual chlorine has its minimum
value. Further addiiion of applied chlorine results in increase
in
tht, residual chlorine ut t.ptoented by line E the slope of
which
wiil be 45". Point D on the curve represents break point since further
as residual
addition of cholrine break through water and appears
have been
chlorine. Actually, upto point c on cuwe B, chloramines
recorded as resiiuaf chlorine while at point D (brgk
point) rrue
residlual free chlorine is reveale'd. The briak
pgint in the chlorination
chlorine curve
il iorrr'*ay be difngd o.t th.e potlt.o\ oryry-residual
at which all, or niarty all, the residualchtorine is free ?hlorya Free
remaining in water
chlorine residual is that part of the total residual
chemically or biologically
{after a specineJ *n,r., period) that will react
ir hvpobhlorous acid or hypochlorite ion'
DISINFE,CTION

Break pointchloination (or free residual chloination) has

practical significance since application of chlorine at or slightly
i,ign.r than the break point concentra.tion will have the following
advantages :

(i) It will remove taste and odour.

(ii) It will have adequate chlorine residuai,
(iii) It will leave a desired chlorine residual,
(iv) It will complete the oxidation of ammonia and other
compounds,
(r) It will remove colur due to organic matter by aboi:t
30Vo, and
(ri) It will remove manganese.
The break-point stage should be determined by laboratory tests;
it is,represented by instantAneous yellow colour if ,the orthotolicline
test is applied. In some cases, a distinguishable break point is not
obtained, while in other cases, changes in the quality of raw water
rnay effcct rapid changes in break point. A recognizable break point
may be induced by addition of ammonia to water. Generally, the
break point lies between 3 to 7 p.p.m. of chlorine dose, though
this is greatly influenced by the quantity of free ammonia presenr
in water.
6. Super-chlorination. Super-chlorination is theapplication
of chlorine beyond the stage of break point. The addition of chlorine
sufficient to give a residual chlorine @ntent of I to 3 p.p.m. has
proved useful to destroy odours and tastes resulting from chloro-
prtlducts formed between the decomposition products from vegetable
rrratter and algae. Excess chlorine may be added at ,ny point ot
lioints of chlorination, though it is usually applied after filtration.
Sgper chlorination is followed by a retentiotr or contact period n:t
30 to 60 rninutes when the residual is discharged by means of Oecnto-
rination agents. super chlorination is adopted when there is an
epidemic in the localiry or when water is liabG to sudden fluctuations
in chlorine demand, containing a high conctration of organic impurities
or when water contains gats of E . histotytica, an organisrn causing
amoebic dysentry.
' 7, Dechlorination. It is the proaess of removing excess chlorine
from water before distribution to the consumers- to avoid chlorine
tastes. As stated above, dechlorination should be done in such
a
way that sorne residual chlorine remains in water"
Dechlorination
is achieved either by aeration or by the use of chennicals
such as
sodium t h io -su I phare, sodium bio-sulphate, sodium
sulphite, activated
 WATER SUPPLY ENG INEERINC
68

carbon, potassium permanganate or sulphur dioxide in gas or in

liquid form. Sulphur dioxide and sodium disulphite are generally
preferred for large supplies. Sodium dioxide gas is applied practically
in the same manneJ as chlerine, with a contact period of dechlorination
of not .less than 10 to 15 minutes ; generally 0.3 to 0.6 p.p-m. of
sulphur dio,ride may be required. By filtering super-chlorinated water
through beds of granular activated carbon, excess chlorine oxidizes
the carbon to carbon dioxide, due to which odour, taste and colour
are successfully removed.
Example [1.3. Resulfs of chlorine demand test on a raw water
are given beiow. Determlne the break-point dosage and the chlorine
demand

Chbrinc dosage Residual chbrine afler

mgll . I0 min, contact (ngll)

a2 0.18
t,,
) 0.4 0.34

0.6 0.48
3
4.8 0.46
4
0.9 0.27
5
1.0 0.18
o
1.2 0.38
7
I 0.58
8 1.4
1.6 0.78
9

Sdution. (Fig. 11.5) Fig' 11'5 shows

the basis of the above data.

'"1
=o
E

lrj
"'l
z o'61
G'
o
)
tJ o.4

)
o o.2
tn
tr/
a
f.o t2
-+ APPLIEO CHLORIXE (mgrll

FIC. 115.
DISINFESI'ION 69

From the curve, we find that break point occurs at point

D, at which the applied chlorine = 1.0 mgfl.
Break point dosage= 1,0 mg/I
Chlorine demand 1t break point= 1.0 - 0.18= 0.82 mgfl.
It is observed that since the slope of curve C is 45o, the
chlorine demand (= 0.81 mgo remains constant after the break point,
since all additional chlorine added after point D appears as free
chlorine.
Even from the data, at a dose of 1.2 mdl, th'e residual chlorine
= 0.38 mgll.
Hence residual chlorine= 1.2 - 0.38 = 0.82 tngl'
1I.8. TESTS FOR FREE AND COMBINED CHLORINE
Several tests have been developed to determine chlorine residuals
in walcr, but the following two tests are usually employed :

l.' Orthotolidine ' test,

Z. Starch-iodide test;
The orthotolidine ntethod is the comnnon test employed to
measure chlorine residuals, though the method preferred in the'stand-
ard methods' is the cumbersome starch-iodine titration method.
1. Orthotolidine test. Orthotolidine is a colourless organic
liquid that is oxidized by chlorine into a yellow coloured compound
called holoquinone :
Orthotolidine * Chlorine + Holoquinone.
Water sample is collected after 10 minutes of chlorine dose,
and I ml of orthotolidine solution is added to 100 ml of sample,
in a glass Lube. The degree of yellowness which develops will be
proportional to the concentration of chlorine residual. The deeper
the colour, the greater will be the amount of residual chlorine. Coloured
glass standards tinted for each concentration are compared to the
colour developed in the test. Rapid and accr.prate deterilination
of free chlorine is usually,,madg with th'e help of a chloroscope"
The triple cellrgf the'chioioscope is filled with warer sample upto
the mark and orthbtolidine. solution is added by means of marked
pipette. 'lhe colour so formed is matChed with the standard eoloured
disc provitled with the instrument.
when the water is highly alkaline, a blue tinge is formed
instead of a yellow one. In that case, the quantity of orthotolidine
to be a-dded is doubled. If chlorine has been used as the disinfecting
agent, colour should be observed after 5 min. of addition of cr-
thotoliilinc, whilc if chloramine is used as disinfecting material, the
colour should be observed 15 min. after orrhorolidin'is added. The
rest should be conducted at room temprature.
70 WATER SUPPLY ENG INEERTNG

Orthotolidlne arsenite (OTA) method

One of the biggest limitations of the orthotolidine test is that
tt measures free a_nd combined residuals indiscriminately. In order
to differentiate bitween the free and combined residual chlorine,
the mdified onhotolidine-arsenite (OTA) method is used. The OTA
test is based on the fact that free chlorine residuals will develop
immediately (within 5 to 10 seconds) while combined residul chlorinb
(chloramines) will react more slowly. In the OTA test, orthotolidine
is fint added to the sample and is quickly followed by sodium arsenite.
Within seconds, the orthotolidine will oxidize the ftee chlorine forming
yellow holoquinone. Due to the subsequent addition of sodium
arsenite, the chloramines will be quickly oxidized to form a colourless
liquid. Thus, in this test, only free iesidual chlorine is fixed, and
its concentration is determined by comparing the yellow colour with
the standard one" The difference of the two tests would give combined
residual chlorine.
Effect of hun, Manganese and Nitrites
The orthotolidine test is not fool-proof, sinbe the result is
affeCted by the presence of interfering substances in water ; these
substances include nitrite, ferric compounds, manganic compounds,
organic iron compounds, lignocellulose and algae, and the effect of
th&e substances is to increase the apparent content of chlorine.
In that case, the test is performed in three steps :
(t) Sodium arsenite is first added to the sample, thereby
dechlorinating the sample of water.' The orthotolidine
solution is then added and colour is noted. The colour
so formed witl be entirely due to the interfering substances.

(u) The orthotolidine-aresenite (OTA) test is performed to

arrest the mlour formed by the combined residual chlorine.
The colour so formed will be due to free available chlorine
as well as that due to iron, manganes and othei substances.

(ur) Finatly, the standard orthotolidine test is petrformed, the

colour developed after 5 min. will b that duB to free and
combined chlorine and that due to iron, mgnganese etc'
T\e free residual chlorine is then detennined by subtracting
the iesults of (i) from (a). \\e combined residual chlorine
is determined by subtracting results of (i) from (u).
Z,Sttrch.lodlde tes1. Starch-iodide test rsually called the
idometic methd, is rsed when the presexcc of nitrite, nitrogen
or manganic manganese makes the ortbototidine test unsuitable. The
DISINFECTION ?r

idometric merhod is more precise than the orthotolidine method.

particularly when the residual chlorine is greater than 1 p.p.m. Th*
test is conducted in the following steps :
1. Collect 1 litre of water sarnple in a heat-proof earthenware
vessel called casserole.
2. Add 10 ml of potassium iodide solution to the vessel and
mix the contents thoroughly.
3. Add 5 ml of starch solution. Blue colour will be formed.
4. Remove the blue colour by titration with N/100 sodiurn
thiosulphate.
The amount of chlorine in p.p.m., prqsent in the original wate r
sample, is determined from the following relation
Chlorine, p.p.m.= 0.3546 x' ( Number of ml of sodium thi*-
sulphate required to remove blue
colour) t ,

Calorimetric methods for the iodometric determination of

chlorine are also available.
1I..9. FACTORS AFFECTING BACTERICIDAL EFFICIENCY OF
CHLORINE
The destruction of pathogens by chlorination is dependenr
upon the following factors : (r) rurbidity, (fi) presence of merallic
compounds, (iii) ammonia compounds, (iv) pH of water, (v) tempera-
ture, (vi) time of contact, (vrf) number and concentration'of bacteria.
t. Turbidity. The effect of turbidity in water is to make
it difficult to obtain free residual chlorine. Also, the penetration
of chlorine and therefore the destruction of bacteria in particles
of suspended matter of a turbid water may be very unceotain. Due
to this reason, the application of chlorine is preferred after filtration
when water will be hee from ,turbidity.
2. Presence of metallic crmpounds. The presence of metallic
co.mpounds such as iron and managanese in solution in the warer,
utilizes large amounts of chlorine to oonvert these into their higher
stages of oxidation which are insoluhtc in water. Hence it is essential
to remove iron and manganese, to make clrlorination useful and
more meaningful.
3. Ammqnia compounds. The presence of ammonia with
or without organic matter may form combincd availablerAloni
*frictr
is not so effective a bactericide as availqble chtorine. euoting
free
from the work of Butterfield, wnitrcct estimates th:at 25
times as much combined arailable chlorine119srlmust be used to achieve
the same degree of kill as free chlorine in the same
time. If simitar
 WATER SUPPLY ENG INEER INC

doses of free and combined chlorines are used, then the combined
chlorine will take 100 times as long as the free chlorine to achieve
the same degree of kill. Hoather (1949) found that in a clean well
water with traditional ratio of added ammonia to chlorine of I to
3, the chloiine killed -the bacteria more quickly than it combined
with ammonia. This is illustrated in Fig. 11.6. since ammonia
is often naturally present in water,it is therefore usual to add sufficient
chlorine to react with the amount of natural ammonia present and
a futher dose of chlorine sufficient to create an excess of free chlorine
for speedy disinfection.

o
;
tu
&
f
u
I
t
h

oz
lrJ
I
o \
o
o
{T
t!
q
l-
o. I
TIME IN MINUTES

FIG. 11.6. KILL RATES OF E.COLI

4. pH of water. Increasing pH reduces effectiveness of chlorine.
.The effeciive sterlising compound, hypochlorous acid, is formed in
greater quantities at low pH than at'high pH values as is clear
from table below :

pH value funount of hypochlorous acid

upto 6,7 95Vo of total free chlorine
At 7.0 n% of total ftee chlorine
At 8.0 30Vo of tqtal ftee chlorine
At 9.0 SVo of total free chlorine
 73
DISINFEC:TION

5.Temperatureofwater.Reductioninthetemperaturecf
power of both
warer results in substantial decrease in thc killing
free and combinecl chlorine. ln order to have rc}%
bactericidai
with decrease
activity, the requirement of residual chlorine increases
in remperarure and increase in pH, as is clear from Fig'11"7'

o8
E
o,
3
tr.,
a
(r
o
.J
(J
)
f,
o o.2
6
lrj
(r

FIG. 11.7. REI_ATIONSHIP BETWEEN IEMFERATURE, pH AND FREE

RESIDUAI- CHLORINE IN PRODUCING 1007o
BACTERICIPAT- ACTIVITY, AT 20 MINUTES
6. Time tif contirct. The bactericidal activity of chlorination
is nor instanraneous. The percentage kill of bacteria and viruses
depends upon thc time of contact between the chlorine and the
rnicro-organisms, before the water is supplied to the consumers. For
disinfection by frcc chlorine actingin clear water, a theoretical contact
time of 20 minutcs ts required, while it is 60 min. for combineo
chlorine , such as chloramincs etc. The contact time should be decided
after taking into account all the factors such as temperature, pH
value, tlpc antl c()nccntration of micro-organisms and form of chlorina-
tion.
7, Nature and concentration of bacteria and viruses. At
a givenpH value and temperature, the greater the numbers of bacteria,
the longer will bc the tirne required to reduce rhem below a given
figure. The spores of bacteria arc found to be more resistant to
chlorine than bacteria themselves. Howevcr, a majority of bacteria
causing \\'arcr borne tliseases are of non-spore forming rype. The
 Pumps and Pumping

14.I. NI'CESSIIY O}' I'UMPTNG

In vcry lew water supply schemes, the supplies originate from
mountancous arcas such thii the consumers get water supply
entirely
hy gqavity. In majority t)f cases, pumping is rcquired to lift the
watcr
froiu iiu.r, lir[c ,i, rcservtlii to the 'trcatment plant' Aft-9t thc
trcatmcnt, anothcr lift may be requirecl either to supply water directly
into the mains or to the overhead storage tanks from where water
may flow under gravity. [n some cases, direct pumping may be.necessary
to increase pressure in the supply line. Wh.en wells are'the'source
of supply, pumping may Ue ne&sary to lift the-water from the wells.
'
fit. pumping is therefore resorted to for the following purposes:
l. To lift the raw watel from the source of supply, such
as lake, reservoir, river or well.
a
To lift the treated water to overhead tanks or reservoir'
3. To deliver treated water to the consumer's taPS at reasonable
pressu re.
4. To boost the line Pressure.
5. To supply water under pressure. for fire hydrants.
6. For miscellaneous operations at the water treatment plants,
such as (i) for backwashing of filtbrs (ii) for pumping chem-
icals, and (iri) for dewatering of tanks, basins, sumps etc.

I4,2, TYPES OF PUMPS AND THEIR CHOICE-

Pumps can be classified on the basis of the following :

(t) mechanical principle of operation,

84
85 Wnl'l:l{ St ll'l'l -Y I :N( i INI:l :l{ lN( i

(it) rypc 0[ powcr rcquircd, and

(tii) type oI scrvicc called [rrr.
(a) Classihcatirln based on mechanical principle of operatiorr:
Basccl on rhc principle of operaliun, pumps can bc hroadlv
classificd inro rhc following four rypcs :
(t) Displaccmcnr pumps.
(tl) Centrifugal pumps.
(iii ) Air lift pumps.
(ir) Misccllaneous pumps.
(b) Classification based on type of power required :

(t) Steam engine pumps.

(ti) Diesel cngine pumps.
" (ttt) Elcctrically driven pumps ,

(c) classification based on the type ol' service called frrr :

(i) Low lili pumps.

(tt) High lift pumps.
(iii ) Dccp wcll pumps.
(ir) Boostcr pumps.
Thc selcction o[ a particular type of pump depends upon
the following factors :
(i) Capacity of rhe pump.
r (ii) Number of pump units required.
(iii) Suction conditions.
(rr) Lift (total head).
(u) Discharge conditions, and variations in thc load.
(r'i) Floor spacc requirement.
(r ii) Flexibility of operation.
(riii) Starting and prjming characteristics.
(ir) Type of drive required.
(x) Initial cost and running costs.
Reciprocating pumps are more suitable for lifting relatively
clean water, against high and fluctuating head., Centrifugal pumps
are well suited to pump under steady low head, though the *'ater
may be cven turbid. They are therefore mostly used for lifting raw
water from the river to the treatment plants, and then lifting treated
water to the distribution reservoirs.
I4.3. DISPI.{CEMENT PUMPS
The positive displacement pumps are those in which liquicl
is sucked and then it is actually pushed or displaced due ro rhe
I'UMPS AND I'UMPINC 86

rhrust cxerted on it by a moving memhcr, which resultS in lifting

thc liquicl (watcr) to thc desirecl hcight. Thc pump consists ol onc
r)r mitrc chamhcrs which are alternatively fillcd and empticd with
thc liquid to tt. pumpcd. The displaccment pumps are tlf two typcs:
(,t) Rcciirrocaling pumPS
(b) Rotary pumps
(n) Reciprocating pumps. This is the most common tyPc ol'
thc clisplaccmcnt pumps. It essentially consists of a pisttln or a
plungcr which movcs to and fro in a close fitting cylinder which
is conncctctl to thc suction and delivcry pipes, as shown in Fig
14.1. Thc sucrion and delivcry pipes arc provitlcd with a non-rctrrrn
or onc-way valvc which admits water in onc directitln only.
Fig. I 4.1 (o) shows the singk acting rcciprocating puntp. During
thc suction strokc, when piston or plungcr movcs'tlutwards, a pilrlilll
vacuum is crcatcd in the cylinclcr, which enablcs thc atmtlsphcric
prcSsurc acting on the liQuirl surlacc in the sunip below to forcc
rhc liquid up thc suction pipe and fill thc cylindcr hy forcin{ ol)crt
thc suction valvc. During thc inward mtltitln tll'thc plungcr, thc
liquid in thc cylindcr is forced up the delivcry Pipe; during this
operation, the suction valve S closes while the dclivery valvc D opcns.
The cyclc o[ suction stroke and delivery stroke is thcn repcatcd.
The piston or plunger is moved by a crank rotated at unilirrm spccd
hry a driving cnginc or motor.

,t'/
t
,
I
\

(o) SINGLE ACTING

(b) DCIJBLE ACTING

t-t^ aa t nr^rnhr\/\^TtLt- ht tl rn
 Wn'l'!;l{ SI ll'l'l-Y I]N( ;lNl.l .t{iN(
87

Fig. l1.l (r) shows a double octing rcciprocating puntp, in whieh

liquitl is in conracr with both the sides of thc plungcr. It has trvti
suction ancl two clelivery pipes with appropriatc valvcs. During such
stroke, suction ta)<es place on one sidc of the pisttln whilc thc tlthcr
sicJe clelivers the liquid. Due to this, therc are two suctitln strokcs
antl two clelivgry strokes in one revtllution tlf the crank.
Depending upon the number of cylindcrs provicled, rcciprtlcat inl
pumps may be classified as follows :

(t) Single rylinder pump

(ii) Double cylinder pumP
(iii) Triple cylinder pumP
(iu) Duplex double action PumP
(u) Quintuplex pumP

VALVE VALVE OPEN VALVE

CLOSE CLOSE

PISTON PISTON
ROD ROO

VALVE VALVE CLOSE VALVE

OPEN
OPEN

STJCTION INLET SUCTION INTET

FIG. 14.2. OPERATION OF TWO THROW RECIPROCATING PUMP

In a double qlinder or two throw pump, two single acting
cylinders are provided, and each cylinder has separate suction and
O'"fir".y pipes wittr appropriatevalves. The plungersof th. ryo cylinders
rr. opioted by cran-ks set at 18ff. An alternative form of nvo throw
pump is shown in Fig. 14.2 in which both the cylinders have one
suction pipe, one deliveyPiPe and one piston.
In the case of three qtindu pump ot three throw pump, each
single acting cylinder has its own suction and delivery pipes with
PLiMPS AND PUMPING 88

appropriate valves, with their cranks set at 124". A dupler double

action pump is cquivalent to a four throw puntp, and is formcd by
combining two-double acting-double cylinder pumps. A qtt[nrupler
or Jive throw pump has five single acting cylinders, with separate
suction and delivery, with their cranks set at 72".
(b) Rotary pumps. In rotary pumps, two gears or cams mesh
rogether and rotate in opposite directions. The rotating elemcnts
fit closely in the casing, so that water is drawn up the suction pipe,
trapped betu'een the teeth or cams and the casing and forced out
inro the clischargc pipe.

DISCHARGE

tr
SUCTION SUCTION
(o) (b)
FIG. I4.3. ROTARY PUMP
In the rotary pump, no valves are required and the flow is
practically continuous. The pumps which use the above principle
of rotary displacement are : gear, lobe, screw, moyno and vane pumps.
These pumps are not in common use in water works.
L4,4. CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
When a certain mass of liquid is made to rotate by an external
force, it is thrown away from the central axis of rotation and a
centrifugal head is impressed which enables it to rise to a higher
level. A centrifugal pump worK on this principle. The centrifugal
pump emplop a rotating impeller with water being drawn at the
hub ar qe of the pump impeller and discharged through a spiral
casing by virtue of the centrifugal force developed dqe to the rotation
of the impeller. In addition to the centrifugal action, as rhe liquid
passes through the revolving wheel or impeller, its angular momenturn
changes, which also results in increasing the pressure of the liquid.
Based on the types of casing provided, cenrrifugar pumps are
classified into rwo rypes :
 Wn'l'l1tt SUPPLY ENG lN EERINC

(a) Volute pump

(b) Diffuser or turbinc pumP.
(a) volute pump. In thc casc 0f vOlutc pump, thc impcllcr
is surroundecl by a spiral shapcd casing, commonly kntlwn as a volutc
chantber, as ghgwn in Fi8. 14.4. The shape of thc casing is such
that the sectionsl area of flow around the pcriphcry 9.t thc impcllcr
gractually increases from the tongue (T) to the dclivcry pipc"

IMPELLER

SECTION AT Y Y

FIG. I4.4. VOLUTE PL'MP

In an improvised version,designed by J. Thomson, a circular
chamber, known as vortex chamber, is providecl between the impeller
and the volute chamber. The vortex chamber serves the dual PurPose
of reducing the velocity and increasing the efficiency of the pump
by convening a large amount of kinetic energy into pressure energy'
(D) Diffuser or Turbine pump. In diffuser or turbine pump'
a diffuier ring containing a series of guide vanes' surrounds the
impeller. fnE Oiffuter ting remains stationary while the impeller
rotates inside the ring. The tiquid after leaving the impeller passes
through the graduatli enlarged Passages of the guide vanes' Due
to thi:, the vilocity of flow gradually decreases while the pre'ssure
increases. After passing ttrrougn the guide vanes' the liquid flows
into the surrounding casing which may be either circular or.volute
shaped. e Oiffuser pump isa reverse turbine, and hence it is known
as a turbine PumP.
A centrifugal PumP may be further classified into a single
stage or multi-stage pitmp- depending uPon the number of
impellers
mouuted on a slufi. A- single stage pump has only one impeller
while a- multistage PumP hts hwo or more impellers connected in
PUMPS AND PUMPINC

series. The water from the first is collected in a casing or'volute

and discharged into the eye of the second impeller, and so on.. As
many as six stages are being sometimes employed, and each stage
increases the head from 30 to 45 metres. Multistage pumps are
very much used in deep wells where the impeller diameter must
necessarilv be small.

GUID VANES

FIC. 14.5. Or''rr.ISPR OR TURBINE PUMP

Based on the direction of flow, centrifugal pumps are classified
as radial flo* pump, mixed flo* pump and axial flow pump: Normally
a centrifugal pump is of radial flow type in which liquid flou6 th.rough
the impeller in radial direction. In axial flow rype, liquid flows
through the impeller in axial direction. They are used to deliver
Iarge quantities at small heads.,In the mixed flow type, there is
a combination of .radfal and a,rial flows.
Similarly, based on the number of entrances to the impeller,
a centrifugal pump may be classified as single suction pump or iouble
suctiol pump. In the double suction pumpr liquid enters from both
the sides of the impeller. Due to this,.the thrust on the impeller
,
is niutralised. Pumps are known u horizonttil or vertieal when their
shafu are horizontal or vertical. The impellen of the centrifugal
pu"mp-may be of y-" open and ctoitil. 'open impellers are
-rypT -:
suitable for use. with liquids containing solids, suth -as .sbr*age etc.
However, closed impellers are rhore efficient, and are conimonly
useC for water supply works.
I.4.5. COMPARSION OF RECIPROCATING AIVD CENTRIFUGAL
PUMPS
The comparison between the two' typs is $ven below :
 wAt trK )urrLr gl\(Jllrsfi'r\ rrr\t

(r) Flw pulsating (i) Continous flow

(ii) Constant discharge (ii) Does not grvs
even if head on delivery constant discharge
side varies. under variable head.
(iii) Large amount of (iii) No such trouble.
losses due to leakage
through valves etc.
Run at low sPeeds ; Run at high sPeed (500
piston speed less than 30 to 1000 r.p.m.). Direct
m/min. If couPled to connection with driving
driving machines, sPeed machines Possible.
reducing devices
nece$sary.

3. EfftciencY Long stroke engines E,fficiency between 40

have 85o/o efficiencY and 85o/o', rflorc
while smal|er PUmPS efficienry if the head and
have onlY 40o/o discharge
effictency. maintained wllhin
narrowlimits.
C:n work against high Better suited to low
heads. heads.
l-arge size, bulkY and Small, comPact and
heavy. Requires large light.
space.

Iniial and High initial cost; Low initial cost.

maintenance cost is also
mainlen*nce cost
I high.
Rurning Starting is difficult
more poter required
complicated' mecha-
nism required
operation difficull
lv{aintenance cost low.
; Starting is easY; less
; tnwer required; simPle
mechanism; oPeratlon
; easier.

L4,5, JEf, PUMP

water
The so-called jet pump is combination of a conventional
educer' comrnonly
pump (such as a entiiryL.l P.utpl and an :lT'^""t or
referred to as a iet. a' jet pumP, a jet of water is injected at
[i
high velocity ir; il; i
tnroat'of verituri iube, as shown in Fig" 14"6'
the tip
The high uerociry stream pulls the water upwards around
point. The
of the nozzle. This in turn creates a suctibn at that turn is carried
suction drac6 in more water from the source which in
;;; *d"C high ;agq srream. As rhe water passes upward
into $e enlarged ffiooof the venturi, the velociry decreases while
f..rrurc indscsl Thrs velocity is converted into Pressure whieh
PUMPS AND PUMPING 92

VE NTURI AIR
TUEE

TH ROAT

FIG. 14.6. JET PUMP

iorces the water upto within suction distance of the centrifugal pump.
The water then flows to the intake of the pump and is forced out
the discharge side of the pump by the impeller. A byepass leads
water back to the nozzle. Thus, a portion of water is constantly
recirculated through the pump and the jet. A pressure regulating
valve on the discharge pipe serves to maintain the correct pressure
on the jet.
The main .advantage of a jet pump is that the 'motor
';
and
the pump can Ue conveniently placed at the grouno sunace.
\4"7, AIR LI}T PUMPS

trl
,g
o.
z PIPE
o
F
(J
f
o
ll

{c } CENTRAL SYSTEM (b) POHL SYSTEM (c) RESER\OIR SYSTEM

FIC. I4.?. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAT,I OF AIR LIFT PUMP

93 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING

In an air lift pumpr a compressor is used to force air intc

a small diameter pipe called the air pipe. The air pipe is placed
in a bigger diamet0r discharge pipe, sometimes known as the education
pipe. When air is forced into water, air-water mixture is formerj
whose specific $ravity iS lower than that of water. Due to rhis, ware r
rises in the eduction piPe and is discharged out. The various wavs
of arranging air and education pipe are shown in Fig" 14"7.
I4.8. WELL PUMPS
The following types of pumps are generally used for lifting
water from wells :
(a) Hand pumps.
(b) Reciprocating pumls.
(c) Centritugal pumps.
(d) Air lift pump's.
(r) Jet pumps.

(a) Hsnd :
pumps Hand pumps are used only for shallow
wells. The commonly used two types of hand pumps are (a) pitcher
puntp and (b) force pump.A pitcher pump essentially consists of
a cylinder in which a plunger with a valve moves up and down,
and a check valve at the bottom of the cylinder, as shown in Fig.
14.8 (a). Itrequires priming.
Ttre principle of operation of a force pump is the same as
that of pipcher pump, except that it is enclosed at thetop and therefore
can be used to force the water to higher elevations, or against pressure "

STUfFf9lO
TRAP TUSI
Pt-ulR ROO SPOUT
vlLvE

VALVE PLUXCTN
GLAS': F9E FlPf
fp TAxt(

SrrcTlox PIPE ::r c:::i).

Lott
-r.oT Nor lrcRf ?.'
tHlx?t THAX trr

Io) PITCHER PUMP (b, FORCE PUMP

FIG. 14A. }I.AND PUMPS

l)i lL4l){ .\Nl) i'L}N4l',lNtl 94

discharge llow
Such punrps also have air chamber to even out thc
(Fig 14.8 b).
(r)Reciprocatingtypewellpumps'Recipro.catingtypepumps
wells of very
are used for dcep wells-oi very small capacity and for
pump'
gieat depth beyond the . field of the deep ,_well centrifugalconsists
Wind rnills mai be usecl as source of power. The pump

WORKING
HEAO

OI SCHARGE
WELL CASING

OUTSIOE
PLUNGER ROO

PLUNGER

rNstoE
PLUNGER ROO

CYLINDER

PLUNGER

Ftc. 14.9. THE TWO STROKE WELL PUMP

95 WATER SUPPLY ENC INEERING

of three essential parts (Fig. 14.9) : (t) the power head, (tt) the
pump rods, and (tii) working barrel or cylinder. The power head
is pliced on the ground surface. The pump rods run from the power
treaO to the working barrel and connect the plungers. Fig. 14.9 shows
a two stroke well pump with two plungers. Both the plungers move
independently,. because one of the rods is hollow and permits the
solid rod to move within it.
(c) Centrifugal well pumps. Centrifugal pumps used in a
deep well may have a number of impellers mounted on a shaft
clriven by a motor mounted above the well. The number of impellers
may be as high as 20, depending upon the head, and may be of
the mixed flow or propeller type or with vanes and guide passages
leading to the nexi impeller above, in which case they are callec!
rurbini pumps. Deep weil turbines are available for diameters varying
from 1b cm to 35 cm and their usual lengths vary from 20 to 60
cm. For each 5 to 8 m lift, small diame"ler impellers or bowls ,are
used in series. The lowest impellers are of centrifugal type and the
upper impeilers are of mixed flow type. The driving shaft is enclosed
in a pipe, anO the space between"the two Pip"s serves as an outlet
for water. In a latei clevelopment of centrifugal pumps, the motor
is placed just below the impellers. The motor is designed to run
in water. is lubricated ancl .water cooled. The windings are enclosecl
in water tight stainless steel casings. The elctric current is conducted
down by a water Proof cable.
14.9. CENTRIGUAL PUMP INSTALI-ATION
Figr 14.lb shows a typical installation for centrifugal pump
used for pumping out warei'from a sump. The installation consists
of the following comPonents.
(t) Strainer/screen
(tt) Foot valve
(tii) Suction PiPe
(tr) Accentric reducer
(r) Centrifugal PumP
(ut) ExPander
(vii) Check valve
(vlii) Gate valve or discharge valve
(o) DeliverY PiPe'

A Strainer ot screen is provided at the entrance of the suction

pipe to pr"u"oi G .ntry of debris etc, which will otherwise
clog
rhe pump ,nJ At.age -the
it. In order to avoid the necessity of outside
priming every time pumP is sl.arted,. a foot valve is provided
ar the end of the sucrion pip". when the pump is stopped.
the
 PUMPS AND Ptjtv{PINC
96

ACCENTRIC PUMP
RE D UCER EXPANDR I DISCHARG
{_ valve
--T-1
I

SuCTlON
!{EAD

z
SUI{P
F-,
J*
(^o.
FOOT
VALV

TRAINER

i]IC. i4IO. CENTRIFUCAL PUMP INSTALLATION

foot valve will prevent water from leaving the pump. Hence foot
valve serves as a.self-piming device. The suction pipe aho the delivery
pipe_.are provided of the samg diametbr. However, for economy,
the diameter of.pump cas.ing the inlet end as well as the discharge
end are often kept smaller. 1In order to prevent air accumulation
yh.l the pump'is stopped, an accentric redicer is provided
'the as shown.
A check valve is provided ar
to prevenr back _the beginning of delivery pipe,
through the pump, if there is a power failure.
to*a_gz
In addirion ro th.is, te valve ii also provided in ine ueginning
of the delivery pipe. 'Ilte gate valve is iriitiaily kept closed,"and is
then.gradually opened as the pump pick up th; speed, so rhat
the discharge pipe is filled with warer and fuli back
on the pump. If this is not done, and if the pump is frorur" exisrs
started with
the discharge valve. open, with the discharge pipe .*pty, the
motor
may be overloaded, resulting in its Uurn'ing out.
14.10. CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRIFUGAL PT.'MP
Fig. r4.ll. shows rrnicat characteristic curves for centufugal
Pump.- curse I is betrveen head and discharge, cuwe II is between
!n1
e$ci:tq e) and discharge while .urJ m is benveen BHp
and the discharse.
As the discharge increases, the developed head
given pump. wilr nor work berow a certain 'mkimu;m decreases. A
maximum dischargr o{ the.purnp will be limited
iiii, n"nu
-.rosealu; rtrai minimum
head. Initialry, when the diichaige ratve is
maximum head,
97 WATER SL,PPLY E,N(i lNl:lllt lN(i

HAX.
SHUT. OFF
HEAD
HEAo
z I
H
IE
l! o
td lr,
I
q
I z
at i
o lrorro
L,l
I OI SC HA RGE

OISCHARGE (A)

FIG. 14.11. CHARACTERISTIC CUNVES FOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMP.

known as the shulof haad is developed. The,shritoff head exists
only for a v.ery short duration, since the head decreases as the discharge
valve is gradually opened. Similarly, as is clear from curve II, efficiency
of the pump increases as the discharge Q increases, till reaches it
its maximum value, and then decr@ses. The discharge at the maximum
efficiency is known as the rated discharge.
Pumps may be more explicitly defined by the parameter called
specific speed which is defined as the speed at which a pump will
discharge a unit flow under a unit head at maximum efficienc.y. It
is expressed by
N,E ...(14.1)
H3/4
where O = discharge in litres per second

H = Head in meters
N = rotstional speed, in rpm.
TABLE I.4.1 SPECIFIC SPEED

Pump Typc Ns Rangc

Centrifugal Upto 2600

Mixed flotx 2&5mO

Axial flotv 5000 to 10000

14.11. MULTIPI,E PUMP SYSTEMS

When variable discharge is required from a pump working
at a particular speed, it cannot function at its maximum efficiency
PUMPS AND PUMPINC 9U

F{ence in orcler to obtain variable discharge at maximum efficiency'

there are two alternatives :
(i) Variation of speed with belts and'pulleys or with a
variable sPeed motor
or {ll) Provision of several pumps of small capacity in parallel'

Parallel oPeration of PumPs

The prefcrred way to regulate the flow is to provide several
purnps of smaller capacities in parallel So that a variable number
can be operated at capacity, depending on flow requirements' With
this arrangement, it is possible to operate each pumP (tld all pumps)
near maximum efficienry. Such an arrangement is shown in Fig'
r4.12.

MANIFOLO

FIG. 14.12. PUMPS OPERATING IN PARALLEL

By automatic switching according to the level in rthe suction
well, any of the pumps can be brought into oPeration. In predicting
the head versus,discharge curve for parallel operation, it is assumed
that the head across each Pump,is the same. Thus, at any arbitrary
head, the individual pump discharges are added as shown in Fig.
14.13.

ABr 8C r C0
obr bc. cd
o
lrl
I'
9n
tr
F
H
9x
I

OISCTIARG

NG" 14.13. CHARACTERISTIC CUR'ES FOR IdETfnCAI PUMPS

tN PARALLEL
99 WATER SUPPLY ENG INEERING

Series operation of pumps

S'uch an operation is commonly adopted in multistage and
borehole pumps, wherein the discharge from the first pump (or stagei
is delivered to the inlet of the second pump (or stage) anci so on.
Thus, in series operation, the same discharge passes through each
pump while the pressure (or head) is boosted in doing so. Fig.
14.14 (a) shows the series configuration. Fig. 14.14 (b) shows the
resulting head versus discharge characteristics which are clearly obtained
by adding the individual pump manometric heads at arbitrary discharges"

3- PUMPS

t
o
lr,
I
J
F
o
F

OISCHARGE ---,>
tb)
FIG. 14.14. PUMPS OPERATING IN SERIES
It is to be noted that all the pumpes in series operation are
to be op6rated simultaneously.
t4.r2, VARIABLE SPEED OPERATION
The.discharge of a single pump can be varied by rhe use
of variable speed motors, so as to suit the operating requirements
of the system.
I
I

3 (H-Q' CURYE
o AT SPEED HI
trl
I
IJ
E
l-
td H-Q CURVE
I
T
I
Q ----+
OISCHARGE
FIC. 14.15. EFFECT OF SPEED CHANGE ON PLIN,'P CFLARJdC"|ER.:ST1{:S
a' Li lv{PS A"\iD PUMP ING 100

Using dimensional analysis and dynamic similarity criteria, it

can be shown that if a pump delivers a discharge Q,, at a total
rise in heacl Hr runing at a speed N1,, the corresponding values of
Q.. and ff1, when the pump is running at speed iV2, are given by
following equations :
O',
L' :^l (ry
= O, Nr
....(14.2)

2
lld H:=",(ff ...(14.3)

Fig. 14.i5 shows the effect of speed change on pump char-

:eieristiq\. In constructing the characteristic curve for speed Nz,
several pairs of values of Qr, Hr from the curve for l{r can be obtained
and transformed into homologous points Qz, Hz on the Nz curve.
14.13. SUCTION LIF-[ LIMITATIONS : CAVITATION
' Cavitation is the phenomenon of cavity formation or the for-
mation and collapse of cavities. Cavities arel considered tb develop
rvhen the absolute pressure in a liquid reaches the vapour pressure
oi the Iiquicl at the operating temperature. Cavitation can occur
:i the inlet to a pump and on the impeller blades, particularly,
ri ihe pump is mounted above the level in the suction well. Cavitation
causes physical clamage, reduction in discharge and increase in noise.
Unclcr severe conditions, cavitation can result in break down of pump-
ing equipment. To avoid cavitation, the pressure head at inlet should
not fall below a certain minimurn which is influenced by the further
reduction in pressure within the pump impeller.
Fig. 14.16 shows the head conditions in the suction pipe.

-r
hoi
I

Hr
T: I
ln,t I

*
t
I

FIG. 14.16. HEAD CONDITIONS IN SUCTION PIPE.

L,et fts = static suction lfit
H, = manometric suction head
lrr = head loss in suction pipe.
r'.r = vlocity in suction pipe.-

Fn = pressure at inlet
Pu = vaPour pressure
po = ambient atmospheric pressure
101 WATER SUPFLY ENGINEERING

The term Ps - Pv , which is the absolute head at the purnp

P8
inlet above vapour pressure, is known as net positive suction head,
NPSH.
NpsH =T = (fr- H,) - ft .. (14.4)

where Hs=hr*nt+9
2g
...(14.s)

valvesof NPSH can be obtained from Pump manufacturer and are

derived from full scale or model tests.
As the net positive suction head (NPSH) for a pttmP is redueed,
a point is reached where cavitation becomes deterimental. This point
is usually referred to as the minimum net positive suction head
(NPSH)'in. i

Again, substituting the value of H, in Eq' 14'4, we get

\'-"'' 4i
NpsH ==Po-P,
pg h,-[0,.
- "o * TgJ ...(14.6)
"
The minimum value of static lift is then given by
' vi
h,,^in =P" :!'-
ps (NPSH )^,^ - (n,
..'*tsi
i
"'(i4'7;

The required NPSH value for any pump is supplied by the

manufacturer. While installing the pump, it is essential to check
that the available NpsH is greater than the manufacturers requirement.
|'I

Thoma introduced a cavitation number (o) as under :

o=T
NPSH ...(14.8)

where H''| is total head (or the manometric head) across the pump.
Thoma found that the cavifatian number is strongly related to the
specific speed.
Recently, electro-submenible pumps of small to medium size
have been introducei. Such PiPes aie immersed in the sump
weli
to the specified depth, ttrus ivbiding the use of suction pipes and
thereby ilimin.ting the problems of cavitation and cooling.
.
14.14. SYSTEM IIEAD CURVE
design a pumping station, knowledge
In order m effectively
of the rotul dynamic head GDn against-wlich.the py-mp.m,,st operate,
is essential. The TDH is refresented by the fo[owing equation
TDH=Hsr*hu*hu ...(14.8 *)
 PUMPS AND PI.JMPINC
w2
where Hsr = total static head (or lift) i.e. elevation difference
between the pumping source and point of delivery
It6 = head loss in suction pipe
Itr,t - head loss in delivery pipe ( i.e., friction, valves,
vekrcity head etc.)
TDH = r(iral dynamic head H which is definecl as the rise
in tota! heaci across the pump.
Eq. 14.8 {ai is also sometimes expressed as follows :

TDH - Hsr * Hc * H,, ...(14.S)

where Ffr = roral head loss (inclucling valve losses) through
the suction and delivery pipes.
H,,= velocity heacl 1t?/Zg) at the clischarge end.

+
I

o (HL+Hv) OR ( hot.h 16)

F

otscHARGE _-r_
FIC. I4.I7. SYSTEM HEAD CURVE.
A plot of rDH versus discharge is known as system head
cun,et shown in Fig. 14.17. Each point on the sptem head curve
denotes the head comprising of (l) sratic head |isr, (ii) head loss,
.Ffr and (iii) velociny head, H,. It shoutd be noted ttraf the sptem
head curve will vary with discharge (e) since Hy and Hv ?ta both
a function of discharge. In addition, the static head Hsr may also
vary as a result. of fluctuating water levels. obviotsly, the static
head is more at low warer level (L!u-) ind less at high'water level
(HwL) of the sump well. Ttre cori*poricing s'6rem cu'ies are shown
in Fig. 14.18.
The friction hgad (Hi is the sum of (i) head lossq in the
entire length ofr.he.piping, from the foot valve io ttri nriar point
of
f*tju:.v pipjng (ir) loss in the varves (foot ralve, nor-rerurn ralve and
:sstarrng valves), and (rlr) losses in bends tees, elb,ows,
reducers etc.
3s should. be elearly noted that the sptem head
curve will
*hange by-any changes made in the s)6tem, trrt, as change in tengttr
sr size of piping ere.
103 WATER SUPPLY E}.iGINEERINC

t
I
I
I
o
F

(Hs,TlUwU

OISCHARGE ---+
FIC. I4.I8. SYSTEM HEAD CURVES
14.T5. OPERATING POINT OR OPERATING RANGE OF A
PUMP
The operating point of a pump is the point of intersection
of the system-head-curve with the H-Q characteristic curve of the
pump, as shown in Fig. 14.19.

I SYSTEM
I
o HEAO CURVE
lrl
,I PUMP
CURVE

OfSCxARGE +
FIC. 14.19. OPERATING POINT OF PUMP
As indicated earlier, the system head cunie will change due
to any change made in the s]6tem. If the system head curve changes,
the oprating point will shift. This is more particular when the
water level in the sump fluctuates. Therewill be two s)6tem-head-curves
corresponding to LWL and HWL, as shown in Fig. t'4.20. Hence
if the level of water in the suction would deplete during pumping
from HWL to LWL the operating point of the pump would vary
from a low-head high- dishcarge point (Pr) to high-head low-dishcarge
point (Pt as shom in Fig. 14.20. The range benreen points Fr
and Pz is known as the operating range of the pump, due to fluctuations
in water' level in the sump.
PUMPS AND PLJMPINC 104

t
<t
lrJ

DISCHARGE +
F'IG. 14,20. OPERATTNG RANGE OF PT'MP

14.16. SELECTION OF PUMPING UNITS

Generally, the System-head-curve is given or knotvn, ancl it
r3 required to find a pump (or pumps) to deliver the anticipated
fiows. To find this, the system head curve and the pump characteristic
curve (i.e. H-Q curve) are plotted on the same sheet and the operating
point (Fig. 14.19) is found. The operating point (P) gives the head
and flow at which the pump will be operating. Hence a pump is
selected so that the operating point is as close as possiblc ttl the
peak efficienry.

S}STEH IAO

t
rr
I
o

-l T
"'t t'i'
ll
Il_
oiscHARGE _+
(o) PU}.PS IX SERIEs

I
I

o
trJ
I PUMP
"' i \oxf
Ql 02
, DISCHARGE
--
(bI PIJMPS fi PARALLEL

FIC. 14.27. SELECTION OF PUMPING UNITS

105 WATER SUPPLY ENGINF ERING

If more than one pump are used, these may be connectecl

in series or paraUel. Fig. 14.21 shows the system head curves and
H-Q curves for such operations. For each type of operation (re.
series or parallel), the operating range Pr Pz is found by locating
the poirtts of iniersection Pr and P2 with the system curve. For series
operation at a given discharge, the total head equals the sum *f
heads added by each pump. Similarly, in parallel operarion, rhe rcl{a!
discharge is equal to the sum of discharges by each pump. However,
it should be noted that when two pumps are used in series or parallel,
neither the head, nor the capacity for a given system heacl curve
is doubled, as is evident from Fig. 14.21. Thus, for series operation,
Hz < 2 Hr. Similarly, for parallel operation, Qz 2 Qt
"
L4.L1, POWER REQUIREMENTS OF PUMPS
As seen earlier, the total lift, or the total dynanic heaci (TDH)
against wtrich the pump is required !o j,pgfate is given bv
\TDH = H = Hsn'* Ht* H, ...i14.8)
where f/sn = i;tuf*tttic-headlor rff,,"2 the eievation ciiff-
erence benpeen the pumping source and point
of delivery.
Hu -- total head loss (including losses through valves,
bends and other pipe fittings) through the su-
ction and delivery pipe.
H, = velocity head 1v2tZ g) at the discharge head.

The velocity head at the discharge end, which is quite small,

can be further reduced by providing bell-mouth at the discharge
end of the pipe. Hence the velocity head (H") is sometimes neglected
in computing the power requirements of pumps.
The total head loss (Hy) consists of friction head loss in the
pipe line as calculated ftom various formulae (pee chapler l5), plus
the enerry loss produced due to flow through various fittings such
as bends ellbows, tees, valves etc. The head loss through the fittings
(Hr") can be computed by the expression
Hw=K,* ...( 14.e)

where K is related to fitting dimensions, the value of which ma.V

be obtained from standard tables. Alternatively, the head los througti
fittingS can be expressed in terms of an equivalent length of snaigftt
ptpe, the values of which are agah nailable from standard table$.
The head los due to pipe friction can be omputed from the following
expression
 Distribution of Water

16.1. INTRODUCTION
a

Water distribution systems are ordinarily desrgned to adequatell-

satisS the water requirements for a combination oI domestic'
r]otT;

merical, industrial and fire fighting purpose. The performance'

i'f
a distribution system can be judged on the basis of the pressure
available in the system for u ipetino rate of flow. The distribution
system consists of a network of pipes with appertenances,
for transport-
ing water from the puriRcation plant -to tne consumer's tap'
trt
or balancing
also includes the design and operation of storage, senvice
reservoirs.tA gbod d"istribution system should satisfy the
following
requirements :

1. The system should be capable of suppiying^water.al con-

sumeis' tap at reasonable pressure head" Also, th*
tread
should not be excessive'
z. It should be capable of meeting the fire dernand simuj-
taneouslY.
3. It should maintain the degree of purity- The distributian
system should be completely watertight'
4. It should be easy to operate and maintain'
period'
5. Water should be available even during breakdown
6.Itshouldbesotaidthatduringrepairs,itdoesnotcause
obstruction to traffic'
as it:w
The intial cost of the distribution should be
fu\
7,
possible.

1"59
DISTRII]UTION OF WATER 160

ES,A. h{ETI{ODS OF DISTRIBUTION

'lhe method of distribution
depends upon the topography of
the area. The following methods or systems may be adopted for
distribution :
1. Gravity system.
2. Combined gravity and pumping sysrem.
3. Pumping system.
f
1, Gravity system. In the gravity system, the source of water
suppiy is so located with respect to the area of distribution that
\&ater is avaiiable with sufficient pressure at various points of the
area. No pumping is normally required. However if the purification

DISTRIBUTION
RESERVOIR

STATIC HEAO UNE

HT.HEADLOSS fH
r-i=EFFECTIVE t{Ao

{o } GRAVITY SYSTEM
ELEVATD RESRx/O|R

STATIC HEAD LINE

#'S6:: IT
tT
OISTRIBUTION AREA !H.
ffi'tt"
{b} COMEINO GRAfTY AND R.TIPITG

1-:;ftf'.":l
STATIC HEAO LINE
f*===
u{I_.1

H.

SOURCE - OFTRIzuTIO{ AREA

(C, PUMPING SYSTEM

FIS. 16"1. DISTRtsUTION SYTTBMS

 r61 WATER SUPPLY ENC INEER INC

units are located on a hill, and the source cf warer supply (ie"
a lake or reservoir) is also located behind the hill, pumpihg may
be required to conveywater from the rawwater source to ttre puhRcation
works. The purified water then flows entirely under gravity. This
is the most reliable and economical distribution
,syst6m.
Fig. 16.1 (a) sliows the system in which ff" is the desired
effective head.
2. Combined grayity and pumping system. This is the most
common system adopted in most of the cases" Generally, the water
purification work are locdted almost at the same level as the area
of distribution - specially when source of raw water supply is a river
or d reservoir foimed behind a dam. [n order to oUidiri sufficient
distribution pressure, filtered water is pumped into clear water reservoir
(C.W.R.) located either on a higher ground or elevated on a tower.
The water from the elevated resdrvoir then flows under gravity, as
illustrated in Fig. 16.l (b).
3. Pumping system. In this system, water is pumped directliv
into the distribution system to achieve the required pressure, as shown
in Fig. 16.1 (c). Such a s)6tem is not desirable" Generally doubie
pumping is required, first to Pump raw water from the source io
the treatment works and then to pump purified water direct into
the distribution mains. The pumps have to be run at varylng speeds
according to the variations in the consumption. In case of the power
failure, the entire water distribution system of the localiry is disturbed.
The system also requires constant attendance.
16.3. PRESSURE IN DISTRIBUTION MAINS
Adequate pressure should be available in distribution mains
at all points located even at the remotest spots. The desired pressure
depends upon the following : (i) the height to which water is require'd
to be supplied (u) fire fighting requirements (iii) whether the suppit'
is metered or not, and (iv) availability of funds. The following pressures
are considered satisfactory :
(a) Raidential distrbts :
Upto 3 storeys : 2 kg/cmz
3 to 6 storey heights : 2 to 4 kg/cmz
6 to 10 storey heights : 4 to 5.5 kg/cmz
Above 10 storeys : 5.5 to '7 kglcmz
(D) Csmmqical dMri*: 5 kg/^'.
In towns with single storeyed buildings, a minimum of 6 metres
of residual pressure should be available. Full fire pressures_should
constantly be maintained in the distribution system. The Naticnal
I-} iSTRiBUTI O N OII WATER 162

:r..rird c-'f Fire Unclenvriters recommends a pressure of 5 kg/cmz

.: :hrl fire nozzic, rvhere more than ten buildings exceed three storeys
'.ii height; 4 kg,/cm; in locatities with less risk and 3.5 kg/cmz in
.,rrniy truilt-up districts. A pressure of 1.5 kglcm2 is considered satis-
:ai:icry under most conditions where fire engines are used.
A minimum velociry of 0.6 mlsec should be maintained. The
'"'i:iocities in pipes of different diameters should be as follows :
Pipe dia. Velocity
(cm| @^ec)
10 0.9
1:r 1.2
.:"5 1.5
4{) 1.8

l1t a nu;rl Recom mendations

The Manual' on Water Supply ,nd Tr""tment prbpared by
the Ministry of Urban Development, gives the following recommen-
dations for minimum residual presnres at ferrule points :
Single storey building :7 m
Two storey building : 12 m
Three storey building : 17 m
Distribution system should not ordinarilybe designed for residual
ilressures exceeding 22 metres. Multistoreyed buildings needing higher
Jrsssure should be provided with boosters.
l,linimum pipe sizes

The manual recommends the following minimu.n pipe sizes:

Towns with population irpto 50000 : 100 mm dia
Towns with population above 50000 : 150 mm dia.
For dead ends, less than 100 mm can be considered. If it
is a grid, less than 100 mm can be used in situations where no
further expansion is contemplated.
16.4" SYSTEMS OF WATER SUPPLY

water rnay be supplied to the consumers by the following

two systems :

(1) Continuous system

(Z) Intermittent s)6tem
1. Continuous system. In the continuous system, water is avail-
able tcr the con^sumers for all the 24 hours of a day. No doubt, this
is the best ryntem since water is available as and when it is needed,
but this leacls ta the ramsteful use of water. If there are some minor
i63 WATER SUPPLY ENCINEERIN*

leakages etc.in the system, great volume of water is wasted beeause

of long duration of flow. In this system, water is not stagnarii
in the pipe at any- instant, and hence ftesh water is always availabie
2, Intermittent system. In this s)6terni water is suppiie.a :..
the oonsumers onty dUring some fued hours of thE day - say ir&'{
to four hours in the morning and npo to four hours in the evening"
This is the most cornmon system adopted in India" This method
is adopted when either sufficlent pressuie is not available or when
sufficiint quantity is not available. Under these conditions, various
distribution zones of the city arre supplied water by turn. The normal
supply timings may be between 6 A.M. to 10 A"M" and 4 F.&,f
-P.M.,
to'3 though these timings may be changed [s suit clin:;*i,'
or seasonal conditions.
The intermittent system hes the following drawbaclcs ;

(i),Fin deffi. If fire breaks in a supply

zone during non-supply
perioS, the.rescue operations cannot be effectively done. Water cannog
be brought' from other zones quickly, and fire damage witl be rnCIre"
(it) Domatic storuge The intermittent system requires ttle
provision of small storage tanks in individual houses so that sanita4;
iittings in the house can work effectively dqring periods of no supnir''
(tit) Polhttion in suppty. During the non-supply period" iii:
pressure in the supply line may fall below atmospheric press'd.f-
This may induce suciion through leaking joints. When the pipe l:ii;'
is laid near the sewers etc., this may lead to severo pollution A'T'r-'
contaminhtion problems.
(iy) Sizt of pipa,, Greater sizes of pipes will be requirecl sinrc
the suppiy of wtroie day has to'be made in a shorter period"
(y) ttostage from water taps. During the non-supply .period.
the water taps may Ue left open unknowingly or dqe to negligence'
This will lead to iarge wastage of water during the supply periori
I

(ri) 5141[ rquimwts. Since a number of valves of differ*ni

types are fitted on supply lines, many of which may be non autoiTlsiir
enra staff will be required to oPerate and maintair: these vai':
16.5. STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIRS
Storage and distribution reservoirs are irnportant units ifi i.
modern distiibution system . clear water storage reservabs are require'j
for storage of filtered water until it is pumped into the senice reservoks
or distiiUtion rueryoirs. The Pumps may generally work for 8-1S
hours a day. Hene the clear water iesen'oin should have a caplqp
ro store filiered water corresponding to 14 to 16 hours average dailv
flow for storage when Pumps are idle.
 }ISTRIBUTION OF WATER
164

DistributiCIn reservorrs provide service storage to meet the widely

fluctuating demands o.ften imposed on a distriUuti6n system, to provide
storage for fire fighring and emergencies and to e{ualise operating
pressures. They may be classified as 'surface reserv6irs' or 'blevated
reservoirs' aecording to their position, or classified according to the
materia! oi which rhey are built, such as steet, R.c.C. or irusonry
r?:RKs" Distribuii.]n reservoirs are mostly of elevated
rype. They serve
;1 ,
i*ilowing til!'tlosos :

i. The"v *'nsorb the hourly variations in'demancl.

.I" if pumps are used, the provision of reservoirs makes it
pcssible to run the pumps at unlform rate.
3. Their provision results in an overall reduction in the sizes
cf pumps, pipes and treatmetrt units. Thus the distribution svsrem
becornes economical. J

o._T*y serue
,as storage for emergencies
such as outbreak
*f fire, failure of pumps or bursting of-mains
! 5' They
:; absence
ii:
maintain the desired pressure in the main constantly.
cf rhese, the pressure will fall as the demand of water
il:ereases" They provide and maintain desired pressure
.l reas.
even in rembie

5. operation of the distribution s)6tem becomes very easy.

I.6,6- TYPES OF STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIRS
Storage and distribution reservoirs may be of thrbe
rypes :
(t)
Surface reservoirs
(,,) Elevated reservoirs.
(ii4 Stand pipes.
ii) surface Reservoirs. surface reservoirs are made mostry of
I*esr]nry or concrete' Common is to line surface reservoirs
*xth concrete, gunite, asphalt orPractice
asphaltic membrane to check the
Ieakage ofwarer" sometimes, rhese resbrvoin
maybe built unoliliouno,
specially when they are of rarge size, and pair i may be cons"tructea
on its top. Such gardens are known -as tranging g.roens,
as pro"io.o
at Bombay. It is usual practice to construci surface reservoirs
{wo or rnore compartrnents so that one unit in
can Ue cieanec oi-repairea
uu"hiie other unf rs
Tre in operation. $rfa;- reserroirs. shourd b
jr:*a{*d ar high points in the distriuution qatem,
s*ppiy mn be dcne directly. In iome cases.hower.ur, so that gravity
pump6 are tsed
;;_F:,m,ffri1l,lifrfi1Jl'*H#ter storage suria.ce reservoir to
Hevated Rese.ofur. Elemted resenoirs
in)
knawr as overhead tanls. They rry u. **i"r.t..o ire commonly
(tone
of ,*onry,
165 WA]ER SUPF LY EN G INEER lft* C

reinforced concrete or steel. Earlier trend was tCI eonsirutt tltest -.

steel. HOwever, the life of stepl overhead tanks is very sh*rt i&fir-;
they corrode soon requiring constant maintenance and frequent replae*'
ment. Masonry overhead tanks require very heavy supporting [$wr.
Hence modern trend is to provide the elevated reservoirs of'reinforece
concrete. Thesb rnay Se of rectangular, circular, conical or elliptical
shape. Intze tank is the most common type tsed for water srpply
purposes. All elerated reservoirs are invariably provided with top
fouir, ladder, and man-holes for inspecfion and bleaning purposes.
(uu) Standpipes. Standpipes are normally ernpioyed where the
construction of a surface reservoir would not provide suffieient head"
A standpipe is essentially a tall cylindrical tank whose storage v*iuni;
includes an upper Portion (the useful storage), which is. above ini
entran@ to the discharge piPe and a lower portion (supporting storage i
which acts only ro support ahe useful storage and provide the required
head. It is often possitle to take advadtage of hills or high gfound
for a standpipe lo&tion, with a view toward making the entire capacity
of the tank usable.

TOTAL ENERGY LINE

-. __
{.S.

tH

I Lof o&arr
^*:Ir*;;;

FIC. 16.X EFFECT OF I.OCATION OF DISTRTBUT"h:}FJ R'ESER,VOIF

DISTRIBUTION OF WATER 166

Location of distribution reservoirs. Distribution reservoirs

should be located centrally or at least as near as possible to the
zone that they serve. In large metropolitan areas, a number of
distribution reservoirs rnay be located at key points. They should
be located on high grounds, or at sufficient elevation to maintain
adequate pressure. A central location of the reservoir will reduce
frietion lossei in the distribution pipes by reducing the length of
i,ipes" Fcsrtii;ning the reservoir so that pressures may be approximately
':-=qualized is an additional consideration of irnportance. This is illus-
;rared in F:ig, i5.2. if the tank is not located centrally (Fig. 1,6.2 a),
there wili be large head loss, and by the time water reaches the
tail end of the s.uppty, the pressue will be too low to serve the
community usefully. However, if the reservoir is centrally located,
as shown in Fig. 16.?, (b), the pressure over the whole distribution
area is much more uniform during periods of both high and low
demand. During the periods of peak demand, the tank supplies in
bcth 'directions (being emptied) while during the periodC of low
demand, pump supplies water to both the tanks aswellas thecommunity.

es,?. Ci\I'nCI'ry CIF DISTRIBUTION RESERVOIR

The storage capacity of the distribution reservoir is based on
tlie following three requirernents : (f) balancing or equalising reserve,
(ri) breakdown reserve and, (rii) fire reserve. The magnitude of break-
down or emergency reserve depends upon the danger of interruption
of reservoir inflow by failure of "supply works and upon the time
needed to make repairs. If repairs are expected to last' only for
& very short duration, the emergency reserve is sometimes made
RC more than 25Vo of the total storage, To ompute the amounr
::l storage required for balancing'or equalising purposes, a mass
'iiagram cr hydrograph indicating the hburty rati of consumprion
ii required The National Board of Fire Undenrriten recommends
that distributing reservoirs be made large enough to supply water
for fighting a serious conflagration fur 10 hours in communities
of more than 6000 peoplg, and for 8, 6'and 4 hours in places with
4000, 2000 and 1000 peoplg respectively. when reserve storage is
elevated, the amount of fire rescrve may be determined from the
following expression :
R = [F - Plr ...(16.1)
'.-n'herg ft = resorvo storage (litres)
"F = fire demand,, litres/min
F s Fserv fire pumping capacity in litres/min.
-minutes.
k"-. * durstion of hre,'in
I

somet[rnes, it is more econornical to provide elevated storage

f*r equalizing purposes only, fire reserve o6ing stored in a surfip
 CHAPTER 8

Wastewater Ch ar acteri stic s

S.I.INTRODUCION : CONSTITUENTS OF SEWAGE

Sewage or wastewater is a dilute mixture of various wastes
from residentiul, commercial, industrial and other public places. Before
we can decide about the line of its treatment and disposal, it is
essential to know its composition, quality and characteristics. Though
the characteristics of sewage or wastewater depends upto the source
of its discharge, sewage in general contains organic matter, inorganic
matter and living organisms. The organic and inorganic matter may
be in dissolved, suspended and colloidal state. The inorganic or mineral
matter consists of ash, cinder, sand, grit, mud and other mineral
salts. The organic matter may be either nitrogenous or nitrogen-free.
The chief sources of nitrogenous matter are urea and protein, while
the nitrogen free compounds include carbohydrates fats and soaps.
The living organisms may be divided into plant //e (such as algae,
fur,gi etc.) and animal /i/e consisting of various types of micro-organisms
such as protozoa, bacteria, virus etc. The bacteria convert the complex
organic constituents of sewage into simpler, more stable, organic
and-mineral compounds.
As mentioned above, the composition or constituent of sewage
waste water largely depends upon the source from which it is found
in domestic wastewater which may-be classified as strong, medium
and weak, depending upon the concentration of these constituents.
It should be noted thit sewage contains only a very small percentale
of solids in relation to huge amount of water. Liquid contentir:of
sewage is 99.9o/o while total amount of solids (both suspended as
well as dissolved) is only 0.1 percent.

(180)
 WATER SUPPLY ENG INEERING
767

reservoir. Sush reserve storage must always be kept availahle fcr

immediate use, so that it can be pumped into the distribution system
during emergency, such as fire.
McDonald- has suggested the following expression for deter-
mining storage capacity of reservoirs :
7=.aD+bD+y4(D+F-P) ...(16.2)

where R = total storagc capacity (million litres)

D = avetage dom6da demand (m.l.d") for ma:rimum
month
F = fire demand (m.l.d.)
P = apacity of pumP (m.l'd)
a ,b = *bm"itnts, thevalues of whicti may be ;aken
as 0.2 and 0-1 resPectivelY"
When a storage ,or distribution reservoir is to be designed
capacity
for the purpose of balincing or equalising the flow, its storage
can be- delermined bY two methods :
(s) HYdrograPh method'
(b) Mass cuwq method'
(a) Hydrograph htethod. It is well known that the hourly
water demand rate is not constant tfuoughout the day' The
demand

22Y
?l
'E 20h

!=l ,.[
g ''l
;,ol
F<l
Gt2
?,o
I
Ea
6L
g ffi'e-EFoog =S-d
-+. TlltE OF
DAY

FIG.153.I{YDR0GRAPHMETHoDoFEQUALISINGSToRA6E
G)(AMPLE 16.1)
 ntslggigsL t tgI?'J:'E' i ? t"11'.?
to vari ous m i cro-organ i s m s found in
I be pathoB-enic' Howel;r, all bacterial
present in
wastewater, some ot'wnichGay and reduce
wastewater are not nu.n,,r"t; some
ofthese help to treat the wastewater
the cost of treatment Plants' and biological
Table 8.2 gives a surnmary of PhYsical, chcnrical
their sources.
characteristics of wastewater and
OF WASTEWATER AND THEIR
SOT'RCES
TABLE A.Z
",dHERACTERTSTICS
Sources
Characleristics

I P hys ical characteris tics decay of

(i) Colur Domestic and industrial wastes; natural
organic materials.
wastes
(ii) DJcomposing wastewater; industrial
Odour
;;;;.t;. *aier supply; domestic and industrial wastes;
(iir) Solids
soi I erosions; infl ow-infl itration
n^-^-+:^ -^rt indrr<triel westes-
(iv) Temperature

C he mical charac te r is Ii cs
2.
(a) Orgotic wastes
(t CarbohYdrates Domestic, commercial and industrial
and industrial wastes
(tr) Fats, oils and greases Domestic, commercial
(itt) Pesticides Agricultural wastes.
(rv) Phenols Industrial wastes
(v) Proteins Domestic and commercial wastes
Domestic and industial wastes
Ityil Surfactants Natural decay of organic materials'
ItO others
ltal Inorgo'ric
Domestic wastes, domestic water supply'
ground water
ItO Alkalinitv
infiltration.
(rD Chlorides iN.*if. water supply, domestic wastes' groundwater
infi lration, water soft eners'
(ii, HeavY metals Industrial wastes.
(iu) Nitrogen Domestic and agricultural wastes'
(v) pH lndustrial wastes.
(yi) PhosPhours Oo."t,i. and industrial wastes, nature runoff. .
-Oo*.tti. wastes
(vi,l Sulfir water supply, domestic and industrial
(vttr) ToxiccomPouncls lndustrial wastes.
(c) Cases
(,) Hydrogen sulfde Decomposition of domestic wastes
(it) Methane Decomposition of domestic wastes
(iit) OxYgen oor"rii. water supply, surface water infiltration

3
l aiotogi"o! characteristics
Open water courses and treatment plants
| | fil Animals
Open water courses and treatr-nent plants
\ I (ii) Plants
Dornestic wastes ; treatment plants
| | riiil Protista
I 1(iv) Viruses Dontesttc wastes
from urtne' protelns,
organic matter in sewage consists of urea
continuous decomposition and in
carbohydrates, t'ats and soaps l'hese undergo
-Th.process, pass through several slages, resolving
that
.i.;iri

itffi
 llt \-n.4^f1\- I Lr\rJ I t\_D 16J

into simpler elements such as nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon and o.xygen with
small quantities of sulphur and phosphorous. These elements ultimately
combine by means of chentical and biological actions to form inorganie
substance. Hence be fore \\'c take up physical, chemical and biolo!ical
characteristics, let u.s first stuc| the cycles of decomposition through which
the
organic nlatter pass u,ith passaqe of time,

8.3. CYCLES OF DEIOMPOSITION

Most of the organic -un.r. t;.;G"bewage a.Sffir.s readill, rhrough
combined biological and chemical processes. These processes, which are bio-
chemic in nature, decompose highly complex organic iompounds in the sewage
into materials or constituents to a much simpler ihemical structure. The organic
matter which can be dccomposed by bacteria, under biological action, is clattea
biodegradable organic matter. The decomposition of such organic matter takes
place through the agency of diflerent types of bacteria (i.e. aercbic bacteri4
anaerobic bacteria or facultative bacteria) and the nitrogenous and carbonaceous
matenjals in the sewage serye as fo6d'for them. The biological de'composition
can be of rwo fypes :

(i) Aerobic decomposition (also called aerobic oxidation) and

(i4 Anaerobic dercgmgosilon (also called purrefacrion).
eflo\TTarcompolition may be caused by both aerobic bacteria as well
facultative bacteria operating aerobically, in presence of air or oxygen which
is
available in the wastewater in the dissolved form. During this pro"-"rr, organic
matter is broken up and oxidised to form stable and non objectionable end
products like carbon dioxide, nitrates, sulphates etc. Treatment units which
work on aerobic decomposition alone are aeration tanks, trickling filters,
contact beds, oxiflation pqnds etc.
A n ;nTLL%Wrtffi I s i t i o n o r p ut r efa c t i o n is caused by anaerob
ic bacteri a,
as facultative bqctqgiq anaerobically. The end products of
,,^6ftub|f.ll
-') "putrefaction include blaic('-J1siaue, roperating
nitrogen, hydrogen etc. The anaerobic
bacteria survive by extr5'iii-ri! and consuming the boinded molecular oxygen
present is compounds like nitrates (t{O:) and sulphates (SOa). Treatment uiits
R'hich rvork on putrefaction tone are septic tanks, Imhoff tanks, and
sludge
digestion tanks.
'fhe matter
of the universe remains constant, but its form changes because
iil' bio-chemical reactions.
*Theromplex organic compounds of biJdegradable
nature are broken up by bioih?#ical reaction iirto simple compounds *hi.h ur"
in turn consumed by animal and plant life for their growth. fhis cycle goes on.
From servage treatments point of view, the cyclei of decompoiition of the
tbllorving fivg e lements are of importance: (l) Nitrogen cycle. (2) carbon cycle.
(3) Sulphur cycle. (4) Calcium cycle. (5) phosphrori .y.i..
 rWA]'E,R DNC I NE,EI{ tNG

Ttrc first threc ryclcs rclatc to thc dcconrposition o{ nitrogcncous

organic mattc.r, carbonaceous orgp,flic n]3t{cr and sulphurous organic
nlat(cr respcctivcly. -/
tai
--iire
I. Ifg ryUg1ct1cycle. Thc nitrtlgcn c1'clc, corrcsponding to
biochemical clt gra<lation or dccomposilion clf nitrogencous organlc
matter, is in fact in endless chain connecting the processes of.lifc
an<.1 decay of both ani.mal and plant worlcls. This is illustrated in
Fig. 8.1. The nitrogen cycle consists of following steps :
(a) A4tn_j!9p!_:_
1. Th" t-itgSS4?y!-ol8!nic nuttcr, in the form of waste animal
a nd p lan t ma rtei, c6n5i5tinFa ni-a,- pio te.i ns and.
hyd rocarbo ns, u n -
Ocrgoes decomposition cith-ir by way of oxiclation by aerobic bacteria
or. 6y way oi purrefaction by anaerobic bacteria, rcsulting in the
for-
mation of ammonia lNHr) qnd other gases'
2. By process of nitrification, ammonia is l-trst converted into
nirrires lliOrl by partial oxidation and then finally to nitrates
(NOr) by the action. of aerobic bacteria'
.
3. , The products formecl in step 2 d-rc co.nsumed by plant
life as food, thigugh photosynthesis. The piant life grows, due to
which plant tissues,!/a it protitn (seeds) and iree oxygen are produced'
4. The plant protein is consumed by animals, resulting in the
pro<luction oi aninial prbteins (meat, milk etc')'
5. The anima! wiastes in the form of urine and other
excretions'
as well as the dead bodies of the'animals result in thc formation
Of nitrogcnous organic matter.
Tlre rycle thus continues' However, there may be.tol: sh^o1t
circuirs in the above cycle, as shown by dotted line in Fig' 8'1,
and as dcscribcd below.
NITRCGENOUS I. DECOMPOSITION *l
ORGANIC I
MATTER I
I

I
UL..
z zl
SJ 9 9r
E Fl
,n
-'Ftr
d)
?o\
do\
It! s{
v!q .Eo E
-l
t!l

k, Lr luti), EI
.g\ tr Fr
S,Il \". \ z
o
tol
\e ."6\, N uJt
ol
NITRITES tNO2) ol
ANIMAL ,4
PROTEIN :(n
z
o
LI
,i t")

trtri Q I NITFNGtrN cvcl F

WASTEWA'I trR CHA}(AL I bKl) I l(J

@ qho1 tiyuit !t,eP!

6. The death oi ptant life (as it hapflens iq forests
Oecay oi
wherg\leaves, flowers etc. of plants lie in layers.g'n
ground surface
organic
io.O6*Vl may direcrly result in the formation of nitrogenous
matter.
-7. waste products such as urea and excretions of animals
may sometimes decompose directly and form ammonia nitrogen.
8. The nitrates formed aftcr step 2 may be converted or reduced
into free nitrogen (andsome-times t0 ammonia) by anaerobic bacteria,
by a process known as denitilication
g. However, free nitrogen, produced in step 8, may directly
be converted into plant proteins by certain type.of bactcria 9r.t.S!' ,
in the roots of plants, through a process known as nitrogen Jaatton' \ v;

2, Carbon cYcle
The carbon cycle corresponding to biochemical ,degradation
or decornposition of. carbonaccous oryanic nniter is also an endless
chain connecting rhe processes of life and decay of both animal
and plant wor!<.i:. 'Il'is is illustrated in Fig. 8.2.
CiP:,ONACEOUS I I. DECCMPQSITION CARBON
ORGANIC D I-OXIDE
MATTER (OXIDATION) (C02)

t-
7\ ?
v,
J
U
"$r ttj
.r-

' \.. u'

F
z
.,.O\ an
o
''4
le
tJl

lp
\q ,sZ
u{\ F.
o
(L
N

ANIMAL FATS PLANT CARBO-

ANO PROTEINS HYDRATES, FATS
3.CONSUMPTION AND PROTEINS

FIG. 8.2. CARBON CYCLE.

(a) Main steps
The decomposition of carbonaceous organic mattcr, through
1.
oxidation by aerobic bacteria results in the release of carbon dioxide
which is its linal end product and is the stable form of carbon.
2. Plants, in the prcsence o[ sunlight and by thc process of
photosynthesis mnsume carbon from carbon dioxide produced in step
1. This results in.the formation of plant carbohydratcs, fats and
proteins (sugars).
3. The plants are consunrcd by animals, resulting in the for-
mation of animal fats and protcins.
 ,,r..-
186 WASTE,WATER ENG INEEI1 ING

4. \vastc products or dcarh of animals results in the formation

oI carbonaceous organic mailcr.,
Thc carbon rycle is thus compteted. This q'cle continucs in
nature. Ho*'ever, there ma.v bc somc short circuits in rhe above
q'cle, as shown by dottcd lirres in Fig. 8.2, and as describcd bclow.
(b) Short circuil steps
5. (a) Plant life givcs off carbon dioxide at night, through the
process of respiration. (b) similarly, animal liic gives otf co: cluring
respiral ion.
6. carbonaceous organic matter may also be formecJ clirectry
by the death/decay of planr life.
3. sulphur cycle. The sulphur rycls corresponds to biochemical
degradation. or dccomposition af sulphurous organic nntter, and is
also an eirdlcss chain connccting the processes of lifc anir dccay
of both animal and plant wo5lds. Ttris is illustratccr in Fig. s.3.
SULPHUROUS I. DECOMPOSTTION HYDROGIN
ORGANIC (H2 Sl
MATTER (PUTRE FACTION) SULFt0t

\
\ z
t \r\ra. I
F
9
F
(J
E o
\"'o o i o
trl
\i* \t: V'
trj o c(
z z ni d
o qF
F
(L
F z
ANIMAL IL rn
E
PRorEn'ts =
an
)
0
z z
o
(, o
Lt
I r;
FIG. 8.3. SULPHUR CYCLE.
Main steps
1. The decomposirion of sulphurous organic matrer, through
the action of anaerobic bacteria, in absence of orygen, results in
the formation of hydrogen sulphidc (Hz S).
_2. -.By process.of oxidation, HzS is first converred into sulphu.
and. finally to sulphates.
3. Sulphates, when consumcd by plants, through photosynthesis,
.
charrges into plant proteins.
4- Animals @nsume the plant proteins.'This results in the
formation of animal proteins.
5. wastes produced by animals and their dead bodies results
in the formation of sulphurous organic matter.
 IE7
WASTE\A/ATER CHARACTERISTICS

The sulphur cycle is thus complcted' Howeve'r' therc

may bc
Someshortcircuitsintheabovcrycle,aSshorr'nbydottedlines
in Fig. 8.3, and as described belotl' :

(b) Short circu.it stePs

6. SulPhates, in the absence of orygen, are convertecl into
Hz S, by the Proccss of reduction'
7. Organic sulPhurous matter may directly be Produced bY
.the death or decaY of Plants'
4. Phosphorus cycle- Phosphorous rycle relates to the maln-
tenance of level of phosphorus in the soil. The phosphorous
vJ vrv

is shown in Fig. 8.4.

I
F
(r
dE
IN SOIL o
U'
z -(
o *'rtJ
(,
: ^u
:X
nut
2. CONSUMPTION
PLANTS

z
e
F
o-
f,
t't PHOSPI-OTTOUS FROM
z
o
U
A.RTIFICIAL OR
EMICAL SOURCE
3
FIC. 8.4 PHOSPHORUS CYCLE-
sleps:1.(a) Plans consume pho_sphorus Present in soil through
photosynihetic action and grow. (b) Plants may also consume phos-
pnoruj sdpplied from artificial or chemical sources' such as manure
etc., and thereby grow.
2. The plants are consumod by animals and the phosphorus
clements is thus transferred to animals.
3. The wastes produced by animals and.their dead bodies
iesults in the transfer of phosphorus back to soil..
4. The death or dqcay of plant life also results in the transfer
of phosphorus back to soil. Thus, the phosphorus cycle is completed.
5. Cslclum cycle. Calcium ryclc also relates to the maintenancc
of level of calcium in the soil. Calcium rycle is shown in Fig. 8.5.
Steps
1. Calcium prcsent in soil is carried away to water bodies
(such as rivers, lakes sea etc.) through surfarc runoff.
 r88 \\,NSTE WATER ENG tNEt]T{ I NC

\\,ATE R
BODI ES

I. SURFACE
RUNOFF

CALCIUM
tN sorLs PLANTS

ANI MALS
4b. CONSUMPTION 40. COI{SUMPTION

FIC. 8.5. CALCIUM CYCLE.

2. (a) Catciut irr"sent in water bodies is consumed by
phytoplankton and fish. (b) Plants consume calcium of bodies,
"vater
through surface flow (both natural as wclls as artiticial).
3. Calcium present in soil- is also consumed by plants through
photosynthetic action and grow.
4. (a) Plants are @nsumed by animals, and calcium is thus
transferred to them. (b) Similarly, phytoplankton and f-sh are consumed
by .animals resulting in transfer of calcium to animals.
5. (") Death of. animals results in calcium rorerting back to
soil. (b) Death of ph1'toplankton and fish may also result in the
transfer of calcium back to soil. (c) Similarly, dcath or decay of
plants rvil! also result in thc transfcr of catcium back to the soil.
This way, the level of calcium in soil is maintaincd.
8.4. PITYSICAL CII,ARACTERISTICS
Following are important physical characteristics of waste water:
(i) Cotour (ri) Odour (ru) Temperature (iv) Turbidity (v) Solid contents
(Totat solids)
1. Colorrr: Fresh domestic sewage is grey, somewhat resembling
a weak solution of soap. With the passagc of time, as putrefaction
starts, it begins to get black. The colou r of. septic s.ewage is more
or less black or dark in colour. The colour of industrial wastewater
depends upon the chemical process used in the industries. Industrial
\e'aste water, when mixcd with domcstic sewage, ffi?Y also add colour
1o it.
Z. Odour : Normal fresh sc*'ige has a musty odour which
is normally not offensive, but as it starts to gct stale, it begins to
givc offcnsive odour. Within 3 or 4 hours, all thc orygen present
teo wAsTtwnTR UNGINEERINC

dcgradation. Anaerobic bacteria chcmically rcduce sulph, tes to sul;

phicles and to hydrogen sulphidc, as indicated by the follos'ingequations:
bacteria
SO; * organic mattcr S-- + HzO * COz ...(8.6.q)
s-- + zHt HzS ...(8.6 b)
The hydrogcn-sulphide gas so produced cause bad smells and
odorlrs. Besidcs this, HzS gas gets oxidised biologicalll' to sulphuriq
acicl resulting in corrosion- to se\\'er pipes. The biological' process
<lf sludge digesters is severely hindered when sulphatcs are reduccd
ro sulphiCes, specially when their concen(ration cxcccds 200 mgn.
Also, Hl S gas, which is evolvcd and mlxed u'ith *'astcwater gas
(CHr * CO1), is corrosive to. thc gas piping'
g. Other gases : Follow'ing are the gases that are commonlg
foun<J in untreated wastewater : (r) Nitrogen (Nz) (ii) Oxygen
(Or) (iil) Carbon-dioxide (.COt (iv),' Hydrogen sulphide (Hz S), (u)
Ammonia (NHr) (iv) Meth-ane (cHr). while the first three are thc
gascs of the atmosphere which are found in all waters (including
wastc*aters) exposed to air, the later. three ar as a result of decOm.
position of organic matter present in the wq;ter water. Methane gA
is thc principil by-produci of the anaerobic dbcomposition. of:thc
organic matter in wastewater. .This gas is colourless' and O(ourl.eSS'
an<J is highly combustible. Since its explosionhaza1.d is high, man-hqles'
suwcf luiaions, junc(ion chambers.etc should be kept well ventilated.
Otygcn in a sample of wastewater is rbported in the fotlowing three
*rtr (a) Orygen consumed (b) Dissolved orygen and (c) Orygenl
demand '
, 10. orygen consumed.,oxygenconsunted' is theoxygen requlred
for lrhe oxidation of carbonaceous .matter. This quantity of oxygg,g:
i.s clctcrmincd by adding standard amotrnt of potassium permAng,an-atc
$'i(h dilutc sulphuric acid to a sample of wastewater. The redction
is anowed ro iite ptace for periods of 15 minutes and 4 .til:n.
at a constant tcmperature of 18'C" The potassium permangl*qe
tibcratcs oxygen *hictr is consunied by the wastewater. Thiii'test
is madc to determine the retative strength of sewage (i.e. whethti
s(rong, mcdium or weak), instead'of BOD test. However, tlf lesl
-not
docs givc thc total orygen needed for the biological oxidation
of all or (hc bulk of thc organic matter.
ll. Dissolved orygen : Dbsolved oxygen (DO) is the amount
of oxygcn in thc dissolved state in the wastewater. Though wastcwater
gencialty docs not have DO, its presencc in untreated wastewatef
indicatcs tMt the wastewater is fresh. Similarly,'its presence in treat<l
\^'astcwatcr/cfflucnt indicatcs that consideiabte:roxidation has been
accomplishcd during tho rreatment stages. While dischaiiling ihe treated
 CHARACTER lSTl cs
WASTEWaTER

WaStewater
into receiving waters' it is essential to ensure that atleast
in it. If Do is less, the aquatic animals
4 p.p;m. of DO is presJnt
i6''nrn etc- are titety to be killed near the vicinity of disposal'
,Tlre .presence of DO in wastewater is desirable because it prevents
]:-- fo*ution of noxiousdetermine
itt odoun'
the DO content o[ waslc*'atcr
trt is essential to
so as to se{cct proper lreatm(nl
before it is subjected to treatment'
contenl of fresh.wastewater is soon depleted
ln",troO. The small, DO
.- due to aerobic decomposition. The
aOual quantity of DO is governed
of orygen in atmosphere
OyiO solubility of oxygen (ii) partia.l pt:'s.Yt:
t"mp".utore,- a1O (iv) purity (satinity, suspended solids etc.)
i,iij in"waterl.
i,f in" DO of the wastewater decreass aq the rempcraturc
increases. The solubility of DO in wastewateA is
only 95o/o o( thar
io'Oir,itt"O water. DO content of wastewater may be dctcrnrined
,'f by winkter'r method ,

'i\,. ,\,
I ia.e. Ary9FLI-DE!44ND
As stated"eartier(the presence of oxygen.is essential for thc
- I
livclihood of organisms. The'aeroblc action continues'only till the
.,i
oxygel is prcxrenLi4w?tl1ryg"r,an$ Sfter that anaerobic action begins
resulting in purreracuon. rntS, brfgen is aemt{i{ci,i in wastewater
for the oxidation of both inorganic as well as organic ma-[er. Thtrs
demand of oxygen may bb expressed in the following ways :
., r(i) Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) (t0. C,ltf5l oxygerr
demand'(COD) (,,0l,Totat oxygen demand OOD) (iv) Thcoretical
oxygen demand Cfh.OD) )
In addition to these, the arpount of organic mutter Prcsent
hay ,also be'determined by the total organic carbon (TOC) rcst.
D ,
- u\\l .
aiz. 'ntocuntrlcel gxycnx onM,q,xn (BoD)
l{nrt ffi- ,ra-a-rr /Drrn\ ic q rnnrtrrre nf rha

ta41aq1., lgntpgro I urc., The

JTL r"qqylH
,?r3, Hlgd {or
tfc follo,1vitg,ny,rpgl"s :

;lfl,Dijgf minat ig,fi r app roxima tc q ua n t i ty of orygcn req u I red

ii,FlptggjtEt, s,iabififzEtign of o.rganis mattcr Prcscnt in
':q thc was-
$$]Kl?I'rt,., ,,,:,,'i r' :, . i:ir
.

,:*t,..t,(i0,,P;1g1minqlign of siz.e of wastcwatcr lrealmcnl facilitics.

ctficicncy of somc trcatmcnt proc(Xsc\s.
 WASTEW TE,t{ ENCINEERINd
l9S

(iu) Dctcrminati<ln of strength of sc\"gc

-oi
i,'; O",.r.rninatiQn of amou-ni of clear d'atcr rcquired for thi
cfficient disposal o'"t"\\'ater by tlilutio":'.Y). l

marter 'Prescn( in wastewatcr

may.b:t-olg-t:.'ty
Thc organii
and (ii) Nitrogcnous mattcr'
groups : (i) C:rbonaeous martcr
of a iiquiO wasie it tl-".11!t1d'
The ultintatc carbonaccot/s BOD to clccomposc
in ihcsamplc
otoxygcn n.*uj foiitt" rnittii:ganisms dccomposition'
are tuUJ"tt
thc cartronaceous materials that :t*:tl:al
Thisisthc{-rrststageofoxidationanclthccorrespondingBoDis
dcn1a."d llllc second stage!
also sometimcs called the firsr,^stagc and th'e corresPonding BpD is
thc nitrogenous ;;ii"; it'oxidiseo-'
nitilicarion dcnnn(:,t-n t,tt, pollution
known as sccondr'rrg" bOp- ir
watdrs witl continuJ to absorb
otq!"n f9t 1 l:lg^li*"' Biochemical
rir"eoretically tal'es an infinite
time
oxidation is stoi-o..*
a and
firit stage BoD or a given
ro so to comple,il:;;;ijrf: :'itrntte of the organic
i, initial ?qYifl"^lt
c"";"ii;; i "ig"t a
wastewate,
mauer present.
"qu"'i';'1h; r O3V'p'erioO is chosen'for''standard completq
BOD rest, during;i;ir-;iidation
i*'"d;i to ?0 Percent to 99
oxidatio-n-i1ub:ut 95 Percelt
while within 20 day: period' the Itrc is maintained during
complete. a mnit"it temPerag;;i is comnronly
rtt"iAD ;;i;" or s-itvi*bation period
the incuba,ioo'
;;;;;-;' BoDs or 5-daY BoD'
t.testroigoo.:BoDtestcanbeper.formedbyrwomethodsi
(i) oir".tit"trtof,ii-a (4 Dilution
method'
to'n"A t t"'i ton'ists of keenins the samplc
,tilUre'- Tlt-a clefinite air or orygin''in
a speciatly
of wasrewrt., ,n6nru.t withir tt en'-mcasured mlnometrically'
prepalcd vcsset. fr.-iioo :ln
(t0 $l$It"@"t\t Ttt'.'.
o the cominonly used method'prepared
this mctho.r tne?ffis
suitauri-diiut.o with a'speciatty
*itruuy manufactured so as
dilution water' i#'[ii";*-*ttJ'"it
providing all trace n-utrients
nece$ary:
to include *i"tur" of salts to maintain a
"
rrrr biorogi."r .ltiuiv,"'1;;;U+'-ff'oti:: ,:".{:"t

[*lii'ft'r..";:{$""'?#;t*::rf
dilutld
iiry}.#ff'...*'i
sampte is then
sample i, *o'u'L'-Th; gr*r"rirtt;j. Th; DO of the
sample
dars ar 2.,c in an air ,,gh..
is itrcrr again *;;';' Tit loi''i"r ;il;t 9t
t'h:' oxvsen consumed
itt" oirr"ren@
found;;'oy calcuratinc'
"content
tturing in.uu"tioi-i,,n"n of bO .nd ,t.
final of DO'
bcrwccn ,t. iniiirt conrcnt
--$i,11'l',*-J',:'ffii:l:,
BOD is thcn comp$:"d. ,rlo$ rJs oT"J3.t*,1:.,1-
BoDs = fdi9f,c;f
;:;':l
wherc rliturion 1311s =#gesamPle
 f*;
r rLJ
wnsGwnreR CHARASI bt{ls i'q'q

.Forexample,iflmlofwastewaterisdilutedtomakcl00 will be
m.l of test sample the d,i.tution ratio or dilution factor
in 3@ ml size
ioozl = 100. Generally, BOD resrs are pcrformed. the bottle and mi'red
ir<jb-uo,iro. lr 5 ml of wastewater is placed_in purc aerate<J water)
ii,n ,n. specially prepared dilution water (or
;;:;;;" im ri ditui.A'sample, the dilution'ratio yillof bc equ:tl
i; jOOZS = 60. The dilution raiio is selected on the basis expected
will be avallahle
,]ttg"-of BODs so that adequate nutrients and oxygen
dilutio.ns are prcparcd
O"rir.tg the incubation period. Normally, several
io'-i"r the complete range of possible values. Table 8'4 gives the
irng" of BOD that can be measured with various dilutions cxPresscd
eith?r as percentage mixtures or as ml directly pjpetted into J00-ntl
gOp Uotiles. BOb is expressed either in PPI o!-tl mg pcr litre
VARIOUS
TABLE S.I. SObS MEASURABLE WITIT
DILUI'IONS OF SA'V{PLES

By uslng pctrcn! milure Bv direcl pipaiaE into J00-ml 8OI)'tuttlcs

iomituw Ranec ol BOD mI n"ryyt-aq!--

0.01 20000-70000 0.02 3UXXr:to50OO

o.02 10000-35000 0.05 t20fi)-42000

0.05 4000-14000 0.10 6{XXL2IQOO

0.10 2000-7000 0.20 30(xL10500

o.?t 1000-3500 0.50 1200-{200

0.50 400-1400 1.0 60(L2100

1.0 200*700 2.0 3(X!-1050

2.4. 100-350 5.0 l2(I-420

s.b 40-l4d 10'0 ro-2r0

io.o 2|-170 20.0 3{Lt05

20.0 l0-35 50.0 t242

50.0 q-t4 l(n.0 6-2 i
t' ' loo.o a-7 3Ut.(' u7
valuc of 5 dav BOD of raw and treatcd
sewage. /, ;OR
TABLE t.5. VALUES OF BOD RA}Y ANO TREATED SF.}I'^Gf

Nalure olsfuca 5 dol BOD at 20'C (ppm o+ mglt;

l. Strone scl /age 150 to 550

'2. Avcnaqc sewage 150

3, ' Weak so,vace 250

,4.. Standardfiltcr scrracc effluent 2A

':'I i
5. Very good filtcr sawagc 5 to l0
ir r, .r:'cffluent
 al 1-'

.. vv tr: I uwA I trK bf'l(J l{r bbRlN.C

2. First stagq l_O!_le5g1!J_a!!q&_ At a givcn lemperatdre,

the rate t wlit,h BOD is iatisfiecl at any time (ie. rate o[deotygenation)
may bc assumcd to be directly proportional to the anrount of organic
matter prcsent is v -:w?!c. In other works, the exertion o[ BOD is
considcred to be fint ordcr leactjqq defincd bi'
dLt t,, ...(8.8)
'udt _ 1
where Lt = amounl of first stagc BOD remaining in the
sample at any time t (or oxvgen cquivalent of carbonaceous'oxidisable
organic matter prese[t at any time l), expressed as rngl.
K' = rate constant signifying the rate of oxidation of organic
matter, having a unit (d-eD. l. Its value depends upon" the nature
of olggnlc-rnallgt_present and the temperature. during the reaction.
t = rirne iq g.yr..
Integrating Eq. &8 betwecn time(t : 0 (,a-s which Lt: Lu saY)
to r=i1 we get 14!
r )r P " '+ = ,)-
| ry:-K'l dt ^-'
JLtJ
or rc*!=-K't
"Lo
...(s.9a)

or ?=e-K'=10-K
Lo. =-
...(s.90)

where the rate constant

6 =#) ...(8.e c)
In the above equatidn;Z;lsfiE
_rm,_telIlesgll ll-selylgq3!_ tt,".Qgglnning. Also K is known as !3se
lq rar;
conCiant-* @r-?eo;igtiffisranr) i'trite ^tf is known
basc e rate constant.
The amount of E-OP remaining at any time is t
,/Lt = Lo (10 -
o),/ ...(8.9)
Hencc yr, the affint of ll6D-that hast ,beer].
- f'E'
exrted at any
timc t is .given by : .u Q:-31:9- ,1
--
,-y, = A- U)= I^O - Lo'\l ...(8.10)'
ln the above .q*ai
(r.e. Ir = BODI).
--Fiom-trq. 8.10, 5dav BOD is evidently given by
/BoD=ys = tr:t, = UO - to! ...(s.lo a)
aTfi-c
rcmion@&9 and 8.10are rcpresented
bv thc corrcsponding curves shown in Fig. 8.8-
The u/rirn ate l-tnt s(age BOD (i.e. y") will be obtaincd by sub'-
stituting I = co in Eq. 8.10. Thus,