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TRANSFORMER

. So eddy current loss will depend upon frequency, flux


density and the area of the eddy current loop.
. So, hysteresis loss will depends on frequency.
Thin laminations are used in order to reduce the eddy current losses only. Due to
laminations the area of the eddy currents loops are minimized and the losses due to
eddy current losses are minimized.
Hysteresis loop will represent only hysteresis losses. It is found out by area of B-H loop
curve of a magnetic material.
As iron loss is proportional to flux density or flux, these are also called as magnetic loss.
The total core loss or magnetic loss consists of eddy current loss and hysteresis loss.
Armature copper loss is directly proportional to square of armature current. Therefore
as the load varies these will also vary.
Condition for maximum efficiency is, copper loss = iron loss or variable losses is equals
to fixed losses
The hum is generated by the magnetic field that happens due to the continuous
reversing of the frequency of the supply or it is due to magnetostriction. The magnetic
field in the AC machine or transformers has coils which are still able to move slightly
due to the vibration. The laminations of the armature are treated in a similar way but
also vibrate at the line frequency and it is almost impossible to stop. We can only
reduce it by good design.
auto transformer requires the use of lesser quantity of copper given by the ratio of
turns. Hence, if the transformation ratio is approximately equal to one, then the copper
saving is good and the copper loss is less.
From the induced emf equation of transformer E f For same emf, f = constant
1f1 = 2f2 B1A1f1= B2A2f2 For constant flux density B1 = B2 A1f1 = A2f2 For high frequency
f2 > f1 A2 < A1 Therefore at high frequencies transformer size get reduced and also light
weight.
For an ideal transformer the losses should be zero on both sides. Therefore the ohmic
resistance on either side of the transformer should be equal to zero.
In a transformer primary volt-ampere is equal to secondary volt-ampere and primary
ampere ampere turns are also equal. So, EMF per turn in both the winding are equal.
Total induced emf on both sides depends on the number of turns, flux and frequency. If
number of turns on secondary more than primary, then emf induced in the secondary
will more than primary side and vice versa, but the emf per turn in both the winding

are equal.
Therefore core flux in transformer depends mainly on
supply voltage and frequency.

To maintain the magnetization current at the same level, flux should be same i.e V/f

ratio should be same.


By changing of primary parameters to secondary or vice versa it does not change the
performance of circuit. So that we are taking power rating are equal in before and

after referring. Therefore, the equivalent resistance of


the primary referred to secondary = R1 /K
A 5 KVA transformer has a turns ratio of N1/N2 = 10. The impedance of primary
winding is 3+j5 ohms while that of secondary winding is 0.5+j0.8 ohms. The impedance
of transformer when referred to primary will be

Voltage regulation is defined as the change in terminal voltage when the rated load at
a given power factor is disconnected across the terminals expressed in terms of rated
secondary voltage.
At leading power factor the voltage regulation can be negative or zero. This can be
found from this equation % Voltage regulation for lagging power factor = (R cos + X
sin)100 and Voltage regulation for leading power factor = (R cos - X sin)100
Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss are almost independent of load, significantly
depends on supply voltage and frequency. As the flux density or flux is constant for a
given voltage and frequency, these remains constant at any load. Therefore, these
losses are called as constant losses. Copper loss varies the square of load current and
called as variable loss.
transformer operating at constant voltage and if the input frequency increases, the
core loss

decrease
A transformer has hysteresis loss of 30 W, at 240 V, 60 Hz. The hysteresis loss at 200 V,
50 Hz will be

Open circuit test on transformer gives The no load current drawn by the primary is
around 2 % to 6 % of rated current. Therefore copper loss of primary is very low and
can be neglected. As the copper loss is negligible, the watt-meter reading is considered
as iron loss or constant loss i.e eddy current loss and hysteresis loss.
Open circuit in a transformer is prefered with As the name implies, high voltage
side is left open and the low voltage need to be applied rated voltage to get the
constant loss, because constant loss depends on the supply voltage. Therefore rated
voltage applied at the low voltage side for no-load test.
OC test is conducted on LV side and SC test is conducted on HV side In open
circuit test HV is left open on no load and the LV need to be applied rated voltage to
get the constant losses. Rated voltage on LV side is lesser than the HV side. For
convenience and better readings, OC test is always preferred to be conducted on LV
side and leaving HV side open. In SC test, as name implies LT winding is short circuited
and rated current should be ensure in the primary winding. As rated currents are low
on HV side, SC test is preferred on HV side and short circuiting LV side.
In a single phase transformer the magnitude of leakage reactance is twice that
of resistance of both primary and secondary. With secondary short circuited, the
input power factor is

In OC test there will be only iron losses in the transformer, in SC test there will be only
copper loss but under practical conditions both losses occur simultaneously and the
temperature rise is due to both losses. To determine iron loss, copper loss and
temperature rise for a designated period back to back test or sumpner's test is
conducted.
A transformer has maximum efficiency at 3/4 load. The ratio of iron loos and full
load copper loss is Condition for maximum efficiency is, Copper loss Pc = Iron loss Pi I R
= Pi A transformer can be operated at any load but maximum efficiency occurs at a
particular load condition only. Let x be that load factor corresponds to maximum
efficiency. According to maximum efficiency condition x = Condition for maximum
efficiency, Given that, maximum efficiency will occurs at 3/4 load.

The condition for maximum efficiency is, Full load copper loss Pc = Iron loss, Pi and copper
to be reduced to the value of iron loss, Total loss P = Pc + Pi = 150 + 150 = 300 W
Conservator tank is used
to take up the expansion of oil due to temperature rise
stepped cores are used in transformers in order to reduce
volume of copper
Which is the arrangement of windings in a core type single phase transformer?
Half lv inside and half hv outside on each core limb
A shell type transformer has
reduced magnetic leakage

In transformer flux density Bm 1/core size area


Scott connections are used for
three phase to two phase transformation
When tertiary winding is used in a transformer, then that is called as three winding
transformer. It is exclusively used in high voltage transformer winding which are
connected in star. If both primary and secondary windings are in star, there will be third
harmonic induced voltages, particularly if the magnetic circuits are separated. In order to
eliminate them a third winding which is in delta connected is placed on the same core
known as tertiary winding.

Two transformers operating in parallel will share the load depending on their
KVA rating
Tappings of a transformer are provided
at the middle of hv side
In two winding transformer there is no electrical connection between primary and
secondary. So the power only transferred through induction or magnetically. But in auto-
transformer there is a common electrical path between primary and secondary. So power
is transferred through both conduction and induction process.
In a three phase star - delta transformer, what is the angle difference between primary
and secondary phase voltages? This is a vector group and has + 30 displacement.
Therefore, delta side leads by + 30.
The efficiency of a transformer is mainly dependent on
core losses.
Iron loss in a transformer mainly occurs in
steel core in transformer. Iron loss is also called core loss in transformer which
consists of hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. Both of these losses associated with
transformer core.
Stray loss occurs in the mechanical structures and winding conductors due to stray fluxes.
When faults occur on the primary or secondary sides, considerable unbalanced of
phase voltage may be produced which is compensated by large circulating current
through this closed delta connected tertiary winding.
Maximum allowable moisture content of power transformer insulating oil is
generally taken as

35 ppm.
The heat generated in the transformer is dissipated mainly by convection
GENERATORS

The emf induced in the dc generator armature winding is AC, but we need DC current from
DC generator, so to convert this AC current to DC current mechanical rectifier called as
commutator is used
In case of DC generator the brushes need to collect current with minimum sparking, which
is known as successful commutation.
These are different applications of different bearings. Since the ball is a sphere, it only
contacts the inner and outer race at a very small point, as contact area is very small, so if
the ball bearing is overloaded, the balls can deform or squish the running bearing. So it
has to be used for small rating machines. Since the roller is a cylinder, so the contact
between the inner and outer race is not a point but a line. This spreads the load over more
area, allowing the bearing to handle much greater loads than ball bearings. Hence it is
used for large machines.
Lap winding is prefered for which type of machines? high current and low voltage bcz
Number of parallel paths are more in case of lap winding than wave winding. So
summation of currents at the output is more. Therefore it is preferred for high current and
low voltage rated machines.
Wave winding is prefered for low current and high voltage bcz Number of parallel paths
in wave winding is only 2. Therefore is used for low current and high voltage rated
machines. Summation of currents in parallel paths is less than wave winding.
Equalizer rings are essential in lap winding because of more no of parallel paths in lap
winding. As in lap winding no of parallel path is more, there would be severe sparking at
brushes due to difference in currents in different parallel paths. But in wave winding no of
parallel paths is two and the sparking at commutation is less. So, equalizer rings are used
in lap winding to avoid any unequal distribution.
A 4 pole lap wound dc generator has 4 brushes, if one of the brush is damaged, what
will be the change in V, I and P ratings, V, I/2 and P/2, If one brush is damaged then two
parallel paths will be damaged. So only two parallel paths will provide the I/2 current and
voltage is same for parallel paths. As the current is halved, delivered power is also halved
for same terminal voltage.
For a DC machine the values of armature resistance is very low and shunt resistance is
high. The power delivered by the DC Machine depends upon the armature current Ia.
Ia should be high to deliver maximum power. The Shunt field is parallel to the armature
field, so its resistance must be high for minimum value of shunt field current. If its value
will be low then armature current will be lower and power delivered will be less. The series
field is connected in series. So if series resistance is more then there would considerable
series drop and again armature current will be lower.
To deliver maximum power armature current must be high and the shunt field current is
minimum. So, shunt field resistance of DC Machine is very high value around 50 to 500

. , it can be concluded that for high resistance length of the coil is to be large and
area to be small. So shunt field must have large no of turns and thinner wire than the
series field.
The power delivered by a DC machine depends upon armature current. The series field is in
series with the armature so they are carrying same current through them. Series field are

kept at low resistance for minimum drop. , we can conclude that area should be
high and no of turns should be less.
The necessary condition for voltage build-up process in a self-excited DC generator are
1. The poles should retain some residual magnetism. If the poles lost its residual magnetism
it can't start voltage build up process. It may be started by a separate DC source at shunt
field when armature is at rest.
2. The field winding should be properly connected to armature winding. If the field
connection is reversed then the field flux would oppose residual flux.
3. The field winding resistance should be less than critical resistance. Voltage will not build
up if the field resistance is greater than critical resistance.
4. The speed of the generator should be greater than the critical speed. This can be remedied
by increasing prime mover speed above critical speed.
No load saturation characteristics or saturation curve or open circuit characteristics or
magnetization curve or no load magnetizing curve of DC Generator. This curve is drawn
between no-load armature generated voltage with the field or exciting current, keeping
the speed constant by prime mover. This curve starts slightly above the zero due to
residual magnetism. It also determines the design of flux per pole under linear
magnetization or saturation curve.
On no load armature flux is negligible as armature current is small but with load the
rotating armature produces a flux due to sufficient armature current or load current. The
effect of this armature flux on the main field flux is known as armature reaction. Due to
armature reaction the main field flux distribution is weakened and distorted.
The rotating armature produce a rotating armature flux with respect to armature and
there is a working flux which is also under the pole distributed uniformly. Therefore
armature flux is stationary with respect to main filed flux. Armature mmf is stationary
w.r.t. field poles but rotating w.r.t. the armature.
Cross magnetization effects commutation. Cross magnetizing is one of the effect of
armature reaction. By vector addition it is found that it distorts the main field flux. As a
result it shifts the MNA (magnetic neutral axis). There would be sparking at the time of
commutation if the brushes are not shifted to the MNA.
Demagnetization reduces both main field flux and terminal voltage. Demagnetization is
one of the effect of armature reaction. By vector addition it is found that it reduces or
weakens the main field flux. So it reduces the induced emf or terminal voltage in case of
generator because Eg is directly proportional to the flux (). In case of a motor it reduces
the torque and increases the speed because Te is proportional to flux and speed(N) is
inversely proportional to the flux.
Brushes should be placed where the direction of current are changes or production of zero
e.m.f., under no load condition MNA and GNA coincides with each other. At this axis
current direction is reversed or no emf is produced. But due to armature flux the main field
flux gets distorted and MNA does not coincides with GNA under loaded condition. That
means neutral zone is shifted. In order to achieve sparkless commutation brushes is placed
on MNA. So, brushes are always placed in MNA in loaded or unloaded condition.
Due to armature reaction flux density is increased under one half of the pole, so iron loss
increases. The commutation process deteriorate and severe sparking in brushes. To
improve commutation inter-polar and compensating winding are placed. So the design
and maintenance cost increases. These are all the effects of armature reaction.
Methods to reduce armature reaction in DC machines are 1. Pole chamfering 2. Pole
stacking 3. Pole core slotting 4. Compensating winding 5. Interpolar winding
Width of carbon brush should be equal to the width of the 2 to 3 commutator segment.
With only one coil under going commutation and width of the brush equal to one segment
width, the reactance voltage and hence the sparking increases as the slot width
decreases. Hence the brush width is made to cover more than one segment. If the brush is
too wide, then those coils which are away from the commutating pole zone or coils not
coming under the influence of inter pole flux and under going commutation leads to more
sparking. Hence, brush width greater than the commutating zone width is also not
advisable.
Flux density under trailing pole tips in case of generator increases while Flux density
under leading pole tips in case of generator decreases.

Compensating winding is placed in the pole shoe. The direction of the current in the
compensating winding is exactly opposite to the direction of current in the armature
conductors under respective pole, this produces an extra flux which neutralize armature
flux and thus armature reaction.
Find the reactance voltage when current is changed from -2A to 2A in 4 sec and self
inductance is 1H?

Interpoles serves two functions 1. It produce a counter emf in the coil undergoing
commutation because of its opposite polarity and nullify the reactance voltage produced
during commutation. This will improve the commutation. 2. It reduces the cross
magnetization effect of armature reaction and impoves commutation.
Interpoles are small pole and they are tapered in shape, intentionally designed with larger
air gap with the armature than the main pole, not to get saturated when the load current
flows through the interpolar winding.
inter pole winding will act in interpolar region while compensating winding will
act under the pole
In DC machine shape The shape of armature MMF is triangular in nature and directed
towards bush axis.
In DC machines, Characteristics are divided in to 1. No load 2. load. Load characteristics
are again divided in to 1. Internal characteristics (Eg vs Ia) 2. External characteristics (Vt vs
load current)
Series generators have rising voltage characteristics, which are not at all suitable for
ordinary power supplies but the were used as boosters in dc distribution or transmission to
compensate the voltage drop.
To limit the welding current which resembles short circuit, DC differential compound
generators are used.
series generators and over compound generators have rising voltage characteristics. In
both cases terminal voltage rises when load increases due to series field characteristics.
Therefore these two have negative voltage regulation and these are not suitable for
ordinary power supplies.
Essential conditions for two DC generators are connecting for parallel
operation is/are
terminal voltage should be same
polarities should be same
both A and B

From this equation if all other things remains constant speed is inversely
proportional to flux. So if flux is reduced by half then speed will be increased to double.

Eb = Generated e.m.f. = Flux per pole Z = Total no of conductors P = No of poles N =


Revolution in r.p.m. A = No of parallel paths = No of poles for Lap Winding = 2 for wave
winding

A commutator in dc machine provide full wave rectification


Commutators in DC machines have a role of which converts Both AC to DC and DC
to AC AC to DC in DC generators and vice versa in DC motors.
In dc machine armature windings are placed on rotor because of the necessity for
Commutation
DC generator and AC generator works on dynamically induced emf. Transformer
works on static induced emf.
A 220 V DC machine has an armature resistance 1 . If the full load current is 20 A,
the difference of induced voltage between generator and motor is: In case of
generator, induced emf Is . In case of motor, the induced emf or back
emf is . The difference between induced voltage when the machine is
running as a motor and generator will be
Eg ( generated emf ) and Eb ( back emf ) both are same. Whenever machine is
operating as generator the emf is called as generated emf, when machine is operated
as motor the emf is called as back emf.

In a DC machine, which of these parameters remain the same whether it runs as a DC


motor or a DC generator? Induced emf. In a DC machine induced emf given by,

Remains the same weather is a generator or a motor. In case of a generator its called
the generated emf Eg. In case of a motor its called back emf or counter emf Eb.
Which machine is used for battery charging?

DC series generator. DC shunt generator bcz to provide constant output voltage.


The polarity of a DC generator can be reversed by
reversing the field current.
Magnetic field in a DC generator is produced by
electromagnets . permanent magnets.
In Dc generators, electric current to the external circuit from armature is given
through commutator.
In a DC machine, the angle between the stator and rotor fields is 90 .
The purpose of providing dummy coils in a generator is.. to provide mechanical
balance for the rotor.
A DC generator beyond critical resistance will generate . maximum voltage
A Dc generator can be considered as rotating amplifier.
In a DC generator the ripples in the direct emf generated are reduced by
using commutator with large number of segments.
To achieve spark less commutation brushes of DC generator are rocked ahead so as
to bring them just ahead of magnetic neutral axis.
The terminal voltage of a DC shunt generator drops on load because of all of the

following reasons except commutation.


With the increases in field excitation of a DC generator, its generated emf
. increases upto a limit and then remains almost constant.
The slight curvature at the lower end of the OCC of a self excited DC generator is
due to residual flux.
A generator may loose residual magnetism due to heating
In DC generators, the residual magnetism is of the order of 2.5%
Which of following DC generator will be in a position to build up without any residual
magnetism in the field? Separately excited.
ALTERNATORS/Syncrounous Generators:
Difference between an alternator and a generator DC Generators: by rotation of
armature(coils) in a stationary magfield which originally generates AC but
is converted in to DC by means of a Commutator.
AC Generators:
1. Synchronous generator/ Alternator: 2. Induction / asynchronous generator
1. Synchronous generator/ Alternator:
here we have a rotating mag field and a stationary coil system/ stator and the EMF
is dynamically induced to flux cutting. this generates AC power.
and there an alternator can produce power at any frequency when run singly/
separately depending on its speed of rotation. but when an alternator is connected
to an infinite bus( an interconnected network on large no of alternators) they have
to be run parallel at some constant frequency, which is called synchronized
frequency (in india its 50 Hz)

2. induction generator.
and induction generator is also called as an asynchronous generator which
generates power when driven at speeds greater than synchronous speed.
If the excitation is critical, the power factor of the alternator is Reactive power is

given by the equation, From the above equation, the reactive


power generated or delivered is significantly depends on excitation. When excitation is
rated or critical, E cos = V, which means Q = 0, the generator neither supplies nor
draws any reactive power and operates at unity power factor
When the load is pure inductive, the armature flux will entirely demagnetizing the
main flux. Therefore net flux in the air gap reduces with load and the main flux should
be more than the actual under lagging loads.
Two generators operating in parallel with rating 50MW and 100MW respectively.
Both their respective governor settings are identical as 4%, consider same no load
frequency. How will the machine share a common load of 100 MW System
frequency f = f0 - (f0 - f1)/ Prated *P1 Where, f0 is rated power frequency. System frequency
f = 50 - 0.04*50/50* P1 -------------- equation number 1 and also System frequency f =
50 - 0.04*50/100* P2 -------------- equation number 2 Given that P1 + P2 = 100 -------------
---equation number 3 By solving the above equations P1 = 33.33 MW P2 = 66.67 MW
Two synchronous generators operating in parallel 200 MW and 400 MW
respectively. The drooping characteristics of their governors are identical as 4%
from no load to full load. Consider the governors operating at 50Hz on no load. What
is the operating frequency, if the load is 600 MW?
If the governor settings are made identical as 4%, they share load exactly proportional
to their ratings at a frequency f. f = 50 - 0.04*50/200 * 200 f = 48 Hz
Reactive power generated or delivered significantly depends on Reactive power
generated or delivered Q = V/Xs * ( E cos - V ) Where E = Excitation voltage V =
Terminal voltage Xs = Synchronous reactance = load angle From the above equation,
the reactive power generated is significantly depends on excitation value. 1. When
excitation is rated value, i.e. E cos = V, which means Q = 0, the generator nether
supplies nor draws reactive power and operates at unity power factor. 2. If excitation
is reduced. E cos < V, the generator draws reactive power from the bus and operates
at leading power factor. 3. If excitation is increased, E cos > V, the generator delivers
reactive power to the load and operates at lagging power factor.

Power P = EV/Xs * sin From the above equation, if input power is increased with
constant excitation, power angle will increase. If input power is decreased withe
constant excitation, then power angle will decrease.
In synchronous generator, inverted V curve is drawn between field current on X-axis
and power factor on Y-axis
Due to sudden change in the load or mechanical input the rotor is subjected to
vibrations and oscillate about its mean position. These swings are known as hunting. If
this frequent and matches with the rotor frequency, a mechanical resonance will make
the vibrations to become severe. Therefore these oscillations should be damped as
quickly as possible. Therefore a damper winding is used to suppress the hunting. When
the rotor runs at synchronous speed Ns, damper winding has no value. Due to any
oscillations a relative speed between stator rotating magnetic field and rotor exist,
consequently the damper winding come alive, emf induced, current produced,
experience a torque which opposes it cause, i.e relative speed i.e. hunting. Therefore
oscillations are suppressed quickly.
Synchronous reactance of an alternator represents Total impedance Zs = Ra + jXs = Ra +
j(Xl + Xar) Where Ra = armature resistance Xs = synchronous reactance Xl = leakage
reactance Xar = armature reactance
Average emf induced E = d/dt emf at 1 conductor E = PNs/60 Ns = 120 *f/P Where,
P = number of poles = flux per pole Ns = synchronous speed f = frequency average
emf E = (P* 120* f/P)/60 = 2f Therefore E f
The leakage reactance of a 3-phase alternator is determined by performing
open circuit and zero power factor tests
In synchronous generator a synchronous dead load (lamp, furnaces etc) has no
____________ hence it has no natural frequency of oscillation.
restoring torque.
If peak value of phase mmf is F max , then peak value of the rotating field caused by
three phase is (3/2)Fmax.
If the excitation of the synchronous generator fails, it acts as a/an induction
generator.
The method of connecting an incoming alternator safely to the live bus-bars is called
synchronizing. The equality of voltage between the incoming alternator and the bus-
bars can be easily checked by a voltmeter. The phase sequence of the alternator and
the bus-bars can be checked by a phase sequence indicator. Differences in frequency
and phase of the voltages of the incoming alternator and bus-bars can be checked by
one of the following two methods: (i) By Three Lamp (one dark, two bright) method,
(ii) By synchroscope.
A synchronous generator is feeding a zero power factor (lagging) load at rated
current. The armature reaction is demagnetizing.
In a synchronous machine, if the field flux axis is ahead of the armature field
axis in the direction of rotation, the machine operating is
synchronous generator.
The aircraft alternators are designed to generate emf of high frequency of
400 Hz in order to reduce the bulk.
Voltage across the open circuited field termninals of a synchorous machine under
slip test is DC of slip frequency.

DC MOTORS

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