Extrasensory Perception

Extrasensory Perception (ESP) literally means perception that cannot be accounted for by the use of the known senses.
It refers to events and communications that are completely independent of the visual, auditory, or any other sensory
system. The term parapsychology refers to the study of such events, known collectively as psi phenomena which is a
generic term used to denote such anomalous processes or outcomes.

Types of ESP

Telepathy refers to communication between people via the direct transfer of thoughts between minds. It is also
referred to more popularly as "mind-reading" or "mind-to-mind communication". It is the claimed ability to receive
someone's thought patterns and/or to transmit thoughts to someone else.

Clairvoyance refers to the claimed ability of a "psychic" to acquire knowledge about an object, situation, or event by
paranormal means. It is also sometimes referred to as "remote viewing". It differs from telepathy in that the
clairvoyant's information gain is assumed to derive directly from the source rather than another person's thoughts.

Precognition refers to a form of clairvoyance or telepathy in which a person can foresee events before they happen
(pre-cognitive clairvoyance) or predict another person's future thoughts (pre-cognitive telepathy). A dream that
came true could be an example of pre-cognitive clairvoyance, presuming of course, that it was not simply based on
current thoughts, reasoning or knowledge.

Psychokinesis refers to the process of moving or causing some physical change (e.g., motion, distortion) in an object
using only the "power of the mind" is known as psychokinesis. It has also been called telekinesis. Presuming that they
cannot be accounted for by normal physical processes, levitation (i.e., floating objects, other people, or even one's
self), or causing something to move location, or change its shape are possible examples of psychokinesis.

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15 Defense Mechanisms
In some areas of psychology (especially in psychodynamic theory), psychologists talk about defense mechanisms, or
manners in which we behave or think in certain ways to better protect or defend ourselves. Defense mechanisms are
one way of looking at how people distance themselves from a full awareness of unpleasant thoughts, feelings and
behaviors.

Psychologists have categorized defense mechanisms based upon how primitive they are. The more primitive a defense
mechanism, the less effective it works for a person over the long-term. However, more primitive defense mechanisms
are usually very effective short-term, and hence are favored by many people and children especially (when such
primitive defense mechanisms are first learned). Adults who dont learn better ways of coping with stress or traumatic
events in their lives will often resort to such primitive defense mechanisms as well.

Most defense mechanisms are fairly unconscious that means most of us dont realize were using them in the
moment. Some types of psychotherapy can help a person become aware of what defense mechanisms they are using,
how effective they are, and how to use less primitive and more effective mechanisms in the future.
Primitive Defense Mechanisms

1. Denial
Denial is the refusal to accept reality or fact, acting as if a painful event, thought or feeling did not exist. It is considered
one of the most primitive of the defense mechanisms because it is characteristic of early childhood development. Many
people use denial in their everyday lives to avoid dealing with painful feelings or areas of their life they dont wish to
admit. For instance, a person who is a functioning alcoholic will often simply deny they have a drinking problem,
pointing to how well they function in their job and relationships.
2. Regression
Regression is the reversion to an earlier stage of development in the face of unacceptable thoughts or impulses. For an
example an adolescent who is overwhelmed with fear, anger and growing sexual impulses might become clingy and
start exhibiting earlier childhood behaviors he has long since overcome, such as bedwetting. An adult may regress
when under a great deal of stress, refusing to leave their bed and engage in normal, everyday activities.

3. Acting Out
Acting Out is performing an extreme behavior in order to express thoughts or feelings the person feels incapable of
otherwise expressing. Instead of saying, Im angry with you, a person who acts out may instead throw a book at the
person, or punch a hole through a wall. When a person acts out, it can act as a pressure release, and often helps the
individual feel calmer and peaceful once again. For instance, a childs temper tantrum is a form of acting out when he or
she doesnt get his or her way with a parent. Self-injury may also be a form of acting-out, expressing in physical pain
what one cannot stand to feel emotionally.

4. Dissociation
Dissociation is when a person loses track of time and/or person, and instead finds another representation of their self in
order to continue in the moment. A person who dissociates often loses track of time or themselves and their usual
thought processes and memories. People who have a history of any kind of childhood abuse often suffer from some
form of dissociation. In extreme cases, dissociation can lead to a person believing they have multiple selves (multiple
personality disorder). People who use dissociation often have a disconnected view of themselves in their world. Time
and their own self-image may not flow continuously, as it does for most people. In this manner, a person who
dissociates can disconnect from the real world for a time, and live in a different world that is not cluttered with
thoughts, feelings or memories that are unbearable.
5. Compartmentalization
Compartmentalization is a lesser form of dissociation, wherein parts of oneself are separated from awareness of other
parts and behaving as if one had separate sets of values. An example might be an honest person who cheats on their
income tax return and keeps their two value systems distinct and un-integrated while remaining unconscious of the
cognitive dissonance.

6. Projection
Projection is the misattribution of a persons undesired thoughts, feelings or impulses onto another person who does
not have those thoughts, feelings or impulses. Projection is used especially when the thoughts are considered
unacceptable for the person to express, or they feel completely ill at ease with having them. For example, a spouse may
be angry at their significant other for not listening, when in fact it is the angry spouse who does not listen. Projection is
often the result of a lack of insight and acknowledgement of ones own motivations and feelings.

7. Reaction Formation
Reaction Formation is the converting of unwanted or dangerous thoughts, feelings or impulses into their opposites. For
instance, a woman who is very angry with her boss and would like to quit her job may instead be overly kind and
generous toward her boss and express a desire to keep working there forever. She is incapable of expressing the
negative emotions of anger and unhappiness with her job, and instead becomes overly kind to publicly demonstrate her
lack of anger and unhappiness.

Less Primitive, More Mature Defense Mechanisms

Less primitive defense mechanisms are a step up from the primitive defense mechanisms in the previous section. Many
people employ these defenses as adults, and while they work okay for many, they are not ideal ways of dealing with our
feelings, stress and anxiety. If you recognize yourself using a few of these, dont feel bad everybody does.
8. Repression
Repression is the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts, feelings and impulses. The key to repression is that
people do it unconsciously, so they often have very little control over it. Repressed memories are memories that have
been unconsciously blocked from access or view. But because memory is very malleable and ever-changing, it is not like
playing back a DVD of your life. The DVD has been filtered and even altered by your life experiences, even by what
youve read or viewed.
9. Displacement
Displacement is the redirecting of thoughts feelings and impulses directed at one person or object, but taken out upon
another person or object. People often use displacement when they cannot express their feelings in a safe manner to
the person they are directed at. The classic example is the man who gets angry at his boss, but cant express his anger
to his boss for fear of being fired. He instead comes home and kicks the dog or starts an argument with his wife. The
man is redirecting his anger from his boss to his dog or wife. Naturally, this is a pretty ineffective defense mechanism,
because while the anger finds a route for expression, its misapplication to other harmless people or objects will cause
additional problems for most people.

10. Intellectualization
Intellectualization is the overemphasis on thinking when confronted with an unacceptable impulse, situation or
behavior without employing any emotions whatsoever to help mediate and place the thoughts into an emotional,
human context. Rather than deal with the painful associated emotions, a person might employ intellectualization to
distance themselves from the impulse, event or behavior. For instance, a person who has just been given a terminal
medical diagnosis, instead of expressing their sadness and grief, focuses instead on the details of all possible fruitless
medical procedures.

11. Rationalization
Rationalization is putting something into a different light or offering a different explanation for ones perceptions or
behaviors in the face of a changing reality. For instance, a woman who starts dating a man she really, really likes and
thinks the world of is suddenly dumped by the man for no reason. She reframes the situation in her mind with, I
suspected he was a loser all along.

12. Undoing
Undoing is the attempt to take back an unconscious behavior or thought that is unacceptable or hurtful. For instance,
after realizing you just insulted your significant other unintentionally, you might spend then next hour praising their
beauty, charm and intellect. By undoing the previous action, the person is attempting to counteract the damage done
by the original comment, hoping the two will balance one another out.

Mature Defense Mechanisms

Mature defense mechanisms are often the most constructive and helpful to most adults, but may require practice and
effort to put into daily use. While primitive defense mechanisms do little to try and resolve underlying issues or
problems, mature defenses are more focused on helping a person be a more constructive component of their
environment. People with more mature defenses tend to be more at peace with themselves and those around them.

13. Sublimation
Sublimation is simply the channeling of unacceptable impulses, thoughts and emotions into more acceptable ones. For
instance, when a person has sexual impulses they would like not to act upon, they may instead focus on rigorous
exercise. Refocusing such unacceptable or harmful impulses into productive use helps a person channel energy that
otherwise would be lost or used in a manner that might cause the person more anxiety.

Sublimation can also be done with humor or fantasy. Humor, when used as a defense mechanism, is the channeling of
unacceptable impulses or thoughts into a light-hearted story or joke. Humor reduces the intensity of a situation, and
places a cushion of laughter between the person and the impulses. Fantasy, when used as a defense mechanism, is the
channeling of unacceptable or unattainable desires into imagination. For example, imagining ones ultimate career
goals can be helpful when one experiences temporary setbacks in academic achievement. Both can help a person look
at a situation in a different way, or focus on aspects of the situation not previously explored.

14. Compensation
Compensation is a process of psychologically counterbalancing perceived weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other
arenas. By emphasizing and focusing on ones strengths, a person is recognizing they cannot be strong at all things and
in all areas in their lives. For instance, when a person says, I may not know how to cook, but I can sure do the dishes!,
theyre trying to compensate for their lack of cooking skills by emphasizing their cleaning skills instead. When done
appropriately and not in an attempt to over-compensate, compensation is defense mechanism that helps reinforce a
persons self-esteem and self-image.

15. Assertiveness
Assertiveness is the emphasis of a persons needs or thoughts in a manner that is respectful, direct and firm.
Communication styles exist on a continuum, ranging from passive to aggressive, with assertiveness falling neatly
inbetween. People who are passive and communicate in a passive manner tend to be good listeners, but rarely speak up
for themselves or their own needs in a relationship. People who are aggressive and communicate in an aggressive
manner tend to be good leaders, but often at the expense of being able to listen empathetically to others and their
ideas and needs. People who are assertive strike a balance where they speak up for themselves, express their opinions
or needs in a respectful yet firm manner, and listen when they are being spoken to. Becoming more assertive is one of
the most desired communication skills and helpful defense mechanisms most people want to learn, and would benefit
in doing so.

***
Remember, defense mechanisms are most often learned behaviors, most of which we learned during childhood. Thats
a good thing, because it means that, as an adult, you can choose to learn some new behaviors and new defense
mechanisms that may be more beneficial to you in your life. Many psychotherapists will help you work on these things,
if youd like. But even becoming more aware of when youre using one of the less primitive types of defense
mechanisms above can be helpful in identifying behaviors youd like to reduce.
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Von Restorff Effect
The Von Restorff effect was identified by Hedwig von Restorff in 1933. She conducted a set of memory experiments
around isolated and distinctive items, concluding that an isolated item, in a list of otherwise similar items, would be
better remembered than an item in the same relative position in a list where all items were similar.
There can also be a reverse effect here. You remember the unique item, but the attention that it grabs from you is
removed from other items -- thus you may in fact remember less overall.
Hedwig's work relates to Gestalt, where she related it to the Figure and Ground principles.
Taylor & Fiske, (1978) indicated that attention is usually captured by salient, novel, surprising, or distinctive stimuli.
These may be used to enhance the von Restorff effect.
In the 'attention age', when the plethora of media around us is constantly battling for a moment of our time,
advertisers make much use of this principle, each vying with the other to stand out from the crowd and hence be
remembered by the target audience.
The Von Restorff effect is also called the Isolation Effect or the Distinctiveness Principle (Nelson, 1979). The same
principle has also been described as prominence effects (Gardner, 1983)environmental salience effects (Taylor & Fiske,
1978), and novel popout effect (Johnson, Hawley, Plewe, Elliott, & De Witt, 1990).

Zeigarnik Effect

Russian psychologist Bluma Zeigarnik found in 1927 that waiters remembered orders only as long as the order was in
the process of being served.
When we are holding things in short-term memory, we have to rehearse them otherwise they disappear, like a light
going out. This requires cognitive effort, and the more things we are rehearsing the more effort. The waiter's trick is
thus to keep spinning the plates of the open orders whilst letting those which are completed fall.
A similar effect also happens over a longer period as we worry about those things in which we have not
achieve closure. Thus I might keep thinking about a problem at work over a whole weekend as it keeps coming back to
haunt me.

Greenspoon Effect

Modification of the content of conversational speech, without the speaker's awareness, through reinforcement given
by the listener in the form of nods, smiles, or expressions of approval such as mmm-hmm. Such reinforcers have been
used to increase the speaker's use of a certain word, or a category of words such as plural nouns, or the frequency with
which the speaker expresses personal opinions, and so on. [Named after the US psychologist Joel Greenspoon (1921
2004) who reported the effect in articles in the American Psychologist in 1954 and the American Journal of Psychology
in 1955, although previous studies had already demonstrated the effect]

Muller Lyer Illusion

The Muller-Lyer illusion is a well-known optical illusion in which two lines of the same length appear to be of different
lengths. The illusion was first created by a German psychologist named Franz Carl Muller-Lyer in 1889.

Optical illusions can be fun and interesting but they also serve as an important tool for researchers. By looking at how
we perceive these illusions, we can learn more about how the brain and perceptual process work. However, experts do
not always agree on exactly what causes optical illusions, as is the case with the Muller-Lyer illusion.

The Size Constancy Explanation

According to psychologist Richard Gregory, this illusion occurs because of a misapplication of size constancy scaling. In
most cases, size constancy allows us to perceive objects in a stable way by taking distance into account. In the three
dimensional world, this principle allows us to perceive a tall person as tall whether they are standing next to us or off in
the distance. When we apply this same principle to two-dimensional objects, Gregory suggests, errors can result.

Other researchers contend that Gregory's explanation does not sufficiently explain this illusion. For example, other
versions of the Muller-Lyer illusion utilize two circles at the end of the shaft. While there are no depth cues, the illusion
still occurs. It has also been demonstrated that the illusion can even occur when viewing three-dimensional objects.

The Depth Cue Explanation

Depth plays an important role in our ability to judge distance. One explanation of the Muller-Lyer illusion is that our
brains perceive the depths of the two shafts based upon depth cues. When the fins are pointing in toward the shaft of
the line, we perceive it as sloping away much like the corner of a building. This depth cue leads us to see that line as
further away and therefore shorter.

When the fins of are pointing outward away from the line, it looks more like the corner of a room sloping toward the
viewer. This depth cue leads us to believe that this line is closer and therefore longer.

The Conflicting Cues Explanation

An alternative explanation proposed by R. H. Day suggests that the Muller-Lyer illusion occurs because of conflicting
cues. Our ability to perceive the length of the lines depends upon the actual length of the line itself and the overall
length of the figure.

Since the total length of one figure is longer than the length of the lines themselves, it causes the line with the outward
facing fins to be seen as longer.

Researchers from the University of London suggest that the illusion demonstrates how the brain reflexively judges
information about length and size before anything else.

"Many visual illusions might be so effective because they tap into how the human brain reflexively processes
information. If an illusion can capture attention in this way, then this suggests that the brain processes these visual
clues rapidly and unconsciously. This also suggests that perhaps optical illusions represent what our brains like to see,"
explained researcher Dr. Michael Proulx.

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Rogers Self Theory

Personality Development and the Self-Concept
Rogers based his theories of personality development on humanistic psychology and theories of subjective experience.
He believed that everyone exists in a constantly changing world of experiences that they are at the center of. A person
reacts to changes in their phenomenal field, which includes external objects and people as well as internal thoughts
and emotions.

Rogers believed that all behavior is motivated by self-actualizing tendencies, which drive a person to achieve at their
highest level. As a result of their interactions with the environment and others, an individual forms a structure of the
self or self-conceptan organized, fluid, conceptual pattern of concepts and values related to the self. If a person has a
positive self-concept, they tend to feel good about who they are and often see the world as a safe and positive place. If
they have a negative self-concept, they may feel unhappy with who they are.
Ideal Self vs. Real Self
Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and the real self. The ideal self is the person that you
would like to be; the real self is the person you actually are. Rogers focused on the idea that we need to achieve
consistency between these two selves. We experience congruence when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self
 are very similarin other words, when our self-concept is accurate. High congruence leads to a greater sense of self-
worth and a healthy, productive life. Conversely, when there is a great discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves,
we experience a state Rogers called incongruence, which can lead to maladjustment.
Unconditional Positive Regard
In the development of the self-concept, Rogers elevated the importance of unconditional positive regard, or
unconditional love. People raised in an environment of unconditional positive regard, in which no preconceived
conditions of worth are present, have the opportunity to fully actualize. When people are raised in an environment
of conditional positive regard, in which worth and love are only given under certain conditions, they must match or
achieve those conditions in order to receive the love or positive regard they yearn for. Their ideal self is thereby
determined by others based on these conditions, and they are forced to develop outside of their own true actualizing
tendency; this contributes to incongruence and a greater gap between the real self and the ideal self.
"The Good Life"
Rogers described life in terms of principles rather than stages of development. These principles exist in fluid processes
rather than static states. He claimed that a fully functioning person would continually aim to fulfill his or her potential in
each of these processes, achieving what he called "the good life." These people would allow personality and self-concept
to emanate from experience. He found that fully functioning individuals had several traits or tendencies in common:
1. A growing openness to experiencethey move away from defensiveness.
2. An increasingly existential lifestyleliving each moment fully, rather than distorting the moment to fit personality or
self-concept.
3. Increasing organismic trustthey trust their own judgment and their ability to choose behavior that is appropriate for
each moment.
4. Freedom of choicethey are not restricted by incongruence and are able to make a wide range of choices more fluently.
They believe that they play a role in determining their own behavior and so feel responsible for their own behavior.
5. Higher levels of creativitythey will be more creative in the way they adapt to their own circumstances without feeling a
need to conform.
6. Reliability and constructivenessthey can be trusted to act constructively. Even aggressive needs will be matched and
balanced by intrinsic goodness in congruent individuals.
7. A rich full lifethey will experience joy and pain, love and heartbreak, fear and courage more intensely.
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Classical Conditioning vs Operant Conditioning

Classical and operant conditioning are two important concepts central to behavioral psychology. While both result in
learning, the processes are quite different. In order to understand how each of these behavior modification techniques
can be used, it is also essential to understand how classical conditioning and operant conditioning differ from one
another.

Let's start by looking at some of the most basic differences.

Classical Conditioning

First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist

Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex
Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors

Operant Conditioning

First described by B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist

Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior
Focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors
How Classical Conditioning Works

Even if you are not a psychology student, you have probably at least heard about Pavlov's dogs. In his famous
experiment, Ivan Pavlov noticed dogs began to salivate in response to a tone after the sound had been repeatedly
paired with presenting food. Pavlov quickly realized that this was a learned response and set out to further investigate
the conditioning process.

Classical conditioning involves pairing a previously neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a bell) with an unconditioned
stimulus (the taste of food).

This unconditioned stimulus naturally and automatically triggers salivating as a response to the food, which is known as
the unconditioned response. After associating the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, the sound of the
bell alone will start to evoke salivating as a response. The sound of the bell is now known as the conditioned stimulus
and salivating in response to the bell is known as the conditioned response.

How Operant Conditioning Works

Operant conditioning focuses on using either reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease a behavior. Through
this process, an association is formed between the behavior and the consequences for that behavior. For example,
imagine that a trainer is trying to teach a dog to fetch a ball. When the dog successful chases and picks up the ball, the
dog receives praise as a reward. When the animal fails to retrieve the ball, the trainer withholds the praise. Eventually,
the dog forms an association between his behavior of fetching the ball and receiving the desired reward.

The Differences Between Classical and Operant Conditioning

One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between classical and operant conditioning is to focus on
whether the behavior is involuntary or voluntary. Classical conditioning involves associating between an involuntary
response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about associating between a voluntary behavior and a
consequence

In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical conditioning involves no such
enticements. Also, remember that classical conditioning is passive on the part of the learner, while operant
conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or
punished. For operant conditioning to work, the subject must first display a behavior which can then be either rewarded
or punished. Classical conditioning, on the other hand, involves forming an association with some sort of already
naturally occurring event.

Today, both classical and operant conditioning are utilized for a variety of purposes by teachers, parents, psychologists,
animal trainers, and many others. In animal conditioning, a trainer might utilize classical conditioning by repeatedly
pairing the sound of a clicker with the taste of food. Eventually, the sound of the clicker alone will begin to produce the
same response that the taste of food would.

In a classroom setting, a teacher might utilize operant conditioning by offering tokens as rewards for good behavior.
Students can then turn in these tokens to receive some type of reward such as a treat or extra play time. In each of
these instances, the goal of conditioning is to produce some sort of change in behavior.

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Diffusion of responsibility is a psychological phenomenon in which people are less likely to take action or feel a sense
of responsibility in the presence of a large group of people. Essentially, in a large group of people, people may feel that
individual responsibility to intervene is lessened because it is shared by all of the onlookers.
Diffusion of responsibility is often used to explain the bystander effect, a phenomenon in which the greater the number
of people present, the less likely people are to help an individual in distress.

For example, imagine that you are in a large city on a bustling street. You notice a young man fall to the ground and
start convulsing as if having a seizure. Many people turn and look at the man, but no one moves to help or call for
medical assistance. Why? Because there are so many people present, no one individual feels pressured to respond. Each
person might think, "Oh, someone else has probably already called for help" or "No one else is doing anything, so it
must not be that serious."

Kitty Genovese: A Classic Example of Diffusion of Responsibility

The brutal murder of a woman named Kitty Genovese is often cited as a classic example of diffusion of responsibility.
According to the original story related by The New York Times, 38 people watched her attack yet failed to call the
authorities for help. Later research has shown that few of the neighbors in the area actually had a clear view of what
was happening, yet it is clear that at least a few of the onlookers were aware that a woman was being attacked on the
street.

Those who did hear her screams dismissed it as a "lover's quarrel" or suggested that they simply did not want to get
involved.

So why is it that people are so often able to come up with such excuses to not get involved? In an article for Psychology
Today, Dr. Alex Lickerman suggests that that this tendency to explain away what is happening represents a form of
narrative rationalization.

"Knowing that others heard the same scream, or received the same email request, or came upon a man down
powerfully tempts us to assume someone else has taken responsibility for doing what needs to be done," he explains.

While such failure to take action is often viewed as apathy or even plain cold-heartedness, researchers have been able
to consistently demonstrate that such inaction is most often due simply to the presence of other people.

Research on Diffusion of Responsibility

In a series of classic experiments conducted in the late 1960s, researchers John Darley and Bibb Latan asked
participants to fill out questionnaires in a room which suddenly began to fill with smoke. In some conditions the
subjects were alone, in a second condition there were three naive subjects in the room, and in a third condition there
was one subject and two confederates who intentionally ignored the smoke.

In situations where the subject was alone, approximately 75 percent reported the smoke to the experimenters.

In the condition where the two confederates ignored the smoke, on 10 percent of the naive subjects told the
experimenters about the smoke.

In one fascinating series of experiments, researchers Garcia and his colleagues found that simply imagining being part of
a crowdmade people less likely to help.

The researchers ask participants to imagine being part of a crowd and then placed the participants in a situation where
they had the chance to help another person. What the researchers discovered that those who had simply imagined
being part of a larger group were less likely to help than those who had imagined themselves being alone.

Darley and Latan noted that once a person notices that something is happening, a series of important decisions must
first be made.
 1. The first step involves actually noticing a problem.
2. Next, the individual must decide if what they are witnessing is actually an emergency.
3. Next is perhaps the most critical decision in this process - deciding to take personal responsibility to act.
4. Then the individual has to decide what needs to be done.
5. Finally, the bystander must actually take action.

What complicates this process is that these decisions often need to be made quickly. There is often an element of
danger, stress, emergency, and sometimes personal risk involved. Adding to this pressure-packed situation is the
problem of ambiguity sometimes it isn't entirely clear who is in trouble, what is wrong, or what needs to be done.

Factors that can increase diffusion of responsibility include:

Anonymity: Bystanders who do not know the victim are less likely to help and more likely to expect someone
else in the crowd to step up and offer assistance.
Ambiguous situations: If onlookers are not really sure what is happening, are unclear about who is in trouble,
or are unsure if the person really needs assistance, then they are far less likely to take action.

Factors that can decrease diffusion of responsibility include:

Knowing the victim: People are more likely to help if they feel some sort of connection or personal knowledge
of the person in trouble.
Calling on a specific individual for help: Decreasing the psychological distance between the victim and the
onlooker. If the victim makes eye contact and asks a specific individual for help, that person will feel more
compelled to take action.
Having the skills to help: People often fail to assist because they feel unqualified to help. A person who has
received specific training in life-saving, first aid, and CPR will probably feel more capable of stepping up and
offering assistance.

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The Hawthorne effect is a term referring to the tendency of some people to work harder and perform better when they
are participants in an experiment. Individuals may change their behavior due to the attention they are receiving from
researchers rather than because of any manipulation of independent variables.

The halo effect is a type of cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a person influences how we feel and think
about his or her character. Essentially, your overall impression of a person ("He is nice!") impacts your evaluations of
that person's specific traits ("He is also smart!").

One great example of the halo effect in action is our overall impression of celebrities. Since we perceive them as
attractive, successful, and often likeable, we also tend to see them as intelligent, kind, and funny.

The placebo effect refers to the phenomenon in which some people experience some benefit after the administration
of a placebo. A placebo is a substance with no known medical effects, such as sterile water, saline solution or a sugar
pill. In short, a placebo is a fake treatment that in some cases can produce a very real response. The expectations of the
patient play a significant role in the placebo effect; the more a person expects the treatment to work, the more likely
they are to exhibit a placebo response.

In medical research, some patients in a study may be administered a placebo while other participants receive the actual
treatment. The purpose of doing this is to determine whether or not the treatment has a real effect. If participants
taking the actual drug demonstrate a significant improvement over those taking the placebo, the study can help
support the claim for the drug's effectiveness.

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Client-centered therapy, also known as person-centered therapy, is a non-directive form of talk therapy that was
developed by humanist psychologist Carl Rogers during the 1940s and 1950s. Learn more about how this process was
developed as well as how client-centered therapy is utilized.

The History of Client-Centered Therapy

Carl Rogers is widely regarded as one of the most influential psychologists of the 20th-century.

He was a humanist thinker and believed that people are fundamentally good. Rogers also suggested that people have
an actualizing tendency, or a desire to fulfill their potential and become the best people that they can be.

Rogers initially started out calling his technique non-directive therapy. While his goal was to be as non-directive as
possible, he eventually realized that therapists guide clients even in subtle ways. He also found that clients often do
look to their therapists for some type of guidance or direction. Eventually, the technique came to be known as client-
centered therapy or person-centered therapy. Today, Rogers' approach to therapy is often referred to by either of these
two names, but it is also frequently known simply as Rogerian therapy.

It is also important to note that Rogers was deliberate in his use of the term clientrather than patient. He believed that
the term patient implied that the individual was sick and seeking a cure from a therapist.

By using the term client instead, Rogers emphasized the importance of the individual in seeking assistance, controlling
their destiny, and overcoming their difficulties. This self-direction plays a vital part of client-centered therapy.

Much like psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, Rogers believed that the therapeutic relationship could lead to insights and
lasting changes in clients.

While Freud focused on offering interpretations of what he believed were the unconscious conflicts that led to a client's
troubles, Rogers believed that the therapist should remain non-directive. That is to say, the therapist should not direct
the client, should not pass judgments on the client's feelings, and should not offer suggestions or solutions. Instead, the
client should be an equal partner in the therapeutic process.

How Does Client-Centered Therapy Work?

Mental health professionals who utilize this approach strive to create a therapeutic environment that is conformable,
non-judgmental ,and empathetic. Two of the key elements of client-centered therapy are that it:

Is non-directive. Therapists allow clients to lead the discussion and do not try to steer the client in a particular
direction.
Emphasizes unconditional positive regard. Therapists show complete acceptance and support for their clients
without casting judgment.

According to Carl Rogers, a client-centered therapist needs three key qualities:

Genuineness

The therapist needs to share his or her feelings honestly. By modeling this behavior, the therapist can help teach the
client to also develop this important skill.

Unconditional Positive Regard

The therapist must accept the client for who they are and display support and care no matter what the client is facing or
experiencing. Rogers believed that people often develop problems because they are accustomed to only receiving
conditional support; acceptance that is only offered if the person conforms to certain expectations. By creating a
climate of unconditional positive regard, the client feels able to express his or her true emotions without fear of
rejection.

Empathetic Understanding

The therapist needs to be reflective, acting as a mirror of the client's feelings and thoughts. The goal of this is to allow
the client to gain a clearer understanding of their own inner thoughts, perceptions, and emotions.

By exhibiting these three characteristics, therapists can help clients grow psychologically, become more self-aware,
and change their behavior via self-direction. In this type of environment, a client feels safe and free from judgment.
Rogers believed that this type of atmosphere allows clients to develop a healthier view of the world and a less distorted
view of themselves.

The Importance of Self-Concept

Self-concept also plays an important role in person-centered therapy. Rogers defined self-concept as an organized set
of beliefs and ideas about the self. The self-concept play an important role in determining not only how people see
themselves, but also how they view and interact with the world around them.

Sometimes self-concept lines up well with reality, which Rogers referred to as congruence. In other cases, self-
perceptions are sometimes unrealistic or not in tune with what exists in the real world. Rogers believed that all people
distort reality to some degree, but when self-concept is in conflict with reality, incongruence can result. For example, a
young boy might perceive himself as a strong athlete, despite the fact that his actual performance on the field reveals
that he is not particularly skilled and could use extra practice.

Through the process of person-centered therapy, Rogers believed that people could learn to adjust their self-concept in
order to achieve congruence and a more realistic view of themselves and the world. For example, imagine a young
woman who views herself as uninteresting and a poor conversationalist despite the fact that other people find her
fascinating and quite engaging. Because her self-perceptions are not congruent with reality, she may experience
poor self-esteem as a result. The client-centered approach focuses on providing unconditional positive regard,
empathy, and genuine support in order to help the client reach a more congruent view of herself.

Rational Emotive Therapy

Rational Emotive Therapy, sometimes called Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy, is a form of therapeutic psychology
that emerges from behaviorism. It attempts to use reason and rationality to recognize self-defeating cognitive
processes, and learn to emote more appropriately. Effectively, the idea is that subconscious destructive behaviors are
consciously acknowledged and then subverted in favor of more constructive behavior.

Mental Wellness Goals of RET

The basic idea behind rational therapy, as it was originally called, was first developed by Albert Ellis in the 1950s.
Although Ellis had originally done work in the field of Behaviorism, he would later become convinced of the causal
nature of cognitive processes. Specifically, he would develop a model of behavior that involves a continuous interplay
between environment and the internal mental state.

In Ellis' view, one's cognitive processes including one's view of life and one's expectations of the world, determine the
ways in which one interacts with life. For example, a depressed person might deal with others with a defeated attitude,
whereas a non-depressed person might deal with others more confidently and charismatically. Unfortunately, when
interactions go poorly (as a result of the attitude with which they were undertaken), that poor outcome can reinforce
the problematic attitude, making the issue worse in the future.
For Ellis, the acronym "ABC" offered insights into how to overcome self-defeatedbehaviors and cognition. The "A"
here stands for adversity, which can mean the everyday obstacles and difficulty that everyone is forced to deal with just
as a consequence of interacting with the world. The "B" stands for belief, and concerns whether or not the individual in
question believes that a positive outcome is possible, or whether or not the adversity really can be overcome. The "C"
represents the consequences that arise as a result of the belief. Generally speaking, an individual undergoing some
form of rational therapy would be taught that having negative beliefs reinforces and contributes to negative outcomes,
and that having positive beliefs about confronting adversity naturally leads to good results.1

Joe Gerstein - SMART Recovery

One of the primary goals of rational emotive therapy is to achieve a state of "mental wellness". Whereas other forms of
therapy might have goals such as unearthing repressed psychodynamic conflicts, or identifying periods of intense
distress that occurred earlier in life, the idea here is somewhat more abstract, and definitely more "curative".

For the rational emotive therapist, the goal to achieve is a state wherein the client is able to emote and behavior in a
manner that is more constructive and perceptive, and permits them a better quality of life. In other words, the goal is to
diminish or even totally eradicate the self-destructive beliefs and cognitive processes that lead to disappointing or
upsetting interactions with the world.

For many in the field, the key to this goal is a concept known as "unconditional positive regard". The idea is that one
treat themselves with a general sense of goodwill and positivity, regardless of any conditions or circumstances. This
doesn't mean, naturally, that one avoids self-criticism altogether, but rather simply that one should generally feel as if
one is in control of one's life, and that one has the capability to do things well and achieve positive outcomes in the face
of adversity.

"Mental wellness", as the rational emotive therapist views it, was introduced as an important concept to the field fairly
recently, by the founder himself, Albert Ellis.2

Reality Therapy

Reality Therapy is a particular approach in psychotherapy and counseling. Reality therapy was developed by William
Glasser, a psychiatrist. Glasser believes that people who are behaving in inappropriate ways do not need help to find a
defense for their behavior. Instead, they need help to acknowledge their behavior as being inappropriate and then to
learn how to act in a more logical and productive manner. Reality therapy attempts to help people control the world
around them more effectively so that they are better able to satisfy their needs.

The Reality Therapy approach to counseling and problem-solving focuses on the here-and-now of the client and how to
create a better future, instead of concentrating at length on the past. It emphasizes making decisions, and taking action
and control of one's own life. Typically, clients seek to discover what they really want and whether what they are
currently doing (how they are choosing to behave) is actually bringing them nearer to, or further away from, that goal.

Reality Therapy is a considered a cognitive-behavioral approach to therapy; that is, it focuses on facilitating the client to
become aware of, and if necessary, change, his/her thoughts and actions.

Psychoanalysis
Remember, psychoanalysis is a therapy as well as a theory.
In psychoanalysis (therapy) Freud would have a patient lie on a couch to relax, and he would sit behind them taking
notes while they told him about their dreams and childhood memories. Psychoanalysis would be a lengthy process,
involving many sessions with the psychoanalyst.
Due to the nature of defense mechanisms and the inaccessibility of the deterministic forces operating in the
unconscious, psychoanalysis in its classic form is a lengthy process often involving 2 to 5 sessions per week for several
years.
This approach assumes that the reduction of symptoms alone is relatively inconsequential as if the underlying conflict is
not resolved, more neurotic symptoms will simply be substituted. The analyst typically is a 'blank screen', disclosing
very little about themselves in order that the client can use the space in the relationship to work on their unconscious
without interference from outside.
The psychoanalyst uses various techniques as encouragement for the client to develop insights into their behavior and
the meanings of symptoms, including ink blots, parapraxes, free association, interpretation (including dream analysis),
resistance analysis and transference analysis.

1) Rorschach ink blots

Due to the nature of defense mechanisms and the inaccessibility of the deterministic forces operating in the
unconscious,
The ink blot itself doesn't mean anything, it's ambiguous (i.e. unclear).
It is what you read into it that is important.
Different people will see different things depending on what unconscious connections they make.
Click here to analyze your unconscious mind using ink blots.
The ink blot is known as a projective test as the patient 'projects' information from their unconscious mind to interpret
the ink blot.
However, behavioral psychologists such as B.F. Skinner have criticized this method as being subjective and unscientific.

2) Freudian Slip
Unconscious thoughts and feelings can transfer to the conscious mind in the form of parapraxes, popularly known as
Freudian slips or slips of the tongue. We reveal what is really on our mind by saying something we didn't mean to.
For example, a nutritionist giving a lecture intended to say we should always demand the best in bread, but instead said
bed. Another example is where a person may call a friend's new partner by the name of a previous one, whom we liked
better.
Freud believed that slips of the tongue provided an insight into the unconscious mind and that there were no
accidents, every behavior (including slips of the tongue) was significant (i.e. all behavior is determined).

3) Free Association
A simple technique of psychodynamic therapy is free association in which a patient talks of whatever comes into their
mind. This technique involves a therapist reading a list of words (e.g. mother, childhood etc.) and the patient
immediately responds with the first word that comes to mind. It is hoped that fragments of repressed memories will
emerge in the course of free association.
Free association may not prove useful if the client shows resistance, and is reluctant to say what he or she is
thinking. On the other hand, the presence of resistance (e.g. an excessively long pause) often provides a strong clue
that the client is getting close to some important repressed idea in his or her thinking, and that further probing by the
therapist is called for.
Freud reported that his free associating patients occasionally experienced such an emotionally intense and vivid
memory that they almost relived the experience. This is like a "flashback" from a war or a rape experience. Such a
stressful memory, so real it feels like it is happening again, is called an abreaction. If such a disturbing memory
occurred in therapy or with a supportive friend and one felt better--relieved or cleansed--later, it would be called
a catharsis.
Frequently, these intense emotional experiences provided Freud a valuable insight into the patient's problems.

Dream Analysis
According to Freud the analysis of dreams is "the royal road to the unconscious". He argued that the conscious mind is
like a censor, but it is less vigilant when we are asleep. As a result repressed ideas come to the surface - though what we
remember may well have been altered during the dream process.
As a result we need to distinguish between the manifest content and the latent content of a dream. The former is what
we actually remember. The latter is what it really means. Freud believed that very often the real meaning of a dream
had a sexual significance and in his theory of sexual symbolism he speculates on the underlying meaning of common
dream themes.
Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behavior is the result of the interactions
among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego. This theory, known as Freud's structural theory of
personality, places great emphasis on the role of unconscious psychological conflicts in shaping behavior and
personality. Dynamic interactions among these fundamental parts of the mind are thought to progress through five
distinct psychosexual stages of development. Over the last century, however, Freud's ideas have since been met with
criticism, in part because of his singular focus on sexuality as the main driver of human personality development.

The Id, Ego and Superego

Freud developed the psychoanalytic theory of personality development, which argued that personality is formed
through conflicts among three fundamental structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego.

Freud's Structure of the Human Mind

According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions among what he proposed as the three fundamental
structures of the human mind: the id, ego, and superego. Conflicts among these three structures, and our efforts to find
balance among what each of them "desires," determines how we behave and approach the world. What balance we
strike in any given situation determines how we will resolve the conflict between two overarching behavioral
tendencies: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives vs. our socialized internal control over those drives.
Conflict within the mind
According to Freud, the job of the ego is to balance the aggressive/pleasure-seeking drives of the id with the moral
control of the superego.

The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant gratification of basic physical needs and
urges. It operates entirely unconsciously (outside of conscious thought). For example, if your id walked past a stranger
eating ice cream, it would most likely take the ice cream for itself. It doesn't know, or care, that it is rude to take
something belonging to someone else; it would care only that you wanted the ice cream.

The superego is concerned with social rules and moralssimilar to what many people call their "conscience" or their
"moral compass." It develops as a child learns what their culture considers right and wrong. If your superego walked
past the same stranger, it would not take their ice cream because it would know that that would be rude. However, if
both your id and your superego were involved, and your id was strong enough to override your superego's concern,
you would still take the ice cream, but afterward you would most likely feel guilt and shame over your actions.

In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is the rational, pragmatic part of our personality. It is
less primitive than the id and is partly conscious and partly unconscious. It's what Freud considered to be the "self," and
its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the practical context of reality. So, if you walked past the
stranger with ice cream one more time, your ego would mediate the conflict between your id ("I want that ice cream
right now") and superego ("It's wrong to take someone else's ice cream") and decide to go buy your own ice cream.
While this may mean you have to wait 10 more minutes, which would frustrate your id, your ego decides to make that
sacrifice as part of the compromise satisfying your desire for ice cream while also avoiding an unpleasant social
situation and potential feelings of shame.
Freud believed that the id, ego, and superego are in constant conflict and that adult personality and behavior are rooted
in the results of these internal struggles throughout childhood. He believed that a person who has a strong ego has a
healthy personality and that imbalances in this system can lead to neurosis (what we now think of as anxiety and
depression) and unhealthy behaviors.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud believed that the nature of the conflicts among the id, ego, and superego change over time as a person grows
from child to adult. Specifically, he maintained that these conflicts progress through a series of five basic stages, each
with a different focus: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. He called his idea the psychosexual theory of
development, with each psychosexual stage directly related to a different physical center of pleasure.
Across these five stages, the child is presented with different conflicts between their biological drives (id) and their
social and moral conscience (supereg0) because their biological pleasure-seeking urges focus on different areas of the
body (what Freud called "erogenous zones"). The child's ability to resolve these internal conflicts determines their
future ability to cope and function as an adult. Failure to resolve a stage can lead one to become fixated in that stage,
leading to unhealthy personality traits; successful resolution of the stages leads to a healthy adult.