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VINAYAKA MISSIONS UNIVERSITY

SALEM, TAMILNADU

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

(PROGRAMME - M.A.EDUCATION - I YEAR)

(COURSE NAME PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF


EDUCATION)

(COURSE CODE 2070105)

Copy Right Reserved For Private Use Only

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PROGRAMME : MASTER OF ARTS IN EDUCATION I YEAR
COURSE : PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
COURSE CODE : (2070105)

Chapter 01
Educational Management Meaning Need Importance Characteristics Scope
Objectives Arts or Science or profession

Chapter 02
Management Functions Operative Education Administration Vs Education
Management Principles of Education Administration

Chapter 03
Education Planning Meaning Rational Type of Education Plans Approaches to
Education planning

Chapter 04
Education Planning Process Steps in Education Planning Process MBO in
Education Decision Making Types Process

Chapter -05
Organization Meaning Structures Organization Chart Organization for
Education Administration

Chapter 06
Central and State Government Bodies Delegation Vs Decentralization
Organizational Competence Strategic Alliances

Chapter 07
Direction Meaning and Significance Principles of Effective Direction -
Supervision

Chapter 08
Education Leadership Meaning Scope Importance Styles Qualities of
Successful Education Leader

Chapter 09
Motivation Meaning Types Motivational Theories Their Impact on
Educational Management Motivating the employees of Educational Institutions

Chapter 10
Education Communications Types Barriers Methods to Overcome Barriers

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Chapter - 11
Principles of Effective Communication Co-ordination Importance of Co-
ordination in Educational Institutions

Chapter 12
Control Meaning Need Control Process Techniques Evaluation Quality
Assurance Total Quality Management (TOM) - ISO Certification for Education
Institutions Academic Audit

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M.A EDUCATION
FIRST YEAR

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION


CONTENTS

Chapters Titles Pages

I Educational Management
1 to 14
Educational Administration
II 15 to 26
Planning and Administration
III 27 to 35
Educational Planning Process
IV 36 to 53
Organisation
V 54 to 63
Central State Bodies and Delegation -
VI Decentralisation 64 to 78

Direction and Supervision


VII 79 to 90
Education Leadership
VIII 91 to 97

Motivation
IX 98 to 108
Education - Communication
X 109 to 125
Principles of Effective Communication
XI Co-Ordination 126 to 136

Control and Evaluation


XII 137 to 161
M.A. EDUCATION
FIRST YEAR
PAPER I PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
CHAPTER-I
EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

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STRUCTURE
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Meaning of Management.
1.2 Aims and objectives of Educational management
1.3 Characteristics of Education Management.
1.4 Principles and types of Educational Management
1.5 Management as science
1.6. Management as an art
1.7 Management as profession
1.8 Historical legacy educational administration
1.9 Questions
1.10 Suggested Readings

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The term management is used in different contexts differently. As we are
concerned with educational management, it is to be defined as a scientific term.
Interestingly public administration as an independent academic discipline developed
from the discoverers on political theory and practice and management took its blood
from business, economics, education and Psychology. Therefore, the environment
from which these two disciplines that is management and administration developed
are quite different. But both the disciplines are concerned with the same process of
activity and its efficiency. Autocratic administration and Democratic administration
play a vital role in Educational administration. There are different arguments today
about the difference between administration and management in educational
institutions. Some argue that administration is a higher level activity concerned with
policy and therefore it is different from management that concerns with business
enterprises. Some argue that administration is a part of management as it is a total
process of executive control involving planning, guidance, co-ordination and
supervision of an institution. As far as education is concerned, it remained as
administration as long as the provision of education continues to be an important
activity of the state. Once education is left to the vagaries of free market forces,
management of the system as an enterprise became inevitable. Now education,
particularly at the higher levels, is managed by business executives. Therefore
education up to a level is administered and at certain levels it is managed in some
countries. In educational system both management and administration are like two
eyes of an institution. Only with the co-ordination of these eyes we can see the
education world perfectly, accurately as we are seeing the world.

1.1. THE MEANING OF MANAGEMENT


The term management is used in different contexts differently. As we are
concerned with educational management, it is to be defined as a scientific term. The
name of Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) is associated with scientific
management. In fact management was called as Taylorism by some. Taylor, some
people consider gave a death blow to the concept of public administration. But, we
feel that it was historical conditions and the change in the economic structure that
made management idea possible and feasible in the 20 th century and Taylor was only a
facilitator. The Encyclopeadia Britannica defined management as The process of
dealing with or controlling things or people. Scientific management is defined as
management of a business, industry or economy, according to principles of
efficiency derived from experiments in methods of work and production especially
from time-and-motion studies. The concept is now being increasingly used by
practitioners of total quality management, relating it to high standards of work in
every aspect of a companys operations. In fact, management is also used as
administration as far as public activity like education is concerned. Administration is
therefore defined as The process or activity of running a business, organisation, etc.
It is a well known concept that throughout the world management is known through
the educational acronym M.B.A. (Master of Business Administration.) In other
words, the business administrators master management in business schools.
Interestingly public administration as an independent academic discipline developed
from the discourses on political theory and practice, and management took its blood
from business economics and psychology. Therefore, the environment from which
these two disciplines developed are quite different. But both the disciplines are
concerned with the same process of activity and its efficiency. That is the reason why

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some academics stared using the term public management indicating the change in the
context of public administration.

Scope of Educational Management


Education is an important activity which was once considered as a social and
cultural norm. It is now analysed by economists and social scientists as an important
activity necessary for human development. This gives both individual benefits and
social spillovers. Unlike other private or public activity, education is to be considered
separately as an important activity for the end and means of human progress. Further,
several new areas have started coming under the ambit of education. The Education
for All (EFA) declared by UNESCO made several countries to concentrate on
universalizing education. The problems of wastage, stagnation at all levels
particularly at the elementary level has become as serious issue debated in the
legislative bodies. New ideas like adult education, non-formal, open school, distance
education, etc., have emerged as alternative strategies to achieve education for all.

The developments in technology and the globalization of education have


affected the education system. Therefore, the administrator or manager who is
concerned with the effectiveness of his organisation is to look after these
developments. The use of internet, web pages, virtual universities, knowledge
products in the form of CD-ROM and other devices have entered the educational
management. Along these advancements, traditional issues like rural development,
socially and educationally disadvantaged groups, differentially able students etc., keep
on haunting the administrator. In addition to the educational issues, problems of
financing is a serious issue to be tackled by a Manager. The fund for education
particularly higher levels of education from the budgetary sources is drying up. It is
the responsibility of the manager / administrator to think of alternative sources of
funding and developing strategies to raise resources for the sustenance of the
institutions. Apart from the routine administrative problems, new and unimaginable
issues such as student indiscipline, drugs, psychopaths, etc., enter the educational
institutes. The teachers pose a different problem. Apart from their indiscipline and
punctuality, updating of knowledge and using of effective communication techniques
are to be regarded as important for teacher effectiveness is widening over a period of
time. Thus new items are brought under its orbit. The manager must tackle these
problems with innovative ideas and in consultation with experts in the field.

1.2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT


Educational Management is a multifaced activity, it is a social process that is
designed to ensure the co-operation, participation, intervention and involvement of
others in the effective achievement of a given or determined objectives.

Management being a social process. lays its major emphasis on the interaction
of people-people inside and outside the institutions and people above and below ones
operational position. Therefore, the aims and objectives of educational management
have to be understood from the above dimension. Several attempts have been made to
define aims and objectives of educational management in different terms. Broadly the
objectives are
To define the functions of the school. To plan for the future and arrange the
plan of operation. To organize / build up the material and human resources
required for proper running of the school.

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To command the staff both teaching non-teaching to do their work efficiently.
To co-ordinate the functions of various human elements and correlate all the
activities.
To control and to ensure everything is done in accordance with the rules which
have been laid down and the instructions which have been given.
To create environment and facilities for educational research etc.
There have been several attempts over the past few years to redefine
objectives, such as
Creating proper environment for effective utilisation of facilities.
Assembling resources required for organisation and management.
Supervision to ensure proper direction, co-ordination and control.
Motivation to create proper work-atmosphere.
Evaluation which includes performance, assessment and management process.

1.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL EDUCATIONAL


MANAGEMENT
Some of the important successful characteristics of education management are
discussed below:

Flexibility
One of the essential characteristics of successful education management is its
flexibility. The management should be dynamic and provide enough scope for
additions, suggestions and modifications. The rules and regulations should act as a
means to an end and not an end in themselves. Rigid uniformity and mechanical
efficiency are the very antithesis of good administration. Flexibility does not mean
that the administration should be weak without any norms or standards creating chaos
at every step. What is meant is a proper balance between rigidity and elasticity.

Practicability
The education management is not a bundle of theoretical principles, but it
provides practical measures to achieve its desired results:

Practicability avoids frustration in management.

Efficiency
Efficiency is the most important step of education management. This is
possible only when human and material recourses are properly and efficiently utilized.
For this the management should plan every activity scientifically and execute it with
meticulous care.

Cost effective
Another important characteristics of management is cost- effectiveness. The
purpose of administration is to enable the right pupils to receive the right education
from right teachers at a cost within the means of state, under conditions which will
enable the pupils to profit the best by their learning. It is more constructive and
creative and human educational administration which has a special feature of its own.
It is basically more humane, more flexible more constructive, more creative, more
imaginative, and more reformative. It is more an art than a science

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Education management is primarily a social enterprise. It cannot be run by any
set of formulae, which may be quite effective in the physical world. It is more
concerned with the human element than in animate things. It is more an art than a
science in this the question of human relationship and emotional climate are of
importance. The administration is to be guided by the basic principles which have
been formulated from the human experience of handling human beings.

1.4 PRINCIPLES AND TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT


Management, being a social process, lays more emphasis on the interaction of
people-people inside and outside the formal institution and people above and below
ones operational position. Management is the art of guiding the activities of a group
of people towards the achievement of a common goal. It is participatory in nature. In
fact participating management systems determine how best human potential can be
released.

1.4.1. Classification
Based on the above, two types of classification are suggested.

Type A
i) Decenralisation of Management and
ii) Centralisation

Type B
i) Autocratic Education Management
ii) Democratic Educational Management
iii) Laissez Educational Management

Type a
i) Decentralisation
In a democratic country like India Educational Administration is decentralised
with sharing of responsibilities between Centre, State and local bodies: In this system
the advantages are i) local initiative is encouraged ii) encourages participation of
people at different levels iii) c decisions can be taken iv) local problems can be solved
with care and iii a democratic way.

ii) Centralisation
In a centralised administration power flows from top to bottom. This type of
administration however, brings discipline in the cadre and uniformity in rules,
regulations and service conditions. Secondly, plenty of resources will be available at
the centre and hence there will be scope for expansion, extension and
experimentation. However, control and co-ordination become a major problem. Since
it is totally centralised local needs and aspiration will not be reflected in the process of
educational management.

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CONCLUSION
Centralisation and decentralisation systems have got their own merits and
demerits. Centralised system believes in managing its affairs without participation of
shareholders. Here the management system believes in a power over situation and
uses its power, position and authority to get people to do things, whereas democratic
system adopts the power with approach and is assisted by the people who play
together.

Type B
ii) Autocratic Administration
Where an administration behaves in an autocratic manner, such educational
administration is called Autocratic Administration A despotic and autocratic
administration is bound to meet with failure in the present democratic set up where
the teachers are highly conscious of their freedom and personal worth. It is an extreme
form of socialisation. An Autocratic state assumes the highest authority and interest of
individuals are made subservient to that of the state. All aspects of education viz-
curriculum, examination are controlled by the central authority.

ii) Democratic Administration


In this process responsibilities are delegated: It is participation based on the
principle of co-operation, sharing of responsibilities, equality, justice and developing
leadership qualities through stall meetings, clubs and general body meetings resulting
in developing proper work-culture leading to smooth functioning of institution. It
prepares students, citizens and gives them an opportunity to grow to develop to the
optimum.

iii) Laissez-faire system


It is also a system of participatory management. It is a system without an
enlightened and capable leader. All decisions will be taken by the people and the
leader remains as a passive observer. Instead of making the people accept his
decision/influence, he is influenced by them. In this system, the members of the group
find that they are taking orders from the situation rather than from the leader. In this
system no one has power over any one else. The management simply participates in
the deliberations, but does not give the group the benefit of its best thinking.

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Differences between Autocratic and Democratic Administration

Democratic Autocratic
It is based on the principle of It is autocratic and despotic in nature.
co-operation, equality, sharing of
responsibility and justice.
Decision taken on democratic lines Decision taken are implemented by
will be implemented in a democratic officials following the rules &
way through demo- cratic agencies. regulations.
Transparency is maintained in No transparency is maintained. All
planning, monitoring and evaluation, things will be done under strict
secrecy.
Work done by people will be Creativity, innovation of ideas by the
recognised and if necessary rewarded staff will not be encouraged.
Decisions are made as to who will No such facility.
exercise which function at the time
of training.
Management participates in the Any official ruling under such an
discussions, exercises, and gives the approach becomes the final decision.
group the benefit of their best
thinking.
Pupils point of view will be Pupil have to obey the rules.
respected.
Teachers will be participants and Teachers are expected to be obedient,
enjoy power. and passive participants.
Teachers are better motivated and Teachers are considered as staff
considered as organizational members
members to work towards the
achievement of organizational goals.
10. Belongingness, identification, Obedience, faithfulness loyalty will
oneness, feeling of family members be tested.
will be generated.
11. Experimentation, creativity Rigidity, obeying the rule,
innovation, Action research completion of syllabus are followed
encouraged. with no scope for experimentation,
creativity etc.
12. Everybody feels committed and In this, administrator is the leader.
involved in all the programmes of People follow him out of threat or for
the school. appeasement.
13. In democratic administration No such commitment is seen.
individuality is respected and
individual differences are recognised
for their fullest development.
14. In the absence of uniformity and No such provision exists.
standardization, the development
programmes become effective.
15. It is leadership-oriented Standardization and uniformity are
cardinal principles.
1.4.2 Democratic Principles of Educational Administration

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The first principle of democratic administration is decentralization of power
and sharing of experiences. In this philosophy the headmaster should be democratic in
his approach and respect the ideas/suggestions given by the staff and students and
parents who are the shareholders in education. All decisions should be taken in
consultation with the people concerned.

a) Principle of Sharing Responsibility


According to John Dewey, democracy is sharing of experiences. In a school
run on democratic lines, the head of the institution should always adopt the principle
of democracy and delegate his powers, responsibilities and duties among the staff and
students. He should work as a guide, friend, and philosopher and oversee functions of
various personnel and put them on the right track. This kind of plan of action lessens
the work of the head and also relieves him from tensions and workload. Further, the
staff and students will identify with the administration as a result of the process of
showing of responsibility. This is the greatest advantage of democratic administration.

b) Principle of equality
A democratic administrator is one who looks upon his colleagues as his equals
and takes decisions in consultation with his colleagues. Equality refers to recognizing
the worth of each individual child. Teaching staff find out his/her potential and treat
him/her with respect. The total management becomes a joint show of the HM, staff
and students.

b) Principle of freedom
Enough freedom should be given to all to exercise their powers and talents.
The power of analytical thinking, creativity and innovative ideas, important requisites
of democracy, can only be cultivated by stakeholders in an atmosphere of freedom.
The headmaster should give due recognition to innate talents on the part of the
teachers and students and encourage them to offer suggestions/comments to bring
about healthy changes.

c) Principle of leadership
Leadership is not confined to the head of the Institution only. In a way the
headmaster leads his school. For providing wise leadership, he must have the
leadership qualities. Wherever he cannot lead, he will allow others to lead. In this ay
the administration runs smoothly and effectively.

d) Principle of justice
In a democratic set up all individuals should be treated on equal footing. There
is no partiality. The head should be totally impartial to everybody. It the head follows
the principle of justice most of the problems of school are automatically solved.

i) Principle of recognition
W.M. Ryburn says that nothing will more encourage a man or a woman, a boy
or a girl to a greater than an encouraging recognition of good work done, of sincere
effort made, of good qualities shown, H.M should therefore appreciate the good work
done by the staff and students.

g) Principle of co-operation

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Yet another principle of democratic administration is the principle of
co-operation. The head of the institution should seek co operation of everybody in
running the school. He should understand that running the school is not a one-man
job. It requires the co operation of all concerned.

h) Principle of flexibility
The school administrator should not be rigid, he should be flexible in his
approach so as to accommodate day to day changes in the administration of the
school. In the interest of the school, pupils and teachers, the head should reconsider
his decision and plan for smooth running of the institution.

i) Principle of professional growth of staff


Efficiency of a school depends upon efficient staff. Efficiency of the staff
depends upon their quest for professional growth. Therefore, the teachers must keep
themselves abreast of latest development in content and pedagogy by attending in-
service training programmes/orientation program arranged by the department. This
will add to the quality of the teaching staff. As head of the school, the headmaster
should make efforts to promote professional growth of teachers.

The above principles of democratic administration/management will help in


running the school efficiently. Democracy can only become real through its
educational institution, which will teach its children the democratic way of life.

Practical Measures for Democratic School Management


Today, a very large number of educational institutions in India run on the
principles of democratic administration, Democracy in schools has survived in India
because of the comforts of equality, social justice, freedom of expression,
Co-operation, accountability and flexibility it provides to the students, parents and
teachers. Educational managers are its fans and therefore are experimenting different
democratic approaches in their schools. Some of the basic approaches which are being
followed in majority of the schools are discussed below.

Staff Council
The basic objective of staff council meeting is to plan, monitor and execute
institutional plan of the school. Meetings of the staff council are being held frequently
to discuss all-important issues relating to school. In the staff council meetings
students day-to-day problems, academic planning, administrative problems, school
welfare programmes, community and parent support, school supervision and
inspection and all other related issues should be discussed and decisions should be
taken collectively. Staff council is one of the practical measures to solve the problem
of the school in a democratic way.

Students Council
This is the most important measure in the democratic administration of school.
The main objective of student council is providing opportunities for students to
participate effectively in the school government. It is a forum for students to express
their views, and feelings without fear in the interest of the organization. By practising
this measure students get an opportunity to govern themselves under the guidance of
their staff members.

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Staff Meetings
Staff council includes senior member of the staff whereas staff meeting is a
broader forum, which includes all the staff members. Normally all matters pertaining
to school i.e. Institutional plan. examination schedules, co-curricular activities,
indiscipline of students etc will be discussed in the staff meeting. Staff meeting is the
best forum to make staff feel that the school belongs to them and they are running the
school. Each teacher should get the feeling that I have been consulted. This is my job
now and I must do it and do it well

Special Committee of Pupils


In addition to students council, special committees should be constituted duly
nominated/elected by the pupils, to carry out special functions such as operation of
special fee funds, celebration of festivals. Celebration of school day and other
important days, debates, dramatics and other kind of extra curricular activities.

Conclusion
Thus the school should provide a richly varied pattern of activities to cater to
the development of childrens entire personality. It is the reason why all those
activities carry the name Practical measures to develop democratic administration,
have now come to be recognized as an integral part of schools democratic
programme.

1.5. MANAGEMENT AS SCIENCE


The word science literally means knowledge. Science is a systematised body
of knowledge pertaining to a particular field of enquiry. Such knowledge contains
concepts, hypotheses, theories, experimentation and principles. Any subject which is
scientifically developed and consists of universally accepted principles is a science.
To be called a science, the subject should have the following characteristics : -

I. It is a systematised body of knowledge.


II. The principles are evolved on the basis of continued observation.
III. The principles are exact and have universal application.
IV. The principles establish a cause and effect relationship.
V. The principles can be verified and provide a basis for future production.

Let us apply these features of science to management for determining whether


it qualifies as science or not.

(i) Systematised Body of Knowledge - Management is a systematised body


of knowledge built by management thinkers and practitioners. It has developed certain
principles over a period of time. F.W. Taylor applied scientific techniques to studies of
planning, organising, staffing, motivating, etc.

(ii) Continuous Observation - The principles of management have been


developed after prolonged observations in various organisations. So knowledge of
management is based on time tested and sound principles.

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(iii) Universal Application - The principles of management are universally
applied like the principles of physics and chemistry. The principles like unity of
command, division of labour, etc. are used by every organisation and at every place.

(iv) Cause and Effect Relationship - Like principles of science, management


principles also establish cause-effect relationship between different factors. A poor
planning and plant layout will result in low productivity.

(v) Predictions - With the application of principles, one should he able to


make future predictions of events with certainty. The predictions of management
science are not as exact and definite as in the case of natural sciences.

Management as Inexact Science


There are no two opinions that management has a systematised body of
knowledge relating to its field. But it is not as exact a science as other physical
sciences like Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy, etc. The main reason for this is that
management deals with people and it is very difficult to predict their behaviour
accurately under different situations and at different times. Thus we can say that
management is inexact science or behavioral science and it belongs to a group of
social sciences like sociology and political science.

1.6. MANAGEMENT AS AN ART


An art is often regarded as the systematic application of skill or knowledge in
accomplishing the desired task. If a science is learnt, an art is practised. It may also be
said that science is to seek knowledge and art is to apply knowledge. An art has the
following essential features :-
(i) Personal skill
(ii) Practical knowledge
(iii) Result oriented approach
(iv) Regular practice
(v) Creativity

Let us apply these features to management for determining whether it is art or


not.

i. Personal Skill
Management is an art as one has to use his personal skill and knowledge in
solving complicated managerial problems. It is an art of dealing with people. The
personal skill of managing differs from person to person.

ii. Practical Knowledge


Art is concerned with application of knowledge. Management is concerned
with achieving of organisational targets of profits, sales, etc. Managers put their
knowledge into practical use and attempt to achieve business goals. A person cannot
be called a manager if he does not make use of various principles of management.
iii. Result - Oriented Approach
Management is concerned with accomplishment of objectives. It ensures that
every type of work is completed in time so that targets are reached. Management aims
at earning a fair return on investment, reaching maximum productivity at lowest cost,
etc.

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iv. Regular Practice
Like an artist, a manager always tries to attain higher goals in order to reach
perfection. A manager uses managerial practices regularly so as to achieve a higher
level of performance. Only the regular use of managerial principles will help a
manager to bring perfection to his acts.

v. Creativity
Management is the most creative art. One has to find newer ways of
motivating people in the organisation. A manager tries to find better ways of getting
things done. So creativity in thinking and practices are essential elements of
management.

Management - Art as Well as Science


It has been seen in the above discussion that management is both an art as well
as science. It may not be proper to term it as pure science or pure art. Since science
and art are complimentary to each other, so management has elements of both. The
science will have to solve problems and establish principles which might be applied
with the help of art. Management principles have been established after observations
and experimentation. These principles help managers in tackling their problems.
Managerial principles are applied as per the requirements of various situations. So
management is a combination of both science and art.

1.7. MANAGEMENT AS A PROFESSION


A profession may be defined as an occupation backed by specialized
knowledge and training and to which entry is regulated by a representative body. The
aim of professional knowledge is to provide specialised service or advice and a
specified fees is charged for it. A profession has the following essential requirements
I. Specialised knowledge
II. Formal education and training
III. Professional association
IV. Code of conduct
V. Service motive
Let us examine whether management is a profession as per the criterion given
above or not

i. Specialised Knowledge Management


It has an organised body of knowledge built by management thinkers and
practitioners over a period of time. It has developed its own principles, concepts,
theories which have their application in different fields of business. Now we have a
systematic body of knowledge that can be used for the development of managers.
Many universities and institutes teach management as a separate discipline.

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ii. Formal Education and Training
In the present competitive world the application of management knowledge
has become indispensable. It is essential that managers acquire formal management
education and training for the proper application of managerial principles. Many
institutions all over the world including India, are imparting management education
and training.

iii. Professional Association


For the regulation of any profession, there should be a representative body.
This body lays down the standards of education and training for those entering that
profession. In India, Indian Institute of Chartered Accounts regulates the entry into
this profession. The organisations such as Indian Management Association and All
India Management Development Association have been set up in India. But these
bodies co-ordinate research work rather than setting educational standards and
regulating entry into managerial profession.

iv. Code of Conduct


Members of a profession have to abide by a code of conduct. A code of
conduct provides rules and regulations, norms of honesty, integrity and professional
morality. In management there is no code of conduct for managers except that they
have responsibilities towards various interest groups like employees, investors,
consumers, etc.

v. Service Motive
A profession involves the application of expert knowledge for the service of
society. A doctor earns his living out of his profession of medicine but service to the
society is upper most in his mind. Management aims at providing maximum
efficiency at the lowest cost so as to serve the interests of employers, consumers,
society and the nation at large.

The above discussion shows that management in some respects looks like a
profession but it does not have certain features which constitute a recognised
profession. It has an organised body of specialised knowledge and have developed
facilities for formal education and training. It still does not have a body which should
regulate the entry into management profession and also there is a lack of code of
conduct for its members. At the moment management cannot be called a profession
but there is no doubt that it is emerging as a profession.

1.8. HISTORICAL - LEGACY EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION


The educational administration in the form of an organisation dates back to the
original forms of military structures. It is said that the present day staff organisation is
in some way similar to the system established by Philip more than 2000 years ago. In
the middle ages feudal lords, maintained armies and other formal institutions with
offices along with principal staff officer, sergeant-major, etc. The line-and-staff
concept in administration is thus brought from military signifying command, control
and direction to line, and subsidiary, advisory, etc. activities staff. Later with the
advent of reformation and renaissance movements in Europe rational organisation
theories developed. One important model that became popular and is still in use is that
of Webers (1864-1920) bureaucratic model. Though the original term bureaucracy
was coined by a French Economist Vincent De Gourney in 1745, it is popularized by

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the German sociologist Max Weber. He suggested that rationality in human behaviour
was most desirable and bureaucracy offered the best means of achieving such
rationality In organized affairs. After a careful examination of the relationship
between power and authority, Weber attributed authority to bureaucracy. After all
bureaucracy is a type of organisation designed to fulfil large scale administrative tasks
by rationally recruited competent people. Here bureaucracy will have authority which
is based on legitimacy and follow certain rules and regulations. Therefore,
bureaucracy upon which public administration relies heavily today developed certain
attributes like division of-labour in the tasks, hierarchy of arrangement in offices,
fixed set of rules generally in written form, maintenance of records containing
administrative acts and rulings, the officials are not influenced by groups and remain
neutral and functional specialization in the form of ability to perform particular tasks.
In fact educational administration is totally influenced by Webers theory of
bureaucracy for a long time. Now it is being influenced by ideas of scientific
management.

1.9. QUESTIONS
I Very short answer Questions ( 1 Mark)
1. Write the meaning of Management
2. Write any four objectives of Educational Management
3. What are the types of Educational Management
4. What do you mean by centralization
5. What is Laissez faire system

II Short answer Questions ( 6 Marks)


6. Write the Advantages of Decentralisation
7. What about the principle of equality
8. What are the characteristics of science to be applied for management
9. How will you say that management is an Art?
10. Write the importance of students council in the democratic Administration
of school

III Long Answer Questions (15 marks)


11. Tabulate the difference between Autocratic and democratic Administration.
12. Write the essential requirements to accept management as a profession

1.10. SUGGESTED READINGS


1. Introduction to educational management and administration-K.S.Chalam.
2. Educational administration theory and practice-John In Wankwo.

18
CHAPTER-II
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

STRUCTURE
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Administration Vs Management
2.2 Classification of educational administration
2.3 Characteristics of educational administration
2.4 Types of educational administration
2.5 Aims and objectives of educational administration
2.6 Functions of educational administration
2.7 Difference between administration and supervision
2.8 Questions
2.9 Suggested readings

19
2.0. INTRODUCTION
In this second chapter, Historical Legacy of educational Administration,
Administration Vs Management, Education and Educational Administration, are
discussed in detail Classification of educational Administration, Characteristics, scope
and Types of Educational Administrations are Explained Features of educational
administration and Functions of educational administrations are also described in this
chapter.

2.1. ADMINISTRATION VS MANAGEMENT


There are different arguments today about the difference between
administration and management. Some argue that administration is a higher level
activity concerned with policy and therefore different from management that concerns
about business enterprises. Some argue that - administration is a part of management
as it is a total process of executive control involving planning, guidance, coordination
and supervision of an enterprise. Modem writers and thinkers consider that
administration and management are used interchangeably as they involve the same
activity for a group of people to achieve some common good. As far as education is
concerned, it remained as administration as long as the-provision of education
continues to be an important activity of the state. Once, education is left to the
vagaries of free market forces, management of the system as an enterprise became
inevitable. Now education, particularly at the higher levels of it, is managed by
business executives. But there are still countries even in the free market economies
where elementary education is under the control of the State. Therefore, education
upto a level is administered and at certain levels it is managed in some countries.
Since education is considered as an important economic activity both by the
government and the people, it is to be systematically managed to improve, its internal
and external efficiency.

Relationship between education and educational administration


Educational administration is the dynamic side of education and deals with the
educational practices. Educational administration must be directed towards the
fulfilment of the objectives of education as set forth by the society Traditional
educational administrative systems were designed primarily to serve as caretaker,
regulatory and supervisory role in an era when education and the world outside were
moving slowly by todays pace and when the size and diversity of educational tasks
were much smaller.

Meaning of Educational Administration


Society establishes various institutions or organisations so as to carry on its
multifarious activities, such as government, industry, trade, defence, education, etc.
By administration we mean the machinery and procedure through which an
organisation in different situations is managed Thus, we can say that administration is
a comprehensive effort to direct, guide and integrate associating human strivings
which are focussed towards some specific end or aim. Educational administration
deals with the educational practices. It is the dynamic side of education, it deals with
educational institutions from the schools and colleges to the secretariat in a
comprehensive effort to achieve some specific educational objectives. It is concerned
with both human and material resources. The human elements in educational
administration include (i) teachers, (ii) parents, (iii) children, and (iv) other employees
in general. On the material side there are (i) buildings and grounds, (ii) money, (iii)

20
equipment and instructional supplies. Beyond these two elements are ideas, laws and
regulations, community needs, and so on. All of these have a bearing on the
educational process. The integration of these element into a whole is educational
administration.

Definitions of Educational Administration


The following are the important definitions of educational administration:
1. Educational administration approaches statesmanship when there are
clearly formulated long term policies and objectives, and when day activities
and problems are dealt with under the guidance of the perspective that is given
by such long-term policies.
- Grays on Kefauver
2. Educational administration is to enable the right pupils to receive the
right education from the right teachers, at a cost within the means of the state
under conditions which will enable the pupils to fit by their training.
- Graham Balfour
3. Educational administration is the influencing of one group of human
beings, the pupils, to grow towards defined objectives. Utilising a second
group of human beings, the teachers as agents; and operating in a setting of a
third group of public, variously concerned both with objective and with means
used to achieve them.
- Paul R. Mort

2.2. CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION


1. Autocratic Educational Administration:
Educational administration based oh this theory considers the sate as the all
inclusive social category. Ross makes the following observation It sees education as
the most powerful means of achieving its end and therefore enforces a rigid system of
education with no loose ends. It is supreme to dictate what shall be taught and how it
shall be taught. In curriculum and methods, the watchwords are always discipline,
organisation, a willing acceptance of authority, a damping down of individuality. The
totalitarian educational administration emphasizes the concepts and principles which
are as follows

(a) Contralised authority


(b) Willing acceptance of authority
(c) Rigid conformity to rules and regulations
(d) Crushing down of individuality

2. Democratic Educational Administration


Kilpatrick explains the purpose of democratic educational organisation in
these words: Everything connected with the whole school system centres on this one-
thing, the educative development of the pupils. For that the budget exists; for that
everything is done that is properly done; for that the superintendent receives his
salary, a large salary than others get, because, it is believed-this differential best
proves to promote the purpose for which he is paid, namely, to advance the better
education of the young. John Dewey states, Democracy is more than a form of a
government. It is primarily a mode of associated living, of conjoint communicated
experiences. The democratic theory of educational, administration strikes at a

21
harmonious balance between the extremities of centralised and decentralised types of
educational administration. Basic principles of Democratic Educational
Administration are : (a) Principle of respect for the dignity of man; (b) Principle of
Equalitarianism; (c) Principle of freedom; and (d) Principle of sharing responsibility.
This theory has led to three types of educational authorities :

(a) The Public - The Federal Government and the State Governments
(b) The Quasi - Public - The Universities and the local bodies.
(c) The Private - Institution organised by (i) Educational Trusts,
(ii) Philanthropists and (iii) Missionaries, etc.

2.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION


The chief characteristics of educational administration are as follows:
1. Educational administration is an integrated process.
2. Educational administration is a human process.
3. The nature of educational administration is functional and controlled.
4. The form of educational administration is in both centralisation and
decentralisation
5. The form of educational administration is always dynamic.
6. The objective of the nature of educational administration is to bring about
improvement in the working of the school.
7. The role of educational administration dependents on utility.
8. Much importance is given to practicability in educational administration
9. The objective of educational administration is to bring about professional
development in the educational workers.
10. Educational administration seeks cooperation of all the concerned personnel in
determination of policy and programmes.
Now we shall discuss these points in a little detail

1. Educational Administration is an Integrated Process:


Most of the scholars have clarified and emphasised that the fundamental
elements in the nature of educational administration are planning, organisation,
synthesis, control, evaluation, etc. These elements work in tandem as being dependent
on one another. It follows that educational administration functions as an integrated
process.

2. Educational Administration is a Human Process:


Educational administration is a human process which is influenced by several
elements such as social, political, philosophical, psychological, and other aspects.
This fact is taken to be true by all scholars that the formation of the nature of
educational administration is effected by its human elements in which the
fundamental elements are taken accordingly.

3. The Nature of Educational Administration is Functional and Controlled:


It has become amply clear that the nature of work under educational
administration is functional and controlled rather than being mechanical and
automatic.
4. The Form of Educational Administration is in Both Centralisation and
Decentralisation:

22
It is universally accepted that the nature of educational administration is found
in both centralisation and decentralisation. For example, there exists centralised
administration in France while in America, there is decentralisation in it, though both
of them work on democratic lines

5. The Form of Educational Administration is always dynamic:


It is also clear that the formation of the nature of educational administration is
dependent on the social, economical and political situation of the country. Besides,
with the change in these elements, there also occurs change in the educational
administration. Thus, its nature is dynamic and changeable.

6. The Objective of the Nature of Educational Administration is to Bring about


Improvement in the Working of the School:
Educational administration works to bring improvement in the functions of the
teachers, students and other workers in a school. Besides, improve is brought about in
the related methods, policies, decorum, etc.

7. The Role of Educational Administration is Dependent Utility:


Education is a social process it is made more useful and important by
educational administration so that the society can progress toward prosperity and
development.

8. Much Importance is given to Practicability in Educational Administration:


The functions based on educational administration should be practicable and
not merely theoretical the objectives of the school its policies, functions, rules, etc.
should be according to the humanistic and social conditions so that they prove useful
for Society at large.

9. The Objective of Educational Administration is to Bring about Professional


Development in the Educational Workers:
Educational administration helps bring about proficiency in the working of all
workers concerned with education. Providing them with all kinds of facilities for their
professional excellence is the function of the educational administration.

10. Educational Administration Seeks Co-operation of All Concerned Personnel


in Determination of Policy and Programmes:
Educational administration should work as a tool to seek cooperation of all
personnel in execution of educational policies and programmes. It helps to develop
democratic working in the administration and educational arrangements and teaching
becomes progressive and effective.

Scope of educational administration


The scope of general administration can be defined under five headings viz.,
Production Assuring Public Use, Finance and Accounting Personnel and Coordination
Thus, the following is the Scope of educational administration:

23
1. Production:
It means realisation of the goals of education must be set up by the society.
Educational administration has, therefore, to Interpret the aims of education to the
educational workers such that they may shape the final product of education in the
desired form and shape..

2. Assuring Public Use:


It means that the product of the organisation its goals and services are
produced, that they become acceptable to the public for its use and benefit.

3. Finance and Accounting:


Educational administration is also concerned with receiving and spending
money necessary for the operation and activities of the educational machinery with
proper maintenance of records.

4. Person
Personnel are especially important for the educational enterprise where the
whole work is centred round the impact of one type of human beings, the teachers,
upon another type of human beings, and the students. The scope of educational
administration, therefore, spreads over the personnel.

5. Coordination:
Ensures the close inter-relations and integration of different functional
activities of the organization such as personnel, finance and, production of desired
results for integration and realisation of the desired goals.

Jesse B. Sears in his book The Nature of the Administration Process, has
pointed out the scope of educational administration more specifically as follows :

1. Establishing educational purposes.


2. Provision and development of the personnel, finances, housing, materials and
facilities.
3. Laying down procedures and techniques.
4. Defining the nature and procedure of use of authority.
5. Deciding about the nature of aims and procedures.
6. Deciding about the mechanism.

Scope of Aspects
1. Legal Structure
It refers to the law, rules and regulations to be framed in order to determine the
agencies of education, their types, powers and standards of educational institutions to
be run by them, and to decide the question of decentralisation of management and to
set up organisational and administrative machinery.

2. Pupils
Pupils are focal point of the educational enterprise. It is for them that the entire
process of education and its constituents exist. Rules of their admission, promotion,
discipline, etc. have to be framed and implemented. It is therefore, necessary to

24
determine the individual and social purposes and procedures in accordance with their
needs, interests and capacities and the demands of society.

3. Personnel
Manpower plays the key role of education and proper attention has to be paid
to them. Good service conditions, attractive salaries, security of tenure, welfare,
service and retirement benefits have to be offered to bring in the best available talent.
Schemes for their direction, guidance and supervision have to be drawn up. They have
to be selected recruited trained and their qualification and Standards have to be
prescribed

4. Finance
It includes income and expenditure and their accounting and auditing. Rules
and auditing have to be framed or budgeting spending and controlling of funds and
resources. Decisions have to be taken about sharing of the cost of education among
the centre, the States and the Local Bodies. The policy of taxation and prescribing
fees; etc. has to be formulated

5. Curriculum
Administration has to pay close attention to, teaching-learning programme and
process and to matters of preparation, selection and supply of textbooks and other
instructional material Educational administration has to deal with curriculum
construction and its day-to-day development. It also has to look after the continuo
evaluation and progressive improvement of the educational programme which are
urgently called for in view of the constantly and rapidly occurring scientific,
technological and social changes.

6. Physical Facilities
Important services, of pupil such as health and recreation and psychological
services to testing and records, guidance and counselling and co-curricular activities,
etc. have to be organised and administered for the benefit of the young. It comprises
of the area dealing with the problem of provision and maintenance of the school plant,
equipment and Supplies, their production, purchase upkeep accounting, etc.

7. Public Relations
Educational administration should maintain effective public relations. It
involves maintenance of records, issuing periodical reports, information and bulletins
about past achievement and future proposals. Administration should encourage
community visitation and secure its participation and cooperation by a process of give
and take.

2.4. TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION


Educational administration can be classified into two types
(a) External Administration and
(b) Internal Administration

1. External Administration
In India the framework of rules besides Prescribing the curriculum and
textbooks, scales of salaries of various categories of the staff, terms and conditions of
their service, code of conduct, tuition fees for various classes, fixation of the duration

25
of the school session and determination of financial aid and regulation other matters
for the welfare of the staff and students, flow from the Education Department of the
government. The schools have to teach the material as prescribed or recommended for
different classes by the Education Department. Under such a system, the teachers,
administrators and educationists function in a team spirit. This hinders the teachers
initiative. The best form of administration system therefore is that in which the
teachers effectively participate in the affairs of the schools. Only as a result of the
corporate functioning of all these can the objectives be attained for which the
particular institution is started.

2. Internal Administration
It is necessary that the heads of schools are given an opportunity to have their
say in educational matters. If they are not granted the freedom in dealing with these
matters, they would not be able to make use of their initiative and would only be
following the line dictated by higher authorities. The internal educational
administration means the system under which the headmaster of a school manages
and directs the day-to-day programmes and activities with the help of his colleagues
and students in accordance with the general rules and regulations laid down by the
Education Department. A democratic outlook should be brought to bear on the
internal management of the school so that not only educationists, administrators and
teachers but also the students be held equally accountable for the administration of the
school if balanced coordination is to be established between their activities and
functions. Therefore, when India has chosen the path of democracy, it becomes
desirable that the schools should be allowed some autonomy with regard to the
selection of textbooks and teaching methods.

2.5. AIMS AND OBJECTIVE OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION


Story of mankind is the story of its development. Man develops new ideas,
tries them out and rejects or modifies them in the light of his experiences. Therefore,
aims and objectives keep changing and they are influenced, by age, time and
prevailing conditions, in the words of P.C. Wren, School administration which does
not facilitate education is a parasite and a debauchery of public funds. School
administration, therefore, exists only for the people and its efficiency must be
measured by the extent to which it contributes to teaching and learning. The aims
and objectives also vary from place to place, from time to time and from society to
society. But they always serve the purpose of upliftment, growth and of the existing
system of education. The following are some of the aims and objectives of
educational administration:

1. Good of education.
2. Providing high chairs to the best fitted persons.
3. Providing proper facilities, freedom and encouragement to the meritorious
teachers.
4. Integration of school administration.
5. Understanding mass psychology
6. Encouragement of direct democracy in schools.
7. Justice.
8. Implementing the educational plans in an efficient and effective manner.
9. Persons in the key posts as educational administrators.
10. Expansion of education.

26
It should be pertinent to elaborate on these points in a little detail that warrant
their significance:

1. Good of Education
Educational administration, should aim at the good of education. Graham
Balfour has stated very aptly, The purpose of educational administration is to enable
the right education from the right teachers, at a cost within the means of the it which
will enable students to profit by their learning, Kandel wines, says Fundamentally
the purpose of educational administration pupils and teachers under such conditions
as will more successfully promote the end of education.

2. Providing High Chairs to the Best Fitted Persons


Educational administration in the emerging Indian society should aim at
providing high positions on the basis of merit and fitness. People think it fit to appoint
IAS officers as directors in the college of education. But it is a fact of experience that
civil servants moving from one department to another, cannot have the emotional
commitment to education or that deep understanding of the problems and needs and
classroom situations, which would come naturally to a teacher or an educationist. In
school administration, be it a Director, Inspector of Schools, or Headmaster, must
essentially be a teacher.

It is seen that biological seniority brings to high positions the old- timers and
not those best fitted brilliant younger staff, capable of doing great things for the
reconstruction of education. Some old- timers are exhausted men and women, whose
main business would be met and satisfied with the pension case finalisation and
post- retirement benefits.

3. Providing Proper Facilities, Freedom and Encouragement to the Meritorious


Teachers
It should not treat the teachers like clerks or another limbs of administration. It
should accord special consideration and status to them. The teacher as a builder and
creator has to be allowed a lot of freedom of action. An educational administrator
should learn to accept the brilliance of a junior teacher. The educational authority
should enlist the cooperation of the teacher community. The administrative a should
realise that every teacher wants to express his opinion on the policy and problems of
the school he serves and is frustrated, when he is unable to do so As a result of this,
teacher may be provided with proper facilities, freedom and encouragement to work
for the progress of better education, and must behave as the first among equals. His
duty should be to promote initiative, positive activities, great virtues and research
which bring great credit to him.

4. Integration of School Administration


Integration is the demand of school administration. The administrative
officers, staff, students and other employees in the field of education, should learn to
work for the common good. There should not be any division among them.
Democratic administration believes, above all things, in the capacity of each
individual to share and participate effectively in all policies and activities that concern
him.

27
5. Understanding Mass Psychology
A Director of Education or an Inspector of Schools or a Headmaster must
frequently meet the young students to get a feel about of their changing moods, needs,
emotions and fancies. No officer can rule the young on the strength of power alone.
He has to set right things by correcting emotional in balances by understanding their
psychology. The authorities of school administration must understand mass
psychology of students and teachers, and provide them necessary leadership.

6. Encouragement of Direct Democracy in Schools


Direct Democracy should be encouraged in school administration. Important
matters should be decided in the presence of the staff and students, and not by the
headmaster alone. The headmaster of a school should deal with each aggrieved
student or aggrieved party directly, and not through any other agency.

7. Justice
A teacher, being an intellectual worker, can work better, if he feels satisfied
with the way he is being administered. Unless he gets the peace of mind, he cannot
teach in the class. Educational administrator should aim at giving justice to the
teachers in respect of recruitment, promotion and transfer. For this, he must frame fair
and just rules to guide him and put a stop to any favouritism and bias. Effective
teaching can be stimulated by right method of recruitment based on worth and merit,
uniform rules of transfer and promotion for every teacher, as it creates an atmosphere
of peace and satisfaction.

8. Implementing the Educational Plans in an Efficient and Effective Manner


Planning is a significant management technique. Educational administration
can achieve all the goals of education fully and comprehensively by preparing ideal
plans.

9. Persons in the Key posts as Educational Administrators


The educational administrators, such as Education officers, whose single
major objective is to improve upon what is being done in the classroom, should look
to the following factors to perform the task Of education efficiently:

(a) Along with conservation, facilities must be provided to generate new


ideas among the teachers.
(b) Encourage teachers to use improved teaching methods and make teaching
effective.
(c) Develop the morale of teachers.
(d) Encourage better understanding and inter-personal relations amongst
students and teachers.
(e) Provide proper guidelines to teachers.
(f) Secure active cooperation of the department of education.
(g) Recruitment on the basis of merit.
(h) Proper supervision to stimulate, coordinate and guide the continued
growth of the teachers in school, both individually and collectively.
(i) Encourage better understanding and inter-personal relations amongst
students.
(j) Encourage teachers to make teaching interesting and lively.
(k) Encourage students to improving their learning standards.

28
(l) Secure active cooperation of the community.
(m) Motivate students for more and better organised efforts.
(n) Motivate teachers to get involved in the progress of students.
(o) Encourage innovation and experimentation with new ideas.
(p) Provision of pre-service and in-service training facilities for the teachers.

10. Expansion of Education


The target of universalisation of education has not yet been realised. It is one
of the important objectives of administration to see that expansion takes place
according to targets. The selection of places for opening of new schools should be
done keeping in view the academic considerations only.

2.6. FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION


Educational administration is the process through which the functions of the
school are discharged and service rendered to the school and society in the task of
achieving the educational goals by coordinating the efforts of the people engaged in
the task. Educational administration has, therefore, to perform some definite
functions.

2.7. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION


The two concepts of administration and supervision are somewhat new to the
field of educational administration The role of education in an educational institution
is to administer the classes, building, playground, library, laboratory, etc., but the
purpose of. Supervision is different from it. According to Twillian T. Melechior,
Administration of school begins with getting the citizens to providing building and
grounds, continues through maintenance, securing teachers and supplies and
providing general oversight of the situation in which teacher and pupil are together in
a classroom. Supervision of institution begins with the teacher at work in the
classroom; it ends with reports parents and with interview.

P. Adams and Frank G. Dickey


Adams and Frank G. Dickey have written in their book Basic Principles of
Supervision as Supervision is a service particularly concerned with institution and its
improvement. It is directly concerned with teacher and learning and with the factors
included in and related to these processes-the teacher, the pupil, the curriculum, the
material of instruction, the socio-physical environment of the situation.

P. Adams
Adams has clarified the difference between educational administration and
supervision in the following words Administrative functions are concerned primarily
with the material facilities and the operation of the schools. Supervisory functions are
concerned with improving the learning situation.

The difference between administration and supervision can be enumerated in


the following words
1. The function of education is to make provision of material facilities in an
institution, while the attention of supervision is concentrated on facilitating
means of progress of educational process.

29
2. The chief function of education is integrated in the operation of institution,
while supervision takes care of the progress of the teachers running the
institution.
3. The responsibility of construction of institution- library, laboratory, etc. lies
with the administration; while supervision is directly concerned with the
teaching work to be carried out in the institution.
4. Division of time into periods, sending teachers to the classes as may be
needed, determination of time for co-curricular and extra curricular
activities are decided by the administration; while supervision strives to
bring progress to all elements in the process of teaching, such as pupils,
teachers, teaching aids, etc.

2.8. QUESTIONS
I Very Short answer Question (1 Marks)
1. What are the types in Educational Administration
2. Which is an integrated process in education system?
3. Define educational administration
4. What is the relationship between education and educational Administration?
5. What is meant by Legal structure: in educational Administration?

II Short Answer Questions ( 6 Mark)


6. Write characteristics of Educational Administration
7. Write the scope of Educational Administration
8. Write the role of External Administration in Educational System
9. What are the Aims and objectives of Educational Administration
10. Write the difference between Educational Administration and Supervision.

III Long Answer Questions (15 Marks)


11. What are the factors to be performed by the persons in the key posts as
Educational Administrators?

2.9. SUGGESTED READINGS


1. Introduction to educational management and administration-
K.S. Chalam
2. Educational theory and practice-John In Wankur

30
CHAPTER-III
PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION

STRUCTURE
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Features of Educational Administration in a Democratic State
3.2 Factors influencing Educational Administration
3.3 Environmental Factors Affecting Educational Administration
3.4 Theories of Educational Administration
3.5 Principle of Democratic Educational Administration
3.6 Distinction between Educational Administration and Educational
Management
3.7 Questions
3.8 Suggested readings

31
3.0. INTRODUCTION
This third chapter deals with supervision, theories of educational
administrations, Features of educational administration in a democratic state.
Difference between educational administration and educational Management are also
given in detail.

3.1. FEATURES OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN A


DEMOCRATIC STATE
It is a truism to say that men and communities thrive best in an atmosphere of
freedom. If a system imposes a rigid uniformity of ideas and practices, it commits a
crime against the law of God and the spirit of man. The social philosophy which
underscores most of the philosophies of education is neither fascism nor communism
but democracy. Democracy is considered to be system of government and a way of
life which offers greater scope than any other system for the development of human
personality and the varied talents which nature has given to individuals and groups.

Without proper knowledge and training it would be almost impossible to


achieve the aspiration to self-rule. Therefore, education should be so oriented in its
ideology, methods and organisation, that it will develop the basic qualities of
character, which are very much essential for the successful functioning of the
democratic life. The central point of the democratic philosophy of education can be
best understood from its etyma derivation Demos, which means the people and power.
Thus the combination of these two Greek words means rule by the people. If people
are to rule themselves they must educate themselves for the task.

In a totalitarian system of government the state becomes the end and


individuals the means. Liberty under such a system is not to provide the means for
individual self-realisation and self- expression, but rather for self-sacrifice for the
interest of the state. The aim of education in a totalitarian pattern is not to equalize
educational opportunities. It rather increases the social distance to the privileged few
from the masses. Democratic philosophy of education, on the other hand, is not only
to adapt education to democracy, but to make democracy itself safe for education.

3.2. FACTORS INFLUENCING EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION


Educational administration of a country is influenced by educational
philosophy, social system and form of the government. In our country education is a
state subject. The administration behaviours or factors are of two types
(A) Personal factors, and
(B) Environmental factors.

(A) Personal Factors Affecting Educational Administration


The personal factors determine the administrative behaviour of the
administrator, teachers, staff, students, institution and organisation. The administrator
is the nerve centre of educational administration, others are dependent factors The
following are the personal factors operating in educational administration.
1. Attitude of the workers towards educational changes and innovations should
be positive.
2. Assigning the duties according to the abilities of the workers and teachers.

32
3. Administrative ability includes the activities of perception or observation,
vitality, motivation or encouraging workers, emotional stability, following the
rules and social qualities of responsibility
4. Attitude, values, habits include perception and beliefs of administration and
other workers.
5. Cooperation is essential for functioning. It requires group decision about the
problems and activities.
6. Assigning the duties according to the abilities of the workers and teachers.
7. Diagnosing abilities is also essential to diagnose the cause of problems of
educational administration so that remedial action can be taken.
8. Educational objective has the important role of designing the programmes for
an institution,
9. Objectives of administration influence the organising, directing and
controlling of activities.
10. Interference of authority by the state and centre influences the educational
administration.
11. Physical and intellectual abilities should be considered in assigning
responsibilities and accountabilities of various personnel associated with it.

3.3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING ADMINISTRATION


Administration
The educational institutions are organised according to social environment and
social conditions. The institutional environmental factors include social, economic,
political and other forces: These are as under

1. Nature of Community
It include (i) Nature of community, (ii) Impact of other communities,
(iii) Complexity of the community, (iv) Power conflicts in the communities
(v) Standard of families, (vi) Characteristics, of community.

2. Nature of State
It has the direct control and influence on educational administration in a
democratic state, the nature of educational administration is a decentralised system. It
includes the following factors (i) Statutory provision of education,
(ii) Government functioning, (iii) Financial provision or grants-in-aid system,
(iv) Form of government.

3. Social Customs
It includes (i) Complexity of life (ii) Physical resources, (iii) Human
resources, (iv) Status of management, (v) Quality of family life, (vi) Educational
values, (vii) Power conflicts, and (viii) Institutional organisation.

4. Social Philosophy
Educational administration has to provide for inculcating ideals and values of
the society. Educational administration is also influenced by social philosophy of the
society. Educational system should be representative of the culture of a society.

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3.4. THEORIES OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
Meaning of Theory
Daniel E. Griffiths has stated, A good theory is one which reveals
uniformities in the subject matter of the theory; which enables one to predict
precisely; that is, in accordance with established criteria and guides to action or
answers which work is to be done in terms of standards determined by the
profession and occupied by the public. A theory which performs these tasks for the
practising administrator has a great value. A theory must have a theme and must be
logical and consistent.
A theory should have the following constituents
1. A theory must be proper and detached.
2. Facts so selected should be related to the theme and should contribute to the
development of the theory.
3. Observations must be easily understandable and describable in enough detail.
4. Theory should be as explicit as possible.

Essentials of a Theory are as follows


1. It should be able to predict successfully.
2. It should be based on a logical organisation of facts.
3. It should have a theme.
4. It should be built up deductively and inductively.
5. It should have the qualities of validity and reliability.

Advantages of having a theory are


1. It serves as a guide to new knowledge.
2. It assists a person in understanding the outcome if he acts in a particular way.
3. It is helpful to explain a phenomenon under examination.
4. It assists an individual to collect facts concerned with a theme.

Theory of General Administration as Presented by Bernard


1. Good administrators and executives take into account the specific situations,
which include not only the physical, personal and social factors but also the
utilities related to each of them and the utilities attached to them by the
organisation.
2. These false ideologies cause four types of errors - over simplification of
organisation life; disregard for the necessity for informal organisation; wrong
emphasis on subjective rather than objective aspects of authority; and
confusion of morality with responsibility.
3. Finance, building, equipment, etc., constitute the physical environment.
4. Decisions are taken through appropriate physical, biological, personal and
social factors of the situation for specific combination for action.
5. All complex organisations are made up of units.
6. Dynamic expression of leadership is more to do with creativeness which
depends upon technological proficiency and development of techniques in
relation to it.
7. Informal organisations are found within all formal organisations. The formal
units are essential for maintaining order and consistency and the informal
(personnel relationship) for vitality. They are mutually dependent and both are
necessary for enlisting cooperation.

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8. Cooperation is a synthesis of three basic factors-physical, biological and
social.
9. An increasing degree of cooperation implies an increasing degree of
complexity of morality. High degree of moral complexity cannot be attained
without high technological efficiency.
10. Disturbance in cooperation results in false ideologies, prejudices, interests,
etc., of the leaders of formal organisations.
11. Social integration depends upon development of leadership. In the preparation
of leaders mistakes have been committed. In the past, morality was more
emphasised than technological capacity. At present, greater emphasis is laid on
development of technological proficiency than on morality. In both cases the
result is the same-imbalance and disequilibrium. Both are equally important
and necessary for good administration,
12. Society is made up of complex organisations.
13. Wrong decisions are made due to wrong perception of the above factors of the
environment and they limit the scope and success of cooperation.
14. Cooperation depends upon leadership, which is another name for high
personal capacity for technological attainment and moral complexity.
15. The understanding of the three factorsphysical, biological and social are
necessary for the study of normal organisations.

3.5. PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRATIC EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION


The system of administration, which is appreciated by most of the people of
the world is not authoritarian administration, but administration which emphasises on
democratic principles. Administration is nothing but the management of the affairs of
an: The principles of management are dominated by the realizing philosophy of the
people. The philosophy of democratic management emphasises on cooperation,
coordination, mutual goodwill, combined efforts, etc. Some of the important
principles of administration are:

1. Principle of Planning.
2. Principle of Dynamism.
3. Principle of Justice.
4. Principle of Leadership.
5. Principle of Freedom.
6. Principle of Sharing.
7. Principle of Flexibility.
8. Principle of Evaluation.
9. Principle of Co-operation.
10. Principle of Equality.
11. Principle of Competency.
12. Principle of Participation.
13. Principle of Recognition of the Individual growth.
14. Principle of Research.

1. Principle of Planning
Planning focusses the professional activities on the achievement of
educational objective. It makes school administration pointed rather than routine
inspection or vague observation. Planning ensures that the head of the institution
knows the needs of the school and has selected those items which particularly need

35
attention. Effective planning is necessary to secure a unification of effort, better
coordination among the teachers and dministrators and to help in choosing to improve
techniques of administrators. Effective planning also leads to an examination of the
outcomes and the finalisation of procedures to be adopted, in terms of needs and
resources available.

2. Principle of Dynamism
Education is a dynamic process. It has passed through many ages and stages in
the process of evolution and at every stage it acted differently according to the then
existing social conditions. The school administrator has to move with time. Dynamic
education demands dynamic administrator.

3. Principle of Justice
Respect for justice quickens the solution of problems and disputes. Lack of
justice leads to non cooperation among the persons involved in the process of
learning. A head of the institution should not show undue favour. He should do justice
to all. For want of justice, many employees be frustrated. In the centres of learning
due respect must be paid to the rules and regulations.

4. Principle of Leadership
The best society is composed of men who attain their fullest potential. The
democratic leader rules upon the method of intelligence. Mans problems can be
solved through his intellectual efforts. The modern school administrator should be a
democratic educational leader. He should value the dignity and worth of the
individual. Man is important and things are to the welfare of man. He also relies on
cooperation and group action in the solution of common problems. When the
principle of leadership is followed in the field of school administration, it exhibits
certain convictions as follows:

(a) Democratic leadership is accepted as a way of life.


(b) Decisions on the basis of cooperative effort are more valid than decisions
made by the individual
(c) Every member can make an important contribution to the field of education.
(d) The welfare of all is assured by the welfare of each member of the group.
(e) There is scope for reliance on group process.
(f) Growth comes from within the group rather than from without.
(g) Individuals are trustworthy and dependable,

5. Principle of Freedom
Democratic administration allows freedom, ensures suitable opportunity to all
persons to express their unique personality. The students should be allowed academic
freedom. There should not be any imposition on the students from the authorities
concerned. A teacher in the classroom should be allowed freedom to follow any
method which he feels is suitable. He should also be free to criticise, to reason out
anything, to present different viewpoints and to ask questions.

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6. Principle of Sharing
Mutually shared purposes have two important aspects-(a) sharing the largest
number and variety and purposes among the persons involved in the process of
administration, (b) sharing with other groups. Development of policies and the
educational programmes become a joint responsibility of all those who participate in
the process. The participants must have interest in planning, executing and evaluating
the process of administration. The principles of sharing put more brains together for
better work. The teachers, the students, the administrators and the public share
responsibility to achieve success in the field of education. The success and failure are
also equally shared and each is held responsible for his part in the joint enterprise.

7. Principle of Flexibility
A democratic administrator believes in changes, not in rigidity. He modifies
his plan of action in the light of his experiences and also on the constructive advice of
his colleagues. Democratic administration should not follow any stereo-type ideas to
bring about better results in policy and approaches.

8. Principle of Evaluation
The principle of evaluation should be adopted to assess the success and failure
of a programme of administration. It helps to understand the defects in the programme
and to modify them by changing the nature of educational administration.

9. Principle of Cooperation
The principle of cooperation is the basis of democratic administration. Dewey
once said, A society which makes provision for participation in the good of all its
members on equal terms and which secures flexible judgement of its institutions
through interaction of the different form of associated life is so far as democratic.

A cooperative spirit must be reflected in every activity of the school. Full


understanding and goodwill should prevail between the headmaster and the teacher
between staff and, students, between parents and school, and between school and
controlling authorities. Ryburn writes, The pupils of their school, if they are to
develop the characteristics of co-operativeness must live when in school, in a society
which in a practical way provides living example of the cooperation. The running of a
school is not one mans job. It needs the working of many hands and heads.
Therefore, persons concerned with the process of school administration must follow
the principle of cooperation.

10. Principle of Equality


Democratic administration should provide equal opportunity in the field of
education. But it would be quite unfair to give equal opportunities to the students of
unequal abilities. The principle should be just rather than equal. The headmaster
should not keep himself aloof from others. He is the first in making decision in
important matters. Educational psychology has clearly established that individuals
differ among themselves in every respect. The capacities and aptitudes of each are
unequal. Therefore, equalisation of educational opportunities should be provided on
the basis of individual differences. R.R. Kuniaria: Writes,
A democratic administrator should look upon the personnel as socially equal to
himself; he should not take decisions by himself; but with his colleagues; he should
make them feel responsible and share in administration; he should have a code of set

37
rules of administration which he and his colleagues should follow rigidly, making no
discrimination in their application; and lastly he should want no special privileges.

11. Principle of Competency


Democracy believes, among, other things, in the capacity of each individual to
share and participate effectively in all policies and activities that concern him. The
school administrator should realise that every teacher wants to express his opinion on
the policy and problems of the school he serves. He becomes frustrated when he is
unable to do so. As such, it is necessary to provide opportunities to every teacher to
bring his individual intelligence to bear most fully and appreciably on the solution of
common problems.

12. Principle of Participation


An administrator, who recognises the dignity and worth of every individual,
should recognize that certain teachers are better in classrooms while there are some
who achieve outstanding success in co-curricular activities. Such merits should also
be recognised and their competencies should be utilised in the specific field by
seeking their participation.

13. Principle of Recognition of the Individual Growth


Competent personnel should be entrusted with the task of administration.
Everyone cannot be an efficient administrator. Hence, competent persons should be
identified and chosen on the basis of their identified competence, and not on the basis
of biological seniority.

14. Principle of Research


Proper techniques and procedures can be adopted for research in the field of
educational administration. Therefore, the Indian Education Commission
recommended that the Ministry of Education should establish a National Staff
College of Educational Administrators. It should have a research wing for conducting
studies in problems of educational administration and function as a clearing house of
administrative procedures and practices in the states and Union territories.

3.6. DISTINCTION BETWEEN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND


EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Often people take organisation and administration as being the same process.
In fact, it is not so. As has been described above, organisation is only a means for
attaining a special objective and is in-built in the administrative system of the school.
Good organisation enhances the possibility of attaining the desired objectives but it is
through effectiveness of the detailed efforts put in through an efficient, administration,
that success in achieving the objective is gained. As need arises, administrative action
is taken to effect the necessary changes in the organisation. That is why, it is said that
the headmaster of a school, besides being an able administrator, should also be a good
organiser, otherwise all the efforts of a good administrator would come to a naught in
the case of poor organisation. The area of administration is more extensive than that
of organisation. The school administrator is, in fact, responsible for looking after both
these aspects-organisation and administration. School organisation is a structure, the
creation and taking care of which constitute the main duty of the administrator.
Gulick, after studying the work of the school administrators, commented that their
activities encompass all the functions related to organisation and administration.

38
On the basis of his study, the main functions of an administrator have been
identified as school management, organisation, coordination and general direction.
Therefore, an administrator has to undertake organisational work also, such as
allotment of duties to teachers who have been appointed with the needs in yew and
arranging the routine in such a way so as to get the maximum value from the
equipment. The ability of the administrator lies in directing and coordinating the
physical and human factors in the school in such a way as may help in imparting best
possible education to the children. It would thus be evident that organisation and
administration are not only intimately inter-connected but are also inter-dependent.

In the end, we quote Arthur B. Moehiman, Education must function through a


definite organisation structure of plans, procedures, personnel, material, plant and
finance. The level of operation is at all times dependent upon the quality, technical
skill and idealism of the personnel who, through their attitude and daily effort breathe
life into mechanics of structure.

3.7 Question
I Very short Answer-Questions ( 1 Marks)
1) Define Educational Management
2) What are the two types of Factors influencing Educational Administration
3) Name the four Environmental Factors that affects Educational Administration
4) Write the Essentials of a theory.
5) What is meant by Principle of Justice in a Democratic Educational
Administration?

II Short Answer-Questions (6 mark)


6) Differentiate Educational Administration from Educational Management
7) Write the principle of Equality and principle of Recognition of the Individual
growth in Democratic Administration
8) Write the Features of Educational Administration in a Democratic State
9) What are the personal factors that Affects Educational Administration
10) Discuss the Advantages of having theories of Educational Administration

III long Answer type Questions (15 mark)


11) Explain the principles of Democratic Educational Administration

3.8. SUGGESTED READINGS


1. Introduction to educational management K.S. Chalam.
2. Economics of Educational planning in India-Padmanaban.
3. Management education-Trivedi, K.S. Sudharasan

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CHAPTER-IV
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING PROCESS

STRUCTURE
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Meaning and scope of planning
4.2 Dimensions of educational planning
4.3 Constraints on educational planning
4.4 Types of educational planning
4.5 Stages of planning
4.6 Educational planning as a part of economics of education
4.7 MBO and Approaches of educational planning
4.8 Alternatives and decisions
4.9 Merits and Demerits of Educational plan
4.10 Decision Making
4.11 Types of Decisions and Process
4.12 Administration Problems in Decision Making
4.13 Questions
4.14 Suggested readings

4.0. INTRODUCTION

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The history of planning is deeply rooted in human history. It is well
remembered that nearly 2500 years ago Plato mentioned about planning in his
Republic as for as educational planning is concerned, it was developed in the
western countries during the 19th century whenever there was some sort of planning in
building schools and training teachers. But planning in the modern sense of the term
of objective assessment of the alternative ways of allocating resources by means of
specialized techniques in order to co-ordinate the development of education with
overall economic and social development, is rather a new concept. In fact the
systematic attempt at educational planning took place in 1923, the year of the year of
the first five year plan in USSR. P.H. Coomb said that educational planning, in its
broadest genetic sense is the application of national, systematic analysis to the process
of educational development with the aim of making education more effective and
efficient in responding to the needs and goals of its students and Society.

Dimensions of educational planning like significance, Feasibility, Relevance,


Definitiveness, parsimoniousness Adaptability, Time, Monitoring and subject matter
etc will give reasonable assurance of a comprehensive and efficient plan. Each one
belonging to the Educational organisations should know the different types of
educational planning. He should be able to select the type of planning for his own
educational system. By using the formula T= S x C / a x e the school location
planning comes in handy for the government which plans for the restructuring and
expansion of its enrollments. Economical condition of a nation plays a vital role in
educational planning. Different commissions suggested different recommendations on
planning and bud jetting for education. Different approaches are formulated for
effective and benefited eradication of inequality and globalisation of education. The
technique of unit cost has become an important tool both to calculate the cost of plans
and to assess the validity of any educational system. The UNESCO has remarked on
the basis of a survey that, about 69 countries out of 125 countries surveyed, have
followed the unit cost technique in their educational plans.

Every day the head of the educational institution has to decide about doing or
not doing a particular thing. A decision is the selection from among alternatives.

It is a solution selected after examining several alternatives chosen because the


decider foresees that the course of action he elects will be more than the others to
further his goals and will be accompanied by the fewest possible objectable
consequences. But the implementation of decisions is the other difficulty faced by
management once the decision taken then all efforts should be made honestly to
implement it. Decision implementation brings a number of problems which need to be
tackled.

4.1. THE MEANING AND SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING


The history of planning is deeply rooted in human history. It is well
remembered that nearly 2500 years ago Plato mentioned about planning in his
Republic. Intellectuals and Thinkers have always been arguing for state intervention
for the removal of inequalities in the society and the misery attached to it. Later this
has resulted in a systematic socio-economic planning during the 20th century. Since
the end of World War II most countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America have been
pursuing the path of planned development. Economists and educationists during this
period have also indicated the relation between education and economy.

41
In fact the first systematic attempt at educational planning took place in 1923,
the year of the, first five-year plan in USSR. After the World War II the countries,
which were involved in the reconstruction of their economies felt serious manpower
shortages. Soon the educational systems were physically restored and were hit by an
explosive increase in the student numbers partly by demographic factors and partly by
the post-war urge for democratization of educational opportunity. This led the western
economists to become more manpower minded. This manpower consciousness has
ultimately made them to adopt educational planning as a part of the overall economic
planning.

Educational planning has been defined in various ways. It is said that,


a deliberate and conscious choice of educational priorities by a central agency, can
be called as educational planning. P.H. Coombs said that educational planning, in its
broadest generic sense is the application of rational, systematic analysis to the process
of educational development with the aim of making education more effective and
efficient in responding to the needs and goals of its students and society.

The Need for Educational Planning


The need for planning arose with the intensified complexities of modern
technological society. Problems such as population, manpower needs, ecology,
decreasing natural resources and haphazard application of scientific development - all
place demands on educational institutions for solutions. As a result, education system
has been obliged to provide solutions to the ever increasing problems in a systematic
manner, which needs planning.

Planners in various fields especially educational planners are recognizing the


need for inclusive planning that considers the social, physical and economic aspects
of any problem in a situation. For educational planning as it relates to curriculum
planning, physical, financial, administrative planning and so on has been by and large
uncoordinated and incremental. Such compartmentalization of educational activities
has created stumbling blocks for those trying to improve the existing programmes.
Therefore, the need is felt to integrate educational activities under educational
planning which will in turn is related with the overall planning of a country. Such an
integration makes the educational activities relevant and useful to the society.

4.2. DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING


Frank W. Banghurt and Albert Trull have provided the following dimensions
of educational planning. They said the consideration of the following nine dimensions
gives reasonable assurance of a comprehensive and. efficient plan.

1. Significance
Every educational problem has some significance. The degree of significance,
depends on the socio-economic importance of the proposed educational objective. To
achieve this objective the decision makers must have access to clear cut guidelines
and the proposed criteria for evaluation. The significance of the decision taken can be
evaluated to reach the objective.
2. Feasibility
There are many factors that determine the feasibility of the plan, not the least
of which is the legitimate and appropriate authority. Along with political

42
authorization, technical feasibility and the receptivity of the public and cost estimates,
there are other aspects that should be given realistic consideration.

3. Relevance
The concept of relevance is absolutely essential in educational planning as it
directly deals with people. The relevance of an educational plan is associated with the
process of the organizational setup, the assurance that the plan will converge more
specifically on the solution of the problem as times goes by and that the plan is indeed
near the optimal process for attaining the specific objectives. The plan must be
relevant to the social and educational needs of the people.

4. Definitiveness
The concept of definitiveness should take into consideration the maximum
number of contingencies that may occur in the process and the precautions to be
observed to overcome the occurrence of the unexpected events that would divert
resources from the planned objective.

5. Parsimoniousness
The principle of parsimony in educational planning indicates that the plan
should be outlined in the simplest manner so that alternative methods can be gauged
to make the plan prudent.

6. Adaptability
The educational plan should be dynamic rather than static. It should be
constantly undergoing change as information is fed back into the system. Through the
use of variety of processes, the adaptable or flexible plan can be designed to avoid the
unexpected and should be suited to the changing situations and circumstances.

7. Time
Associated with time there are several important factors. One aspect of time
deals with the natural cycle of the subject matter under planning. Another is the
immediate need to change an unbearable situation. A constant watch makes the plan
conscious of its targets and their achievement on time. Finally time affects our ability
to evaluate present educational needs in relation to those of the future.

8. Monitoring
Monitoring involves the establishment of educational criteria to assure that the
various components of the plan are working effectively. To assure smooth operation,
procedures should be established to allow the educational planner to determine the
reasons for the variations within the educational planning system. A constant
monitoring enables the planner to make alterations in the plan so that the plan is
appropriately adapted to the changing conditions.

9. Subject-matter
The subject what is being planned is the final dimension of planning. Seven
subjects are given by William P. Maclure. They are as follows:
Goals and objectives
A. Programmes and services
B. Human resources
C. Physical resources

43
D. Finance
E. Governmental structure, and
F. Social context

4.3. CONSTRAINTS ON EDUCATIONAL PLANNING


There are many constraints that impede the smoother functioning of
educational planning and some of the major constraints include politics, economics
and time. The constraints arise in the educational planning process in a local regional
plan of geographical dimension. However, the constraints will be greater at the local
level than they will be at the regional level.

The constraints placed on educational planners by educational policy makers


are somewhat unique because of the fact that the guidelines have not always been
clearly defined. The essence of economic constraints stresses the importance of
producing a plan that brings together the cost effectiveness of the plan with the
objectives of the society.
Educational planning or for that matter any kind of planning is intimately
involved with politics and policies that result from political and legal decision
making.

All educational plans are devised on the basis of time dimension. They are
either a long term perspective plans or medium or short term plans of ten or five years
of duration. The set goals need to be achieved within the time limit and with given
resources.

In order to understand and overcome the constraints, planners have devised


appropriate tools such as the following.

a.Planning - Programming - Budgeting system


b.Systems analysis and systems synthesis
c.Network scheduling
d.Management information system
e.Modeling and simulation
f.Environmental analysis and need assessment
g.Cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analysis
h.Management and control system, and
i.Educational planning techniques or operations research.

4.4. TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING


The following are some of the important types of plans that are generally used
in planning the educational system:

1. Adaptive Educational Planning


It takes place in an externally induced development. It is a problem response
solving term. Its purpose is to maintain the equilibrium with the other systems and is
used to solve immediate problems.
2. Contingency Educational Planning
It is an approach aimed at creating conditions whose effects can be absorbed at
minimum cost or in convenience. This is taken up for selecting priorities of a
problem.

44
3. Compulsive Educational Planning
It specifics in great detail what should and expected to be done. Its major
technique depends on the fact that it is rewarded if successful and punished if
unsuccessful. It is functioning upon the directives given by an authority.

4. Manipulative Educational Planning


It depends on various types of instruments to gain an advantage. It takes the
help of the sum of the skills, techniques necessary to maintain the plan.

5. Indicative Educational Planning


It spreads information Calculated to give individuals the right signals in the
hope that they will take appropriate action. It also indicates the targets to be achieved
during the planning period.

6. Incremental Educational Planning


Incremental educational planning is that plan which takes short steps in
correcting mistakes as it proceeds. Such a process while connecting short term
adaptability will accumulate and force the planner to take a complete comprehension,
of the problems. In this, the planner checks now and then the process of planning and
adds new dimensions to it if necessary.

7. Autonomous Educational Planning


Autonomous educational planning is an independent plan without any place in
any planning.

8. Ameliorative Educational Planning


Ameliorative Educational Planning is designed to restore what was, without
any consideration of what would be. Its purpose is to return to a status-quo.

9. Normative Educational Planning


Normative educational planning is a long range planning. This planning takes
up a perspective of twenty five to forty five years ahead. Its inherent nature is general
and its function is to establish guidelines for the planning to follow.

10. Functional Educational Planning


It marks on a particular aspect of the total problem. This type of plan is a
segment of a total plan and yet, functions as a part of the total planning.

11. Decentralized Planning


It is undertaken by decentralizing the decision making process at the lower
level to enable people to participate in its formulation and execution.

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4.5. THE STAGES OF PLANNING
Each educational plan must pass through four stages so as to make it an
effective planning. The four stages go in a logical sequence and are interconnected.
The following are the four stages of a plan.

a.Formulation
b.Adoption
c.Execution, and
d.Supervision.

1. Formulation
At this stage, the objectives and priorities of education are considered. The
objectives of the society are given by their chosen leaders. These objectives must
again depended on the needs of the society. The planning has to take the priorities also
into account at this stage after enumerating the objectives, the targets will be
formulated accordingly.

2. Adoption
The formulated plan must be adopted without any changes. If changes are
incorporated once the plan is formulated, it cannot be adopted effectively. Therefore at
this stage, the plan has to be accepted as formulated by the planning authority.

3. Execution
At this stage various aspects of educational system and society must be taken
into account. Here the planner has to analyse teachers, students, pedagogy, society and
institutions so as to implement the plan effectively even at the grass-root level. The
execution of the plan involves programme and projects.

4. Supervision
Constant supervision at various stages of the process of educational planning
is essential. It helps the planner to note the pitfalls at the formulation or at the
implementation stage. Therefore, a plan should be supervised at the line of
administration, financial requirements and its proper utilization etc, so as to make
suggestions for improvement in the making of future plans. It also helps to correct
certain flaws in planning at the end of the period of the plan or during the review of
the plan.

The institution level planning basically agrees with the educational planning at
the macro level and it is a part of the over all educational planning. In a decentralised
educational planning, the planning starts from the institution. Each of such plan
involves the usual stages of formulation, adoption, execution and supervision.
However, educational planning at the institution level differs markedly at the
execution stage since it is a micro level planning.

Educational planning at the institution level has been neglected by the


planners since they are over-burdened with the preparation of macro level plans. The
task of institutional planning mainly left to the District Educational Officers who are
also burdened with their administrative work. As a result of this neglect, educational
planning is neither properly formulated nor effectively implemented at the grass-root
level of the educational system. Now the planners and educationists have recognised

46
the importance of it. A number of educationists stressed the importance of it in a
seminar conducted by the Asian Institute of Educational Planning and Administration
in 1970. They have also explained that the effective implementation of plan
programmes depend upon the commitment of the teachers, students and society at
large to the plan programmes.

4.5.1. School Location Planning


The concept of school location planning goes along with the institutional
planning. The World Bank has been responsible in compiling and elaborating the
concept for the benefit of those counties which borrow from the bank for the purpose
of expanding their educational systems. The concept normally applies to the set up of
administrative policies and procedures that are used to plan the distribution, size and
spacing of schools. Its primary objective is to match the distribution of schools
(particularly the student places) to the distribution of the potential population to be
served. The school location planning is also known as school mapping. But it is
more than compiling a map that shows the distribution of schools. The HEP has
provided the necessary techniques like the drawing up of base maps, use of symbols
in maps, etc., for school location planning. The general principles to school location
planning applies to all the stages of education, from kindergartens to universities.

School location planning comes in handy for the government which plans for
the restructuring and expansion of its enrollments. It also helps the planner to match
the manpower requirements of a region with that of the inputs into the school. The
major solution to the problem of school location planning lies in deciding the
threshold population. The threshold population is the minimum total population
necessary in a particular locality to establish a school. For instance, if a primary
school has a capacity of 200 (5 classes of 40 places), if the national school population
is 20 per cent of the total population and the rate of enrolment at this stage is 100 per
cent, the threshold population for the establishment of the school comes to 100 (i.e.,
200 / 20 x 100). In other words, if we want to establish a school with 200 students, we
need a population of 1000. If the rate of enrolment is more or less than 100 per cent,
the threshold population change accordingly. Generally, the following formula is used
to arrive at the threshold population.

T = SxC/axe
Where T = threshold population (total)
S = Number of classes per school
a = relevant age group as a percentage of total
population
e = target enrolment rate

The school location planning is solved once the planner establishes the
interaction between the threshold population and the range pf the maximum distance
the children are expected to travel everyday. The range of distance that the children
are expected to travel provides the catchment area to draw up the maps. Therefore, in
order to operate a primary school in a particular area, the norms like the threshold
population or range of distance or target enrolment need to be altered to suit the
conditions. The better method for a school location planning is to prepare a set of
tables like the one given in Table 10.1. Then the table will provide the various
possibilities of locating a school.

47
The institutional planning in the education system thus must start with a
school location planning. After identifying the location of the school under the given
norms, it would be easier for the planner to elaborate the institutional planning.

4.6. EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AS A PART OF ECONOMICS OF


EDUCATION
Philip H. Coombs has examined the development of education in four
different phases. They are the, (1) reconstruction phase, (2) the manpower shortage
phase, (3) the rampant expansion phase, and (4) the innovation phase. Educational
Planning has become a necessary tool in the reconstruction phase and is still
continuing as a necessary tool in economic policy. Economists and educationists have
followed their different approaches in explaining the educational planning both in the
advanced as well as in the underdeveloped countries. They are: (1) the demand for
education approach (2) the rate-of-return approach, and (3) the manpower
requirements approach.

The demand for education approach is a consumption approach to education.


The administrators of education simply gets the terms on which education shall be
available in the future and then plan to provide education of the number of students
who by using their own foresight demand it on these terms. Population projections are
the basic data for this task. Robbins has followed the social demand approach. in U.K.
for the Education. Committee in 1960s. This is merely an extrapolation of the past
trend into future. Therefore they do not take into account the priorities and cannot
explain what will really happen in future.

The rate-of-return approach has not been used as an exclusive methodology


for the planning of an education system. This method suggests that various
educational programmes be ranked according to their rates-of-return. Practically there
are hundreds of studies on this aspect, covering almost all the important countries of
the world. An excellent review of the studies has been given by Blaug in an article in
the Manchester School in 1965 and the World Bank provides upto date data now. The
main defect of this study like that of Denison is that it assumed the wages are equal to
marginal productivity.

In the manpower forecasting approach, the manpower required in future with


different skills with reference to a particular GNP is estimated. H.S. Parnes has
explained the procedure of estimating it in three steps. First an analysis of the existing
situation which includes education, structure etc., is to be taken. In the second place
the targets for future should be fixed. Finally the forecasting is made based, on the
recent past experiences, estimating the employment coefficients or using the input-
output coefficients and then applying it to the product targets of the national economy
or sectors. Thus we arrive at employment targets at various sectors and in various
occupations. This approach completely ignores the costs and benefits of education and
also the quantitative improvements in education. The Netherlands Economic Institute
has followed a different approach and concluded that the number of university
graduates in active employment and other professional men whose work require a
college degree or its equivalent should grow at first about the same rate of national
income. This study has a profound influence in the theory of educational planning and

48
many of the developing countries have followed it in their economic planning)
(Clapter-3 examines the approaches in detail).

4.7. MBO:
Management by objectives
Management defining formal goals and attaining them with frequent planning
and evaluation, a business approach applied in educational administration.

THE APPROACHES OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING


In all the modem States, education forms an important activity of the people.
In all the educational systems, there is an attempt to forecast the future educational
requirements of the economy. In that sense, all educational systems are planned.
Educational Planning has, thus emerged as an important part of the overall socio-
economic planning of .a country. There are three important approaches that are
generally followed in educational planning. These approaches help the planner to
understand and elaborate the link between economic development and that of
educational system of a country. The following are the three methods of approaches of
educational planning.

1. The social demand method


2. The investment in education or the rate-of-return method, and
3. The manpower of forecasting method.
Let us now examine each of the model in detail.

The Social Demand for Education Method


This method consists in planning the educational system with a view to
satisfying the demand for education as expressed by the individuals and their families
in a country. The approach here shall take an account of the number of places required
for a future year or the anticipated final demand for the educated manpower. The term
social demand implies here the demand for places in the educational system coming
from the members of the study. It is further divided into a current demand which
arises as a result of the demographic trends and the maintenance of the rate of
increase in enrolment due to the increase in population. There is another aspect of the
demand which can be considered as extra demand that arises due to the arrival of
new entrants into the education system who were previously denied this opportunity.
They form as new consumers and enter into the system due to some government
policy.

The social demand is again split up into three categories.


a. The contingent social demand which is based on the projections of trends is
concerning with the supply of places made available by the education system. In
other words, this demand is projected merely on the basis of the current growth
rates of enrolment into the future. The Robbins Report in U.K. has followed this
approach in the calculation of the demand for places in higher education. The
various stages that are used in the calculation are (1) determining the size of the
age groups corresponding to higher education, (2) estimating the proportion of
these age groups bearing secondary education with the necessary qualifications
for entry into higher education, (3) forecasting the proportion of those who
entitled will apply for admission, (4) deciding what proportion will in fact be

49
admitted, and (5) converting the projected number of entrants into the projected
number of places by making additional estimates concerning the length of
studies and the number of foreign students. This will give ultimately the number
of places required in a future year.
b. The more useful social demand is the one which is based on reducing the
inequalities of educational opportunities in the society and thus increasing the
demand for places. There are various factors like the inequalities of access to
education due to historical and traditional factors, regional disparities, economic
and social disadvantages, the inequalities of the parental income and
occupational backgrounds and due to other reasons, some groups are remained
as educationally disadvantaged. Now such groups will be provided all the
support through a state policy and the inequalities are reduced. Here .the aim is
to attack the relevant factors that are depressing the demand and will provide a
policy guidance to the planner.
c. The absolute social demand is based on the full utilization of the abilities, of the
pupils and adjusting the system to the needs of the pupil. There are some
disadvantaged groups like the socially and mentally disadvantaged for whom the
system will provide opportunities to correct the handicaps and bring the pupils
to the main stream. It gives full support and opportunity to develop the students
abilities through innovations in teaching methods.

The above categories which come within the social demand for education
method brings to light that this method of educational planning is simple to follow.
What it is needed here is the basic demographic data with different age groups and
their projections for a future year taking into consideration the above three aspects of
social demand for education. This approach has been followed in all the OECL
countries particularly in U. K, France and Yugoslavia. But, the experience of these
countries tell us that the forecasts and the actual social demand have never coincided
due to the structural changes in the economy and society which are seldom taken care
of in the social demand for education approach.

A Synthesis
It is very difficult to say which of the three methods is the most appropriate to
forecast the enrolments in the educational system. It all depends upon the level of
development of the economy, the state policy towards education and the traditions
followed in the planning of the educational system that determine the use of an
approach. However, it is not true that the above approaches are mutually exclusive
and in fact it is possible to use a combination of any two or three of the above
approaches in planning the educational system in a country. Further, each approach
may help the Planner at different stages of a plan like the rate-of-return which helps
the planner at the formulation stage and the manpower approach at the final stage. The
use of the approach ultimately depends upon the skill of the planner and the purpose
for which they are used.

4.8. ALTERNATIVES AND DECISIONS


Along with the approaches of educational planning, the planner must
understand the three elements of the education system. It consisted of technology, the
organisation and motivation. They are to be systematically planned as the three

50
function in - relation with each other. The UNESCO indicated that the decisions
relating to these items can be considered as first, second and third order decisions.

The first order decisions are those that relate to technological designs, that is,
to interactions between physical instruction and the social environment. The
educational technology today is intertwined with the revolution in information
technology. Therefore, it requires the collaboration of educationists, planners, social
scientists and specialists in information technology. Developing options and making
choices in this area are important.

The second order decisions are those involving choices among institutional
possibilities for carrying out various functions of the educational organisation. It
requires the knowledge of organizational theory, the social background of the
institute, and the principles of public administration. An understanding of these will
provide information as to what kind of technology is to be selected for the institution,
the process of education, etc.

The third order decisions are those that create the rewards and incentives that
motivate all the people who are concerned about education. It is necessary to motivate
the best administrators to come into the education system and create environment for
them to work hard to realize the goals. The success of educational programmes
depends upon the active involvement of students, parents, leaders and others who are
interested in the overall development of the society. This requires a package of
rewards and a of motivation to involve people in the mission.

4.9. MERITS AND DEMERITS OF AN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING


Generally a number of advantages are claimed in favour of a plan. It is
favoured because of the fact that a plan has the advantage of foresightedness. It takes
into account the future problems and requirements of the education at present and
tries to solve them before the problem arises in future.

In the non-planned market economies the educational opportunities are


provided on the basis of the free play of market forces which result in inequalities of
educational opportunities. But an educational plan tries to set them right and create
equality of Opportunity.

As the plan is linked with the manpower requirements of the economy, the
problem of surplus of educated manpower and thus the unemployment will be
eliminated.

Efficiency in the use of resources and higher productivity within the


educational sector are possible to achieve through a system of Planning.

However, educational planning is not a bed of roses. It involves a lot of


sacrifices both on the part of the society and government in implementing an
educational plan. A systematic educational plan restricts the freedom of choice of
subject or a discipline by the student It allows to produce those skills which are
needed and necessary for the society. Similarly the society has to forego a certain
amount of manpower and resources to draw up plans. Sometimes the bureaucracy
involved in educational planning may came hardships to the student and to the society

51
due to red-tapism, favouritism and other such ills. But the advantages attained by the
society by a systematic planning outweigh the demerits of it. As a result many
countries especially the developing countries are resorting to planning to solve their
educational and man power Problem.

4.10. DECISION MAKING


Meaning
Decision-making is an important job of a manager. Everyday he has to decide
about doing or not doing a particular thing. A decision is the selection from among
alternatives. It is a solution selected after examining several alternatives chosen
because the decider foresees that the course of action he elects will be more than the
others to further his goals and will be accompanied by the fewest possible
objectionable consequences. It is the selection of one course of action from two or
more alternative courses of action. In the words of Mac Farland, A decision is an act
of choice wherein an executive forms a conclusion about what must be done in a
given situation. A decision represents a course of behaviour chosen from a number of
possible alternatives. The way an executive acts or decides the course the action
from among various alternatives is an act of decision-making. George Terry says,
Decision-making is the selection based on some criteria from two or more possible
alternatives. Though there are many alternatives available for a manager he has to
choose the best out of them.

Characteristics
Following are the characteristics of decision-making:
1. Decision-making is based on rational thinking. The manager tries to force
various possible effects of a decision before deciding a particular one.
2. It is a process of selecting the best from among alternatives available.
3. It involves the evaluation of various alternatives available. The selection of
best alternative will be made only when pros and cons of all of them are
discussed and evaluated.

Steps involved in decision-making


A decision cannot be taken in isolation. It is influenced by past experience,
present conditions and future expectations. Once a decision is taken then it becomes
difficult to reverse it. It is pertinent to discuss the problem involved and then take a
decision after considering various possibilities. Decision-making involves the
following steps:

1. Defining the Problem


The first step in decision-making is to find out the correct problem. It is not
easy to define the problem. It should be seen what is causing the trouble and what will
be its possible solutions. No problem presents itself in a manner that an immediate
decision is taken. If the problem is not correctly defined then the efforts and money
spent on a wrong decision will go waste. Moreover, a wrong problem may create
fresh difficulties instead of solving them.

Before defining the problem the manager has to identify critical or strategic
factors of the problem. Chester Bernard has pointed out that the theory of the strategic
factor is necessary for the appreciation of the process of decision-making. He

52
emphasises that in decision-making the analysis required is actually a search for the
strategic factors. These factors may be the root cause of obstacles in developing a
proper solution to the problem under discussion. If we wish to increase the yield of
grain in a certain field, on analysis it may be found that there is a lack of potash. The
potash will be a strategic or limiting factor in this case. Once the problem is properly
defined then it will be easily solved. So the first important factor is the determination
of problem.

2. Analysis of Problem
After defining the problem, the manager should analyse it. He should collect
all possible information about the problem and then decide whether it will be
sufficient to take a decision or not. Generally, managers complain that they seldom get
sufficient information which they would have liked to have. Sometimes it may be
costly to get additional information or further information may not be possible. In the
words of Peter Drucker, To make a sound decision, it is not necessary to have all the
facts; but it is not necessary to know what information is lacking in order to judge
how much of a risk the decision involves, as well as the degree of precision and
rigidity that the proposed course of action can afford. Whatever information is
available should be used to analyse the problem. If there are deficencies in
information then manager must judge the degree of risk involved in the decision.

3. Alternative Courses of Action


Every problem has a number of solutions. If there is only one solution then
there is no need for decision-making. A manager must try to find out various
alternatives in order to get satisfactory results of a decision. Unless manager develops
several alternative solutions, he is only too prone to fall into the either or kind of
thinking. Having more alternatives is not a guarantee against wrong decisions. It
should be kept in mind that alternative solutions are no guarantee of wisdom or of the
right decision. But at least they prevent one making wrong decision.

There are several alternatives even in discouraging situations. For example,


the plant of the company needs replacement because its products cannot compete with
those of others. The choices before management may be to go for a new plant, can
rent new premises, consolidate this plant with another plant at other premises, could
become the distributors of similar products of other firms. The management has to
evaluate various alternative proposals and then take a decision. Unless otherwise all
possible alternatives are developed, a solution may not be good.

4. Evaluation of Alternatives
After developing, various alternatives, the next step is to evaluate them and
select the right one. The pros and cons of different proposals should be foreseen. The
desirable and undesirable consequences of adopting each alternative should be tested.
This exercise will enable the manager to see the risk involved in each course of
action.

The alternatives should be evaluated in relation to time and money involved in


them. Only that alternative which gives maximum economy should be selected. A
decision becomes easy when one alternative has more favourable consequences as
compared to others. When more than one alternatives have similar good points then it
becomes difficult to make a choice. In such cases two or more alternatives can be

53
combined. There may be a situation where none of the alternatives present favourable
situation. Not accepting any alternative is also an important decision. The manager
should develop new alternatives in such a situation.

5. Experience
The oftenly repeated proverbs like history repeats itself or experience is the
best teacher provide help in decision-making. The past experience acts as a guide.
The difficulties faced and problems encountered earlier can be well judged and
collective measures can be taken in advance. The past experience should not blindly
be relied upon. In case the situations in the past and at present are similar then earlier
alternatives may be selected.. But there may be a change in situation and the old
decisions may not hold good in future. Hence the decisions should not be the same.
While relying on experience the conditions prevailing in the past, at present and
possible effects in future should be properly considered before making a decision. The
experience is an asset with a manager but is should not be blindly relied upon.

6. Experimentation
Experimentation is used in scientific enquiry. The alternatives are put to actual
practice and the one giving better results is selected. Experimentation, however, is not
possible in management. It will be costly to put every alternative to practice.
However, it may be used in a limited way. For example, when a new product is put in
the market, it can be marketed in a limited area to see the reaction of consumers. If the
management wants to install a new organisational set up then it may be first applied in
a branch before being used in the whole business. It will always be better to take a
decision on the basis of facts, study, analysis of results, etc.

7. Taking Decision and Following up


When various alternatives are properly evaluated then a final decision is taken.
The decision is communicated to the concerned persons for action. The
implementation of a decision will require the co-operation of subordinates. They
should be properly briefed about various aspects of the decision.

It is not enough to take a decision, it should also be seen whether it is properly


implemented or not. The follow up action of a decision may show that it was based on
certain wrong premises or facts. In such situations the decision should be reviewed
and necessary changes may he made if required. To follow up is also an important
aspect of decision-making.

4.1. TYPES OF DECISIONS AND PROCESS


Peter Drucker gives four basic criterion for determining the nature of a
decision and the level of authority that should make it
(a) The degree of futurity in it
(b) Its impact on other functions, areas or the business as a whole;
(c) The number of qualitative factors that enter into it ; and
(d) Whether it is periodically recurrent or rare, if not unique.
The Managerial decisions may be classified as follows:

1. Organisational and Personal Decisions


When a person takes a decision in the organisation as an executive it will be
an organisational decision. This decision will have its impact on the working of the

54
organisation. The power to take organisational decisions can be delegated from a
superior to the subordinate.

An executive can also take decisions about himself. Such decision are known
as personal decisions. These generally affect the persona life of decision-maker. The
power to take such decisions cannot b delegated to anybody else.

2. Routine and Strategic Decisions


Routine decisions are made repetitively following certain established rules,
procedures, policies etc. These are, taken in the context of day-to-day operations of
the organisation. These decisions do not require fresh information or discussions.
Routine decisions are taken at middle and lower level of management.

Strategic decisions are very important and are taken at top level management.
They relate to policy matters and need the development and analysis of alternatives.
Strategic decisions influence organisatioflal structure, objectives, working conditions,
finances, etc. These decisions are basic and have long-term effects.

3. Programmed and Non-programmed Decisions


Programmed decisions are of a routine nature and are taken within the
specified procedures. These decisions have short-term effect and are taken at lower
level management. The decision to grant leave, make routine purchases, allow trade
discounts, etc. are programmed decisions.

Non-repetitive decisions are on the other hand non-programmed decisions.


The need for such decisions arises due to specific circumstances. These decisions are
taken at top level management. The opening of a new branch, introducing a new
product, purchase of a new machinery are some of the examples of non-programmed
decisions.

4. Policy and Operative Decisions


Policy decisions determine the basic policies of the organisation and are taken
at top level management. The policies decided by the top become the basis for
operative decisions. No decision can o beyond the policy frame work of the
organisation. These are important in nature and have long-term impact.

Operative decisions, on the other hand, are less important and are related with
day-to-day operations of the business. These decisions are taken in the light of
policies decided by the top management. Middle and lower level management take
these decisions since these involve actual execution and supervision. Whether to
allow bonus to employees or not is a policy-decision. Once it is decided to pay bonus
then making calculations of payments to be made to different employees is an
operative decision.

5. Individual and Group Decisions


This classification is based on the number of persons involved in decision-
making. If the decision is taken by one person it is known as individual decision. In
small concerns only the owner takes all important decisions. Even in big concerns too
one person may be allowed to take decisions about a particular matter. Generally,
individual decisions are programmed one and are less important.

55
Group decisions are taken by a group of persons. The decisions of Board of
Directors or Committees come under this category. These are, generally, important
decisions and relate to policy matters. The decisions are taken after a thorough
discussion among persons who are assigned this work. The problem of delay in taking
group decisions may create difficulties but otherwise these are well discussed
decisions.

4.12. ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS IN DECISION-MAKING


The efforts of the management are to take correct decisions. A wrong decision
at any level of management may create difficulties for the whole Educational system.
In spite of best efforts there are certain problems in decision-making. Some of these
are discussed as follows

1. Correctness of Decision
Whether the decisions taken are correct or not is the first problem faced by the
management. If the decision is not correct then it will mean a waste of money and
efforts. The correctness of a decision depends on the calibre of decision-maker,
information available and its analysis. If proper facts and figures are not available
then decision will be based on wrong premises. When they are based on a correct
problem and its proper analysis then decisions will also be correct.

2. Timing of Decision
Timing of decisions is the other difficulty faced by management. It is
important to take decisions at the most opportune time. The determination of that time
in itself is a problem. The decisions will be in vain if not at right time.

3. Effective Communication of Decisions


The communication of decisions to the persons for whom they have been
taken is another administrative problem forced by the management. The decisions
should be communicated in a language in which they are well understood by the
receiver. If a decision is not conveyed to those who are to implement them then it will
remain on paper and the purpose will not be served. The management has to cross
many barriers in the communication system so that they are conveyed properly.

4. Participation in Decision-making
The best way of arriving at important decisions is to get the views of
concerned persons before finalising them. Different view points will give a wider
thought to the problem and its analysis. The general tendency in management is to
keep decision-making at top level only. A few persons are given the authority of
making decisions. This type of thinking will create more problems in implementing
them. The view points of those who are to be directly influenced by the decisions may
not be taken into consideration. Such decisions suffer from many lacunae. To avoid
such situations management should try to involve more and more persons in decision-
making process.

5. Decision-environment
The organisational and physical environment prevailing in the business will
have an influence on decision-making process. If the environment is conducive then
there will be proper co-operation and mutual understanding among various persons.

56
The decisions will be accepted in a good spirit and will be honestly implemented. It
will also provide scope for research and creative thinking.

6. Implementation of Decisions
The implementation of decisions is the other difficulty faced by management.
Once a decision taken then all efforts should be made honestly to implement it. The
manager and subordinates should help in proper implementation of decisions.
Manager may consult staff persons or specialists from outside but final decision will
be his own. The responsibility for Implementation decisions will lie on the manager.
When a decision goes wrong then the manager is criticised and when it proves correct
then he may not be applauded. So decision implementation brings a number of
problems which need to be tackled.

4.13. QUESTIONS
I Very Short Answer-Questions (1 Marks)
1. What is MBO?
2. Write the threshold population formula for planning school location
3. Give the meaning of Educational planning
4. What are the types in Educational planning
5. What are the three approaches in Educational Planning
6. Write any two characteristics of decision making
7. Write the four types of Decisions given by peter Drucker

II Short Answer-Questions (6 Marks)


8. Write the need and importance of Educational Planning
9. Explain shortly the constraints in Educational Planning
10. Write the merits and Demerits of Educational Planning

III. Long Answer-Questions (15 Marks)


11. Explain the characteristics Decision making
12. Explain the Administrative Problems in Decision Making.

4.14. SUGGESTED READINGS


1. Modern Indian education B.D. Batt.
2. Educational technology and Management R.P. Bhatnagar.
3. Philosophical and Sociological foundations of education Dr. Satish Chandha
4. The principles of Economic planning-Lewis.

57
CHAPTER-V
ORGANISATION

STRUCTURE
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Organisation ManagementDefinition
5.2 Characteristics of Organisation
5.3 Steps in Organisation process.
5.4 Objectives of organization
5.5 Organisations Structure
5.6 Organisation Chart
5.7 Organisation for Education distraction
5.8 Questions
5.9 Suggested readings

58
5.0. INTRODUCTION
According to Oliver Sheldon organisation is the process of so combining the
work, which individuals or groups have to perform with the facilities necessary, its
execution, that the duties so performed provide the best channels for the efficient,
systematic positive and Co-ordinated application of the available effort. This
definition emphasis the best use of human resources for achieving good results.
Authority-Responsibility relationship can be obtained through this organisation.
Division of work classification of appointing suitable persons delegation of authority
are some of the steps in organisation process to achieve the aims and objectives of the
educational organisation. Provision for continuity between the various stages of
education is an important characteristic in an educational system. The changes in
secondary educational organisation have included several phases. The setting up of
consolidated or modern schools for rural children helped to equalize opportunities.

The organisation of higher education is different in various cultures of the


world today. The actual operation of an educational system in country is a valuable
and accurate index to its effectiveness in coping with the paramount issues of
civilization. The efficiency of teaching methods had been closely linked with
improvements in instructional materials. Various cultures have made their
contributions toward educational technology by improving their materials of
instruction. Evaluation, testing and guidance have varied widely from country to
country. Administration and its allied areas of inspection and supervision are of
paramount importance in the success of an educational system.

5.1. ORGANISATION MANAGEMENT DEFINITION


Organising is concerned with developing a framework where total work is
divided into manageable components in order to achieve business goals. It is the
working together of two or more persons in a co-ordinated way for achieving
common objectives. Every business sets its goals. For achieving these goals various
plans and policies are framed. In order to put plans and policies into action, there is a
need for using human and physical resources. Organisation establishes relationships
among people in the enterprise and co-ordinates their activities in such a way that all
the resources are employed for achieving business objectives. So, organisation is the
process of combining the work of people working in the enterprise for undertaking
various duties id responsibilities.

Definitions
Different authors have defined organisation from their point of views. Some
define it as a structure while others define it as a process. While structure refers to the
network of relationships in the organisation and process is concerned with assigning
various functions to different people and fixing the responsibilities for accomplishing
them. Some important definitions are discussed to understand the nature of
organisation.

Ralph C. Davis
Organisation is a group of people, who are co-operating under the direction of
leadership for the accomplishment of accomplishment end. According to Davis,
people work under a common leadership for achieving business goals.

Oliver Sheldon

59
Organisation is the process of so combining the work, which individuals or
groups have to perform with the facilities necessary its execution, that the duties so
performed provide the best channels for the efficient, systematic, positive, and co-
ordinated application of the available effort. This definition emphasis the best use of
human resources for achieving good results.

Northcott
The arrangement by which tasks are assigned to men and women so that the
individual efforts contribute effectively to some more or less clearly defined purpose
for which they have been brought together. According to Northcott the purpose of an
organisation is to co-ordinate the activities of various problems for achieving pre-
determined objectives.

Koontz & Donell


Organisation is the structure of relationship by which an enterprise is bound
to-gether and the framework, in which individual effort is co-ordinated. In this view,
organisation is a process of co-ordinating the activities of various people in the
enterprise.

It can be said that an organisation is the process of establishing relationship


among various people working in an enterprise, fixing their authority and
responsibility and co-ordinating their activities for using all available resources in the
best possible way

5.2. STEPS CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANISATION


Different authors define organisation from their angle. Some characteristics,
however, are the same. Following are the main characteristics of an organisation:-

1. Group of persons
Every function requires the services of people. When two or more persons
come to-gether for undertaking a common work then the organisation comes into
existence. So an organisation exists with a number of persons.
2. Common objectives
There are common objectives to be achieved in an organisation. The
individual objectives of different persons and departments also lead to the
achievement of common organisational objectives. The working in a common
direction is the essence of an organisation.

3. Division of work
The total work of the enterprise is divided into activities and functions.
Various activities are assigned to different persons for their efficient accomplishment.
When one person performs the same work repeatedly he develops specialization in it
and his efficiency improves. So division of work helps in achieving their goals.

4. Co-ordination
When different persons are assigned different tasks then they try to attain them
in their own ways. Individual efforts may not go towards attainment of main business
goals. There is a need to co-ordinate the activities of various persons so that their
efforts lead to the main goals.

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5. Authority-Responsibility Relationship
An organisation consists of various positions arranged in a hierarchy with well
defined authority and responsibility. A relationship of superior-subordinate is
established clearly. The tasks are assigned at each level and necessary authority is
delegated for accomplishing them. Along with authority, responsibility is also fixed
for each work at every level.

6. Communication
An organisation works with an effective communication system. Every order
or information passes on from upward to downward and reactions to such
communications go upward. The communication system informs various persons the
tasks they are to perform and performance reports from, different jobs enable
management to assess the levels of achievement.

5.3. STEPS IN ORGANISATION PROCESS


The following steps are necessary for setting-up a proper international
structure in the organisation.

(i) Division of work


The job is divided according to functions. These functions may be called,
financing, marketing, staffing, etc. All activities are divided and subdivided into
various categories. The purpose of the division is to specialise individuals into
different roles. This also helps in increasing the efficiency of employees.

(ii) Classification of activities


The activities are classified under various categories. All similar activities are
grouped together, The activities relating to different functions are covered under
different departments. Different departments will be able to co-ordinate their activities
at different levels of management.

(iii) Appointing Suitable persons


When activities are divided into different functions, the next step will be to
appoint suitable persons for various jobs. Experts are appointed as heads of different
departments. Persons are employed for all types of roles. The idea here is to appoint
specialists for different jobs.

(iv) Delegation of Authority


A person will be able to perform his duty only when he is given adequate
authority required for that job. If the work is assigned without delegating authority, it
will be meaningless. The top management should delegate authority to lower levels of
management. A person can be made responsible for a work when he is given required
authority too. Authority and responsibility always go together. One is meaningless
without the other.

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5.4. OBJECTIVES OF ORGANISATION
The organisation aims at the achievement of the following aims:

(i) To Help Management


The organisation helps management to have a control over various functions.
The work is divided properly and control centres are established. The authority is
delegated and responsibilities are fixed. It helps management to have a co-ordinated
administration.

(ii) To Increase Production of good results in Academic achievement


The duties are assigned according to the principle of division of labour. The
efficient system of organisation encourages every employee to make his best
contribution raising output. The increase in output and control of wasteful expenditure
helps to decrease the cost of production. The profitability the concern will also go up.

(iii) Co-operation of Employees


The organisational structure will succeed only if employees co-operate in the
work. The employees learn working in closer co-operation of others. The management
introduces various incentive schemes and gives monetary help and other to the
employees so that they work in a team spirit.

5.5. ORGANISATION STRUCTURE


Organisation structure is the establishment of relationships components or
parts of the organisation. It prescribes the relationships among various positions and
activities in educational system. Since various positions are held by persons so
structure creates relationship among them. People are trained to occupy various
positions in the organisation. Organisation structure, once decided, is not changed
easily.

Features of a good organisation structure


A good organisation structure has the following features:-

1. It should be simple and clearly understood.


2. There should be a clear line of authority from top to bottom.
3. The delegation of authority should correspond to the assigned responsibility.
4. As far as possible levels of management should be minimum
5. A person should supervise only that number which he can easily control.
6. It should be flexible and dynamic.

5.6. ORGANISATION CHART


An organisation chart is a diagrammatical which shows important aspects of
an organisation including the major functions and their respective relationships. This
chart shows various positions in the enterprise and their formal lines of accountability.

It also shows the relationships between different departments or divisions of


the enterprise as well as the relationships between executives and their subordinates at
various levels. It helps employees in understanding their position in the organisation
and to know to whom they are accountable. An organisation chart is shown in the
diagram.

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5.7. ORGAQNISATION FOR EDUCATION DISTRACTION
The organization of a national educational system mirrors the philosophy
which under girds and orients its civilization. The structural formulae are derived
from the past and affected by the pressures of contemporary changes and of the
developing future. The past is very persistent and enduring in its effect. The structure
of modern education has been derived from such different sources as the Reformation
vernacular elementary school, the Latin grammar secondary school and the medieval
university, with consequent lack of continuity and articulation. As we have seen in the
study of the education systems of various cultural areas, the indigenous history of the
civilization has a definite effect on the on the structure. The general structure of
education has different relationship to the chronological ages of the children and the
major periods of infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

Some primary organizational differences should be underlined. The classic


elite system of education has a common elementary or primary school. A few, at age
eleven or twelve, are allowed to continue in special secondary schools leading to the
university and professional schools. The rest of the school population pursues a
continuation of the elementary school which terminates formally at fourteen or fifteen
years of age. Under the elite system about three to five per cent of the age group go
into higher education. The universal system of education includes all of the school
population in common elementary and secondary school which hold the majority of
the school population despite some dropouts until age sixteen to eighteen
Approximately ten to twenty per cent continue their studies in some institution of
higher education.

Provision for continuity between the various stages of education is an


important characteristic in an educational system. In Russia the emphasis is placed
upon a ten school system. Within this continuity are divisions at the secondary level
into various types of schools such as vocational techniques and newer polytechnic
schools. In the European school structure, there are breaks between elementary and
secondary education which have been attacked in various ways. The German
Rahmenplan uses extensions of the Grundschule through additional grades to gain
continuity. The French have employed course complementaries to provide further

63
articulation between the ecole and the lycee. The United States provides for
continuity by making the last grade of the elementary school a bridge over into the
more specialized subject-matter instruction of the junior high schools. The junior high
school provides a transition into the similar but there are more highly developed
senior high school. The junior college and the first two years of the four-year college
are increasingly organized to provide a better transition into the different tempo and
demands of university work. The structuring of an educational system so that there is
segregation by the sexes is generally the case in Europe and Asia. Co-education is
generally the rule in the United States. The educational systems policy with regard to
streaming. Or homogenous grouping according to ability is another aspect of
structure. England use streaming very effectively. The evolution of school and
educational buildings themselves reflects the organization of education, although
splendid modern teaching is done in ancient structures. A trend had developed toward
campus patterns of organization with buildings grouped on sufficient ground space to
provide for open air sports and outdoor laboratory work, further expanded by
transportation facilities to make more extensive use of the community and regional
opportunities for education.

Pre-elementary education has been made a regular part of the school structure
in France with the ecole maternelle for two to five-year-olds. Russia has built up an
extensive pre-elementary structure. Generally speaking, the pre-school and
kindergarten structure has lagged behind the succeeding stages of the school system.
The internal organization of elementary education differs greatly in various cultures.
In many countries the traditional elementary school organization is that of grades
subdivided into one-room classes or forms, such carrying out its own days work
centered around books, blackboards, and notebooks. In contrast, a more flexible
elementary structure involves movement from the home-room working area to other
facilities: the gymnasium, library, laboratories, art rooms, studios, playing fields, and
gardens.

The organization of secondary education is in a process of flux. Countries are


in the midst of a controversy the retention of the older specialisation types of
secondary school with close correlation between social class and type of school and
the newer trend toward schools of high quality which ate equally accessible to all
children. England may well retain a variety o secondary schools grammar, technical,
comprehensive and modern-with enrichment of all types so as to give equally high
standards of education France and Germany are making their own careful considered
changes. The coming of modern industrial urbanized society made it unwise to retain
separate secondary educational systems for different social classes because the need
for well-educated human beings increased and could not be filled from the limited
numbers of privileged groups. After World War II, major shifts began to take place in
the direction of compulsory free secondary education through the sixteenth year and
beyond. Europeans claimed that scholarships and various types of financial aid always
gave the most talented an equal opportunity no matter what their but statistical
surveys did not substantiate this view since there were too few places for all the
available talent.

The changes in secondary educational organization have included several


phases. The special preparatory elementary schools controlled by secondary education
were generally abolished. The school-leaving age was raised from twelve to fourteen,

64
fifteen, or sixteen years so that all children could enjoy the benefits of secondary
education on an equal footing in accordance with their age, aptitude and ability. The
setting up of consolidated or modern schools for rural children helped equalize
opportunities. In the more highly developed and mature countries, the trend was to
delay the choice of a vocation which previously had to be made at eleven or twelve
years of age to sixteen years or later. In underdeveloped countries secondary
education is the most critical stage in organization because enough places much be
provided for every talented student in order to provide sufficient recruits for higher
education which produces the highly trained, professional, technical man power
essential to the countrys advancement.

The organization of higher education is different in various cultures of the


world today. In general, continental Europe has a highly selective system of higher
education which is actually a series of graduate professional schools. Universities
follow the model of the University of Paris with the great faculties of the arts and
sciences, law, medicine, and theology. The technical, engineering, educational, and
applied areas are separate from the universities as in the grandesecoles of France and
the Technische Hochschulen of Germany and Switzerland. A unique characteristic of
the older English university was the combination of general intellectual training
provided by the university lecture halls and laboratories with the separate residential
colleges of the university which emphasized the tutoring of the individual not only as
a scholar but as a gentleman.

In the United States, the universities are less selective and begin with general
undergraduate education. The universities also became comprehensive, including on
the same campus not only the traditional faculties but also the special schools of
architecture, business administration, education, and engineering. Some specialized
technical schools continue but the trend is toward the more generalized and
comprehensive university. The universities are the most effective organization yet
devised for creating the high-level intellectual manpower essential to the solution of a
wide range of problems caused by the long- range factors which shape the civilization
and its education. Only the university has sufficient intellectual breadth, depth, and
continuity to provide the scholars, students, working areas, libraries and laboratories
which are essential to the ongoing processes of teaching, research, and service. The
university is the peak of the educational pyramid and its graduates can very rapidly
affect their surroundings by their intellectual contributions. The relative growth of
university populations in totalitarian nations and relative growth of university
population in totalitarian and in democrat nations will do much to determine the
outcome of the struggle for power.

5.8 Questions (1Mark)


1. Define organistion
2. What are the objectives of organisation?
3. What do you mean by organization Structure
4. Draw the organization chart.

II Short answer-Question (6 Mark)


5. What are the characteristic of an organisation?
6. Write the steps in organization process
7. Write the features of a good organization structure

65
8. How will the organization encourage the employees to achieve good
results in Academic Achievement
9. What is Division of Work?

II Long Answer-Question (15 Mark)


10. Write an essay about organization for Education distraction

5.9. SUGGESTED READINGS


1. Educational technology and the management R.P. Bhatnagar
2. Educational Planning and Management K.S. Chalam
3. School Administration and Organisation R.C. - Sharma

66
CHAPTER VI
CENTRAL STATE BODIES AND DELEGATION DECENTRALISATION

6.0. Introduction
6.1. Centre State relations in Education in India
6.2. National Institute of Educational Planning
6.3. Central board of Secondary education New Delhi
6.4. Delegation Definition
6.5. Principles of Delegation
6.6. Types of Delegation
6.7. Importance of Delegation
6.8. Decentralisation Definition Measurement
6.9. Advantages Disadvantages of Decentralisation
6.10. Distinction between Decentralisation and Delegation
6.11. Some problems of Educational Administration and organizational
competence in India
6.12. Questions
6.13. Suggested Readings

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6.0 INTRODUCTION
Till 1975 education was primarily a state responsibility. It was recently made
a concurrent subject. The central government can also legislate on education and if
there is a difference between a central and a state act, the former will prevail. In the
same way ministry of human resource development has an important role in
Educational system and its organisation. UGC, RSS, KHSM, NVS, NCTE, CBSE,
KVS are some of the statutory organizations having responsibilities to achieve the
aims and objectives of the educational system. General and specific delegation,
formal or informal delegation, written or unwritten delegation downward or upward
delegation etc are some of the process in delegation while taking steps to achieve the
effective, essential organisation work. Centralisation and decentralization also very
important according to the environment, work load, financial condition of an
organisation. So every one should know the impact of decentralization as well as
advantages and disadvantages of decentralization with respect to educational
organisation.

6.1. CENTRE - STATE RELATIONS IN EDUCATION IN INDIA


Taking into consideration the constitutional position of education in India,
there is a need to take appropriate measures to strengthen the relationship between the
Central and the State governments in the planning and administration of education in
the country. A similar position in this field (education) exists in some other countries
too, e.g. Australia, Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), and United States
of America. These countries also try to sort out problems relating to some relationship
in their own ways. In the case of India, while the State governments have a right to
take independent decisions in educational matters, within their jurisdiction, the Union
government has also to discharge its responsibilities, many of which concern the
governments of the constituent units too.

In order to enable the Union government to function with goodwill and


cooperation of the State governments, a number of all India forums have been
developed.

Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE)


State Education Ministers Conference
Planning Commission
National Development Council
Finance Commission
CABE
The Central Advisory Board of Education popularly known as CABE, is the
supreme advisory body in the field of education. It includes the minister of education
of every State and Union Territory, Chairman of UGC. Member (education) of
Planning Commission, Chairman of the All India Council of Sports, National Book
Trust, and National Council of Womens Education, Vice-chancellors of a number of
Indian universities, and other educationists. The Union Minister of Education is the
Chairman of the Board. It generally meets once a year and makes recommendations
for the benefits of both the Central and State governments. The composition and
nature of working of the Board enables it to discuss various educational matters from
academic, financial and other angles. It usually attends only to larger issues or of
policy matters.
State Education Ministers Conference

68
The periodic Conferences of the State Education Ministers under the
chairmanship of the Union Minister of Education provide another forum of a similar
kind. But it can examine more closely the practical implications and the process of
execution of specific policies and programmes in education. Progress of on-going
schemes can also be reviewed so that States can benefit from the experience of other
States.

Educational problems of concern to one or more States can well be raised for
consideration and discussion among the State Ministers of Education with the advice
of the Union Minister of Education. During these conferences, consultations can also
be had, wherever necessary, with the Member (Education) in the Planning
Commission, Chairman of the U.G.C. and any other central authority who can be
specially invited to the conference. In any case, the conference provides a platform for
the State Ministers of Education to meet and -consider educational issues pertaining to
their States with a focus on the whole country; and in this manner they serve to
strengthen Center-state relationship.

Planning Commission
The Planning Commission is a Central Government organisation. It is charged
with the responsibility of preparing the development plans for the whole country. For
doing so, the Commission will study the available resources and the needs on which
they are to be spent. It is also required to determine priorities, allocate the resources to
meet the needs, and review the planning process as well as the implementation of
individual programmes and schemes. In the field of Education and other State
subjects, the Commission functions with full consultation and advice of the State
governments and concerned Ministries at the Center. The Commission also thus
becomes another agency to bring the Central Education Ministry and the State
Education Departments closer to each other.

The entire draft plan for development, including the principles and policies on
which it is based, is placed by the Planning Commission before the National
Development Council. A meeting of the Council may also be convened for
consultation and advice with respect to the lines on which a new plan is to be
formulated or other major issues connected with it. The Council has on it every State
Chief Minister or the corresponding functionary of a union Territory as its member
along with the Central Ministers. The Prime Minister is the chairman of the Council.
The Constitution of the Council provides the final decision on a plan or any of its
parts can be taken only by the Council. This while the preparation of the plan is
largely done by the Planning Commission (a Central Ogranisation), the final verdict
on it rests on the State Governments at the level of their Chief Ministers. In this
manner, the Council also contributes to strengthen the Centre-state relationship,
particularly in education and other subjects for which the States are primarily
responsible.

Finance Commission
It is a constitutional obligation on the Government of India to appoint every
five years a Finance Commission. This body is to survey the financial status of the
Central and State governments including their financial commitments. On that basis,
it can recommend diversion of part or whole or any of the sources of income of the
Central Government to the State governments. It can also recommend special grants

69
from the Centre to one or more State governments for specific or general purposes.
The Commission, again a body set up by the Central Government, studies the matters
on the basis of data and facts supplied by the State governments and in consultation
with them. Since for any kind of economic development today, money is a very
important input, the Finance Commission becomes an agency so bring the Centre and
the States together and strengthen their relationship.

6.2. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND /


ADMINISTRATION, NEW DELHI (NIEPA):
This Institution was established in the year 1972 as a successor to the Asian
Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi under the Societies
Registration Act of 1860. The Institution is governed by a Council and its day-to-day
administration is looked after by an Executive Committee. It is headed by a director
who is assisted by a number of academic and administrative persons.

The various functions assigned to the Institute include research in educational


planning and administration, provision of training in the same field to Indian
personnel as well as to senior educators from the Asian countries on their request, and
preparation and publication of relevant literature. It has been running a number of
training courses for the benefit of senior educational administrators and planners of
various state governments and universities. The Institute also runs a six-month
correspondence courses in educational planning and management.

6.3. CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, NEW DELHI


(CBSE):
This organisation is also a registed society. It was set up in the year 1962. It is
required to help in raising the standard of secondary education in the country by
conducting secondary and higher secondary examinations for the All-India and other
schools (e.g. public schools, convent schools, and Kendriya Vidyalaya) which may be
affiliated to the board. The curriculum and books prescribed or recommended by the
board for its own examinations and are generally higher than those prescribed by the
various state boards of secondary education in the country. Till recently, about 1100
schools were affiliated to the Board. Of these, 8 were from outside India.

The Board, as a society, consists of about 45 members. They include a


full-time and paid chairman, vice-chairman, secretary and joint secretary,
Representatives of the Union Territories whose schools are affiliated to the Board are
its members. Six members representing the professions of engineering, agriculture,
medicine, industry and commerce, fine arts and home science are nominated by the
Government of India as members of the Board. The secretary of the Board is its chief
executives. The board is at present conducting a number of secondary, higher
secondary and senior secondary examinations under the 10+2 pattern of education.

2. Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan, New Delhi (KVS):


This organisation was set up in 1965 as a registered society is order to provide
educational facilities to children of transferable central government employees and
other floating population in India. The schools of the Sangathan are dispersed all over
the country and one is in Kathamandu (Nepal). For the high school and senior

70
secondary examinations, the schools are affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary
Education.

The Union Minister of State or Deputy Minister for Education who may be in
charge of secondary education is generally the chairman of the Sangathan as a society.
The head of office of the Sangathan is a Commissioner. It has set up five regional
offices in different parts of the country in order to facilitate administration of the
Vidyalayas. All the viclyalayas are bilingual in character and both English and Hindi
are taught compulsory from class I onwards.

3. Rashtriya Sanskrit Sanathan, New Delhi:


It has been set up by the Government of India as a registered society to
propagate, develop, and encourage Sanskrit learning and research. It also administers
the Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeaths located at Tirupati, Delhi, Allahabad, Jammu
& Kashmir, Pun. They impart instruction in Sanskrit on traditional lines. Course
organised at these institutions lead to the award to certificates and degrees from
Prathama (Middle) to Acharya (M.A.) Vachaspati (Ph.D.) and Vidyaparidh (D.Litt.)

The Union Minister of Education is the Chairman of the Sansthan as a society.


The Deputy Education Adviser (Sanskrit) in the Union Department of Education is the
Director of the Sansthan. Other officers and staff of the Sanskrit unit of the same
department provide secretariat assistance to the Sansthan.

4. Kendriya Hindi Shikshan Mandal, Agra:


This organisation which also is a registered society, along with the Kendriya
Hindi Nideshalaya (Central Hindi Directorate), New Delhi (a subordinate office of the
Union Department of Education) enables the Government of India to discharge its
constitutional responsibility in the field of propagation and development of Hindi.
There is campus office at new-Delhi New Delhi this organisation. The union
Department of Education appoints the Chairman and the Secretary of the Society. The
secretary of the society is ex-officio Director of the institution and is a full-time paid
person.

5. National Council for Teacher Education:


The National Council for Teacher Education, in its previous status since 1973,
was an advisory body for the Central and State Governments on all matters pertaining
to teacher education, with its Secretariat in the Department of Teacher Education of
the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT). Despite its
commendable work in the academic fields, it could not perform essential regulatory
functions, to ensure maintenance of standards in teacher education and preventing
proliferation of substandard teacher education institutions. The National Policy on
Education (NPE), 1986 and the Programme of Action there under, envisaged a
National Council for Teacher Education as a statutory body came into existence in
pursuance of the National Council for Teacher Education Act, 1993 (No. 73 of 1993)
on the 17th August, 1995.

71
Objectives
The main objective of the NCTE is to achieve planned and coordinated
development of the teacher education system throughoutthe country, the regulation
and proper maintenance of Norms and Standards in the teacher education system and
for matters connected therewith. The mandate given to the NCTE is very broad and
covers the whole gamut of teacher education programmers including research and
training of persons for equipping them to teach at pre-primary, primary, secondary and
senior secondary stages in schools, and non- formal education, part-time education,
adult education and distance (correspondence) education courses.

6.4. DELEGATION DEFINITION


O.S. Hiner1: Delegation takes place when one person gives another the right
to perform work on his behalf and in his name, and the second person accepts a
corresponding duty or obligation to do what is required of him.

Douglas C. Baril2: Delegation refers to a managers ability to share his


burden with others. It consists of granting authority or the right to decision-making in
certain defined areas and charging subordinates with responsibility for carrying
through an assigned task.

6.4.1. ELEMENTS OF DELEGATION


Delegation involves following three elements:

1. Assignment of Responsibility
The first step in delegation is the assignment of work or duty to the
subordinate i.e. delegation of authority. The superior asks his subordinate to perform a
particular task in a given period of time. It is the description of the role assigned to the
subordinate. Duties in terms of functions or tasks to be performed constitute the basis
of delegation process.

2. Grant of Authority
The grant for authority is the second element of delegation. The delegator
grants authority to the subordinate so that the assigned task is accomplished. The
delegation of responsibility with authority is meaningless. The subordinate can only
accomplish the work when he has the authority required for completing that task.
Authority is derived from responsibility. It is the power to order or command,
delegated from superior, to enable the subordinate to discharge his responsibility. The
superior may transfer certain rights like spending of money, use of material,
requisition of workers, direct the work of others, etc. The purpose of this transfer is to
enable the subordinate to complete his assigned work properly. There should be a
balance between authority and responsibility. The superior should delegate sufficient
authority to do the assigned work.

3. Creation of Accountability
Accountability is the obligation of a subordinate to perform the duties
assinged to him. The delegation creates an obligation on the subordinate to
accomplish the task assigned to him by the superior. When a work is assigned and
authority is delegated then the accountability is the by-product of this process. The
authority is transferred so that a particular work is completed as desired. This means
that delegator has to ensure the completion of assigned work. Authority flows

72
The manager delegates authority to his subordinate while the latter is
accountable to the former. The downward flow of authority and upward flow of
accountability must have parity at each position-of management hierarchy. The
subordinate should be made accountable to only one superior. Single accountability
improves work an discipline.

6.5. PRINCIPLES OF DELEGATION


The following are the principles of delegation:

1. Principle of Functional Definition


The related or similar activities should be grouped together according to
enterprise function. When the definition of a position is clear then delegation of
authority becomes simple. In the words of Koontz and ODonnell the more a
position or a department has clear definitions of results expected, activities to be
undertaken, organisation authority delegated and authority and informational
relationships with other positions understood, the more adequately the individuals
responsible can contribute toward accomplishing enterprise objectives.

It is very difficult to define a job and the authority required to accomplish it. If
the superior is not clear about the results expected then it becomes all the more
difficult. It should be clear who should do what so that amount of authority is
delegated. Dual subordination results in conflicts, division of loyalty and lack of
personal responsibility for results.

2. Principle of Unity of Command


The basic management principle is that of unity of command. This principle
states that a subordinate should report only to single superior. This will give a sense of
personal responsibility. Although it is possible for a subordinate to receive orders
from more superiors and report to them but it creates more problems and difficulties.
An obligation is essentially personal and authority delegation by more than one
person to an individual is likely to result in conflicts in both authority and
responsibility. This principle is also useful in the classification of authority-
responsibility relationships.

3. Principle of Delegation by Results Expected


The delegation of authority should be based on the basis of results expected.
The authority should be sufficient to achieve the desired results. If the authority is
insufficient then only actions will not be achieved. So there should be a balance
between the results expected and the authority required.

4. Principle of Absoluteness of Responsibility


The responsibility of a subordinate, once he has accepted the work, is absolute
to his superior. The responsibility of the superior does not decrease once he has
delegated authority. A person can delegate authority and not responsibility. He will
remain accountable for the work even if it is delegated to the subordinate. So the
responsibility of superior and subordinate remains absolute.
5. Principle of Parity of Authority and Responsibility
Since authority is the right to carry out assignment and responsibility is the
obligation to accomplish it, there should be a balance between the both. The

73
responsibility should bear logical relationship with authority delegated. The
subordinate should not be burdened with high performance responsibility with
delegating enough authority. Sometimes the authority is delegated but the concerned
person is not made accountable for its proper use. This will make a case of poor
management. The parity between authority and responsibility will be essential for
achieving efficiency.

6. Authority Level Principle


The principle that decision-making should remain at the level at which
authority is delegated. The managers delegate authority to subordinates but have the
temptation to make decisions for them. They should allow the subordinates to take
their own decisions as per the authority delegated to them. The delegation of authority
will be affective only when it is clear and understandable to subordinates. The
subordinates should know the area of their decision making and should avoid the
temptation of referring things to higher ups. In the words of Koontz and ODonnell,
the authority level principle would be maintenance of intended delegation requires
that decisions within the authority competence of individuals be made by them and
not be referred upward in the organisation structure.

7. The Scalar Principle


The scalar principle refers to the chain of direct authority relationship from
superior to subordinate throughout the organisation. The ultimate authority must rest
somewhere. Subordinates must know to whom they should refer the matter if it is
beyond their authority. More clear of authority from top manager to every subordinate
will be responsible in decision-making.

6.6. TYPES OF DELEGATION


Delegation may be of the following types:

1. General or Specific Delegation


When authority is given to perform general managerial functions like
planning, organising, directing etc., the subordinate managers perform these functions
and enjoy the authority required to carry out these responsibilities. The chief
executive exercises overall control and guides the subordinates from time to time.

The specific delegation may relate to a particular function or an assigned task.


The authority delegated to the production manager for carrying out this fu41tionwill
be a specific delegation. Various departmental managers get specific authority to
undertake their departmental duties.

2. Formal or Informal Delegation


Formal delegation of authority is the part of organisational structure.
Whenever a task is assigned to a person then the required authority is also given to
him. This type of delegation is part of the normal functioning of the organisation.
Every person is automatically given authority as per his duties when production
manager gets powers to increase production then it is a formal delegation of authority.
Informal delegation does not arise due to position but according to
circumstances. A person may undertake a particular task not because he has been
assigned it but it is necessary to do his normal work.

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3. Written or Unwritten Delegation
Written delegation is through letters, instructions, circular, etc. Unwritten
delegation is through conventions, customs, etc.

4. Downward or Upward Delegation


In downward delegation a superior delegates authority to his immediate
subordinate. This is the common type of delegation and is used in every type of
concern. Upward delegation takes place\when a subordinate assigns some of his tasks
to his superior. This is uncommon type of delegation and its instances are very rare.

6.7. IMPORTANCE OF DELEGATION


Delegation is a universally accepted principle. It has been practiced since time
immemorial and in every field. Delegation is necessary not only for a business
undertaking but also for running a government. In government, legislative bodies
delegate their powers to Council of Ministers who in turn delegate to officers and so
on. Delegation is essential even for running a family because head of the family will
have to get the help of various members for performing various tasks. An industrial
undertaking benefits by delegation in the following ways:

1. Relieving Top Executives


Top executives cannot perform and supervise each and every work. Moreover
they are required to undertake important tasks of planning and controlling. Delegation
helps executives in delegating their work to subordinate officers.

2. Improved Functioning
In the absence of delegation some persons may be burdened with more tasks
while others may not have sufficient work to do. Delegation helps in rationalising the
functioning of an organisation. Work is divided among various persons in such a way
that it is done in an efficient way. Nobody is unduly burdened and no work is left
unattended.

3. Use of Specialists
Delegation enables the use of specialists for taking up different functions.
A production manager will be assigned the task of production, a sales manager will
look after sales department, a lawyer will look after legal matters and so on. The use
of specialists for different functions will improve the quality of work.

4. Helps in Employee Development


When subordinates are given independent assignments then they will be able
to use their initiative and experience. This will also give them confidence in taking up
further responsibilities. Without delegation, subordinates will not get a chance to try
their knowledge. Delegation of power is the best way of developing subordinates and,
preparing them for taking up more responsibilities in future.

5. Helps in Expansion and Diversification


The expansion and diversification of an interprise needs the services of more
and more persons. The assignment of various tasks to subordinates will prepare them
for undertaking new assignments. If subordinates are not assigned important works

75
earlier then it will be dangerous to hive them independent tasks straight way.
Delegation is very useful for undertaking expansion and diversification plan.

6.7.1. GUIDELINES FOR MAKING DELEGATION EFFECTIVE


The failure of delegation process may be the outcome of half-hearted approach
on the part of superiors or subordinates. When delegation is partial,. unclear,
inconsistent with the results expected it is bound to prove a failure. A number of steps
are required to make it effective.

1. Defining of Assignments
The work of every person should be properly defined. The results expected
from them should be made clear. They should be given sufficient authority to
accomplish the given results.

2. Proper Selection of Persons


The persons should be selected in the light of the job to be done. The
delegation will be influenced by the qualifications of persons. With the assignment of
a work, the authority required for completing it will have to be delegated. If the
concerned person is not capable of exercising such authority then the purpose will be
solved. The personnel manager should keep these things in mind while selecting
persons for various positions.

3. Proper Communication
There should be an open line of communication. By delegating authority
superior does not abdicate his right to interfere or he is not absolved of responsibility.
There may be changed circumstances which require new plans and delegation may
have to see in the new situation. There should be free flow of information between
superior and subordinate. The subordinate should be furnished information with
which to make decisions and to interpret their correctly. Communication is essential
for making delegation effective.

4. Establishing Proper Controls


The manager cannot relinquish responsibility, delegation should be
accompanied by adequate controls. The performance of subordinates should be
regularly assessed to see that things are going as per plans. If interference of controls
is to be avoided then steps should be taken to get information about deviations.

5. Rewards for Proper implementation


There should be rewards for effective delegation and successful assumption of
authority. The manager should keep a watch over the performance of various persons.
Those who are successful in delegating properly and those showing good results with
delegating authority should be given pecuniary or other rewards. This will encourage
more and more persons to improve performance.

6.9. DECENTRALISATION - DEFINITION MEASUREMENT OF


DECENTRALISATION

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Decentralisation implies the dispersal of decision-making power at lower
levels of management. When the power to take decisions and formulate policies does
not lie with one person at the top but is passed on to different persons at various
levels, it will be a case of decentralisation. The decisions taken at lower level should
not only be more in number but they should be important also. If insignificant
decisions are allowed to be taken at lower levels then it will not be a case of
decentralisation.

Definitions
McFarland says Decentralisation is a situation in which ultimate authority to
command and ultimate responsibility for results is localised as far down in the
organisation as efficient management of the organisation permits. The delegation of
authority and responsibility is allowed downward upto a level, it is necessary. In
McFarlands views the degree and extent of delegation should be determined as per
the needs of the situation.

Allen continues : Decentralisation refers to the systematic effort to delegate


to the lowest levels all authority except that which can only be exercised at the central
points.

Allen says that authority should be delegated to the lower levels of


management and top management should retain only those powers which cannot be
exercised at lower level. In his view decentralisation will involve systematic
delegation of authority.

According to strong: Decentralisation means the division of group of


functions and activities into relatively autonomous units with overall authority and
responsibility for their operation delegated to a head of each unit.

Earl P. Strong relates decentralisation to the working of different units of an


enterprise. He says that decentralisation will require the delegation of authority to the
persons incharge of different units. They should have sufficient authority to run the
units indepently.

Measurement of Degree of Decentrailsation


Decentralisation is not an absolute term. The degree of decentralisation varies
from concern to concern. Earnest Dale has pointed out that following four tests to
determine the degree of decentralisation

1. Number of Decisions
The greater the number of decisions made at lower levels of management, the
greater is the degree of decentralisation.

2. Importance of Decisions
If important decisions are taken at lower levels then degree of decentralisation
will be more. On the other hand if insignificant decisions are allowed at lower levels
then decentralisation will be much less.

3. Effect of Decisions

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If decisions affecting more functions are allowed at lower levels then
decentralisation will be more. On the hand if only operational decisions are made at
lower levels the centralisation will be less. When decisions involving finances are en
at lower level then degree of decentralisation will be more.

4. Checking of Decisions
When decisions are subjected to the approval of supervisors then
decentralisation will be less. Still, it will be less if superiors are to be consulted before
taking certain decisions. If subordinates are free to take decisions of their own then
will be more)

6.9. ADVANTAGE OF DECENTRALISATION


Some of the advantages of decentralisation are discussed as under:

1. Reduces Burden of Top Executives


Centralisation of authority over-burdenes top executives. They are left with no
time for planning, etc. In decentralisation, decision-making power is delegated to the
lower levels relieving top executives of some of their burden. Under this system top
executives will retain only that work which requires their personal attention otherwise
everything is assigned to persons at appropriate levels. This will reduce the burden of
top executives and they will be able to devote more time for planning, etc.

2. Quick Decisions
Under decentralised system decision making powers are delegated to the level
of actual execution, Whenever there is a need for taking a decision, the concerned
executive will decide the things immediately. There is no need to make reference to
the top level for most of the work. It quickens the process of decision-making.

3. Facilitates Diversification
With the expansion and diversification of activities there will be a need to
delegate authority at departmental level. Decentralisation gives enough authority to
persons at various levels for carrying out the required task. The centralised system of
authority will not allow diversification beyond a certain level because decision-
making is reserved by one man only. The organisation will become more and more
complex with the addition of new products and setting up of more units. Decentralised
system will be more suitable for expanding enterprises.

4. Motivation of Subordinates
Under decentralisation subordinates get opportunity for taking decisions
independently. This fulfils the human need for power, independence and status.
Subordinates will realise their importance in the organisation. They wil1 try to put
their maximum efforts so that their performance improves. They get a chance to take
initiative and to try new ideas. The subordinates feel motivated under decentralised
set-up.

5. Sense of Competition
Under decentralised system different departments of units are separate profit
centres. The employees of different departments will compete with each other to show
better results. The sense of competition will improve the performance of all
departments or segments.

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6. Provides Product or Market Emphasis
Since decision-taking is scattered and goes to lower levels of management
there will be more product or market emphasis. The changing tastes and fashions
require prompt decisions. The decentralised system will respond immediately to the
changing situations. The persons concerned with marketing will take quick decisions
as are necessary under the situation.

7. Division of Risk
The enterprise is divided into a number of departments under decentralisation.
Management can experiment new ideas at one department without disturbing others.
This will reduce the risk if things go adverse. Once the experiment is successful it can
be used in other segments also. So risk element can be limited under decentralised
system.

8. Effective Control and Supervision


With the delegation of authority, span of control will be effective. Since
executives at lower levels will have the full authority to take important decisions, they
will recommend rewards or punishments as per their performance. This will improve
supervision and control.

6.9.1. DISADVANTAGES OF DECENTRALISATION


Decentalisation suffers from a number of drawbacks and some of these are
discussed as follow

1. Lack of Co-ordination
Under decentralisation each department, unit or section enjoys substantial
powers. They have the powers to formulate their own policies and programmes. It
becomes difficult to co-ordinate the activities of various segments. Moreover, every
segment emphasises its own work only without bothering about others. This creates
more difficulties in co-ordinating activities.

2. Difficulty in Control
Since different units work independently it becomes difficult to control their
activities. Top management will not be able to exercise effective control because it
does not remain in touch with day-to-day activities of various segments.

3. Costly
Decentralised system involves heavy overhead expenses. Every decentralised
division has to be self- sufficient for its activities like production, marketing,
accounting, personnel, etc. A number of persons will be employed to man various
activities. These persons are paid higher salaries involving huge costs. Decentralised
system is suitable for large scale enterprise only. Small-scale units cannot afford to
spend higher overhead expenses.

79
4. Lack of Able Managers
Decentralisation System will succeed only if competent persons are employed
to manage various jobs in different segments. Competent persons are not sometimes
available as per the requirements. The system will fail if competent personnel are not
available

6.10. DISTINCTION BETWEEN DECENTRALISATION AND DELEGATION


The words decentralisation and delegation appear to be interchangeable but it
is not so. Even though both involve dispersal authority but decentralisation is an
extension of delegation.

Following are the points of distinction between the two:


Delegation Decentralisation
Delegation is individual- D ecentralisation is totalistic in
listic. It involves two nature. It involves delegation
1. Nature
persons, superior and from top management to the
subordinate. department or divisional level.
In this system top management
Control rests with the exercises minimum control. All
2. Control
delegator or superior. powers are given to concerned
departments or divisions.
Delegation is essential to
Decentralisation is optional
get things done by others.
because it is the philosphy of
Unless otherwise authority
3. Need manage-ment. Top management
is delegated it will be
may or may not lisperse
difficult to assign
authority.
responsibility.
In decentralisation, head of the
In delegation, respon-
department is responsible for all
sibility remains with the
activities under him. He is
4. Responsibility delegator. He can delegate
required to show better
authority and not
performance of e whole
responsibility.
department.

6.11. SOME PROBLEMS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND


ORGANIZATIONAL COMPETENCE IN INDIA
Educational Administration, which should necessarily include functions like
planning, organising, financing, directing, supervising, inspecting and evaluating as
well as elements like setting up of goals of education, review, feedback and
innovation, is a comprehensive term. Problems of educational administration in India
are too many to be discussed in the present lesson unit. The educational thinkers too
are generally aware of these pro6iems. It may, therefore, be best only to list some of
the issues and problems. Such a list obviously cannot be exhaustive nor the listing can
be done on the basis of a ranking, which may be acceptable to all. The issues and
problems are included in the following units:

80
6.12. Questions
I. Very Short Answer Questions (1
Mark)
1. What is NIEPA?
2. What is CBSE? Which year started?
3. In which year NCTE started?
4. What is delegation?
5. What is Decentralization?
6. What are the elements of Delegation?
7. What are the types of Delegation?
8. How decentralization does involve heavy overhead expenses?

II Short Answer-Questions ( 6
Mark)
9. Differentiate Delegation and Decentralization
10. Write the measurement of degree of Decentralization
11. Write the importance of Delegation

III Long Answer Questions (15 Mark)


12. Explain the principles of Delegation
13. Write the advantages and disadvantages of Decentralisation

6.13. SUGGESTED READINGS


1. Administration and Management I.S. Sindhu
2. School administration and organization R.C. Sharma
3. Educational planning and Management K.S. Chalam
4. Kothali commission Abdul Mana Bhagulia
5. Education administration theory and practice John. I.N. wankwo

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CHAPTER VII
DIRECTION AND SUPERVISION

STRUCTURE
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Meaning and definitions of supervision.
7.2 Need and importance of Supervision.
7.3 Distinction between Direction and supervision.
7.4 Control-direction-Co-ordination
7.5 Qualities of a good Supervisor.
7.6 Techniques of Supervision.
7.7 Principles of Effective Supervision
7.8 Suggestions for Improving Supervising
7.9 Direction Definition Characteristics
7.10 Work of Direction in Administration
7.11 Functions of Direction
7.12 Questions
7.13 Suggested Readings

7.0. INTRODUCTION

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In any field, any work can be done more effectively and perfectly under the
guidance and supervision of a mighty mind. So as in Educational system also
direction, supervision plays a vital role. The job of supervision consists of planning
and allocation of work, instructing the subordinates and providing them direct and
immediate guidance and control.

Educational organizations are basically human institutions. Unlike other


organizations like business, industry etc educational organisatons involve people both
as inputs and out puts. In other words education is both a means and an end of human
well-being. Therefore administrative and management concepts need to be carefully
defined and used for effective results. A supervisor, infact becomes a teacher in any
organisation to constantly interact with the subordinates or the worker to teach them
how to improve their efficiency. There is another typical issue involved in education
supervision. As the education in a human organisation, not only the teachers who
look to elders or supervisors or directors or controller for guidance but even students
and their parents need counseling and guidance. Here guidance and counseling and
guidance. Here guidance and counseling is not a part of the supervisory function but
a part of the process of education.

Both direction and supervision are concerned with initiating action, issuing
orders and instructions to subordinates and ensuring performance of work according
to the plans so as to achieve the objectives. Knowledge or organisation, technical
method, administrative ability inspiring ability, good communication, proper listening
habit are the special qualities of a good supervisor or director who may either
autocratic or democratic or Laissez faire, but he should act according to the situations,
problems, and conditions nature of the work in hand. More over the leaders with
human approach will be accommodate easily with his subordinates to achieve the goal
allotted for them. Co-operation Co-ordination, confidence, responding to the fellow
feelings, proper motivation are the essential qualities of a good Educational leader. It
is very difficult nowadays to get such people as an educational leader. The success of
an Educational system depends upon the skill and ability of the leader in carrying with
him the teaching community the management, the students and the public at large.

The efficient leader is transparent in his functioning as an academic


administrator and ultimately accountable accountability and autonomy are the twin
ideas that go together in higher education. Autonomy does not mean that either the
management or the head of the institution is free to make decisions. It means a
challenge, a responsibility, a social commitment in a carrying the dream of the leaders
of higher education to improve the quality of education in the country.

7.1. MEANING AND DEFINITIONS OF SUPERVISION


The term supervision is made up of two words, super and vision. Super
means over and above and vision means the art of seeing objects, perceiving mental
images, to see the work of others. Thus, supervision means overseeing the
subordinates at work. It implies the job of an officer who looks over the performance
of others over and above performing the task himself. In the field of management,
supervision refers to the job of intelligent overseeing of the subordinates at work, so
as:
i.to ensure that they are working according to the plans and policies of the
organisation:

83
ii.to ensure that work is being performed as required ;
iii.to ensure that subordinates are keeping the time schedule;
iv.to ensure maximum utilisation of resources;
v.to help subordinates in solving their problems ; and
vi.to correct the subordinates wherever they go wrong.

Thus, supervision is concerned with initiating action and checking the work
while it is done. It involves implementations of the plans, policies and decisions in
order to achieve the enterprise objectives. The job of supervision consists of planning
and allocation of work, instructing the subordinates and providing them direct and
immediate guidance and control.
Some of the common definitions of supervision are given below:

Supervision refers to the direct and immediate guidance and control of


subordinates in performance of their task. - Vittlas

In the words of Davis, Supervision is the function of assuring that the work is
being done in accordance with the plan and instruction.

According to G.R. Terry, Supervision is the task of achieving the desired


results by means of intelligent utilisation of human talents and utilising resources in a
manner that pro vides a challenge to human talent. It is concerned with initiating
action, putting into effect the plan and decisions by stimulation of the human
resources of the enterprise.

In simple words, we can define supervision as the process of intelligent


overseeing of subordinates at work so as to ensure the desired results.

Supervision is an essential part of the directing function of management. It is


an universal activity as overseeing is to be done at all levels of management from top
to bottom and is a continuous process. The top and middle level management perform
the job of overseeing the management staff, while the supervisory management is
concerned with workers in action. Though, supervision is performed at all levels, its
major responsibility falls upon the first line of management and its importance
increases with the fall in the level of hierarchy or chain of command. The officer who
performs this job of directing and guiding the non-management methods of an
organisation is known as supervisor, foreman, department head, first line manager,
overseer, gang-boss, head clerk, sectional head, crew chief, superintendent or office
head.

7.2. NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF SUPERVISION


Supervision is an essential part of the management process. It refers. to the
direct and immediate guidance and control of subordinates the performance of their
work. It helps to put plans into action towards the accomplishment of enterprise
objectives. Effective supervision is required at all levels of management. The need for
proper supervision arises because of the following:

1. It is very necessary that each subordinate must know that he is supposed to do


and how is to do it. By issuing clear orders and instructions, the supervisor
ensures that each subordinate understands what he is precisely supposed to do

84
and how is to do the same. In the absence of supervision, the subordinate may
not understand his duties properly and his performance may not come upto the
mark.

7.3. DISTINCTION BETWEEN DIRECTION AND SUPERVISION


Both direction and supervision are concerned with initiating action, issuing
orders and instructions to subordinates and ensuring performance of work according
to the plans so as to achieve the enterprise objectives. Both seek to motivate
subordinates and maintain discipline among them. Thus, apparently, there seems to be
little difference between the two. But in reality, direction and supervision are not the
same thing.

Direction differs from the supervision on account of the following:


1. Direction is a wider term than supervision. Direction includes all functions
that are necessary to initiate action on the part of subordinates. It includes
supervision which is one of the important elements of direction. Besides
supervision, the process of direction includes motivation, communication
and leadership.
2. While direction is an important function at all levels of management, i.e.
top level, middle level and bottom level supervision is more important an
activity at the operating level of management and its importance increases
as one descends the chain of command.
3. Supervision refers to direct and immediate control and guidance that
involves face to face contact between the superior and the subordinates.
But direction does not necessarily involve such face to face contact.

7.4. CONTROL - DIRECTION AND CO-ORDINATION


These three are some of the fundamental elements of any administration. The
administrative authorities at various levels have to exercise control over different
aspects of education through the media of rules and regulations norms, and traditions.

The direction is to be provided in the form of orders commands, policies,


programmes suggestions, advice, guidance, and proposals. Ultimately the
administrative machinery is to create and ensure co-ordination between all the wings
of educational setup.

7.5. QUALITIES OF A GOOD SUPERVISOR


A supervisor has to perform various functions. His responsibilities are
manifold and he is the key man in the organisation. His performance directly affects
the success of an interprise. Therefore, the person occupying the position of a
supervisor must possess certain qualities, important of which are as follows:

1. Knowledge of the Organisation


A supervisor should have sound knowledge of his organisation. He should
know the objectives, policies, procedures and plans of the organisation. He should
also have complete information about his subordinates, i.e. he must know about their
strong and weak points, their likings and dislikings and their capacity to perform the
job. He should also be able to determine the number of workers that he could
effectively supervise, i.e. span of supervision.

85
2. Technical Knowledge
A supervisor must know his job well. He should have sufficient technical
competence and skill to supervise, guide and control his subordinates. He should be
thoroughly familiar with the machines, tools and work methods employed by workers
under his control. He should be able to devise work methods, procedures, schedules
and techniques and make necessary improvements in them.

3. Administrative Ability
A supervisor should be an able and efficient administrator. He is to get the
work done from others and therefore he must be a man of imaginative and creative
thinking. He should possess sharp memory and self-confidence. To be a successful
supervisor one must be quick at making decisions. He should be a man of orderly
thinking.

4. Ability to Instruct and inspire


The main function of a supervisor is to direct and guide the workers, therefore,
to be a successful supervisor, he should have the ability to instruct and inspire his
people. A good supervisor should know i. how to instruct his workers; ii. how to
assign them work; iii. how to maintain discipline; iv. how to evaluate their
performance; v. how to settle their complaints and grievances; and vi. how to reward
them suitably so as to provide job satisfaction.

5. Ability to Communicate
A supervisor is a front-line manager. He is to work as a link between the
management and the workers. Therefore, to be a successful supervisor, he must have
the ability to communicate effectively. It can be rightly said that a good supervisor is a
good communicator and a bad supervisor is a bad communicator.

6. Ability to Listen
To be a good communicator, one has to be a good listener. As a supervisor he
has to listen to the complaints, grievances, difficulties, problems and suggestions of
the workers, he should have patience and ability to listen. All the grievances have to
be listened to and tackled intelligently. Unless, a supervisor listens to the problems of
his workers, he cannot communicate these further to the higher levels of management.

7.6. TECHNIQUES OF SUPERVISION


There are various types or techniques of supervision in use. The supervisors
develop their own techniques, i.e. procedures and methods for getting the work
accomplished. The environment of working conditions and situations existing in an
organisation play an important role in deciding the type or technique of supervision.
The techniques or supervisions also depend upon the broad and general policies of the
top management. However, the following various types of techniques of supervision
are in common vogue:

86
1. Autocratic supervision
Autocratic supervision which is also known as authoritarian supervision
implies wielding absolute power. Under this type of supervision, the supervisor
expects complete obedience from his subordinates and the work is to be performed
strictly according to his instructions. No suggestions or initiative from workers is
entertained. Fear of punishment generally used to secure complete obedience. This
type of technique of supervision may be applied to tackle indisciplined workers.

2. Laissez-faire or Free-reign Supervision


Under this type of supervision maximum freedom is allowed to the workers.
They are given free hand in deciding their own policies and methods and to make
independent decisions. This technique ensures maximum initiative from the
subordinates. The supervisor provides help only when it is required by his workers
otherwise he does not interfere with in their work. This technique of supervision
creates self-confidence in the workers and provides them an opportunity to develop
their talents. But it may not work in all situations with all the workers and may bring
problems of indiscipline. Such supervision can be employed with success where
workers are competent, sincere and self-disciplined.

3. Democratic Supervision
Democratic supervision or as participative supervision implies compromise
between the two extremes of autocratic and Laissez-fair supervision. Under this
technique, the supervisor acts according to the mutual consent and the decisions are
arrived at after consulting the subordinates. Supervisors are encouraged to make
suggestions and take initative. It provides necessary motivation to the worker by
ensuring their participation and acceptance of work methods. Mutual trust and
confidence are also created which results in job satisfaction and improved the morale
of the workers. Industrial unrest and strikes are also minimised. But this technique
may sometimes cause delay in decision making and lead to indiscipline among
workers.

7.7. PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION


Supervision is said to be effective if it brings in the desired results,
accomplishes the of an enterprise objectives, ensures maximum utilisation of
resources and increases productivity of workers. Effective supervision is one of the
characteristics of the supervisor. There cannot be any golden rule to make
communication effective. However, the following general principles can be helpful in
making communication effective.

1. Competent Supervisor
To have effective supervision, we must have a competent supervisor who has
all the qualities of a good supervisor, i.e., he should have the knowledge of
organisation, technical abilities, administrative abilities, ability to instruct, inspire,
communicate, listen, secure cooperation, judge people, leadership qualities, physical
vigour and social sensibility.

2. Proper Working Conditions


No supervision can be effective unless we provide proper working conditions
as to environment, materials, tools, equipments and sufficient safety measures.
3. Organisational Set-up

87
Sound organisational set up is a must for making communication effective. It
is very necessary to recognise the role of supervisors in the accomplishment of
enterprise objectives. A supervisor should be provided status, authority and
compensation commensurate with his responsibilities because he will succeed in
motivating others.

4. Human Approach
To make supervision effective, it is very necessary to adopt an employee-
centred approach and not a work-centred approach. The supervisor should be
co-operative and have helpful attitude towards workers. He should be just and fair
and should not adopt a vindictive approach. If the supervisor is concerned only with
the results and not with worker, he may not be able to achieve the desired results
itself. Further, to make supervision effective, he should give due recognition to
the workers for accomplishment of performance.

7.8. SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING SUPERVISION


1. Expansion of the Supervisory Service:
In view of vast expansion of administrative and supervisory work at all levels
in education, it is urgently needed that the supervisory services are strengthened and
expanded accordingly. More of clerical staff should also be provided for the quick
disposal of routine work so that the supervisors attention and time are spared for
more important activities of supervision.

2. Frequency of Inspections and Follow-up Work:


It is suggested that there should be at least two inspections in a year, one of
them may be an informal visit and the other regular annual visit. The requirements of
each school may be ascertained and the number of visits may be increased according
to the frequency of help which a school needs. The remarks and suggestions of the
supervisor should be sent to schools within one week of the visit so that these may be
considered by school personnel for follow-up without any delay. Regular and
persistent follow-up programme is essential to make the supervision effective.

3. Training of Supervisors:
There should be a special pre service training programme for the supervisors,
so that they are equipped with all the know-how before undertaking this specialised
and technical job. After occupying the chair the supervisor is in need of constant
in-service refresher courses, workshops and seminars. He should also remain a regular
reader of educational literature, magazines and periodicals in order to be in touch with
the new developments, ideas and practices in the field of education.

4. Dissemination of Educational Literature:


Supervisor may issue a bulletin at regular intervals for updating the
educational know-how of the teachers. These bulletins may contain abstracts from
books, articles or important speeches on the subject. He may also include in them
references to articles appearing in current educational journals to which the teachers
may try to refer. These may contain important news items and achievements
of various schools and teachers in the area; articles from teachers and other
educationists on different aspects of education, brief reviews of the latest educational

88
literature and results of research, reports, etc. which have come to the notice of the
supervisors.

5. Improving the Methods:


The methods of supervision need periodical review and adjustment under tie
ever changing circumstances. A scientific procedure should be evolved and then
improved further in the light of experience. Academic circulars, orders, instructions
and suggestions should be issued regularly. The supervision should be conducted with
the help of an evaluative criteria. Visits must be supplemented by other reports and
records. Meetings of the teachers should be held frequently for exchange of ideas and
experiences. Supervision can be more effective by forming school complexes,
statistical cell, establishing special institutes at the state level for various subjects and
by having a classification of schools into grades on the basis of needs and standards.

6. Redefining the process of Supervision:


There is need for redefining various aspects of the process of supervision. The
modern aims of supervision are guidance and evaluation rather than criticism and
fault finding. It is democratic and no longer authoritative in nature. Inspection is not
the business of every teacher. Only those who possess outstanding personal qualities,
scholarship, professional background and experience in the field can take up the job.
The exact nature of supervision must be made clear, the various tasks defined and the
various duties specified. Often, the supervisors waste their time and energy in routine-
type of observations.

7. Preparation for Classroom Visitation:


The supervisor should go to visit a class only after adequate preparation. A
wise supervisor will secure as much information as possible concerning the
professional background and abilities of the teacher concerned. Class visitation may
be announced or un-announced. Announced visitation offers the teacher an
opportunity to show his best to the supervisor. Unannounced visit enables the
supervisor to observe the normal class-room work. There should be judicious
combination of both types of visits.

8. Research for Supervision:


In the absence of research in education in general and supervision in
particular, policies continue to be framed on the basis of subjective opinion of
individuals. The supervisor and his associates should carry out action research in their
field, so that they can evolve better approaches in supervision for its improvement.
They should further guide the teachers to carry out research in their own level for
solving their problems.

9. Supervisors Contacts:
The supervisor should establish contacts with the teachers by holding meetings
with them for social purposes, for the improvement of instruction and for discussing
their difficulties, problems and plan. Mostly these meetings should be informal in
nature and be confined to small groups. After the inspection, a meeting of the staff
may be held to have discussion and convey suggestions when everything is still fresh
in everybodys mind. Teachers get-togethers may be planned periodically for
discussing common problems, urgent needs, and particular experiences. Educational
conferences and exhibitions may also be organised for their benefit. The teachers may

89
also arrange cultural programmes on such occasions. The supervisor should be a
genuine leader whose call spontaneously collects the teachers around him. The
supervisory staff should also cultivate intimate contacts with the public or community.
School has a special place in our democratic society, therefore the supervisors should
help in developing close contacts between the school and the community.

In the promotion of good contacts, the supervisors behaviour is very


important. He should form the habit of greeting the teachers in a friendly and
courteous manner. During his classroom visit, he should not choose to offend the
teacher in any manner. He should not interrupt the work of the class or take over any
part of instruction. The language of his recorded observations should also not hurt the
concerned teacher in any way.

10. Promoting Professional Growth:


Very little is being done now by the supervisor for the professional growth of
the teachers. In the get-togethers organised by him, he should invite a number of
teachers to demonstrate the techniques in which they are most proficient and
successful. Motion pictures and film strips may be used whenever possible. The
supervisor should himself to give some model lessons in the presence of the teachers.
In his reports, he should make special mention of the professional growth shown by
any teacher.

For their professional growth, he should also provide them opportunities of


inter-school visitation. He can spot out competent and successful teachers and can
bring others to see their methods, and approach.

11. Spotting out Talented Teachers:


The supervisor should spot out all types of talents among the school personnel
in order to suggest their names to less guidance and inspiration. The methods and
procedures of talented teachers may be publicised in the teaching community for
general benefit. He may also be in a position to refer to the difficulties and problems
to the teachers with known talents and calibre.

12. Co-ordination:
Proper co-ordination should be effected between the various supervisors,
subject experts and headmasters in order to arrive at the root cause and real nature of a
difficulty or problem. In a way all the agencies involved in the improvement of
instruction should work in close co-operation and co-ordination.

13. Change in Outlook


Attempts are made recently to remove the barriers existing between the
supervisory staff and the school personnel. It should be accelerated. The supervisory
staff should have a genuine desire to help the school staff. This work will be
facilitated if the supervisor considers himself a senior friend, co-worker, and well
wisher of the teachers. He should also participate occasionally in some activities of
the school, like games, camps, social service programmes, etc.

14. State Institutes of Education

90
These institutions may be set up (already set up in some states) to bring about
qualitative improvement in education. These cater to in service education and
professional growth of teachers and supervisors.

15. District School Boards


This is a new idea. The IEC recommends that a District School Board should
be set up in each district. This board will be responsible for the improvement in
school education in the area in every way. This will look after the qualitative
development of curricula, text books, methods, examinations, etc.

16. Management by Exception


The principle of management by exception, i.e., the arrangement of work in
such a manner that matters requiring special skills and experience are only attended
by supervisor, increases the capacity of the supervisor and helps him in making
communication effective.

17. Effective Communication


To have effective supervision, it is very essential to have an effective
communication system which provides for free flow of ideas, information,
suggestions, complaints and grievances. Without a proper communication system, no
supervisor can carry his job successfully.

7.9. DIRECTION
The word direction means to take work form others. In other words,
directions is to guide or direct a function toward the desired direction. Directions is
also called by the terms of operation, guidance etc. The chief definitions of direction
are as follows:

The heart of administration is the directing function which involves


determining the course of giving orders and instructions, providing the dynamic
leadership
- Marshall E. Democ

Direction is a complex function that includes all those actins which are
designed to encourage subordinates to work effectively and effectively in both the
short and long run.
- Koontz and O Donell

Directing consists of the processes and the techniques utilized in issuing


instruction and making certain that operations are carried on as originally planned.
- Theo Haimann

Characteristics of Good Direction


The characteristics of a good and effective direction are as follows:
1. Direction inspires and stimulates the employees toward fulfillment and
achievement of the objectives of the institution.
2. The need of direction is felt at every level of administration.
3. Direction is a necessary and important function of administration
4. Direction helps make inspection, supervision and evaluation of the
subordinates effective.

91
5. There are two chief objectives of direction to make the employees work and
to prepare the administrations take responsibility.
6. Direction is a continuous process.

The following techniques are used in the field of direction


(a) Delegation of authority
(b) Communication order.
(c) Order
(d) Leadership and supervision
(e) Motivation

7.10. WORK OF DIRECTION IN ADMINISTRATION


Direction has important place in administration because in absence of it, the
administrative works of different nature fail to achieve targets and objectives, besides
they lack control and coordination. As a boat cannot be steered without an oar, an
army cannot fight without a leader, a vehicle cannot be driven without a driver, so an
administration cannot function without direction. According to John Seymour,
Direction in administration is akin to strategy in war. This function concerns itself
with the disposition of resources, the points at which special efforts are to be
concentrated and survival among the stresses and strains of practical life of the
administration.

7.11. FUNCTIONS OF DIRECTION


The following functions are performed under the process of direction.
1. Inspect the works of the subordinates
2. Order the subordinates
3. Establish coordination among various functions.
4. Guide and train the subordinates from time to time.
5. Make control effective.
6. Effectuate the administrative policies.
7. Raise the moral of the subordinates
8. Make communication effective.
9. Provide able leadership to the subordinates and motivate them.

7.12. QUESTIONS
I Very Short Answer- Questions (1 Mark)
1. Define supervision
2. Define Direction
3. What are the three important elements of any administration?
4. What are the three types of Supervision?
5. Write about the pre service training programme for supervisors

II Short Answer-Questions ( 6 Mark)


6. Write the need and importance of supervision
7. Differentiate Direction from Supervision
8. Write the relationship between control Direction and co-ordination
9. Write the characteristics of Direction
III Long Answer Questions (15 Mark)
10. Write the qualities of a good supervisor
11. Explain the principles of Effective supervision

92
12. Give your suggestions for improving supervision.
13. Explain the work of Direction in Administration

7.13. SUGGESTED READINGS


1. Education Administration theory and practice Johnwankwo
2. Essential of Management Koontz
3. Quality Education U.K. Singh and K.N. Sudharshan
4. Business organization and Management R.K. Sharma, Shashik. K. Gupta

93
CHAPTER - VIII

EDUCATION LEADERSHIP

Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Leadership Definition
8.2 Nature and characteristic of leadership
8.3 Types of Leaders
8.4 Formal and Informal Leaders
8.5 Leadership Functions
8.6 Process or Techniques of Effective Leadership
8.7 Leadership in improving Educational curriculum and methods of
teaching
8.8 Importance of leadership in Education of Management
8.9 Questions
8.10 Suggested Readings

94
8.0. INTRODUCTION
Jame. J.Cribbin Says Leaderships a process of influence on a group in a
particular situation at a given point of time and in a specific set of circumstances that
stimulates people to strive willingly to attain organizational objectives and satisfaction
with the types of leadership provided. In this unit four types of leaders and their role
are explained clearly. Educational institutions must have the awareness of these
effective leaders teachers heads those who are producing effective, qualitative citizens
to citizens to the nation.

8.1. DEFINITIONS - LEADERSHIP


Leadership has been defined in various ways. Stogdill has rightly remarked
that there are almost as many definitions of leadership as there are people who have
tried to define it. The definitions given by some famous authors and management
experts are given below.

1. Koontz and ODonnell:


Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce subordinates to work with
confidence and zeal.

2. Dubin, R.:
Leadership is the exercise of authority and making of decisions.

3. Alford and Beatty:


Leadership is the ability to secure desirable actions from a group of followers
voluntarily, without the use of coercion.

4. George R. Terry:
Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group
objectives.

5. Hemphill, J.K
Leadership is the initiation of acts which result in consistent pattern of
interaction directed towards the solution of mutual problem.

6. Jame J. Cribbin:
Leadership is a process of influence on a group in a particular situation at a
given point of time, and in a specific set of circumstances that stimulates people to
strive willingly to attain organisational objectives and satisfaction with the types of
leadership provided.

7. Peter Drucker:
Leadership is not making friends and influencing people, i.e salesmanship. It
is the lifting of mans vision to higher sights, the raising of mans performance to
higher standards, the building of mans personality beyond its normal limitations.

In the various definitions of leadership the emphasis is on the capacity of an


individual to influence and direct group effort towards the achievement of
organisational goals. Thus, we can say that leadership is the practice of influence
threat stimulates subordinates or followers to do their best towards the achievements
of desired goals.

95
8.2. NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADERSHIP
An analysis of the definitions cited above reveals the following important
characteristics of leadership.

1. Leadership is a personal quality.


2. It exists only with followers. If there are no followers, there is no leadership.
3. It is the willingness of people to follow that makes a person a leader.
4. Leadership is process of influence. A leader must be able to influence the
behaviour, attitude and beliefs of his subordinates.
5. It exists only for the realisation of common goals.
6. It involves readiness to accept complete responsibility in all situations.
7. Leadership is the function of stimulating the followers to strive willingly to
attain orgnaisational objectives.
8. Leadership styles do change under different circumstances.
9. Leadership is neither bossism nor synonymous with management.

8.3. TYPES OF LEADERS


The term leadership style refers to the consistent behaviour pattern of a leader
as perceived by people around him. Every leader develops a pattern in the way he
handles his subordinates or followers in the various situations. The leadership style is
the result of the philosophy, personality and experience of the leader. It also depends
upon the types of followers and the conditions prevailing in an organisation.
According to their attitude and behaviour patterns, leaders are classified as .under:
1. Autocratic or Authoritarian style leader.
2. Laissez-faire or Free-rien style leader.
3. Democratic or participative style leader.
4. Paternalistic style leader,

8.3.1 AUTOCRATIC OR AUTHORITARIAN STYLE LEADER


An autocratic is also known as authoritarian style of leadership which implies
wielding absolute power. Under this style, the leader expects complete obedience
from his subordinates and all decision-making power is centralised in the leader. No
suggestion or initiative form subordinates is entertained. The leader forces the
subordinates to obey him without questioning. An autocratic leader is, in fact, no
leader. He is merely the formal head of the organisation and is generally disliked by
the subordinates. The style of leadership may be practised to direct those subordinates
who feel comfortable and depend completely on the leader.

8.3.2. Laissez faire or Free Style Leader


Under this type of leadership, maximum freedom is allowed to subordinates.
They are given free hand in deciding their own polices and method as to make
independent decisions. The leader provides help only when required by his
subordinates otherwise he does not interfere with their work. This style of leadership
creates self-confidence in the workers and provides them an opportunity to develop
their talents. But it may not work under all situations with all the workers all
situations with all the worker and may bring problems of indiscipline. Such leadership
can be employed with success where workers are competent, sincere and self
disciplined.

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8.3.3. Democratic or Participative Style Leader
The democratic or participative style of leadership implies compromise
between the two extremes of autocratic and laissez-faire style of leadership. Under
this style, the supervisor acts according to the mutual consent and the decisions
reached after consulting the subordinates. Subordinates are encouraged to make
suggestions and take initiative. It provides necessary motivation to the workers by
ensuring their participation and acceptance of work methods. Mutual trust and
confidence is also created resulting in job satisfaction and improved morale of
workers. It reduces the number of complaints, employees grievances, industrial unrst
and strikes. But this style of leadership may sometimes cause delay in decisions and
lead to indiscipline in workers.

8.3.4. Paternalistic Style Leader


This style of leadership is based upon sentiments and emotions of people. A
paternalistic leader is like a father to his subordinates. He looks after the subordinates
like a father looks after his family. He helps, guides and protects all of his
subordinates but under him no one grows. The subordinates become dependent upon
the leader.

8.4. FORMAL AND INFORMAL LEADERS


From the view point of official recognition form top management, leaders may
be classified as formal and informal leaders. A formal leader is one who is formally
appointed or selected to direct and control the activities of the subordinates. He is a
person created by the formal structure, enjoys organisational authority and is
accountable to those who have elected him in a formal way. The formal leader has a
two-fold responsibility On the one hand, he has to fulfil the demands of the
organisation, while on the other he is also supposed to help, guide and direct his
subordinates in satisfying their needs and aspirations.

Informal leaders are not formally recognised. They derive authority from the
people who are under their influence. In any organisation we can always find some
persons who command respect and who are approached to help, guide and protect the
interest of the people. They are known as informal leaders. The informal leaders have
only one task to perform, i.e., to help their followers in achieving their individual and
group goals. Informal leaders are created to satisfy those needs which are not satisfied
by the formal leaders. An organisation can make effective use of informal leaders to
strengthen the, formal leadership.

8.5. LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS


Following are the important functions of a leader:
1. Setting goals. A leader is expected to perform creative function of laying
out goals and policies to the subordinates to work with zeal and
confidence.
2. Organising. The second function of a leader is to create and shape the
organisation on scientific lines by assigning roles appropriate to individual
abilities with a view to make its various components to operate sensitively
towards the achievement of enterprises goals.
3. Initiating action. The next function of a leader is to take the initiative in all
matters of interest to the group. He should not depend upon others for

97
decision and judgement. He should float new ideas and his decisions
should reflect original thinking.
4. Co-ordination. A leader has to reconcile the interests of individual
members of the group with that of the organisation. He has to ensure
voluntary co-operation from the group in realising the common objectives.
5. Direction and Motivation. It is the primary function of leaders to guide
and direct his group and motivate people to do their best in the
achievement of desired goals. He should build up confidence and zeal in
the work group.
6. Link between Management and Workers. A leader works as a necessary
link between the management and the workers. He interprets the policies
and programmes of the management to his subordinates and represents the
subordinates interests before the management. He can be effective only
when he can act as the true guardian of the interests of his subordinates.

8.6. PROCESS OR TECHNIQUES OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP


1. The leader should consult the group in framing the policies and lines of
action and initiating any radical change therein.
2. He should attempt to develop voluntary co-operation from his subordinates
in realizing the common objectives.
3. He should exercise authority whenever necessary to implement the
policies. He should give clear, complete and intelligible instructions to his
subordinates.
4. He should build-up confidence and zeal in his followers.
5. He should listen to his subordinates properly and appreciate their feelings.
6. He should communicate effectively.
7. He should follow the principle of motivation.
8. He should have more tolerance, Endurance, non partial towards his
subordinates.

8.7. LEADERSHIP IN IMPROVING THE ACADEMIC CURRICULUM AND


METHODS OF TEACHING:
Teachers as well as the principal need to take the lead in studying and making
positive needed changes. Band wagon approaches have no role to play in improving
instruction. Rather, inservice education, reflection, thought, and deliberation are
needed. Attending workshops, faculty meetings, professional meetings for teachers
and administrators, conducting research in improving instruction, grade level
meetings, and departmental meetings are just a few ways of improving the
curriculum. The focal point of all inservice education should be to improve teaching
and learning situations for pupils. Teaching is a very complex series of actions.

Here, teachers will need to have pupils identify how they wish to learn, based
on the preferred style of leaning. The curriculum will need to be redesigned to
harmonize with these individual styles of learning. Thus, a pupil may prefer to work
by the self or with others, as well as be provided choices in terms of what to learn.
Methods of instruction and sequential approaches of individual pupils learning style
will need to be considered in designing the curriculum. Even the time of day needs to
be identified as to when pupils individually achieve best.

8.8. IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT:

98
The importance of leadership in any group activity is too obvious to be over-
emphasised. Wherever, there is an organised group of people working towards a
common goal, some types of leadership becomes essential. Lawerence A.Appley
remarked that the time had come to substitute the word leadership for management.
Although the concern for leadership is as old as recorded history, it has become more
acute during the last few decades due to the complexities of production methods, high
degree of specialisation and social changes in the modern organisation.

A good dynamic leader is compared to a dynamo generating energy, that


charges and activates the entire group in such a way that new miracles may be
achieved. The success of an educational management depends to a great extent, upon
effective leadership. the importance of leadership can be highlighted from the
following.
1. It improves motivation and morale. Though dynamic leadership managers
can improve motivation and morale of their subordinates. A good leader influences
the behaviour of an individual in such a manner that he voluntarily works towards the
achievement of enterprise goals.

2. It acts as a motive power to group efforts. Leadership serves as a motive


power to group efforts. It leads the group to a higher level of performance though its
presistent efforts and impact on human relations.

3. It acts as an aid to authority. The use of authority alone cannot always bring
the desired results. Leadership acts as an aid to authority by influencing, inspiring
and initiating action.

4. It is needed at all levels of management. Leadership plays a pivotal role at


all levels of management because in the absence of effective leadership no
management can achieve the desired results.

5. It rectifies the imperfectness of the formal organisational relationship. No


organisational structure can provide all types of relationships and people with
common interest may work beyond the confines of formal relationships. Such
informal relationships are more effective in controlling and regulating the behaviour
of the subordinates. Effective leadership uses these informal relationships to
accomplish the enterprise goals.

6. It provides the basis for co-operation. Effective leadership increases the


understanding between the subordinates and the management and promotes co-
operation among them.

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8.9. QUESTIONS
I Very Short Answer Questions (1 Mark)
1) Define Leadership
2) Name the types of Leaders
3) Do you prefer autoerotic leader in your educational system?
4) Who is free style leader?

II. Short Answer-Questions ( 6 Mark)


5) Write the characteristics of leadership
6) Write the Nature of Democratize Style leader with reference to educations
systems
7) What are the techniques to be followed to become an effective leader
8) Write about the leadership in improving the Academic Curriculum and
Methods of teaching

III Long answer-Questions ( 15


Mark)
9) In teaching learning process which type of leadership is suitable? Discuss
10) The Effective Academic Achievement depends upon the Effective Education
leader Justify the above statement

8.6. SUGGESTED READINGS


1. Quality Education U.K. Singh and K.N. Sudharsan
2. Theory into practice Gardner
3. Change and the school Administration Edge Mariou

100
CHAPTER IX
MOTIVATION
STRUCTURE
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Motivation Meaning
9.2 Types of motivation
9.3 Importance of motivation
9.4 Theories of Motivation
9.5 Techniques to increase Motivation among the Employees of
Educational Institutions.
9.6 Questions
9.7 Suggested Readings

101
9.0. INTRODUCTION
Motivation is an important factor which encourages process to give their best
performance and help in reaching their goals. A strong positive motivation will enable
the increased output of students in their academic achievement where as a negative
motivation will reduce their performance. In this chapter the types of motivation,
importance of motivation, theories of motivation techniques to increase motivation
among Employees are explained clearly. Job enrichment has been recognized as an
important motivate by various researchers Every Management tries to spacing certain
motivational techniques which can be employed for improving performance of its
employees.

9.1. Motivation Meaning


Berelson and Steiner say, A motive is an inner state that energizes, activates,
or moves and directs or chainelises behaviour toward goals.

Nature of motivation
Motivation is a psychological phenomena which generates within an
individual. A person feels the lack of certain needs, to satisfy which he working more.
The need satisfying ego motivates a person to do better than be normally does. From
the definitions given earlier the following inferences can be derived:

1. Motivation is an inner feeling which energizes a person to work more.


2. The emotions or desires of a person prompt him for doing a particular
work.

9.2. TYPES OF MOTIVATION


When a manager wants to get more work from his subordinates then he will
have to motivate them for improving their performance. They will either be offered
incentives for more work, or may be in the shape of better reports, recognition etc., or
he may instill fear in them or use force for getting desired work. The following are the
types of motivation.

1. Positive Motivation
Positive motivation or incentive motivation is based on reward. The workers
are offered incentives for achieving the desired goals. The incentives may be in the
shape of more pay, promotion, recognition of work, etc. The employees are offered
the incentives and try to improve their performance willingly. According to Peter
Drucker, the real and positive motivators are responsible for placement, high
standard performance, information adequate for self-control and the participation of
the worker as a responsible citizen in the plant community. Positive motivation is
achieved by the co-operation of employees and they have a feeling of happiness.

2. Negative Motivation
Negative or fear motivation is based on force or fear. Fear causes employees to
act in a certain way. In case, they do not act accordingly then they may be punished
with demotions or lay-offs. The fear acts as a push mechanism. The employees are not
willingly co-operate, rather they want to avoid the punishment. Though employees
work upto a level where punishment is avoided but this type of motivation causes
anger. and frustration. This type of motivation generally becomes a cause of industrial
unrest.

102
In spite of the drawbacks of negative motivation, this method is commonly
used to achieve desired results. There may be hardly any management which has not
used negative motivation at one or the other time.

9.3. IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION


Management tries to utilise all the sources of production in a best possible
manner. This can be achieved only when employers co-operate in this task. Efforts
should be made to motivate employees for contributing their maximum. The efforts of
management will not bear fruit if the employees are not encouraged to work more.
The motivated employers become an asset to the organisation. The following is the
importance of motivation.

1. High Performance
Motivated employees will put maximum efforts for achieving organisational
goals. The untaped reservoirs, physical and mental abilities are taped to the maximum.
Better performance will also result in higher productivity. The cost of production can
also be brought down if productivity is raised. The employees should be offered more
incentive for increasing their performance. Motivation will act as a stimulate for
improving the performance of employees.

2. Low Employee Turnover and Absenteeism


When the employees are not satisfied with their job then they will leave it
whenever they get on alternative offer. The dissatisfaction among employees also
increases absenteeism. The employment training to new employees costs dearly to the
organisation. When the employees are satisfied with their jobs and they are well
motivated by offering them financial and non-financial incentives then they will not
leave the job. The rate of absenteeism will also be low because they will try to
increase their output.

3. Better Organism Image


Those enterprises which offer better monetary and non-monetary facilities to
their employees a better image among them. Such concerns are successful in
attracting better qualified and experienced persons. Since there is a better man power
to development programme, the employees will like to join such organisations.
Motivational efforts will simplify personnel function also.

4. Better Industrial Relations


A good motivational system will create job satisfaction among employees. The
employees will try to contribute their maximum to the management and it will offer
them better service conditions and other incentives. There will be an atmosphere of
confidence among employers and employees. There will be no reason for conflict
cordial relations among both sides will create a healthy atmosphere. So, motivation
among employees leads to better industrial relations.
5. Acceptability to Change
The changing social and industrial situations will require changes and
improvements in the working of enterprises. There will be a need to introduce new
and better methods of work from time to time. Generally, employees resist changes
for fear of an adverse effect on their employment. When the employees are given
various-opportunities of development then they can easily adapt to new situations.

103
They will think of positive side of new changes and will co-operate with the
management. If the employees are satisfied with their work and are not offered better
avenues then they will oppose everything suggested by the management. Motivation
will ensure the acceptability of new changes by the employers.

9.4. TEORIES OFMOTIVATION


It has always been tried to find out the factors which motivate employees
most. There has not been a satisfactory answer until today. Various researches have
been undertaken to find out motivating factors but no generalisations could be
reached. The human nature is so complex that it responds unpredictably at different
times. The motivators differ from time to time, place to place and situation to situation
and person to person. The same set of factors may motivate some persons at a
different time and soon. So, it is very difficult to give a specific theory which will be
universally accepted. Some scholars have devised different theories which hold good
under given situations. Some important theories of motivation have been discussed
here.

9.4.1. MASLOWS NEED HIERARCHY


Motivation is influenced by the needs of a person. There is priority of certain
needs over others. The importance of needs will influence the level of motivation.
A.H. Maslow, an American social scientist, has given a framework that helps to
explain the strength of certain needs. He has categorised human needs into five
categories. He is of the opinion that a person tries to achieve first category first and
then moves on to the next and so on.

Table 1 gives the hierarchy of needs. These needs are discussed as follows:

TABLE - M. 1
Maslows Need Hierarchy
Self fulfilment needs
needs
Esteem or
ego needs
Social
needs
Safety
needs
Physiological
needs

1. Physiological Needs
These needs are most essential for the survival and maintenance of body.
These include food, clothing, drinking, shelter, rest, exercise, etc.
A man will try to satisfy these needs first. Unless physiological needs are satisfied no
other needs will motivate him. Once these needs are satisfied then these will cease to
motivate him and he will want to satisfy the other needs.
2. Safety Needs
Once physiological needs are satisfied then safety needs take the precedence.
These are the needs to be free from physical danger and the fear of loss of job,
property, shelter, etc. One would like to be free from economic worries like loss of

104
job, sickness, old age pension etc. The physical safety against murder, accident, fire,
etc. is also essential. The physical and economic needs act as motivators upto the time
they are not properly met.

According to McGregor, safety needs may serve as motivators in such


circumstances as arbitrary management actions, behaviour which arouses uncertainty
with respect to continued unemployment and unpredictable administration of policy.
The organisation can meet safety needs by installing safety devices at work and can
start pension scheme, insurance plan, etc.

3. Social Needs
Since people are human beings, they need to belong, to be accepted by others.
When social needs become dominant, human beings will strive to have meaningful
association with others. In an organisation workers may form informal groups for
exchange of ideas. If management tries to have close supervision and control then
workers may retort against such environment. The communication among workers
should be encouraged to remove the irritants.

4. Esteem or Ego Needs


These needs are concerned with self-respect, self-confidence, feeling of being
unique, recognition, etc. The satisfaction of these needs brings confidence, power,
control and prestige. Some of the social problems have their roots in the unfulfilment
of these needs.

5. Self Fulfilment or Actualisation Needs


Self fulfilment is the highest need in Maslows hierarthy. This refers to the
needs which helps an individual to develop his potentialities. He tries to do whatever
he can and has a sort of self- development. A person tries to do whatever he is capable
of doing. He tries to bring out something hidden in him. The self-fulfilment needs
give satisfaction to the person concerned and are good for the society also.

Maslow has categorised the needs in order of priority. An individual spends


money from one need to another. When one need is satisfied then the other becomes
the motivator. All the needs are inter-dependent. It is not necessary that only one need
is satisfied at one time. A person may move to other needs even if earlier needs are not
fully satisfied.

9.4.2. CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF MASLOWS THEORY


A number of research studies have been undertaken to know the validity of
hierarchy of needs. Lawlee and Suttle collected data on 187 managers in two different
orgnisations for a period of six months to one year. No evidence was found to support
Maslows theory. They found there were two levels of needs-biological and other
needs-and that other needs would emerge only when biological needs were reasonably
satisfied. A survey conducted in India of 200 factory workers revealed that they give
top priority to job security, earnings and personal benefits-all lower order needs.

It is generally seen that needs do not follow Maslows hierarchy. The hierarchy
determined by individuals is different. They proceed to follow their own pattern of
need satisfaction. Some people may try for self-actuating needs rather than lower
needs. For some persons esteem needs are more important than social needs.

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There is no cause and effect relation between need and behaviour. A particular
need may cause behaviour in different ways in different persons. Similarly, one
particular behaviour may result due to different needs. It is said that higher needs
motivate a person when lower needs are reasonably satisfied. The word reasonably
satisfied is a subjective matter. The levels of satisfaction may be different for
different persons.

9.4.3. HERZBERGS MOTIVATION HYGIENE THEORY


The priority of needs characterises the types of behaviour. The satisfaction of
some needs may not have positive effect or motivation but their non- satisfaction may
act as a negative factor. A question arises as to what types of needs are important for
improving motivation. Frederick Herzberg and his associates conducted a study of
need satisfaction of 200 engineers and accountants employed by firms in and around
Pittsburgh.

The persons were asked to describe a few previous job experiences in which
they felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad about jobs. The influence of these
experiences on job was also studied.

Herzberg concluded that there were two sets of conditions. First type of
conditions, described as maintenances or hygiene factors, do not motivate employees
by their presence but their absence dissatisfied them. The other conditions, called
motivational factors, operate to build strong motivation and high job satisfaction, but
their absence brings dissatisfactions.

Maintenance or Hygiene Factors


These were called maintenance or hygiene factors since they were necessary
to maintain current status, i.e., reasonable level of satisfaction. These factors are more
dissatisfied by their absence but their presence will not motivate. The addition to more
and more of these factors it will not help in motivating if once they are satisfactory.
Herzberg named the hygiene factors, Company policy and administration, technical
supervisions inter-personal relations with supervisor, inter-personal relations with
peers, inter-personal relations with subordinates, salary, job security, personal life,
working conditions, and status. These factors relate to conditions under which the job
is performed. They produce no growth in workers but restrict loss of growth. These
factors are necessary to maintain a reasonable level of satisfaction in employees.

Motivational Factors
The presence of these factors build high motivation and job satisfaction.
However, if these conditions are not present, they do not cause dissatisfaction.

There are six factors: achievement, recognition, advancement, work itself,


possibilities of personal growth, and responsibility. Most of these factors relate to job
contents. The performance of an employee on the job and the satisfaction which he
achieves form them form the contents of these factors. The increase in these factors
will be essential for increasing motivation of employees.

Herzberg pointed out that managers have been very much concerned with
hygiene factors only. They could not enlist the full co-operation of employees by

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increasing salaries etc. They did not realise the importance of motivating factors. The
employees are motivated by the content of the job. The satisfaction which an
employee will derive from the job will go to increase his output. The main agreement
should try to reduce dissatisfaction arising out of hygiene factors and building up the
satisfaction form motivator

9.4.4. CARROT AND STICK APPROACH THEORY


This approach comes from an old story that the best way to make a donkey
move is to put a carrot out in front of him or jab him with a stick from behind. The
carrot is the reward for moving and the stick is the punishment for not moving. For
motivating people to work more some kinds of rewards can be offered. Often this is
money in the form of pay or bonuses. There can be non-monetary rewards too. The
punishment can also be used to push a desirable behaviour of employees. These can
be in the form of reduction in bonus, demotion, fear of loss of job, loss of income etc.

Though there is no reference to carrot and stick in motivation theories hut still
these form the basis of motivation. The control of internal environment in an
orgnisation requires a desired behaviour of various employees. Management uses
rewards as well as punishments for enforcing a particular behaviour. The carrot,
rewards, are recognised in various theories of motivation. The performance of
employees is bound to certain rewards. The employees will be motivated to improve
their performance and they get financial and non-financial incentives in return. The
stick, punishment, also pushes employees to raise their performance. In order to make
the stick to work effectively, some factors may have to be kept in mind. It is important
to decide the proper time of using the stick. The negative motivation can also bring
retaliation form employees. Punishment only temporarily suppresses the behaviour, It
should also be taken into consideration that stick should not become a reward for
undesirable behaviour.

Both carrot and stick should be used judiciously otherwise they will not help
in achieving the desired result.

9.5. TECHNIQUES TO INCREASE MOTIVATIONS AMONG THE


EMPLOYEES OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
Motivation, as discussed earlier, occupies a central place in the teaching-
learning processes. It is, in fact, indispensable to learning. Every teacher, at one time
or the other, is faced with the problem of motivating his students to learn. Therefore, it
is essential to think of the ways and means for achieving motivation in the class-room
situation. The principles of motivation described earlier may provide necessary
guidelines for this purpose. However, in brief, we can adopt the following techniques
in this regard.
1. Child-centred approach
It is the child who has to learn. The teacher only helps him to learn. Therefore,
what the child has to learn, the teacher is only to help him in learning that. But, what
child has to learn, should be judged according to the ability, interest, capacity and
previous experience of the child. Is he mature enough to understand the new material
or do the assigned task? Does he possess necessary skills and abilities for doing the
present task? Is he mentally prepared for the present learning?. These are some of the
questions which should be kept in mind while asking the child to learn something new

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or perform some assigned task. The learning material or experiences should always be
assigned according to the needs, interest and abilities of the child.

2. Linking the new learning with the past


Experience is a great teacher. What has been learned or experienced in the
past, proves a good base for the present learning. The assigned task seems to be
interesting, easy and within the capacity of an individual, if it is properly related with
the past experience. The child is easily motivated to learn the new material if he
thinks that he knows all that which is required as a base for the new learning.
Therefore, it is the duty of the teacher to base his present teaching upon the previous
learning experiences acquired by the pupil.

3. Use of effective methods, aids and devices in teaching


Whatever the subject matter may be, a good teacher with his art of teaching
can stimulate the students for learning. Old dogmatic methods kill the initiative and
interest of the learner while the progressive methods based on the psychological
principles, keep him motivated. The use of audio aid. the service rendered by
museum, library, visit of places etc., directly help the teacher in motivating his
students. Therefore, a teacher should make use of the suitable methods, devices and
aid material in his teaching.

4. Definiteness and goals


One cannot feel interested in a task if one is not of t g by doing that.
Definiteness of aims and the goals makes the learner interested and sets him to work
in a desirable direction. The students must be acquainted well with the aims and
objectives of studying a subject or topic. They may acquire a new skill or experiences
so that a clear perception of may motivate them and bring required results.

5. Knowledge of there results and progress


Every learner wishes to know the result of his striving. When we make
ourselves engaged in doing some task, it is natural to have curiosity about the
progress made in completing that task. The knowledge that we are progressing
satisfactorily, gives us proper incentive. The child, who is attempting Mathematical
problem concerning with a particular topic, gets constant motivation if he is well-
acquainted with his progress. Immediate knowledge of the results provides sufficient
feed-back to the learner. It does not only acquaint him with his success or failure but
also makes him able to plan his future attempts in reaching towards specific goals.
The proper critical evaluation of the pupils work, in terms of specific defects, errors
and good points etc., proves an effective incentive for the desirable improvement.
Teachers should make provision for acquainting the students well with their progress.
For this purpose, proper Record-cards, Graphs and Charts should be maintained in the
schools.

6. Praise and Reproof


Both praise and reproof are the potent incentives. They can be safely used for
the achievement of desired motivation in the class-room situations, which one of these
incentives will prove more effective depends upon the personality of the learner as
well as of the person who gives them. In the case of some individuals, both praise and
rebuke work well while others best to one or the other. Generally, those having
feelings of inadequacy respond more favourably to praise, and those who are self

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assured, work harder after criticism. The ways, in which these incentives are given or
repeated by the teacher, also counts much. The essential condition for the
effectiveness of these incentives, is that. they must either satisfy or threaten our
security or one or more of our other motives. In this way, the teacher must try to
recognize the nature of the students and consequently make use of the praise or
reproof in motivating and inspiring them.

7. Rewards and Punishment


Rewards and punishment-bring the same results as praise and rebuke. Both of
these are powerful incentives and try to influence the future conduct or learning of an
organism favourably. While punishment as a negative motive is based on fear of
failure, fear of losing prestige, fear of insult on rejection, fear of physical pain and so
on; the reward as a positive motive seeks to influence and conduct favourably by
associating a pleasant feeling with the desired act.

As far as possible, the use of punishment as a motivating agent should be


avoided as it kills initiative, leadership, resourcefulness and the spirit of free thinking
and adventurous living. On the other hand, the rewards like prizes, honours,
certificates, medals etc. have psychological value and develop in the students creative
abilities, spirit of emulation, self-confidence and self-respect and other democratic
feelings.

With this discussion, it should not be taken that punishment as a rule should be
decried in all circumstances be given to anybody. In some cases, it brings more
improvement than other hand, indiscriminate and unqualified use of reward proves
harmful as it sometimes tends to become an end in itself. For an example, a student
may strive hard to get the gold medal but in doing so he may be interested, not in
learning but in the medal. Therefore the teacher should be very careful in using
reward or punishment as an incentive to motivate his student.

8. Competition and Co-operation


Competition as a source of motivation is universally recognized. In a simple
language, it indicates the desire to excel others. Now-a-days we find too much
competition in all walks of life. In the field of education, this spirit can be used as a
powerful motivating force. We can create learning situations, where the students of a
class are engaged in a healthy competition. Competition may take one of the two
forms competition against another person or competition against ones own record in
the former form of the competition against ones own re cord. In the former form of-
the competition there lies a danger of developing undesirable habits in the individual
as he may resort to unfair means for excelling others. The other form of competition
stimulates the learner to compete with his own past record. It sets him on the path of
self-learning and provides an-intrinsic motivation. Therefore, the teacher should try to
inculcate the feeling of self-improvement in the learner.

Competition, particularly, the group-competition may give birth to bitter


criticism improper rivalry, enmity and conflicts etc. For removing these bad effects,
the remedy is often suggested in the form of cooperation. The
co-operation as well as competition are used in combination. In this process, the
members of a group may co-operate with each other, while the group competes with
other groups and so on. This type of co-operation and friendly competition develop

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team spirit, community feeling, thinking for a common cause, a sense of unity and
other desirable habits. A wise teacher should try to make use of the competition based
on co-operation and feeling.

9. Ego-involvement
The ego consists of attitudes relating to the self. Everyone of us tries to
maintain status and self-respect. Teachers generally, are in the habit of ridiculing and
snubbing their students. It is not the proper way of motivating them. Instead of using
such means, the teacher should try to motivate his students by appealing to ego
maximization. He should engage them in the activities which can appeal to his self-
respect and raise his status among his class-mates or peers.

10. Development of proper attitude


Attitude is defined as ones to a particular situation. It is closely related-to
attention and interest. A child, who has developed a healthy attitude towards manual
work, takes genuine interest in working with hands, while the other one may have
developed a negative attitude, and shrung away from it. In this way, a favourable
attitude helps the learner in setting of his mind or preparing him mentally for doing a
particular task or learning some thing. Therefore, the teachers should try to develop
proper attitude of his students towards the desired act or learning.

11. Appropriate learning situation and Environment


Appropriate situations and the environment, in which the learning is to be
made by the learner, influence the learning process. A well equipped, healthy class-
room environment proves a motivating force. The child likes to read, write or listen to
the teacher carefully if he finds favourable environment and appropriate learning
situations. The suitability of the school building, the seating arrangement and other
physical facilities available and affection he get from his teachers, the mutual
cooperation and help he gets from his class-mates, the opportunity he gets in the
school co-curricular activities etc. all influence and motivate the learning behaviour of
the child. Therefore, efforts should be made to suitable learning situations and
environment for effective learning.

9.7. QUESTIONS
I Very Short answer Questions ( 1 Mark)
1. Define motivation
2. What are the two types of motivation?
3. Write any two nature of motivation
4. Write the Maslows Need Hierarchy
5. What is Esteem or Ego needs?

II Short Answer-Questions (6 Mark)


6. Write the critical Analysis of Maslows theory
7. What are the Hygiene factors given by Herbergs motivation theory?
8. Write the effect of Reward and punishment technique in educational Institutions
9. How Appropriate learning situation will motivate the learner?
10. How will you follow the Carrot and stick approach theory to motivate the
students in the class room?

III long Answer-Questions (15 Mark)

110
11. What is the importance of motivation in learned? How will you motivate
unwilling pupils of your class to bar willingly?
12. Explain the importance of Motivation.

9.7. SUGGESTED READINGS


1. Advanced educational psychology S.K. Mangal
2. Philosophical and sociological foundations of education N.R. Swaroop
Saxena.
3. Theory and practical-education Administration. John. In. Wantkwo
4. Management Education Trivodhi, K.S. Sudharshan

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CHAPTER X
EDUCATION COMMUNICATION

STRUCTURE
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Meaning-Definition-Process of communication
10.2 Purpose of Communication.
10.3 Importance of Communication
10.4 Types of Communication.
10.5 Barriers to communication.
10.6 Communication in Educational Administration
10.7 Communication Process
10.8 Communication at school level
10.9 Modern Devices of Communication
9.10 Overcoming barriers of Communication in Educational System.
9.11 Questions
9.12 Suggested Readings

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10.0. INTRODUCTION
Communication makes possible the smooth and efficient working of an
institution. It is only through communication that a management changes and
regulates the actions of the subordinates in the desired direction. Moreover
communication skill helps establishing leadership and sound industrial relations. It
also acts as an effective tool of control. Physical, personal. Semantic, premature
evaluation Emotional attitude, are some of the barriers in communication. But
Teaching process depends on two major components one is content and another is
communication. The former determines method and the latter decides the media.
Media and method are often used interchangeably in Education but they are quite
different from one another. In this modern world there are so many modern devices of
communication. Every one related with educational system should learn and acquire
the knowledge of new devices of communication to impart and inculcate his ideas and
means and ways in a successful manner. Proper communication and proper
Co-ordination stand like two pillars of the educational system.

10.1. MEANING, DEFINITION, PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION


The word communication has been derived from the Latin word Communist
which means common. Thus communication means sharing of ideas in common. It
can be defined as exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions between two or more
persons to create a common ground for understanding. Some important definitions are
given below.

Louis A. Allen: Communication is the sum of all the things one person does
when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge of
meaning. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and
understanding.

Theo Haiman : Communication means the process of passing information and


understanding from one person to another. Communication, fundamental and vital to
all managerial functions, is the process of imparting ideas and making oneself
understood by others.

Keith Davis: Communication is the process of passing information and


understanding from one person to another.

An analysis of the above definitions reveals the following features of


communication:

1. Communication involves atleast two persons, a sender and a receiver. The


sender is called communicator and the receiver is called communicate.
2. A communication must convey a message.
3. It may be verbal, written or gesture.
4. It is a two way process. One person conveys the message while the other
receives it. It also involves understanding of the message.
5. Communication aims to motivate a response or influence human behaviour. To
create understanding it should be relevant to the situation.
6. It may be formal or informal
7. It flows downward from the superior to subordinates and upward from
subordinates to a superior.

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8. Communication is an on-going or continuous process.

Communication Process
The communication process has the following steps

1. Sender
The person who sends the message is known as sender or Communicator. He
may be a speaker, writer, actor etc. He formulates the message he wants to convey and
selects the media for sending it.

2. Message
A message is the subject matter of communication. It may consist of facts,
opinions or information he wants to convey. It exists in the mind of the sender.

3. Symbol
The sender translates the message into words, symbols, gestures or some other
form which he feels should be understood by the receiver. This process is known as
encoding of the message.

4. Channel
The encoded message is to be communicated to the receiver. The media for
transmission of message may be a letter, telephone, television etc., the message is
conveyed with the help of selected channel.

5. Receiver
The person who receives the message is known as receiver. The receiver may
be a reader, listener, viewer. He decodes the message and draws meaning from it.

6. Feedback
The effectiveness of communication is measured through feedback. If the
communication brings in the desired changes in the actions or behaviour of the
receiver, it is said to be a successful communication. The communication is complete
when the receiver understands the message.

10.2. PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION

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The main purpose of communication is to effect change in someone i.e. to
influence action or to secure inaction in the overall interest of an enterprise. It enables
us to understand others and to make ourselves understood. Communication serves the
following purposes:

1. To keep employees informed.


2. To provide employees with orders and instructions in connection with their
duties.
3. To solicit information from employees which may aid management.
4. To make each employee interested in his respective job and in the work of the
company as a whole.
5. To express managements interest in its personnel.
6. To reduce or prevent labour turnover.
7. To instill each employee with personal pride in being a member of the
company.

10.3. IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION


Communication is an indispensable part of the process of management. The
success of an enterprise depends upon the effectiveness of communication. Every
manager must communicate in order to get things done through others. A good
communication system offers the following benefits:

1. Basis of Decision-Making and Planning


Communication is essential for decision-making and planning. It enables the
management to secure information without which it may not be possible to take any
decision. The quality of managerial decisions depends upon the quality of
communication. Further, the decisions and plans of the management need to be
communicated to the subordinates. Without effective communication, it may not be
possible to issue instructions and orders. Effective communication helps in proper
implementation of plans and policies of the management.

2. Smooth and Efficient Working


Communication makes possible the smooth and efficient working of an
institution. It is only through communication that the management changes and
regulates the actions of the subordinates in the desired direction.

3. Facilitates Co-ordination
Management is the art of getting things done through others and this objective
of management cannot be achieved unless there is unity of purpose and harmony of
effort Communication through exchange of ideas and information helps to bring about
unity of action in the pursuit of common purpose. It binds the people together and
facilitates co-ordination.

4. Increases Managerial Efficiency


Effective communication increases managerial efficiency. It is rightly said that
nothing happens in management until communication takes place. The efficiency of a
manager depends upon his ability to communicate effectively with the members of his
organisation. It is only through communication that management conveys its goals
and desires, issues instructions and orders, allocates jobs and responsibility and
evaluates performance of subordinates.

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5. Sound Industrial Relations
Effective communication creates mutual understanding and trust among the
members of the organisation. It promotes, co-operation between the employer and the
employees. Without communication, there cannot be sound industrial relations and
industrial peace. It is only through communication that workers can express their
grievances, problems and suggestions to the management

6. Helps in Establishing Effective Leadership


Communication is the basis of effective leadership. There cannot be any
leadership action without the effective communication between the leader and the led.
Communication is absolutely necessary for maintaining man to man relationship in
leadership. It brings the manager (leader) and the subordinates (led) in close contact
with each other and helps in establishing effective leadership.

7. Motivation and Morale


Communication is the means by which the behaviour of the subordinates is
modified and change is effected in their actions Through communication workers are
motivated to achieve the goals of the enterprise and their morale is boosted. Although
motivation comes from within yet the manager can also motivate people by effective
communication, e.g., proper drafting of message, proper timing of communication
and the way of communication, etc.

8. Effective Control
Communication acts as a tool of effective control. The plans have to be
communicated to the subordinates, the actual performance has to be measured and
communicated to the top management and a corrective action has to be taken or
communicated so as to achieve the desired goals. All this may not be possible without
an efficient system of communication.

9. Job Satisfaction
Effective communication creates job satisfaction among employees as it
increases mutual trust and confidence between management and the employees. The
gap between management and the employees is reduced through the efficient means
of communication and a sense of belongingness is created among employees. They
work with zeal and enthusiasm.

10. Democratic Management


Communication is also essential for democratic management. It helps to
achieve workers participation in management by involving workers m the process of
decision making In the absence of an efficient system of communication, there cannot
be any delegation and decentralisation of authority

11. Public Relations


In the present business world every business enterprise has to create and
maintain a good corporate image in the society. It is only through communication that
management can present a good corporate image to the outside world. Effective
communication helps management in maintaining good relations with workers,
customers, suppliers, shareholders, government and community at large.

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10.4. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
There are two main types of in every organisation formal and informal
communication.

Formal Communication
Formal communication refers to official communication which takes place
through a chain of commands. It implies the flow of information along the lines) of
authority formally established in the enterprise. Members of the enterprise are
expected to communicate with one another strictly as per channels laid down in the
structure. For example, when the chief executive issues decisions and instructions to
the subordinates, there is a formal communication which flows downward. In the
same manner formal communication flows upward when the subordinate reports to
the superior.

On the basis of direction of flow, formal communication may be divided into


three categories which are given as follows

1. Downward Communication
Downward communication means the flow of communication from the top
management downward to the operating level. It may also be called a communication
from a superior to subordinates. It follows the line of authority from the top to the
bottom of the organization. Downward communication consists of plans and policies,
orders and instructions, procedures and rules, etc..

2. Upward Communication
Upward communication means the flow of information from the lower levels
of the organization to the higher levels of authority. It passes from subordinate to
superior, as that from worker to foreman, foreman to manager, from manager to
general manager and so on. This communication includes opinion ideas, suggestions,
complaints, grievances, appeals, reports, etc.

Upward communication is very important as it serves as the feedback on the


effectiveness of downward communication. Management is able to know how well its
policies, plans and objectives are followed by those working at lower levels of the
organization. It keeps the management informed about the progress of the work and
difficulties faced in performance. On the basis of upward communication, the
management revises its plans and policies and makes further planning.

Horizontal Communication
The transmission of information and understanding between people on the
same level of organization hierarchy is called the horizontal communication. This
type of communication is also known as lateral or sideward or cross - wise
communication. Usually, it pertains to inter departmental communication, i.e., the
communication between two departmental managers working at the same level of
organisation or among subordinates working under one boss. Horizontal
communication speeds up information and promotes mutual understanding. It enables
the managers working at the same level to exchange information and co-ordinate their
activities without referring all matters to the higher level of management.

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The horizontal communication is generally of an informal nature. Whenever a
departmental head requires some information from another departmental head, he
tends to contact him directly. However, this type of communication can be oral or
written.

Advantages
Formal communication has the following advantages
1. It ensures orderly flow of information.
2. It helps in fixation of authority and maintaining of authority relationship in the
organisation.
3. The Sources of communication can be easily located.
4. It facilitates managerial control by providing information about performance.
5. Formal communication helps in co-ordination of activities and efforts.

Limitations
1. Formal communication is time consuming and leads to a good deal of
distortion.
2. It lacks personal warmth and involvement.
3. The subordinates present rosy picture of their work in order to impress seniors.
4. It is rigid and rule bound.

Informal Communication
Communication arising out of all those channels of communication that fall
outside the formal channels is known as informal communication. Informal
communication does not follow lines of authority as in the case of formal
communication. It is built around the social relationship of members of the
organisation. It arises due to the personal needs of the members and exists in every
organisation. Such communication is usually oral and it may be conveyed even by
simple glance, gesture, smile or silence. It is also called grapevine because the origin
and flow of informally transmitted messages cannot be easily traced just as in the case
of a vineyard.

Informal communication is implicit, spontaneous, multidimensional and


varied. It operates with much greater speed than formal communication. It oftenly
works in clusters of people, i.e. when one person has some information of interest he
passes it on to his informal group and some members of the group may pass it onto
another informal group and so on.

Advantages
1. Informal communication travels very fast. Management can make use of it for
transmitting urgent messages.
2. It supplements formal communication
3. The information which cannot be sent through formal channels can be sent
through it.
4. It enables people to express their views about certain decisions
5. It helps in improving industrial relations by providing emotional support to
employees.
6. Informal communication enables employees to develop friendly relations
amongst them and have social satisfaction.

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Limitations
1. Informal communication may consist of half truths and distorted information.
2. Inaccurate information may bring more harm than good.
3. No responsibility can be fixed for the origin of information.
4. Management should use this channel cautiously because confidential
information may be leaked out.

Rumours
A rumour is an information without any secure standard of evidence. It is an
undesirable feature of grapevine. It is an untrue part of grapevine. Rumours tend to
change as they pass from one person to another. The outbreak of rumours may be
dangerous for the organisation. Therefore, management should be careful in dealing
with the rumours. It should not allow rumours to spread. Management should try to
scuttle rumours by giving out facts and figures about the issues covered in the
rumours.

Distinction between Formal and Informal Communication


Format Communication Informal Communication
It is based on formal or It is not based on formal
1. 1.
ganisational relationship. relationship.
It follows the prescribed It is independent of chain of
2. 2.
chain of command. command.
It is slow as it follows in a It is fast because it has no
3. 3.
planned path. prescribed path.
The chances of distortion of
4. 4. It can be easily distorted.
information are very low.
The status and position of the The status and positions have no
5. 5.
parties is very important. relevance.
Formal communication is Informal messages may not be
6. 6.
authentic. authentic.
It is easy to fix response-
7. 7. Not possible to fix responsibility.
bility for message.
8. It is generally written. 8. It is generally verbal.
9. It does not carry rumours. 9. It may carry rumours.
It serves organizational It serves social as well as
10. 10.
needs. organisational needs of mem-bers.
10.5. BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Communication is the nerve system of an enterprise. It is said to be
No.1 management problem today. It serves as the lubricant, fostering for the smooth
operations of the management process. Thus, it is very essential for the management
to maintain an efficient flow of communication in all directions. But in practice, all
messages are not effectively transmitted or received. Several obstructions, blockades,

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hurdles, stoppages or bottlenecks, called barriers in communication, distort the
message and make communication ineffective. These communication barriers lead to
misunderstanding and conflict between men living in the same community. These
communication barriers lead to misunderstanding and conflict between men living in
the same community, working on the same job and even persons living in different
parts of the world who even do not know each other. A large number of managerial
problems is the result of ineffective or faulty communication. Significant
improvement in managerial efficiency can be made if communication barriers are
toned down or minimised. Some of the important barriers of communication have
been discussed below:
1. Physical Barriers
A communication is a two-way process, distance between the sender and the
receiver of the message is an important barrier to communication. Noise and
environmental factors also block communication.
2. Personal Barriers
Personal factors like difference in judgement, social values, inferiority
complex, biassed attitude, pressure of time, inability to communicate, etc., widen the
psychological distance between the communicator and the communicate. Credibility
gap, i.e., inconsistency between what one says and what one does, also acts as a
barrier in communication.
3. Semantic or Language Barriers
Semantic is the science of meaning. The same words and symbols carry
different meanings to different people. Difficulties in communication arise when the
sender and the receiver of the message use words or symbols in different senses. The
meaning intended by the sender may be quite different from the meaning followed by
the receiver. People interpret the message in terms of their own behaviour and
experience. Sometimes, the language used by the sender may not at all be followed by
the receiver.

4. Status Barriers (Superior-Subordinate Relationship).


Status or position in the hierarchy of an organisation is one of the fundamental
barriers that obstructs free flow of information. A superior may give only selected
information to his subordinates so as to maintain status differences. Subordinates,
usually, tend to convey only those things which the superiors would appreciate. This
creates distortion in upward communication. Such selective communication is also
know as filtering. Sometimes, the superior feels that he cannot fully admit to his

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subordinates those problems, conditions or results which may affect adversely on his
ability and judgement. To do so would undermine his position as a superior being in
the formal organisation, This causes distortion in downward communication.
A subordinate may also feel reluctant to report his shortcomings or may not seek
clarification on instructions which are subjected to different interpretations for fear of
loss of prestige in the eyes of the superior.

5. Organisational Structure Barriers


Effective communication largely depends upon sound organisational structure.
If the structure is complex involving several layers of management, the breakdown or
distortion in communication will arise. It is an established fact that every layer cuts
off a bit of information. In the words of W.C. Bennis, communication gets distorted
particularly as it goes up the hierarchy. Moreover, information travelling through
formal structure introduces rigidity because of long lines of communication.
Similarly, lack of instructions for further conveying information to the subordinates
and heavy pressure of work at certain levels of authority also act as barriers to
effective communication.

6. Barriers due to Inadequate Attention


Inadequate attention to the message makes communication less effective and
the message is likely to be misunderstood. Inattention may arise because of over
business of the communicate or because of the message being contrary to his
expectations and beliefs. The simple failure to read notices, minutes and reports is
also a common feature. Whatever be the reason, communication remains only a one
way process and there is no understanding of the message, if the receiver pays little
attention to the message. In the words of Joseph Dooher, Listening is the most
neglected skill of communication. half listening is like racing your engine with
gears in neutral. You use gasoline but you get nowhere.

7. Premature Evaluation
Some people have the tendency to form a judgement before listening to the
entire message. This is known as premature evaluation. As discussed in the previous
point, half-listening is like racing your engine with the gears in neutral. You use
gasoline but you get nowhere. Premature evaluation distorts understanding and acts
as a barrier to effective communication.

8. Emotional Attitude
Barriers may also arise due to emotional attitude because when emotions are
strong, it is difficult to know the frame of mind of other person or group. Emotional.
attitudes of both, the communicator as well as the communicate, obstruct free flow of
transmission and understanding of messages.

9. Resistance to Change
It is a general tendency of human beings to stick to old and customary patterns
of life. They may resist change to maintain status quo. Thus, one will freely transfer
information and understanding with another only when there is mutual trust between
the two. When there is a lack of mutual trust between the communicator and the
communicatee, the message is not followed. Credibility gaps, i.e. inconsistency in
saying and doing, also causes lack of mutual trust which act as a basic obstacle to
effective communication.

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11. Other Barriers
There may be many other barriers, such as unclarified assumptions, lack of
ability to communicate, mirage of too much knowledge or closed minds,
communication overload, shortage of time, etc., which cause distortion or obstruction
in the free flow of communication and thus make it ineffective. Failure to retain or
store information for future use becomes a barrier to communication when the
information is needed in future.

10.6. COMMUNICATION IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION


Introduction
Communication can be considered as a personal process which involves the
transfer of information and some behaviour input. Communication is something
people do. It does not exist with people taking some form of action. It has all to do
with relationships between people and can be complex or simple; formal or informal,
depending on the nature of the message to be passed, and on relationship between the
sender and the receiver.

It consists of the transfer of information and understanding between parts and


people in an organisation, and the various media involved in communication and
interchanges. Effective communication, therefore, is critical to the success of an
organisation.

Some of the common answers to the question of why communicate? are as


follows:

1. It leads to greater effectiveness.


2. It keeps people in the picture.
3. It gets people involved with the organisation and increases motivation to
perform well; increases commitment to organisation.
4. It makes the better relationship and understanding between the superior
and the subordinate; amongst colleagues; and among people within the
organisation and outside it.
5. It helps people to understand the need for change-how they should manage
it; how to reduce resistance to change.

There also needs to be a clear message, which must be understood by the


recipient. A headmaster might say to a teacher Well, I wonder if youd like to look at
your style teaching, its bit more complex. This is rather ambiguous, but if he were to
say, Mr.Janardhan, your style of teaching needs improvement in the field of eliciting
examples and illustrations, then there would be no doubt in the teachers mind what
his superior means.

Managers and Communication


One of the classic managerial dilemmas is that of balancing the pressure of
short-term results with the need to take a long-term view, as in problem-solving and
making decisions versus planning, forecasting, etc. Managers have to work within the
reality of their organisations and to recognise that they need to build power bases in
order to influence others. This means that they have to (a) develop credibility for their

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personal and professional expertise, and (b) be able to communicate with and
influence other managers.

When you consider the nature and purposes of the communication which
managers have to carry out, the topic takes on a whole new dimension. The audience
might be public or private, requiring adjustments of style. Among the numerous
Purposes of communication will be the following:

(a) Seeking or receiving information, allocating blame, encouragement,


control, seeking proposals, confrontation.
(b) Talking to different levels within the hierarchy-to individuals, to groups, to
departments, and externally to parents, inspectors, public at large and
educationists.
(c) Using both formal communication-meetings, reports, proposals, notices; and
informal communication : counselling, advising, talking to other employees.
(d) Working in different roles as chairman, leader, analyst, subordinate,
colleague.
(e) Evaluating communications are they facts, opinions, gossips?
(f) Building up networks to obtain real information which may be given
freely or concealed-which means you need to ask the right questions, or else
you will find yourself drowned in data but starved of information.
(g) Trying to influence those over when you have no power.

The headmaster and other superiors in an educational institute need to be


effective communicators to achieve positive results.

Interpersonal Communication
The word communication is not easy to define. One way of looking at is as
an interpersonal process of sending and receiving symbols with meanings attached to
them. It is therefore supposed to result in the exchange of information and shared
understanding between people. So, a measure of the effective management of
interpersonal communication is that information is passed, and relationships are built.

The success of information passing depends very much on the nature and
quality of the information received which in turn depends on the nature and quality of
the relationship between the persons involved. People tend to experience personal
satisfaction when communicating and interacting with friends, relatives and others
they know well, in fact, with people with whom they feel comfortable. They do not
feel the need to be guarded because of the smooth way they manage their
relationships with each other. They can speak openly and honestly, and joke about
serious matters. Personal abuse is a form of comradeship. But the headmasters
frequently have to work with others with whom they have not developed close
relationships in order to achieve organisation and educational objectives.
Misunderstandings may occur, leading to disagreement and conflict, or often the
avoidance of conflict and the development of mistrust. Out of this can develop lack of
cooperation and an unhealthy work climate. People are polite to each other, and
apparently genuinely and cooperative. But because the underlying inter personal
problems have not been faced, the quality of interpersonal communication is poor.

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People are different, and they need to understand the nature of those
differences so as to modify our interpersonal behaviour to cope with them. An
individual, may have a consistent view of the world, his organisation and his job, but
he has to work in an environment consisting of other people. That is his dilemma. In
reality, one of his greatest challenges, as a manager or superior, is that other people
are different from him. Two of the basic differences between people are personality
and perception. These differences cause people to behave differently toward others in
different situations, and cause communication problems.

10.7. COMMUNICATION PROCESS


To communicate well, we need to know ourselves and our frames of reference
and to be able to assess other people. Only then can we hope to find the best ways in
which to communicate effectively with them, both to pass information and build
relationships. Some of the reasons we do not assess other people well, are given
below :
1. We assume that they are going to behave the same way in every Situation
2. We try too hard to everyone into consistent categories (Stereotyping)
3. We are too influenced by first impressions.
4. We are positively influenced where we have common characteristics with
other people, e.g., same school, same function etc.
5. We are too influenced by apparent negative points, e.g., if someone is not
very good at short term decision making we might assume that he/she is
not going to be good at long-term planning either.
6. We make constant errors because of own limited frames of reference and
self
7. We are not sufficiently interested in or pay enough attention to, other
people.

All of the above can cause us considerable problems in the communication


process (see Figure 11.1) which consists of basically four phases :

(a) Sending (via Symbols)


(b) Receiving (via symbols)
(c) Understanding (perceived meaning
(d) Accepting (using feedback)

There is always noise, or barriers to communication every time the process is


conducted If you are tuning into an FM radio station, you know that you have to tune
in to the right frequency or you will simply hear random noise or a distorted signal.
So it is in interpersonal Communication where the barriers consist of such factors as
are illustrated in Figure 11.2.

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Figure 11.2.

Status effects can occur when one person is considerably higher in hierarchy
than the other.

Semantic problems occur when people use either the same word in different
ways, or different words in the same way. Do you know that there are 15 different
meanings of the word charge in the English language? They also occur when people
use jargon or professional shorthand which they expect others to understand, or
language which is outside the others vocabulary.
Perceptual distortions can be caused by having a poor of self concept or self-
understanding, or a poor understanding of others.

Cultural differences affect communication between people from different


departments in the organisation, e.g., between staff room and administrative room.
The staff room has a long time horizon with long-term goals regarding growth and
development of the pupils; while the administrative room is more concerned with
keeping discipline and ensuring submission of fees and completion of other necessary
records. They also occur frequently between people who have experienced different
social and religious environments.

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In England an invitation for dinner at 8 p would see most guests arrive at
about 8.15; in India even later-if at all! In most parts of the world nodding your head
means agreement, shaking your head means, no - except in some parts of India,
where, the reverse is true. Communication can be very difficult at times!

Physical distractions cause a lot of noise, often literally-insufficiently insulated


rooms with traffic noises filtering through, poor lighting, a typewriter clattering away
in the nearby office; and such things as frequent movement of body posture, fiddling
with a pen in the hand, even the arrival of coffee at a critical stage of the
communication.

Poor choice of communication channels:


If you want immediate action form the receiver, you would not send a lengthy
discussion report, you would probably pick up the telephone or go to his office to tell
him what to do. Remember also that one picture is worth a thousand words.

10.8. COMMUNICATION AT SCHOOL LEVEL


All school activities are interrelated and the classroom communication is a
part of communication at school level. The teachers employ various media of
communication in the classroom interaction to facilitate teaching-learning situation by
using overhead projector for still picture, motion pictures or, the computer assisted!
aided instruction and, computer managed instructions. Various kinds of media help
the headmaster in selection of appropriate means for use in different scenarios. It is in
the role of headmaster that media of communication assist in supervision and in
directing the classroom teaching, laboratory practical work, etc. All classroom
activities, use of communication media and audio visual aid can also be observed by
the headmaster sitting in his room with the help of video camera set fitted in every
classroom, laboratory and library. The headmaster can supervise and direct the teacher
as well as students. He can guide the teacher for his instructional procedure.

It is not possible for the headmaster to go around in the school campus for
supervising the school activities. Generally the headmasters employ the oral medium
in communication in his administration and organisation but the use of
communication devices brings efficiency in his working. He renders his responsibility
and accountability. In supervision, communication devices play significant role in
school organisation. The oral communication is inadequate in personal situation of
schools. In prayers, assembly, playground, cultural programme, there is required mike
and speaker system because oral communication is not adequate for large gathering of
students unless amplified. Intercom and video system should be available in each
room, so that the headmaster can observe a specific class and provide instruction to all
classes by sitting in his room. The headmaster thus, directs the teachers activities.
This type of system is used for supervising, monitoring and controlling the school
functioning.

10.9.MODERN DEVICES OF COMMUNICATION


There are several types of communication devices which can be used in.
schools depending on he resources available with school the management The
following are the major devices of communication which can be. used for
communication in educational administration.

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(a) Audio and videos tape recorder.
(b) Closed circuit television (CCT)
(c) Computer assisted instruction (CAI)
(d) Intercom system
(e) Language laboratory
(f) Library internet system.
(g) Mike and speaker system (Public Address Equipment).
(h) Multi-media approach and packages.
(i) Overhead projector (OH!).
(j) Radio and television
(k) Still picture and other audio-visual aids
(i) Telephone and fax, e-mail
(m) Video camera and audio camera.

10.10. OVERCOMING BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION IN


EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
The communication devices are very useful in educational administration and
supervision wherein they facilitate the performance of the headmaster. The application
of communication methods brings efficiency in the administration but there are
various barriers to their usage, such as the following:
1. In using the communication devices, the availability of funds is a major
factor. There are several aided and government schools which do not have
funds and resources to purchase communication devices for school.
2. If funds are available, the communication equipment can be purchased, but
another problem is that .of maintenance. There are instances when the
communication set has been installed but could not be maintained properly
for want of guidance or maintenance staff.
3. Another barrier is the use of communication devices is that these generally
operate by electricity which is often not regular.
4. In this case, these communication sets require generator to operate which
ultimately requires funds for the purchase of generator and recurring
expense for oil and upkeep.
5. The teacher and students have negative attitude towards the
communication system

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10.11. QUESTIONS
I Very Short answer Questions ( 1 Marks )
1. Define communication
2. What are the three types of communication?
3. Name the five steps adopted in Communication process
4. Write Any two purpose of communication
5. What is Downward communication?
6. Write any two limitations of Informal communication
7. Name any four Modern Devices of Communication
8. Write any two advantages of Horizontal communication

II Short Answer Questions (6 Marks)


9. Write the importance of communication
10. Tabulate the difference between Formal and Informal communication
11. Write Shortly Communication at school level
12. Write about semantic barriers of Communication

III Long Answer Questions ( 15 Marks)


13. Explain the Role of Communication in Educational Administration
14. Write the Ways of overcoming Barriers of Communication in Education
System.

10.12. SUGGESTED READINGS


1. Education and communication P.D. Shuldg
2. Modern Indian Education B.D. Batt
3. Business organization and Management R.K. Sharma Shashi K.
Gupta

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CHAPTER-XI
PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION CO-ORDINATION

STRUCTURE
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Principles of Effective Communication
10.2 Co-ordination-Definitions
10.3 Principles Co-ordination
10.4 Importance of Co-ordination
10.5 Co-ordination of Co-curricular Activities and Supervision
10.6 Process of Co-ordination
10.7 Techniques of Effective Co-ordination
10.8 Questions
10.9 Suggested Readings

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11.0. INTRODUCTION
Co-ordination is the process of synchronizing activities of various persons in
the organisation in order to achieve goals. It is undertaken at every level of
Management. So, the importance of co-ordination, co-ordination of co-curricular
activities and Techniques of educational institutions for effective Co-ordination are
explained clearly in this chapter.

11.1. PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION


Effective communication is a good business and very essential for the of an
organisation. Communication takes place when one person transfers information and
understanding to another person. An effective communication is one which is
followed by the receiver of the message and his reaction or responses is known to the
sender. It is a two-way process. It may not be possible to achieve perfect
communication. But the following steps may be taken to minimise barriers to
communication and making it more effective

1. Clarity and Completeness


In order to communicate effectively, it is very essential to know the audience
for whom the message is meant. The message to be conveyed must be absolutely clear
in the mind of the communicator because if you do not understand an idea, you can
never express it to someone. The message should be adequate and appropriate to the
purpose of communication. The purpose of communication itself should be clearly
defined.

2. Proper Language
To avoid semantic barriers, the message should be expressed in simple, brief
and clear language. The words or symbols selected for conveying the message must
be appropriate to the reference and understanding of the receiver

3. Sound Organisation Structure


To make communication effective, the organisational structure must be sound
and appropriate to the needs of the organisation. Attempt must be made to shorten the
distances to be travelled for conveying information.

4. Orientation of Employees
The employees should be oriented to understand the objectives, rules, policies,
authority relationships and operations of the enterprise. It will help to understand each
other, minimise conflicts and distortion of messages.

5. Empathetic Listening and Avoid Premature Evaluation


To communicate effectively, one should be a good listener. Superiors should
develop the habit of patient listening and avoid premature evaluation of
communication from their subordinates. This will encourage free flow of upward
communication.

6. Motivation, Mutual Trust and Confidence


The message to be communicated should be so designed as to motivate the
receiver to influence his behaviour to take the desired action. A sense of mutual trust
and confidence must be generated to promote free flow of information.
7. Consistent Behaviour

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To avoid credibility gap, management must ensure that their actions and deeds
are in accordance with their communication.

8. Use of Grapevine
Grapevine or the informal channels of communication helps to improve
managerial decisions and make communication more effective. Thus, formal channels
of communication must be supplemented with the use of grapevine.

9. Feedback
Communication is not complete unless the response or reaction of the receiver
of the message is obtained by the communicator. The effectiveness of communication
can be judged from the feedback: Therefore, feedback must be encouraged and
analysed.

10. Gestures and Tone


The way you say something is also very important along with the message for
gestures such as a twinkle of an eye, a smile or a handshake, etc., convey sometimes
more meaning than even words spoken or written. Thus, one should have appropriate
facial expression, tone, gestures and mood, etc., to make communication effective.

The communication must be kept open, as only then the teacher sand pupils
are able to communicate clearly without interference of understanding and ensuring
appreciation. But unfortunately many interferences and communication barriers arise
which impede the smooth flow of communication between the teacher and his pupils
in the classroom, e.g., advertisements and entertainment media.

The basic communication model involves an informational or interpretive


process in which messages, information or reaction to information, travel from the
initiator to receiver through the route called communication channel. The message
conveyed by the teacher or the educational media may be verbal or visual and the
receiver may listen or see and react in other ways. The communication channel in the
classroom should ideally carry both messages and counter-messages; it involves
initiation, reception and response which serve as feedback.

11.2. CO-ORDINATION
Co-ordination is the process of synchronising activities of various persons in
the organisation in order to achieve goals. Co-ordination is undertaken at every level
of management. At the top level, the chief executive will co-ordinate the activities of
functional or departmental managers. If there is lack a of co-ordination production
and sales departments then either production will suffer or sales will suffer. Similarly,
personnel department will like to know the manpower needs of various departments.
No department will be able to function without a proper co-ordination with finance
department. At middle/lower levels of management, the deputy managers/ foremen/
supervisor will co-ordinate the work of persons working under them. The purpose of
co-ordination is to create team work and harmony in the enterprise. It is the blending
of human efforts in order to achieve better organisation goals.

Co-ordination creates a mental awareness among all employees and their


efforts are directed in unison. An organisation is like a human body. As various parts

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of the body combine together to do a work, the different segments of the organisation
should work in unison so that task is completed in a better way.

Definitions
A number of authors have defined co-ordination differently. The views of
some of them are given here in order to know its exact nature.

Henry Fayol: To co-ordinate is to harmonise all the activities of a person in


order to facilitate its working and its success. Co-ordination is necessary to enable a
person to improve his functioning. Without co-ordination, working cannot be
harmonised.

O way Terry: Co-ordination is the effort to assure a smooth interplay of the


functions and forces of all the different component parts of an organisation to the end
that its purpose will be realised with minimum of friction and maximum of
collaboration effectiveness. The purpose of co-ordination is to synchronise the
functions of various departments for achieving organisational goals with minimum
efforts.

George Terry: Co-ordination deals with the task of blending efforts in order
to ensure successful attainment of an objective. It is accomplished by means of
planning organising actuating and controlling. The aim of
co-ordination is to active better results and this may be done in different ways.
Different functions are also used to attain organisational goals.

11.3. PRINCIPLES OF CO-ORDINATION


Mary Parker Follett, in her discussion, has stated the following important
principles of co-ordination:

1. Principle of Direct Contact


Miss Follett believes that co ordination can be achieved more easily by direct
interpersonal horizontal relationship and direct personal communications, which bring
out agreement on methods, actions and ultimate achievement. The possibilities of
conflict and misunderstanding always remain. These can be removed or sorted out by
direct contact and proper communication among various persons. Direct contact even
helps in creating mutual goodwill which may help in proper co-ordination.

2. Principle of Early Beginning


Co-ordination can be achieved more readily in early stages of planning and
policymaking. If the policies are in stage then co-ordination may become difficult. If
the plans are execution without proper co-ordination then results may be disastrous.
If the head of the production department, while he is forming his policy, meets and
discusses with the other heads, the question involved a successful co-ordination is far
more likely to be achieved, that is, you cannot, with the greatest degree of success for
your undertaking, policy and policy adjusting two separate process. Achieving co-
ordination in the early stages policy-making is essential.

3. Principle of Reciprocal Relationship


All the factors in a situation are reciprocally related. The work of one person is
to dependent up on that of the other, who in turn, may be dependent on some other.

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For instance, A works with B and he in turn works with C and D. The relationship of
all the four will be reciprocal. In the absence of co-ordination among them the work
of everyone will suffer. Similarly, other factors like materials, finance, sales
production will be dependent upon one another. When members in an organiation
realize that all factors are reciprocally related then co-ordination becomes easy.

4. Principle of Continuity
As the fourth principle of co-ordination Mary Full states that communication
is a continuing process and something which must go on all the time. It is a
managerial process which is exercised every time so that the working is smooth and
uninterrupted. It is not like reconciling conflicts as and when they arise. Co-ordination
cannot be left to a sheer chance but management should make constant efforts to
achieve it. There is a constant need for co ordination in a business,

11.4. IMPORTANCE OF CO-ORDINATION


Co-ordination is essential at every level of management for achieving
harmony of individual efforts. Where sub-division and departmentalisation is
essential, co-ordination is all the more important. The quality of management will
depend upon the efficiency achieved in co-ordination. According to Chester Bernard,
the quality of co-ordination is the crucial factor in the survival of organisation.
Smooth working and achievement of organisation goals will depend upon sound
co-ordiantion. The important benefits of co-ordination are stated as follows.

1. Good Personal Relations


Management and staff create cordial human relations through
co-ordiantion. The points of dispute of conflict among different persons, between line
and staff etc. can be settled by mutual discussions. Better personal relations are also
helpful in increasing the morale of employees which ultimately leads to job
satisfaction.

The results of co-ordinated group efforts will be much better than the sum
results of different individuals. The members will willingly and whole heartedly
contribute towards the success of the enterprise. Therefore, co-ordination is necessary
to bring unity of action in the organisation.

2. Unity of Direction
Co-ordination helps in creating unity of direction. Different segments of the
business may have different goals. The co-ordination process helps in synchronising
various efforts. It motivates various employees to view their work from the standpoint
of the business. In the ahs of co-ordination, there may be conflicting goals and
everybody may perceive the objectives in a different way. This will create confusion
and chaos in the organisation. Co-ordination will help in reconciling conflicting
views.

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3. Essence of Management
The increase in the size of organisation has brought a number of complexities.
There is a degree of specialisation, division of labour, and large number of
individuals. Everybody has his own personality traits and ways of working. It is
essential to synchronise the work of all persons in the organisation. Co-ordination
helps in bringing unity of action for achieving business goals.

4. Efficiency and Economy


Co-ordination promotes efficiency and economy in the organisation. By
co-ordinating activities the efficiency is brought in the working. It also helps in
avoiding delays and eliminating duplication of efforts. This will result in saving of
time and energy, thus bringing economy to the business.

5. Helpful in Developing and Retaining of Personnel


Co- ordination by synchronising various activities, helps in promoting team
spirit among organisational personnel. There will be no conflict or confusion in
division of work arid everybody will try to improve his own performance. This helps
in developing potentialities of every person in the organisation. Co-ordination also
helps in promoting job satisfaction among employees by giving them personal
contentment. The concern will be able to retain the services of good employees.

11.5. CO-ORDINATION OF CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES AND


SUPERVISION
1. Co-ordination
Coordination in management is the process of putting things together in a
harmonious relationship so that they may function more effectively. Coordination
depends upon the nature of the particular problem, circumstances and availability of
resources, and the final goal. The administrator has to reckon with many physical,
social and economic forces. Coordination is necessary to attune all these factors and
forces to forge a unity in diversity of relationship to produce a unified and integrated
total effect. For this, deliberate efforts have to be made. Coordination is required in all
the fields of administration, such as planning, organisation, etc. It is also needed in.
respect of purpose, time and place of the various activities; like laying down policies,
preparing the budget, selection of staff and development of the curriculum, etc. The
administrator should possess a good skill for harmonising all these diverse
relationships.

Coordination of Co-curricular Activities


All the members should be democratically taken into confidence before
introducing any activity in the school. Coaches or sponsors of school activities should
be the members of the staff and not outsider. Before approving a new activity the
answers to the following questions should be kept in mind:

(a) Does the activity proposed meet the needs of the schools?
(b) Are the students sufficiently interested in it?
(c) Are teachers available in the school who are qualified, have time and
are willing to direct the proposed activity?

Activities should not be over-organised even in a large school. Smaller schools


should not waste time and energy and squander away money in an attempt to ape the

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larger ones. The introduction of co-curricular activities should be gradual. An activity
should be introduced only when the school has a need for it and when its students are
interested in it. For example, when there is a fully developed department of History in
the school, a History Club may be started. The number and type of activities to be
developed in any school should be determined by the size of enrolment and the needs
of the school. Activities that are organised in the school should, as far as possible, aim
for achieving civil, social, moral and other worthwhile values as indicated in a
previous section. Activities for enjoyment are useless though they may be harmless.
The number of activities which the students should be allowed to take part in during
an academic year should be according to the needs.

To enable every student to have a well-rounded development in both curricular


and co-curricular activities, the plan of education guidance of the school should
consider both types of activities in advising students regarding their total school
programme. Since it is desired that the maximum possible number of students shall
participate, each activity should be open to all. It does not mean that there should not
be consideration for reasonable standards of achievement, or for eligibility to take part
in it. A limitation on participation is required because it will check the over-ambitious
from overloading themselves with activities to the possible detriment of their health
and regular studies and, at the same time, allow a larger number of students to
participate in the activities so organised.

The following points should be kept in mind for a democratic organisation:


1. Regular time should be given to an activity.
2. There should be a close supervision of all ca-curricular activities, funds
and accounts.
3. The activity should not be too expensive, and time consuming.
4. An activity should be organised in school time as far as possible.
5. The teacher should not play the role of an advisor.

Supervision Co-ordination
Every co-activity should be held under the supervision of the school
administration It should be amenable to school control and discipline. The amount of
supervision will depend upon the type of the activity and the maturity level of
students. For example, you will need a greater quantum of supervision of athletics and
dramatics. Similarly in lower classes, the work will have to be closely supervised. Too
much supervision is of course not required, nor is it desirable, because it stifles
spontaneity and makes it difficult for students to develop initiative, leadership and
fellowship. But this supervision will have to be of the motherly type. In higher
secondary schools and colleges where students are quite mature and group, the
supervision will have to be of the brotherly type. But the essence of supervision
should be democratic. Only those activities should be selected which relate to school
curriculum and satisfy school needs, such as to conduct research on the values of all
curricular as well as co-curricular activities, to organise transportation services to take
students to various places of interest, and to evaluate students performance in other
activities.

Elements of Coordination
Whenever a programme or activity has been chalked out, the following
elements should be given importance. Coordination has the following three factors

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1. Parts and the aspect of the programme, such as the staff, students, parents,
curriculum, etc.
2. Means of coordination, such as the rules, regulations, customs, etc.
3. The climate, the environment and the powers of coordination.

Stages of Coordination
It is evident from the ongoing discussion, coordination is needed at two stages:
1. In the beginning of the administrative process, to prevent the breakdown of the
organization.
2. During the process to remedy conflicts and maladjustment.
3. Coordination starts with establishing a unity and restores this unity whenever
the purpose, the structure and the process is threatened and thus, is both
preventive and curative in nature.

11.6. PROCESS OF CO-ORDINATION


Co-ordination cannot be achieved through orders. It is a process which can be
achieved through managerial functions. It is a by product of good management. When
all the functions are carried out properly Co-ordination then will come by itself. Co-
ordination may be achieved through following processes:

1. Co-ordination through Planning


The planning is the elementary stage of achieving when various functions are
properly planned and various policies are integrated then co-ordination will be easily
achieved. If the production manager has to plan for his development then it will be
better to consult purchase manager, personnel manager, finance manager, and sales
manager. When production is planned with the consent of other concerned managers
then co-ordination takes place at planning level. If other managers feel some
difficulties then they will explain it and mutually accepted decisions will resolve the
difference. Co-ordination can certainly be achieved at planning stage. According to
Mary Follett, planning stage is the ideal time to bring about Co-ordination and they
must see to it that various plans are properly inter-related.

2. Co-ordination through Organisation


Co-ordination is an essential part of organisation. Many consider that co-
ordination is as the very essence of organisation. When a manager groups and assigns
various activities to subordinates, the thought of co-ordination will be uppermost in
his mind. The related active activities placed together to avoid delays and confusion.
In the process of organisation, the authority and responsibility of various persons is
defined and the relationship among different is specified given. The whole process of
organisation will lead to effective co-ordination. A well thought out organisation will
ultimately lead to co-ordination.

3. Co-ordination through Directing


When a manager directs his subordinates he, will be co-ordinating their work.
He will give them directions, guidelines and instructions for doing a job assigned to
them. He will direct in such a way that the achievement of overall organisational
objectives is ensured. The manager should use a group system to take decisions.
Everybody should be free to express his opinion. This will create a sort of moral
binding on the employees to. work for the proper implementation of these decisions.

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The co-ordination work of the manager will also become easy. So direction of
employees will lead to co-ordination.

4. Co-ordination through Controlling


The manager is required to control the work of everyone in the organisation so
that all efforts are directed towards main goals. There may be instances when
performance of subordinates is not upto the mark or it is not in the direction in which
it should have been. The manager will take corrective measures as when required. He
will synchronise the work of his subordinates so that the goals are achieved easily.
The controlling function itself will facilitate co-ordination because it will require the
evaluation of performance of subordinates and will enable the manager to make
changes if there are deviations between standards set and result achieved.

5. Co-ordination through Staffing


The staffing function can also help in proper co-ordination. While staffing, the
manager should keep in mind the nature of jobs and the type of persons required for
managing them, He should ensure the right number of executives in various positions,
for proper performance of their functions. The executives are of such a quality or are
given such a training that they are able to co-operate and co-ordinate their efforts.

6. Co-ordination through Proper communication


Effective communication is of utmost importance for achieving better co-
ordination. There should be a regular flow of information among various persons so
that they are given required information for proper co-ordination. The personnel
contact is the most effective type of communication. Other methods like reports,
procedures, bulletins, etc., can also be used properly. The development of data
processing devices are of utmost use for facilitating quick communication. The
subordinates must get proper information at the right time for enabling them to co-
ordinate their work. According to Newman, Since co-ordination is concerned with
the inter-relationships of separate activities, it can be no better than the transfer of
information about those activities to some common point or points, where the
dovetailing takes place.

11.7. TECHNIQUES OF EFFECTIVE CO-ORDINATION


Every management will try to improve its working through proper
co-ordination of work. The aim of every managerial function will be to reach
organisational goals and this is facilitated only through co-ordination. The purpose
should be to achieve effective co-ordination. Some of the techniques used for
achieving effective co-ordination are discussed as follows

1. Well-defined Goals
The goals of the organisation should be clear and well Every body should
know the objectives and his contribution towards its achievement. Unity of purpose
will be achieved through proper o-ordintion.

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2. Simplified Organisation
The organisational structure should clearly define the authority and
responsibility of each and every, person. This will help in reducing conflicts among
persons. Over-specialisation of activities also creates problems of
co-ordination. There should be well-defined organisational charts, job descriptions,
work manuals, etc. for avoiding any type of misunderstanding. Co-ordination will be
achieved when there are clear lines of authority and responsibility.

3. Proper Communication
Effective communication helps in creating proper understanding among
persons whose work needs to be co-ordinated. Through communication every
individual understands his scope, limitations, his position in the organisation and his
relationship with others. Regular communication among various persons helps in
resolving conflicts and differences. People can understand the view point of others in
the organisation.

4. Effective Leadership
Effective leadership is essential for better co-ordination. A good lender is able
to achieve co-ordination both at planning and execution stages. It brings individual
motivation and persuades the group to have identity of interests in total efforts. If a
leader is undecided about his task then he will not be able to either guide or co-
ordinate their activities.

5. Proper supervision
Co-ordination can also be facilitated by effective supervision.
A supervisor is the person who constantly watches the work of his subordinates. He
can adjust the work load, provide guidance to his subordinates If the situation
demands. A supervisor is an important person in co-ordinating the work at execution
level. He will keep the overall objectives of the organisation in mind and will direct
the work of his subordinates In that direction.

6. Co-operation
Co-ordination can be achieved through voluntary co-operation of employees.
There should be a feeling of mutual help for each other.
Co-operation can be brought by keeping harmonious relation among employees.
Management should encourage formal and informal communication among
employees. There should also be committees to take important decisions. The decision
of committees will be group decisions and everybody will co-operate in implementing
them.

11.8. QUESTIONS

I Very Short Answer-Question ( 1 Mark)


1) Define Co-ordination
2) Write the principle of Direct contact
3) What are the three Stages in Co-ordination?
4) What is the role of Supervisor in Co-ordination process?
5) Which is the essence of Management?

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II Short Answer-Questions (6 Mark)
6) What are the points Should be kept in mind for a democratic educational
organisaton to receive effective Co-ordination?
7) Write the process of Co-ordination
8) Write the principles of Co-ordination

III. Long Answer-Questions (15 Mark)


9) Explain the principles of Effective Communication
10) Explain the techniques Effective Co-ordination

11.9. SUGGESTED READINGS


1. Education and communication P.D. Shuldg
2. Successful school education Maslowedger
3. Modern Indian Educaiton B.D. Batt.
4. School administration R.C. Sharma.

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CHAPTER XII
CONTROL AND EVALUATION

STRUCTURE
12.0. Introduction
12.1. Meaning of Control Definition
12.2. Characteristics of Control
12.3. Pre requisites of Control System.
12.4. Steps in Controlling Process.
12.5. Requirements of a Control Systems
12.6. Control of Education at State level
12.7. Need and Importance of Institutional Evaluation
12.8. Measuring Performance of the Institutions
12.9. Total quality Management
12.10. T Q M in the context of Education (TQM)
12.11. ISO Certificate
12.12. Importance of Management Audit
12.13. Auditors Report Essentials
12.14. Questions
12.15. Suggested Readings

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12.0. INTRODUCTION
According to Earnest Date The modern concept of control envisages a system
that not only provides a historical record of what has happened to the business as a
whole but also pin-points the reason why it has happened and provides data that,
enable the chief executive or the departmental head to take corrective steps if he finds
he is on the wrong track. Date has enlarged the scope of control by saying that it
helps in finding out the reasons for low performance and then suggesting the ways of
improving it. It also gives information to the top executives to assess their
performance and then take corrective measures if necessary. The efficiency of various
functions is also ensured by the control process.

Whenever there is a deviation between standard and actual performance, the


control process will help in deciding the future course of action. Moreover control
process puts psychological pressure on persons in the organisation. The reward and
punishment are also linked with performance. The employees will always be under
pressure to improve upon their work.

Control is a continuous process. There may be some in built controls in the


exercise of manage rail techniques. The control tool should be such which are suitable
to organisational needs.

Schools, Colleges, Universities and all other educational institutions may well
be considered as social organisations. They are established by the society for
achieving social and individual development. So, institutional evaluation is essential
for finding out what the constraints are on institutions effective functioning so that
efforts may be made to help the institution to remove them. An institutions
performance may be evaluated internally as well as externally. As regards pupils
knowledge and understanding examination results may throw enough light on
institutions performance. ISO certificate can justify the performance and
organisational structure, climate, equipments etc. Similarly the institutional Audit also
helps the institution to grow efficiently and develop in a proper way to achieve within
the budget of financial condition.

12.1. MEANING DEFINITION OF CONTROL


The objective of every organisation is to use scarce resources in a best possible
way. Plans are framed to achieve better results. Control is the process of checking
whether the plans are being adhered to or not, keeping a record of progress and then
taking corrective measures if there is any deviation. Control is one of the managerial
functions. These functions start with planning and end at controlling. The other
functions like organising, staffing, directing act as the connecting link between
planning and controlling. Planning will be successful only if the progress is properly
controlled. Planning involves setting up of goals and objectives while controlling
seeks to ensure performance in accordance with plans.

Definitions
George R. Terry: Controlling is determining what is being accomplished that
is evaluating the performance and, if necessary, applying corrected measures so that
the performance takes place according to plans. In Terrys views, controlling helps in
proper implementing of plans. If the plans are not progressing at a proper pace then

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necessary measures are taken to set the things right. Controlling is a channel through
which plans may be properly implemented.

Robert N. Anthony
Robert N. Antony Says, Management Control is the process by which
managers assure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the
accomplishment of an organisations objectives. Control is a tool in the hands of
management for ensuring better utilisation of resources, Anthony even goes to the
extent of saying that control even ensures the arrangement of required resources.

Earnest Date
According to Earnest Date. The modern concept of control envisages a
system that not only provides a historical record of what has happened to the business
as a whole but pin-points the reason why it has happened and provides data that,
enable the chief executive or the departmental head to take corrective steps if he finds
he is on the wrong track. Dale has enlarged the scope of control by saying that it
helps in finding out the reasons for low performance and then suggesting the ways of
improving it. It also gives information to the top executives to assess their
performance and then take corrective measures if necessary.

Koontz and ODonnell


Koontz and O Donnell say that controlling is, The measurement and
correction of the performance of activities of subordinates in order to make sure that
enterprise objectives and plans devised to attain them are being accomplished. The
accomplishment of organisational goals is the main aim of every management. The
performance of subordinates should be constantly watched to ensure proper
implementation of plans. Co-ordination is the channel through which goals can be
achieved and necessary corrective actions may be taken if things are not going as per
the objectives.

Henry Fayol
Henry fayol brings out that, In an undertaking, control consists in verifying
whether everything occurs in conformity with the plan adopted, the instructions issued
and principles established. It has to point out weaknesses and error in order to rectify
them and prevent recurrence. It operates on everything; people, actions, etc.

12.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROL


1. Managerial Function
Control is one of the managerial functions. It is not only the function of chief
executive but also it is the duty of every manager. A manager is responsible for
whatever work is assigned to him. He will control the performance of his subordinates
for ensuring the accomplishment of goals. Control is mainly the function of line
organisation but manager may ask for data from staff personnel.

2. Forward Looking
Control is forward looking. Past is already gone thus cannot be controlled.
Measures can be devised to control future activities only. Past provides a base for
determining controls for future. The manager will study the past performance in order
to find out the reasons for low results. A corrective action will be taken to ensure that

142
work in future is not adversely affected. Take for example, production for a particular
month is lowest than the standard. From the discussion of above given definitions,
following inferences may be drawn. Manager will not be able to do anything about
the past performance. However, he may study the reasons for low production. He
should take appropriate steps so that the same mistakes are not repeated and
production will not suffer in future.

3. Continuous Activity
Control is regularly exercised. It is not an activity in isolation. The manager
will have to see that his subordinates perform according to plans at all the times. Once
the control is withdrawn, it will adversely affect the work. So, control will have to be
exercised continuously.

4. Control is related to planning


Planning is the first function of management while control is the last. Control
cannot be exercised without planning. First the objectives are set and then efforts are
made to see whether these are accomplished or not. Whenever there is a laxity in
performance or things are not happening as per the plans then corrective measures
are taken immediately. So planning provides a base for controlling.

5. Essence of Control is Action


Whenever performance is done as per the standards then immediate action is
needed to correct the things. The purpose of control will be defeated if corrective
action is not taken immediately. If the sales are less than the standard set for
marketing department then steps will be taken to ensure that performance is not low in
future. If no such steps are taken then there will be a lack of control. In practice,
immediate action is the essence of control.

Importance of control
The control function helps management in various ways. It guides the
management in achieving pre-determined goals. The efficiency of various functions is
also ensured by the control process. The shortcomings in various fields are also
reported for taking corrective measures. The following are some of the advantages of
control system.

1. Control is a basis for Future Action


Control provides basis for future action. The continuous flow of information
about projects keeps the long range planning on the right track. It helps in taking
corrective action in future if the performance is not upto the mark. It also enables
management to avoid repetition of past mistakes.

2. Control facilitates Decision-making


Whenever there is deviation between standard and actual performance the
controls will help in deciding the future course of action. A decision about follow up
action is also facilitated.

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3. Control facilitates Decentralisation
Decentralisation of authority is necessary in big enterprises. The management
cannot delegate authority without ensuring proper controls. The targets or goals of
various departments are used as a control technique. If the work is going on
satisfactorily then top management should not worry. The management by exception
enables top management to concentrate on policy formulation. Various control
techniques like budgeting, cost control, pre-action approvals allow decentralisation
without losing control over activities.

4. Control facilitates Co-ordination


Control helps in co-ordination of activities through unity of action. Every
manager will try to co-ordinate the activities of his subordinates in order to achieve
departmental goals. Similarly, chief executive will co-ordinate the functioning of
various departments. The controls will act as checks on the performance and proper
results will be achieved only when activities are co-ordinated.

5. Control helps in Improving Efficiency


The control system helps in improving organisational efficiency. Various
control devices act as motivators to managers. The performance of every person is
regularly monitored and any deficiency is corrected at the earliest.

6. Control and Psychological Pressure


Controls put psychological pressure on persons in the organisation. Everybody
knows that his performance is regularly, evaluated and he will try to improve upon his
previous work. The rewards and punishment are also linked with performance. The
employees will always be under pressure to improve upon their work since
performance is one of the important tools and it ensures that every person tries to
maximise his contribution

12.3. PRE REQUISITES OF CONTROL SYSTEM


Control system cannot operate in isolation. A number of other functions are
also required to be performed for making control effective. The following factors are
essential for making control system useful.

1. Planning
Planning is the first prerequisite for making control effective. Planning
involves the setting of objectives and then deciding about the appropriate course of
action. First of all organisational goals are set and then departmental or sectional
objectives are decided. The objectives are the targets for the achievement of which all
energies are pooled. The objectives must be specific so that their achievement may be
determined, the pre-determined course of action should be used to reach various
objectives.

Control concerned with finding out whether the objectives have been achieved
or not. If the results are not according to the standards set then deviations are
ascertained. Controlling relates to the finding out of deviations and taking corrective
measures. If the performance is low then immediate steps should be taken to set the
things right.

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Control can be exercised only when objectives are set and plans will be
effective only when they are properly implemented. Control cannot be exercised
without planning. Planning must precede control, It is essential to plan first and then
exercise control for its implementation,

2. Action
Timely action on the part of the manager is essential for exercising control.
Manager should give proper guidelines to his subordinates for undertaking various
functions. Instead of finding out faults later it will be proper to guide first so that
things are done in a systematic manner.

Besides all precautions there may be some deviations. The deviations should
be reported at the earliest. Any delay in their reporting will delay a corrective action
also. Manager should give instructions in such a way that whenever the performance
is below the standards then it will be reported to the appropriate authority.

There should be a quick action to take remedial steps. There will be no use of
reporting a deviation if it is not corrected at the earliest.

To make control effective manager should give proper guideline for doing a
work, reporting a deviation and taking corrective action. In the absence of an action
plan control may not be exercised effectively.

PRE-REQUISITES OF A CONTROL SYSTEM

PLANNING ACTION DELEGATION OF PROMPT FLOW


AUTHORITY OF INFORMATION

3. Delegation of Authority
Delegation of authority is essential for exercising control. Controlling process
involves evaluating performance, ascertaining deviations and taking corrective
measures. All these steps require some kind of authority. When we ask production
manager to increase production by 20% in the current year then he will require
authority

(a) to employ more workers;


(b) to give incentives to workers for improving their performance;
(c) to take disciplinary action against inefficient workers.
Unless otherwise proper authority is delegated no control will be possible. So
delegation of authority is a pre-requisite of a control system.

4. Prompt Flow of Information


There should be a proper feed back of information of exercising control. The
performance of subordinates should reach the manager at the earliest. This will enable

145
him to take rectifying measures. The steps suggested for improving efficiency should
also reach subordinates at the earliest so that they are able to act upon the advice.

The time factor is very important in reporting. If the reports of performance


are delayed then measures to improve it will also be late. An effective control can be
exercised only if flow of information both upward and downward is prompt.

12.4. STEPS IN CONTROLLING PROCESS


Control is a continuous process. It is not applied when everything else is done.
There may be some in-built controls in the exercise of managerial techniques. In spite
of this there may be a difference in standards to be achieved and actual performance.
This may be due to human limitations. Some control methods may have to be applied
to improve performance. There are four steps in control process: (1) setting of control
standards, (2) measurement of actual performance, (3) comparing actual and standard
performance, and (4) taking corrective action. These steps are discussed in detail:

1. Setting of Control Standards


Control is a continuous process. It is not applied when everything else is
done. There may be some in-built controls in the exercise of managerial techniques.
In spite of this there may be a difference in standards to be achieved and actual
performance. This may be due to human limitations. Some control methods may
have to be applied to improve performance. There are four steps in control process : 1.
setting of control standards, 2. measurement of actual performance, 3. comparing
actual and standard performance, and 4, taking corrective action. These steps are
discussed in details.

Setting of Control Standards


Every enterprise plans its activities in advance. On the basis of plans the
objectives and goals of every department; branch, etc. are fixed. These goals are
converted into quantity, value, man hour, etc. These are to be achieved in future.
There may also be qualitative goals. The achievement of various targets is made for
the responsibility of specific persons. The levels of achievement are also decided in
advance. Whether a particular result is to be taken as satisfactory, average or poor
should be pre- determined so that the persons responsible for that work should be able
to assess their performance.

Some strategic points should be selected as controls or yard-sticks. Prof.


Newman has suggested four guidelines for selecting strategic points:
i.The control points should be timely so that they may be able to reveal significant
deviation in time thereby saving further losses.
ii.Control points should be such as to permit economical observation and report.
iii.Control points, especially for executives at higher levels should provide
comprehensive courage.
iv.Control points should be such that it would promote balanced performance.

2. Measurement of Performance
The second step in controlling process is the measurement of performance.
The actual performance is measured against the standards set. This will enable
management to determine whether the work is being done according to plans or not.
The measurement of quantitative objectives is easy since figures of work done will be

146
available. The qualitative performance such as human relations, employee morale, etc.
can only be measured through psychological tests and surveys.

Measurement of performance is an important part of control process. If


measurement is such that deviation is detected at the earliest then it will enable
appropriate action well in time. If that is not possible then deviations should be
detected as early as possible.

3. Comparing Actual and Standard Performance


The next step in control process is the comparison of actual performance with
the standards set. The purpose of this comparison is : (a) to find out deviations, if any,
and (b) to determine the reasons for such deviation. While comparing actual
performance with the standard, some permissible limits are also fixed. When the
deviations are within the prescribed limits then there is no cause for worry. But if the
deviations are more than the allowable limits then it calls for urgent action. This is
also known as management by exception. When things are going as per plans or
within the allowable limits then top management is not required to take any note of it.
But on the other hand, if performance is not upto the level, then it is brought to the
notice of top management for taking corrective action. If the manager gives attention
to every deviation then he will not be able to give enough time for important things.

When the actual performance is not upto the level, then causes for it should be
pin-pointed. Necessary steps are taken, so that performance is not adversely affected
once again. If no efforts are made to rectify the weak areas then the whole control
process will be futile. Whenever the performance is low than the standards, the
reasons for it should immediately be found.

4. Taking Corrective Action


The last but most important step in controlling process is of taking corrective
action. Whenever the performance is less than the standards, efforts should be made to
rectify it. Whatever the reasons for low performance, efforts are made to achieve
organisational goals. No control process can automatically rectify the mistakes in a
system. It is the action which is required to set the things right. Sometimes the targets
are not achievable even with more efforts, then these will have to be revised. The
control action may involve review of plans and goals, change in the methods of work,
change in the assignment of task, change in existing techniques of direction and
change in organisation structure.

The corrective action generally involves top management. It is said by some


persons that taking corrective action is not a part of control but a separate managerial
function. The overlapping of control function only shows the unity of managers job.
It shows the process should be integrated one.

12.5. REQUIREMENTS OF A CONTROL SYSTEM


Every organisation requires control in order to ensure that everything goes on
as per plans. There is no universal control system which will fit in every organisalion.
The environment and requirements of every enterprise are different and control
system should be such that it fits into the organisation and help in achieving the
desired results. Every control system has certain elements. Some of them are
discussed as follows:

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1. Control System should be easily understandable
The controls should be such that they are easily understood by the managers
and as well as by the subordinates. If the managers are not clear about the controls
then they will not be effectively exercised. On the other hand, subordinates must
know the type of controls they will be subjected to. It is only the top managers who
should understand controls but junior managers should also be clear about them.
Generally the first line managers are expected to exercise controls because they
directly come in contact with workers. The manager may devise certain mathematical
formulas or statistical charts for finding out deviations in performance. These
complicated devices may not be properly followed by junior managers. In case the
controls are difficult then junior managers will develop their own controls and these
may not be the same as desired by the top management. So the first requirement of a
good control system is its easy understandability.

2. Control System Reflect Organisational Needs


The control tool should be such which are suitable to organisational needs.
There are a number of control techniques like Budgets, Statistical charts, PERT, CPM,
etc. but these may not be used in every type of enterprise. The best control is that
which is properly used in an organisation an is able to give results. So the controls
should reflect organisational needs.

3. Control System must Report Deviations Quickly


The controls should be such that deviations in performance are reported
quickly. A manager cannot control past but deviations are determined only when
actual figures are reported to him. The effort should be to determine deviations as
early as possible otherwise the corrective measures will be delayed. This can be
possible only when manager does not wait for the reporting of actual results by
accounts departments and collects some approximate figures for finding out the level
of performance. The need is to know at the earliest whether the performance is
satisfactory or not. If it is not upto the mark then immediate steps are needed to avoid
loss. The units using electronic data processing devices are comparatively better
placed in exercising control systems because data is reported quickly or almost
immediately. Quick reporting essential for a good control system.

4. Control System must be Appropriate and Adequate


The control must be such which should help the enterprise to achieve its
objectives. The controls will be different for various departments and sections. The
controls for marketing department will be different from those used by manufacturing
department. Even at different levels of management the controls will vary. The chief
executive will have different controls to assess the work of their subordinates. The
controls used by big enterprises will be more elaborate than those of small concerns.

The controls should be such which adequately reflect the activities of the
enterprise. These are many control techniques like standard hours, standard costs,
budgets, and financial ratios. It is the duty of the manager to select those techniques
which are adequate for his business. Only those techniques should be used which can
suitably be used in the enterprise.

5. Control System Forward Looking

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Controls should be forward looking. This concept is such that results precede
the exercise of control. Nothing can be done about what has already happened. The
manager should try to take corrective action at the earliest. The control system should
help in planning process. The data needed for plans should be provided by control
system.

6. Control System must be Flexible


A good control system should be able to change according to the needs of the
future. The future is always uncertain and nothing can be said with certainty. The
controls which are devised for the present may not be adequate in future. The rigidity
in controls will play havoc with the system. If the expenditure for sales department is
fixed with a specific sales figure in mind and in due course of time the sales have
doubled, the budgeted expenditure will have to be increased similarly. If the
expenditure of sales department is not increased under the garb- of rigidity then its
working will be adversely affected. The flexibility in controls will help in making
amendments whenever a situation demands it. There should be an inbuilt flexibility
in control system.

7. Control System should be Economical


The controls are essential for every type of enterprise irrespective of its size.
In spite of the need for controls, the cost factor cannot be overlooked. The expenditure
on controls should correspond with the utility derived from them. A small concern
cannot afford to have costly control techniques.

12.6. Control of Education at, State Level


Educating people is the responsibility of the state as per constitution of India.
Each State Govt. makes arrangements for providing educational facilities to its
people. Of course, education in the Union territories is the central subject. The Central
Govt. decides the major policy matters which in the natural consequences are adhered
to by the States. The centre, thus, prepares five year plans and as per norms mentioned
in them, and the states implement them. The states seek the advice of the central Govt.
from time to time for the implementation in educational matters of national level.

Every state of India has almost the same pattern of administrative


organisation. The constitutional Head of the state is the Governor of the state who is
appointed by the President of India. The Governor has the legislative, executive and
judicial powers which he generally discharges on the advice of his Minister. Besides
the Governor, each state has a council of Ministers who are members of State
Legislature and they are appointed by the Governor according to article 163 of the
constitution. The Chief Minister is Head of the council of Ministers. Virtually he is in
incharge of administration of the state. One of the Ministers is given the port folio of
education who is given responsibility for matters of educational policy. Sometimes the
minister of education also has a Deputy Minister of education to assist him.

The different state Governments of the country have been carrying out on their
responsibilities as, per the norms laid down in the constitution. Leadership for the
advancement of education rests with the centre. Naturally the State Governments
depend upon the centre for financial assistance, and technical guidance. In the present
day fast changing society, the educational role is played by the state Governments
which has become very complex. In the words of Education Commission 196466:

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The responsibility of school education will rest squarely on the state Government.
The local authorities will, no doubt, have a good deal of initiative and we should like
the state Government to encourage by adopting flexible policies. But, by and large,
they will act as agents of the State Governments and exercise delegated powers.

Further to quote the Secondary Education Commission: If education is not to


be treated as a mere administrative problem we feel that Director of Education should
be mainly responsible to advise the Minister and for this purpose, we recommend that
where the Director himself is not the Secretary of the Department, he should have the
status of a Joint Secretary and should have direct access to the Minister. It would, of
course, to the Minister, when he considers it necessary, to consult the Secretary
particularly in regard to administrative and financial matters.

12.7. NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF INSTITUTIONAL EVALUATION


An institutions performance may be evaluated internally as well externally.
The internal evaluation may be done by the students, teachers and supervisory or
inspectorial personnel such as district inspector of schools. External evaluation is
done by some external agency such as the National Assessment and Accreditation
Council (NAAC). At the moment NAAC is concerned with the assessment and
evaluation of universities and affiliated colleges. At the school level there is no such
external agency to perform this function. Hence, internal evaluation of the
institutions performance, particularly at the school level is the only possibility.

A difference has to be made between an institutions total evaluation and an


institutions evaluation of performance. Total evaluation takes into account
institutions situation, external environment, physical, human and financial resources,
etc. Evaluation of institutions performance focusses on achievement of its objectives
which means students growth and development together with its determining factors
such as institutions environment, management and all efforts made on stimulating
students, growth and development. A common paradigm or conceptual framework
defining and describing institutional performance and its indicators is very much
needed which at the moment does not exist. Tentatively, it may be a three dimensional
paradigm as follows:

Each of these dimension has to be further defined, specified and described into
objective indicators. A sort of exercise called bench making is required.

1. Achievement of objectives
This is the sole purpose of establishing an institution. In case of a school or
college it is physical, scholastic and behavioural or moral development. Most feasible
and major concern is students scholastic development. Its indicators may be

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1. Pass percentage in external examination (high school, Intermediate or
higher secondary boards examination)
2. Number of 1st, 2nd, 3rd divisioners and distinction holders along with
percentage of failures.
3. Grades obtained by these final year students on standardized scholastic
development, attitude and personality development tests.
4. Percentage of or number of students qualifying in competitive
examinations.

2. Process and Programmes:


Achievement of goals of education is, undoubtedly, determined by the process
and the programmes which are adopted and carried out by the institution. For
evaluating this dimension following indicators may form the basis:
1. Quality of teaching-learning.
2. Students attendance and absenteeism.
3. Students discipline.
4. Adequacy of staff and their competencies.
5. Organization and regularity of co-curricular activities.
6. Student services : their existence and organization.
7. Administrations efficiency.
8. Students evaluation and examinations system.
9. Games and sports : facilities available and regularity.

3. Institutional climate
This is the dimension the quality of which subsumes effectiveness or
ineffectiveness of all other factors conditions. Its indicators for the purpose of
evaluation may be:
1. Human relations among the faculty members and between the faculty and
other employees.
2. Relations between the principal and the staff members,
3. Relations between the staff-members and the students.
4. Relations between the school and the community.

12.8. MEASURING PERFORMANCE OF THE INSTITUTIONS


There may be various ways of measuring institutions performance on these
indicators. Though in case of a few items such as students academic achievement,
their personality and behavioural traits, teachers attitudes, etc. Objective tests may be
developed or procured, The most feasible way would be to use observation and rating
scale method.

Taking the foregoing 18 indicators a five point rating scale questionnaire may
be developed on which opinions of students, teachers and supervisory personnel may
be gathered. Each of these 18 indicators may be further specified for full
understanding of the respondents.

A few precautions to be taken care of are: (1) the questionnaire should not be
very long. It should not contain more than 100 items, (a) the questionnaire are to be
used by students, teachers and other personnel should be the same. If different items
are contained in the questionnaire, integration of information and generalization or
grading of institutional performance will not be possible. The information revealed in

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that case may oftentimes be contradictory. Similarly, if the questionnaire is too long, it
may be cumbersome and time-consuring to collect information and process
information. It may defeat the purpose. (3) It is necessary to explain fully what each
indicator means, (4) The questionnaire should be administered to the teachers and the
students at the end of the session.

Who should evaluate:


Who should evaluate institutional performance? Obviously, those who are
directly and closely connected with or directly affected by the programme, and
procedures of the institutions; and these are in the first instance, the teachers and the
students. It is they who are involved in and concerned with almost all activities of the
institution; and it is they who can best tell how the institution is functioning. Its
effectiveness or ineffectiveness, in fact, is writ large daily on their faces. They see
everyday what is happening and how it is happening in the institution where they
work. They know well how serious about goal achievement is the principal of the
college, how he treats employees, how he takes decisions, how he allocates co-
curricular work among teachers, how teaching is being done, who teaches at What
level, how seriously co-curricular activities are being organized, how efficiently
financial resources are being utilized and so on. Yet, it does not mean that others such
as parents and educational officers can not evaluate the performance of the institution.
They, too, get enough information about an institutions functioning from various
sources. But, the fact is that certain aspects of institutional functioning can be
evaluated more reliably by teachers and certain others by students. Certain aspects
may be such on which both the teachers and students can provide enough good
information.

Evaluation by Teachers:
Evaluation is confined to the following aspects of institutions performance:
1. Administrative efficiency including principals human, technical and
conceptual skills.
2. Quality of classroom teaching learning. This may include information about
several aspects such as whether classes are held regularly, whether teachers
come well prepared tot teaching, whether teachers use various teaching aids,
whether teachers focus on students discipline and motivate them, whether
they complete their course in time, whether students achievement and
examination results are satisfactory, whether teachers are sufficiently
knowledgeable whether teachers evaluate students performance regularly,
whether do teachers do remedial teaching in case of students lagging behind
and so on.
3. Co-curricular programmes: This is an important aspect of school functioning.
The development of knowledge and understanding of students are taken care
of by class-room teaching. But, the development of personality, attitudes and
values is made possible through co-curricular programmes and activities such
as seminars debates projects MSS, scouting cultural activities and various
kinds of social welfare programmes. How effectively the institution
performing in this area can also be successfully evaluated teachers.

4. Utilization and procuring of resources:


Effective functioning of an institution very much depends on the availability
of resources. In the foregoing areas quality work will not be possible unless adequate

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resources are made available. These resources include human resource (i.e., adequate
number of competent teachers) financial resources, teaching-learning material aids
and equipments and sufficient space for classroom teaching, library, laboratories,
playing ground, administrative block, staff room, etc. Teachers may know enough
good information about these indicators of the institutions effectiveness. The teachers
may be asked to tell whether the institution considers availability and supply of these
facilities important. Whether the institution makes efforts to procure them from the
government or the management and whether the available resource are effectively
utilized.

Method of Evaluation:
For evaluation by teachers questionnaire based on the foregoing indicators
such as a five pointing scale may be prepared. On the basis of responses an over
quantitative index on the total questionnaire as well as each dimension may be
worked out every year. Information about these may be given to every teacher as the
feedback information.

Evaluation by Pupils:
Pupils are theoretically, the best judges of their institutions performance. It is
they who are most affected whatever the institution does to them and with them. In
fact, the educational institutions are there because students are there, If t institutions
are there to serve the societys purposes, they are to achieve this only through pupils
transformation. Hence, logically, the most fundamental indicator of effective or
ineffective performance the institution is the change that is brought about or the
efforts of institution made to bring about the same in the pupils.

The change that is brought about in pupils may relate to their knowledge and
understanding, social skills and desirable behaviour attitudes and personality qualities.
Efforts made by the institution bringing about these changes may relate to transaction
of curriculum and organization of co-curricular activities and other supporting
services. About these two indicators of intuitions performance sufficiently useful
information may be gathered from the pupils.

As regards pupils knowledge and understanding examination results may


throw enough light on institutions performance. If it is found that a sufficiently large
number of students pass out with good success, they show excellence by successfully
competing for admission to prestigious institutions and training courses, a good
number of them impressively participate in outside seminars, conferences, etc., it may
be concluded the institution to which they belong is performing substantially well.
However, academic growth and intellectual development can not be considered a fool
proof indicator of an institutions effective performance This may be due to several
other reasons also.

The students own assessment about the institutions management of its


resources, activities, programmes and efforts made on achieving the objectives should
be considered important. Just as teachers evaluation is considered important with
regard to institutions performance, similarly students evaluation may also be
considered useful. Their assessment of the following may be quite meaningful;

153
1. Classroom teaching which may include teachers preparation for teaching, their
regularly taking classes, their methods of teaching their skills in teaching, their
fairness in evaluating students learning and achievement, their classroom
behaviour, their knowledge and enthusiasm, etc.
2. Management of co-curricular activities which may be assessed on several
dimensions such as seriousness with which these are conducted, extent of
students participation in various such activities, sufficiency of support
provided by the principal and the management, etc.
3. Utilization of resources which may be assessed on such dimensions as
proper utilization of various funds, library, laboratories and equipment.

Bases of Pupils Evaluation:


It is very necessary to make pupils evaluation of the institutions performance
as objective as possible. There are various types of information which form the bal of
pupils evaluation. In case of some of these simple collection statistical figures may be
sufficient. For example, in case of number of students passing in first division, with
distinctions and those securing admission to training courses and admission to
prestigious courses etc. Their number and percentages may be recorded.

In case of quality, characteristics of classroom teaching management of


resources, a five-point rating scale type questionnaire may be prepared and
administered to students of the classes every year. The results may be discussed with
the teachers and a few select students with the principal in the chair. This kind
feedback is very necessary.

A Constraint:
Although evaluation of institutions performer by students is desirable, it has
its own constraints. The socio-political conditions prevailing in the larger society and
within the institution, the moment, may not allow this kind of evaluation of
institutions performance functional. The students unrest and teachers activities caused
and promoted by their associations may use this process an instrument of pressurising
and maligning teachers and the principal. Political interference with education is also
a factor which may cause it to be dysfunctional. In a word, the situation prevailing the
educational institutions today do not appear to be conducive to such innovations to be
introduced.

12.9. TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM)


The reforms of the education service in the 1980s provide the most
fundamental challenges to the prevailing orthodoxies of the management of
educational institutions. The changes are so profound that any attempt to respond to
them using established principles and processes is likely to be dysfunctional. At the
same time there is a critical need to establish a moral basis for educational
management so that the demands of the reforms do not result in pragmatic and
expedient responses. This chapter argues that total Quality Management (TQM) offers
a vehicle for schools and colleges to manage themselves effectively in a time of rapid
change and retain a clear focus on the essential and dominant purposes of education.

The Education Reform Act 1988 and related legislation Scotland and Northern
Ireland has had the net effect of shifting responsibility, authority and accountability to
the institutional level, eroding the traditional infrastructure of support and focusing on

154
to individual institutions the previously diffuse patterns of management activity. In
essence the changes are encapsulated in the concept of the self-governing school or
college. The specific requirements on schools in England and Wales to manage the
national curriculum LMS and appraisal in the context of parental choice and the
impact of incorporation on post-compulsory institutions create demands which are of
a different order of magnitude to anything previously encountered. The possibility of
institutions not managing themselves has now been removed as an option. In .the
context of consumer choice failing institutions will be allowed the ultimate failure.

A further factor is the changing culture in which schools and colleges will
have to operate. As the quality movement extends into the commercial and public
sectors so expectations on all providers will change. Parents will increasingly the
working in TQM companies, school-leavers and students will be seeking employment
in organizations managed according to quality criteria. There will inevitably be
increasingly specific demands on schools and colleges as suppliers. Most readers will
be familiar with the British Standard kitemark; as well as being an indication of
safety, there is a kitemark for quality management systems, BS 5750. Some further
education colleges are having to seek BS 5750 accreditation in order to be able to deal
with registered companies.

Sallis has identified four imperatives for change which he argues point
towards a total quality approach. The professional imperative implies a commitment
to client needs and the obligation to meet those needs by deploying knowledge and
skills to the best effect., The moral imperative is the need to find a basis for
management action which is firmly rooted in the key purposes of educational
institutions. Quality approaches are offered as a way of meeting long-standing
concerns about the nature of management in schools and colleges. Sallis extends the
applicability of TQM to education by arguing that there are two further imperatives
operating, the competitive and survival. These are closely linked but in essence the
emergence of a market economy in education requires the evolution of strategies
which reconcile the first two imperatives with the need to ensure institutional
viability.

There is a need for educational institutions to develop a sophisticated response


to this new climate. On the one hand this has profound dangers in that schools and
colleges might be seduced into adopting structures and procedures which convey a
veneer of efficiency but which lose sight of the key purposes of educational
institutions. There is the danger of the triumph of the men in grey suits-a situation
where administration becomes a substitute for managing and where power
relationships replace professional relationships. Shipman characterizes the issue in the
following terms:

By concentrating school management on top- down procedures, training has


missed both the opportunity to help teachers raise standards and to use their interest in
helping children learn... By the late 1980s, Management literature outside education
was stressing not only the importance of vision at the top, but of the need to
encourage initiative at all levels of the organization. Yet there is still no sign of any
shift around management training in education. The stress is still on means confused
with ends and on administration not management.

155
The combination of the need to respond to the 1988 Act and preserve the
integrity of the learning process is further complicated by a third factor-the concern
with quality. The issue of quality in education is perennial one and the standard
response has been in Platonic terms-to see it as an intellectual problem to be grappled
with which, buy definition, is probably not capable of solutions, Quality has been
perceived as an ideal, an absolute like truth, justice and beauty which we can only
ever aspire to. The definition of quality in education is for philosopher-kings and not
for children, parents or teachers!

This approach is no longer acceptable, appropriate or desirable. Changing


social expectations, the concept of rights being expressed in practical terms, the
emergence of a culture of expectation where customer needs are paramount, mean that
institutions have to be in a dynamic interaction with those for whom they are created
to provide a service. The shift is from quality as an ideal to be attained to quality as a
relationship to be managed. For industry and commerce, and increasingly for the
public sector, TQM represents a powerful means of meeting this challenge. It is not
possible to list all the organizations involved in the quality movement; evidence of
increasing activity is to be found in the number of companies seeking BS 5750
accreditation, the number of public bodies adopting; TQM, the increasing levels of
training provided and the volume of literature available. It will be for the reader to
decide how far it is an appropriate response for schools and colleges. TQM has three
crucial features which distinguish it from other theories of managing. Firstly, it is
holistic, it permeates every aspect of an organization, every relationship and every
process. It therefore offers an integrity and coherence which is lacking in most other
models. Secondly, it is value driven: TQM places fundamental significance on values
and purpose. It therefore introduces a moral imperative into management which
would seem necessary in the context of the education of children and young people.
Thirdly, it is about managing the interpersonal components of all organizations and
equally acknowledges the interdependence between an organization and its
environment.

The nature of TQM


The pedigree of TQM can be traced to the work of two Americans, Deming
and Juran. Both approached the issue of quality from a background of statistics used
in manufacturing processes in the engineering industry. Their work was first widely
adopted in Japan, discovered in the USA in the late 1970s and subsequently (as often
is the case) in Britain in the early 1980s. Deming and Juran extended the original base
of their work into all aspects or organizational management and their foundations
have been built on by a number of practitioner- writers, notably Crosby (1979). The
impact of their ideas can be found in the origins of manufactured goods in households
and garages across Britain, for the dominance of imported consumer goods, notably
Japanese in origin, can be largely explained in terms of quality.

There is not a single, homogeneous theory of TQM. The gurus and their
disciples have produced sets of percepts which are broadly in accord but differ in
significant respects. Most importantly TQM has to evolve in response to the needs,
context and values of a specific organization. There will therefore be significant
differences between an engineering company an airline, a retail organization and
public sector activities in the way in which TQM is interpreted and applied. However,

156
certain fundamental principle will remain constant and these can be identified by
synthesizing the key imperative of the originators of TQM:

1. The definition of quality is that of the customer, not the supplier.


2. Customers are defined as anyone who receives a product or service, i.e. they
are internal and external to the organization and not just the person who
pays.
3. Quality consists of meeting stated needs, requirements and standards.
4. Quality is achieved by the prevention of work that does not meet standards;
not by the detection of failure but by continuously improving the service or
product.
5. The move to qualify is driven by senior management but is the responsibility
of those in the organization; qualify has to be built in to every process.
6. Quality is measured by statistical processes, the cost of quality is the cost of
non-conformance with stated requirements, the gap between expectation and
delivery.
7. The most powerful vehicle for ensuring quality relationship is the effective
team.
8. Education and training are fundamental to the quality organization.

These components demonstrate the factors in understanding the relationship


between TQM and quality control and quality assurance. Quality control is a well-
established practice in most industrial concerns; it involves monitoring, checking and
controlling, i.e.

12.10. TQM in the context of education


It is difficult to find neat categorization of TQM in terms of theoretical
models. Its origins are very much in an analysis of perceived success and the
extrapolation of the factors contributing to that success. The model might therefore be
conceived of a pragmatic one, i.e. theory is derived from practice and does not require
intellectual legitimation. Indeed writers on quality frequently warn against the dangers
of an overly academic response to the principles enunciated; there are frequent
cautions against paralySl5 by analysis. TQM is perceived as management in action
and organizational effectiveness is the sole legitimation.

There is, as yet, very little empirical evidence available on the impact of
quality approaches in schools and colleges. Samuel provides useful indicators of some
areas of school management that lend themselves to a TQM approach:
the experience of pupils when taken by a supply teacher,
the impact of the homework policy,
consistency in entry criteria for the sixth form,
heads of department being responsible for their work areas,
response times for repairs and maintenance.

However, in reviewing the applicability of TQM to the education service, it is


helpful to see how it relates to existing analytical models. In its stress upon
organizational goals, the central importance of leadership and the importance of
establishing systems to manage processes TQM coincides with the formal models of
management outlined by Bush. However, the applicability of the bureaucratic model
is immediately challenged by the emphasis on teams, social processes and the

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empowering and developmental model of leadership. There is no doubt that the
individual is subordinated to the organization in terms of values but the TQM
organization then accepts the need to secure the commitment and personal
involvement of the individual, i.e. there is no question of denying personal integrity.
There is also a recognition that values are only given expression through individual
action.

The emphasis on teams raises the issue of democratic and collegial models.
The criteria for effective teams are highly reminiscent of the characteristics of
collegiality as outlined by Bush. The requirement for open decision-making, and the
emphasis on individual responses to the organization all appear to locate TQM firmly
in a human relations view of management. It may well be said that TQM represents
the next generation of thinking in management theory where the criteria are practical
rather than ideological. TQM represents a form of conceptual pluralism, i.e. it does
not derive all of its components from a single theoretical base but rather takes its
premises from elements of models which meet the empirical requirements derived,
from quality organizations.

In this sense TQM is very attractive to most organizations because it is not


culturally specific; it can evolve in response to the particular circumstances assuming
that here is a supplier- customer relationship. Thus TQM is operating in. Japan, the
USA, Germany and Britain. It is operating successfully in giant car manufacturers,
hospital accident and emergency units, charitable organiZati0n5 local government etc.
It would therefore seem possible that it might apply to schools and colleges. Although
there are no detailed evaluations of TQM in education available there are some
helpful parallels to draw on. Hopkins (1987) identifies a range of factors which
characterize effective schools:

Curriculum-focused leadership,
supportive climate,
emphasis on learning,
clear goals and high expectations
monitoring performance,
continuous staff development, parental involvement,
LEA support.

Fullan stresses the importance of process and issues in developing effective


schools, i.e. leadership as a process, consensual value systems sophisticated social
interactions and collaborative planning. The links between these approaches and the
principles outlined in Figure are clear and would seem to reinforce the view that the
principles of TQM are already available to schools, however implicitly.

However, there are a number of possible objections to TQM in the education


service, especially schools and colleges:

(1) Professional autonomy : no person is an island but teachers come pretty


close. Teaching is often perceived of as an essentially solitary activity which
therefore creates a high degree of individual control. Such an approach is
clearly alien to the co-operative ethos of TQM. However, serious questions
have to be raised as to the validity of this approach. The twinned requirements

158
of the self-governing school and the national curriculum argue against the
validity of the individualistic approach. Schools are increasingly having to
respond as organizations and the management of the national curriculum
requires high level of integration and collaboration whilst preserving team and
personal discretion,

(2) Managerialism : management is about conformity, education is about


preparing the individual to live in a democratic society. This view argues that
education and management are inimical. As it has been argued above, TQM is
a process which derives its content and values from the needs of its clients.
Thus TQM in a company producing luxury cars will be driven by
consumerism a school it needs to be driven by educational values. Indeed it
could well be argued that the respect for the individual central to TQM is
preferable to the reactive, ad hoc, routinized administration that passes for
management in some educational institutions,

(3) The customer : there has always been a problem in defining whom education
is for, the child? the parent? the taxpayer? the State? The TQM s response is
to accept all claim to client status. It is the process that defines the customer
and accountability and not a debate between alternative value systems. Thus
the child is the customer in the classroom, the parent is the customer for
reporting procedures, the LEA, DES and HMI are equally customers i context.
One of the problems in applying TQM to education is how potential tensions
between these customers might be reconciled.

(4) Problematic outcomes : If education is viewed as a liberal, humanizing, long-


term and heuristic process then an objective-driven approach such as TQM
seems alien. However, it could be argued that the educated person is as
tangible a concept as the satisfied customer or the healthy patient. Ends are
elusive but it is possible to identify specific processes and activities that
contribute to the outcome. It is these that are managed. Creating a love of
literature may be problematic but specifying texts to be read, in what
sequence, what learning methods are appropriate, how to assess progress, etc.,
can all be planned, measured and reviewed.
Total Quality Management is as yet relatively untried in the public sector in
Britain; in the USA it is increasingly a norm. A great deal of empirical work is
necessary to understand just how relevant the approach is to schools and colleges.
However, it does offer a systematic, holistic and value-driven approach which has the
potential to be developed. The most cogent argument for adopting TQM is the extent
to which existing practices are felt to be appropriate and successful for schools and
colleges in an era of increasing institutional autonomy.

12.11. INDIAN STANDARDISED ORGANISATION CERTIFICATE FOR


EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS (ISO)
This is given by the government of India through the committee to the
educational institutions. The committee will verify and check up the infrastructure
equipments, staffing both academic and non teaching staffs, Financial Background,
Socio economic status, etc according to their prescribed Norms and conditions. If the
institutions is satisfied with their norms and conditions Indian Standardised
Organisation certificate will be given to the college after the competition of third year.

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12.12. IMPORTANCE OF MANAGEMENT AUDIT
Then the profession of accountancy is developed to detect errors and frauds.
Later on they were asked to suggest ways and means to prevent the errors, frauds and
manipulation of accounts. By and by the area of the functions of the auditor expanded
and the statutory auditor was required to state whether the balance sheet and the profit
and loss were properly drawn up according to the Companies Act and that they
represented a true and fair view of the state of the affairs of the company. Now-a-days
the Act enjoins the auditor, in addition to what has been stated in the foregoing lines,
to state in his report whether or not the personal expenditure has been charged to
revenue account; whether the prices paid for the stores, raw materials or other
components exceeding the value of one thousand rupees purchased from the -
subsidiaries in which the directors are interested are reasonable or not; whether the
rate of interest and other terms of loan in the case of concerns engaged in
manufacturing, mining, processing is reasonable or not and so on.

But in spite of all these enactments and precautions, the statutory auditor never
goes into the question whether the policies laid down by the management are properly
carried out or not; whether any improvement in running the business can be made in
order to maximise the profits or to eliminate the wastes; he is not expect to make any
suggestion as to which centralisation or decentralisation of the management is
advantageous or disadvantageous; he is not concerned whether a change in the system
of running the business is beneficial to the concern.

It is argued by some people that the internal auditor who is appointed by most
of the large companies, fulfils all these functions as stated above. It may be pointed
out that the internal auditor confines his attention to the financial aspect for the
prevention and detection of errors frauds and manipulations, etc. But today the
business has become so large and complicated that many of the unhealthy situations
which arise as a consequence can be to the basic defects of the organisational.
structure and the ineffective type of the organisation. Here lies the necessity of the
management auditor who pays attention to all the factors of production and to the
elements of costs which are very important in the business world of today.
Due to keen competition in the business world today, the management of the
industrial organisations want to minimise the cost of production which is possible by
el Wastes, avoid bottlenecks and to utilise fully the manpower as well as the plant and
machinery and so on. In order to achieve these objectives, management now-a-days
recruit auditors from the fields other than that of accountancy. Such a person is called
r auditor.

The area of management consultancy services has been receiving growing


attention from auditors in recent years. Highly specialised techniques as operational
statistical sampling, electronic data processing and production control, etc. has made
it difficult for business concerns to maintain competent t for all these spheres. Mostly
the limited companies are governed by the Board of Directors whose duties are
onerous. If the company is successful, the directors get a vote of thanks and a word of
praise. If anything goes wrong, they are invariably criticised in spite of the carefully
laid down plans which their shrewdness and experience could conceive. The directors
cannot pass on the blame on any other person when the things go wrong for the
Board could not possibly have control on the events which no one could have forseen

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e.g., the information furnished to them by the management may not be sufficient or
may even be incorrect. There is only one channel of communication between the
Board and the rest of the organisation and this is the managing director. Again the
directors have to take immediate decision on the information or the figures furnished
and they have to accept such information is given to them, has to be accepted. Under
the circumstance they cannot delay a full discussion and take the decision which may
ultimately go wrong.

The auditors are often called upon to advise the firm as to how to minimise
waste, bottlenecks, breakdowns and maximise the production of quality goods. The
fees paid for these consulting services by the auditors are attractive because the client
is benefited much more than the consulting fees he pays.

Taking into consideration the above facts, the management


consultancy is deemed to be a necessity. The question is what is meant by consultancy
and what are its functions. The object of management consultancy services is to
improve the organisational operations. The managements now-a-days recruit auditors
from the field other than that of accountancy. This is what is called management
consultancy. It is claimed that the presence of management Service amount to a
practical guarantee that the work will be satisfactory. The management consulting
firm has to make recommendations after which its responsibility is over.

Management audit is a new concept in the sphere of auditing. It was the


United States of America which coined this term. In that country the professional
accountants have a management services wing which is designated as Management
Audit. We have already seen while dealing with the audit of Government companies,
that the auditor has to answer a questionnaire relating to the management of the
company in addition to the audit report, pertaining to the financial matters, which he
has to submit. That is what is meant by management audit. The questionnaire relates
to the appraisal of the efficiency of the management.

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12.13 AUDITORS REPORT-ESSENTIALS
It should be courteous, i.e., even if it is to criticise the management, it should
be so worded to avoid unnecessary sharpness or implication. It should contain the
recommendations if any which should be constructive and not condemning in nature.

2. Matters to be dealt in the report


(a) Is the return on the investments of the shareholders poor, adequate or
above average.
(b) Comparison of the rate of return on investment between the current
year and the previous year/years.
(c) Comparison of the operating costs of the concern with other concerns
conducting the same type of business.
(d) Whether plant and machinery in use is suitable or otherwise to get the
maximum amount of production.
(e) Whether the relationship between management and the staff and the
workers has been cordial.

Auditing and maintenance of registers and records


All the money that is received by a public institution like a school or college
need to be accounted properly. Therefore accounting and auditing of the institutional
accounts are necessary. Accounting is defined as the act of recording, classifying and
summarizing all money transactions and matters which are of financial character and
interpreting the results thereof. Record keeping functions of accounting enables the
organisation to know its performances and achievements at the end of each year. The
financial year in India is 1st April to 31st March. The academic year is generally
consists of June to April.

Almost all the educational institutions ,whether private or government receive


one kind or other funds from public and government. Therefore, audit of the accounts
is compulsory. Audit is necessary to avoid (1) errors of commission (2) compensating
errors, and (3) fraudulent errors. Fraudulent errors take place due to misappropriation
of funds, embezzlement of cash, manipulation of accounts and misappropriation of
goods. A qualified auditor can detect any of these frauds by looking at the books and
physical verification of assets and liabilities. The head of the institution therefore must
be careful with finances and he should not delegate financial powers to any one. In
case it is inevitable, it should be done in writing.

In order to know the amount of money a for the money spent and activities,
the following registers are to be maintained.

1. A register of admissions and withdrawals


2. A register of issue of transfer certificates
3. A register of attendance of students
4. A register of attendance of teachers
5. A register of attendance of supporting and other staff
6. Register of fees paid and dates of payment
7. A counterfoil fee receipt book
8. Account books showing the financial transactions of the institute
9. A register of scholarships received from government and payments
10. A register of payments to hostel if a hostel is maintained

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11. A register of marks obtained by each student at school / college exams and
public exams
12. A. register of addresses of students
13. A comprehensive register of students background data
14. A counterfoil book of certificates o inspection of students
15. A register of inspection.
16. A visitors book

Funds Registers
1. General cash book - fees income and receipt of grants and all expenditure
2. Development cash book - to deal with development fee and experience
3. Scholarship account - to deal with scholarships receipts and payments
4. Examination Fund - the fees received and remittance made to
Government, University.
5. Union Fund - Students related activities
6. Imprest book - Contingency accounts.

The financial management of an institution depends. upon how the principal


maintains these accounts systematically. The school budget, the animal report, the
receipts and payments statement made by the head of the institute indicate his abilities
of financial management. The head of the institute with the help of financial manager
or accountant has, to maintain strict control over the items of expenditure and at the
same time improve the sources of revenue for the institute such as fees, user charges,
grants, donations, and other sources.

Process of programmes includes the following indicators


1. Qualifying of teaching learning 2. Students attendance and absenteeism 3.
Students discipline 4.Adequancy of staff and their competencies 5. Regularity of Co-
curricular activities. 6. Administration efficiency of students evaluation and
examination system. 7. Games and sports facilities available and regularity.

Evaluation of the institution can be done by evaluation by students the


teachers, help the institutions to check their performance in accordance.

ISO certificate can be obtained by the educational institutions from the Indian
Standardised Organisation according to certain norms and conditions. Management
Audit is an independent appraisal activity for the review of control of managerial
functions so as to ensure compliance with the organisational objectives, policies and
procedures and the management methods and purposes.

Organisation, plans and objectives policies and practices, systems and


procedures controls, operations, physical equipment personal, Regulations, are the
outlines of management Audit programme. As far educational institutions the auditing
is a must for their growth and development. All most all educational institutions,
whether private or government receive one kind or other funds from public and
Government. So the audit of the accounts is compulsory. Each and every institution
must kept their records and Registers prescribed for their activities. The head of the
institute with the help of financial manage or accountant has to maintain strict control
over the items of expenditure and at the same time improve the sources of revenue for
the institute such as fees, user charges, grants, donations, and other sources.

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12.14. TERMINAL QUESTIONS
I. Answer the following in a sentence or two (1Mark)
1. Define Control
2. What are the steps in controlling process?
3. What are new control techniques?
4. What is paradigm?
5. What is ISO?
6. How does control related with Psychological pressure?
7. Write the Newman guidelines for selecting strategic points?
8. What is PERT?
9. What is MIS?
10. What are the duties of the manage Auditor?

II. Answer the following in short (6 Mark)


11. Write the characteristics of control system.
12. Explain the pre-requisites of control system
13. Explain the Requirements of control system.
14. Tabulate the old and Modern techniques of control system.
15. Explain about the controlling authorities in educational system.
16. How do the organizations get a ISO certificate?

III Written Essay (15 Mark)


17. Write the importance of Institutional Evaluation.
18. How do you measure the performance of an institution?
19. Explain the need and importance of Audit.
20. What are the records and registers to be kept for audit in Educational
Institutions.?

12.15. SUGGESTED READINGS


1. Quality education K.K. Singh, K.N. Sudharshan.
2. Business organisation and management R.K. Sharma, Sashik Gupta
3. Educational administration theory and practice John 1 N Wankwo.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Business organisation and Management R.K. Sharma. Shashik. Gupta.


2. Introduction to Education and Management K.S. Chalam.
3. The Principles of Economic Planning Lewis.
4. Educational Planning Chalam.
5. What is Educational Planning, UNESCO Coombs.
6. Economics of Educational Planning in India Padmanaban.
7. School administration Sharma.
8. Administration of Education India, P.D. Shukla.
9. Educational administration and Management I.S. Sindhu.
10. School administration and Organisation R.C. Sharma.
11. Philosophical and Sociological foundations of Education Ltd. (Dr.) Satish
Chadha.
12. Educational technology and Management.
13. Successful School Education Maslowedger.
14. Philosophical and Historical Basis of Education I.S. Sindhu.
15. Management Education Trivedi, K.S. Sudharsn
16. Modern Indian Education B.D. Batt.
17. Educational planning and management Chalam.
18. Kothari Commission Abdual Manan
19. Philosophical Education R.,S Ponday
20. Educational Technology and management R.P. Bhatnagar.

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SUGGESTION FOR REFERENCE

1. Introduction to Educational and management K.S. Chalam.


2. Business organisation and management R.K. Sharma Shashik Gupta.
3. Economics of Educational planning in India Padmanaban
4. Administration of Education in India P.D. Shukla.
5. Philosophical and sociological foundations of education. Lt. Cot (Dr)
Satish Chadha.
6. Management education Trivedi K.S.Sudharashan.
7. Essential of management Koontz and O Donnal
8. Management Griffin.
9. Education administration theory and practice. John I N Wankwo
10. Quality Education : U.K. Singh, K.N. Sudharshan.

Prepared by :
Mrs. M. SARADHA M.Sc., M.Ed., M.Phil., P.hd.
Lecturer, Mahendra College of Education,
Minnampalli,
Salem Dt.

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