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L/\ M ENG I NEERTNG coLLtrGf
If/- 1r
DEI',rRt MEN't OI,. CIVIL ANCINUli"nfruC
ur.iui-i Ren]ote scnsing l.echrriques & CIS
Unit_l
Two Mark questions
I. What is Remote Sensilg
"Remote sensing is the scierce (xnd to.some

extent, art) ofacquiring information
without actua,v being i^ co,racr *i,r,, about the Earth,s surface
energy and processing, analyzir.tg, a,rd
it. Thi. i;l;;;;i ffi;l;
r,o recording reflected or emitted
applyinf ttrat ffiffiH.
2.What are the bnsic conrpone,rts

or remoae sensing ? Mol lguna- a-f
l' An energy source'2 rnteracriorrs,of
th is ener3y with particres in the atmosphere,3.Subsequent
li:i:i:::J,,::*:i::i;:,:::,X';1;i;i ""'ev i'"?a'i'ii;:;;:il'", data,and s data displayed digita,y ror
3.whariseryrnr
C
@u/ ,el- A:d1)
,"diation.itjs rhe enersy ernited/reflected
flY*::j:jrj,::.1_:1.1ai]:,," from ground features and
ff llll;,*,Hnsi
ng n srru
electromagnetic radiation.
i i ne n t n
i th e ro rrn, *"ii,rn ol,. ffi;U;l,,ffi H:lJ.:i #i",
4. What is black body radiations?
A black body transforms heat errergy

in to radiant energy at the maximum possibre
known black body radialion' axumpte rate.This radiation is
if ,h"
body'A black body in hypotheticar,ideal
rr";;;;;:'u".
p.,+"", wourd be an idear black
radiator th"t "r"iner,it
reemits a, energy incident on it.
"u.o.u.'ura
5. What are the adyantages ol.using
remole sensed data?
Satellite images are permanent records,providing

wavebands.
useful information in various
Easl dara auquisitior) at dillerent scales

and resolutions.
sensed inrage can be anatysed* and interpreted

" l,'i,::f ::llrety
ap.plicaiiorrs. -'rv rrrtwrPrvtEu for
rur urrrerent
different purpos
purposes
a
I
'nd
I > The irnagcs a'e unalyzed in the laboratory
I {i
11 ,narysis f.orn
analysis remoti sensing datu
fr.orn remote daJttther.fo;
thus reducing the amount of
e."fo." i;
;s cosr cfrF^ri.,o
v*.,ru -'*"'
field work
r'/orK rne
the
U.r.nn" spectrat r.eticc{arcc? _ "ost "ff.ffi

J ,! M\ /A.."_ar.1
\-'l' The spectral signatules prodtrced by wavelength-dependent
absoetion provide the key to discriminating
different materiars in inrages ofreflected
sora. energy. The property used to quantifo
rhese spectrar
signatures is called spectral r.elleclance.
a
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7.what are atmospheric windows ? - i4a+. ffu{v' &oll ,Norf Nc'aalo'.N.Dv
lDz(-aey'
These are certain regions ofthe electronragnetic spectrum which can penetrate through the atmosphere
without any significant loss of radiation.such regions are called as atmospheric windows.
8.What are the factors that affect the reflectance ofthe soil ?
i)Moisture eontent.
ii)soil texture
iii)Surface roughness
iv)Presence of organic mafter.
9.What is Rayleigh scattering?

Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles are very small compared to the wavelength ofthe radiation.
These could be particles such as smatl specks of dust or nitrogen and oxygen molecules. Rayleigh
scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be scattered much more than longer wavelengihs
Rayleigh scattering is the dominantscatteriDg mechanism in the upper atmosphere. The fact that the sky
appears "blue" during the day is because of this phenomenon.
l0,What is Mie scattering?

Mie scattering occurs when the particles arejust about the same size as the warlength of the radiation.
Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes of Mie scattering which tends to affect longer
rvavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh scattering. Mie scattering occurs mostly in the lower
portions ofthe atmosphere where larger particles are more abundant, and dominates when cloud
conditions are overcast.
ll.What is non-selective scatterin et ( Naf hun2-Acl/)

Nonselective scatter is common when radiation' interacts with particles which are much larger in diameter
than the wavelength
12. lAlM 18 M(4 tor2r?

Ara. f|arreldr !5r' tbc tthoto clcatrlc clfact- Plsrrck'- ta,t,, dcnnG3
rhc l|'.ckal ardt*rtrac of, r bloch body 0't6dci'.or1 l9?Ol.
l'{* - cr/Jt* {e*D tc./^a) - l}
wtrcfe,
Ct - 9.742 x 10-!6 lratts lt!t'r1rz
qr - f.rtlla x lO-2 rr'l(
.lt ltr}hvcfcrrgth ltr rrllso rnctc:ra
T - ?rt4rcretrrc l. t(ehdrt
M^ = Slrcc-fral arrraartcc l,er !.rnat ra,avElartSut
Tf{: lor{er tttc li.awrcrt8tlr, ttlc tor&'r ls tltc eneEE$ co'rtent.
tS Wt*, ()o yatl wlrlc-.t5tand.hy elee$rom4gneti,c spetrum?
4i}r. 'lhe llnriri: array of dcclror egnBuc walts ccmprlse8 the EMR
Epecrrum. The electronragnetic Bpectrum
Inay be degned *s the ordertng of
thc radtonon accordirg to war-crength. frequ1ncy or cnerg5r. fl'* creru*i6n-ctir
Fcctrum can br: atplaincd as lhe cuntinuum of en&gr *lat r&n{cs-from
n:etsr$ to rilrlr.rr rctr:rs ln rravelength, travels at *rc speeA of liht afid
r
propagatc$ titrou$: vircuurn ltke thc outcr spaer

{Sabti:s fSg6}.
-
14, Why do clouds appear. I'hire?
water droplets causing scatter have particle diafireters in the range of5 to 100 micrometors and
scatter all visible and trear to nriil IR wavelengths, equally. Hence this scatterirrg is .non selective, with
respect to wavelength. Equal quantities ofblue, green and red light are scattered in the visible
wavelengths, which results in the clouds appearing as white.
C l5.What is a black body?
A black body is a hypothetical itleal railiator that totally ab.sorbs and reemits all energy incident upon it.
The following corrditions hold true for a black body.
1. The total energy emitted frorn an object increases very rapidly with increases in temperature.
2: The wavelengtli at which the rnaximum spectral radiant axitance occurs, varies lhversely with
the black body's remperature.
16.Define scatteriug?
Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules preSent.in the atnosphere inGract with and cause
the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path. How much scattering takes place
depends on several factors including the wavelength ofthe radiation, the abundance ofparticles or gases,
' and the distance the l?diatiorl tr.:ivels through the atmosphere.
l7.Deftne Absorpli.,ir?
Absorption is thc otirer rtain ruechanism at work when electromagnetic radiation interacts with the
atmosphere. Ir contmst to scal.tering, this plrenomenon causes molecules in the atmosphere to absorb
energJ at various lvavelengtlts. Ozoue, carbon dioxide, and water vapour are the three main atmospheric
constituents which absolb radiarion.
/,
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18 0{fi3rentr{sfe a.clipe cnd Fa.rs{re n-,,aolc $snsrng sys,cms?
Acti r ESS tusstue RSS

8*er*5a eource It gencratea and u"qes its They depend on solar
olitl en(fg/ to lllumlndc lhc radtauon to Ulumlnate the
tarEet end rcccrds thr targeL
rellsctrd cngr6,.
RcgIon of These systems opcratc tn Thcy opcratc In r}le vl$lblc and
6pe{itum l$ the mlcfo$T.rtc reglon of the lnfrared reglorl af th'c
whlch they dectromagfleuc spectru$1. dctEofi agnctlc spectrucL
opemltn
W*rclergth Thelr rryavclcngths arc ThG{r n arrtcngtlB rarue from
Iolrger Oran one rurr, to t{}irm.
O.4
R*l*ancr on T!:cy <lo not rdy oc Thry rely on del*flsn of iotf,r
solEr detectloa . of solar or eErlsslon.
lrr&dtadee tcrrestilal et t$lorit, aa thr
eolar Irradlanec ln the
mlcro$ral,e f egloll tg
n*lrgble.
EraraFIc $mfhetlc apcrh.rre radar. ADy Blectromegrletlc remgt*
s.arlrrgsystcfri (C*mtra
rvlthout {lash ll6htl.
19 lv}ul ars tA gerxfat.proccases lru.rolued in el4cFprr@ruatic rffiolf, $*r$ftg?

Thc trro nraln proc*,rs tmrclved in p-rssivr Or dectrornaglneud
rGmotc sefiE ng are
{0 Iai* rcqptr.lttE!. Thc data acqurdtton proctssEs compdscs dt{unctfirc
etefilcnt8 namcly :
{al 0ner# sources. '(

tA Propsgatlqn of trter$r tlrouXlh the atmosphcfe
td Eaftg k er8.ctlolls r,rrlth the canhs eur{acc f+ntr,uee.
{d} Alr bom:. epaoe boruc. scnsora to recax} tht rct}eeted enffSf,
{d Orntrstlon d stsor dat*. as plctorlal or digltal lnformaUon-
{t0 Orfr lrraffs!6" Dala analy$is can be broadly cla.Bstfled aB
(a) Vl;ual imoge intcrpft:tntion*Thrs tnvol!'$s the eicamtnauon of
data wlth l,l&rlous vtct /ing inrtr$ntrnt to anallr-ra ptct }rtrI data.
- _data
dlsltfil
. (sthenDlgltd k$ngc prEc:csing*wllcfi computrrB arc uee<l lo anab.zE
the procss ls call8d digttal lmage prDces*ln g,
20.What are the primary absorbers of electromagnetic energy in the atmosphere?

Atmospheric constituents like water vapour, carbon dioxide and ozone are the primary absorbers of
enerry.
i'
@ry l.r^" -dr&)
11, I)efinc rcnrote seruins?
' A,,srRr:nrore scnslng ts the *r:l-errce and art of olrtdrrrr{g inforrnafisn
about an objccL, iifta ur phcn{)ruc|1a' through the an*fursts of deta, a{qulrtd
by a deylce. that ls rlot ln conr&{t anttlr t}re r:hject. ara cr pherromcne under
tnveb{ l,4i{ t.l0 r t.
e4. litral. crc {ha essGn{rsl conq}onnfs af a r*mota sertellr sg*(cm?
.&,jqg. ltrc csscnual csnrporleftta tf a rcmole gcnSf$g l._steI1r drc
{0 ,\ rll)iL)rnr ener$r source_Tlrts \ffuuld pH:vldc energ/ on aU
wavcl:'4t}s :iu i(s Lo product h1h trcvt} out put lfrd*Sc*tloe of ttmc and
placr:.
(&1 r\ nor)-IrltcrI(rind attnasphere--Thrs. type sf atrfiosFhciE would
not n1odlly dre erlergf frorn {he sourcE.
(iul A .scrtcr; af unique eaer$alIrlatter interactlang at thc carthe
6urfa{:L---rrticsr irrlcr-{rcfio$g would graerate rflctd or emlttcd ErEnalE wh:ch
are not r.: [l_\. scli:i.ul e rvlur rcspei:t to rr?vclengl,h. but AIso ar ln Vaxrlnt alld
uniquc io crrcl-. iurd cvery eartlr surf,&ce fcahirq.
(f.,t ./1 slrtr)(:r u{n.!ior-A a{jr:aor hlgtrty 3rrl|fllttlrr to sll lrravrlcrlgt}rg,
yleldleg sl]:rri.{lt} deaiiiled d&!a ofl {rt.e. atrsol.rrtc brl$trt }e*B (ra.afla.lrce} frr:ur :r
.rctltr-. .rr. .. I-Lrrrc {,: I (1i' r{':rvqkinEt.}r rrougt} t}ut ltte aipt(lfi.rrrt.
(i.'i ./a re.rl (rlrle dnta.klartdltflg systcnr*Ifr ttlls s:r8iefii aa esOn a* ttre
radlairr:.- .r,,-s ru:rr.ricrr11rh rr:sponrn:s o.i,rtir- u lcrralll el,rrrcnt LE ger}cret{t tt
\,.oltld trc frr(rijrs.s(:d ira ro fl"n lDtcrprqtable ferrnq,t aDd tlrerf fccoEfilzed ag
trilque r(, thtj l):tr-rLcrtlrt' terra.1r] rlexit{rt from whteli t!. ,s r-e*cl1,cd.
{u8 .lultipl': <lo,ia. trscrs--'Ihtss 4rc t}rc pdoplc. t *ro hev(! lfiotlllcdEp
,r! Slrcater <fept.lr. tr(it]I lfr ttrstr re8llectlve afsaptfntee ar}d frl ratrr(}te g'efrBtfiE
<lata acqutsluorl. iir1rrlys.t-s! tcchtdqu.ut.
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23.What is rrciurt Dy si,crti iil signature? f*Ay /Wal - & o I 2
Spectral response ofth: obir:ts or spectral reflectance values ofobjects (or) reflected radiations ofthe
object.
24.What is the sigliiit:ilrt of i'lnnk's law in remote sensing?

Intensity or radiancr rirrirr.,il by tlre black body at absolute temperature.
&q, gblu s la {oq - BotLzmao t o,-. Qr, ln"y,-a"tV)

A{ =-gr frt
'b[\s'<- ^4-- -tbto-t ruairnl nu}looeq ,fw,'o ,tt"-l*rfaaAdP a-
np,toi"-l, Wf.l.r-
o- glu&rt - b/t .-o'q c"ntbn l-, f- t6cLx oJ ,Jl^u t<4
=
T= o-bso, uto- /e,-?e,to-fu'ro-$:1 6F +ka- er.ittitY prafu,ria)
&4, Sb,le- Wiantg d.t\P&A-r,,to* foru ,
h'- witn'1 *nd"nt = a,kgr x to '3 ^k

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16 mark questions
l'Describe the erectromagnetic spectrum with a neat diagram for
remote sensing technique.
2. Explain the spectral reflectance '
chara.rprici;.c of
ance characterlstics ^r \,^^^+-+:^-
vegetation, --!, - . a^141$'t
soils and water. Add
t -*n
note
on the significance of the.r*"r.
{ 1lz,l,.v.-a.ti1
3. Explain the energy interaction witliearth
surface matlriat.. _/,rr", lV v ar,q)
4,Explain
4'Explain briefly about history
historv of remote earrcih^
remotc sensing. \ '/
the components orthe remote sensins
l.illlll;::J"l"**"'h system.
@ lur-a,,u2
7' Exprain how the interactions between the
matter and the erectromagnetic radiation
are
executed.
8. Explain spectral signature concept$
1' fx+rcio tltdr4totrent L\yusof gcot!-t\ u/rorrootqisttc* oF-

EMR.
l. Explain the Applications of Remote sensing ?
APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSINC:

l) Application in the fiel<t of satellite: - A satellite with lemote sensors to observe the earth
is cailed a remote-sensing satellite, or eafih observation satgllite.

Remote-Sensing Satellites
are characterized by their altittrde' orbit and sensor'

the Earth's surface
Satellite r.ernote sensing involves gathering infbrrnation about features on
known as "active"
frorn orbiting satetlites. These satellites carry two types ofsensor systems
and "passive". A "passive" system generally consists ofan array of
small sensors or detectors'
reflected and/or
which record (as digital numbers) the amount of eleotro-magnetic radiation
emitted from the Eartlr's surface. A multispectlal scanner is an example ofa
passive system'
(as digital
An ,'active,, system propagates its own electro-magnetic radiation and measures
example of
numbers) the ifltensiti' ofthe return signal. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) is an
( an active syslem.
VARIOUS REMOTE SENSING SATELLITES ARE AS FOLLOIIS:

a) TR]OS Series (1960-1965)
'lhe Television and Infrared Observation Satellites'
b)NoAAltisthefirstgenerationofNationaloccanicarrdAtrrrosphericAdministratiqn
Satellitc system'
satellites and was as tlte first opelation operational ,emote sensing
The third generation NoAA satellites are also successfulll used for vegetation monitoiing,
Very High Resolution
apart from meteorological monitoring. It is equipped with Advanced
Radiorneter (AVHRR) sensors' and is established at an altitude

of 850 km' ln polirr orbit'
of 36'000
c) GMS G-gbsynchronois meteorological satellite lt is established at an altitude
iand its main purpose is meteoroiogical observations

polar orbit and is used mainly for land
d) Landsat is established at an altitude of 700 Kms is a
area observation.
e) Other remote..sensing satellite selies in operations

ale: SPOT'' MOS' JERS' ESR'
RADA RSAT. and IRS etc.

I
I 2) Use of Remote sensing in the ficld ofAgriculture: - Agriculture plays a dorninant role in
Whether agriculture represents a
economies of both developed and uncleveloped countries'
ol sirnply sustenance for a
substantial trading industry for an economically strong country
in almost every nation' The production
hungry. overpopulated one- it plal's a significant role
manner is the goal of
of fbod is in']portant to everyone ancl prodtrcing food in a cost-elfective
every farmer. large-scale farnt trranager and regionai

agricultural agency' A farmer needs to
products
be informed to be eflrcient, and that incrudes
having the knowredge and information
I
(-
to forge a viable strategy for farming operations. These tools will help him understand
the
health of his crop, extent of infestation or stress damage, or potential yield and
soil
producing' as
conditions. Commodity brokers are also very interested in liolv well thrrrs are
yield (both quantity and quality) estimates forall products control price and worldwide
examine
trading. Satellite and airborne images are used as mapping tools to classily crops,
their health and viability, and monitor farming practices. Agrictrltural applications of remote
sensing include the followirig:
I. Crop type classification
2. Crop condition assessment
3. Crop yield estimation
4. Mapping ol soil characteristics

5. Mapping ofsoil management practices
6. Compliance monitoring (farming practices)
3) Use of Remote sensing in forestry: - Fore,*y applications of rernote sdhsing include the
following:
a) Reconnaissance mapPing:
objectives to be met by national foresvenvironment agencies include forest cover updating,
depletion monitoring, and measuring biophysical properties of forest stand-s'
i
l. Forest cover type discrimination
2. Agro forestry mapping
b) Commercial forestry:
Of impoftance to commercial foiestry companies and to resource management agencies are
I
inventory and mapping applications: collecting harvest information, updating of inventory
I
I
r information for timber supply, broad forest type. vegetation density, ahd biomass
measurements.
l. Clear cut mapping / regeneration assessment
2. Burn delineation
3. Infrastructure mapping / operations support
4. Forest inventory
5. Biomass estimation
6. Species inventory
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c) Environmental monitoring
Conservation authorities are concerned with monitoring the quantity, health, and diversity of
the Earth's forests.
l. Deforestation (rainforest, mangrove colonies)
2. Species inventory
3. Watershed protection (riparian strips)
4. Coastal protection (mangrove forests)
5. Forest health and vigor

4) USe of Remote sensing in Geology: - Geology involves the study of landforms, structures,
and the subsurface, to understand physical processes &eating and modifuing the earth's crust.
It is most commonly understood as the exploration and exploitation of mineral and

hydrocarbon resources. generally to improve the conditions and standard of living in society.
C Petroleum provides gas and oil for vehicle transpofiation, aggregate and limestone quarrying
(sand and gravel) provides ingredients for concrete for paving and construction, potash mines
contribute to fertilizer, coal to energy production, precious metals and gems forjewelry,
diamonds for drill bits, and copper, zinc and assorted minerals for a variety ofuses. Geology
also includes the study ofpotential hazards such as volcanoes, landslides' and.eartllguakes,
and is thus a critical factor for geotechnical studies relatingto construction and gngineering.
Geological studies are not limited to Earth - remote sensing has been used to examine the '
composition and structure ofother planets and moons. Remote sensing is used as a toolto
extract information about the land surlace structure. composition or subsurface, but is often
combined with other data sources providing complementary measurements. Multispectral
- litho logy or rock composition based on spectral reflectance.
data can provide information on
i Radar provides an expression of surface topography and roughness, and thus is extremely
valuable, especially when integrated with another data source to provide detailed relief'
t Remote sensilg is.not limited to'direct gdology applications - it is also used to support
'logistics. such as route planning for access into a mining area, reclamation monitoling' and
Ir generating base maps upon which geological data can be referenced or superimposed.
5) Roles of Remote Sensing Techniques in Selection ofPetroleum Exploration Targets: -

The selection ofeffective exploration targets is an important step to achieve success in oil
exploration. The selections are dependent on studies of basic petroleum geological
conditions. Petroleum geologists generally consider basins to be a basic geological unit of
pelroleum exploration and their main tasks is to find and determine various sedimentary
basins. The remote sensing images have characteristics ofrealty and macro scope that
lo
provide accurate and visual data for directly determining geometric shapes of sedimentary
basins. The relnote sensing techniques are more effective and useful for understanding and
studying those basins ilr the ouGof{he-way mountains and remote deserts. such as the Tarim
basin in northwest China.
6) Remote sensing application in search and rescue: - search and Rescue (SAR) is one of
the many applications that can benefit from remote sensing. Realtime data, collected over
wide areas, reduce the uncertainty that is always present in maritime emergencies. -
Specifically, improvements in trajectory prediction, target detection, and survival estimation

can be expected through the availability of remotely sensed data Remote sensing can help
detennine the wind and surface current velocities required to predict the trajeotory ofa SAR
target. Remote sensing can also give clues to estimate the variability in the wind and surface
currents. For trajectory prediction' the SAR needs is essentially the same as applied physical
oceairography and meteorology. A inultiple sensor approach will likely be required, with the
results blended by a numerical model. sea consult Marine Research Limited recommended
the blending ofreal data into nrodels for oil spill operations4fter trials on the west coast
using ground based HF radar to detect surlace currents.
7) Renote sensing application in Radar: - Radar is actually an acronym that stands for
Radio Detection And Ranging. lr was developed in the early 1940s. Radar uses the echo
principle. Radar equipment emits a high-energy radio signai from'an antenna' The signal
radar
travels out from the source until it is reflected back by contact with an object' The
'rtie tirrle it takes for
antenna relays this signal to a scope where the inage is displayetl. Using
to the object
the emitted signal to reach the object and reflect back to its source, the distance
such a trip in
can be computed. The mdar signal is moving at the speed of light and can make
the sky'
micrOseconds. ln aviation, a ground [adar antenna sends radio signal pulses into
displays the
These signals are{et'lected back by aircraft flying in the airspace' The radarscope
direction and distance from which the signals are reflected back'
A.",
@r, /Or" -
2. Explain the various components of Renrore sensing?
1' Energy Source or I umination (A) - the first requirement for remote sensing is to
have
an energy source which provides electromagnetic
energy to the target of interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) _ as the energy travels from its source to the target, it
will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere
it passes through. This interaction
may taktplace a second time as the energy travels
frorn the target to the sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target (C) - as the energy travels from its source to the target
the almosphere,, it interacr.s with the urget depending
,.ln'o*n on the properties of both the
:@@ra@ry
4. Recording of Energy by the sensor (D) - after
the energy has been emitted from the
target' we require a sensor (remote - not in contact
with the target) to co[ect and record.the
electromagnetic radiation. In order for a sensor
to conect and record energy reflected or
emitted from a target or surface, it must reside
on a stabre platform removed from the target
or surface being observed. Plutfojrgb_renotarar-rs
may be situatert on the ground. on an
allgl4nprlalloon (or some other platform within rhe Earth's atmosphere), ollEgpggggl3]&
or@ s"{Io-ab" ptaced on a la4der-sogffo\ting,
building rj:-ry^"" crane, etc. Aenar platfo iare
:_:::=:-5'
.tall ""h9y li"!"r, "!::y Aerial prattorms are primarily stab,b wing aircraft,
although helicopters arc @casioinafiy used- A-ig1gi( are often
usec to co[ect very detaired
tqa8gs and facilitate the collection of data over virtuatty
any portion ofthe Earth,s surface at
any time.
5. 'I'ransmission, Recepri.n, and processing (E) - the energy recorded

by the sensor has to
be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing
station where the data
are processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
6' Interpretation and Anarysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visua y and/or
digitally or electronically. to extract infb.mation about the target, which
was illuminated.
7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process
is achieved when we
apply the information we have beenable to extract from the imagery
about the target in order
to better understand it, revear some new information, or assist in
solving a particular probrem.
These seven elements comprise the remote sensing process
from beginning to end.
!
,rl A
ll.t-
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3. What are the different types of remote sensing ?
WITH RESPECT TO THE TYPE OF ENERCY RESOURCES
l.Passive Remote Sensing: -
Makes use of sensors that detect the reflected or emitted
electro-magnetic radiation from natural sources. -lhe sun provides
a very convenient source
of energy for remote sensing. Trre sun's energy is either reflected. as it is for visibre
wavelengths, or absorbed and then re-emitted, as it is for thermal infrared
wavelengths.
Remote aensing systerns which measure energy that is naturally availabre are cafled passive
sensors. Passive sensofs can onry be used to detect energy when the naturally
occurring
energy is available. For alr reflected energy, this can onry take place during.the
time when the
sun is illuminating the Earth. There is no reflected energy avairable from the sun
at night.
Energy that is naturally emitted (such as thermal infiared) can be detected day
or night, as
long as the afilount of enerry is large enough to be recorded.
C 2.Aciive remote Sensing: - Makes use ofsensors that detect reflected responses from objects
that are irradiated from artificiarry generated energy sources. such as radar. Active
sensors
provide their own energy source for illumination. The sensor emits radiation, which is
directed toward the target to be investigated. The radiation reflected from that.target
is
detected and measured by the sensor. Advantages for active sensors inclgde tlre abiliry
to
obtain measurements anytime, regardless ofthe time ofday or season. Active sensors can be
used for examining wavelengths that are no! sufficiently provided by the sun, such
as
microwaves, or to better control the way a target is illuminated. However, active systems
require the generation ofa fairly large amount oi energy to adequately illuminate targets.
Some examples of active sensors are a laser fluorosensor and a synthetic apefture radar
(sAR).
Remote Sensing is classified into three types in respect to the wavelength regions
I.visitrle and Reflective Infrared Remote sensing: - The energy source used in the visible
and reflective infrared remote sensing is the sun. The sun radiates erectro-magnetic energy
with a peak wavelength of 0.5 um. Remote sensing data obtained in the visible and reflective
infrared regions mainly depends on the rellectance of objects on the ground surface.
Therefore, information about objects can be obtained from the spectral reflectance. However
laser radar is exceptional because it does not use the solar energy but the laser energy of the
sensor.
la
t)
2.Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing: - The source of radiant energy used in thermal
infrared remote sensing is the object itseli because any object with a normal temperature will
emit electro-magnetic radiation with a peak at about l0 um .
3.Microwave remote sensing: -There is two types of microwave remote sensing, passive
microwave remote sensing and active remote sensing. In passive microwave remote sensing,
the microwave radiation emitted fiom an object is detected, while the back scattering
coefficielFis detected in active microwavg remote sensing. Active microwave sensors are
generally divided into two distinct categories: imaging and non-imaging. The most common
form of imaging active microwave sensors is RADAR. MDAR is an acronym for Radio
Detection And Ranging, which essentially characterizes the function and operation ofa radar
sensor. The sensor transmits a microwave (radio) signat towards the target and detects the
backscattered portion of the signal. The strength of the backscattered signal is nieasured to
discriminate between different targets and the time delay between the transmiued and
:Eflected signals determines the distance (or range) to the target.
Fig$o l Three types ot remote sensing wlth respect to

wavelonglh reglong
,
I
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I
l online !
reflectance are moisture content, soil texture (proportion of sand, silt, and clay), surface roughness, the
presence of iron oxide, and organic matter content. These factors are complex, variable, and interrelated.
For example, the presence of moisture in soil will decrease its reflectance. As with vegetation, this effect
is greatest in the water absorption bands at about 1.4, 1.9, and 2.7 pnt (clay soils also have hydroxyl
absorption bands at about 1-4 and2.2 pm), Soil lnoisture content is strongly related to the soil texture:
coarse, sandy soils are usually well drained, resulting in low moisture content and relatively high
a.
reflectance; poorl! drained fine textured soils will generally have lower reflectance. In the absence of
water, however, the soil itself will exhibit the reverse tendency: coarse textured soils will appear
darker
particular
than fin e textured soils. Thus, the reflectance properties of a soil are consistent only within
ranges of conditions. Two other factors that reduce soil reflectance are surface.roughness and the
content
of organic matter. The presence of iron oxide in a soil will also significantly treirease reflectance, at least
in the visible wavelengths. In any case, it is essential that the analyst be familiar with the conditions at
hand. Considering the spectral reflectance of water, probably the most distinctive characteristic
is the
enerB/ absorption at reflected infrared wavelengths. In short, water absorbs enerry in thC$d'wavelengths
in
whether we are talking about water features per se (such as lakes and streams) or water contained
easily in
vegetation or soil. Locating and delineating water bodies with remote sensing data is done most
of water
reflected infrared wavelenglhs because of this absorption property. Horvever, variousconditions
interactions at these
bodies manifesl themselves primaril-r- in visible wavelerrgtl.ts. The enerry/matter
wavelengths are very complex and depend on a number of inter related factors.
For example, the
(specular reflection),
reflectance from a water body can stem from an interaction with the water's surflace
water where
with material suSpended in the warer, or with the bottonr ofthe water body. Even with deep
are not only a function of the
bottom effects are negligible, the reflecta[ce properties of a lvater body
water per se but also the material in the water. clear water absorbs relatively
little energy having
wavelengths with a maximum in
wavelengths less than about 0.6 pm. High transmittance typifies these
(because of the
the blue-green portion of the spectrum. However, as the turbidity of water changes
inorganic maierials) tmnslnittance - and therefore reflectance
-changes
presence bf organic .or
sediments resulting from soil
dramatically. For example, waters containing large quantities of suspended
waters in the same geographical
erosion normally have much higlrer visible reflectance than olher "clear"
area. Likewise, the reflectance of water changes with the chlolophyll
concentration involved' Increases in
decrease water reflectance in blue wavelengths and increase

it in the
chlorophyll concentration tend to
estimate the concentrdtion
green wavelengths. These changes have been used to monitor tlre presence and
data have also been used to determine the presence
or
of algae via remote sensing data. Reflectance
and to detect a number of pollutants, such as
absence of tannin dyes from bog vegetation in lowland areas,
oil and certain industrial wastes. Man y important water characteristics, such as dissolved oxygen
t Find study materials,Notes,Ebooks online !

F.
concentration, pH, and salt concentration cannot be observed directly through changes in water
reflectance. However, such parameters sometimes correlate with observed reflectance. In short, there are
many complex interrelationships betwee[ the spectral reflectance of water and particular characteristics.
One must use appropriate reference data to correctly interpret reflectance measurements made over water.
a.
q*E}:.y t6 te soil (Gtay-tr*ra)

-\t"=o- ti@ {GEq}
(Cl .r-i
1f,+ -'ql.rr
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aa ura
igurn,.".{ Typic,al rrecta*:*T3ffi.*etatiora,

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5. Explaio boutan ident remore sensing s.rsrcrn? @a /rr-n- Aola)

An ideal renrcte sensing systeln shou'rr ir Fi{lure consisls ol' surrrce ol electromagnetic nergy, energy
pmpagation. ellelgy interaclion. return siqnal.
rccorclinu, and r)urput tbr users (chnndr:i. 2002b). The source
of
electromagnetic errugy provirjes a high l.rvel energy iver all rvavelengths at it knorvrr constant intensiry-. This
energ)- passes lhrough a non-illtertering atmospherc rvhere
there is no loss of energy. and falls on a target.
Depending upon the characterislics of the target. rhe ircident energy intemcts \yith the targel and generates
unique and tnifirrlr reflected an(l.or etnilteJ crlerg\ ir, tIl lravel!,lgths.
The super sensor having the,"alabilit)'. to record the rellected
anrl.,'or emiited energv t-rom the target in all
wavelen8drs' records the spatial inlbrmation in spectral fbrnr. -lhe

super sensor should be simple, compact. and
,^.
accurale in operation having viltually no porier requilentent.
The infonnation recorded hy tlte:uper sensot is trarsnritted to a real-rime

data handling svstem on ground wherc
it is processed inshntaneouslv in an interpretable fofln !o rnake possible the ideul.ification

of all the features
uniquely characerized by tlreir physicrl. chcmical, anri hiological ulraracteristics.
The interprta'ble data become
available to users rvho are supposed to have in depth knonledge of rlaking use of these data in their respective
fields.
t:
t
tt
It
FI
i1
-tuYgo-L abto,rbil-
a4eru
Traorm;)loJ
anca,gt
!'ig. Shorvs ,{n ideai ,3rnote sensi,lg s!.sten]
. However. an ideill remote sensing s;-stem cloes trot exist
in rcal wolltl as lhe compoflents of an ideal remote
'sensing sysieln have the follorving shortcolnings.
- f, There is lu enelgy source tltat emits unif'trr.m energ). both spaliall,y and onrp<rrirll-v.
(') The constitucnl gases oflhe amrosphcrc nd r\iltL-r' vapour nrolecules and dusl particles prese'nt in the atmosphere,
interact with the euergy leading to rnodification oFstrength and
spectmi disrribution.
(ii, same matter under different corrditions may have dif{'erenl spectral
tesponse. Also ditlcrent matte6 may have similaLr
spechal responsc.
(nu) In realiq' there is no ideal super sensor rihich c'an accommodate

all wavelengths ofthe electromagnetic spectrum.
(v, Due to some factical limitations. sometimes the data rdnsnrission and iDteryretation are not in real time. The
transmitted data lna;- also be not in the forrn rvhich a user Dray
clesirc. and lhus agairr. lhe rrser may not rrceiving ihe dara
r'\a desired forrn in rcal time.
(r,f All the users may not have suflicient knowledge ofdala acquisition. analysis, and interpreration of rernote sensing dala.
t " ''
t1
, 6,'- Discuss briclh,aliout historieal develoytr:rent ol,remoti: srnsirrg
_
www.chennaiuniversity.net ?
ln concept of rcrllole :ii'llsing u'as tievelopgtl

rviih tht' invontion ofphotograpl\, using a camera in
the nineteenth century,
'.and astrononry was ol1e ofthe tjr..st fic,kls
to exploit this techniqLrt,. Subseqrrenli,r,. Lhis techniqL.ie
was emplo_ved in military
to obtain inlbrnlatiettr abottt enemv. and 10 mak.: strillegv
lbr wlr. [ir.ei:-f]yirri:. liircriltts werc used during American civil
R/a' to acquire infortn&iion through renrote serrsirf risirrrr
ailrial plrolrrtrnpi:s lbf thr'rnovement of troops and sr:pplies,
ieinforcement ol forlillcations. rnti in a-ssi.'ssitt--s ettc!t\ \rr i)orl brrd r],enls. (;o',rrnnrent-sponsored researches protluced
sensor technolog) lirt' ttse in rcfi]ote serlsin.q
ibr rniliritr.. u5r i|]d subsr,qiiei:ilr ii}, civilian applications. Afer.the
Secclnd
world wal' the renrole sensing ti.r:httiqrte was ap|iicd lirl elrvir.rrrricnrai iissessnlrnt,
civilian mapping, and terrain
assessmenl applications. Remole sensins was exrenclerj
io spaec alil,r l!)6(j rvith tlte development of space rockets and
satellites.
The new em ori relilole sensing can be consideretl undel nrilitar-v

reconnaissance satelliles. manned space flights,
meleorological satelliles. and eal.th rcsources sateliiies.
-&
space-mollitoring capabilities of rernote sr,nsing using satellites irr rvrr rvere enhanced aftc.r lg60 by launching
the
reconnaissance satellites rviihin the coRoNA, AltcoN anri t.ANY ARD programrnes
to provide intelligence data in the
form of photographic data acquirtrl a1 l(rrv
nllitu(lcs. [.irler srere(rscopic irnages rvere obtained whh a resolulion of2
(Jvv}ll!/llKFv. m.
irt ea y satellites werc having thc short dttratiott rttissions ul'sr'verr ro eighr da.vs- bur the Iater generalions
lrave longcr
duration of missiolis providing data ibr lrundieds of d.rys, 'l he nrilnned
space tlight progiammes \vere staned in 1961 by
USA, resulting inlo the first lunar landing in l9(ig. 'l-huse pr'ogr:lr)1mes included
N,Iercury prcgramme, obtai,ing
photographs o{'lhe fiarth. systemntiL: approar.:lr f(} rerur]tte sc;rshrg
thr,,rLrgh {ier:rini project (96j-66), Apollo nrissions
(1968-75) for lunar lanrling antl renrlte sensing of rh.r lianh,sk),tlb
rni;sioirs (! 973-74) for JrUr resources experiments,
space shuttle lnissions staned in l98l and multispecrlal images rvith a resolurion cf i00 rn obtained in the visible and near
infrared in nine separrte bands.
Developrienls wilhin the Russian space progranrs were al,st.; lroing on pxrallel to those ol fhe United states. To name a few
are lunar landi|g of Cosrnonaut Yttt'i- Cagarin. th.e iirst pc'.sott ro ge

ir ipi.e orr April l?. I961, Vostak progranrnre ( 1 96 l-
1963), Voskficxl prograrnme ( 196'1- | 965). So1'uz spaceclal't. SalyLrr spate .l9.
shrion 1l$t on April l97l ).
The first meteorological satellite uas larrnclred b"\ lhu l.jnitcd Slares otr Aprii j" 1960" fbr lveather fbrecast, nrovement of
hurricanes, and olher associaled rrser. Tlrc- fir.sr irr rr ,crie: ol sarellites lvlrich irn*gc la.rge areas ofthe Earth with a high
r@t cycle rvas TIROS- l (Television and lnJ'i.arer,i ()bsen mlorr Sarellite).
The first satellite ipecially dedicate(l to resource nlarragerrert was kiunclrtd
in I97?. ltnamed as ERTS-I (Earth
rveLs
Resources Technobg-v Satellile.)' llntl it rvas well suitcd I'br rgr!!:ultur.ai pur:poscs. -lhese satellites are now ref,erred to as
landsat. These satellile: were ainred iit [o acquirc ilata orl rhc' [a*h's irrrlircr orr i] s],slematic. repetiljve. tnedium-
resolution, nlultispectral lrasis. Later in 1978 lhe llrsl rarhr lemole sensin!] latellire (SEASAT) rvas launchecl providing
data to tlre public 0l1l.! ibr three murths. First olthe SPo'l series havin,: itercoscopi!- capabililies" rvas taunched itl l9g5 by
France. The firsl retl:otr: sensing ialellilc irr lntlia r.va. !:rr:rrclrttl in lgNS rnrl rrd: !:irrrc(l as IRS i/lndian Remotc Sensing).
Japan also laLrnched its olvn.lapanese Hafih Rcsosrces Saleliite (.|ftRS)
aud tl:e j\,leiine Ohsetyalion Satellite (MOS). Since
1975. China has been periodically launching its o\vi'r saiellites. tht' rluia lrorn those sateliites not freely available. 'flre
European corsot1iutrt lus launchetl rir<iar satellires EI(S (Eumpean Racllr Sa$llitcl in I g9I and 1995, and RADARSAT by
Canada in 1995.
LO
' 7. With a suitable diagram,explain Electromagnetic spectrum and lts characteristics used in
I
' 'remotesensing. M"y www.chennaiuniversity.net
f ru,u * eot/, Nov/p4 -AolD t AbU/k<- A&&-
The electromagnetic spectrum may be defined as the_-qrdefingL,lf the radiation

according to wavelenoth. frequency, or enerqy. A narrow range of EMR (extendino-g
from 0.4 urn to 0.7 urn), the interval deteated b is known as the
yigLble 1ejlg!:G.Eo referred to as light but physicists often use the term light to
include radiation beyond the visible region). White light contains a
mix of all wavelengths In the visible region. ItTai Sii-iE6EE-i(6fiton who in 1666 first
carried out an experiment that showed visible light to be a contlnuous sequence of
wavelengths that represented the dlfferent colours that the eye can see. He passed
white light through a glass prism and concluded that 'white Iight is a mixture of several
other lights'. y,
The princiqle supporting this result is that as radiation passes from one medium to
another, iC bends according to a number called the index of refraction . This index of
refraction is dependent on wavelength, so that the angle of bending varles
systematically from red (longer wavelength; lower frequency) to blue (shorter
I- wavelength; higher frequency)- The process of separating the constituent colours in
white light is known as dispersion (Fig. 1).
The distribution of the continuum of ali radiant energies can be plotted either as a
function of wavelength or of frequency in a chart known as the electromagnetic
spectrum .The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from the sllorter wavelengths
(inciuding
,11 ,- +^/'t ) ,), -
,,\ f l\/
.tl ,
1 n t) ared rayt
\ i,.il.lc rlir il.r li1rlrr Sp*fu,,
,rt.rr"iLrl"
C
I llt r:r t iol.l ra)'s
: Red
()range
-.i
] Ycllr:w
:
X-ta"'s Creen
Blue
lnd igo
( iir n1n)i) ra\s Violet
Fig. 1' Dispersion of visible light using a prism
I L\
;
frd
***#
t*
,"+.s *i5h b &+
loc to7 ]o8 lot loro lolt tor: Io1, Io14 lor3 1016 tor, totB tore toTo
Electroma gnetic Spectrum
R6glo'l Was+ltl Sth ISamarkc

GarnmaaEy <8.03 nm lrcsr*ing radi&tlofl i8 corriplstty ebsort8d
by ths upp{}r dtrnosptlc. .tdia not
Evdlahle for remote sensirrg
X{r, O-O3 to 3.O nm Complekly absorH b!. atmcphere tqt
empisyed ar JEmolB sensirrg.
UltsEvioaet O.3 to O.zl lrrn lnming yravelengths le8s thgn O.3 tlrn ar
completEly abso.bed by ozone i.l tFie uPpg
atrEspt!ae.
PhqtorilrtEi O,3 la O.4 lJm Trar}3n{&d thrDrrgfi f.rrroopf}6rB- D+!(be
lr\l bstd urih t m rd Fnotodcbcto.s.but 5krlpiBdic
acattering i3 severe
1/Naible O.4 lo O. ? prn l{neg'ed n ith fim a.rd pholodeieclsrs. lnciLr#a
ref+ectEd eDergy peek olerlh aI O 5#rft.
lr*sEd O.7 lo 1.OO Hm FtbfiE{:li(r(! vrilh rnaaEf ygrieg{tdth 'riA.$ [6frgdh.
,qtrnoFherr lrHrtsmi9i{}n wlftrro rs sae (.
Beparsted
R.a!actEd O7lo3.S1rm Refia{:lad 6oltr radiatlotrl *!at canlaarE.
lFt berld . infornetion absut therlllsl pr.oprtiBs of
rnsief,ial5- Th bsnd f.Dm O.7 to 0.9 pm i3
dets{lable wrth filrn ar}d ig clled tfxe
pho*olraFtlic lR berd -
TlE rftille 3 to5 rrJ FtihctFel:Eims6shEdc wlndorr.ls .n ltle
!ffd 8to 1,{ }rrfi lharfird allgion- lmaga sttltGae
i{[*ralrlglhs af6 aBquitad by @tieqt
rnechanlcs I Bcanners Brrd Epecial vidioon
B}.st*fii$ b$t ndt t f tlkll. fir&iroltu&uq
0.'t to 30 cffi loarq* ,$ra$lngih6 Ean Fir(rsrlrsrr
s!9ud*, iog. afld rgin. liflqa rlray hc ac{ .rlrtd
ln ttla ar:1iv6 $r gaggnr& fi1ode
Fladsr 0.1to56cm llcli\ae fofm o,f fllie.pnr'Fve ,e!Tra{e aefleing-
Radar imegcf erB ,i:strlrgd a{ ireno{"rg
1!eslrnglh b3,r]da.
RESo >$O c.n LsrgaFt y,r,B il6,)grh pl3rtitln of alacbsmagflstic
spsctrurn. som alas*iriad .adars !,rri'th vety
long t ravsdeRgth opara:ts ifi this raglon.
*p*trrl
E*0i1.+B.Sn$tlc
r*gion* {$rht*se, 1$*ff I
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'--, 7
Find study materials,Notes,Ebooks online @ T
gamma and X-rays) to the longer wavelengths (inctuOing microwaves and broadcast
radio waves). Using spectroscopes and other radiation detection instruments, over
the years scientists have arbitrarily divided the EM spectrum into regions or intervals 1
and applied descriptive names to them. At the very energetic (high frequency and
short wavelength) end are gamma rays and X-rays (whose wavelengths are
normally measured in angstroms (A), which in the metric scale are in units of 10-8
cm). Radlation in the ultraviolet extends from about 300 A to about 4,000 A. It is
convenient to measure the mid-regions of the spectrum in one of two units:
micrometres (prr), which are multiples of or nanometres (nm), based on 10-em.
10'6m
The visible region occupies the range between 0.4 and O.7 ym, or its equivalents of
4,000-7,000 A or 4OO-7O0 nm.
The light which our eyes--oufl'remote sensors' --can detect is part of the visible
spectrum. It is lmportant to recognize how small the visible portion is relative to the
( rest of the spectrum. There are lots of radiations around us which are invisible to our
eyes, but can be detected by other remote sensing instruments, and used to our
advantage. The visible wavelengths cover.a range fiom approximately 0.4 prn to 0.7
pnr. The longest visible wavelength is red and the shortest is violet. Common
wavelengths of what we perceive as particular colours from the viiible portion of the
spectrum are (it is important to note that this is the only portion of the spectrum we
can associate with the concept of colours):
Violet 0.4-0.446 pm
Blue 0.446-0.500 pm
Green 0.500-0.578 pm
Yellow 0.578-0.592 pm
Orange 0.592-0.620 pm
Red 0.620-0.7 pm
However,"blue, green, and red are the primary colours or wavelengths of the visible
spectrum . They are defined as such because no single primary colour can be created
from the other two, but all other colours can be formed by combining blue, green,
and red in various proportions. As there is no colour other than the three primary
colours in the visible light and all others colours (like orange) are produced by mixing
of these primary colours, the bandwidth which have been considered for blue, green,
and red are 0.4-0.5 pm. 0.5-0.6 ;-rm, and 0.6-0.7 pm, respectively. Although we see
sunlight as a uniform or homogeneous colour, it is actually composed of various
wavelengths of radiation, primari.ly the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared (IR) portions
of the spectrum
2_3
i .-: 4
The infrared region, spanning between 0'7 Um and 1,000Um (1 mm), has several
subintervals of special interestl
l. reflective infrared (0.7-3.0 pm), and its subsets (near-infrared in the region from
0.7-1.3 pm, short-wave infrared region includes 1.3-3 prm, and the photographic
infrared in 0.7-0.9 Pm);
2. thermal infrared bands at 3-5 pm and B-14 Um; and
3. no transmission region al 22/lm.. rom {this region may be referred to as no
remote sensing zone; becausq.atmospheric molecules absorb the energy at this
we measure longer wavelength intervals in units ranging from milimetres to

centimetres to metres. The microwave region spreads across 1 mm-I m, ' which
includes all of the intervals used by radar systems. These systems generate their
own active radiation and diiect it towards targets of interest. The lowest frequency-
longest wavelength region beyond 1 m is the radio band. The radio-wave
portion of
the spectrum may be subdivided into UHF (ultra high freguency), Vl-lF (very high
frequency), HF (high frequency), LF (low frequency), and ULF (ultra lo{v frequency)'
I
H
F
i, :
Il. l,)xplain about ctillerent tvpes of Scattering characteristics of IiMR'
Scattering:
One very serious eil'ecl olthe atmosphere is the Scottering ofradiatiol by atmospheric parlicles'
It occurs $,hen particlcs or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere interact r:*4th and cause
lakes place depends on
the Elvlll, ro be redirecred liom its oliginal path. Htllv much scattering
several l ctors inclutling thc wavelength of the radiation, the
diameter of particles or gases, and
the distance the radiation tr:rvels through the atmosphere'

''l here are trvo classes ol scattcring. Sclective and non-selective'
and Raman
'l'1rree dilltr.cnt l] p.s r\! selecliYt s,:.{tering are Ra1'leigh scattr'ring. Ir'lie scattcring'
scatlcrirg.
Rayteigh scattering
( occurs whel the e1'1'ective
Rayleigh scattering (sometimes referred to as molecular scattering)
and nitrogen in the atmbsphere) is
diarneter olthe m.ttter (usuall-v air rnolecules such as ox-vgen
rnany times lusually. <0. I times) smaller than the *'arelength
of the incident EMR' The atnount
of scattering is inversel.v related to the fourth power of wavelelC'h of

*di"{::.
::'::T':'
than red light at 0.6 um.
at 0,3 pmis..scattercd approximatel,v 16 times more
u}travioldr light
i\4ost Ral.lcigh scattering takes place in the upper
4.5 km of the atmosphere' It is responsible foi
'l-he shryter vioiet and blue uavelengths are more efliciently'
the blue appearance ol'the sky.
scatlercd than thc lulgcr gree11 iutd re<i rvavelengths.
That is llrhy' mos1 remote sensing systens
avoid detecting and reor-xding wavelengths in the

dtraviolet and blue ponions ol'the specttum'
Mie Scattt'ring
Miescattering(alsoret.erretllrltrsnon.lnoleculrrrscattering)takesplaceinthelorter4.5km
particles present lvith
(rt the atmosfrhere. u'ltet'e there nral he manl essentially- spherical
of the incident energy' The actual
diirmeters approximritely. equal to the size of the wavelength
sizeolthepal,ticl!'snra!'rangefiom0.ltol0timesthewavelenglhoftheinciderrtenergy.For
visiblelight.tlrt'mainscatlerillgagelltsil[etlustandotherparticlesrangingfromafewtenthsof
llr.. microrttelre t1r ';gr:r'ral micro tnelrcs in dianretct'
Raman Scattering
Ramatrscatteringisoausedbilrttntrsplrcticpurticles.rrhichareliuger.smaller'orequalto
'l'he almospheric particles ma1' be gaseous
that orthe wavelength of the radiation being
sensetl.
o<
molecules, water droplets. fumes, or dust particles. These portions have iur elastic collision with
the atmosphcric particles r,,.'hich result in either loss or gain ol'energ,v and thus an increase or
decrease in w'avelength.
Non-selective Scattering
Non-selective scattering takes place in the low.est portions of the atrnosphere n{rr,re lhere ue
pafiicles greater than l0 times thE wavelength of the incident EMR. This type bl scartering is
non-selective, that is, all r+'avelengths oflight are scattered, notjust blue, green, or red. Thus, the
*'ater dmplets and ice crystals that make up clouds and lbg banks scatter all wavelengths ol
visible light equally well, causing the cloud to app!'ar white. Non-selective scartcring of o
appmximalel.v equal proportions ol blue., green, ancl recl ligtrt alwavs appears as white light to
th casual observer (blue + green + red lig,ht = white light)
g.Explain the energy anteraction with earth surface materials.

(l/o , lp, -aoo 1)
When electromagnetic energy is incident on any feature of earth's surface,
such as a water body, various fractions of energy get reflected, absorbed,
and transmitted as shown in Fig l. Applying the principle of conservation of
energy. the relationship can be expressed as:
Ei[I) = ER(^)+En + E-(A

E1Q)=:ocidonl o"rrg)
ERO):#*q.^**
f 16) = ADsotbed fr(, =TrErgrn;Ilaa

{rerrg}
enerrg)
Figt;shows Bisic interactions between Electromagnetic Energy and a water
body .Where,
(I) + EA (A) + Er (A)
E1(A) = ER
El = Incident energy
- fit-v
En = Reflected energy
Ea = Absorbed energy
Er = Transmitted energy
All energy components are fqlgllglls of wavglength,(I). In remote sensing,
the amount of reflected energy En(A) is more important than_the absorbed
and transmitted energies. Therefore, it is more convenient to rearrange
these terms like
2?
r
F
Eq.( ) is called balance equation. From this mathematical equation, two

important points can be drawn. Firsfly,
ee(^)
et{tl =F\9 -[40.)-*e4,
h(A) tq, E!D- - O
|
According to principles o-f physics, it is known that ; CI
reQ)
6aO)
,#*^*+ are called r,elgggnle, ablolbance and
transmittancg and can be denoted simpry, it can be
".&:(d:$rt)
understood that^ the measure of how much ele-ctrornagrfefic radiation is
reflected off a surface is called its reflectance. The reflectance range lies
between 0 and 1. A measure of 1.0 means that 100o/o of the incident
radiation is reflected off the surface, and a measure '0' means that 0% is
reflected. The reflectance characteristics are quantified by ..spectral
reflectance, p(I )which is expressed as the following ratio:
( ^ re0l
-E6)
= energy of wavelengtn I inciderit upon the obiEct .......... ({)
eq .. (3) can be written as
almost all earth surface features are very opaque in nature, the
transmitance*(rtlun be neglected. According to Kirchoff's law of physics, the
absorbance is taken as emissivity (Q). therefore Eq. ( 5 ) becomes:
|Q) = t-EQt (5)

fq. (5 ) is thefundamental equation by which the conceptual design of
reflecte.d and recorded by sensing sysrems. The classical-example of this

t6" or oOlect---is snow_(wlite gElect). rf !4) is one, then ( )) is a zero
indicating that whatever t$e energy in on the ofrject, is,completely
bbsorbed by thq!-gbject. Black body such as lamp smoke is an example of
this type of object. Therefore it can be seen that the reflectance varies
(
from-T lblack body) to 1 (white body). When we qyiqg the incident energy
on both sides of the balance equation, we get the proportions .of energY
<-=--...-
reflected, alggl!-ed and transmitted which vary for different-..fealur"es of the
eafr-n Oepending on the TgIgng.LlJE These differences pfovide a clue to
.-?
differentiate between features of an image.
Secondly, from the wggglc!.Clh-Oependency of the eneroy componentE it is
evident that even within a given feaiure'type, th9_qIlP94j9L![reflected,

u IS,IEO, a nd tra nsmilted-en erglg'-may-ya ry at d iffe rent wavelenqths.
Th u s
two features which are indistinguishable in one spectral range, may exhibit a
marked contrast in another wavelength band. Because many remote sensing
C] systems operate in the wavelength regions in which reflected energy
predominates,-the reflectance properties of terrestrial features are very
important.
4
- l0.Explain the energy interaction with the atmosphere. (U",1 lW* - Aot l)
QnoL 1ru.-a"n)
The sun is the source ol radiation, and electromagnetic radiation (EMR)from the
sun that is reflected by the earth and detected by the satellite or aircraft-bome
sensor must pass through the atmosphere twice, once on its joumey from the sun to
the earth and second after being reflected by the surface ofthe earth back to the
of the direct solar radiation and reflected radiation from the
sensor. Interactions
target with the atmospheric constituents interfere with the process of remote
,.
(
sensing and are callcd as'(Atmospheric
- Elfects". The interaction of EMR with the atmosphere is important to remote
sensing for two main reasons. First, information carried'by EMR reflected/ emitted
by the earth's surface is modified while trai,ersing through the atmosphere.

Second, the interaction o1'EMR with the atmosphere can be used'
to obtain useful information about the atmosphere itself.
The atmospheric cogslituents scatter and absorb the radiation modulating the
radiation reflected from the target by attenuating it, changing its spatial distribution
and introducing into field of view. i'adiation from sunlight scattered in the
atmosphere and some of the energy reflected from nearby ground area. Both
scattering and absorption vary in their effect from one part olthe spectrum to the
o1her.
The solar energy is subjected to modification by several physical processes

as it passes the atmosphere, viz. 1) Scattering; 2) Absorption, and 3) Refraction
I
Atmospheric Scattering
Scattering is the redirection of EMR by particles suspended in the atmosphere or
by large molecules of atmospheric gases. Scattering not only teduces the image
contrast but also changes the spectral signature of ground objects as seen by the
sensor. The amount of scattering depends upon the size of the particles, their
abundance, the wavelength ofradiation, depth ofthe atmosphere through which the
energy is traveling and the concentration of the particles. The concentration of

particulate matter varies both in time
and over season. Thus the effects of scattering will be uneven spatially and will
vary from time to time.
Theoretically scattering can be divided into three categories depending upon the
wavelength of radiation being scattered and the size of the particles causing the
scattering. The three different types of scattering lrom pafticles of different sizes
are summarized below:
Scattering tVavelength Approximate

prusess dependence
particle size
Selective
r Raytash 1-4 < I ptnr Alrmolearle

rMte 7.o t,r )'-4 0.1 to l0 pnr Snroke, lrazc,
r Non-selective tro >10pm Drrst, fog, clorrds
Rayleigh Scattering
Rayleigh scattering predominates where electromagnetic radiation interacts with
particles that are smaller than the wavelength of the incoming light. The effect of
the Rayleigh scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
wavelength. Shorter wavelenglhs are scattered more than longer wavelengths. In

the absence of these particles and scattering the sky would appear black. ln the
context of remole sensing, the Rayleigh scattering is the most important type of
scattering. It causes a distortion of spectral
characteristics of the reflected light when compared to measurements taken on the

ground.
Mie Scattering
Mie scattering occurs when the wavelength of the incoming radiation is similar in
,\ size to.the atmospheric particles. These are caused by aerosols: a mixture of gases,
water vapor and dust. lt is generally restricted to the lower atmosphere where the
Iarger particles are abundant and dominates under overcast cldud conditions. It
influences the entire spectral region from ultravicilet to near infrared regions.
,+
Non-selective Scattering
This type of scattering occurs when the particle size is much larger than the
wavelength of the incoming radiation. Particles responsible for this effect are water
droplets and larger dust particles. The scattering is independent of the wavelength,
all the. wavelength are scattered equally. The most common example of non-
Ci selective scattering is the appearance ofclouds as white. As cloud consist of water

droplet particles and the wavelengths are scattered in equal amount, the cloud
appears as white.
Occurrence of this scattering mechanism gives a clue to the existence of large
particulate matter in the atmosphere above the scene of interest which itself is a
of the Rayleigh
useful data. Using minus blue filters can eliminate the effects
component of scattering. However, the effect of heavy haze i.e. when all the
wavelengths are scattered uniformly, camot be eliminated using haze filters' The
?
effects of haze are less pronounced in the thermal infrared region. Microwave
radiation is completely immune to haze and can even penetrate clouds.
Atmospheric Absorption
The gas molecules present in the atmosphere strongly absorb the EMR passing
through the atmosphere in certain spectral bands. Mainly three gases are
responsible for most of absorption of solar radiation, viz. ozone, carbon dioxide
and water vapour. Ozone absorbs the high energy, short wavelength portions ofthe
ultraviolet spectrum (L< 0.24 pm) thereby preventing the transmission of this
radiation to the lower atmosphbre. Carbon dioxide is important in remote sensing
as it effectively absorbs the radiation in mid and far infrared regions of the
spectruur. It strongly absorbs in the region from about 13-17.5 pm, whereas two
most important regions of water vapour absorption are in bands 5,5 - 7.0 pni and
I
above 27p m. Absorption relatively reduces the amount of light that reaches our
I !
i
eye making thc scene look
relatively duller.
Atmospheric Windows
The general atmospheric transmittance across the whoie spectrum of wavelengths
is shown in Figure 6. The atmosphere selectively transmits energy of certain
wavelengths. The spectral bands for which the atmosphere is relatively transparent
are known as atmospheric windows. Atmospheric windows are present in the
visible part (.4 pm - .76 S:,m) and the infrared r.egions of the EM spectrum. In the
visible part transmission is mainly effected by ozone absorption and by molecular
scattering. The atmosphere is transpareht again beyond about l.: lmm, the region
used for microwave remote sensing
1.0
c; d)
a: r0
aa 3
o
.9
E
0.0
.3 0.6 1.0 5.0 10 50 100 200 m 1mm 1cm ,m 10m
Wavelen
I;igrrre G : At nrr:ryrhelic lvinclorrs
Refraction
(
The phenomenon of refraction, that is bending of light at the contact between rw*o
media, also occurs in the atmosphere as the light passes through the atmospheric
layers of varied clarity, humidity and temperature. These variations influence the
density of atmospheric layers, which in turn, causes the bending of light rays zrs
they pass lrorn one layer to another. The most common phenomena are the mirage
like apparitions sometimes visible in the distance on hot summer days.
.24

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"Remote sensing is the scierce (xnd to.some

2.What are the bnsic conrpone,rts

A black body transforms heat errergy

Satellite images are permanent records,providing

Easl dara auquisitior) at dillerent scales

sensed inrage can be anatysed* and interpreted

U.r.nn" spectrat r.eticc{arcc? _ "ost "ff.ffi

9.What is Rayleigh scattering?

l0,What is Mie scattering?

conditions are overcast.

ll.What is non-selective scatterin et ( Naf hun2-Acl/)

12. lAlM 18 M(4 tor2r?

propagatc$ titrou$: vircuurn ltke thc outcr spaer

wavelengths, which results in the clouds appearing as white.

C l5.What is a black body?

the black body's remperature.

constituents which absolb radiarion.

18 0{fi3rentr{sfe a.clipe cnd Fa.rs{re n-,,aolc $snsrng sys,cms?

Acti r ESS tusstue RSS

19 lv}ul ars tA gerxfat.proccases lru.rolued in el4cFprr@ruatic rffiolf, $*r$ftg?

{al 0ner# sources. '(

20.What are the primary absorbers of electromagnetic energy in the atmosphere?

24.What is the sigliiit:ilrt of i'lnnk's law in remote sensing?

&q, gblu s la {oq - BotLzmao t o,-. Qr, ln"y,-a"tV)

h'- witn'1 *nd"nt = a,kgr x to '3 ^k

1' fx+rcio tltdr4totrent L\yusof gcot!-t\ u/rorrootqisttc* oF-

APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSINC:

is cailed a remote-sensing satellite, or eafih observation satgllite.

are characterized by their altittrde' orbit and sensor'

VARIOUS REMOTE SENSING SATELLITES ARE AS FOLLOIIS:

Radiorneter (AVHRR) sensors' and is established at an altitude

iand its main purpose is meteoroiogical observations

e) Other remote..sensing satellite selies in operations

RADA RSAT. and IRS etc.

every farmer. large-scale farnt trranager and regionai

3. Crop yield estimation

4. Mapping ol soil characteristics

6. Compliance monitoring (farming practices)

2. Agro forestry mapping

l. Clear cut mapping / regeneration assessment

5. Forest health and vigor

It is most commonly understood as the exploration and exploitation of mineral and

5) Roles of Remote Sensing Techniques in Selection ofPetroleum Exploration Targets: -

Specifically, improvements in trajectory prediction, target detection, and survival estimation

5. 'I'ransmission, Recepri.n, and processing (E) - the energy recorded

Fig$o l Three types ot remote sensing wlth respect to

Find study materials,Notes,Ebooks

decrease water reflectance in blue wavelengths and increase

t Find study materials,Notes,Ebooks online !

q*E}:.y t6 te soil (Gtay-tr*ra)

igurn,.".{ Typic,al rrecta*:*T3ffi.*etatiora,

5. Explaio boutan ident remore sensing s.rsrcrn? @a /rr-n- Aola)

wavelen8drs' records the spatial inlbrmation in spectral fbrnr. -lhe

The infonnation recorded hy tlte:uper sensot is trarsnritted to a real-rime

it is processed inshntaneouslv in an interpretable fofln !o rnake possible the ideul.ification

(nu) In realiq' there is no ideal super sensor rihich c'an accommodate

ln concept of rcrllole :ii'llsing u'as tievelopgtl

The new em ori relilole sensing can be consideretl undel nrilitar-v

are lunar landi|g of Cosrnonaut Yttt'i- Cagarin. th.e iirst pc'.sott ro ge

The electromagnetic spectrum may be defined as the_-qrdefingL,lf the radiation

Fig. 1' Dispersion of visible light using a prism

qE}:.y t6 te soil (Gtay-trra)

igurn,.".{ Typic,al rrecta:T3ffi.*etatiora,