CHAPTER 2

WAVE HYDRAULICS

As an introduction to wave hydraulics a short review of basic fluid mechanics will be

given with mathematical tools to be used together with the possible approximations.

2.1 Review of Basic Fluid Mechanics

Mathematical tools

Basic mathematical tools to be used in the development of fundamental equations of fluid

mechanics are reviewed briefly.

Principles of vector notations:

When differential equations are written in vector form we often use the differential
operator (nabla) which has the components:

=/x,/z for simplicity consider only x,z plane

Vector operations are given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Vector Operators

Operating on Math formulation Name of Result

operation

Gradient
Scalar =(/x,/z)grad Vector

Vector v .v=(u/x,w/z)divv Divergence Scalar

Curl of
Vector v x.v =curlv Vector
vorticity

. =
Vector Laplacian Scalar
(2/x2)+(2/z2)2
The total derivative is:

D
= +u +v +w
Dt t x y z

: local term u +v +w : connective term
t x y z

The symbol D / Dt is often referred to as the material derivative, substantial derivative,

or total derivative, and represents the total rate of change of some fluid property or
quantity experienced by a particular fluid particle as it moves with velocity components u,
v, w; that is, we are focusing our attention on a certain particle and considering the rate of
increase of a certain property due to two affects:

1. A local effect independent of the motion of the particle. This effect is the rate of
change that a motionless particle would experience at a certain point.

2. A convective effect, which is the rate of change of the property at a given time
due to the particles moving in a field where gradients of the property exist.

Possible Approximations

2.1.1. Water is inviscid (frictionless fluid)

Viscosity of a fluid (and thus of water) depends on temperature in an inverse fashion; that
is it decreases with increasing temperature.

For water at 20C, dynamic viscosity is:

gr
= 1.002 10 2 (poise)
cm sec

or (kinematic viscosity) is:

cm 2
= = 9.85 103 (stoke)
sec
where is density of water.
As it is seen, water can be considered practically an inviscid fluid for many purposes;

=0
=0

As far as the motion of water waves is concerned, the viscous effects are important only in
the boundary layers which form next to the free surface and to the sea bed. In flume studies
of the wave motion, the boundary layers develop next to the flume walls as well. This
phenomenon is called the wall friction effect. In prototype situations, the thicknesses of
the boundary layers are much smaller when it is compared with the water depth. Therefore,
the direct effects of viscosity are usually negligible when compared to the effects of
turbulence for waves on a coast. In laboratory experiments, however, the water depths are
often scaled down to 5-30cm. Thus, in laboratory studies, the boundary friction resulting
from the viscosity of water may be of considerable importance.

The fluid motion under periodic waves is a periodic motion. For half the wave period, the
motion outside the boundary layers is in one direction; and for the other half, it is in the
opposite direction. Thus, the thickness of the boundary layers which form in wave motion
is controlled by the wave period, beside the other variables (i.e. the wave height and the
wave depth). For long waves (i.e. for waves with greater periods), the boundary layers find
more time to grow in thickness. Therefore, the boundary friction is more effective for long
waves such as the tidal waves, etc.

2.1.2. The motion is irrotational

When waves enter a region which is initially at rest, the motion outside the boundary layers
are virtually free of vortices (i.e. the motion is irrotational). In such cases, vorticity is
generated only in the boundary layers; and it is diffused at a small rate to the main body
of the fluid from the boundary layers. If the water depth is not too small (say greater than
50 cm), the motion outside the boundary layers may be assumed to be irrotational over
reasonable periods of time.
The condition of the irrotational motion is:

r r r
U = 0 = i+ j+ k
x y z

r r r r
U = ui + vj + wk

which means :
u v u w v w
=0 =0 =0
y x z x z y

2.1.3. Water is incompressible fluid

Measure of compressibility is the Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K), which depends on
temperature and pressure (P):
dP
K=
dv / v

For water; K can be taken as K = 2.11 x 106 gr/cm2 (normal conditions).

Example: If the pressure is increased by dP =1000 gr/cm2, then the resulting volume (V)
change of 1.0 m3 water is

dV = ( 1000 x 1 000 000 ) / (2.11 x 106) = 1/2000 m3

Water is practically considered as an incompressible fluid. Therefore water density () can

be considered as independent of pressure. So, it can be accepted that it does not change by
time and can be taken as constant.

2.1.4. The effects of surface tension is negligible

Surface tension force is the tangential force which acts on the free surface of the waves,
therefore modifies the dynamic boundary condition at the free surface slightly.

For capillary waves (such as ripples) with a wave length of 1.7 cm corresponding to a
wave period of 0.073 second, surface tension will be important. However, for gravity
waves with much longer wave periods and wave lengths the effect of the surface tension is
considered to be negligible.

2.1.5. Dynamic condition on free surface the effect of applied stresses due to
atmosphere

The pressure (P) just above the surface is taken as the atmospheric pressure for the
boundary condition on free surface. Therefore, at air-water interface pressure can be taken
equal to atmospheric pressure Patm and set to zero as; P = Patm = 0 Wind blowing over the
sea exerts fluctuating, turbulent normal stresses onto the sea surface. These stresses are
normally neglected except in the problem of wave generation by wind.

2.1.6. Sea bottom is considered to be rigid and impermeable

The kinematic boundary condition on sea bottom is that the normal component of water
particle velocity (to the sea bottom) is zero. This condition means that there is no flow
across the sea bottom which may be horizontal or sloped. This is true only for a rigid and
impermeable bottom. The permeability of the sea bottom may be important for the quantity
and the mode of the sediment transport by the backwash when waves break on a beach.

2.1.7. The wave phenomenon can be considered as two dimensional

In nature, the wave phenomenon is obviously three dimensional. The assumption of wave
phenomena is two dimensional implies that the wave crest lines are infinitely long, straight
lines. That is the properties of the wave motion are the same along the traverse direction. In
flume studies, the wave motion is reduced to a two-dimensional motion, and the additional
effect of the side wall friction to the problem under study is introduced. Therefore, the
results of the flume studies should normally be corrected for the side wall friction.

2.2. Fundamental Concepts on the Flow of Ideal Fluids

A brief summary of fundamental concepts on the flow of ideal fluids will be given as an
introduction to wave hydrodynamics.

Coordinate System
The coordinate system (x,y,z) and the velocity components in each of the coordinate
directions are shown in Fig. 2.1.
 z
y w v

x Velocity Components

Figure 2.1 Coordinate system(x,y,z) and the velocity components

Ideal Fluid
Deriving the basic equations of the wave hydrodynamics it is assumed that water is an
ideal fluid means it is frictionless and incompressible.

IDEAL FLUID is:

Frictionless: = = 0
D
Incompressible: =0
Dt

Taylors series will be used deriving the basic equations of the fluid flow.

Taylors Series

One of the tools frequently used in deriving the basic equations of fluid flow is known as
Taylors series. Very simply stated, if some characteristics u (i.e., velocity, density,
temperature, etc.) of a fluid is known at point x and all derivatives of u with respect to x
are known at this point, then Taylors series allows us to express the value of u at some
distance x from x by the following relationship:

x
 x u(x, y, z) x 2 2 u(x, y, z) x 3 3 u(x, y, z)
u(x + x, y, z) = u(x, y, z) + + + + .(2.1)
1! x 2! x 2 3! x 3

One important characteristic of this equation is that, as we let x become very small, the
values (x)2, (x)3,.. become vanishingly small, and Taylors series can be
approximated by:

u(x, y, z)
u(x + x, y, z) = u(x, y, z) + x
x
ERROR = O (x 2 )

2.3. Fundamental Equations of Fluid Flow

Fundamental equations of the fluid flow will be given briefly, which will be used in the
derivation of the boundary value wave problem.

2.3.1 Continuity Equation (Conservation of Mass)

Consider the small rectangular parallelepiped with sides of length x, y, and z, as

shown in the definition sketch as shown in Fig.2.2. Conservation of mass
(mass=density( ) x Volume (V)) requires that the net mass of fluid flowing across the
boundaries into the element in a certain time t be equal to the amount by which the mass
of the element has increased in the same t.
 Fig.2.2 Flow into a element volume

Inflow and outflow into the element volume (x y z) as shown in Fig 2.2, in t time is;

INFLOW OUTFLOW

( u)
face1 u y z t face1' u + x y z t
x
( v)
face2 v x z t face2 ' v + y x z t
y
( w)
face3 w x y t face3' w + z x y t
z

INFLOW- OUTFLOW= NET MASS INFLOW INTO THE VOLUME

Net Mass
( u) ( v) ( w)
Inflow = + + xyzt ..(2.3)
x y z

NET CHANGE IN THE MASS OF THE FLUID ELEMENT

= (xyz)t ..............(2.4)
t

CONSERVATION OF MASS WITHIN VOLUME IN t TIME

Net Mass Inflow = Net Change in Mass

( u) ( v) ( w)
= + + xyzt = xyzt ...........(2.5)
x y z t

CONTINUITY EQUATION: (for steady or unsteady motion, compressible or

incompressible fluid)
From Eq. (2.5)
(u) (v) (w)
+ + + = 0......................................................................................(2.6)
t x y z
Using ,
D
= +u +v +w
Dt t x y z

In Eq (2.6)
D u v w
+ + + = 0 .....(2.7)
Dt x y z
is obtained

FOR INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID

D
= +u +v +w =0
Dt t x y z

From Eq (2.7)

Continuity Equation (for steady or unsteady motion, incompressible fluid)

u v w
x + y + z = 0 ..(2.8)

In vector notation:
r
.u = 0

= i+ j+ k
x y z
r
u = ui + vj + wk
Integral Approach:

d dV
dM r r
= = d + v dA = 0
CV

dt dt t CV CS

Rate of change of Mass in system =

Rate of change of mass in control volume (CV) + Net mass flux across controlsurface (CS)
 SUMMARY

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY for INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID

(STEADY OR UNSTEADY MOTION)

u v w
x + y + z = 0 ..(2.8)

2.3.2 Equation of Motion (Conservation of Momentum)

On a fluid element rate of change of momentum is equal to the total forces acting on the
element;

RATE OF CHANGE OF MOMENTUM = TOTAL FORCES ACTING ON THE ELEMENT

Rate of change of momentum in directions x,y and z respectively;

D(mu)
= Fx
Dt

D(mv)
= Fy...............................................................................................................(2.9)
Dt

D(mw)
= Fz
Dt

Forces acting on the element are summarized as;

1) Surface Forces which, as the name implies, act on the various surfaces of the
element. Any surface force can be resolved into two components- a component acting
parallel to the surface (called a shear force), and a component acting perpendicular to
the surface (called pressure force). By treating the fluid as frictionless we imply
that it has zero viscosity and is hence incapable of sustaining any shear forces.
 Pressure forces are thus the only surface forces which need be considered in this
analysis. The pressure intensity or pressure force per unit area will be given the usual
symbol p.

2) Body Forces which depend only upon the bulk or mass of fluid included in the
volume element. Gravity is the principal body force of interest in this study.
In case of frictionless fluid, forces acting on the fluid element are pressure (surface
forces) and body forces as shown in Fig. 2.3.

Fig. 2.3 Forces acting on the element (Frictionless Fluid)

Assuming all pressures to increase in the positive coordinate directions, the net pressure
force on the element in the positive x direction as shown in definition Fig.2.3 is;

p
pyz p + x yz
x

Designating X as the body force per unit mass, the equation of motion for frictionless fluid
in the x direction can then be written

Mass x Acceleration= Total force= Surface forces+ Body forces

Du P
xyz = pyz p + x yz + Xxyz
Dt x
or
 Du 1 P
=X equation of motion in x direction .(2.10)
Dt x
The equations of motion for frictionless fluid in the y and z directions may be derived
similarly:

Dv 1 P
=Y equation of motion in y direction
Dt y
..(2.11)
Dw 1 P
= Z equation of motion in z direction
Dt z

where Y and Z are the body forces per unit mass in the y and z directions, respectively.
These equations were first published by Euler in 1755 and are known as the Eulerian
equations of motion. Summary of the Equations of Motion in frictionless fluid is given
below.

SUMMARY
EQUATION OF MOTION (MOMENTUM EQUATIONS)
(FRICTIONLESS FLUID)

Du 1 P
In x-direction : =
Dt x
u u u u 1 P
or +u +v +w = ................................................(2.12)
t x y z x

Dv 1 P
In y-direction : = .............................................................................(2.13)
Dt y

Dw 1 P
In z-direction : = .............................................................................(2.14)
Dt z

GRAVITY IS THE ONLY BODY FORCE:

=0
= 0.............................................................................................................(2.15)
= g
2.3.3 Irrotational Flow
Flow is irrotational if the velocity vector
r
= x i + y j + z k
is equal to zero. This implies:

w v
x = =0
y z

u w
y = = 0 ..(2.16)
z x

v u
z = =0
x y

Velocity Potential

If the flow is irrotational, then a scalar function (x, y, z, t) exists such that:

u=
x

....(2.17)
v=
y

w=
z

Note that if Eq (2.17) is true, then Eq (2.16) is satisfied.

The scalar function (x, y, z, t) is called the velocity potential. If (x,y,z,t) exists then
fluid problem reduce to find (x, y, z, t) only. Then velocity components u,v,w can be
obtained by using Eq.(2.17).
2.3.4 Laplace Equation

If Eq (2.17) is used in Eq (2.8), the continuity equation can be written in terms of the
velocity potential which is called Laplace Equation:

LAPLACE EQUATION

VALID FOR IDEAL FLUID , IRROTATIONAL MOTION

2 2 2
+ + = 0......................................................................................................(2.18)
x 2 y 2 z 2
Vector notation: 2 = 0
2 2 2
2 = + + .....(LAPLACIAN)
x 2 y 2 z 2

2.3.5 Bernoulli Equation

Integration of equation of motions yields the unsteady state Bernoulli equation. For the
development of Bernoulli equation only two-dimensional motion will be considered. For
this reason, the integration of the equations of motion will be carried out only for the x and
z directions.

By restricting the body forces to that of gravity only, the equations of motion in the x and z
directions are:

1 P Du u u u
= = +u + w ....................................................................(2.19)
x Dt t x z

1 P Dw w w w
Z = = +u +w ...........................................................................(2.20)
z Dt t x z

With the x axis horizontal and the z axis vertical (positively upward), the gravitational
body forces per unit mass may be written as:
X 0
Z g
where g is the gravitational constant.
Since the gravitational force to be derivable from a potential, it can be written as:
(gz)
Z = g =
z

Under the assumption that the motion is irrotational, Eq.(2.16) gives

u w
=
z x

And using the definition of the velocity potential

u 2
=
t xt

w 2
=
t zt

The equations of motion (2.19) and (2.20) may now be written as:

1 P 2 u w
= +u +w .(2.21)
x xt x x

(gz) 1 P 2 u w
= +u +w ....(2.22)
z z zt z z

These equations may be written more compactly if it is noted that;

u 1 u 2
u =
x 2 x

w 1 w 2
w =
z 2 z

In addition, if the fluid density is uniform then;

 1 P P

x x
and
1 P P

z z

Equations (2.21) and (2.22) may now be written as:

1 2 P
+ (u + w2 ) + = 0
x t 2

1 2 P
+ ( u + w 2 ) + + gz = 0
z t 2

In which form they are readily integrated to yield

1 2 P
+ ( u + w 2 ) + = F1 ( z, t ) .............................................................................(2.23)
t 2
and
1 2 P
+ ( u + w 2 ) + + gz = F2 ( x, t ) .....................................................................(2.24)
t 2

Subtracting Eq.(2.23) from Eq.(2.24) gives

gz = F2 ( x, t ) F1 ( z, t )

Since g is not a function of x, it is apparent that F2 is a function of time alone and

thus F1 (t ) = F2 (t ) gz . Equations (2.23) and (2.24) are therefore reduced to the single
equation

1 2 P
+ ( u + w 2 ) + + gz = F2 ( t ) ........................................................................(2.25)
t 2
Since the fluid motion is affected only by pressure gradients and F(t) is a constant
throughout the fluid at any time t ,the choice of F(t) is evidently arbitrary. It may thus be
set equal to zero without loss of essential generality. Then Eq.2.25 becomes:

1 2
+ (u + w 2 ) + + gz = 0 ..(2.26)
P

t 2

This is the integrated equation of motion under the assumptions that flow is irrotational
and fluid density is invariant (homogeneous).
For steady flows (i.e., flows which do not change with time at a fixed locality),

= 0 and F2 ( t ) = const , so that Eq.(2.25) is reduced to

t

2
(
1 2
u + w 2 ) + + gz = 0 ..(2.27)
P

which is the usual form of the steady-state Bernoulli equation.

UNSTEADY- STATE BERNOULLI EQUATION

This is integrated equation of motion under the assumptions that fluid is ideal, flow is
irrotational and fluid density is invariant (homogeneous).

1 2
+ (u + w 2 ) + + gz = 0 Eq.(2.26)
P

t 2

2.3.6 Boundary Value Problem:

In solving appropriate boundary value problem the unknowns are;

Velocity Potential (u,w,t) and Pressure (P)

Steps to obtain unknowns (u,w,t) and Pressure (P), the solution strategy is given as;
Solution Strategy:
1. Solve Laplace equation satisfying the appropriate boundary conditions to obtain

2. Compute u,w and
t
3. Solve P (Pressure) from Bernoulli equation.

SUMMARY FOR CHAPTER 2

IRROTATIONAL
MOTION

CONTINUITY
EQUATION LAPLACE
(Conservation EQUATION
of Mass)

INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLUID

FRICTIONLESS INCOMPRESSIBLE
FLUID FLUID

EQUATION
OF MOTION
(Conservation BERNOULLI
of Momentum) EQUATION

HOMOGENEOUS IRROTATIONAL
FLUID MOTION