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ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
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Shaner, AA, Vingren, JL, Hatfield, DL, Budnar Jr, RG, Duplanty, AA, ree weight and machine exercises that engage
and Hill, DW. The acute hormonal response to free weight the same major muscle groups and have similar
and machine weight resistance exercise. J Strength Cond Res lower-body joint actions, such as the back squat
28(4): 10321040, 2014Resistance exercise can acutely and the leg press exercises, are often used inter-
changeably. However, such exercises are not necessarily
increase the concentrations of circulating neuroendocrine fac-
equivalent (34). For example, the primary movers are the
tors, but the effect of mode on this response is not established.
same for the squat and the leg press exercise (e.g., quadriceps
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of resistance
and gluteus), but the squat is a closed kinetic chain exercise,
exercise selection on the acute hormonal response using similar whereas the leg press is an open kinetic chain exercise. More
lower-body multijoint movement free weight and machine weight importantly, in contrast to the leg press, the squat requires
exercises. Ten resistance trained men (25 6 3 years, 179 6 the individual to balance on two feet and thus requires sub-
7 cm, 84.2 6 10.5 kg) completed 6 sets of 10 repetitions of stantial engagement of stabilizing and core musculature (e.g.,
squat or leg press at the same relative intensity separated by 1 abdominals and back) (3). Research on muscle activation has
week. Blood samples were collected before (PRE), immediately also shown that, even among the primary movers, free
after (IP), and 15 (P15) and 30 minutes (P30) after exercise, and weight exercise results in greater muscle activation than
analyzed for testosterone (T), growth hormone (GH), and cortisol machine exercise (29). Thus, free weight exercises seem
(C) concentrations. Exercise increased (p # 0.05) T and GH at to induce a larger overall muscle mass involvement than
IP, but the concentrations at IP were greater for the squat similar machine weight exercises. This consideration
(T: 31.4 6 10.3 nmol$L21; GH: 9.5 6 7.3 mg$L21) than for
could be important for subsequent physiological adaptations
(i.e., musculoskeletal strength and hypertrophy), as exercises
the leg press (T: 26.9 6 7.8 nmol$L21; GH: 2.8 6 3.2 mg$L21).
involving greater muscle activation or volume of work can
At P15 and P30, GH was greater for the squat (P15: 12.3 6 8.9
elicit a larger acute hormonal response than exercises using
mg$L21; P30: 12.0 6 8.9 mg$L21) than for the leg press (P15:
smaller quantities of muscle mass (18).
4.8 6 3.4 mg$L21; P30: 5.4 6 4.1 mg$L21). C was increased Resistance exercise can provide a potent stimulus for acute
after exercise and was greater for the squat than for the leg increases in concentrations of circulating neuroendocrine
press. Although total work (external load and body mass moved) factors including testosterone (T), growth hormone (GH),
was greater for the squat than for the leg press, rating of per- and cortisol (C). Although resistance exercise often induces
ceived exertion did not differ between the modes. Free weight increases in these circulating anabolic and catabolic hor-
exercises seem to induce greater hormonal responses to resis- mones (15,16,21,22,30), not all resistance exercise protocols
tance exercise than machine weight exercises using similar induce an acute hormonal response (6,27,30). The appear-
lower-body multijoint movements and primary movers. ance and magnitude of an acute resistance exercise-induced
increase in hormones depends, in large part, on the selection
KEY WORDS squat, leg press, testosterone, growth hormone, among the acute program variables: intensity, sets, order of
cortisol, endocrine exercise, rest period duration, and exercise selection
(16,20,30,33). The independent and combined (i.e., volume)
effects of intensity and sets and the effect of rest period
Address correspondence to Jakob L. Vingren, jakob.vingren@unt.edu. duration on the neuroendocrine response have received con-
28(4)/10321040 siderable attention. However, little research exists on the
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research effects of resistance exercise selection on the acute hormonal
2014 National Strength and Conditioning Association response, especially with respect to machine vs. free weight
the TM
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exercise. In the only study that seems to have been published elicit a large acute hormonal response with the squat or leg
on this topic, Kang et al. (12) examined the GH release press exercise. The AHRET consisted of 6 sets of 10
patterns after the back squat and the leg press performed repetitions of the squat or leg press with an initial load of
using 3 different intensity/repetition schemes (3-, 10-, and 80% of 1-RM and 2 minutes of rest between sets. The order
25-RM). In that study, the 10-RM resulted in the greatest of exercise mode for visits 1 and 2 was repeated for visits 3
increase in GH after performing the leg press, whereas 25- and 4. Fasted blood samples were collected before the warm-
RM produced the greatest increase in GH for the squat. up (PRE), immediately postexercise (IP), and 15 minutes
Kang study did not directly compare the effect of the exer- (P15) and 30 minutes (P30) into recovery from exercise, and
cise modality, but the greatest GH response to the squat (25- analyzed for T, GH, C, and lactate concentrations.
RM) was ;10% larger than the greatest response for the leg
Subjects
press (10-RM).
Ten apparently healthy, recreationally resistance trained men
The acute hormonal increase after resistance exercise can
(2131 years, 25 6 3 years, 179 6 7 cm, 84.2 6 10.5 kg)
modulate training adaptations (28); thus, investigations of
completed this study. Participants were resistance trained
appearance and magnitude of the acute hormonal response
for at least 6 months ($2 times a week) before the study
in response to the different selection among acute program
and performed the squat exercise on a regular basis. Partic-
variables are important. Although the neuroendocrine
ipants were screened for potential confounding medical con-
response to manipulation of most of the acute program var-
ditions using a medical history questionnaire. Potential
iables (e.g., intensity and sets) has received substantial atten-
participants were excluded if they had a musculoskeletal,
tion, no study seems to have directly compared the effect of
cardiovascular, metabolic, endocrine, or neurological disor-
the exercise modality using similar multijoint free weight and
der that could inhibit involvement in exercise; previous
machine weight exercises on the acute hormonal response.
orthopedic injuries that limited the range of motion of the
This gap in the literature related to the physiological effects
hip, knee, or ankle joint; back injuries, such as herniated
of commonly interchanged exercises (e.g., squat and leg
discs; steroid use; or inability to meet the demands of the
press) presents a potential dilemma for strength and condi-
exercise protocol (e.g., inability to attain proper squat depth
tioning practitioners in terms of effective resistance exercise
with good technique or inability to perform the leg press
program design. If a difference in the acute hormonal
without the hips lifting off the seat). Before inclusion in the
response exists between free weight and machine weight
study, participants were informed of the procedures and risks
exercises, substitution of exercise, such as the leg press for
associated with the study and subsequently provided written
the squat, might lead to suboptimal resistance training adap-
informed consent to participate. The study was approved by
tations. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine
the University Institutional Review Board.
the effect of resistance exercise selection (free weight vs.
machine weight involving similar multijoint movements) Procedures
on the acute hormonal response to exercise. Visits 1 and 2: Anthropometric Measurements, Familiarization,
and One-Repetition Maximum Determination. Upon arrival at
METHODS the laboratory, participants height and weight were mea-
Experimental Approach to the Problem sured, and their body composition was assessed using
This investigation used a within-participants design to dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) (Lunar Prodigy
compare the acute hormonal responses to the back squat General Electric Company, Madison, WI, USA). Participants
(free weight) and leg press (machine weight) exercises to wore only light athletic clothing and no shoes for these
determine the effect of exercise selection (free weight vs. measurements. Height and body composition were mea-
machine weight involving similar multijoint movements). sured only in visit 1. Participants then performed a standard-
The back squat and the leg press exercises are well suited for ized dynamic warm up (lunges, heel kicks, high knees, body
a comparison of exercise mode since they involve similar weight squats, and shoulder circles) and were familiarized
lower-body multijoint movements, engage a large muscle with the proper technique for performing the back squat
mass, can elicit a substantial hormonal response, and are or leg press exercise following the National Strength and
often used interchangeably in training program design and Conditioning Associations guidelines (1). The specific leg
implementation. Participants reported to the laboratory for 1 press exercise and device are presented in Figure 1. The
visit per week for 4 consecutive weeks. During the first and participant performed the squat with feet placed at approx-
the second visits, participants were familiarized with the imately shoulder width and descended until the femur was
squat and leg press exercises, and their 1-repetition maxi- parallel to the ground (full squat position). Vertical barbell
mum (1-RM) was determined (only 1 exercise mode was displacement was measured from the fully standing position
performed per visit). The order of exercise modes was to the full squat position. To ensure that the participants
assigned using a randomized and counterbalanced design. performed identical displacement for each repetition in the
For the third and fourth visits, participants performed an squat, the participant descended until a researcher observed
acute heavy resistance exercise test (AHRET) designed to proper squat depth and gave the participant a command to
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Free and Machine Weight Exercise Hormonal Response
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Biochemical Analyses. Blood samples were allowed to clot at Figure 3. Growth hormone concentrations before (PRE), immediately
room temperature and were subsequently centrifuged at postexercise (IP), and 15 (P15) and 30 (P30) minutes after exercise for
the squat and leg press exercises. $Significantly (p # 0.05) different
1,500g. The resultant serum was divided into several aliquots from corresponding PRE. *Significantly different from corresponding
and stored at 2808 C until analysis. Samples were analyzed time point for leg press. Mean 6 SE.
for serum T, GH, and C using commercially available
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (Alpco, Salem, NH,
USA). The sensitivity and coefficient of variance for each and P30 (squat: 22.5 6 4.8%; leg press: 20.3 6 14.1%). Con-
assay was T, 0.08 nmol$L21 and 7%; GH, 0.5 mg$L21 and centrations of circulating hormones were not corrected for
12%; and C, 11.0 nmol$L21 and 6%, respectively. Hemoglo- plasma volume changes.
bin and blood lactate concentrations were measured in
duplicate using automated analyzers (Hemocue, Angelholm, Statistical Analyses
Sweden and Nova Biomedical, Waltham, MA, USA, respec- Data for each variable were analyzed using 2-way analysis of
tively). Hematocrit was measured in triplicate after centrifu- variances (exercise mode 3 time point) with repeated meas-
gation of heparinized microhematocrit capillary tubes ures on both factors. Where appropriate (significant analysis
(Fisherbrand, Pittsburgh, PA, USA). From hemoglobin and of variance), Fishers LSD post hoc was used for specific
hematocrit values, plasma volume shifts were calculated predetermined pair-wise comparisons. Data for C were
using the methods of Dill and Costill (7). Compared with log10 transformed before statistical analysis. For GH and C,
PRE, plasma volume was decreased at IP (squat: 214.3 6 the assumption for sphericity was not met; therefore, the
5.1%; leg press: 211.9 6 9.6%) and gradually returned toward degrees of freedom were adjusted. For hormonal data, the
baseline at P15 (squat: 25.1 6 5.5%; leg press: 22.3 6 12.9%) area under the curve was calculated using the trapezoidal
Figure 2. Testosterone concentrations before (PRE), immediately Figure 4. Cortisol concentrations before (PRE), immediately
postexercise (IP), and 15 (P15) and 30 (P30) minutes after exercise for postexercise (IP), and 15 and 30 minutes after exercise for the squat and
the squat and leg press exercises. $Significantly (p # 0.05) different leg press exercises. #Significantly (p # 0.05, main effect) different from
from corresponding PRE. *Significantly different from corresponding PRE. @Significantly (p # 0.05, main effect) different from leg press.
time point for leg press. Mean 6 SE. Mean 6 SE.
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Free and Machine Weight Exercise Hormonal Response
1.4z
were performed using SPSS version 20 (SPSS, Chicago, IL,
14z
1.6z
14z
USA). Data are presented as mean 6 SD unless otherwise
TABLE 1. Lactate concentration, heart rate (HR), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) for the squat (SQ) and leg press (LP) exercises. Before exercise (PRE),
30
6
6
6
6
indicated.
5.1
4.0
87
81
2.3z RESULTS
19z
2.1z
17z
Hormonal Responses
15
12z
2.6z
0.7z
0.5z
main effect was found for mode; T was higher for the squat
15z
S6 (IP)
between mode and quadratic trend for time; post hoc analysis
10.9
7.5
168
149
9.6
9.3
revealed that T was significantly higher for the squat than for
the leg press at IP. The area under the curve was significantly
greater for the squat (1527 6 258 nmol$L21$min) than for the
14z
0.9z
0.6z
13z
6
6
6
6
main effect was found for time. Growth hormone was signif-
icantly increased at IP, P15, and P30 compared with PRE. A
significant main effect was also found for mode; GH was high-
0.9z
14z
0.7z
14z
er for the squat compared with the leg press. After adjusting
S4
that GH was significantly higher for the squat than for the
leg press at IP, P15, and P30. The area under the curve was
13z
1.1z
0.9z
6
6
6
6
1.3z
1.3z
was higher for the squat compared with the leg press. If
S2
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
The area under the curve was significantly greater for the
148
132
7.0
7.3
0.7
0.5
10
15
Metabolic Demand
PRE
6
6
6
6
6
6
1.0
68
0.7
SQ
SQ
LP
LP
LP
lactate was higher for the squat than for the leg press. There
was a significant (exercise mode 3 time) interaction effect;
Lactate*
for the squat than for the leg press at IP, P15, and P30.
A significant main effect of time was found for HR (Table 1).
The HR was significantly increased at each time point
the TM
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TABLE 2. One-repetition maximum (1-RM), vertical displacement, total work for external load, and total work including
body mass moved for the squat (SQ) and leg press (LP) exercises.
1-RM (kg) external 1-RM (kg) including Vertical Total work for Total work including
load only body mass displacement (m) external load (j) body mass (j)
SQ 140 6 24* 215 6 28* 0.58 6 0.07* 35,041 6 7,008 60,509 6 10,759*
LP 366 6 76 395 6 72 0.22 6 0.02 38,372 6 6,600 42,875 6 7,010
following the onset of exercise as compared with PRE. A between free weight and machine weight exercise in this
significant main effect was also found for mode; HR was investigation provide unique insight into the utility of their
higher for the squat than for the leg press. There was a signif- inclusion in resistance exercise programs.
icant (exercise mode 3 time) interaction effect; post hoc anal- Testosterone is important for muscle growth and strength
ysis revealed that HR was significantly higher for the squat because of its anabolic (23) and anticatabolic effects (5).
than for the leg press for each time point with the exception Kvorning et al. (21) found that when T was reduced to cas-
of PRE and immediately following set 1. trate levels in young men, isometric strength did not increase
For RPE (Table 1), a significant main effect was found for after resistance exercise training, and muscle hypertrophy
time. Rating of perceived exertion was significantly increased was attenuated. In this study, both the squat and leg press
following each set compared with PRE. There was no main acutely increased T. This finding is consistent with previous
effect for mode. There was a significant (exercise mode 3 investigations, which have reported that a high volume bout
time) interaction effect; post hoc analysis revealed that RPE of heavy resistance exercise acutely increases circulating T
was significantly higher for the squat than for the leg press (10,18,22,30,32). In this study, the T concentration was sig-
following set 4. nificantly higher after performing the squat than after per-
forming the leg press. The magnitude of increase in T
Work Performed
concentration is affected by the muscle mass involved during
Results for work are presented in Table 2. The external work
exercise (18) and by the total work performed (31). The
(calculated using external load only) performed did not differ
squat incorporates more muscle mass than the leg press
between exercise modes; however, when the body mass
(34), in part because the squat involves the activation of
moved during each exercise (squat: total body massshank
a greater amount of upper body musculature than the leg
mass; leg press: leg mass) was included in the load (added to
press. Furthermore, the partially flexed starting hip position
external load), the resultant total work was significantly
in the leg press allows for less hip range of motion and thus,
greater for the squat compared with the leg press exercise.
less displacement of the mass that could lead to less work
being performed per repetition. In this study, the squat
DISCUSSION involved greater total work performed (e.g., when work
This investigation seems to be the first study to directly was calculated including body mass) than the leg press.
compare the T, GH, and C response with similar multijoint Combined, these factors (greater muscle mass involvement
free and machine weight resistance exercise: the free weight and more work performed) might explain the greater acute
squat and machine weight leg press. The primary finding of T response for squat than for the leg press exercise.
this investigation was that differences exist between the Growth hormone is a complex superfamily of polypep-
acute hormonal and metabolic (based on HR and lactate) tides and is an anabolic hormone that supports muscular and
responses to the 2 exercise modes; in general, the squat skeletal growths (15). The most abundant form of GH is the
induced greater hormonal and metabolic responses than the 22 kDa isoform, although over 100 isoforms of GH exist (2).
leg press. The total external work performed in the 2 The biological activities of many of these non-22 kDa GH
exercises was similar, but when the work of moving body isoforms (e.g., GH aggregates such as dimers) appear to be
mass during each exercise mode was included in the greater than that of the 22 kDa GH isoform; however, the
calculation, the total work was greater for the squat exercise. acute response of such GH aggregates to resistance exercise
Greater total work in the squat exercise might explain, at has not been fully elucidated. In accordance with most pre-
least in part, the observed differences in the acute hormonal vious investigations (14,19,22,26,28), this study investigated
and metabolic response to exercise between modes. Regard- only the immunoreactive 22 kDa isoform of GH. Thus, the
less, the differences found in acute physiological responses current findings for GH do not necessarily represent the
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Free and Machine Weight Exercise Hormonal Response
entire acute GH family response to resistance exercise than the leg press and is consistent with the finding of
modes. In this study, 22 kDa GH concentration was signif- greater total work performed in the squat. It is possible that
icantly elevated after both the modes of exercise; the the lower HR in the leg press than the squat might be, at
increase was significantly greater for the squat exercise. As least in part, because of the partially supine (;308 incline)
in previous studies (14), the increase in GH followed a pat- body position during exercise. In this position, venous return
tern similar to that of lactate. Elias et al. (8) found that the might not be hindered by gravity to the extent it is hindered
anterior pituitary secretes GH in response to the reduction in the upright standing (e.g., squat) position, resulting in
in pH that is associated with increased lactate concentration increased stroke volume and thus, a reduced HR for the
in the blood. Increases in circulating lactate and GH have same cardiac output. Interestingly, despite that the squat
also been observed when the rest period duration is abbre- resulted in a greater physiological demand (HR and lactate)
viated (16). This suggests that increases in GH may be and involved more total work than the leg press, the partic-
dependent on the metabolic demand of the exercise. In the ipants reported similar RPEs for both exercise modes. From
present study, the greater increase in GH after performing this, it seems that there is a divergence between perceived and
the squat was likely influenced by the larger work performed actual demand of the exercise across the 2 exercise modes.
and the greater metabolic demand (exemplified by the Our study presents a few limitations that might reduce the
greater HR and blood lactate concentration) (14). transferability of the current findings to comparisons
It is also likely that the greater amount of work performed between other free weight and machine exercises. First,
in the squat affected the GH response. Total volume (work) the amount of total work was somewhat crudely estimated.
influences the acute GH response to resistance exercise, and During exercises such as the squat, the individual must lift
high volume protocols that use a large muscle mass are not only the loaded barbell but also the portion of the body
effective for acutely increasing circulating GH concentra- mass that is moved vertically during the exercise. Therefore,
tions (10,20,22,24,30). Craig and Kang (4) reported greater the mass of the moving body parts were included in the
increases in GH after performing multiple sets of squats than work calculations to account for the effect of body mass on
for a single set of squats using the same intensity and sug- total work performed. Although this method should be more
gested that total work was more important than intensity for accurate than using only the external loads of the exercises,
stimulating a GH response. However, a greater acute GH the estimation of body mass involvement was limited by the
response to higher volumes of total work has not been dem- lack of direct measurement of vertical displacement of the
onstrated in all studies. Kang et al. (12) found a ;33% larger center of gravity for the body. It is possible that the present
GH concentration 16 minutes postexercise for the leg press method overestimated the vertical displacement of the
than for the squat when the intensity was set at 10-RM, even bodys center of gravity by using simply the vertical displace-
though the squat protocol involved more external work ment of the barbell or sled. However, considering the large
(external mass 3 9.81 m$s22 3 vertical displacement 3 difference in body mass moved during the exercises and
number of repetitions). thus, large difference in vertical displacement of the bodys
Cortisol can modulate muscle metabolism by inhibiting center of gravity combined with a similar external work
components of the AKT-mTor pathway and subsequently performed, it seems reasonable to conclude that the total
inhibiting protein synthesis (31) and is important in blood work performed was greater for the squat than for the leg
glucose mobilization and preservation. After a bout of heavy press. Second, the range of motion in the hip and knee joints
resistance exercise, C increases acutely (11,17). Like T and differed between the 2 exercises because of the nature of the
GH, the magnitude of the C response is related to the total equipment used. In the leg press, less knee flexion and hip
volume of work performed; a greater volume of work pro- extension are performed than in the squat because the hip is
duces a greater acute increase in circulating C (9,10). As partially flexed at the start position. The squat exercise al-
expected, in this study, exercise significantly increased C at lowed for a greater range of motion and a greater vertical
all postexercise time points. Importantly, it was found that C displacement of the center of mass, and consequently
was significantly greater for the squat than for the leg press. a greater amount of work at a similar relative intensity than
The greater acute C response for the squat than for the leg for the leg press. Although this difference in range of motion
press exercise could be explained by the greater total work is a limitation when comparing the 2 exercises, it cannot be
performed (30,35), muscle mass involved (28), and metabolic avoided when using the proper technique and equipment for
demand (9,17). each exercise. Finally, this study was performed in the early
Consistent with previous findings (12), HR was elevated morning with participants in the fasted state. It is possible
during the squat and leg press exercise tests; however, the that the magnitude of the acute hormonal response would
increase was greater for the squat than the leg press. Simi- have been different in the fed state or at a later time of day,
larly, lactate was elevated following both exercise protocols, but it is unlikely that the observed pattern of responses
but the magnitude of increase was greater after performing between exercise modes would have been different.
the squat. The greater exercise-induced HR and lactate In summary, the hormonal milieu and the acute hormonal
response suggests a greater metabolic demand in the squat response to resistance exercise are important considerations
the TM
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the TM
in resistance exercise program design. The acute program 3. Clark, DR, Lambert, MI, and Hunter, AM. Muscle activation in the
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conditioning professional should therefore consider choos- Nindl, BC, Volek, JS, Gotshalk, LA, Fleck, SJ, Campbell, WW,
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Campbell, WW, Putukian, M, and Evans, WJ. Effects of heavy-
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