Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Helsinki 2009
Contents
7 Introduction
Nithikul Nimkulrat and Tim ORiley
Introduction
In creative fields such as art, design, architecture, tent of the practice-based research approach. This
music and performance, the relationship between seminar attempted to seek ways in which artistic
creative production and academic research has or design practices and research practices can con-
been much discussed, in particular how such a re- verge, a convergence where the professional crea-
lationship can contribute and develop knowledge. tive practices of art and design play an instrumen-
These discussions have often been rooted in the tal role in the conduct and dissemination of re-
development and definition of academic research search. The intention of this anthology is to dis-
conducted through, by or for creative practice cuss further the issue of the relationship between
(Frayling 1993; Durling et al. 2002, Rust et al. 2007). creative production and academic research in or-
This form of research generates knowledge partly der to contribute to the methodological and con-
from and by means of the creative practice of the tent development of this approach. The authors of
researcher who is also an artist or a designer. The the seven articles featured in this volume were all
practitioner-researchers creative practice thus participants in The Art of Research.
demonstrates a way or form of knowing that can be The anthology opens with Ilpo Koskinens arti-
integrated with the traditional realm of knowledge cle which expresses a concern regarding how artis-
in academic research. Research through or for art tic production is assimilated into academic re-
and design has been labelled with various terms: search. From his perspective as a sociologist, when
practice-based, practice-led, art-led, artistic re- art is seen or expressed as research, its apparent
search, etc. With no clear boundaries drawn be- subjectivity defying or resisting verbal descrip-
tween them, these terms have been used rather in- tion can be problematic. Koskinen suggests that
terchangeably to describe the individual research practitioner-researchers should take their creative
projects undertaken by artists or designers. practices seriously and be willing to convey how
This anthology broadly follows the discussions they work, using their creative processes as a foun-
at The Art of Research, an international seminar dation for enquiry. In his paper, Mika Elo stresses
held at the University of Art and Design Helsinki that the structure of thinking of artists differs from
from 1 to 3 October 2007. The aim of this seminar that of researchers, maintaining that while the lat-
was to provide an arena for discussing and contrib- ter emphasize the verbal articulation of their think-
uting to growth in both the methodology and con- ing, artists often concentrate on the visual commu-
8 reflecti o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
nication of their ideas. Elo sheds light on this ten- nar and considered how notions of institutional-
sion by saying that for a dialogue between art and ized research in an art context are socially con-
research practices to be established, artist-re- structed and discussed. The article poses a dia-
searchers are required to be both eloquent in ver- logue between the voices of three different parties
bal expression while discussing their research the- the Future Reflections Research Group, the insti-
oretically and sensitive to nonverbal communi tution and the academic. These parties give their
cation while presenting ideas through their media. voices from various positions, which regulate the
According to Elo, artist-researchers let art touch production of knowledge in terms of practice-
research through their self-reflections where one based research. The production of knowledge is
form or language (e.g. the visual) is translated into also examined in relation to the production of arte-
another form or language (e.g. the verbal or textual) facts in Kristina Niedderers article which looks at
and vice versa. the relationship between the two kinds of produc-
The volume continues with Maarit Mkels ar- tion in research in connection with tacit knowl-
ticle which exemplifies and examines recently edge. The article suggests some possibilities in uti-
completed doctoral research projects from Finn- lizing artefacts and the production of them for
ish universities. Conducting their research by generating and communicating tacit knowledge in
means of creative practice in various fields such as research. The volume closes with Stephen Scriven-
performance, fine arts, music and ceramic design, ers article which investigates how creative produc-
these researchers contextualized and interpreted tion can satisfy the following conditions of re-
the creative processes and the products of their search: intention, subject, method, justification,
own practice. Mkel focuses the examination of communication and goal. Scrivener explores the
these studies on how the place and the products of discussions surrounding practice-based research
making were involved in the research. Where and addresses the ways in which creative produc-
Mkel reviews the completed doctoral studies tion can function within or as academic re-
from the third persons perspective, Tuula Isohan- search.
ni looks at her own doctoral research from the
point of view of an architect and an art coordina-
tor. Isohanni discusses the place and the products Helsinki and London, January 12, 2009
of her study, which concerns the development nithikul nimkulrat and tim oriley
project of a new residential area in Helsinki, Fin-
land. This article depicts how she works as an art
coordinator with the professional background as
an architect who attempts to integrate art into the
new housing development.
Future Reflections, a research group of three
artist-researchers Catherine Maffioletti, Katrine
Hjelde and Marsha Bradfield explore the concep-
tion and role of what they call the third space in
relation to the practice of art and research. The ar-
ticle reflects upon their presentation Future Re-
sponse: Is the Question the Answer? which took place
as a performative event at The Art of Research semi-
introduction 9
r e f e r e n ces
l i v i n g w ith practice but mal sciences are based on practice (calculus was
having an affair with intuition invented for studying movement and probability
theory for gambling). It is also nave in terms of the
Recent exploration into art and research has pro- history of science. What would be economics if not
duced not just dozens of works that develop re- a practical exercise in optimizing human systems
search on art, but also several attempts to create that are measurable in terms of money?
frameworks to assist understanding of how art and However, when it comes to research in art
research could contribute to each other. Perhaps schools, these are minor academic problems. The
the best-known category is practice-based or real danger lies in the way in which the notion of
more recently practice-led research with origins practice has been understood. In the case I know
in British academic reforms, particularly in the best doctoral work at the University of Art and De-
former polytechnics and colleges which became sign Helsinki artistic research builds on what is
universities with a research agenda. When the Brit- ultimately a very narrow understanding of what ar-
ish government decided to make research funding tistic work is. In the 1980s, the methodologist Da
available to upgraded colleges (polytechnics), they vid Silverman used to tease sociologists for their
had to find a way to frame their work in a way that romanticism, which he saw in many aspects of
would show what is new and thus worth support- popular cultural studies. Rather than studying
ing in artistic research. what people do, sociologists tended to see mean-
The term practice-based did this well, and art ings, which, as the logic went, were invisible, locat-
schools were quick to adopt it. It shows artists as ed in peoples heads. Thus, the true meaning of
practitioners with their hands dirty in contrast to sexuality was not in sexual activity, but in how peo-
people whom I take to be researchers or scientists ple thought about it. The meaning of society was in
and who apparently are not practitioners. I do not how people saw it, even though, of course, society
take issue with the concept as such, but would like is everywhere around us, unfolding from day to
to point out a danger in it. The idea that doing re- day. Ten years later, Silverman began to talk about
search through practice is something new is nave the interview society in which the locus of action
in terms of the sociology of science, which has is routinely located in the inner, invisible layers of
shown for the last 40 years that even the most for- people. All of a sudden, we find nothing odd in
12 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
sports journalists asking the Olympic gold medal- things were easy. The true difficulty and the pos-
list Daley Thompson after he had won the decath- sible skill of my talk does not lie in inspiration,
lon with a world record: How do you feel now? but in the argument I am making, which has theo-
His response was typically something like I have retical roots in the sociological tradition called
never felt worse. To many viewers, this response ethnomethodology. Similarly, few of us admire art-
seemed odd, at least slightly boyish. However, ists because they get ideas in the bus, or while sip-
Thompsons jocular answer rightly points out that ping coffee. We admire them for their skill in real-
the issue is one of order. After all, what was more izing their artworks. I may think that my former
important: what he did on the track, or how he felt colleagues philosophy was silly and often bor-
while doing it (Atkinson and Silverman 1997)? dered on being dangerous. However, I do appreci-
When I think about recent work at my universi- ate the objects he designed. This paper thus makes
ty, I tend to see the same kind of romanticism at a plea for reframing artistic research to make it
work, even though it is concealed beneath a super- useful as a form of research and interesting enough
structure of complex theoretical thinking, typically for those in the scholarly community.
philosophy of some sort, but always understood in I do not think I miss the mark too much in say-
subjective terms. Invariably, the truth about ing that there is lots of romanticism at work in
the artists work is hidden in the deep layers of the practice-based research. Artists live with prac-
mind of the artist rather than in what is observable tice, but their true love is in another town. With few
and explainable. I have encountered one of the exceptions, the frameworks into which artists fit
most efficient conversation stoppers several times their work firmly situate artistic research in some-
in seminars, namely, the claim that artistic intui- thing subjective. I am using Maarit Mkels thesis
tion is something subjective that science cannot (2003) as an example simply because I think it is an
describe, or has no right to explore. To make things excellent and interesting thesis in many ways.
even worse, in more than a few cases, this ideology Now, she describes her method as a retrospective
has a Nietzschean overtone, as in the case of an gaze, by which she means that she first did a se-
older, now retired colleague who invariably ries of exhibitions and theorized about them after-
claimed that only artists have access to higher wards, tracing the history of their development
truths science can never grasp. For him, this sim- through her memories and traces of her work. An-
ple philosophy justified thorough contempt of re- other concept in her work was autoethnography,
search (and everything else except art). In the by which she meant that she was doing ethno-
hands of someone with considerable power, it was graphic-style research for her artworks and autofic-
a destructive way of thinking. tion, so that she also created her own stories in her
However, this is precisely what begs the ques- research, basing her work on a creative process of
tion. It is plainly banal to say that inspiration can- ethnographic storytelling. Retrospective gaze
not be captured by science. After Popper, most phi- and autofiction effectively say that no outsider
losophers of science believe that there is no logic can evaluate her thesis. It works within her inner
of invention. This is also commonsense for any reality; the artworks do stand alone, and can be ju-
journalist and researcher. The reason for this essay ried, but the framework cannot be verified through
was simple: I was asked to give a talk about prac- research. The validity of the thesis depends on in-
tice. In terms of the topic, I decided to talk about ternal validity that is, consistency alone. Essen-
how I understand practice, and what implications tially, we have to decide whether we believe her or
this understanding might have. However, these not, and evaluate her work accordingly. As she can
throwing the baby out or taking practice seriously 13
report, reviews she receives are not typically bal- How can a goldsmith learn pragmatist philosophy
anced: they usually either love or hate her work, in three years? There are also adverse long-term ef-
and if they do not positively hate it, they are spite- fects. What if we have 20 PhD theses, each celebra
ful. ting the subjective world of the writer at some
Michael Biggss criticism (2006) of this line of point? Researcher number 21 then has to create
thinking through Wittgensteins well-known argu- his framework, without the possibility of learning
ment against the possibility of private languages is from previous work. I do not know whether there
well taken. As Wittgenstein pointed out, since lan- has to be progress in art, but there surely must be
guage is the property of a community of speakers, in research, or else the scientific world cannot find
or life form, one cannot create a private language good reasons for supporting artistic research be-
that is outside this community. Even a babys at- yond a few trials. Risk-taking is accepted and en-
tempts to communicate are perfectly understand- couraged in science, but for a good reason. How-
able to its parents. Similarly, an artist cannot cre- ever, too much risk-taking seldom leads to useful
ate a world of his own that is understandable to results.
him only. Biggs advice for artists who want to be-
come researchers is also well taken: they should
willies story, or what if we
treat the outcomes of their work just like they
take practice seriously?
would treat the outcomes of someone elses work.
He claims that whenever an artist produces a piece One alternative and I mean only that is to take
of work, his accounts of it are not privileged in any artistic practice seriously and use it as a basis for
degree, and should not be treated that way. These research. This is not a radical idea. It simply says
accounts are no better or worse than other ac- that if we take a skilled practice which good art
counts unless they make more sense. If other ac- always is even if we cannot put it into words that go
counts are more encompassing and clear, they are beyond platitudes there must be things worth
better. learning from in it. Modern art in practically any
In addition to the theoretical problem pointed form also tends to be conceptually radical, explor-
out by Biggs, many practical problems ensue from ing ideas and issues that are not necessarily of
such a romantic stance. How can one validate a much interest to established fields of research. Is
thesis if the artist says that the only criterion is in there a science of boredom? Could there be?
his head, and impossible to put into words? More Sure, and there probably is, but it has remained
importantly, how can one learn from a work like small, and for a reason. It would be far easier to ex-
this and apply this learning in ones work? What plore boredom through artistic means than to jus-
scientists call replication is a word that may sound tify a study of the theology (psychology, physics)
threatening, but essentially, it simply says that oth- of boredom.
er people should be able to learn from a thesis so I promise to support any artist who takes his or
well that they can use its process in their own work. her practice seriously and tells the story of that
For scientists, this is not just self-evident, but also practice. After all, if an artists work is practice-
the cornerstone of anything that claims to be a sci- based or the more recent jargon practice-led
ence even though there are few agreed-upon cri- then it cannot be that much different from any
teria for what replication exactly means. This kind skilled practice. The sociologist Douglas Harper
of thesis also tends to build on esoteric frame- (1987) once wrote a beautiful book called Working
works that are impossibly difficult for non-experts. Knowledge, which dealt with Willie the blacksmith
14 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
living in upstate New York. Willie was an old school worthy of a try in itself. Nevertheless, the problem
mechanic from simpler times, specializing in fix- of practice escaping language is in no way unique
ing tractors, heaters, ovens and Saab cars. His to art. Try to explain how people walk, talk or orient
backyard had dozens of car wrecks that he got from their gaze during a seminar to learn that the prob-
people living nearby. For him, they were an essen- lem is in fact ubiquitous.
tial source of spare parts. Harper became acquaint-
ed with Willie when he bought a Saab. His book
ways of the hand
describes various Willies fixes, showing in detail
how Willie worked through his problems, talking, If someone thinks that it is a sacrilege to draw an
thinking, trying, welding, cutting and finishing his analogy between artists and a journeyman in the
metal works. countryside in upstate New York, I want to point
Why not study art as Harper studied Willie, by out another study in which practice was made into
watching closely, describing, learning and seeing a topic of research, not something that is only in-
how fixes are made and how ideas evolve? teresting because of some deeper, underlying
This would not be a major step all that is re- meaning. In Ways of the Hand, the late sociologist
quired that an artist open his practice to analytic David Sudnow tells the story of how he learned to
scrutiny. If even the most sophisticated forms of play piano and to improvise jazz solos with it over
science have been analyzed just like any other the course of five years (Sudnow 1993). Sudnow
work, perfectly well researchable by sensitive, had learned some piano in his childhood, but had
trained researchers, why not art? given up playing after getting bored with classical
Ultimately, then, the question is not whether music. In his mid-career, he decided to relearn.
one can study art, but how to study it. Sociologists However, he did not go back to classical music, but
of science have done one thing few artists so far wanted to learn to improvise jazz instead and not
have been willing to do: they took a humble ap- just any jazz, but bebop, which is one of the hard-
proach, went to laboratories and other places of est area of jazz to learn, requiring technical bril-
discovery, started to take photographs, gathered liance because of its (typically) quick tempo.1
documents, wrote down what they saw, and posed To cut a long story short, Sudnows book de-
questions for scientists. One may try to counter scribes those (roughly) five years during which he
this argument by saying that science takes place in first just tried to remember keys and scales, then
observable settings like laboratories (see, among learned to learn melodies through chords suitable
others, Latour and Woolgar 1979), while the crea- for brief improvisations, and finally learned to
tive process of the artist is ubiquitous. Sure, discov- foresee melodies in the making. It is important to
eries are made in laboratories, though not exclu- realize that although you can learn jazz through
sively but then again, most artistic discoveries theory, ultimately the only important thing is what
also have a place, the studio. Moreover, to say that the fingers and hands are doing on the keyboard.
scientists only come up with new ideas in the lab
would be just as silly as to say that artists only come
1 Of course, Sudnow never got to be as good as McCoy Tyner
up with ideas in the studio. or Chick Corea, but he gave up his academic career for two
The key methodological trick in sociology of decades and lived as a musician and piano teacher, before
science just as in Harpers study was descrip- turning back to sociology in the last years of his life. This
was not a bad move personally either. Actually, his friends
tion. Whenever one is putting complex practice in the Bay Area have told me that he was a happy man until
into words, this is possible only through hard work, his death at an old age a few years ago.
throwing the baby out or taking practice seriously 15
Knowing theory does not help if ones fingers do coming from a jazz band, but sounds are probably
not find their way to places that sound good. Tran- more difficult to understand than the types of
scribing Bud Powells or Jimmy Rowless solos will cloth, texture, patterns or folds.
not help either, unless ones fingers hit the right What if we follow Sudnow, and start to study art
keys. As Sudnow says, music is in ways of the hand, by close observation and careful descriptions of
not in notes. The important thing to remember is practice in its full complexity? Wonderful tools for
that the ways in which the hand moves over the such description exist in many ethnographic re-
keyboard are meaningful to the smallest detail: search traditions, as well as in various ways of ana-
every move counts. Waving ones hands over the lyzing interaction. All we have to do is to keep in
piano or touching keys is not music. mind not only that art can be studied not through
Now, the problem of David Sudnows book is current, mystifying frameworks, but by cleverly se-
that it can only be described as esoteric. It is well lecting the target but also that one can shed light
written in eloquent and simple English, but still a on many problems of interest to sociologists, to
book that is practically impossible to read because the public (as Sudnows teaching practice proves),
the only way to make sense of his argument is to sit and to other artists as well.
by the piano and try out his examples. I used to play I would love to read close, well-documented
guitar and other string instruments when I was and visualized accounts of how a goldsmith uses
younger, and was pretty good at reading musical his sense of touch to understand almost micro-
notation, but doing Sudnows exercises with a gui- scopic shapes and patterns, zooms into them with
tar was not enough. When I worked my way through a loop, applies heat to the material to be able to
his book which is something I have never done in work on it and so forth. Or how a fashion designer
detail, his examples are too difficult for me I had draws and sketches systematically to discover in-
to sit by a piano myself and try to understand his teresting ideas, develop them further, make deci-
fingering and the logic of movement of my hands. sions (how one drops something that does not
No hope, of course, but this exercise showed me work, or chooses to keep something), and finally
just how difficult it is to be a skilled practitioner. build a complete line of clothing from these early
Think about the fluent utterance by a native five- sketches.
year old French girl, and contrast this to a foreign- I am confident that such work would be useful
ers desperate attempt to understand and produce as teaching material. It would also be useful in pro-
a correct subjunctive form in French. moting the art fields more widely. It would delight
Why not Ways of the Hand in fashion design, ex- many artists. It would also provoke debate, since a
hibition design or CAD modelling? The practice well written, coherent study is typically one that is
may have its artistic aspects. However, if some- also easy to understand and by implication, easy to
thing as difficult as music can be studied in detail criticize. As the sociologist Howard S. Becker
by a sensitive researcher like Sudnow, it should be (1986) notes, clarity of expression obeys the good
far easier to study something that is just as skilled old rule in research by identifying negative evi-
in terms of technique (from sewing to patterning, dence. In fact, this is one of the counter-intuitive
etc.). It should also be much simpler to study a things about science for non-scientists: the best re-
team exercise in which everything crucial is made search is so clear that it is easy to disagree with it.
visible and understandable to other members of Bad research, on the other hand, is often impossi-
the team through sketches, mock-ups, models and ble to falsify. Just think about parapsychology. Re-
so forth. The practice is there, just like sounds search is also all about debate. No piece of research
16 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
is complete in itself; any piece of research is treat- able to pose new types of question. Simply, art
ed as an argument in some debate. The measure of could offer to explore social (and other) problems
success for any piece of research can only be how in ways established fields of research cannot. It is
much it adds to our understanding despite its in this sense only that I can accept my ex-col-
problems. leagues insistent point that art can achieve some-
I also firmly believe that artistic research would thing science cannot. My plea is simply to throw
definitively benefit from seriously rethinking of out the bathwater and keep the baby.
some of the clearly troublesome conceptual prac- No doubt, this would require taking practice se-
tices that have been built into the field. Good artis- riously. Practice needs to be broken down and un-
tic research should not be designed to please any- derstood as experimental work, which typically has
one. In fact, good pieces of research typically do a conceptual basis, yet is ultimately observable and
not please people in power. reportable. If practice is understood only as a re-
flection of ones inner world, which is ultimately
inaccessible to other people (except perhaps other
t h r o w out the bathwater
artists), then one falls into the trap my title tries to
My observations above take me to my last point. capture: the baby is thrown out with the bathwater.
The main danger I see in making art into some- If a romantic stance is given Nietzschean over-
thing esoteric, something beyond logic, language tones, it rightfully raises opposition and disdain
and research, is perhaps finally ethical. If we pick from people well versed in research. Artists are cer-
up only one aspect of art (and by implication de- tainly not immune to chauvinism, to seeing the au-
sign), its artistic aspect, we paint a severely partial dience as squares, as people who only have to be
picture of art through research. Clearly, we de-con- withstood because one must pay the bills.2
textualize I am sorry for this awkward term art I opened this essay by saying that my talk would
from practice. Furthermore, if we do not stop here, be a conservative plea for making art in research
but accept conceptual subjectivist frameworks of into something useful to other researchers, artists,
artists as the only legitimate account of art, we get teachers and societys institutions alike. My under-
into a situation in which we not only analytically standing of the current state of artistic research
break art into parts while simultaneously criticiz- and I prefer this term to practice-based, which I
ing such analytic breakdowns, but also add anoth- find misleading and rhetorically dangerous
er bias to our research practice. We misrepresent needs serious rethinking in order not to become
art in two ways. The result is the problem with just another useless and fairly expensive experi-
which I started this article: artistic research in the ment prompting cynicism about artistic research
worst case cannot have legitimacy for long in the among its key audiences, artists and researchers
eyes of academia. alike. I feel that the romantic model for doing artis-
I have tried to argue in this essay that there is an tic research is deadlocked, and unless it changes
alternative way. It is difficult, but negotiable. What its direction, very little will remain in ten years
makes art an interesting area for research is that in
art, one can pose questions much more freely than 2 My terminology is from another study by Howard Becker,
in the older scientific disciplines in which one of whose Masters Thesis at the University of Chicago (1951)
the main indications of competence is ones abili- dealt with jazz musicians who indeed despised their audi-
ence, because it was not able to appreciate the music they
ty to pose questions that identify problems in exist- wanted to play. Incidentally, Becker later became Douglas
ing body of research. Artists, on the other hand, are Harpers teacher.
throwing the baby out or taking practice seriously 17
r e f e r e n ces
Atkinson, Paul and David Silverman. 1997.
Kunderas immortality: The interview society
and the invention of the self. Qualitative Inquiry
3: 304325.
Becker, Howard. 1951. The professional dance
musician in Chicago. American Journal of Soci-
ology 57: 136144.
Becker, Howard. 1986. Writing for social scien-
tists. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Biggs, Michael. 2006. Modeling experiential
knowledge for research. In The art of research:
Research practices in art and design, ed. Mkel,
Maarit and Sara Routarinne, 180-204. Helsinki:
University of Art and Design.
Harper, Douglas 1987. Working knowledge.
Skill and community in a small shop. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Latour, Bruno & Steve Woolgar 1979. Labo-
ratory life: The construction of scientific facts.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Mkel, Maarit 2003. Saveen piirtyvi muistoja.
Subjektiivisen luomisprosessin ja sukupuolen rep-
resentaatioita [Memories on clay: Representa-
tions of subjective creation process and gen-
der]. Helsinki: University of Art and Design Hel-
sinki.
Sudnow, David 1993. Ways of the hand. Cam-
bridge, MA: The MIT Press.
passages of articulation: art and research touching 19
Passages of Articulation:
Art and Research Touching
mika elo
Art can be transplanted into a research context, university context is aimed at producing more
just as 4) research can be transplanted into an art functional art? The situation appears quite differ-
context. 5) Art can contribute to research and 6) re- ent if, instead of design, we place philosophy or
search can contribute to art. 7) Research and art more accurately thinking in the centre of the dia-
practice can remain parallel activities, even if they logic relationship between art and research.
share a common denominator. 8) It is also possi- Martin Heidegger, a thinker who seems to be
ble for the art and research actions to overlap.3 markedly esteemed among Finnish art researchers
Although Keinonens analysis is illuminating, and researching artists, challenged the scientific
it remains schematic and fails to reveal how the aspirations of philosophy in his thinking. Al-
identity of both parties is at stake in the dialogical though academic philosophy may justifiably con-
relationship between art and research. I will focus sider itself a meta-science of sorts, Heidegger
on the last two of these articulations: art and re- pointed out that philosophical reflection informed
search as either parallel or overlapping fields of ac- by a genuinely questioning attitude is not science,
tion. In both cases, the criteria for distinguishing nor should it be. This kind of philosophy is think-
art practice from disciplined research become ing about thinking, whereas science does not
problematic. In the first case, art and research think (Heidegger 2002, 9).4 While science cannot
practices run parallel without any disciplined ex- question its own assumptions, or the sensibility of
plication of their relation. The connections be- its aspirations, without fundamentally changing
tween them remain implicit and take place as a itself, philosophical questioning, or thinking,
form of self-reflection in both fields relation to must constantly reflect upon every grounding ges-
each other. I tend to call this mode of relation inter- ture, its own sensibility and sense, and the very
disciplinary, because the object of study first be- boundaries of sense itself.
comes conceivable in-between the disciplines. In With reference to Heidegger, we might say that
the second case, where art and research overlap, or research nourished by a questioning attitude
even fully merge, also the criteria for their demar- whether it adopts the form of visual or verbal think-
cation disappear. This articulation of art/research ing does not primarily aspire to be scientific.
relation can be called trans-disciplinary in so far as Instead, this kind of research approximates phi-
it does not lean on any established disciplines. losophy as the practice of thinking about think-
ing.5 This idea challenges us to take a closer look at
the interrelations between the arts, sciences and
t h i n k i n g research their modes of research. Regarding these interrela-
Keinonens way of placing design at the hub of the tions, Sven-Olov Wallenstein (2002, 3435) per-
dialogue between research and the practice of art suades us to ask the following question: Is the di-
challenges us to ask: firstly, to what extent artistic vision, inherited from the 18th century, into fine
research or practice-led research follow some arts, criticism, history and aesthetics a natural
pattern of product development; and secondly, one, or only a temporary structuring in the sphere
whether the integration of art and research in the we call art? In other words, how does one sepa-
3 Keinonen sees design as a key discipline that brings art 4 On the view of science implied by Heideggers famous
and research together. He argues that research conducted dictum, see Salanskis 1995. http://tekhnema.free.
at the University of Art and Design Helsinki has as its dis- fr/2Salanskis.htm (accessed March 22, 2007).
tinguishing feature the dialogical relationship between art 5 Sven-Olov Wallenstein (2002, 44) makes a similar observa-
and research under the label of design. tion with reference to Jean-Franois Lyotard.
22 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
rate the practice of art from theory?6 In the light of the knowledge produced by visual arts, but also the
the new institutional connections between the status and role of art in society (ibid. 18; Scrivener
contemporary practices of research and art, the 2006, 15879). In other words, it is also a question
idea of integrating art and research has awakened of what it means to be a professional artist. When
a great deal of thought. Perhaps it would be more the goal is not to define something, but to chart the
fruitful to focus on the critical confrontation be- background, it is enough to say, insofar as artistic
tween the two, and ask what is happening when art work is a form of thinking, that it can just as well be
and research are touching. a form of systematic investigation even if it does
I adopt the term touching, because the rela- not happen to satisfy the currently valid criteria for
tion between art and research practices according scientific research.
to the last two cases of Keinonens breakdown is The relationship between artistic practice and
both non-instrumental and non-hierarchical, thus research cannot be reduced to a mere institutional
indicating that art and research are truly exposed topic, although this issue is a relevant aspect of it if
to each other. Just as in every form of touching, this we regard institutions as manifestations of the
contact between art and research has a tendency structures of thinking (Ibid. 161).
towards fusion, implying a high risk of confusing
the questions of otherness and responsibility.
mediating research
This, in my view, constitutes an urgent methodo-
logical challenge for artistic research. The assumed opposition between verbal and visu-
The merging of art and research has been an es- al articulation should also be considered as an is-
sential element in the tradition of the visual arts sue that involves the medium7 of imparting. The
since the Renaissance, as seen in numerous exam- traditional medium of theory the verbal language
ples of investigative art and practice-based theoret- has a long tradition in human sciences. A broad
ics (e.g. Siukonen 2002, 1850). The intertwine- spectrum of models for self-reflective styles and
ment of making and reflecting has been especially genres of writing is available. An artist-researcher
strong in the fields of film and photography. The can hardly hope to offer anything new in this area.
history of photography is full of artist-researchers: However, the situation changes when the artist-re-
Henry Fox Talbot, Etienne-Jules Marey and Ead- searcher begins to move between the visual and
weard Muybridge, Lazlo Moholy-Nagy, Giselle the verbal. It is precisely at the point when he ques-
Freund, Allan Sekula, Victor Burgin to name only tions the boundaries of his own medium that the
a few. Today, the question raised by the emergence Janus-faced researcher enters the most interesting
of the academic artworld is what kinds of actors areas of research,
are legitimized as professionals in the theoretical The first step in this process is to dissociate
discourse on art. This question concerns not only oneself from the idea of the medium as an instru-
ment, which leads one to considerations about
mediality beyond instrumentality, such as, in
6 Here, it is worth noting that even thinking can be a deed,
or an action, if it towers above action and production,
not through the grandeur of its achievement and not as 7 The term medium is not used here to refer to any
a consequence of its effect, but through the humbleness technical or material substratum, but to the milieu or
of its inconsequential accomplishment, as Heidegger interstices of the intermingling of the material, sensory,
(1996, 361) put it. In other words, a deed that appears the technical, social and linguistic-metaphysical dimensions
same in its external effects can be performed with many of signification, which is always historical. On notion of
attitudes. medium, see Elo 2005, 2239.
passages of articulation: art and research touching 23
which sense the medium is the message (McLu- Works of art do not compete with philosophy.
han 1997, 721), how to think about a language Still, they are closely related to philosophy, be-
which communicates itself (Benjamin 1996, 62 cause their diversity reflects the very ideal of the
74), or what is the ground of the image (Nancy philosophical problem. Every work of art makes
2005, 226). From my perspective as an artist on sense of reality in its own singular way. The fact
the one hand, this is a natural step, an almost self- that works of art are sharing this aspiration makes
evident starting point of practice, albeit one that them intimate strangers to each other. In this
often remains unarticulated in a verbal sense. sense, the work of art would be an inverse embodi-
From the research perspective on the other hand, ment of the idea of the science of the unique being,
the step is problematic in several ways. Above all, mathesis singularis, the possibility of which is dis-
one must argue why and how the content and the cussed by Roland Barthes in Camera Lucida (1993,
medium of the message are mutually dependent, 8). Seen from such a perspective, the work of art is
or even inseparable. This also implies that the re- not a unique pattern being investigated, but a
search must, in one way or another, articulate or at unique, singular pattern of research. Here, of
least indicate its own mediality. course, the urgent question is how this can be com-
The second step is even more difficult. The Ja- municated. In face of this question Benjamin urg-
nus-faced researcher must consider the status of es us to consider the relation between art and phi-
research relative to the practice of art in terms of losophy in terms of translation, which is concerned
mediality. I think Walter Benjamins Romantic with the articulation of the singular points of con-
idea of the work of art and philosophy or cri- tact between the different languages, rather than
tique in his Kantian vocabulary as siblings offers aiming at conveying meanings9.
a fertile starting point8. Similar to siblings, these According to Benjamin (1996, 3334), the pur-
two modes of thinking relate to each other in a sin- pose of a philosophy, or critique, of art is to bring
gular and non-hierarchic way. out the virtual formulability of the truth-con-
In his essay on Goethes Elective Affinities, Ben- tent articulated in the work, yet to refrain from its
jamin (1996, 3334) presents the idea of siblings actual formulation out of respect for truth and the
as follows: Philosophy is about truth. Philosophi- work. In terms of translation, the translator thinks
cal questioning aims at truth. A philosophical sys- about the work based on the work itself, and seeks
tem is a presentation of truth. Yet, no philosophi- to formulate the same thing in a different way.
cal question is able to arrive at the whole truth. In With respect to the communication of meaning,
his view, if such a question existed, it would be the the task is doomed to failure. For Benjamin, the
ideal embodiment of the philosophical problem. sense in the task of the translator lies elsewhere: in
However, other kinds of structures standing in the the will to what he calls pure language. In short-
closest possible relationship to the ideal of the hand, this could be characterized as a self-reflec-
philosophical problem do exist. They are neither tion of a language (or medium) through another
questions nor systematic presentations, but works language (or medium), a kind of auto-hetero-re-
of art. flection.
In Benjamins view, truth cannot be reached in
a work of art by questioning or explicating. It can
8 Another relevant starting point is offered by Maurice
only be elicited by challenging. Controlled re-
Blanchots notion of unworking (dsoeuvrement), which
Harri Laakso (2006, 14054) has raised in discussions on
artistic research. 9 For a closer study on this topic, see Elo 2007, 13587.
24 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
search of the constituent elements of a work of art critical encounters, confrontations and even to a
and their combinations commentary as a form of mutual deposition.
chemistry cannot achieve this. What we need is
alchemy, the sustained processing of uncontrol-
lability, or even of impossibility (Ibid. 2978, 334).
references
Benjamin (1991, 834) also reminds his readers
that there is always more than one form of art. He Baetens, Jan. 2007. Conceptual limitations of
writes that one of his main goals in his essay on our reflection on photography: The question of
Elective Affinities is to open up the way to the work Interdisciplinarity. In Photography theory, ed.
of art by destroying the regionality of art. On the James Elkins, 5373. New York and London:
other hand, the programmatic aim of his essay is Routledge.
to promote the integration of sciences [...] by ana- Balkema, Annette W., and Henk Slager,
lysing the work of art (Ibid. 811). In other words, ed. 2004. Artistic research. Amsterdam and New
his goal is to let art and research touch, to let them York: Editions Rodopi.
disturb each others integrity in a tactful way. He Barthes, Roland. 1993. Camera Lucida: Reflec-
thus takes a step towards thinking research, a re- tions on photography. Trans. Richard Howard.
search that constantly reflects upon its own sensi- London: Vintage.
bility and sense. Benjamin, Walter. 1991. Gesammelte Schriften
We might say that Benjamin is both arguing for [Collected writings], 7 vols. 14 parts. Ed. Rolf
a ceaselessly question-raising philosophical atti- Tiedemann, Hermann Schweppenhuser, The-
tude in research, and challenging philosophy and odor W. Adorno and Gershom Scholem. Frank-
the unity of art. As a result, the work of art rises furt am Main: Suhrkamp.
above art as well as philosophy, and in its singular Benjamin, Walter. 1996. On language as such
form articulates research that has no regard for and on the language of man. In Selected writ-
fixed boundaries. It is here that I think we find the ings, vol. 1. ed. Marcus Bullock and Michael W.
main challenge of the Janus-faced researcher, that Jennings, trans. Harry Zohn, 6274. Cambridge,
is, to tune the medium of theory to match the level MA and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard
of the work of art, thereby transforming it also into University Press.
a medium of practice or vice versa. One essential Benjamin, Walter. 1996. Goethes elective af-
aspect of this tuning is to refrain from instrumen- finities. In Selected writings, vol. 1, ed. Marcus
talizing the medium (Elo 2007, 14953). Bullock and Michael W. Jennings, trans. Harry
Focusing on these passages of articulation is at Zohn, 297-360. Cambridge MA and London:
the same time to distance oneself from the dialogi- The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
cal model based on a product-development Borgdorff, Henk. 2006. The debate on re-
scheme. Benjamins claim that an ideal transla- search in the arts. Sensuos Knowledge 02: 721.
tion always remains a virtual one seems to open Brady, Marjatta, ed. 1998. Taide tiedon lht-
transformative possibilities for conceptualizing een [Art as a source of knowledge]. Jyvskyl:
the relation between visual arts and research prac- Ateena.
tices. In the light of Benjamins theory of transla- Dombois, Florian. 2006. Kunst als Forschung.
tion, rather than appearing as a dialogue leading Ein Versuch, sich selbst eine Anleitung zu ent-
to an actual synthesis, the research/art relation ap- wenden [Art as research: An attempt to draft
pears as touching that invites art and research to some instructions for myself] In Hochschule der
passages of articulation: art and research touching 25
Knste Bern [College of Arts Bern] HKB 2006, ed. knowledge: Artistic research at Finnish Acade-
HKB/HEAB, 2129. Bern: Hochschule der Kn- my of Fine Arts. In The artists knowledge: Re-
ste Bern. search at the Finnish Academy of Fine Arts, ed. Jan
Elo, Mika. 2005. Valokuvan medium [The medi- Kaila and Pekka Kantonen. Helsinki: Finnish
um of photography]. Helsinki: University of Art Academy of Fine Arts.
and Design Helsinki. Keinonen, Turkka. 2006. Fields and acts of art
Elo, Mika. 2007. Thinking research. In Toisaal- and research. In The art of research: Research
ta tss. Valokuva teoksena ja tutkimuksena / practices in art and design, ed. Maarit Mkel
Here then. The photograph as work of art and as and Sara Routarinne, 4258. Helsinki: Univer-
research, ed. Mika Elo, trans. Tomi Snellman, sity of Art and Design Helsinki.
929. Helsinki: University of Art and Design Laakso, Harri. 2006. Imaginary research. In
Helsinki and Finnish Academy of Fine Arts. The art of research: Research practices in art and
Elo, Mika. 2007. The language of photography design, ed. Maarit Mkel and Sara Routarinne,
as a translation task. In Toisaalta tss. Val- 14055. Helsinki: University of Art and Design
okuva teoksena ja tutkimuksena / Here then. The Helsinki.
photograph as work of art and as research, ed. McLuhan, Marshall. 1997. Understanding me-
Mika Elo, trans. Tomi Snellman, 13587. Hel- dia. The extensions of man. London: Routledge.
sinki: University of Art and Design Helsinki and Mkel, Maarit, Sara and Routarinne.
Finnish Academy of Fine Arts. 2006. Connecting different practices. In The
Hannula, Mika. 2002. The responsibility and art of research: Research practices in art and de-
freedom of interpretation. In Artistic research, sign, ed. Maarit Mkel and Sara Routarinne,
ed. Mika Hannula and Satu Kiljunen, trans. 1238. Helsinki: University of Art and Design
Tomi Snellman, 7388. Helsinki: Finnish Acad- Helsinki.
emy of Fine Arts. Nancy, Jena-Luc. 2005. The ground of the image,
Hannula, Mika, and Satu Kiljunen, ed. trans. Jeff Fort. New York: Fordham University
2002. Artistic research, trans. Tomi Snellman. Press.
Helsinki: Finnish Academy of Fine Arts. Nevanlinna, Tuomas. 2002. Is Artistic Re-
Hannula, Mika, Juha Suoranta, and Tere search a meaningful concept?. In Artistic re-
Vadn. 2003. Otsikko uusiksi. Taiteellisen tut- search, ed. Satu Kiljunen and Mika Hannula,
kimuksen suuntaviivat [Title Revised: Outlines trans. Tomi Snellman, 6171. Helsinki: Finnish
of artistic research]. Tampere: niin & nin. Academy of Fine Arts.
Heidegger, Martin. 1996. Brief ber den Rheinberger, Hans-Jrg. 2005. Iterationen.
Humanismus [Letter on humanism]. In Berlin: Merve Verlag.
Wegmarken, 31364. Frankfurt am Main: Vitto- Salanskis, Jean-Michel. 1995. Die Wissen-
rio Klostermann. schaft denkt nicht [Science does not think].
Heidegger, Martin. 2002. Was heisst Denk- Tekhnema 2 (Spring 1995), http://tekhnema.
en? [What is called thinking?]. In Gesamtaus- free.fr/2Salanskis.htm (accessed March 22,
gabe. I. Abteilung: Verffentlichte Schriften 1910- 2007).
1976 [Complete writings. Section I: Published Scrivener, Stephen A.R. 2006. Visual art
writings 19101976], vol. 8. Frankfurt am Main: practice reconsidered: Transformational prac-
Vittorio Klostermann. tice and the academy. In The art of research:
Kaila, Jan. 2006. The artist as a producer of Research practices in art and design, ed. Maarit
26 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
i n t r o d u ction ties has been going on vividly since the 1980s. All the
four art universities in the country have contributed
Over the last two decades, research in art and de- to the field by creating their own doctoral pro-
sign has begun to explore new dimensions as art- grammes during the period 1982 to 1997 (Table 1).
ists and designers have taken an active role in con- Each of these universities has produced slightly dif-
textualizing and interpreting the creative process ferent requirements for their doctoral studies, and
of their own practice, as well as the products of this thus the form and content of the doctoral projects
process. From this point of view, the knowledge have received different emphases depending upon
and the skills of a practising artist or designer form the university (Mkel and Routarinne 2006, 1718).
a central part of the research process, and this has Currently, there are a variety of completed prac-
produced a new way of doing research in the crea- tice-led doctoral studies produced by artists and
tive field. In this new approach, a part of the re- designers from the different institutions. In these
search is carried out as art or design practice studies, the art or design practice and research
(Mkel 2007, 157). In recent discussion, such at- have found their own way of interaction. This arti-
tempts have been labelled more or less inter- cle will analyze one practice-led study from each
changeably with the terms practice-based, art- Finnish art university as well one from the Uni-
led, practice-led and artistic research1. versity of Lapland.2 All these five research works
In Finland, the discussion about the substance have been published, thus ensuring the dissemi-
and mode of research carried out in the art universi- nation of the knowledge produced. In focusing on
these studies, I am especially interested in what
1 The term artistic research is connected to the idea of an kind of places artists and designers have built for
artist that produces an artwork and reflects on the creative the process of making and the products of this in
process: The whole issue is about the self-reflective and
their studies. The central question is, in what ways
self-critical processes of a person taking part in the pro-
duction of meaning within contemporary art, and in such
a fashion that it communicates where it is coming from, 2 In addition to Art Universities, the Faculty of Art and
where it stands at this precise moment, and where it wants Design of the University of Lapland has also contributed
to go (Hannula et al. 2005, 10). In Finland, this approach to this discussion. The Faculty, established in 1990, is the
is followed and developed particularly in the Finnish Acad- only art-orientated faculty operating under the aegis of a
emy of Fine Arts. See also Mkel and Routarinne (2007, 3). traditional university in Finland (Elo 2007, 23).
30 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
not only physical space but also a space described of the research in a spatial mode. It also estab-
through text, and as spatial relationships between lished an important base of experience to be re-
the performers and the spectators. Arlander ap- viewed and discussed in the written part, which
plies and discusses two main models: firstly, Ar- was prepared when the actual making has already
nold Arosons scale regarding environmental and finished, in the later stages of the research process.
frontal arrangements of space, and, secondly, Peter According to Arlander, the division between ar-
Eversmans model for analyzing theatrical space tistic- and research-orientated doctoral degrees is
based on structural and functional dimensions. deceptive, because both of them pose questions
The second part of the written study describes about exploration, though in different senses.
the practical work and the performances prepared What she finds more interesting is the relation be-
during the research process. In this part, Arlander tween theory and practice, as well as thinking and
discusses the use of space via three productions. making, and how these can be combined (Arlander
When preparing these productions, Arlander took 1999, 8).
different roles. In the first production, she ap-
peared as the director of the performance. For this
representations
performance, the playwright Juha Siltanen wrote a
of the holy experience
dramatization of Italo Calvinos novel If on a Win-
ters Night a Traveller. The text includes ten The artist Juha Saitajoki graduated as a Doctor of
concise novels transformed into small plays and a Arts from the Faculty of Art and Design of the Uni-
narration framing these stories. These provide a versity of Lapland7 in 2003. Saitajokis study The
basis for the scenography, which consisted of ten Ecstasy of Saint Teresa. Saint Teresa of Jesus, Gian
spaces: a labyrinth with paper walls, through which Lorenzo Bernini and Me (Saitajoki 2003) consists of
the audience moved from one miniature perform- a written thesis and a series of three exhibitions.
ance to another in the one-hundred-metre-long The starting point of the study was the descrip-
hall (Figure 2b). tion of the holy experience written by Saint Teresa,
In the second performance, a monologue with a Catholic female mystic living in Spain in the 16th
the title The Love Letters of Sister Mariaana6, Ar- century.8 This description raised Saitajokis inter-
lander worked as an actor. In the third production,
Arlander appeared as the writer and director of a
radio play Via Marco Polo. When taking part in 7 The requirements for the doctoral studies in the Univer-
sity of Lapland are comparable with the University of Art
these productions, the author used the space and and Design Helsinki; i.e. the written part of the study is
experienced it from different perspectives. In this demanded, and it is expected to meet academic require-
study, the space of performance is thus construct- ments as explicated in Footnote 19.
8 In his hands I saw a long golden spear and at the end
ed from the various viewpoints of an actor, a writer of the iron tip I seemed to see a point of fire. With this
and a director. he seemed to pierce my heart several times so that it
In Arlanders case, the study introduced three penetrated to my entrails. When he drew it out, I thought
he was drawing them out with it and he left me completely
art productions in the form of different perform-
afire with a great love for God. The pain was so sharp that
ances. Making formed a place to explore the theme it made me utter several moans; and so excessive was the
sweetness caused me by this intense pain that one can
never wish to lose it, nor will ones soul be content with
6 The text by Annika Hansson consists of love letters which anything less than God. http://www.catholicfirst.com/
Sister Mariaana, a Portuguese nun, wrote to a French gen- thefaith/catholicclassics/stteresa/life/teresaofavila7.cfm
eral officer in the 17th century. (accessed February 14, 2008).
32 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
est regarding visual representations that are based In the second main chapter, Saitajoki reviews
on written descriptions of holy experiences. The the Gian Lorenzo Berninis sculpture Ecstasy of
subject of his doctoral study is a holy experience Saint Teresa as a part of Baroque and Italian reli-
which is expressed on the one hand in Saint Tere- gious art. In this context, the theme of the sculp-
sas written description of the piercing of her heart, ture the piercing of the heart is rather familiar.
and on the other hand in the statue with the title The sculpture is a visual representation of a reli-
Ecstasy of Saint Teresa made by sculptor Gian gious experience and at the same time of a sculp-
Lorenzo Bernini in the 17th century. The central tures interpretation of the theme. As such, it rais-
question of the study is what the piercing of the es a new conception about mysticism and religious
heart means for the Spanish Catholic female mys- experience. The focus of experience is directed
tic and for the Italian sculptor. from inner experience to external symbols (Saita-
The primary sources of the study were Saint Ter- joki 2003, 99). The second exhibition Dark night
esas writings, in which she writes about impale- seems to deal with this dilemma.9
ment of her heart as a part of the mystic path, and In the third main chapter, the representations
Gian Lorenzo Berninis sculpture Ecstasy of Saint of Teresa and Bernini are set in a dialogue discuss-
Teresa. The research approach was micro-histori- ing how the nun could express her experiences in
cal, meaning that the brief sources were examined her texts, and how the sculpture could express the
profoundly. The structure of the research could be nuns experiences in visual form. The third exhibi-
described as a path and by following this path, tion presents Saitajokis new works of art as well as
Saitajoki discovered the central thoughts of his works from the previous exhibitions. As such, it is a
study. He introduced a series of three exhibitions as kind of conclusion to the whole project. Saitajokis
part of this path, so that the process of writing and newer works include elements typical to Italian re-
the production of artworks appeared in his case si- ligious art, such as photographs of Santa Teresas
multaneously. The exhibitions subsequently con- relics, including her skull and heart.
structed the main chapters of his thesis. In Saitajokis case, making accompanied the
The first main chapter of the dissertation is a whole research project. It formed a place in which
survey, where notions of Teresa are set in a histori- to explore the theme of the research also in a visual
cal frame of reference. Saint Teresa is portrayed as mode. Thus, making can be understood as a vehi-
intrinsic to the monastic religiosity and mystical cle for gaining better understanding of the re-
theology of the Middle Ages. According to Saitajoki search topic, and the products of making works
(2003, 29), the writings of Teresa can be under- of art presented in three exhibitions can comple-
stood as her own attempt to understand herself ment research knowledge, even though it is ex-
and to express something that is unutterable. Ter- pressed in another mode than writing.10 1112
esa also wrote her texts in the format that people
expected to read. Rather typical in this context, es-
pecially for females, she seems to value such ec-
9 As I did not see the exhibition, my interpretation is based
static states which involved her body. (Ibid. 24.) In
on the documentation of the exhibition works displayed in
his first exhibition Ecstasy, Saitajoki explores the the thesis (Saitajoki 2003, 6572).
theme via pictures taken from his own body (Fig- 10 Hurmio [Ecstasy] (1999) photograph, oil, alkyd, metal pig-
ure 2a). The topic of the works comes from the tra- ment, 55 45 cm.
11 Performance at the Cable Factory in Helsinki (1996), sce-
dition of religious representations with open nography by Reija Hirvikoski.
mouths and upward looks. 12 The photograph is taken by Satu Typp.
the place and the product(s) of making in practice-led research 33
themes give sense to the opposite a good life. For His research An Introduction to the Possibilities of
his art practice, a meaningful experience of being the Clarinet (Raasakka 2005), aiming to study the
(or a good life) is an absolute value. In Mkis modern clarinet, consists of a series of five con-
words, Art can have an instrumental role when certs and a manual of the modern clarinet as the
making a good life, but it can also be the place written part.
where a good life happens. Art-shaped philosophy The core of the project was a concert series in
and politics takes part when solving a problem, but which Raasakka performed a selection of Finnish
after all it tries to form our experience of being solo and chamber music for clarinet. The series of
meaningful as such. (Mki 2005, 154, translation concerts, based on his collaboration with Finnish
mine.) To conclude the essay, Mki expresses an composers, formed a cross section of Finnish clari-
idea of art-shaped philosophy, in which reason- net music. Raasakka played 20 compositions with
ing, feeling, and being can be simultaneously and three different instruments: clarinet, bass clarinet
equally performed. and Liru (Figure 3a), an archaic Finnish folk clari-
The second essay Tool Box discusses Mkis net, in the concert series.1718
intentions as an artist and his main techniques Initially, Raasakka had intended that the writ-
concerning his artworks. In this way, he offers the ten part would introduce new playing techniques
reader some tools to understand his art as an art- that he encountered when playing Finnish clarinet
shaped philosophy. Mki has created his artworks music. However, he realized that he was unable to
before writing the essays. His creation was a kind speak about these techniques because there were
of driving force for the written part of the study.15 neither established concepts nor Finnish words to
In this sense, making formed an important basis use. Therefore, the written work became a manual
of experience from where to write. In his case, the of the modern clarinet: an introduction to the his-
products of making the artworks made during the tory, construction, properties, and musical possi-
research period can thus be seen as an artistic bilities of the clarinet. All the music examples pre-
method for collecting and preserving information sented in the manual are from Finnish clarinet
and understanding; they personify the authors music and many of them from the compositions
understanding about art as the most complete Raasakka played in his concerts.
form of philosophy and politics.
In Raasakkas case, making formed the back- concerning their tableware, and to design a ceram-
bone for the whole study. Playing took place most- ic service for their use. In the study, the design
ly before writing and was the driving force for the process is reviewed from phenomenological per-
written part of the study. Thus, making established spective.
the place where the theme of the research (modern Leppnen applied ethnographic methods to the
clarinet) could be explored in practice. The study first component of her research, in which informa-
produced a series of five concerts as the products tion was collected through interviews and docu-
of making. His collaboration with composers also mentation of eating situations. She carried out
produced new compositions for the clarinet. In re- these methods in eight elderly persons homes and
turn, the new compositions gave the author the in fifteen care institutions, focusing on the func-
possibility to advance his virtuosity and interpreta-
tion as a clarinettist. a
t a b l e w a re design
i n t h e c ontext of old age
The ceramist Helena Leppnen graduated as a
Doctor of Arts from the School of Design of the
University of Art and Design Helsinki19 with her
thesis The Designer and the Other: Tableware Design
in the Context of old age (Leppnen 2006). Her study
consists of a user-centred design project, the result b
of which includes a collection of ceramic table-
ware for aging people.
The central questions of the study comprise
how the idea of social commitment has been man-
ifested in tableware design, and how a tableware
designer can approach the experience of the eld-
erly population. The study set out to understand
what kind of demand the elderly population has c
tionality and pleasing aspects of tableware. In this as one might imagine (Mkel and Routarinne
fieldwork, the everyday life of people with dementia 2006, 18). As Mika Elo points out, a reflective rela-
revealed the most demanding task to solve. Lep- tionship with tradition has been part of the prac-
pnen made prototypes of a bowl, drinking vessel tice of art at least from the age of Romanticism,
and two kinds of plates in the Arabia factory. just as in the natural sciences the production of
Leppnen tested the usability of her collection epistemic things has been intimately connected
in three private homes, two nursing homes and to experimental praxis throughout the modern
two larger institutional units. According to this era. In this regard, the notion of practice-led re-
survey, the plates of the collection were regarded search is not new the new thing is rather the con-
as successful as they promoted the personal initia- nection between the art practice and the university
tive of users. The deep plates with red bands (Fig- institution (Elo 2007, 14).
ure 2c) were considered to have the most success- As a result of this connection, we have a new ac-
ful design. Their broad red brands facilitated the tor: an artist-researcher with a double position: i.e.
user in recognising the shape of the vessels, and a practitioner who also reflects upon her/his own
the concave shape of their inner walls helped the practice. In this article, I have reviewed the kind of
user get food into the spoon (Leppnen 2006, 113). outcomes that might result when an artist or a de-
The Arabia factory also made a survey concerning signer introduces her/his practice in an academic
the possibility of industrial production of the col- context. The cases portrayed above show that art
lection. The potential group of the byers was con- making and art products can have a variety of roles
sidered to be too small and thus plans for the pro- in a practice-led research project. To sum up, they
duction failed. can play the following roles: Firstly, as shown in
In Leppnens case, the concrete design proc- the case of Mki, art making can be understood as
ess took place in the middle of the research project. a vehicle for collecting and preserving information
The design process was preceded by the collection and understanding. Secondly, as in the case of Ar-
of information, and followed by a usability test. lander, Saitajoki and Raasakka, art making can
When making prototypes in gypsum as part of the also form a place to explore the theme of the re-
design project, Leppnen also used her profes- search in another form than writing. Thirdly, in ad-
sional capability as a practicing ceramist. In this dition to the above-mentioned roles, art and de-
study, the products of making the collection of ce- sign process and its products can be conceived as
ramic tableware for aging people personify the answer(s) to particular research questions as well
authors understanding about ethical design. as an argumentation on the topic concerned, as
Thus, the making and its products in this study apparent in the case of Leppnen.
could be conceived as answers to a particular re- Thus, creative making, art and design practice
search question as well as designerly argumenta- can stimulate and support the accumulation of
tion on the topic concerned. knowledge and understanding in several ways. On
the basis of the introduced cases and the other
completed doctoral studies and publications re-
c o n c l u sions lated to this approach (e.g. Schn 1995, Siukonen
The field of art and design has a strong tradition in 2002), it is possible to conclude that reflective prac-
producing artefacts. Likewise, the field of basic re- titioners can support the accumulation of knowl-
search has produced theorethical knowledge. edge by following multiple paths connected to
However, these fields are not as alien to each other their personal artistic expression.
the place and the product(s) of making in practice-led research 37
When the building of the Arabianranta area com- have grown physically similar during the past few
menced, the City of Helsinki demanded that con- decades. Similarly, there are not that many differ-
struction companies reserve 12 % of the total ences in building typology and urban design in
building costs for art. In practice, this demand for new housing areas. The Arabianranta project is
art has meant that planning competitions have meant to question the following trends: Can art
been used to select architects and construction projects bring to the fore local differences and
companies for sites owned by the city, and once uniqueness? Can local stories be brought alive to
the winners have been chosen, negotiations on art- enrich new local communities?
ists and art projects have begun. To carry out the
artistic portion of the work, the City of Helsinki has
i draw a horizontal line
hired an art coordinator to propose art concepts
and artists and to supervise the realisation of the I began my work as an art coordinator by studying
art project. The author has been the Arabianranta the research done on the area, and the various
art coordinator since the beginning of the project plans and scenarios that had come before. At the
(2000). same time, I formed a relationship with the area by
The Arabianranta housing project is built on a taking regular walks there. As I was gathering this
seashore landfill site in Helsinki, and is flanked by information, the empty, spoiled shore waited for
the oldest parts of the city. The area was built so as me like an unexplored country.
to both complement existing housing areas and I used an architects tools on my walks; I photo-
traffic connections, and integrate into the urban graphed and sketched, and wrote down ideas in-
history of the area. For instance, nearby buildings spired by the site. I observed animals and plants on
such as the mill, the hydroelectric plant, and vari- the shoreline, changes in light, and changes
ous factories and workshops illustrate the develop- brought about by the time of the day or the season.
ment of the city in its entirety. There are also a I studied how spaces opened to different direc-
number of art and media schools in the area, in- tions, how the transparent birch grove by the water
cluding the University of Art and Design Helsinki. veils the landscape, and how fields of rushes turn
Our everyday urban environments such as of- to gold against the darkening autumn sky. The
fices, shopping centres, schools and kindergartens space itself seemed to reward my regular walks
40 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
w a l k i n g brings people
t o t h e s cene
The horizontality of a site turns into verticality
when people arrive. However, when an art project
begins there is no concrete information on the fu-
ture inhabitants, and therefore it is impossible to Figure 2. The schematic of the vertical movement of the
collaborate directly with them. While walking, I inhabitants in the stairways. Collage by author.
used to imagine what future inhabitants would see
from their window, and what they would expect
from their new environment: views that open into
the changing landscape, and various kinds of rails and doors emphasize practicality. There are
movement that the human eye likes to follow. Si- strict criteria for their safety and durability, speci-
multaneously, I considered my own homes and ex- fying both materials and details. They are also of-
periences at different phases of my life. ten prefabricated, mass-produced elements used
For instance, the light in the window reminds in many different apartment buildings. As a result,
us about the importance and meaning of a home. staircases tend to be similar to one another and en-
Coming home everyday is mundane and repeti- trances uninspired, simply marking the everyday
tious, but also full of significance home is like a movement between home and work.
friend or a relative, patiently waiting for the wan- The French philosopher Gaston Bachelard
derer. During the dark and cold season in the claims in his book The Poetics of Space (1994) that
North, that moment grows even more poignant. city dwellers feel adrift because living in an apart-
I also came to appreciate staircases as another ment building is horizontal, devoid of direct con-
important building element. Staircases are not tact with the vertical space of attics and cellars.
only routes into individual apartments, but also to Thus, the physical verticality of human beings is
technical maintenance facilities and shared stor- not mirrored by the building design. According to
age spaces. Materials and fixtures used for steps, Bachelard, human beings living in such apart-
42 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
buildings. Moreover, the location of art projects and thus does not need to being solely visually-
near entrances increases the sense of community based. However, there are special requirements on
and supports co-operation between the inhabit- the use and safety of art located near apartment
ants. These effects can already be seen today in buildings in our everyday environment, and such
Arabianranta. Although the area is only half-built, practical considerations must be taken into ac-
its inhabitants have already been active in commu- count. For instance, foundations may have to be
nity issues, for example in speeding-up the open- built, and the works have to survive different
ing of the planned kindergarten (2006). Events weather conditions.
such as the inauguration of new art projects, or- When a building projects art percentage is in-
ganized art walks, the publication of the usage and vested in courtyards, it provides an opportunity to
maintenance plans of Tapio Wirkkalas Park and hire an architect or a landscape architect to help
activities centring around the nearby Annala Gar- the artist and the courtyard designer. These profes-
dens have all brought inhabitants together. In sionals help artists create a high-quality environ-
these projects, art provides the inhabitants with ment. In Toukoranta, public courtyards link into a
different spaces and opportunities for community series of spaces along the walking route, through
participation and the development of shared ac- the building blocks and all the way up to the north-
tivities. ern part of the area.
The southernmost part of Arabianranta, Tou- Art projects in public courtyards offer stimuli to
koranta, is the last part of the project to be built and extend the territory of inhabitants of different
(2008-2011). Toukoranta has it own aesthetic con- ages outside the apartments. They are links in the
cept, both built upon the experiences drawn from chain with the wider environment and bring to
Arabianranta and completing the area. Buildings mind the landscape and specific places in it. Tou-
are usually the focus of the construction process, koranta and its environment provide many spots
and spaces between them get less attention. The for observing the landscape it is on the shore, and
Toukoranta art concept focuses on spaces between has both natural grasslands and a nearby bird re-
the buildings, thus approaching the traditional serve, thus providing favourite spots and routes. In
place of art in the public space. The atmospheres this multi-faceted space, it is possible to develop
of these spaces vary, from the public urban space not only ones own viewing habits, but also a con-
along Hmeentie and Toukolankatu to the semi- sciousness of the environment and landscape near
public courtyards used in everyday life, and to the ones own home. Individual art projects offer
numinous experience of nature in the seaside points of contact, topics for discussion, and a
park. Furthermore, the idea is to create spaces tak- sense of community, as well as augmenting the
ing into account the future inhabitants, and even collective memory of this specific living environ-
the special needs of some future users, such as par- ment.
tially sighted children. All of these concepts are in- So far, the completed art projects in Arabian-
cluded in the comprehensive analysis of the site. ranta have included sculptures, ceramic art, graph-
Courtyards are very often equipped only for ic concrete, photographs, paintings, enamel bas-
children, and their use varies according to a fami- reliefs, mosaics, light art, and community art
lys situation. Art can, however, by offering varied projects. Their sizes vary from faade-high to post-
stimuli, help to provide for different activities. In card-sized. As the artists have received their inspi-
external spaces, art can more often be based on ration from the local natural environment, the Ara-
different senses, or even be a community activity, bia factory, or innovations created at the University
44 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
r e f e r e nces
Bachelard, Gaston. 1994. The poetics of space:
The classic look at how we experience intimate
places. Trans. Maria Jolas. Boston, MA: Beacon
Press. (Original work: La potique de lespace,
1957.)
Bhme, Gernot. 1995. Athmosphre: Essays zur
neuen sthetik [Atmosphere: Essays on the new
aesthetics]. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.
future reflections: rhetorical response 47
Future Reflections:
Rhetorical Response
future reflections research group
(Catherine Maffioletti, Katrine Hjelde and Marsha Bradfield)
legend 5 : approach
Here we consider the third space as a site for gener-
ating the practice-based art Research Thesis. The
composition of this text comprises of a mapping
through different temporally dispersed voices as a
reflexive dialogue. There are three main voices that
discourse in this paper each situated as either
representing the character of Future Reflections
Research Group (the R/research student collabora-
tion), the institution (the certifier of Research) and
the academic (the certified researcher). These dif-
ferent voices embody some of the diverse positions
that regulate practice-based Researchs Knowl-
edge production. Hence, the form and content of
this paper performatively questions approaches to
K/knowledge productions in multiple sites of art
R/research, and offers up the third space as anoth-
er entry point into this debate. For example, the
inconsistent capitalization of some key terms, in-
cluding Research, Thesis and Knowledge,
highlights their contextual significance in art Re-
search. While thesis can refer to a main idea (the
I. Content
A particular type of question propels PhD Re-
search the Thesis question. The question re-
sides in the linguistic, whereas response can
speak in and through the linguistic and beyond:
the verbal, the body and the object. The ongoing
dialogue between the practices of art and/as Re-
search raises many concerns, some of which
transcend the Thesis question. What, for example,
are the languages of the art Thesis? When is art
R/research? And where is the Knowledge in the
art PhD?
A question among questions in art Research,
the Thesis question is a pointer, the arrow with
which the researcher seeks new Knowledge. It
casts the inquiry in many directions, all the while
wondering, Is Research really about asking the
right questions? For The Art of Research Semi-
nar, we explored the question not only as a
50 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
rhetorical structure but also as a theme, a theory As a collaborative project a shared investigation
and a thesis. It served to organize both the con- among the members of Future Reflections Re-
tent and form of our performative paper. We search Group Future Response considered re-
asked and (re)asked the questions above through sponse in the context of reflexive dialogue, by
a combination of written surveys, straw polls which we mean dialogue as a kind of collaboration
and a thought experiment aimed at facilitating a in keeping with the curator and critic Maria Linds
site-specific discussion about the growing dis- notion of triple collaboration (2007, 27). She de-
course of art Research. We sought to highlight fines triple collaboration as instances where the
The Art of Research Seminar as a context for our subject of the work, the theme itself, is collabora-
speculative R/research to activate the aca- tion. Discussion around this theme raised two
demic conference as a performative event where questions in particular. What does response
notions of art Research are socially constructed. mean in the context of art, we wondered and in
At the same time, we aimed to talk around, what ways can response be understood as art Re-
about and through art Research using language(s) search in its own right? As the form/process/
better suited for enacting art as Research. In ad- method/outcome, response enabled the projects
dition to written and read argumentation, we de- collaborative and interdisciplinary making and set
ployed cryptic gestures and curious equations, up our enquiry into investigating the third space.
addressing, in effect, Umberto Ecos observa-
tions about artistic intention: Sir Christopher Frayling (1993) made a distinction
between Research and research in his paper Re-
The moment an artist realizes that the system of search in Art and Design based on the defini-
communication at his disposal is extraneous to the tion found in the Oxford English Dictionary. He
historical situation he wants to depict, he must also defines research with a lowercase r as an inves-
understand that the only way he will be able to tigation, the act of searching, whereas Research
solve this problem is through the invention of new with an uppercase R indicates some kind of de-
formal structures that will embody that situation velopment. Future Reflections Research Group
and become its model. (1989, 143) explores if other distinctions between big and
small letters in a word can equally illustrate con-
Future Response aspired to be such a model an ventions in terms of our understanding of these
alternative to conventional Research process and terms. For instance, can Knowledge with a capital
product. Yet, for reasons discussed below, this K refer to the original Knowledge claim built
model did not register as either art or Research into the PhD? The PhD has to produce new knowl-
at the Seminar. Future Response was instead re- edge. This is argued in and through the Thesis,
ceived as a non-communicative text where meta- (capital T), itself a dissertation based on an origi-
phors were mixed, voices became louder and nal claim to Knowledge, which may contain more
softer, and positions slipped and fixed6. than one thesis, i.e. propositions advanced as an
argument.Frayling furthermore defines art as Re-
6 It is this slipping and fixing between territories that we are
interested in confusing, blurring and merging in order to
perform a notion, the third space, to define how divergent ity, an ambiguity from which another form of knowledge
possibilities might appear in reaching an expanded under- production may emerge and it is in this nuanced lack of
standing of how art R/research works. We will define the clarity, the third space, that we will approach the practical
third space as a multiple space of meaning and ambigu- implications of doing practice-based art R/research.
future reflections: rhetorical response 51
II. Participation
Participation in the context of Future Response
was understood as both an individual and collec-
tive engagement, on the one hand originating
with the utterances of individual group members,
and on the other, with the discourse of Future
Reflections Research Group as a whole. Addition-
ally, response resided with the other participants
of The Art of Research Seminar, who contributed
by completing written surveys, raising their hands
in answer to straw polls, and participating in a
thought experiment. If, however, we aimed to ex-
plore both the attendees responses in the post-
presentation discussion, the opaque structure of
our presentation resisted easy access. Only later
in informal aspects of the Seminar in the coffee
breaks and at the dinner did the other attend-
ees offer their feedback, feedback that has had a
reflexive impact on our investigation. Addressing
(2006b) addresses these concerns in an editorial metaphor for describing the interplay between
for Working Papers in Art and Design by raising an systems of knowing. Dialogue between the R/re-
even more critical question: Is the medium a con- search and the artwork provides a construction
text? We know the medium affects the message site for K/knowledge(s) (Kvale 1996), a place
(McLuhan and Fiore 1971) but is the medium con- where new understanding is built. Defining the re-
stitutive of the research message? While Biggs is lationship between R/research and the artwork
immediately concerned with how writing about as dialogic, however, is not without problems,
Research serves to historically and critically con- among them locating, articulating, and dissemi-
textualize its outputs, his questions, considered nating the discrete Knowledge claim. Nev
alongside those identified above, gesture towards ertheless, overcoming these problems has perfor-
some of the challenges facing Research into dis- mative potential. By resisting the urge to pin
cursive art practice. That this type of practice as- Knowledge down in one place, a dialogic under-
sumes an artworks significance can reside in an standing of K/knowledge(s) can open up a richer
event, a site-specific engagement through which conversation, a conversation between the out-
new understanding is socially constructed, means comes, the process and the product, that would
discursive art challenges orthodox notions of art be suppressed if these constituents were not giv-
Research as somethingintrinsic and self-contained en voice. Ultimately, for the art PhD, the claim to
in the output as an object. Miwon Kwon (2004) has original Knowledge must take the form of an ar-
theorized this kind of radical reconsideration in ticulated utterance: the Thesis.
relation to some contemporary art practices by ar- As discussed above, the Thesis question di-
ticulating the concept of discursive site-specific rects the investigation. The Thesis proposition,
practice, where site is understood as a mobile dis- however, must respond to the Thesis question by
cursive narrative.8 A site within this discursive silencing the incoherent babblings of its research
understanding can be an artistic genre, a social (with a lowercase r). It must articulate a co-
cause, etc.; it can be literal like a street corner, or gent, concise and above all clearly legible state-
virtual like a theoretical concept. Understanding ment of Research (with an uppercase R). This
Art R/research as a site specific practice may be is because to be heard the Knowledge claim
helpful. must be read. That is, it must be readable; mean-
ing, accessible. The judgement and classifica
tion of a work as [R]esearch is a judgement that
III. Knowledge is made by the audience and is an issue of its
Assuming that both Knowledge and knowledge(s) reception, rather than being determined by the
resist insinuating themselves exclusively in one intention of the author (Biggs 2006a). This
place, like in the practice, in the written Thesis or emphasis on audience raises critical concerns
in the artwork, where and how are they dispersed about reading art as R/research, underscoring
throughout the PhD? Dialogue offers a productive the need for alternative literacies to facilitate
more complex and subtly nuanced interpretation
8 This is Kwons third category of site-specific practice. She (Laakso 2006). Ideally, these new literacies will
proposes a genealogy of site-specific practice which moves allow greater scope for the art to expand within
from architectural/phenomenological, to institutional - i.e. the art PhD. They will also override the historical
forms of institutional critique to discursive, which as a
category builds on James Meyers idea of a functional site preoccupation with reducing Research to a sin-
(1995). gle Knowledge claim characterized by clarity,
future reflections: rhetorical response 55
specificity and un-equivocality. They will struc- vidual and collective moves in the gap that opens
ture outcomes in ways that more accurately em- up in the discourse between our individual R/re
body art as speculative investigation. Finally, search interests and our common pursuits. This is
they will validate creative practice rather than a dialogic space of possibilities, working in the
product as both a point of departure and re- push and pull between the singular and the shared,
turn for understanding and application. through a polyphony of voices; ours and our fellow
researchers in this emergent field, collectively un-
As Future Reflections Research Groups contribu- dertaking this journey into art R/research. By lo-
tion to this ongoing discussion, we assert the pos- cating the third space between positions, compre-
sibility of an in-between a third space an over- hensibility and utterances, we site the construc-
lap of these areas. Similar to that which Turkka tion of these in the overlap, in the crossover as an
Keinonen defines as the third field (FX), this inter space. Dialogues emerging from this space
common ground is comprised of practices, meth- encourage miss/understanding as a profoundly
ods and values shared by art and R/research (Kei- disconcerting, albeit potentially productive out-
nonen 2006, 53). come, of art Research.
Foregrounding these themes, this text splices
across and through questions as a linguistic struc- Knowledge(s) occupy multiple socio-cultural
ture to wrestle with response as a way of address- and/or historical contexts (Scrivener 2002); how-
ing issues related to art R/research. This reflective/ ever, the privileging of a singular Knowledge is a
reflexive inquiry serves to locate sources of dia- significant aspect of the PhD project, as a model of
logue occurring in/around/through the PhD, mastery towards Research (as understood with a
sources from which fluctuating meaning(s) and/or capital R). Whilst recognizing the institutional
K/knowledge(s) speak. Another distinction ex- expectation of a new Knowledge claim in the PhD,
plored here concerns art and Research as separate there may be some potential to posit other possi-
fields. The questions, Can Research be art and bilities for valid R/research. Future Reflections
can art be Research? asked before the Seminar Research Group has proposed an alternative space
through several email surveys were also performa- the third space, towards an exploration across
tively enacted at our presentation of Future Re- K/knowledge(s) and their contexts. Is it possible
sponse. These exchanges thus incised a line of in- to trace the third space in other theories/writings?
quiry across this project, which, upon reflection, This space is not, as it seems, the same thing as the
traces the emergent epistemology of our collabora- Thirdspace outlined by Edward W. Soja (1996).
tive process. In Future Response, we also attempt- Soyas Thirdspace is an attempt to understand
ed to conjure up the third space as a discursive site the spatial turn in critical studies, and the book
for conversation about mis/understanding and re- constitutes a re-evaluation of what Soja sees as the
flection as methods for generating discussion. By dual approach of seeing spatiality as concrete ma-
asking and re-asking the same questions in the pa- terial forms on the one hand and as mental con-
per/presentation/surveys, we intuited the third structs on the other. Thus, the third space and
space, a space between the individual and the col- Thirdspace seem to share a common interest in
lective, between understanding and misunder- creating alternative approaches to conceptualiz-
standing, between the articulated and the unartic- ing relationships between that which exists mate-
ulated. In this liminal zone, afforded by our col- rially and the language, concepts and methods we
laborative practice, the relationship between indi use to discuss this. The third space as proposed by
56 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
Future Reflections Research Group is seemingly In many ways, the third space comprises this mo-
inclined towards exploring productive messes ment of movement between the known and the un-
and confusions. As such it is consistently con- known, seeking to privilege this relationship as
cerned with being a space that is tertiary third. constituting un/Knowing (k/Knowing and not
This may be a notable classification, and further- knowing) as processes that cannot be pulled apart
more one that shares similarities with a humani- from each other. The third space avoids privileging
ties Research model, which also concerns itself either state, be this knowing or not. Working
with the issue of the third, namely the Third Way against the hierarchy of Knowledge as an absolute,
(Navarro 2002). The Third Way as a method is it offers up other possibilities for residencies of
structured through having two discourses that are knowledge(s). The third space acknowledges the
put together; this pairing creates another way, a absent the unknown as a valid and essential
third way to enter into a discourse. Thus the third process of knowing and vice versa. The un/known
space may cautiously resonate with other work necessitates an equal positioning not shoulder to
that puts forward alternative models of under- shoulder, but as simultaneously merged, collapsed
standing and knowledge, but seems specific to the and interspersed throughout each other. We con-
discussion of art R/research, as a method and/or ceptualize the third space as a mobile space of the
as a metaphor. un/Known(s), where the un/Known[s] vie and col-
laborate together and develop each other. The
third space is mechanized as a productive site to
e x i t / e x odus
enable indistinguishable forms of un/knowledge
George Bataille (2001) discusses arriving at knowl- or ways of un/knowing to emerge,
edge as a service to the sovereign operation, in Linguistically conjuring up the third space in/
which knowledge is privileged and masks the un- through this text as an inter-space is a rhetorical
known. He describes the instance where the endeavour aimed at articulating this poetic realm
known departs from the unknown, and the dan- as an elliptical or non-Euclidian space. Rhetorical
gers of remaining in the moment where the split of practice and artistic practice both work with forms
mis/understanding occurs. (Nyrnes 2000). Future Reflections Research Group
takes into its service the forms of language as an
Some consequences of such usage of thoughts pro- aesthetic possibility, a proposition to develop a
ceed in another way from the possibility of misun- rhetoric of the third space. This rhetoric may func-
derstanding: knowledge relating objects to the sov- tion as both an itinerary of the journey ahead and a
ereign moment in the end risks being confounded trace of the ground covered.
with the moment itself. As the third space does not appear to have clear
boundaries or definitive qualities that can easily be
This knowledge that one could call free (but that I described, perhaps we can link the articulation of
[Bataille] prefer to call neutral) is the use of a func- this space to the need for new literacy as expressed
tion detached (free) from the servitude that is its by Laakso (2006). Artists articulate this need in,
principal: the function related the unknown to the through and around their practices. For instance,
known (to the solid), whereas dating it from the mo- Art & Language talk about a competent regard
ment when it detaches itself, it relates the known to for an artwork in much the same way that an ade-
the unknown. (2001, 93) quate reading of a text enables one to recover
meaning from it (ORiley 2007). K/knowledge(s)
future reflections: rhetorical response 57
in the Art PhD need reflexive literacy and compe- Laakso, Harri. 2006. Imaginary Research. In
tent regard in order for art R/research to contrib- The art of research: Research practices in art and
ute, on its own terms, to a broader discussion design, ed. Maarit Mkel and Sara Routarinne,
around R/research and K/knowledge production. 13855. Helsinki: University of Art and Design
Helsinki.
Law, John. 2007. Making a mess with method.
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r e f e r e n ces ogy, ed. William Outwaite and Stephen P. Turn-
Bakhtin, Mikhail Mikhalovich. 1981. The er, 595606. London: Sage.
dialogic imagination: Four essays. Ed. Michael Lind, Maria. 2007. The collaborative turn. In
Holquist. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Taking the matter into common hands: On con-
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context in art and design research. Working Pa wright. Bergen: Bergen National Academy of
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relati n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a r t e f a c t s a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e i n r e s e a r c h 59
ine the relationship between the production of ar- conjecture, we need to consider the nature of prop-
tefacts and the production of knowledge in re- ositional knowledge.
search with regard to the inclusion of tacit knowl- Propositional knowledge is most commonly
edge. This approach is based on previous research defined as justified true belief, and Grayling
into models of knowledge in research (Niedderer (2003, 37) explains that
2007b), which has shown that tacit knowledge is
an essential component of research but that it re- this definition looks plausible because, at the very
mains evasive of textual communication that is least, it seems that to know something one must be-
standard in research. lieve it, that the belief must be true, and that ones
In the following, I consider the nature of knowl- reason for believing it must be satisfactory in the
edge within research. This analysis emphasizes light of some criteria for one could not be said to
the importance of tacit knowledge for research, know something if ones reasons for believing it were
and poses the problematic of how it can be inte- arbitrary or haphazard. So each of the three parts of
grated and communicated within research. This the definition appears to express a necessary condi-
leads me to consider how tacit knowledge is relat- tion for knowledge, and the claim is that, taken to-
ed to the production and presentation of artefacts. gether, they are sufficient.
As a result, the discussion presents a number of
possible ways of employing artefacts and the pro- Despite continued criticism, this definition of
duction of artefacts for the generation and com- knowledge has remained the prevailing definition.
munication of (tacit) knowledge in research. Niedderer (2007a) has shown that this understand-
ing is implicit in the definition of research because
of requirements such as the presentation of an in-
k n o w l e dge in research tellectual position (proposition, thesis true be-
a n d p r a ctice
lief), the logic of verification and defense of this
Research can be characterized as a formal, system- intellectual position through argument and evi-
atic and rigorous process of inquiry (Fawcett 1999, dence (justification), and the explicit and unam-
125; OED 1996), the purpose of which is to gain biguous communication through textual/written
new knowledge or understanding (AHRC 2008). presentation.
This knowledge or understanding is usually ex- The unacknowledged acceptance of this defini-
pected to be generalizable or transferable such tion has led to a number of problems concerning
that others may benefit from it. It is therefore usu- the nature and format of knowledge in research in
ally linked to the generation of principles or theory the UK. For example, because of the language-
building whereby theory can be defined as a set of based mode of propositional knowledge and its
concepts and propositions, which is generated implicit prioritisation, certain kinds of knowledge
and/or tested through research (Fawcett, ibid.). associated with research in art and design prac-
In the attempt to define research, research reg- tice, which are known as practical, experiential,
ulations and requirements in the UK emphasize personal or tacit knowledge, and which evade ver-
practical indicators of research, but remain silent bal articulation, seem to be regularly excluded
about the meaning of the contribution to knowl- from research.
edge in the context of their specifications while im- To understand why tacit knowledge is both im-
plicitly prioritizing propositional knowledge portant and problematic for research, we need to
(Niedderer 2007a). In order to understand this look more closely at the characteristics of tacit
relati n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a r t e f a c t s a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e i n r e s e a r c h 61
Example 1:
A set of two small cups (Figures 1 and 2) were made
as part of a research project investigating the use of
laser welding with the new silver alloy Argentium
Silver (Niedderer, Harrison and Johns 2006). The
cups were developed as a demonstration of the cre-
ative opportunities arising for silver design from
the combined use of laser welding and AS.
What is interesting here is that, although one
can communicate the advance (contribution to
knowledge) within the terms required of conven-
tional research (explicit knowledge), the develop-
ment and application of such a contribution draws
strongly on tacit knowledge (e.g. skill-based devel-
opment, creative synthesis).
These findings are supported by a case study of Figures 1 and 2. Niedderer, K. 2005. Two
the replication attempts of a TEA1 laser by Collins small cups. Argentium Silver and laserweld-
(1985) which showed that an extended period of ing.
contact was required between the expert and the
learner to transfer the tacit knowledge, and that tion for application. The inclusion of tacit knowl-
the learner could not tell whether they had ac- edge is therefore associated with expertise, which
quired the relevant knowledge or skill until they can be defined as an intuitive grasp of the situa-
tried it. tion and a non-analytic and non-deliberative sense
Both examples suggest that tacit knowledge is of the appropriate response to be made (Berliner
used and developed as part of research, although it 1994, 110; Dreyfus and Dreyfus 1988).
evades the conventional textual communication
and argumentation, and thus wider dissemination Example 2:
(Herbig et al. 2001). Nevertheless, the inclusion of The research into finding and developing creative
tacit knowledge seems essential for success, both opportunities, for which the cups are an example,
in terms of tacit knowledge being brought into the is not only based on expertise as described above,
research process and in terms of its communica- but also on the ability for fine discrimination and
judgment that guides the creative synthesis and
the evaluation of its outcomes. For example, there
1 Transversely Excited Atmospheric Pressure CO2 Laser. TEA
CO2 lasers are for example used for product marking. is the choice of material thickness and hardness,
or the choice of the formal solution of the joints in
62 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
relation to existing solutions, where the judgment pair refers to the respective characteristic of com-
relies on (perceptual) experience and personal munication. In the following, I will use the terms
judgment, also known as connoisseurship. Con- in this sense.
noisseurship in the context of this investigation is In this context, it is further important to under-
referring to the ability for very fine (qualitative) dis- stand that propositional knowledge does not
crimination that is (usually) beyond scientific equate with explicit knowledge and practice
measurement and that is acquired through exten- knowledge with tacit knowledge. Instead, part of
sive training (Polanyi 1958, 54; Beeston and Higgs propositional knowledge is explicit (e.g. the verbal
2001, 110). form of a proposition statement) and part of it is
In these two examples, we have seen that tacit tacit (e.g. the intrinsic meaning of that proposition
knowledge plays an important role, both within statement). The same is true for practice knowl-
the research process and in evaluating and com- edge. Part of it may be described in words, but its
municating research outcomes. In other words, ultimate meaning or understanding may not
tacit knowledge seems important for the genera- (Niedderer 2007b). This is important to keep in
tion and application as well as the experience and mind for the use of these terms in the following
judgment of research and its results, and for creat- discussion.
ing new experiences, abilities and knowledge. The Turning to the first problem, the prioritization
question, which remains, is what is the problem of propositional knowledge is linked to a generic
with tacit knowledge in research and how can it be epistemological problem, the logic of justification.
overcome? Propositional knowledge is the expression of this
fundamental logic and therefore provides the
standard. Because practical knowledge is usually
u n d e r s tanding the role of
equated with tacit knowledge, it is assumed to
t a c i t k nowledge in research
evade explicit communication and therefore also
This section analyzes the problem of tacit knowl- justification. If part of practice knowledge can be
edge in research, which seems to be twofold. The made explicit as discussed above, then this equa-
first part concerns the prioritization of proposi- tion seems erroneous and needs qualification. Be-
tional knowledge. The second concerns the com- cause then it is not practice knowledge as such that
munication of tacit knowledge. is the problem, but only that component of knowl-
For this analysis, we need to clarify the termi- edge, which is truly tacit (ineffable).
nology, because the terms tacit knowledge and However, even this does not hold true in terms
propositional knowledge are not usually paired. of the matter of justification if we follow Williams
Rather, tacit knowledge is paired with explicit (2001, 175) who argues that we can speak of beliefs
knowledge (Neuweg 2002). Propositional knowl- as knowledge if they can be verified. That tacit
edge is variously paired with non-propositional knowledge can be verified can be argued through
knowledge (practice knowledge) such as experi- the example of procedural knowledge (as knowl-
ential or perceptual knowledge (knowledge by ac- edge in action) where every action constitutes a
quaintance) and/or procedural knowledge (skill) judgment over what is right (to do) in every given
(Williams 2001, 98; Grayling 2003). Thereby the moment and thus the knowledge is tacitly verified
distinction between propositional and non-propo- within and through action and its result.
sitional/practice knowledge concerns the nature This argument suggests that it is not so much a
of knowledge, while the explicit-tacit knowledge- problem of the prioritization of propositional
relati n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a r t e f a c t s a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e i n r e s e a r c h 63
knowledge but the failure to acknowledge this pri- two stages, followed by a discussion of the role of
oritization, and that there are other ways of provid- artefacts with regard to both stages.
ing verification/justification than linguistic means.
Nevertheless, within the framework of research, it
Tacit Knowledge
is essential that any practical/tacit knowledge has
in the Process of Research
to be framed appropriately to make its proposition
and justification explicit. This is important to The process of research is by definition a process
maintain its credibility. Explicit acknowledgement of knowledge generation. This process is usually
of this situation in research regulations would structured into problem/questions, context, meth-
help overcome misunderstandings, rejection or ig- ods and outcomes. Thereby the problem defines
norance that have been the consequence of this what knowledge is sought. The context provides
lack of clarity. the frame within which the inquiry is to be as-
The second problem concerns the integration signed credibility. The methods provide the vehi-
and communication of tacit knowledge. As dis- cle for the inquiry with the methodology determin-
cussed, some part of practice knowledge can be ing what will be accepted as a justification of the
made explicit through verbal/textual means. This proposed. And the outcome or findings provide
part allows us to adhere, at least formally, to the the new beliefs which are validated through the
current model of research with its requirement for research process as described and thus provide
the explicit and unambiguous communication of new knowledge.
its contribution to knowledge. However, we have It is further important to recognize that new
also discussed that there is another part of knowl- knowledge does not appear from nowhere. Any
edge, which cannot be made explicit by verbal/tex- new knowledge is firmly rooted in existing knowl-
tual means. This is the experiential part of knowl- edge, for example, a basic knowledge of the con-
edge, which is always personal and situated. The text of work undertaken to identify the gap in ex-
problem with this part concerns its communica- isting knowledge, thus is the direction of any new
tion at a level which allows it to be available for ap- inquiry; or knowledge about relevant methods,
plication in practice. In the following, I therefore about how to use and apply them; or knowledge
look at how we can practically deal with the use about how to evaluate the findings and turn them
and communication of tacit knowledge in re- into new knowledge.
search. Some of this knowledge brought into, and used
within, the research process will be propositional
and explicit, such as knowing the context of who
u t i l i z i n g practice knowledge
else works in ones particular area. Other knowl-
i n r e s e a rch
edge that is brought in from practice is experien-
Knowledge occurs at different stages within re- tially based and tacit, for example, knowledge
search. Most importantly, these are the stages of about how to perform a certain method, or how to
knowledge generation, which is the process where evaluate certain data or findings. Especially the as-
knowledge is sought, and of knowledge communi- pect of evaluation is interesting, because it strong-
cation, which is the process through which it is ly splits the research community. Take for example
made available to others, both researchers and the evaluation of the flexibility of two different
practitioners. In this section, I discuss how we can sterling silver alloys. One could follow scientific
practically deal with tacit knowledge within these methods to obtain numerical data, which are easy
64 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
to compare, and which will tell us whether and knowledge generated and different means of com-
how much difference there is between the two al- munication. For example:
loys. However, if researching opportunities for the
application of these alloys in relation to their flexi- Problems of a theoretical nature. For example, any
bility, this comparison may be helpful as an indica- variety of philosophical problems in art and design
tor, but will not suffice to make a judgment of might fall under this category. Although these
which alloy to use. This is because at the stage of problems may draw on other kinds of knowledge
application, we are dealing with complex data, and during the process of inquiry, they are likely to gen-
the perception of the flexibility of the material erate propositional knowledge because of their
might be influenced by the hardness, ductility, etc. theoretical nature. This means that the methods
In order to determine new possibilities for applica- used are likely to be of theoretical, dialectic or dia-
tion, the material might therefore only really be as- logic nature, using language as a medium. As a
sessed by the experiential evaluation of actual means of communication, verbal and/or textual
samples based on expertise and connoisseurship language should be appropriate. For example, Des-
of the experienced researcher. cartes could express his conclusions about wheth-
In summary, we can say that tacit knowledge er or not living beings exist stating I think, there-
plays a vital role within the process of research and fore I am. (Descartes 1960)
of generating new knowledge. It is therefore im-
portant that tacit knowledge is properly acknowl- Process-related problems. For example, any prob-
edged and integrated in the process of research, lem that seeks to establish how to do something
wherever it is used and whatever that tacit knowl- might fall under this category. Although these
edge may be: experience, methods from practice, problems may draw on other kinds of knowledge
etc. It is further important that it is made clear how during the process of inquiry, they are likely to gen-
tacit knowledge is used and why, and that it is de- erate procedural (skill-related) knowledge about
scribed as far as possible in order to not only dem- how to do something. Therefore, the main method
onstrate its credibility and allow others to follow of inquiry is likely to be empirical and of a qualita-
any conclusions drawn, but also allow researchers tive nature. While it will be possible to communi-
to use the results. In the following, I discuss some cate some part of this knowledge verbally through
generic examples of research problems with re- detailed description, the essence of the experience
gard to knowledge generation, and which I use of procedural knowledge cannot be passed on
also to reflect on knowledge communication. through language. Indeed, it seems as if this es-
sence cannot be passed on at all, at least not direct-
ly. However, there are a number of approaches that
Generic Examples of Tacit Knowledge allow passing experience on indirectly through
within Knowledge Generation and
empathy, for example, demonstration of the ex-
Communication
pert to the learner (person to person or via video),
New knowledge generated within research can or through coaching, where the learner executes
take on different forms according to the research the process under guidance by the expert (e.g.
problem from which it arises. Its form of commu- Wood 2004; Stover 2005; Polanyi 1958, 53).
nication will therefore vary accordingly. On a ge-
neric level, we can distinguish a number of differ- Object-related problems. For example, any problem
ent kinds of problems, in relation to both the related to the artificial world, i.e. that concerns per-
relati n g t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a r t e f a c t s a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e i n r e s e a r c h 65
son-made objects or situations. These problems Artefacts in the process of knowledge generation.
can vary in nature and can be concerned with as- Within the process of knowledge generation there
pects of aesthetics; of function, use or handling; is some input of knowledge (process/methods and
etc. Because of this spread, various models of re- data/arte-facts) and some output (new data or in-
search may be brought to bear on any particular sights). The outputs from the knowledge genera-
problem and a mixture of different kinds of knowl- tion process overlaps with the aspect of knowledge
edge may be the outcome, although experiential communication and will be presented as such be-
knowledge is likely to have a key role because of low. Some of the possibilities related to both input
our physical-experiential relationship with the and output have also been discussed in more de-
world. While some part of the knowledge gained tail in Durling and Niedderer (2007).
from the experience can be communicated verbal- In terms of input into the actual research proc-
ly, both through detailed description and as a ess and process of knowledge generation, artefacts
proposition that adheres to the current under- may, for example:
standing of knowledge in research, the essence of provide the starting point for an inquiry by gen-
experiential knowledge cannot be passed on erating the research questions,
through language. Therefore, to evoke the relevant provide data as a basis for analysis, using exist-
experience through use of the actual object can be ing artefacts as examples, or
an important part of the communication of object- new artefacts may be produced in the process
related problems. where no suitable examples exist.
I take the stance that artefacts do not contain
In order to establish how practice or artefacts ex- knowledge within themselves, but provide data
actly can contribute, I now look at their role within from which to build knowledge. This position ac-
knowledge generation and knowledge communi- knowledges knowledge as a normative construct
cation in more detail. (Williams 2001, 1012) that is created and held by
people, not by objects, although artefacts may con-
vey data that are indicative of someone elses tacit
Using the Production of Artefacts
knowledge (e.g. about how to construct or use a
to integrate Tacit Knowledge within
certain artefact).
Knowledge Generation and
The production of artefacts may be used in the
Knowledge Communication
process of knowledge generation in a number of
In this last section, I want to relate the production forms, for example:
of artefacts to the production of knowledge. Above, Artefact production to test or improve the use
we have discussed that there are different kinds of of a specific method or technology;
research problems, that these require different Artefact production to test the use of a new ma-
kinds of knowledge, and that the production of terial and its opportunities;
knowledge falls into the two phases of knowledge Artefacts may be produced as part of a creative
generation and knowledge communication. Fur- exploration to develop a new understanding of
ther, we have examined the role of tacit knowledge an object or concept, etc;
as well as an indication of methods for the process- Artefact production as a means to analyse and
related integration and communication of tacit understand complex concepts.
knowledge within research. We now need to look Using artefact production in this way is useful
at the role of artefacts within this process. where it is necessary to gain insight into the com-
66 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
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holm: Swedish Research Council. http://www. drsq.org/issues/drq2-2.pdf (accessed October
herts.ac.uk/artdes/research/tvad/mb/2004a. 24, 2008).
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Collins, Harry M. 1985. Changing order: Repli- London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
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Dreyfus, Hubert. L., and Stuart E. Drey- design. International Journal of Design Sciences
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puter. New York: Free Press. man. 2004. The practical implications of apply-
Durling, David, and Kristina Niedderer. ing a theory of practice based research. Working
2007. The benefits and limits of investigative Papers in Art & Design 3. http://www.herts.ac.uk/
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Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. ford: Oxford University Press.
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Niedderer, Kristina. 2007b. Mapping the
meaning of experiential knowledge in research.
the roles of art and design process and object in research 69
This might be called the common definition of and professional research domains. As we have al-
research and it is a useful starting point for think- ready seen it permits the acquisition of knowledge
ing about what academic or professional research that is new to the individual but not new to the
means. Clause 1) above might be described as the world. It also permits the acquisition of knowledge
method condition; clause 2) as the intention con- that is new to the world but is not understood as
dition; clause 3) as the goal condition; and, finally, such or passed on to the world by its finder. None
clause 4) as the subject2 condition. of these cases would be accepted as research in the
However, the definition does not make clear academic and professional research domains,
the nature of newness, as something can be new to because in these domains research is intrinsically
the individual or new to the world, i.e., beyond the social, even when conducted by the individual
bounds of what is currently known to humankind. researcher. The body of knowledge, all that is
Interrupted by a colleague whilst using the Inter- known by humankind, belongs to the humankind,
net, we might inform her that we have been re- not the individual, and it is preserved, modified,
searching flights to Venice. This use of the term etc., by humankind, not the individual. Hence, it is
research is appropriate but that which is acquired, not the individual who decides whether or not
including the conclusion reached, is not new to the something is new knowledge, it is humankind, or
body of human knowledge as it already in the rather the knowledge discipline responsible for
knowledge base. This kind of research is often de- the relevant domain of knowledge. It follows then
scribed as little r and Frayling (1993, 1) observes that an activity is only research if its outcome is
that the term research in the little r sense, as the communicated.
act of searching, closely or carefully, for or after a However, it is not sufficient to merely commu-
specified thing or person was first used in regard nicate the fact of knowledge. Let us assume that we
to royal genealogy in 1577. In contrast, big R re- have discovered something we believe to be new
search is often used to characterize a special kind knowledge, and in the spirit of the shared endeav-
of research, typically conducted in academic or our of research, we share this with you, our peer.
professional realms, which must meet the condi- Will the fact that we believe in this new knowledge
tion that the acquired knowledge is new to the be sufficient in itself for you to accept it as such,
world. even when on face value it seems probable that it is
The common definition accommodates this new knowledge? This is highly unlikely. You would
understanding of research, but is too inclusive, be- ask us to justify our belief, partly because we know
cause it allows for research processes and out- from experience not to trust every spoken and writ-
comes that would not be accepted by the academic ten claim to new knowledge and understanding,
and partly because we need to be able to explain to
2 Most research domains are concerned with phenomena,
ourselves and to the others who share with us the
with things, whether natural or artificial. Hence, we often body of knowledge to which it contributes why we
talk about the object of inquiry, meaning the thing that know something. Similarly, an activity would not
is studied. However, in this context the term object is not
be understood as research unless the researcher
used as it can be confused with the goal of the inquiry, e.g.,
with the object of research being knowledge and under- can justify a belief in the new knowledge acquired
standing. However, it can be argued that subject is actually to the satisfaction of his or her research peers.
the more appropriate descriptor for the focus of an inquiry Hence, in the academic and professional research
as research is inevitably not simply the study of a given
phenomenon but also all that is already known about that domains, claims to new knowledge must be justi-
phenomenon. fied. Since the social, collective, collaborative activ-
the roles of art and design process and object in research 71
ity of research requires communal acceptance, search practices. He (Ibid. 5) identifies three modes
self-justification is always evaluated with commu- of research: research into art and design, research
nal justification in mind. through art and design, and research for art and
Hence, to characterize research as understood design. By into he implies that art and design is
by the academic and professional research do- something to be looked into, i.e., it is the subject of
mains, we need to include justification and com- inquiry, a phenomenon to be studied from the out-
munication conditions: side. By through he appears to posit creative pro-
An activity is research if and only if it is 1) a sys- duction as research method.
tematic investigation, 2) conducted intentionally, Frayling (Ibid.) describes research for art3 as the
3) to acquire new knowledge, understanding, in- difficult one for art and design, research with a
sights, etc., that is 4) justified and 5) communicat- small r in the dictionary what Picasso consid-
ed 6) about a subject. ered was the gathering of reference materials rath-
This definition accords closely with Cross er than research proper. Research for art and de-
(2000, 98) observation that examples of best prac- sign is defined as, Research where the end prod-
tice in design research are those where the re- uct is an artefact where the thinking is, so to
search is purposive, inquisitive (seeking to acquire speak, embodied in the artefact, [his italics] where
new knowledge), informed, methodical and com- the goal is not primarily communicable knowl-
municable. The definition excludes some activi- edge in the sense of verbal communication, but in
ties that might commonly be understood or re- the sense of iconic or imagistic communication.
ferred to as research, such as that defined above as He distinguishes two artistic traditions: expres-
little r, but is inclusive enough as a background sive and cognitive, the latter meaning artists re-
against which to consider how creative production searching subjects which existed outside of them-
might figure in research. selves and their own personalities. As examples, he
cites Stubbss studies in animal anatomy and Con-
stables researches into cloud formation, in both
d e s c r i p t ions of
cases partly at least communicated through visual
p r a c t i c e -based research
means, i.e. drawings and paintings. This is charac-
The notion of practice-based research in art and terized as research for art and sometimes research
design is relatively new. Gray (1998) locates its through art.
emergence in the UK to the late 1970s and early Frayling is enthusiastic about the cognitive tra-
1980s, preferring the term practice-led (1998, 83): dition as a basis out of which much future research
could grow, a tradition which stands outside of
I mean firstly, research which is initiated in practice, the artefact at the same time as standing within it.
where questions, problems, challenges are identi- However, with respect to the expressive tradition
fied and formed by the needs of practice and practi- he questions why people would want to claim re-
tioners; and secondly, that the research strategy is search with a big r at all. He observes that at the
carried out through practice, predominantly meth-
odologies and specific methods familiar to us as 3 In his foreword to Thinking Through Art: Reflections on Art
practitioners in the visual arts. as Research, Frayling (2006) uses the terms art as research
in the place of what he had previously called research for
art. This is actually a significant change as his 1993 discus-
However, Frayling (1993) was perhaps the first to sion of research for art seems to exclude the possibility of
examine the role of art and design in relation to re- art as research.
72 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
Royal College of Art they do not offer a research de- dence and coherent argument for all the processes
gree entirely for work where the art is said to speak that proceeded it, laboratory or speculative, the fin-
for itself, as the goal here is viewed as art not knowl- ished work of art and design is the culmination of
edge and understanding. the theory and practice of the discipline. Based es-
Having first considered definitions of research sentially on investigatory, exploratory, speculative or
appearing in Australian government documents4, analytical processes, the outcome is a result of syn-
Strand (1998, 3334) reports definitions published thesising the problematics of the discipline. Like the
by The National Council of Heads of Tertiary Music best research in any field, it is expected that the crea-
Schools, the Committee of Heads of Australian tive work will comply with these defining character-
University Theatre Studies Institutions, and the istics. The aim of the program is to develop new
National Council of Heads of Art and Design knowledge, or to preserve or critically assess it. It is
Schools: also the case that works of visual art and design are
available for critical assessment by peers, and are
Research involves reflective and reflexive activity available to the wider intellectual community, as ex-
which probes both the process and product, and is pected of well-defined research.
directed towards the advancement of scholarship
and creativity. Thus research requires: Notable in the first statement is the idea of ad-
scholarly location within the discipline(s) vancement of scholarship and creativity rather
critical reflection to identify the research niche than new knowledge and understanding. In addi-
cogent reflexive analysis of process and practice tion, research in this context is defined as an activ-
retrospective reflection to determine future re- ity that yields both new scholarship and new crea-
search directions tivity. Similarly, in the second statement the goal
of new knowledge and understanding is substitut-
Performance as research (as compared to other ed by the notion of intervening and changing a
kinds of university theatre-based theatre perform- scholarly debate, which locates creative produc-
ance) e.g., in the form of professional practice, teach- tion as an agent within a scholarly debate. In both
ing etc. occurs: when a production becomes an inter- cases, it is not the acquisition of new knowledge
vention in an established scholarly debate, dialogue and understanding that distinguish creative pro-
or discourse, or when it initiates or seeks to initiate a duction as research from everyday creative produc-
debate. Any performance-as-research must make ex- tion, but the intention to advance scholarship and
plicit its relation with that debate, and communicate creativity in the first case and to intervene and
the ways in which the terms of the debate have been change the discourse in the other. Another distin-
changed by the research project. guishing feature, explicit in one and implicit in the
other, is the researchers responsibility to justify
The research function of developing and extending and communicate advancement or intervention.
knowledge is to be judged on the products of re- The third statement defines art and design re-
search. In the same way that a learned paper is evi- search by comparison to the methods and out-
comes of other learned disciplines, and seems to
4 Strand cites the OECD definition of Research and Experi- take it as given that creative production yields new
mental Development which includes reference to creative knowledge and understanding.
work and also the Australian Research Councils definition,
which admits creative work as long as the investigation is The UK Council for Graduate Educations re-
not solely directed to this end. port (1997) on practice-based doctorates in the
the roles of art and design process and object in research 73
creative and performing art and design describes tices, Hannula, Souranta and Vadn (2005) devote
this mode of doctorate as advancing knowledge a section to practice-based research within a chap-
partly by means of practice. The report continues ter concerned with the methodological faces of ar-
(Ibid. 18) by noting that, An original/creative piece tistic research. They argue that it is possible to dif-
of work is included in the submission for exami ferentiate between practice-based research and
nation. It is distinct in that significant aspects of design-based research. In practice-based research,
the claim for doctoral characteristics of originality, they continue, practice is seen as interesting in it-
mastery and contribution to the field are held to be self: the research subjects are, the theory-infused
demonstrated through the original creative work. analyses, routines, methods and habits of the field,
Gray (1998, 82) defines practice-led research different ways of seeing, cultural forms and struc-
as, research initiated in practice and carried out tures. (Ibid. 104). To illustrate this mode of re-
through practice. This definition can be viewed as search they compare it to studies in the sociology
consistent with Fraylings research through and of science, arguing that the artist can approach his
for art and design, if we take the term practice to or her practice in the same way. Here they seem to
mean creative production. be describing research into art and design, where
Scrivener (1999) describes research for design, the subject is the practice of art and design, in this
as an investigation directed to enhancing the effi- case, the researchers own art practice. Later they
ciency and effectiveness of our capacity for envi- write that a design component can be integrated
sioning possible future realities. He invokes a into the research, to show the new kind of practice
combination of Fraylings research through prac- that is possible because of the research, thus intro-
tice and into practice, since design is the subject of ducing the possibility of research through design
inquiry and an element of the method, which is de- as substantial component within a programme of
fined as comprising investigation, design and im- research into design.
plementation, and evaluation phases. In contrast, In contrast, in design-based research method,
research within design (Scrivener 2000) is de- the artist-researcher uses design as a research tool
scribed as being concerned with gaining knowl- to attain a primary relation with the researched
edge and understanding that directly contributes phenomenon. They explain that design as method
to the design practice of the designer/researcher: can be justified from a sociological viewpoint of
with research that occurs as an integral compo- knowledge, in which scientific research is seen as
nent of the practice of design. Here design is seen being constructed of conceptual and material ele-
as a way of creating new knowledge and under- ments, and the varied interactions between them.
standing, although the goal is to produce original In design-based research, knowledge and knowing
design. In essence, this is a claim that the genera- are formed from the dialogic relationships be-
tion of an original work of design necessarily in- tween conceptual and material elements. Here,
volves the generation of new knowledge and un- Hannula et al. seem to be describing a mode of re-
derstanding. However, this claim does not imply search through art and design.
that design works embody and/or communicate Finally, Rust, Mottram and Till (2007, 11), de-
this knowledge. Indeed, Scrivener (2002, 33) avoids fine practice-led research as, Research in which
making such a claim, when he defines creative pro- the professional and/or creative practices of art,
duction as an original creation undertaken in or- design or architecture play an instrumental part in
der to generate novel apprehension. an inquiry. This is not to say that practice is a meth-
In Artistic Research: Theories, methods and prac- od of research or, as some assert, a methodology.
74 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
Practice is an activity which can be employed in re- does it have functions, what are they, and what
search, the method or methodology must always claims do these functions imply? This is reflected
include an explicit understanding of how the prac- in the statements above, which articulate different
tice contributes to the inquiry and research is dis- roles for art and design in research, i.e., as the sub-
tinguished from other forms of practice by that ex- ject of inquiry, as method of inquiry, as goal of in-
plicit understanding. quiry, as the means of communicating the knowl-
The above statements point to different under- edge and understanding acquired through the in-
standings of practice-based research. Indeed, quiry, etc. In the following sections, we will con-
most, if not all, of these roles are implied in sider the potential roles of creative production in
Fraylings (1993) discussion of research into, relation to each of the conditions of research, elic-
through and for art and design. Each attempts to iting in each case the claim that follows from the
describe how creative production figures in re- posited role and the grounds for characterising it
search. If not explicitly stated, each also attempts a as practice-based research. Whilst it is not claimed
description of practice-based research that distin- that this analysis is exhaustive, we will see that
guishes it from advanced practice. Frayling (Ibid. 5) many of these cases do not merit qualification as
makes this latter issue explicit towards the end of practice-based research.
his paper, as a kind of justification for elaborating
his categories, when he observes, And we [at the
art and design making and
RCA] feel that we dont want to be in a position
the conditions of research
where the entire history of art is eligible for a post
graduate degree. There must be some differentia- The working definition of research given above
tion. However, there is a fundamental problem comprises six conditions: intention, subject,
with Fraylings categories as means of differ method, justification, communication and goal.
entiation. For example, Scrivener (1999) describes In essence, the notion of practice-based art and de-
a number of projects where the focus is on enhanc- sign research rests on the claim that art and design
ing the efficiency and effectiveness of design prac- makes a distinctive contribution to research in
tices, partly achieved by research into and partly these domains: the knowledge and understanding
research through design. How should this mode of acquired could not be acquired without this contri-
research be classified? This problem arises be- bution. Every discipline is distinctive in terms of
cause Fraylings categories describe the different the subject of research, e.g., psychology, physics,
roles of art and design in relation to research, i.e., sociology, etc., but clearly practice-based research
art and design as the subject, method and goal of is not simply a question of different subject mat-
the research, rather than types of research, which ter. If it were, the labels Art Research or Design Re-
typically might be of subject, e.g., psychology or search would be sufficient for purpose. But of
sociology, etc., or of method, e.g., qualitative or course, research is not only distinguished by sub-
quantitative, etc. That is to say, where type differen- ject matter. Typically, subject matter calls for dif-
tiates within one or more of the conditions of re- ferent research methods and forms of justification
search, and communication, etc., and it is these differenc-
Indeed, the whole debate surrounding prac- es that are at the heart of the debate and the claims
tice-based art and design research can be viewed made for practice-based research. In the following
as not being about a type of research, but about sections, we will seek to make these claims explicit
how creative production functions in research: by examining the ways in which creative produc-
the roles of art and design process and object in research 75
tion might feature in relation to the conditions5 of Art and design as method of inquiry
research.
As we have already seen, Rust et al. (2007, 11) refute
the claim that creative production is a method of
Art and design as the subject of research research or, as some assert, a methodology. How-
There appears to be universal agreement in the lit- ever, if not explicitly stated, many of the other defi-
erature that research where creative production is nitions can be interpreted as treating art and de-
the subject of inquiry equates to Fraylings (1993) sign as method and/or methodology. Research
research into art and design category. There are method is perhaps best understood as a tool or
many instances of practice-based research where technique employed within a conceptual frame-
creative production is the object of inquiry. This work. Under qualitative methods, Banister, Bur-
kind of research requires no special justification man, Parker, Taylor and Tindall (1994) consider
except where the creative production disciplines observation, ethnography, interviewing, discourse
choose to qualify research with the terms art or de- analysis, etc. Methodology can be understood as a
sign. For such qualifications to be meaningful, body of methods used in a particular branch of ac-
some criteria or symptoms (cf., Biggs 2002a) need tivity, encompassed by a coherent set of theories
to be identified that distinguish artistic or design underpinning those research practices. Typically,
research from the other kinds of research where methodology reflects a school of thought about the
art and design are the objects of inquiry, e.g., by vir- objects of inquiry and how they can be known. In
tue of the kind of knowledge acquired, the point of psychology, for example, Banister et al. identify
view taken on the objects of inquiry, etc. The litera- positivist, realist and social constructionism
ture does not talk about this kind of research as schools of thought, the first promoting quantita-
practice based. tive approaches to knowledge acquisition, whilst
Therefore, the notion of practice-based re- qualitative approaches are favoured under the oth-
search would not seem to rest on art and design be- er schools of thought.
ing the subject of inquiry. Indeed, creative produc- Each of the above is often loosely referred to as
tion is a valid domain of inquiry for a host of disci- method, but what is meant by the term when
plines, which do not feel compelled to use the claiming creative production as method makes a
practice-based label. Similarly, if many disciplines difference. At its weakest, it is a claim for art and
can find good reasons for studying creative pro- design as procedure employed in research, for ex-
duction, we should expect the creative production ample, to generate objects for analysis and evalua-
disciplines to find good reasons for studying sub- tion. This is very common in art and design re-
jects other than creative production, such as the search (some of the pioneers identified by Gray
mind, society, etc., but unless the principles and (1998) fall into this category6), but it does not
practices of creative production are involved in the amount to research method or methodology in the
research in some substantive way, there is little
reason for characterizing this as practice-based re-
6 Scriveners PhD concerned the development of interactive
search. computer graphics systems for artists and designers. His
contribution was a language for manipulating bit-mapped
images. At the time bit mapped systems were still only
available in the laboratories, so he and his colleagues
5 Excluding the intention condition, which requires no designed and developed a bit mapped system to enable the
elaboration. language to be tested.
76 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
sense described above. A stronger claim is for crea- derstanding acquired or its justification.7
tive production as method, in the sense of tool or
technique, within an established research meth-
Art and design as communication and
odology, e.g., Action Research. At its strongest, it is
justification of research outcomes
a claim to creative production as research method-
ology, i.e., as a body of methods. In all cases, this New knowledge and understanding has been iden-
can be described as research through art and de- tified as the goal of research. A further condition is
sign. When art and design is both subject and that the new knowledge and understanding ac-
method of inquiry, then the research is both re- quired is stated in a communicable form. Here,
search into and through art and design. from the creative production perspective, we are
The justification required for art and design as concerned with how knowledge is made explicit,
method varies depending on how method is un- i.e., definitive, clear, unambiguous and objective,
derstood. The weakest claim for method (i.e., that or external to the mind of the researcher, using ar-
implied in Rust et al., 2007) as a process encom- tistic and designerly forms.
passed within a given research methodology re- The simplest claim is for the use of the visual, a
quires little justification. Here art and design proc- defining characteristic of visual art and a general
ess merely generates evidence or data on process predisposition or preference amongst artists and
or product for examination (Scrivener 1999; Nied- designers. Claims to the visual as a means of ex-
errer 2004). The claim that creative production is a plicit communication can be made that include or
tool or technique operating within a given meth- exclude the non-visual, typically verbal state-
odological framework, e.g., Action Research, re- ments. In both cases, in the absence of a claim to
quires a justification of appropriateness. The art and design as research methodology, there
strongest claim of methodology requires a justifi- would seem to be no good reason for calling the re-
cation of art and design as a means of knowledge search practice-based, since the lesser claims to
acquisition. In all cases, art and design processes method subsume creative production under non
and products function in a substantive manner: art and design knowledge acquisition practices,
the research could not be conducted without them. many of which also employ visual communication.
However, there is an argument for suggesting that Alternatively, it can be claimed that the art and
it is only the strongest interpretation of art and de- design objects are communicative forms of knowl-
sign as research methodology that merits qualifi- edge and understanding, meaning that works of
cation as practice-based research. Under the other creative production communicate knowledge and
interpretations, creative production is subservient understanding. This does not imply a concomitant
to the research practice within which it sits, e.g., belief in the creative production as a method or
sociological, psychological, engineering research, methodology. For example, one might hold that
etc. such works are representations. However, as for
However, it is important to note that none of the cases described above, the use of the term the
these claims for method implies a claim for works practice-based research only seems justified when
of art and design as a component of research. It is
consistent to believe in creative production as re-
search method whilst not committing to the idea 7 For example, we might hold that knowledge and under-
standing is acquired in the creation of novel works of art
of works of art and design as the goal of the re- and design that is not normally articulated publicly by the
search, the embodiment of the knowledge and un- artist or designer.
the roles of art and design process and object in research 77
communication is claimed concomitant with and works of contribute substantively to the re-
methodology. search. One way of viewing this goal only claim is
Similar claims as those for communication can that it is merely an aspiration, the hope that some
be constructed for works of art and design as justi- works of creative production will be produced,
fication of knowledge and understanding, i.e., vis- thereby maintaining the practice of creative pro-
ual and non-visual, visual only, works of art and duction. There are good practical reasons for con-
design. As for communication, the label of prac- structing a programme of research in this way, but
tice-based research is not justified in absence of a few or no obvious conceptual reasons for doing so.
concomitant claim to methodology. Those experienced in research shy away from such
unnecessary complication. The best we might
hope for is a programme that achieves a useful dia-
Art and design as a/the goal of inquiry logue between the two processes. Although this
Above, the goal of research was defined as being to discussion might seem a little abstract, even ab-
acquire knowledge and understanding. In this sec- surd, such instances can be identified.
tion, we consider how the goal of creative produc- The claim for creative production as goal can
tion might be understood in relation to the goal of take several stronger forms, depending on wheth-
research. er the goals of research and creative production are
As noted above, Fraylings initial definition of seen as different or not. If seen as different, then
research for art and design, as exemplified by Pi- the claim is not for creative production as a mode
cassos working practice, qualifies as research with of knowledge and understanding acquisition, but
a little r. As noted above, toward the end of his a claim that knowledge and understanding can be
1993 paper, Frayling redefines research for art and acquired in the context of creative production.
design as that where the resulting product is an ar- Newgren (1998, 96) can be interpreted as saying as
tefact that embodies the thinking, communicating much when he asserts that design research sim-
the new knowledge acquired iconically or imagisti- ply serves as a guide to unravelling the mysteries of
cally. This construction of research for posits roles the unknown within the design process. Under
for creative production as method, justification, this view of creative production as context (and
communication and goal. The gauntlet, as it were, goal), no claim needs to be made for creative pro-
is thrown down for the art and design community duction as a mode of knowledge acquisition. In-
to pick up, since this is essentially is a claim for stead it merely serves as an enveloping activity
creative production as a mode of research in its within which research takes place.
own right, i.e., art and design as research (cf., Fray- Alternatively, it can be argued that novel crea-
ling 2006; Macleod and Holdridge 2006). Similarly, tive production that is new to the world of creative
Grays (1998) and Scriveners (1999) definition of production extends the knowledge and under-
practice-based research as that initiated in prac- standing of that world. Hence, although the crea-
tice and carried out through practice and Scriven- tion of novel creative production is the primary
ers use of the term research within art or design motivation or goal of the overall activity, new
can be interpreted as claims for works of creative knowledge and understanding emerges as a neces-
production as the goal of the research. sary consequence of creative production (see
However, it is possible to make the claim for Scrivener 2002). Viewed in this way, creative pro-
works of creative production as a goal of ones duction, in pursuit of its particular goals and pur-
research, without claiming that the the work of poses, is a way of acquiring new knowledge and
78 reflect i o n s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
Communication No role
It communicates (coupled with non visual)
It communicates
Works of creative production communicate
Justification No role
It justifies (coupled with non visual)
It justifies
Works of creative production justify
Table 1. Condition of research and claims for creative as research, it is one which must be coupled with a
production in knowledge acquisition. methodology for making explicit what is otherwise
tacit. Second, in addition to the claim to knowl-
understanding. Like the practices of scientific re- edge acquisition, we might also wish to claim that
search, the practices of creative production yield the works of creative production stand as both jus-
new knowledge and understanding, i.e., creative tification and communication of the knowledge
production as research. acquired. Under this view, the goal of creative pro-
The claim to creative production as a mode of duction and research are indistinguishable: crea-
knowledge acquisition can be made in two ways. tive production is research.
First, it can be claimed that whilst this is the case,
under normal circumstances the new knowledge
conditions, claims and
acquired remains tacit. The job of research, we
practice based research
might argue, is to make this knowledge explicit.
Under this view, a claim is made for creative pro- Table 1 shows the roles of creative production in
duction as methodology8, but, in order to qualify relation to the five conditions of research consid-
ered. Given that each condition has a number of tions already exist in the research annuls. We
possibilities associated with it rather than one might find some combinations more interesting
form of research we have six hundred and forty than others, but there is no reason in principle for
combinations9 (i.e., 2 4 4 4 5 = 640 disjunc- saying that one combination has greater value
tive combinations) in which creative production than another.
figures in one or more conditions. At one end of Although the inclusion of creative production
the range, art and design research is simply the in research needs justification in every case, it had
choice of art and design as the subject of study, been argued that not all of these combinations
with active creative production playing no role at merit the qualification practice-based. Indeed, the
all in the research process. At the other end, crea- number of combinations that do is relatively small.
tive production is involved in satisfying all research Whilst there is a growing literature around the the-
conditions. ory and practice of practice-based research, it is
At this extreme, the claim is that creative pro- not always clear what claims are actually being
duction practices are research practices. In be- made about the role of creative production in re-
tween these extremes, there are some combina- search and much of what is discussed does not
tions which hardly involve art and design, such as merit the term practice-based research.
that in which parallel creative production is a mere The idea of practice-based research would ap-
aspiration. Many other complexions of research pear to hinge on the claim for creative production
between the extremes involve creative production as a means of knowledge acquisition whether
substantially. Whilst a substantial role for art and transferred using familiar works of creative pro-
design production needs justification in every duction, or augmented by that which might be
case, many do not merit qualification as practice- viewed as a residual of the exchange between the
based research because the work of and works non public work of and the public works of
of creative production are not in themselves seen creative production.
as knowledge producing. Only those cases where
creative production is claimed as research meth-
acknowledgment
odology merit the qualifier practice-based.
The research reported in this article was supported
by the Arts and Humanities Research Council, UK,
c o n c l u s ion under grant number 112155.
We have examined the conditions of research, the
different ways in which creative production might
function in relation to them and the claims that
follow from them. This analysis reveals that there
are many different combinations of conditions
and roles of creative production. It is reasonable to
suggest that instances of many of these combina-