LET REVIEW 2017

Strategies in Communication Arts

Resource Person: MA. CRISTILINA A. MONTANEZ

THE K-12 INTEGRATED LANGUAGE ARTS CURRICULUM

I. PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALE

1. Language is the basis of all communication and the primary instrument of thought.
Thinking, learning, and language are interrelated. Language is governed by rules and systems (language
conventions) which are used to explore and communicate meaning. It defines culture which is essential in
understanding oneself (personal identity), forming interpersonal relationships (socialization), extending
experiences, reflecting on thought and action, and contributing to a better society. Language, therefore, is
central to the peoples intellectual, social and emotional development and has an essential role in all key
learning areas.
2. Language is the foundation of all human relationships. All human relationships are
established on the ability of people to communicate effectively with each other. Our thoughts, values and
understandings are developed and expressed through language. This process allows students to
understand better the world in which they live and contributes to the development of their personal
perspectives of the global community. People use language to make sense of and bring order to their
world. Therefore, proficiency in the language enables people to access, process and keep abreast of
information, to engage with the wider and more diverse communities, and to learn about the role of
language in their own lives, and in their own and other cultures.

II. GUIDING PRINCIPLES

1. All languages are interrelated and interdependent. Facility in the first language (L1)
strengthens and supports the learning of other languages (L2). Acquisition of sets of skills and implicit
metalinguistic knowledge in one language (common underlying proficiency or CUP) provides the base for
the development of both the first language (L1) and the second language (L2)2. It follows that any
expansion of CUP that takes place in one language will have a beneficial effect on the other language(s).
This principle serves to explain why it becomes easier and easier to learn additional languages.
2. Language acquisition and learning is an active process that begins at birth and
continues throughout life. It is continuous and recursive throughout students lives. Students enhance
their language abilities by using what they know in new and more complex contexts and with increasing
sophistication (spiral progression). They reflect on and use prior knowledge to extend and enhance their
language and understanding. By learning and incorporating new language structures into their repertoire
and using them in a variety of contexts, students develop language fluency and proficiency. Positive
learning experiences in language-rich environments enable students to leave school with a desire to
continue to extend their knowledge, skills and interests.
3. Learning requires meaning. We learn when we use what we know to understand what is new.
Start with what the students know; use that to introduce new concepts. They use language to examine
new experiences and knowledge in relation to their prior knowledge, experiences, and beliefs. They make
connections, anticipate possibilities, reflect upon ideas, and determine courses of action.
4. Learners learn about language and how to use it effectively through their
engagement with and study of texts. The term text refers to any form of written (reading and
writing), oral (listening and speaking) and visual communication involving language. The texts through
which students learn about language are wide-ranging and varied, from brief conversations to lengthy and
complex forms of writing. The study of specific texts is the means by which learners achieve the desired
outcomes of language, rather than an end in itself. Learners learn to create texts of their own and to
engage with texts produced by other people.
5. Successful language learning involves viewing, listening, speaking, reading and
writing activities. Language learning should include a plethora of strategies and activities that helps
students focus on both MEANING and ACCURACY. Language learning involves recognizing, accepting,
valuing and building on students existing language competence, including the use of nonstandard forms
of the language, and extending the range of language available to students. Through language learning,
learners develop functional and critical literacy skills. They learn to control and understand the conventions
of the target language that are valued and rewarded by society and to reflect on and critically analyze
their own use of language and the language of others.

An effective language arts and multiliteracies curriculum satisfies the following

principles:
1. develops thinking and language through interactive learning;
2. develops communicative competence and critical literacy;
3. draws on literature in order to develop students understanding of their literary heritage;
4. draws on informational texts and multimedia in order to build academic vocabulary and strong content
knowledge;
5. develops students oral language and literacy through appropriately challenging learning;
6. emphasizes writing arguments, explanatory/informative texts and narratives;
7. provides explicit skill instruction in reading and writing;
8. builds on the language, experiences, knowledge and interests that students bring to school;
9. nurtures students sense of their common ground in using language/s for communication as present or
future global citizens to prepare them to participate in
school and in civic life, and;
10. assesses and reflects the students ability to interpret and/or communicate in the target language7 .

III. NEEDS OF THE LEARNERS: THE CONTEXT

The generation born after the year 1994 until 2004 is referred to as Generation Z. This is the first
generation to be born with complete technology. They were born with PCs, mobile phones, gaming
devices, MP3 players and the ubiquitous Internet. They do not know life without technology. Hence, they
are often termed as digital natives and are extremely comfortable with technology. They can email, text
and use computers without any problems. In addition, members of Generation Z can understand and
master advancement in technology. Unfortunately, this reliance on technology and gadgets has had a
negative effect on the members. They rather stay indoors and use their electronics than play outdoors
and be active. They are leading a sedentary life that can result in health problems later on. For them,
social media platforms are a way to communicate with the outside world. They are not bothered about
privacy and are willing to share intimate details about themselves with complete strangers. They have
virtual friends and for them hanging out with friends means talking to them over the cell phones, emails
and text messages. However, at the same time, this generation is considered to be creative and
collaborative and will have a significant impact on the way companies work when they join the
workforce. Members of Generation Z are adept at multi-tasking. They can text, read, watch, talk and
even eat simultaneously. However, this has also led to reduced attention span leading to what
psychologists call acquired attention deficit disorder. This generation is unable to analyze complex data
and information as they cannot focus for very long. While we dont know much about Gen Z yet...we
know a lot about the environment they are growing up in. This highly diverse environment will make the
grade schools of the next generation the most diverse ever. Higher levels of technology will make
significant inroads in academics allowing for customized instruction, data mining of student histories to
enable diagnostics and remediation or accelerated achievement opportunities. Gen Z kids will grow up
with a highly sophisticated media and computer environment and will be more Internet savvy and expert
than their Gen Y forerunners.

IV. OUTCOMES
The ultimate goal of the Language Arts and Multiliteracies Curriculum is to produce graduates who
apply the language conventions, principles, strategies and skills in (1) interacting with others, (2)
understanding and learning other content areas, and (3) fending for themselves in whatever field of
endeavor they may engage in.
A. Communicative Competence is a synthesis of knowledge of basic grammatical principles,
knowledge of how language is used in social settings to perform communicative functions, and how
knowledge of utterances and communicative functions can be combined according to the principles
of discourse.8 Communicative competence is classified into the following competencies.
1. Grammatical/Linguistic Competence means the acquisition of phonological rules,
morphological words, syntactic rules, semantic
rules and lexical items.
2. Sociolinguistic Competence refers to the learning of pragmatic aspect of various speech
acts, namely, the cultural values, norms,
and other sociocultural conventions in social contexts. They are the context and topic of
discourse, the participants social status, sex,
age, and other factors which influence styles and registers of speech. Since different
situations call for different types of expressions as well as different beliefs, views, values,
and attitudes, the development of sociolinguistic competence is essential for communicative
social action.
3. Discourse Competence is the knowledge of rules regarding the cohesion (grammatical
links) and coherence (appropriate
combination of communicative actions) of various types of discourse (oral and written).
Sociolinguistic rules of use and rules of discourse are crucial in interpreting utterances for
social meaning, particularly when the literal meaning of an utterance does not lead to the
speakers intention easily.
4. Strategic Competence is to DO with the knowledge of verbal and non-verbal strategies to
compensate for breakdown such as self-
 correction and at the same time to enhance the effectiveness of communication such as
recognizing discourse structure, activating background knowledge, contextual guessing, and
tolerating ambiguity.
B. Multiliteracies (multi literacy practices) recognize that there are many kinds of literacy at work
within our society. These include traditional literacy practices using texts as well as new literacy
practices using texts of popular culture such as films. Social literacy encompasses how we
communicate and exchange meaning in our society while professional literacy links with the notion
of literacy for school of the workplace.
The curriculum aims to help learners acquire highly-developed literacy skills that enable
them to understand that English language is the most widely used medium of communication in
Trade and the Arts, Sciences, Mathematics, and in world economy. Furthermore, the curriculum aims
to help learners understand that English language is a dynamic social process which responds to
and reflects changing social conditions, and that English is inextricably involved with values, beliefs
and ways of thinking about ourselves and the world we dwell in. Through multi-literacy skills,
learners will be able to appreciate and be sensitive to sociocultural diversity and understand that
the meaning of any form of communication depends on context, purpose and audience.
IV. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The curriculum has five (5) components. Each component is essential to the learners ability to
communicate effectively in a language leading them to achieve communicative competence and
multiliteracies in the Mother Tongue, Filipino and English. The heart of the LAMC is making meaning
through language and aims to develop graduates who are communicatively competent and multiliterates

Component 1: Language Learning Processes and Strategies

For effective language acquisition and learning to take place, language teachers must be guided by
the six (6) language teaching principles. These principles explain the natural process of language
development.
1. Spiral Progression. Skills, grammatical items, structures and various types of texts will be
taught, revised and revisited at increasing levels of difficulty and sophistication. This will allow students to
progress from the foundational level to higher levels of language use.
2. Interaction. Language learning will be situated in the context of communication (oral and
written). Activities that simulate real-life situations of varying language demands (purposes, topics, and
audiences) will be employed to help students interact with others thereby improve their socialization skills.
3. Integration. The areas of language learning the receptive skills, the productive skills, and
grammar and vocabulary will be taught in an integrated way, together with the use of relevant print and
non-print resources, to provide multiple perspectives and meaningful connections. Integration may come
in different types either implicitly or explicitly (skills, content, theme, topic, and values integration).
4. Learner-Centeredness. Learners are at the center of the teaching-learning process. Teaching
will be differentiated according to students needs, abilities and interests. Effective pedagogies will be used
to engage them and to strengthen their language development.
5. Contextualization. Learning tasks and activities will be designed for learners to acquire the
language in authentic and meaningful contexts of use. For example, lessons will be planned around
learning outcomes, a theme, or a type of text to help learners use related language skills, grammatical
items/structures and vocabulary appropriately in spoken and written language to suit the purpose,
audience, context and culture. Learning points will be reinforced through explicit instruction and related
follow-up practice.
6. Construction. Making meaning is the heart of language learning and use. Learning tasks and
activities will be designed for learners in such a way that they will have time to reflect on and respond to
ideas and information. Learners will be provided with sufficient scaffolding so that they will be able to
reach their full cognitive, affective, and psychomotor potentials and become independent learners who are
good consumers and constructors of meaning.
Component 2: Effective Language Use
There are three major applications of the macro-skills of the language (Understanding of Cultures;
Understanding Language; and Processes and Strategies). They are described as the knowledge and skill
areas which are essential to effective language use demonstrated through the language macro-skills.

1. UNDERSTANDING CULTURES. Learning language through text types and literary appreciation
exposes learners to different cultures of the world, including ones culture. Learners develop sociolinguistic
and sociocultural understandings and apply them to their use of the language (Mother Tongue, Filipino, and
English). Sociolinguistic understanding refers to appropriate language use. It is defined in this document as
taking into account the social significance of linguistic forms and the linguistic implications of social facts.
Language is a complex social practice that reflects and reinforces shared understandings about
appropriate actions, values, beliefs and attitudes within a community. These shared understandings
determine not only what is communicated and when and how it is communicated, but also who does the
communicating. These collectively constitute the sociolinguistic features of language. Sociocultural
understanding refers to knowing about the language speaking communities. It means taking into account
the non-linguistic features in the life of a society. Learners broaden their frame of reference beyond their
own social and cultural experiences. They gain insights into different values and belief systems and
acknowledge the cultural contexts which underpin them. They make sense of the social fabric of the target
language community. They understand that the natural and physical environments as well as the social,
economic, historical and political environments influence the language speaking groups and their cultural
traditions.
 2. UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE. Learners apply their knowledge of the system of the language
to assist them to make meaning and to create meaning. They come to recognize the patterns and rules of
the language which emerge as they interact with a plethora of texts (literary and informational) to make
meaning. They apply this knowledge and understanding to create their own spoken, written and visual
texts. Differences in language systems are expressed in a variety of ways: for example, in grammatical
differentiations, variations in word order, word selection, or general stylistic variations in texts. By
comparing the system of the language with the systems of other languages, students understand that
each language is different, but has identifiable patterns within its own system.
3. PROCESS AND STRATEGIES. Learners select from a repertoire of processes and strategies by
reflecting on their understanding of the way language works for a variety of purposes in a range of
contexts. They deliberate on how they use language and apply different language strategies, depending on
their purpose, context and audience. They use language as a way of coming to grips with new ideas,
resolving difficulties or solving problems. They use strategies such as brainstorming and discussion as a
way of developing ideas. They experiment, take risks and make approximations with language as a way of
developing their language skills. They clarify what they need to know when seeking information for
particular purposes. They use key-word searches and their understanding of the conventions of
informational texts such as tables of contents, headings, indexes, forewords and glossaries as aids in
locating information. They assess the usefulness of information for particular purposes. They treat
information and ideas critically and evaluate information in terms of its reliability and currency. They make
notes and graphic representations of information and combine information from different sources into a
coherent whole by summarizing, comparing and synthesizing. Learners reflect on ethical considerations in
the use of ideas and information. They recognize the importance of attributing sources of ideas and
information, and of presenting or representing ideas and information in ways which are not misleading.
They use quotation and sourcing conventions appropriately. They take into account the possible effects of
and responses to the presentation of ideas and information.
Component 3: Making Meaning through Language
Language is the major instrument in communication (oral and written) and the heart of which is the
exchange of meaning. Language learning should focus on guiding students make meaning through
language for different purposes on a range of topics and with a variety of audiences. Students must be
able to adapt to various situations where communication demands greatly vary. The skills, grammatical
items, structures and various types of texts will be taught, and revisited at increasing levels of difficulty
and sophistication. This design allows students to progress from the foundational level to higher levels of
language use. The Language Arts and Multiliteracies Curriculum (LAMC) is composed of five (5) intricately
intertwined and integrated sub-strands (listening, speaking, reading, writing, and viewing) that serve as
building blocks for understanding and creation of meaning and for effective communication across
curricula The revised curriculum re-organizes the Integrated Language Arts Curriculum according to the
content standards that must be met by all students at the end of basic education. This is not inconsistent
with the proposed 5 sub-strands of the Language Arts and Multiliteracies Curriculum (LAMC) but fleshes
out the areas that children need to learn and that teachers need to teach in greater detail. Below is the
matrix that presents the spread and alignment of the language and literacy domains with the 5 sub-
strands.
Integrated Language Arts LISTENING SPEAKING READING WRITING VIEWING
Domains
1. Oral Language
2. Phonological Awareness
3. Book and Print Knowledge
4. Alphabet Knowledge
5. Phonics and Word Recognition
6. Fluency
7. Spelling
8. Writing and Composition
9. Grammar Awareness &
Structure
10. Vocabulary Development
11. Reading Comprehension
11.1 schema & prior
knowledge
11.2 strategies
11.3 narrative text
11.4 informational text
12. Listening Comprehension
13. Attitudes towards language,
literacy and literature
14. Study Strategies

Funnelling of Domains Across the K-12 Basic Education Integrated Language Arts Curriculum

Domains K-3 4-6 7-10 11-12

Oral Language
Phonological Awareness
Book and Print Knowledge
Alphabet knowledge
Phonics and word recognition
Fluency
 Spelling
Writing and composition
Grammar awareness and
structure
Vocabulary development
Reading comprehension
Listening comprehension
Attitude towards language,
literacy and literature
Study strategies
Viewing

K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM K to 12 English Curriculum Guide December 2013 Page

13 of 171 Coherence with the Basic Education Program Goals

1. The K-12 languages curriculum ensures that processes and products of learning actively foster and
contribute to the achievement of the basic education program goals.
2. Competencies are spiraled across the curriculum and year levels. Upper level courses will focus on
writing, comprehension and study strategies.
3. Content includes print and electronic texts that are age, context and culture appropriate.
Component 4: Holistic Assessment
Assessment is an important aspect of learning and teaching. It should be effectively used to support
the holistic development of our pupils. Our assessment practices should go beyond summative evaluation
and move towards a more holistic approach. Holistic assessment refers to the ongoing gathering of
information on different facets of a child from various sources, with the aim of providing qualitative and
quantitative feedback to support and guide the child's development. Holistic assessment informs our
teachers of their teaching practices and guides them in the design and delivery of student learning. It will
also enable parents to support their children's development and growth.

Characteristics of Assessment
1. Proximity to actual language use and performance
Assessment procedures should be based on activities that have authentic communicative function rather
than ones with little or no intrinsic communicative value. These activities are based on actual performance
in authentic situations which the learner is likely to encounter in his or her daily life.
2. A holistic view of language
Assessment procedures are based on the notion that the interrelationships among the various aspects of
language, such as phonology, grammar, and vocabulary, among others cannot be ignored. Also the four
skills of language-listening, speaking, reading, and writing-are seen to be parts of a structurally integrated
whole. Assessment approaches should be used for communication and self-expression. Assessment also
takes into account the whole learner and his or her social, academic, and physical context.
3. An integrative view of learning
Assessment attempts to capture the learners total array of skills and abilities. It measures language
proficiency in the context of specific subject matter. Assessment procedures are based on the idea that
various aspects of a learners life, both academic and personal, are integral to the development of
language proficiency and cannot be ignored. These dimensions include not only processes such as
acquiring and integrating knowledge, extending and refining knowledge, and using knowledge
meaningfully, but also issues such as varying student attitudes towards learning.
4. Developmental appropriateness
Assessment procedures set expectations that are appropriate within the cognitive, social, and academic
development of the learner. This characteristic of assessment makes it particularly valuable for second
language learners who come from culturally diverse backgrounds and who may have atypical educational
experiences.
5. Multiple referencing
Assessment entails obtaining information about the learner from numerous sources and through various
means.
For students, assessment should allow them to see their own accomplishments in terms that they
understand and, consequently, allows them to assume responsibility for their learning. Assessment should
allow parents to share in the educational process, and offers them a clear insight into what their children
are doing in school. For teachers, the primary advantage of assessment is that it provides data on their
students and their classroom for educational decision-making. In addition, it reports the success of the
curriculum and provides teachers with a framework for organizing students works.

PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING (D. Brown, 1994)

A. Cognitive Principles
1. Anticipation of reward Learners are motivated to perform by the thought of a reward, tangible
or intangible, long or short term.
Implications:
Provide genuine praise, encouragement and compliments
 Remind students of long-term rewards in learning the target language
Encourage students to compliment and support each other
For poorly motivated students, external rewards such as gold stars and stickers or issuing
certain privileges may spark some interests.
Enable them to make noticeable
Infect them with your enthusiasm for language learning
2. Meaningful Learning Providing a realistic context to use language is thought to lead to better
long term retention, as opposed to rote learning. Students learn language faster by associating
sounds, words, structures and discourse elements with that which is meaningful in their daily life.
Make lessons appealing to students interest and academic goals
Link topic or concept to something the students know
Avoid the pitfalls of rote learning such as:
o Too much grammar explanation
o Too many abstract principles and theories
o Too much drilling and/or memorization - drill to kill
o Activities which purposes are not clear or do not contribute to accomplishing the
goals of the lesson, unit or course
o Techniques that ate too mechanical or tricky that students get centered on the
mechanics instead of the language or meanings
3. Automaticity This is subconscious processing of language for fluency. This can be achieved
without overanalyzing language forms. Automaticity is the road to fluency.
Implications:
Automaticity isnt gained overnight. Be patient with your students. Give them ample
opportunity to practice using the target language.
Dont overwhelm your students with grammar. It can block pathways to opportunity.
A large proportion of your lessons are focused on the use of language in genuine and natural
context.
4. Strategic Investment Success in learning is dependent on the time and effort learners spend in
mastering the language. The methods that the learner employs to internalize and to perform in the
language are even as important as the teachers methods or even more so considering that
learning is an active process.

5. Intrinsic Motivation The most potent learning rewards to enhance performance are those that
stem from the needs, wants and desires within the learner. Learning a new language itself is
rewarding, therefore, extrinsic reward should not be necessary at all.
B. Linguistic Principles
1. Native Language Effect A learners native language creates both facilitating and interfering
effects on learning.
Some ways to counteract the interfering language effects
Acquaint the learner with the native language cause of the error.
Help your students understand that not everything about their native language will cause
error
Coax students into thinking directly in the target language and not to resort to translation
and they comprehend and produce language
2. Communicative Competence Fluency and use are just as important as accuracy and usage.
Implications:
Give grammar attention but dont neglect the other components of communicative
competence
Use language that students will actually encounter in the real world and provide genuine
techniques for the actual conveyance of information not just rote technique
3. Interlanguage learners manifest a systematic progression of acquisition of sounds and words
and structures and discourse features. In the process of acquisition, learners need feedback
(teacher, peer and self) to eliminate logic errors and achieve competence
Implications:
Language teachers must strike a balance between positive and negative feedback. Avoid too
much negative feedback to shut off students attempt at communication and too much positive
feedback to reinforce and fossilize errors. When you point out interlanguage errors assure students
that these errors mean that their brain is in language learning mode
C. Socioaffective Domain
1. Language-Culture Connection Learning a language also involves learning a complex system of
cultural customs, values and ways or thinking, feeling and acting.
Implications:
Discuss cultural differences emphasizing that no culture is superior over the others.
Consciously connect culture and language
Include among your techniques certain activities or materials that illustrate the connection
between language and culture.
Dont be culturally offensive in the class.
 Use appropriate language
2. Self-Confidence This is self-esteem or I can do it principle. Success in learning a language
requires that the learners believe that they can learn it. Learners belief that they indeed are fully
capable of accomplishing a task is at least partially a factor in their eventual success
Implications:
Give ample verbal and non-verbal assurance to students. Affirming students ability helps a
lot.
Sequence technique from easier to difficult to build confidence. Create a backlog of success.
3. Risk-Taking Students who are confident take risk and accomplish more. Experimenting with
language slightly beyond what is certain or known promotes language development and growth.
Implications
Carefully sequence techniques to ensure learners success.
Create an atmosphere in the classroom that encourages students to try out language,
venture a response
Provide reasonable challenges
Return students risky attempts with positive affirmation
4. Language Ego is defined as the identity a person develops in reference to the language he or
she speaks. Oneself identity is inextricably bound- up in ones language for it is in the
communicative process that such identities are confirmed, shaped and reshaped. In learning a new
language they somehow feel inadequacies and uneasiness.
Implications
Display supportive attitudes to students. Explain that confusion of developing that second
self in the second culture is a natural or normal process.
Considering learners language ego states, know who to call on; who to ask volunteer
information; when to correct a students error; who to place in a small group or pairs.

APPROACHES, METHODS and ACTIVITIES in LANGUAGE TEACHING

A.GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD
Key Features
(1) Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.
(2) Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
(3) Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
(4) Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and
inflection of words.
(5) Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
(6) Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.
(7) Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into
the mother tongue.
(8) Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
Diane Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986:13) provides
expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with the Grammar
Translation Method.
(1) Translation of a Literary Passage (Translating target language to native language)
(2) Reading Comprehension Questions (Finding information in a passage, making inferences and relating
to personal experience)
(3) Antonyms/Synonyms (Finding antonyms and synonyms for words or sets of words).
(4) Cognates (Learning spelling/sound patterns that correspond between L1 and the target language)
(5) Deductive Application of Rule (Understanding grammar rules and their exceptions, then applying them
to new examples)
(6) Fill-in-the-blanks (Filling in gaps in sentences with new words or items of a particular grammar type).
(7) Memorization (Memorizing vocabulary lists, grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms)
(8) Use Words in Sentences (Students create sentences to illustrate they know the meaning and use of
new words)
(9) Composition (Students write about a topic using the target language)
B. DIRECT METHOD
Objectives
The basic premise of the Direct Method is that students will learn to communicate in the target
language, partly by learning how to think in that language and by not involving L1 in the language learning
process whatsoever. Objectives include teaching the students how to use the language spontaneously and
orally, linking meaning with the target language through the use of realia, pictures or pantomime (Larsen-
Freeman 1986:24). There is to be a direct connection between concepts and the language to be learned.
Key Features
(1) Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language.
(2) Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught.
(3) Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully traded progression organized around question-and-
answer exchanges between teachers and
students in small, intensive classes.
(4) Grammar is taught inductively.
(5) New teaching points are taught through modeling and practice.
(6) Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is
taught by association of ideas.
(7) Both speech and listening comprehension are taught.
(8) Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
Typical Techniques
Diane Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986:26-27) provides
expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with the Direct Method.
(1) Reading Aloud (Reading sections of passages, plays or dialogs out loud)
(2) Question and Answer Exercise (Asking questions in the target language and having students answer in
full sentences)
(3) Student Self-Correction (Teacher facilitates opportunities for students to self-correct using follow-up
questions, tone, etc)
(4) Conversation Practice (Teacher asks students and students ask students questions using the target
language)
(5) Fill-in-the-blank Exercise (Items use target language only and inductive rather than explicit grammar
rules)
(6) Dictation (Teacher reads passage aloud various amount of times at various tempos, students writing
down what they hear)
(7) Paragraph Writing (Students write paragraphs in their own words using the target language and
various models)
C. AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD
Objectives
Just as with the Direct Method that preceded it, the overall goal of the Audio-lingual Method was to
create communicative competence in learners. However, it was thought that the most effective way to do
this was for students to "overlearn" the language being studied through extensive repetition and a variety
of elaborate drills. The idea was to project the linguistic patterns of the language (based on the studies of
structural linguists) into the minds of the learners in a way that made responses automatic and "habitual".
To this end it was held that the language "habits" of the first language would constantly interfere, and the
only way to overcome the problem was to facilitate the learning of a new set of "habits" appropriate
linguistically to the language being studied.
Key Features
(1) New material is presented in dialog form.
(2) There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and overlearning.
(3) Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time.
(4) Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.
(5) There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than
deductive explanation.
(6) Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
(7) There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.
(8) Great importance is attached to pronunciation.
(9) Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted.
(10) Successful responses are immediately reinforced.
(11) There is great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances.
(12) There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.
Typical Techniques
Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986:45-47) provides
expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with the Audio-lingual
Method. The listing here is in summary form only.
(1) Dialog Memorization (Students memorize an opening dialog using mimicry and applied role-playing)
(2) Backward Build-up (Expansion Drill) (Teacher breaks a line into several parts, students repeat each
part starting at the end of the sentence and
"expanding" backwards through the sentence, adding each part in sequence)
(3) Repetition Drill (Students repeat teacher's model as quickly and accurately as possible)
(4) Chain Drill (Students ask and answer each other one-by-one in a circular chain around the classroom)
(5) Single Slot Substitution Drill (Teacher states a line from the dialog, then uses a word or a phrase as a
"cue" that students, when repeating the line,
must substitute into the sentence in the correct place)
(6) Multiple-slot Substitution Drill (Same as the Single Slot drill, except that there are multiple cues to be
substituted into the line)
(7) Transformation Drill (Teacher provides a sentence that must be turned into something else, for
example a question to be turned into a statement, an
active sentence to be turned into a negative statement, etc)
(8) Question-and-answer Drill (Students should answer or ask questions very quickly)
(9) Use of Minimal Pairs (Using contrastive analysis, teacher selects a pair of words that sound identical
except for a single sound that typically poses
difficulty for the learners - students are to pronounce and differentiate the two words)
(10) Complete the Dialog (Selected words are erased from a line in the dialog - students must find and
insert)
(11) Grammar Games (Various games designed to practice a grammar point in context, using lots of
repetition)
D. COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING
Objectives
The Community Language Learning method does not just attempt to teach students how to use
another language communicatively, it also tries to encourage the students to take increasingly more
responsibility for their own learning, and to "learn about their learning", so to speak. Learning in a non-
defensive manner is considered to be very important, with teacher and student regarding each other as a
"whole person" where intellect and ability are not separated from feelings. The initial struggles with
learning the new language are addressed by creating an environment of mutual support, trust and
understanding between both learner-clients and the teacher-counselor.
Key Features
(1) Students are to be considered as "learner-clients" and the teacher as a "teacher-counselor".
(2) A relationship of mutual trust and support is considered essential to the learning process.
(3) Students are permitted to use their native language, and are provided with translations from the
teacher which they then attempt to apply.
(4) Grammar and vocabulary are taught inductively.
(5) "Chunks" of target language produced by the students are recorded and later listened to - they are
also transcribed with native language equivalents to become texts
the students work with.
(6) Students apply the target language independently and without translation when they feel
inclined/confident enough to do so.
(7) Students are encouraged to express not only how they feel about the language, but how they feel
about the learning process, to which the teacher expresses empathy
and understanding.
(8) A variety of activities can be included (for example, focusing on a particular grammar or pronunciation
point, or creating new sentences based on the
recordings/transcripts).

Typical Techniques
Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986:45-47) provides
expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with Community Language
Learning. The listing here is in summary form only.
(1) Tape Recording Student Conversation (Students choose what they want to say, and their target
language production is recorded for later listening/dissemination)
(2) Transcription (Teacher produces a transcription of the tape-recorded conversation with translations in
the mother language - this is then used for follow up activities
or analysis)
(3) Reflection on Experience (Teacher takes time during or after various activities to allow students to
express how they feel about the language and the learning
experience, and the teacher indicates empathy/understanding)
(4) Reflective Listening (Students listen to their own voices on the tape in a relaxed and reflective
environment)
(5) Human Computer (Teacher is a "human computer" for the students to control - the teacher stating
anything in the target language the student wants to practice,
giving them the opportunity to self-correct)
(6) Small Group Tasks (Students work in small groups to create new sentences using the transcript,
afterwards sharing them with the rest of the class)

E. THE SILENT WAY

Objectives
Teachers using the Silent Way want their students to become highly independent and experimental
learners. Making errors is a natural part of the process and a key learning device, as it is a sign that
students are testing out their hypostheses and arriving at various conclusions about the language through
a trial and error style approach. The teacher tries to facilitate activities whereby the students discover for
themselves the conceptual rules governing the language, rather than imitating or memorizing them -
Brown (1994:63) expresses this as being a process whereby "students construct conceptual hierachies of
their own which are a product of the time they have invested. In addition to the idea that students
become more autonomous learners and "develop their own inner criteria for correctness" (Larsen Freeman,
1986:62), another key objective was to encourage students to work as a group - to try and solve problems
in the target language together.
Based on these principles and using the techniques described below, it was hoped that students
would eventually be able to actively use the language for self-expression, relating their thoughts, feelings
and perceptions.
Key Features
(1) Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to
be learned.
(2) Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects.
(3) Learning is facilitated by problem-solving involving the material to be learned.
 Cuisinere rods (small rods of varying color and length) are typically used in this method to introduce
vocabulary and syntax, along with colorful wall charts. Instruction in this method typically starts with
sounds, the basic building blocks in any language. The teacher usually provides single words or short
phrases to stimulate the students into refining their knowledge of the language with as little
correction/feedback from the teacher as possible.
Typical Techniques
(1) Sound-Color Chart -(The teacher refers students to a color-coded wall chart depicting individual sounds
in the target language - students use this to point out and build
words with correct pronunciation)
(2) Teacher's Silence (Teacher is generally silent, only giving help when it is absolutely necessary)
(3) Peer Correction (Students encouraged to help each other in a cooperative and not competitive spirit)
(4) Rods (Rods are used to trigger meaning, and to introduce or actively practice language. They can
symbolize whatever words are being taught and be manipulated
directly or abstractly to create sentences)
(5) Self-correction Gestures (Teacher uses hands to indicate that something is incorrect or needs changing
- e.g. using fingers as words then touching the finger/word
that is in need of correction)
(6) Word Chart (Words are depicted on charts, the sounds in each word corresponding in color to the
Sound-ColorChart described above - students use this to build
sentences)
(7) Fidel Chart - (A chart that is color-coded according to the sound-color chart but includes the various
English spellings so that they can be directly related to actual
sounds)
(8) Structured Feedback (Students are invited to make observations about the day's lesson and what they
have learned)

F. SUGGESTOPEDIA
Objectives
The prime objective of Suggestopedia is to tap into more of students' mental potential to learn, in
order to accelerate the process by which they learn to understand and use the target language for
communication. Four factors considered essential in this process were the provision of a relaxed and
comfortable learning enviroment, the use of soft Baroque music to help increase alpha brain waves and
decrease blood pressure and heart rate, "desuggestion" in terms of the pyschological barriers learners
place on their own learning potential, and "suggestibility" through the encouragement of learners
assuming "child-like" and/or new roles and names in the target language.
Key Features
(1) Learning is facilitated in an environment that is as comfortable as possible, featuring soft cushioned
seating and dim lighting.
(2) "Peripheral" learning is encouraged through the presence in the learning environment of posters and
decorations featuring the target language and
various grammatical information.
(3) The teacher assumes a role of complete authority and control in the classroom.
(4) Self-perceived and psychological barriers to learners' potential to learn are "desuggested".
(5) Students are encouraged to be child-like, take "mental trips with the teacher" and assume new roles
and names in the target language in order to
become more "suggestible".
(6) Baroque music is played softly in the background to increase mental relaxation and potential to take in
and retain new material during the lesson.
(7) Students work from lengthy dialogs in the target language, with an accompanying translation into the
students' native language.
(8) Errors are tolerated, the emphasis being on content and not structure. Grammar and vocabulary are
presented and given treatment from the teacher,
but not dwelt on.
(9) Homework is limited to students re-reading the dialog they are studying - once before they go to sleep
at night and once in the morning before they get up.
(10) Music, drama and "the Arts" are integrated into the learning process as often as possible.
Typical Techniques
(1) Classroom Set-up (Emphasis is placed on creating a physical environment that does not "feel" like a
normal classroom, and makes the students feel as relaxed and
comfortable as possible)
(2) Peripheral Learning (Students can absorb information "effortlessly" when it is perceived as part of the
environment, rather than the material "to be attended to")
(3) Positive Suggestion (Teachers appeal to students' consciousness and subconscious in order to better
orchestrate the suggestive" factors involved inthe learning
situation)
(4) Visualization(Students are asked to close their eyes and visualize scenes and events, to help them
relax, facilitate positive suggestion and encourage creativity from
the students)
(5) Choose a New Identity (Students select a target language name and/or occupation that places them
"inside" the language they are learning)
(6) Role-play (Students pretend temporarily that they are somone else and perform a role using the target
language)
(7) First Concert (Teacher does a slo5w, dramatic reading of the dialog synchronized in intonation with
classical music)
(8) Second Concert(Students put aside their scripts and the teacher reads at normal speed according to
the content, not the accompanying pre-Classical or Baroque
music - this typically ends the class for the day)
(9) Primary Activation (Students "playfully" reread the target language out loud, as individuals or in
groups)
(10) Secondary Activation(Students engage in various activities designed to help the students learn the
material and use it more spontaneously - activities include singing,
dancing, dramatizations and games - "communicative intent" and not "form" being the focus)
G. TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
Objectives
One of the primary objectives underlying Asher's TPR methodology was that learning needed to
become more enjoyable and less stressful. Asher thought that a natural way to accomplish this was to
recreate the natural way children learn their native language, most notably through facilitating an
appropriate "listening" and "comprehension" period, and encourage learners to respond using right-brain
motor skills rather than left-brain language "processing".
Key Features
(1) The teacher directs and students "act" in response - "The instructor is the director of a stage play in
which the students are the actors" (Asher, 1977:43).
(2) Listening and physical response skills are emphasized over oral production.
(3) The imperative mood is the most common language function employed, even well into advanced
levels. Interrogatives are also heavily used.
(4) Whenever possible, humor is injected into the lessons to make them more enjoyable for learners.
(5) Students are not required to speak until they feel naturally ready or confident enough to do so.
(6) Grammar and vocabulary are emphasized over other language areas. Spoken language is emphasized
over written language.
Typical Techniques
(1) Using Commands to Direct Behavior (The use of commands requiring physical actions from the
students in response is the major teaching technique)
(2) Role Reversal (Students direct the teacher and fellow learners)
(3) Action Sequence (Teacher gives interconnected directions which create a sequence of actions [also
called an "operation"] - as students progress in proficiency, more
and more commands are added to the action sequence. Most everyday activities can be broken down
into a sequence of actions)
H. THE NATURAL APPROACH
Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell developed the Natural Approach in the early eighties (Krashen
and Terrell, 1983), based on Krashen's theories about second language acquisition. The approach shared a
lot in common with Asher's Total Physical Response method in terms of advocating the need for a silent
phase, waiting for spoken production to "emerge" of its own accord, and emphasizing the need to make
learners as relaxed as possible during the learning process. Some important underlying principles are that
there should be a lot of language "acquisition" as opposed to language "processing", and there needs to be
a considerable amount of comprehensible input from the teacher. Meaning is considered as the essence of
language and vocabulary (not grammar) is the heart of language.
As part of the Natural Approach, students listen to the teacher using the target language
communicatively from the very beginning. It has certain similarities with the much earlier Direct Method,
with the important exception that students are allowed to use their native language alongside the target
language as part of the language learning process. In early stages, students are not corrected during oral
production, as the teacher is focusing on meaning rather than form (unless the error is so drastic that it
actually hinders meaning).
Communicative activities prevail throughout a language course employing the Natural Approach,
focusing on a wide range of activities including games, roleplays, dialogs, group work and discussions.
There are three generic stages identified in the approach: (1) Preproduction - developing listening skills; (2)
Early Production - students struggle with the language and make many errors which are corrected based
on content and not structure; (3) Extending Production - promoting fluency through a variety of more
challenging activities.
Krashen's theories and the Natural approach have received plenty of criticism, particularly
orientated around the recommendation of a silent period that is terminated when students feel ready to
emerge into oral production, and the idea of comprehensible input. Critics point out that students will
"emerge" at different times (or perhaps not at all!) and it is hard to determine which forms of language
input will be "comprehensible" to the students. These factors can create a classroom that is essentially
very difficult to manage unless the teacher is highly skilled. Still, this was the first attempt at creating an
expansive and overall "approach" rather than a specific "method", and the Natural Approach led naturally
into the generally accepted norm for effective language teaching: Communicative Language Teaching.
I. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
Basic Features
(1) An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.
(2) The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
(3) The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on the language but also on the learning
process itself.
(4) An enhancement of the learner's own personal experiences as important contributing elements to
classroom learning.
(5) An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom.
With the ambience of CLT, language teachers no longer lead their students down the road of pattern
practice, only to find themselves confronted by a great chasm at the end. But, they give their students the
greater opportunity to experience the route to real and wider communication.
The following suggested activities experiential for oral communication are certainly effective
tools in helping ESL students move from pseudo-communication in which his use of English is fictitiously
concocted and predictable, to communication where he expresses his personal ideas and needs in the
context of reality. ESL teacher, in this respect, should guide, never directly control, the students to enter by
themselves into a realm of real and authentic communication.
1. Group Dynamics
Cruzada (1994) believes that many experts agree that the most effective format for students to
develop their oral language skills is the small group (five to seven students). This setting allows for
previously studied syntax and vocabulary in a relatively non-threatening English environment. The informal
conversational atmosphere of the small group also allows students to develop discourse and sociolinguistic
competencies in English, such as turn-taking and polite-disagreement-aspects of language use they may
not encounter in other segments of their language program.
Among the most familiar and useful activities now available for small group transactions, as described by
Williams (1984) and Jacobs (1986) are as follows:
1. group discussions on topics of interest (first presented through a reading selection/or each group
could also be given a separate discussion topics especially on current issues as suggested by
Dobson (1987);
2. modified and or informal team debates over controversial issues;
3. improvisations, role plays, and simulations where students improvise conversations for typical
situations;
4. prepared speeches followed by group discussions.
2. Games
Language games can add fun and variety to conversation sessions; stimulating and
entertaining games are valuable in both manipulative and communicative phases.
Some suggested games below are easy for the students (in all levels) to learn; these are geared to
their proficiency level:
1. Name Game ideally suited on the orientation day.
2. Story Telling in a cooperative learning technique (e.g. once upon a time there was completion
type)
3. Word Psychology (words be categorized if students are advanced)
4. I Love My Love Exercise (e.g. I love my love with a(n) (the latter) because he(she) is so (adjective)
5. Definitions a good game for students who have a wide English vocabulary. Here is the way an
actual game might go:
Leader: Im thinking of a word that rhymes with shoe.
Student A: Is it the opposite of old?
Leader: No, its not new.
Student B: Is it the color of the sky?
Leader: No. its not blue.
Student C: Does it mean also?
Leader: No, its not too.
Student D: Is it a place where wild animals are kept?
Leader: Its a zoo!

3. Jigsaw Activities -as suggested by Cruzada (1994) and Cordero (1993)

The idea for jigsaw activities comes from jigsaw puzzle. Just as in a jigsaw puzzle, a picture is
divided into many pieces and the pieces must be put back together to complete the picture. In a jigsaw
activity, information is divided into different pieces, each group member is given a piece to learn, and then
the group members teach each other about their pieces so that everyone has a complete picture of the
information.
1. Here is an example of a jigsaw activity from Dean (1987). She puts students into groups of four,
and after teaching vocabulary used for describing people, gives one cartoon about family members
to each person in each group. The students with the same cartoon then meet in expert teams to
read and understand their piece. Then they will return and tell their group mates about their
cartoon without showing them the cartoon. Afterwards, students take a test on the information in all
four cartoons, with their scores being partly based on how well their group mates will do.
We can see that this jigsaw activity involves all five parts of ARIAS: A- accountability, R-rewards,
I- Interdependence, A- Assignments, and S- social skills.
2. Characters
Using cut-up pictures, a stimulus for oral interaction, the group matches the chin, face, and
head to create characters. The teacher tells the group to match the parts to a character such as a
ballerina, a drug dealer, a teacher, a movie star. Later the group defends the choice made.
4. Communication Gap
a pencil and paper exercise where two students have to individually sketch figures of their own choice
and later share information thru successful description of the output. This eventually will encourage
students to talk about how the activity is done (information processing).
5. Talking Turns for Conflict Exercise
 Hand Clapping/Grabbing or Coin Fixing while engaging in an informal conversation.
6. Chain Story/Hand Movements in circle pass (multi-directional)
- Palm open, close, front, back or grip in circle pass (in any direction) to complete the story.
- Every hand movement represents only a word and the cycle has to continue in a dynamic fashion until a
story is completed.
- Later, the group decides whether to use dialogue, mime or narration in its story presentations/
interpretation.
7. Wiggling Activity
Let the fingers, hands (palms), wrist, arms, shoulders, hip, feet and head wiggle alternately; then
systematically and finally, let the students to freeze. The facilitator, at this point, has to spot a now-on-
scene for the other students in a squatting position to observe. The observers orally give/share their
have just been conceptualized scene so the actors involved can mirror themselves based on the shared
information from the observers. Eventually, the observers take their acting turns by spontaneously
supplying dialogues while re-enacting the previously spotted now-on-scene.
8. Newspaper Headlines for Creative Writing
Each group dynamically and systematically discusses on the gathered news headlines which are the
bases for making, creating short verses, stanzas, or even a short poem (of course, incorporated with the
elements of rhyme, rhythm and melody). Then, the poem is to be interpreted with choreography.
9. Sharing Activity thru In- Box Exercise
Steps:
1. In a squatting position, stretch hand in any direction without touching anyone. Estimate the dimension
of the box.
2. Given the following conditions, act out while youre inside the box. a.) temperature (hot, cold),b.) climate
(windy, rainy) c.) emotional state (anxious,
happy, content, angry, sad, bored)
3. Students non-verbally get out from the box (without lifting it) in any way they could possibly do.
4. Sharing Experiences- students share with others how they got out from that box. This is an effective pre-
writing motivation on a topic:
THE ESCAPE the why, the how and what feeling!
10. Conflict Exercise emphasizing the element of conflict
Given only 2 chairs which could be considered a bench in the park (setting), the three characters
who presumably do not know each other have to non-verbally act out and resolve the conflicts: Who are
you? Where are you going? What are you waiting for? Then, the shadowing and echoing process follows
when the facilitator calls for the second three characters to be the voice characters of the first three (non-
verbal) performers.
K. Field Trips to a museum, theater, night club, concert, restaurant, carnival, zoo and the like, with the
group speaking only English during the trip: Picnics, hikes, tours to local tourist attractions even trips
involving more than one day are other possibilities. After the trip is over or at a later date, use the
experiences on the trip as a subject of conversation through questions and answers, summaries, etc.
Finocchiario (1969) stressed that a trip can be a source of conversation practice even before it begins.
Discussion like choice of venue, social behavior, safety measures, budgetary requirement and the like
could be some possible considerations.
11. Correspondence
English may spring to life for your students if you put them in touch with English-speaking pen pals.
The role that pen pal correspondence can play in English conversation sessions is an impressive one.
12. Songs, Proverbs, Humor and Poetry as effective vehicle for oral discussion.
13. Audio-aids (radio, phonograph, records and tapes)
14. Visual-aids (blackboards, bulletin boards, flannel boards, magnetboards, realia, pictures, charts,
flashcards, maps, clocks, calendars, cartoons, ads,
opaque projector displays, slides, filmstrips)
15. Use of the New Media (thru the ppt.,internet)
16. Use of Television/Motion Pictures and Other Audio-visual Materials
17. Scavenger Hunt Activity
a) Hunt anything (non-living) to evoke childhood memory.
b) Create a scene/role play utilizing the scavenged objects.
c) Techniques (mime, storytelling, dialogue, shadowing, song).

Inasmuch as the communicative competence movement characterizes the integration of language

skills, the listening, speaking, reading and writing activities should be part of the repertoire of every
language teacher, hence, the aforecited oral activities for the ESL classrooms co-exist (if not often, in some
other contexts) with the other segments of language skills development via the holistic approach in ELT.
Emphasis on developing and learning the language skills should parallel with one another. Oral skills
development is not an end in itself, it is one of the means to an end.
Summarily, the previously suggested classroom activities as effective springboard for language
discussions would only become communicative in nature if every language teacher were competent and
dexterous enough to approach his pedagogy in such an experiential and discovery fashion. The essence of
CLT is embedded in the following: Tell me and I forget, Teach me and I remember and Involve me and I
learn.
Based on the premise of CLT, ESL teachers can view the future optimistically, in terms of the
relevance of their work to the needs of the students. If one lives in the realization that in the world today,
English is necessary for academic success and occupational upward mobility, then he/she has defined
his/her place in the sun.