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ENGINEERING PHYSICS II
Exam 2015-2016
JHUNJHUNUWALA
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Engineering Physics II
Edition 2016
Copyright By JHUNJHUNUWALA
Information contained in this book has been obtained by author, from sources believes
to be reliable. However, neither Jhunjhunuwala nor its author guarantee the accuracy
or completeness of any information herein, and Jhunjhunuwala nor its author shall be
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supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional
services.
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Name :
College
Branch :
Home Town :
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CONTENTS
1. Quatum Mechanics 1
3. Coherence
4. Optical fibers
5. Laser
6. Holography
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SYLLABUS
203 ENGINEERING PHYSICS-II
UNIT 1
Quantum Mechanics: Compton effect & quantum nature of light,
Derivation of time dependent and time independent Schrdingers Wave
Equation, Physical interpretation of wave function and its properties,
boundary conditions, Particle in one-dimensional box.
UNIT 2
Applications of Schrdingers Equation, Particle in three-dimensional
box and Degeneracy, Barrier penetration and tunnel effect, Tunneling
probability, Alpha Decay, Summerfields Free electron gas model
Postulates, Density of energy states, Fermi energy level.
UNIT 3
Coherence and Optical Fibres, Spatial and temporal coherence,
Coherence length, Coherence time and Q factor for light, Visibility
as a measure of coherence, Spatial Coherence and size of the source,
Temporal coherence and spectral purity, Optical fiber as optical
wave-guide, Numerical aperture , maximum angle of acceptance and
applications of Optical Fiber.
UNIT 4
Lasers and Holography: Theory of laser action, Einsteins coefficients,
Components of a laser, Threshold conditions for laser action; Theory,
Design and applications of He-Ne and semiconductor lasers; Holography
versus photography, Basic theory of holography, Basic requirement of a
holographic laboratory; Applications of holography in microscopy and
interferometry.
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UNIT 5
Nuclear Radiation Detectors, Characteristics of gas filled detectors:
general considerations, Constructions, Working and properties
of: Ionization chamber, proportional counter, G. M. Counter and
Scintillation Counter.
Suggested Readings
1. Fundamental of Optics, Jenkins and White, Fourth Edition, McGraw Hill.
2. Optics, Ajoy Ghatak, Third Edition, Tata McGraw Hill.
3. Quantum Mechanics, Schiff, Third Edition, McGraw Hill.
4. Quantum Mechanics, Merzbacher, Third Edition, Wiley India.
5. Nuclear Physics: Principles and Applications, John Lilley, Wiley India.
*******
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Unit-I
OR
Q.1 (a) Write down Schrodinger wave equation for a particle enclosed
in one dimensional box of size ]a \. Solve it to get eigen values
and eigen functions. 8
(b) Show that the value of energy which a photon must have so
that it may transfer half of its energy to an electron at rest is
about 256 keV in a Compton scattering experiment. 8
Unit-II
OR
Q.2 (a) Write down basic postulates of summer field electron gas
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Unit-III
Q.3 (a) What is coherence? Explain temporal and spatial coherence. Show
that visibility is a measure of a degree of coherence. 2+3+3
OR
Q.3 (a) Describe the construction of an optical fiber. What do you mean
by numerical aperture of an optical fiber? Find an expression for
the numerical aperture of an optical fiber. 4+2+4
Unit-IV
Q.4 (a) Derive the relation between Einsteins coefficients and discuss
the results. 5+2
OR
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Unit-V
Q.5 (a) What do you mean by dead time in Geiger Muller counter?
Draw a neat diagram on Geiger Muller Counter and explain its
working. Mention some of its application. 2+5+3
OR
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Unit-I
Q.1 (a) Give the formulation of time dependent Shrodingers equation for
a free particle. Discuss the interpretation of position, probability
density and normalization of wave function. 4+2+2+2
OR
Unit-II
OR
Q.2 (a) Define fermi energy. Derive an expression for fermi energy of a
system of particles. 2+6
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Unit III
OR
Unit-IV
Q.4 (a) What are the basic requirements of semi conductor laser? Draw
its label diagram and explain its working with necessary theory.
Write down the applications of semiconductor laser. 2+4+2
OR
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Unit-V
OR
*******
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Unit-I
OR
Unit-II
Q.2 (a) What is tunnel effect? Write down schrodinger equation for
potential barrier problem and steps to find out the transmission
coefficient of a particle having less energy that the height of
potential barrier. 2+2+4
(b) There are 2.5 # 1028 free electrons per cubic meter of sodium.
Calculate the,
(i) Fermi energy and
(ii) Fermi velocity. 4+4
OR
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Q.2 (a) Obtain an expression for density of states for free electron gas
in a metal and find the expression for Fermi energy. 4+4
Unit-III
OR
Q.3 (a) What do you mean by spatial and temporal coherence for
propagating waves? Name the types of coherence involved in
biprism and Michelsons interferometer. 4+2
Unit-IV
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OR
Unit-V
OR
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CHAPTER 1
QUANTUM MECHANICS
or
or
or
Ans :
Compton Effect
Compton effect gives direct and conclusive clarification in support
of the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation. Compton found
that when a monochromic beam of X-rays of wavelength l undergoes
inelastic collision with an electron at rest, the scattered X-rays beam
carry the longer wavelength l' in addition to the radiations of incident
wavelength l. This phenomenon of increase in the wavelength (or
decrease in frequency) of X-ray radiation by scattering is called the
Compton effect. The difference between l' and l , i.e., ]l' - lg is
known as Compton shift.
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or c : 1 - 1 D = h ^1 - cos qh
nl n m0 c
c c h
or ` n l - n j = m0 c ^1 - cos qh ...(8)
or ^ll - lh = h ^1 - cos qh
m0 c
or
Ans :
Schrodinger assumed that the wave function y should obey the
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=- iE y
2y
2t '
2y
or Ey =-' (5)
i 2t
Equation (5) defines the value of energy operator Et such that,
2
Et =-'2 i h 2 = i' 2 (6)
i 2t i 2t 2t
The total energy of the particle is defined as the sum of kinetic
energy an the potential energy. Therefore, we can write
p2
E= +U (7)
2m
where U is the potential energy possessed by the particle.
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or
or
or
or
Ans :
Note : Here we have used L instead a . You may use a .
Consider a particle such as a gas molecule or an electron trapped in
a one-dimensional potential box with infinitely high walls as shown
in Figure 1. From this Infinitely hard walls, the particle does not
loose energy when it collides with the walls, it means total energy
remains constant.
Let us consider, the box contains a particle of mass m , moving
along the x -axis only between the two rigid, ideally reflecting,
Infinitely high walls A and B at x = 0 and x = L . The particle is
free to move between the walls. Let us consider that the potential
energy U of the particle is zero inside the box, but rises to infinity
at the walls and outside. In such a case, the particle is said to be
moving in an infinitely deep potential well.
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0 = A sin 0 + B cos 0
or B=0
Now, substitute B = 0 in Eq. (4), we get
y (x) = A sin kx ...(7)
Using the boundary condition given in Eq. (6) in Eq. (7), we obtain
A sin kL = 0
or kL = np where (n = 0 , 1, 2, 3,...)
or k = np ...(8)
L
Now, the wave function y can be reduces to the form
y^x h = A sin npx ...(9)
L
We have assumed above that
2
k2 = 8p mE ...(10)
h2
Squaring Eq. (8), we have
2 2
k2 = n p ...(11)
L2
Equating Eq. (10) and Eq. (11), we obtain
8p2 mE = n2 p2
h2 L2
In general using En for E
2 2 2 2
En = n h 2 = h <n2 F ...(12)
8mL 8 m L
where n = 1, 2, 3,.......
Eq. (12) gives the value of energy of a particle insider an
infinitely deep potential well. Thus, inside an infinitely potential
well, the particle can have only discrete sets of values of energy. The
discrete energy values are given by
2
E1 = h 2 for n = 1
8mL
2
E2 = 4h 2 = 4E1 for n = 2
8mL
2
E3 = 9 h 2 = 9E1 for n = 3
8mL
2
E 4 = 16 h 2 = 16E1 for n = 4
8mL
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h h
h h
These are called the eigen values of the particle in the well
and constitutes the energy levels of the system. The discrete energy
levels of the particle in deep potential box have been shown in Fig.
2. In the wave function (or eigen function) given by Eq. (9), we still
require the exact value of constant A. To find the value of constant
A, we apply normalization condition, i.e.,
#- 33 yn ^x h dx = 1
2
...(13)
sin2 npx dx = 1
L
or, A2 #0 L
A2 L
;1 - cos
2npx E dx = 1
or.
2 #0 L
or, A2 L = 1
2
or, A= 2
L
Substituting the value of A in Eq. (9), we get
y ^x h = 2 sin npx ...(14)
L L
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Ans :
The wave function y when the particle is in n th state is
y n (x) = 2 sin npx
a a
Therefore desired probability
a/n
P= #0 | y n (x) | 2 dx
2 sin npx 2 dx
b a l
a/n
= #0 a
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=1 2 sin2 npx dx
a/n
a #0 a
=1 b1 - cos 2napx l dx
a/n
a #0
= 1 :x - a sin 2npx D
a/n
a 2np a 0
= 1 <a - 0F = 1
a n n
5. Show that the value of energy which a photon must have so that it
may transfer half of its energy to an electron at rest is about 256 keV
in a Compton scattering experiment.
RTU 2015
Ans :
It is given that half of energy of incident photon is equal to energy
transferred to an electron at rest or half of energy of incident photon
is equal to energy of scattered photon.
Thus 1 hn = hn l
2
or n = 2n l
So, ll = 2l since n \ 1
l
Compton shift is given by
Dl = ll - l = 2l - l
or Dl = l = h ^1 - cos qh
m0 c
For minimum energy of incident photon l should be maximum, i.e.,
at q = 180c.
So, lmax = h 71 - ^- 1hA = 2h
m0 c m0 c
= 2 # 6.6 # 10-34
9.1 # 10-31 # 3 # 108
= 0.048 # 10-10 m = 0.0484 A
c
So, Minimum energy of incident photon
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E min = hc
lmax
-34
= 6.6 # 10 # 3 -# 108
10
0.0484 # 10
= 4.091 # 10-14 J
-14
= 4.091 # 10
-19
1.6 # 10
= 256 keV
Ans :
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N 2
= 1 ...(2)
# yy *dxdydz
where N is termed as the normalization constant and Ny is known
as the normalized wave function.
Ans :
The wave function of particle in nth state in one dimensional box is
y n ^x h = 2 sin d npx n
a a
In first excited state, n = 2 , therefore
y 2 ^x h = b a l
2 sin 2px
a
2 sin 2px 2 dx
b a l
3a/4
= #a/4 a
=1 2 sin2 2px dx
3a/4
a #a/4 a
=1 b1 - cos 4apx l dx
3a/4
a #a/4
= 1 :x - a sin 4px D
3a/4
a 4p a a/4
= 1 ; 3a - 0E - 1 <a - 0F
a 4 a 4
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=3-1=1
4 4 2
Ans :
We have c = 2 # 10-11 m and f = 45c
l = 0.2A
Tl = h ^1 - cos 45ch
mc
6.62 # 10-34
= 61 - 0.7071@
9.1 # 10-31 # 3 # 108
= 0.0071Ac
Ek = hc c 1 - 1 m
l l'
Thus kinetic energy is maximum if l' is maximum. The maximum
value of l' can be obtained by the relation l' = l + Tl m .
Maximum value of Tl is obtained at f = 180c.
Tl m = h ^1 - cos fh
m0 c
= 2 # 6.62 # 10-34
9.1 # 10-31 # 3 # 108
c
= 0.0485A
l' = 0.2 + 0.0485
= 0.2485Ac
Hence, maximum kinetic energy,
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-34 8
Ek = 6.62 # 10 -10# 3 # 10 ; 1 - 1 E
10 0.2 0.2485
= 19.38 # 10-16 J
Ans :
(i) Hamiltonian
In the derivation of time dependent wave equation we get
2y 2
i' =- ' d2 y + Uy
2t 2 m
2y
or 8_- '2 /2m i d2 + U B y = i'
2t
The operator 8_- '2 /2m i d2 + U B is called Hamiltonian and is
represented by H , while the operator i'22 / t , operated on y , gives
the eigen value of energy ^E h . So that Schrodinger equation can be
written in operator form as
Hy = Ey
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Ans :
Given q = 90c
From the expression of Compton shift, we have
Dl = h ^1 - cos qh ...(1)
m0 c
6.62 # 10-34
= ^1 - cos 90ch
9.1 # 10-31 # 3 # 108
= 2.424 # 10-12 m = 0.0242 Ac
As Dl = ll - l , where l is the wavelength of incident photon and
ll is the wavelength of scattered photon, then
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ll = l + Dl ...(2)
Given ll = 2l ...(3)
From Eqs. (2) and (3), we get
2l = l + Dl
or l = Dl = 0.0242 # 10-10 m = 0.0242 A
c
Energy of the incident photon
E = hn = hc
l
Ans :
Given, m = 9.1 # 10-31 kg
h = 6.6 # 10-34 kg
L = 1Ac = 1 # 10-10 m
Minimum energy of an electron moving in 1-D box having length L
is given by ^n = 1h
2
E1 = h 2
8mL
Substituting the given value in above eqn, we get
^6.6 # 10-34h
2
E1 =
8 # 9.1 # 10 # ^10-10h2
-31
= 5.984 # 10-18 J
-18
= 5.984 # 10-19 = 37.4 eV
1.6 # 10
12. Discuss the physical interpretation of wave function and its properties.
or
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Ans :
13. X-rays with l = 1 Ac are scattered from a carbon block. The scattered
radiation is viewed at 90c to the incident beam.
(a) Compute the wave length of scattered photon ?
(b) What kinetic energy is imported to the recoil the electron ?
RTU 2012, 2009
Ans :
Given, c = 1 # 10-10 m ,
l = 1A
q = 90c,
m0 = 9.1 # 10-31 kg
h = 6.6 # 10-34 Js ,
c = 3 # 108 m/ sec
(a) Compton shift is given by
Dl = ll - l = h ^1 - cos qh
m0 c
Substituting the given value in above formula, we get
6.6 # 10-34
ll - l = ^1 - cos 90ch
9.1 # 10-3 # 3 # 108
c
= 0.024 A
ll = ^0.024 + lh A
c
= ^0.024 + 1h A
c = 1.024 A
c
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= hc c ll - l m = hcDl
lll lll
-34 8
= 6.6 # 10-10 # 3 # 10 # 0-.024
1 # 10 # 1.0242 # 10 10
= 4.67 # 10-17 J
-17
= 4.67 # 10-19 J - 292 eV
1.6 # 10
Ans :
Given, c = 22 # 10-13 m ,
ll = 0.022 A
q = 45c,
h = 6.6 # 10-34 Js
m0 = 9.1 # 10-31 kg
The Compton shift is given by
ll - l = h ^1 - cos qh
m0 c
Substituting the given value in above formula, we get
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Ans :
We have
2 sin npx
y (x) n =
L a L k
For state of least energy n = 1 a
2 sin px
y (x) 1 =
L aL k
p = y (x) 2 = 2 sin2 d px n dx
x2
L
#x
1 L
L
0.6L
= 1 ;x - sin 2px b L lE
L L 2p 0.4L
Ans :
Refer Q.9
17. The wave function of a particle in its ground state in one dimensional
box of length L is given by y = L2 sin pLx . Calculate the probability
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Ans :
We have
2 sin npx
y (x) n =
L a L k
For state of least energy n = 1 a
2 sin px
y (x) 1 =
L aL k
It is given that we have to find probability at the centre in the interval
of 1 Ac . Suppose the limit at either side of centre is x1 = 0.45 L to
x2 = 0.55 L . So the probability is given by
p = y (x) 2 = 2 sin2 d px n dx
x2
L
#x
1 L
L
0.55L
= 1 ;x - sin 2px b L lE
L L 2p 0.45L
Ans :
Given, L = 1Ac
In general form, the discrete energy value is given by
2 2
En = n h 2 ...(1)
8mL
The ground state energy is given by putting ^n = 1h in Eq. (1), we
have
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]1g2 h2
E1 =
8mL2
^6.6 # 10-34h
2
=
8 # 9.1 # 10 # ^10-10h2
-31
-18
= 5.984 # 10 -19 eV = 37.4 eV
1.6 # 10
For the first excitation energy, put n = 2 in Eq. (1), we get
E2 = 4E1 = 4 # 37.4 = 149.6 eV
Ans :
Given, q = 60c,
c = 0.3 # 10-10 m
l = 0.3 A
Compton shift is given by
Dl = ll - l
= h ^1 - cos qh
m0 c
Substituting the values in above formula, we get
6.6 # 10-34
ll - l = Dl = ^1 - cos 60ch
9.1 # 10-31 # 3 # 108
c
= 0.0121 A
So, ll = ^0.0121 + 0.3h Ac = 0.3121 A
c
Recoil energy of the electron is given by
^K.E.hrecoil = hn - hn l
= hc - hc
l ll
= hc c ll - l m = hcDl
lll lll
-34 8
= 6.6 # 10 # -310# 10 # 0.0121 -# 10-10
10
0.3 # 10 # 0.3121 # 10
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= 2.6 # 10-16 J
-16
= 2.6 # 10-19 eV - 1600 eV
1.6 # 10
Ans :
The wavelength of incident light,
l = 3000 A c
= 3000 # 10-10 = 3 # 10-7 m
-34 8
hc = 6.6 # 10 J-s # 3.0 # 10 m/s
l -7
3 # 10 m
= 6.6 # 10-19 Joules
Work function W = hv0 = 2.3 eV
= 2.3 # 1.6 # 10-19 Joules
Einsteins equation
hv = W + KE max
Maximum kinetic energy
KE max = hv - W
= hc - W
l
= 6.6 # 10-19 - 2.3 # 1.6 # 10-19 Joules
or KE max = 2.9 # 10-19 Joules
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Ans :
Given, E = 150 keV = 150000 # 1.6 # 10-19 J ,
c = 3 # 108 m/ sec
El = 130 keV = 130000 # 1.6 # 10-19 J ,
m = 1.67 # 10-27 kg
Wavelength of incident photon is given by
-34 8
l = hc = 6.6 # 10 # 3 # 10
E 3
150 # 10 # 1.6 # 10 J-19
c
= 0.0825 A ...(1)
Wavelength of scattered photon is given by
-34 8
ll = hc = 6.6 # 10 3
# 3 # 10
-19
El 130 # 10 # 1.6 # 10 J
c
= 0.0952 A ...(2)
Compton shift is given by
ll - l = 0.024 ^1 - cos qh A
c ...(3)
Substituting eqn (1) and (2) in (3), we get
^0.0952 - 0.0825h A
c = 0.024 ^1 - cos qh A
c
*******
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CHAPTER 2
APPLICATION OF SCHRODINGERS EQUATION
or
or
or
or
Ans :
To understand the phenomenon of tunnelling, we consider a typical
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(a)
(b)
Fig 1 : (a) Barrier potential, (b) Form of the wave function of a
particle of energy E < U0 in the different regions
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Region 1 :
The Schrdinger equation for region 1( x < 0,U0 = 0 ) is described by
d2 y1 + 2m2 Ey1 = 0
'
Region 2 :
The Schrdinger equation for region 2 (0 < x < L ) is
d2 y2 + 2m2 ^E - U0h y2 = 0 inside barrier ^U = U0h
'
Since, E < U0 we rearrange the previous equation as
d2 y2 - 2m2 ^U0 - E h y2 = 0
'
2m ^U0 - E h
or, d2 y2 - a2 y2 = 0 where a =
'
The general solution of the above equation is
y2 ^x h = Ceax + De- ax ...(2)
In region 2, the term Ceax is the wave reflected from the second
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Region 3 :
The Schrdinger equation for region 3 ( x > L,U0 = 0 ) is
d2 y3 + 2mE y3 = 0
'2
or, d2 y3 + k2 y3 = 0
The general solution of the above equation is
y3 ^x h = Feikx + Ge-ikx ...(3)
A = d1 + a nC + d1 - a n D ...(6)
ik 2 ik 2
Similarly subtracting these equations, we have
B = d1 - a nC + d1 + a n D ...(7)
ik 2 ik 2
Again applying the boundary condition at x = L with G = 0 , we get
y2 = y3
aL - aL
or, Ce + De = FeikL ...(8)
2y3 2y2
Also at x = L , =
2x 2x
or, ikFeikL = aCeaL - aDe- aL
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Transmission Probability
The transmission probability is given by
2
Transmitted current density *
T= = F = c F mc F m
Incident current density A A A
Now from Eq. (12), we can write
T= 2ikae-ikL - 2ikaeikL
2 2 # 2 2
(k - a ) sinh aL + 2ika cosh aL (k - a ) sinh aL - 2ika cosh aL
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= 4k2 a2
(k - a ) sinh aL + 4k2 a2 cosh2 aL
2 2 2 2
1 = cosh2 aL + ^k - a h sinh2 aL
2 2 2
or, = G
T ]2kag2
^k2 - a2h
2
= =1 + sinh2 aL + 2 2
sinh2 aL G
4k a
2 2 2
= <1 + 4k a + a + k2 - 2a2 k2 sinh2 aL F
2 2
4k a
^a2 + k2h
2
= =1 + sinh2 aL G
4k2 a2
2m^U 0 - E h
Also, we have a = '
and k = 2'
2
mE
. Substituting the values 2
2 2
a and k in the above equation, we get
sinh2 aL
T 4 _ 2mE i8 B
2m (U - E) 0
'2 '2
= 1+ U02 sinh2 aL
4E (U0 - E)
2
Therefore, T= F = 1 ...(13)
A 1+ U02
sinh2 aL
4E^U0 - E h
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always less than unity whatever be the values of E and U , i.e. even
if E > U . Considering eaL >> e- aL , we have
sinh2 aL = c
eaL - e- aL m2 - e2aL
2 4
Substituting this value in Eq. (13), we get
1 16E ^U0 - E h -2aL
T= - e
U 02 2aL
U 02
1+ ce m
4E ^U0 - E h 4
or, T = 16 c1 - E m e-2aL
E ...(14)
U0 U0
or
or
or
Ans :
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Fermi Energy
Consider that N free electrons are contained in a box at absolute
temperature. At absolute zero temperature all the energy levels
below a certain level will be filled with electrons and the levels above
this level will be empty. This energy level which divides the filled and
empty levels is called Fermi level and the corresponding energy of
that level is known as Fermi-energy EF .
Also, kx = 2p nx Since k = 2p n
L L
ky = 2p ny and kz = 2p nz
L L
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Density of States
It is defined as the number of energy states per unit energy range.
It is denoted by the symbol D ^E h . In other words, the density of
states for electrons in a band gives the number of orbitals (or states)
in a certain energy range. Hence, the number of filled (i.e. density of
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and N = V 2 k3 ...(19)
3p
2 2 2/3
we get E = ' c 3p N m ...(20)
2m V
where E is total energy and N is the number of electrons. Therefore,
from Eq. (20), we have
3/2
3p2 N = 2mE 3/2 = = 2mE G
V
; 2 E
' h2 /4p2
or, N = 8pV3 ^2mE h3/2 ...(21)
3h
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Ans :
Given, c = 7 # 10-10 m
L=7A
E = 5 eV = 5 # 1.6 # 10-19
= 8 # 10-19 J
U0 = 6 eV = 6 # 1.6 # 10-19
= 9.6 # 10-19 J
De-Broglie wavelength of an electron of energy E eV is
l = 12.27 Ac = 12.27 = 5.48 Ac
E 5
Transmission (Tunnel) probability for electron is given by
16E ^U0 - E h -2aL
T= e ...(1)
U 02
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2p 2m ^U0 - E h
where a= ...(2)
h
2pL 2m ^U0 - E h
or aL = ...(3)
h
Substituting the given values in eqn (3), we get
2 # 3.14 # 7 # 10-10 2 # 9.1 # 10-31 # ^9.6 - 8h # 10-19
aL =
6.62 # 10-34
= 3.585
Now substituting the values in eqn (1), we get
-19 -19
T = 16 # 8 # 10 #-119.62 # 10 e-^
2 # 3.585h
^9.6 # 10 h
= 1.709 # 10-3 = 0.171 %
Ans :
The energy level of a particle in 3 D having sides a , b and c is
2
2 2
n 2
En , n , n = h e n 2x + 2y + n2z o
x y z
8m a b c
(i) For nx = ny = nz = 1, and a = b = c there is only one eigen
2
function corresponding to eigen value 3h 2 .
8ma
So, it is non-degenerate _nx ! ny ! nz ! 0i
(ii) For nx + ny + nz = 4 , and a = b = c there can be three
possibility, i.e.,
^nx , ny, nz h = ^1, 1, 2h, ^1, 2, 1h and ^2, 1, 1h
So, the degeneracy is three fold because there are three eigen function
corresponding to eigen energy,
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2 2 2
E = h 2 ^1 + 1 + 4h = 6h 2 = 3h 2
8ma 8ma 4ma
(iii) When a = b ! c , then energies corresponding to all three states
are
2 2
E2, 1, 1 = h c 42 + 12 + 12 m = h c 52 + 12 m
8m a a c 8 m a c
2 2
E1, 2, 1 = h c 12 + 42 + 12 m = h c 52 + 12 m
8m a a c 8 m a c
2 2
E1, 1, 2 = h c 12 + 12 + 42 m = h c 22 + 42 m
8m a a c 8 m a c
As E2, 1, 1 = E1, 2, 1
2
8m c a2 c2 m
So, h 5 + 1 is doubles degenerate corresponding to eigen
2
function y2, 1, 1 and y1, 2, 1 whereas the energy = h c 22 + 42 m is non-
8m a c
degenerate.
Ans :
(i) Degeneracy
When the momentum and energy of two or more quantum states that
have different eigen values are same, it is called degenerate state or
degeneracy. For example, three independent stationary states having
quantum numbers (2, 1, 1), (1, 2, 1), (1, 1, 2) have same energy value
2
E = 6h 2 En = h 2 [n x2 + n y2 + n z2 ]
2
8ma 8ma
but the corresponding wave functions y 211 , y 121 , y 112 will be different
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Ans :
The energy level of a particle in 3 D having sides a , b and c is
2
2 2
n 2
En , n , n = h e n 2x + 2y + n2z o
x y
8m a
z
b c
and wave function is
2 2 sin d nx px n sin ny py sin d nz pz n
y= 2
a
b c a d b n c
If 3 D box is cubic, then we have a = b = c and we get
2
En , n , n = h 2 _n x2 + n y2 + n z2i
x y z
8ma
n py
and y = 2 2 sin d nx px n sin d y n sin d nz pz n
a a a a a
For nx + ny + nz = 4 , there can be three possibility, i.e., quantum
value
^nx , ny, nz h = ^1, 1, 2h, ^1, 2, 1h and ^2, 1, 1h
So, the degeneracy is three fold because there are three eigen function
corresponding to eigne energy,
2 2 2
E = h 2 ^1 + 1 + 4h = 6h 2 = 3h 2
8ma 8ma 4ma
Three eigen function are as follows
py
y 1, 1, 2 = 2 2 sin c px m sin d n sin b 2pz l
a a a a a
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2py
y 1, 2, 1 = 2 2 sin c px m sin c sin pz
a a a a m ca m
py
y 2, 1, 1 = 2 2 sin b 2px l sin d n sin c pz m
a a a a a
or
or
Ans :
Refer Q.2
Ans :
Given, U0 = 5 eV , h = 0.2 nm = 0.2 # 10-9 m
Since E < V0 , then the probability of transmission is
16E^U0 - E h -2aL
T= e ...(1)
U02
2p 2m ^U0 - E h
where, a= ...(2)
h
and T = T0 e-2aL ...(3)
where, T0 = Maximum transmission probability
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9. There are 2.5 # 1028 free electrons per cubic meter of sodium.
Calculate the, (i) Fermi energy and (ii) Fermi velocity.
RTU 2013
Ans :
Given, ne = 2.5 # 1028 m-3
Fermi energy is given by
2 2/3
EF = h c 3ne m
2m 8p
Substituting the values in above equation, we get
^6.62 # 10-34h 3 # 2.5 # 1028 2/3
2
EF = -31 c 8 # 3.14
m
2 # 9.1 # 10
= 4.95 # 10-19 J
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-19
EF = 4.95 # 10-19 = 3.09 eV
1.6 # 10
Now EF = 1 mv F2
2
Thus Fermi-velocity is given by
Ans :
Given, c = 4 # 10-10 m ,
L =4A
E = 1eV = 1.6 # 10-19 J
U0 = 4 eV = 4 # 1.6 # 10-19 = 6.4 # 10-19 J
Transmission probability for electron is given by
16E ^U0 - E h -2aL
T= e ...(1)
U 02
2p 2m ^U0 - E h
where a= ...(2)
h
2pL 2m ^U0 - E h
or aL = ...(3)
h
Substituting the given value in eqn (2), we get
2 # 3.14 # 4 # 10-10 2 # 9.1 # 10-31 # ^6.4 - 1.6h # 10-19
aL =
6.62 # 10-34
= 3.54
Substituting the given value and eqn (3) in eqn (1), we get
-19 -19
T = 16 # 1.6 # 10 #-194.28 # 10 e-^
2 # 3.54h
^6.4 # 10 h
= 2.52 # 10-3 = 0.252%
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11. For potassium fermi energy is 2.14 eV and the density of electron is
1.4 # 1028 /m3 . Find the electron density of a metal for which Fermi
energy is 4.7 eV.
RTU 2012
Ans :
Given, For potassium ^Kh ,
EF,K = 2.14 eV and ne, x = 1.4 # 1028 /m3
For metal ^Mh ,
EF,M = 4.72 eV and ne, m = ?
ne \ E F3/2
3/2
ne, K E
So, = d F, K n
ne, M EF, M
or
Ans :
Consider a three-dimensional rectangular parallelepiped box of sides
a, b and c which are parallel to the axes x, y and z , respectively as
shown in given figure. This box confined a particle of mass m . Since,
the particle is free inside the box, it feels no potential. When the
particle collides with the wall, it faces infinite potential and so, after
collision, it is reflected back. The probability of the particle finding
outside the box is zero, i.e., y is zero outside the box everywhere. y
only exists for a < x < 0 , b < y < 0 and c < z < 0 .
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2m 2x 2y 2z
Now, operating on the separated wave function with the kinetic
energy operator yields
22 X (x) 22 Y (y)
E 6X (x) Y (y) Z (z)@ =- ' =Y (y) Z (z)
2
+ X (x) Z (z)
2m 2x 2
2y2
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22 Z (z)
+ X (x) Y (y) G
2z2
Dividing both sides by X (x) Y (y) Z (z), we get
2 22X (x) 22Y (y) 22Z (z)
E =- ' > 1 + 1 + 1 H ...(3)
2m X (x) 2x 2
Y (y) 2y 2
Z (z) 2z2
The bracket quantity in Eq. (3) gives no resultant function of
x, y and z on the right side and each of the operation must therefore
produce a constant, i.e.
d1
22X + k 2 n + 1 22Y + k 2 + 1 22Z + k 2 = 0
X 2x2 x eY
2y2
yo c Z 2z2 zm ...(4)
where 2mE
k=
'2
Eq. (4) may be broken into three independent equations
2 2
1 2X (x) + k 2 = 0 or 2X (x) =- k 2 X (x) ...(5)
X _x i 2x 2 x x
2x2
2 2
1 2Y (y) + k 2 = 0 or 2Y (y) =- k 2 Y (y) ...(6)
y y
Y (y) 2y 2
2y2
2 2
1 2Z (z) + k 2 = 0 or 2Z (z) =- k 2 Z (z) ...(7)
z z
Z (z) 2z2 2z2
Wave Function :
The solutions to the second order differential equations described
above are sines, cosines or complex exponential. As with the 1-D
asymmetrical particle-in-a-box, here running a < x < 0 , b < y < 0
, c < z < 0 , only sine functions satisfy the global constraint of
continuity of the wave function at the x = y = z = 0 boundaries.
The general solution of Eq. (5) may be written as
X = A sin kx x + Al cos kx x
Applying the boundary conditions X = 0 at x = 0 , we get
0 = A sin ^kx 0h + Al cos ^kx 0h
Al = 0
Thus, X (x) = A sin kx x
Similarly, Y (y) = B sin ky y and Z (z) = C sin kz z
When we equivalently apply the global constraint of continuity
at the boundaries x = a, y = b, z = c , where the respective wave
functions must also go to zero, the arguments of each of the sine
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# # # y 2 dxdydz = 1
x=0 y=0 z=0
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....(18)
and eigen function
n p
y = 2 2 sin d nx p n x sin d y n y sin d nz p n z ...(19)
a a a a a
Ans :
Given, Side of cube, a = b = c = 10-14 cm
For lowest energy state
n x = ny = n z = 1
Energy of particle in cubical box is given by
En , n n = h 2 ^n x2 + n y2 + n z2h
2
x
8ma
y z
-68
= 130.68 # 10-55 = 10.27 # 10-13 J
12.8 # 10
-13
E1, 1, 1 = 10.27 # 10-19 = 6.42 MeV
1.6 # 10
14. Calculate the Fermi Energy and Fermi velocity for free electron gas
in silver. Given the number of free electrons per unit volume in silver
is 5.8 # 1028 per meter cube.
RTU 2011, RU 2004
Ans :
Given, ne = 5.8 # 1028 m-3
Fermi energy is given by
2 2/3
EF = h c 3ne m
2m 8p
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vf = 2EF
m
= 2 # 8.74 # 10-19
9.1 # 10-31
= 1.37 # 106 m/s
15. Obtain the expression for the density of states for fermi gas and
hence fine expression for fermi energy of metal at 0 k having n
electrons per unit volume.
RTU 2008, 2007, RU 2006, 2005
or
Using free electrons model, calculate density of energy states for free
electron in 7th energy range from E to E + dE .
RU 2003
or
Ans :
Refer Q.2
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Ans :
Refer Q.1
Ans :
Alpha decay is an important type of radioactive decay in which an
atomic nucleus emits an energetic alpha particle. The emitted alpha
particle consists of two protons and two neutrons and is structurally
identical to a helium-4 nucleus ( 42He ). A specific example of alpha
decay is the decay of uranium to thorium represented by
238
92 U $ 234 4
90 Th + 2 He + 4.18 MeV
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18. Calculate Fermi energy in copper assuming that each copper atom
contributes one free electrons to the electron gas. Given density of
copper 8.94 # 103 kg/m3 and atomic mass is 63.5 u .
RTU 2009, 08, (1 SEM)
Ans :
Given, r = 8.94 # 103 kg/m3
Atomic man of copper
m = 63.5 # 1.6 # 10-27
= 1.016 # 10-25 kg
So, no. of copper atom per unit volume is
r
ne =
m
3
= 8.94 # 10-25 = 8.79 # 1028 per m3
1.016 # 10
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Ans :
Given, c = 5 # 10-10 m
L = 5A
E = 2eV = 2 # 1.6 # 10-19
= 3.2 # 10-19 J
U0 = 5 eV = 5 # 1.6 # 10-19
= 8 # 10-19 J
Transmission (Tunnel) probability for electron is given by
16E ^U0 - E h -2aL
T= e ...(1)
U 02
2p 2m ^U0 - E h
where a= ...(2)
h
2pL 2m ^U0 - E h
or aL = ...(3)
h
Substituting the given values in eqn (2), we get
2 # 3.14 # 5 # 10-10 2 # 9.1 # 10-31 # ^8 - 3.2h # 10-19
aL =
6.62 # 10-34
= 4.743 # 1024 # 9.346 # 10-25 = 4.432
Now substituting the values in eqn (1), we get
-19 -19
T = 16 # 3.2 # 10 # 4.8 # 10 e-^
2 # 4.432h
^8 # 10-19h2
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Ans :
The Zero point energy (n = 1) is given by
2
E1 = h 2
8mL
^6.6 # 10-34h
2
=
8 ^9.1 # 10-31h (5 # 10-10) 2
-19
= 2.4 # 10-19 eV
1.6 # 10
= 1.5 eV
The energy gap between first two energy states is given by
2 2 2
E2 - E1 = 4h 2 - h 2 = 3h 2
8mL 8mL 8mL
DE = 3 # 1.5 = 4.5 eV
Now the wavelength of absorption line arising from this transition
is given by
hc = 3h2 = DE
l 8mL2
or l = hc
DE
(6.6 # 10-34) (3 # 108)
=
4.5 # 1.6 # 10-19
or l = 2.75 # 10-7 = 2750 A
c
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Ans :
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*******
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CHAPTER 3
COHERENCE
or
or
or
or
or
Ans :
Coherence
The term coherence, basically refers to the degree of correlation
between the phases at different points in a beam of light. Coherence
is a property of waves that helps getting stationary interference i.e.
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Temporal Coherence :
Temporal coherence is a measure of the correlation between the
phases of a wave at different points along the direction of wave
propagation. The temporal coherence is also known as longitudinal
coherence. A beam of light is said to possess temporal coherence, if
the relationship between their phases at a given time and at a certain
time later along the direction of propagation is time independent or
remains constant. Temporal coherence refers to spectra purity, i.e. it
tells us about the monochromaticty of the source .
Suppose a beam of light travelling along the positive x - axis as
shown in Fig. 1. A and B are the two points lying on the x - axis.
The wave is said to possess temporal coherence if the phase difference
of the waves crossing A and B at any instant is always constant.
Spatial Coherence
Spatial coherence is a measure of the correlation between the phases
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= 4Io C
4Io C + 4Io - 4Io C
q = 2 I1 I2 # C ...(5)
I1 + I2
It can be follows from Eqs. (4) and (5) that visibility measures
mutual coherence between two monochromatic waves.
Ans :
Coherence ( Refer to Q 1 )
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or, l w = Dq = Dl ...(3)
a
= l
a /D
or, lw = l ...(4)
q0
where q 0 = a/D is the angle substantiated by a at the centre of the
slit. The circular sources are more commonly used and in that case,
lw = 1.22l ...(5)
q0
We can see from Eqs. (3) to (5) that the smaller the size of
source S , more will be the transverse coherent length lw . The above
conclusions do not hold good for the sources like lasers which are
basically coherent. As will be seen, in these sources wavetrains due
to different atoms add in the phase maintaining the same direction.
Ans :
We have
Spectral width Dn = 102 Hz ,
c = 3 # 108 m/ sec
The coherent length and coherence time is related by the relation
l0 = c # t0
(a) Coherence length
8
l0 = c = 3 # 10 since t0 = 1
Dn 10 2
Dn
= 3 # 106 m
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Ans :
(a)Given, 3n = 6 # 108 Hz ,
l = 546.1 nm = 546.1 # 10-9 m
Temporal coherence length is given by
2 2 2
l0 = l = 2l # c 3l = l 3 n
3l l 3n c
= c
3n
8
= 3 # 108
6 # 10
= 0.50 m
(b) For helium neon lasers 3 n = 1 # 106 Hz. Thus
l0 = c
3n
8
= 3 # 106 = 300 m
1 # 10
or
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Ans :
Spectral Purity
Spectral purity refers to the quantification of the monochromaticity
of a given light sample. This is a particularly important parameter
in areas like laser operation and time measurement. Spectral purity
is easier to achieve in devices that generate visible and ultraviolet
light, since higher frequency light results in greater spectral purity.
The actual sources of light are not perfectly monochromatic but
they consist of a sequence of harmonic wave trains of finite length
each separated from the other by a discontinuous change in phase.
The wave train, shown in Figure 1, appears fairly sinusoidal for some
numbers of oscillations between abrupt changes of frequency and
phase. For which we define the coherence length and time as below :
Coherence Length
The distance for which the field remains sinusoidal is called coherent
length. We denote it by l0 . We may consider coherence length as
approximately equal to the length of the wave train, cDt , over which
its phase is predictable.
Coherence Time
The average time interval during which the light wave remains
sinusoidal is known as coherence time. Coherence time is denoted by
t0 . We can therefore write
l0 = cDt
and t 0 = Dt
Thus, l0 = ct0
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or, 2pDn = 2p
t0
or, Dn = 1
t0
or, t0 = 1
Dn
where Dn denotes the frequency distribution in Hz. Substituting t0
in Eq. (1), we get
l0 = c ...(2)
Dn
Also, we know the frequency of a wave is
n=c
l
where l is the wavelength of propagating wave. Differentiating both
the sides, we obtain
Dn =- c2 Dl ...(3)
l
From Eqs. (2) and (3), we obtain (neglecting negative sign)
2
l0 = l ...(4)
Dl
2
or, Dl = l
l0
where Dl is called the natural line width. Therefore, for obtaining a
well defined interference, the coherence length l0 should be large. In
other words, we can say that a beam of infinite coherence length l0
will be strictly monochromatic. The coherence length may be defined
as the product of the number of wave oscillations N contained in the
wave train and of the wavelength, l . Thus,
l0 = Nl ...(5)
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or, Dl = 1 ...(6)
l N
Eq. (6) shows that the larger the number of wave oscillations in a
wave packet, the smaller is the bandwidth.
Ans :
We have l = 6 # 10-7
Bandwidth Dl = 10-11 m
Coherence Length in terms of wavelength is given by
2
l0 = l
Dl
^6 # 10-7h
2
=
10-11
= 36 # 10-3 = 36 mm
Ans :
Refer Q.4
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Ans :
The light emitted by a source is characterized by spread in frequency
about the central frequency. The higher is the frequency spread, the
less is the monochromaticity and less is the degree of coherence. The
coherent time is related to frequency as
t0 = 1 ...(1)
Dn
The quality factor of light, Q for a light pulse is given by
Q= n = l ...(2)
Dn Dl
Now the wavelength of light l is related to frequency as
n = c where c is the speed of light ...(3)
l
On differentiate both the sides, we get
Dn = c2 ^- Dlh = c2 Dl ...(4)
l l
Substitute this value of Dn in Eq. (1), we have
l2
t0 =
cDl
And coherence length is
2
l0 = t0 c = l
Dl
= l .Q ...(5)
Thus, the longitudinal coherent length is wavelength times the
quality factor. Temporal coherence will come into play when waves
travel in the same direction. Let us take the example of Michelsons
interferometer. The two beams after travelling distances d1 and d2
reach at the beam splitter and then telescope. The path-difference
between the beams is calculated by 2^d1 - d2h . Now for observable
interference, the condition is
2^d1 - d2h < l0
Thus, we can say when we increase the separation ^d1 - d2h , the
contrast of fringes decreases.
Quality Factor
All practical wave trains emitted by atoms of molecules have a finite
length l0 or time span T0 . This has two consequences :
(i) A phase relation would not exist for distance larger than l0 . i.e.,
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Ans :
Given, l = 650 nm = 650 # 10-9 m ,
t0 = 0.5 ns = 0.5 # 10-9 sec
(a) Coherence length is given by
l0 = ct0
= 3 # 108 # 0.5 # 10-9
= 0.15 m
(b) Bandwidth is given by
3n = 1
t0
= 1 = 2 # 109 Hz
0.5 # 10-9
(c) Line width is given by
2
3 l = l #3 n
c
^650 # 10-9h2 ^2 # 109h
=
3 # 108
c
= 0.028 A
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Ans :
We have
l = 694.3 nm = 694.3 # 10-9 m ,
3 l = 0.001 nm = 10-12 m
(a) Spectral purity factor is
Q= l
3l
= 694.3 # 10-9
-12
10
= 6.943 # 105
Ans :
We have, c
l = 5890 A
= 5890 # 10-10 m ,
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t0 = 10-10 sec
Maximum thickness of film that can be measured using interference
should by equal to its coherence length. Therefore
l0 = ct0
= 3 # 108 # 10-10 = 3 cm
*******
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CHAPTER 4
OPTICAL FIBERS
or
or
or
or
Ans :
An optical fibre is consists of a central part, called core of refractive
index n1 having diameter from 1 mm to 10 mm . The construction is
shown In figure 1. The core is surrounded by another transparent
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multimode fibre.
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1 - a n2 k
2
Therefore, NA = n1
n1
NA = n 12 - n 22 (4)
The significance of NA is that light entering in the cone of
semivertical angle i only propagate through the fibre. The higher
the value of im or NA, more is the light collected for propagation in
the fibre. Numerical Aperture is thus light gathering capacity of an
optical fibre-one of the characteristic parameters.
In practice optical fibres are designed by slightly reducing the
refractive index of cladding by adding impurities. So, parameter used
is relative refractive index change, 3 defined as
3 = n1 - n2 = 1 - n2
n1 n1
or n2 = (1 - 3) ...(5)
n1
Substituting Eq. (5) in Eq. (4), we find that
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no sin im = NA = n1 1 - (1 - 3) 2
NA = n1 1 - 1 - 3 2 + 2 3
As 3 is small 32 is negligible as compared to 3. Therefore,
NA = no sin im = n1 2 3 ...(6)
n1
or im = sin-1 a no 2 3k
Ans :
Transmission of light through optical fibre has a wide variety of
applications. Two of these applications are described below :
Optical Communication
The electronic communications were carried out by sending electrical
signals through copper cables, coaxial cables or waveguides. In recent
years, Optical fibre cables are used for the communication of video
as well as audio signals. In one second, optical fibres are capable of
transmitting information equivalent to three episodes of a television
program.
Two small optical fibres are capable of transmitting information
with nil possibility of cross talks between neighbouring fibres because
there is no leakage of the signal. Thus it can be concluded that use of
fibre optic systems has improved transmission distance, information
density and speed of transmission, with a reduction in error rate and
nil electromagnetic interference. Optical fibre cable can be safely
used for signal transmission near the nuclear installations because
plastic cladded silica fibres resist to nuclear radiations.
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Medical Applications
Optical fibre have many applications in the field of medical. Some of
these described as follows :
(i) Diagnosis : The fibre endoscopes are basic diagnostic tools for
medicine and used to inspect internal organs for diagnostic
purpose.
(ii) Opthalmology : A laser beam guided by optical fibres are used
to reattach detached retina and to correct defective vision in
ophthalomology.
(iii) Cardiology : In Cardiology, optical energy transmitted through
an optical fibre is used to evaporate built-up plaque that is
blocking an artery which might cause heart attacks.
(iv) Cancer Treatment : In the treatment of cancer, the optical fibre
technology is also used.
Ans :
Given, NA = 0.22 , 3 = 0.012
Relation between NA and relation refraction index difference is given
by
NA = mcore 2 3
0.22 = mcore 2 # 0.012
mcore = 0.22 = 1.42
0.155
mcore - mcladding
Also 3=
mcore
1.42 - mcladding
0.012 =
1.42
or mcladding = 1.42 - 0.01704
= 1.403
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Ans :
The normalized frequency V number is given by
V = 2pa n 12 - n 22
l
2 # p # (30 # 10-6)
= 1.52 - 1.472
800 # 10-9
= 70.33
For step index fibre number of modes
2 2
N = V = 70.33 = 2473
2 2
5. For a step index fibre having core index 1.43 and cladding index 1.4,
calculate:
(i) Critical angle
(ii) Critical propagation angle
(iii) Numerical aperture
RTU 2012
Ans :
(a) The critical angle is
m2
fc = sin-1 e o
m1
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Ans :
(a) Given, m1 = 1.6 , m2 = 1.5
Numerical aperture, NA = m12 - m22
= ^1.6h2 - ^1.5h2 = 0.31 = 0.556
Acceptance angle, f = sin-1 m12 - m22
= sin-1 ^0.556h = 33.77c
(b) Given, m1 = 2.1, m2 = 1.5
Numerical aperture
NA = m12 - m22
= ^2.1h2 - ^1.5h2 = 2.16 = 1.46
Acceptance angle, f = sin-1 m12 - m22
= sin-1 ^1.46h = Does not exist
Because the values of sin f lie between - 1 to 1.
Ans :
(i) Fibroscope
Because of small compact size, optical fibres are used as image
transmitters. Flexible fibroscopes shown in Figure 1 are used in
medical sciences. The set of outer fibres conduct light to illuminate
the object and the set of inner fibres show image. Optical fibre
endoscopes are also common in use and designed on the same
principle.
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(ii) Sensor
In simplest form, it consists of a Y-coupler. Two bundles of optical
fibres are cemented or fused along the common length as shown in
Figure 2. Generally laser light is incident on one part and reflected
light is received at the other part. The biosensor designed in this way
be used to measure blood pressure, temperature sense pH, etc.
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Two beams from a laser are injected into the same fiber but in
opposite directions. Due to the Sagnac effect, the beam travelling
against the rotation experiences a slightly shorter path delay than
the other beam. The resulting differential phase shift is measured
through interferometry, thus translating one component of the
angular velocity into a shift of the interference pattern which is
measured photometrically.
Beam splitting optics launches light from a laser diode into
two waves propagating in the clockwise and anticlockwise directions
through a coil consisting of many turns of optical fibre. The strength
of the Sagnac effect is dependent on the effective area of the closed
optical path: this is not simply the geometric area of the loop but is
enhanced by the number of turns in the coil.
A FOG provides extremely precise rotational rate information,
in part because of its lack of cross-axis sensitivity to vibration,
acceleration, and shock. Unlike the classic spinning-mass gyroscope,
the FOG has no moving parts and doesnt rely on inertial resistance
to movement. Hence, this is perhaps the most reliable alternative to
the mechanical gyroscope. Because of their intrinsic reliability, FOGs
are used for high performance space applications.
Ans :
Given, NA = 0.20 , m0 = 1 (for air), m2 = 1.59
Numerical aperture,
NA = m12 - m22
m1 = ^NAh2 + m22
= ^0.20h2 + ^1.59h2 = 1.60
For water, m0 = 1.33
m12 - m22
NA =
m0
^1.60h2 - ^1.59h2
= = 0.13
1.33
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Ans :
Given, n1 = 1.45 , 3= 0.01
Numerical aperture is given by
NA = n1 2 3
= 1.45 2 # 0.01 = 0.205
Maximum acceptance angle is
f0 = sin-1 ^NAh
= sin-1 ^0.205h = 11.83c
*******
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CHAPTER 5
LASERS
or
or
or
Ans :
Einstein explained the action of laser beam based on quantum
theory of light. Production of laser light is a particular consequence
of interaction of radiation with matter. Radiation interacts with
matter under appropriate conditions and may lad to the transition
of an atom or a molecule from one energy state to another. If the
transition is from a higher state to a lower state, the system gives a
part of its energy. But, if the transition is in the reverse directions,
then it absorbs the incident energy.
There are three possible ways through which interaction of
radiation and matter can take place. Among the three types, one is
absorption that is also known as induced absorption and the other
two are emissions.
The emissions of radiation can occur in two ways as suggested
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Both the inducing photon and the emitted photon will have
the same phase, energy and direction of movement. This kind of
emission is responsible for laser action, i.e., the stimulated emission
of radiation is the principle used in laser action.
The rate of stimulated emission of radiation R21 ^st h is
proportional to the population N2 at the higher energy level E2 and
to the density r of the inducing photon.
i.e., R21 ^st h \ N2 r
Thus R21 ^st h = B21 N2 r ...(3)
where B21 is the proportionality constant known as the probability
of stimulated emission of radiation per unit time.
The coefficients B12, A21 and B21 in the equations (1), (2), (3) are
called the Einsteins coefficients.
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Thus N2 = ec k T m = e -^kE TE h
B
2- 1
N1 ec k-ET m
B
1
N2 = ec k-hvT m [Since hv = E2 - E1
N1
B
or N1 = ec khvT m ...(8)
N2
B
or r = A21 1 ...(10)
B21
B12 ec khvT m - 1
;c B21 m E B
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or
or
Ans :
He-Ne Laser is a gas Laser. In gas Lasers, gases work as the active
medium. It is a four-level Laser and operates in continuous working
(CW) mode. Its usual operation wavelength is 632.8 nm in the red
region of the visible spectrum. He-Ne Lasers have many industrial
and scientific uses and often used in laboratory demonstrations of
optics.
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The first state of the helium to be excited, 2 1s1 and 2 1s0 are
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metastable states with life times 10-6 to 10-4 sec and energy around
20.61 eV i.e. optical transitions to the ground state 1 1s0 are not
allowed because this would contaminate the selection rules for optical
transitions. As a result of gas discharge, these states are populated
by electron collisions. A collision is called of the second type, if one of
the colliding bodies transfer energy to the other so that a transition
from the previous energy state to the next higher or lower takes
place, apart from the electron collision of the second type.
In the latter, an excited helium atom reaches the initial state
because its energy has been used in the excitation of a Ne atom. Both
these processes from the basic for the production of a population
inversion in the Ne system.
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Role of He
Neon atoms are the active centers and have energy levels suitable
for Laser transition while helium atoms help in exciting neon atoms.
The mixture of these gases at low pressure form the Laser medium.
or
Ans :
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N1
The condition in which, the number of atoms in lower level,
i.e. N1 is greater than that of the atoms in excited states, i.e. N2 is
called normal condition or thermal equilibrium. Thus under thermal
equilibrium N1 >> N2 . The graph between E and N using Maxwell
Boltzmann distribution equation is shown in Fig. 4.5.1.
From figure, the concentration of lower energy level is higher
than that of the excited energy level. For producing emission from
higher energy level, the population of higher level must be as high
as possible. If the number of atoms (population) of higher energy
level is more than that of the low energy level, than it is known as
population inversion. The Laser beam emission appear only when
Rate of (stimulated + spontaneous) emission > Rate of absorption
or, B21 r ^n h N2 + A21 N2 > B12 r ^n h N1
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(iii) Pumping
For achieving and maintaining the condition of population inversion,
it is required to raise continuously the atoms in the lower energy
level to the upper energy level. It is done with energy supplied to the
system. Pump is the agency which supplies the energy.
Hence, pumping is the process of supplying energy to the Laser
medium with a view to transfer it into the state of population
inversion. As N1 is originally very much larger than N2 , a large
amount of input energy is required to instantly increase N2 to a
value comparable to N1 .
4. What are the basic requirements of semi conductor laser? Draw its
label diagram and explain its working with necessary theory. Write
down the applications of semiconductor laser.
RTU 2014, 2010
or
or
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or
Ans :
Semiconductor Lasers works at room temperature and in continuous
wave mode. They are small, efficient Laser devices with dimensions
less than a square millimeter. Their operating wavelengths are
from 0.6 to 1.55 mm depending on the Laser medium materials.
Semiconductor Lasers requires low operating power and have high
efficiencies. But they, do not narrow line width in other Lasers. Now,
pn-Junction Lasers are made to emit light almost anywhere in the
spectrum from UV to IR. It is already been used in millions fibre
optic communications, Laser disk audio systems and so on.
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(a)
(b)
Fig 2 : Energy level diagram of p-n junction Laser diode (a) Under
thermal equilibrium (b) When a forward bias voltage is applied
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Ans :
Laser is a device in which intense, monochromatic, coherent and
unidirectional light beam is obtained. It was discovered in 1950,
by Town and Shallow. The word laser is the acronym of light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
A laser produces a beam of light whose waves have the same
frequency (monochromatic), are in phase with one another (coherent)
and well collimated Figure 1 Shows a laser beam
Fig 1:
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Fig 2:
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Ans :
Energy of Emitted laser light
E1 = hc
l
^6.626 # 10-34h # ^3 # 108h
=
690 # 10-9
= 1.8 eV
Therefore energy of excited stage
E2 = 30.5 eV + 1.8 eV
= 32.3 eV
Ans :
Given l = 1064 nm = 1064 # 10-9 m , P = 0.8 W
Pulse width = 3t = 25 ms = 25 # 10-3 sec
(i) The energy released per pulse is given by
E = P #3t
= 0.8 # 25 # 10-3 = 0.02 J
(ii) The number of photons that each pulse contain is
N = E = El
hn hc
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Ans :
Given, P = 50 mW = 50 # 10-3 W , a = 5 # 10-3 m
c , Focal length of lens = 0.1 m
l = 7200 A
Angular spread is given by the relation
dq = l
a
-10
= 7200 # 10 -3
= 1.44 # 10-4 radian
5 # 10
Aerial spread is
= ^ fdqh2 = ^0.1 # 1.44 # 10-4h2
= 2.074 # 10-10 m2
Now the intensity of the image is
I = Power
Areal spread
= 50 # 10-3
2.074 # 10-10
= 2.411 # 108 W/m2
Ans :
Q-switching :
Q-switching is a technique for obtaining short, intense bursts of
pulses from Lasers. To get Laser action, little population inversion
is not sufficient. As the light bounces back and forth in the optical
resonator, it undergoes amplification as well as it suffers various loses.
Since there are losses, the inversion density must be high enough to
produce gain compensating these losses. The inversion density for
which gain is equal to the loss is called threshold inversion density.
If we independently introduce some losses inside the cavity, the
threshold inversion density increases. Hence we can develop the
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Mode Locking :
Mode locking is a method (or actually a group of methods) of
producing periodic, high power, short duration Laser pulses. Here,
the Laser resonator contains either an active element (an optical
modulator) or a nonlinear passive element (a saturable absorber),
which causes the formation of an ultrashort pulse circulating in the
Laser resonator.
The output from Laser cavity may support oscillations in many
modes accordingly. The output of such type of Laser varies with
time and depends on the relative phase, frequencies and amplitudes
of the modes. In the steady state, the various effects influencing
the circulating pulse are in a balance so that the pulse parameters
are unchanged after each completed round trip or often even nearly
constant throughout each round trip. Each time the pulse hits the
output coupler mirror, a usable pulse is emitted, so that a regular
pulse train leaves the Laser.
Suppose we force the modes of maintain the same relative phase
with respect to one another, then the output of the Laser consists
of a sequence of short pulses, separated in time by 2L/C , where
L is the length of the cavity, each of peak power equal to N times
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10. Find the intensity of laser beam of 20 mW and diameter 1.5 mm.
Assume the intensity to be uniform throughout the beam.
RTU 2011
Ans :
Given P = 20 mW
= 20 # 10-3 W
d = 1.5 mm
= 1.5 # 10-3 m
Intensity I = Power
Area
= 4P2
pd
= 4 # 20 # 10-3
3.14 # ^1.5 # 10-3h2
= 11.32 kW/m2
Ans :
Aperture a = 0.5 cm = 5 # 10-3 m ,
Wavelength, l = 8 # 10-7 m
Distance of moon
D = f = 4 # 108 m
(a) Angular spread in given by
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dq = l
a
-7
= 8 # 10-3
5 # 10
= 1.6 # 10-4 rad
(b) Aerial spread at moon
^ fdqh2 = ^1.6 # 10-4 # 4 # 108h
2
= 4.096 # 109 m2
12. Outline various processes that occur when atoms interact with
radiation field.
RTU 2010, 2008
Ans :
Einstein explained the action of laser beam based on quantum
theory of light. Production of laser light is a particular consequence
of interaction of radiation with matter. Radiation interacts with
matter under appropriate conditions and may lad to the transition
of an atom or a molecule from one energy state to another. If the
transition is from a higher state to a lower state, the system gives a
part of its energy. But, if the transition is in the reverse directions,
then it absorbs the incident energy.
There are three possible ways through which interaction of
radiation and matter can take place :
(i) Stimulated absorption
(ii) Spontaneous emission
(iii) Stimulated emission
13. Give the reasons for the following basic properties of a laser :
(i) High Intensity
(ii) High directionality
RTU 2007
Ans :
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= P
pl2 f 2 /r2
= 1
7.0 # 10-10
= 1.4 # 109 W/m2
So that even a small power of 1 W can given an intensity of 109 W/m2
, which is extremely large.
(ii) Directionality
The output beam of Laser has a well-defined wavefront therefore,
Laser is highly directive non-diverging beam at all photons are added
in phase have the same momentum, caused by diffraction effects.
The high directionality allows us to focus it into a point by passing
the beam through a suitable convex lens. If we consider the light
of wavelength l = 6000 A c , focal length of the lens is 5 cm and the
radius of the beam, r = 2 mm , then the area of the spot at the focal
plane is of the order of
pl2 f 2 p^6 # 10-7h2 ^5 # 10-2h2
=
^2 # 10-3h
2 2
r
= 7.1 # 10-10 m2
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RU 2004
Ans :
Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
1 The emission of The stimulated emission is
electromagnetic radiation by a process in which excited
a group of atoms or atomic- atomic sized systems emit
sized systems which undergoes radiation of same frequency
transition from higher energy under influence of photon of
state to lower energy state energy equal to the difference
with no outside influence is between two transition levels.
called spontaneous emission.
2 It is very difficult to control The process of stimulated
the process of spontaneous emission can be controlled
emission from outside. from outside.
3 The emitted light during The light produced during
spontaneous emission is neither stimulated emission is both
coherent nor monochromatic. coherent and monochromatic.
4 The rate of spontaneous The probability of this
emission probability remains emission depends upon energy
constant. density of incident radiation.
15. What are spontaneous and induced emission ? How could probability
of stimulated emission be increased.
RU 2004
Ans :
Refer Q.1
*******
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CHAPTER 6
HOLOGRAPHY
or
or
or
or
Ans :
Holography is a three-dimensional (3D) lensless photography,
in which an image is captured as an interference pattern. The
interference pattern (image ) thus recorded is called a hologram,
which is true 3D record of the object. In Holography, the process of
the image formation is a two-step process, i.e. it is carried out in the
following two steps :
Recording of Hologram
In this process, the object is transformed into a photographic
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or
Ans :
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Holographic Microscopy
In holographic microscopy, a laser beam passes through the specimen
being studied and then through a microscope. To produce hologram,
this beam interferes with the reference beam. Any cross- section of
the specimen can be seen after reconstruction of the image. If l r and
l s are the wavelength of reconstructing light and the wavelength used
in holography respectively then the magnification (m ) associated
with reconstruction is given by
Wavelength of light used for reconstruction l r
m= =
Wavelength of light used for recording ls
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Holographic Interferometry
Holography is widely used in making precise interferometer
measurements. Conventional interferometry is used to make
measurements on highly polished surfaces of simple shapes. With the
help of holographic interferometry ,we can make measurements on
there dimensional surfaces of arbitrary shapes and surface conditions.
For example, objects undergoing pressure or heat stress in machines
can be monitored holographically. Different procedures are followed
for the application of holographic interferometric techniques.
In the double exposure interferometry, two exposures of the
same emulsion are made with the same reference wave, one with
the original object and the other with the object to be compared.
The reconstructed object wave from the two interfere and produce
the interference pattern, which can be used to compare the two
objects. Usually, the two objects correspond to the same object
under different conditions of strain.
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or
Ans :
Hologram differs from photograph in many ways, which are described
below :
Holography Photography
Holography requires In photography, there is no need of
1 monochromatic, coherent light monochromatic, coherent source,
source, i.e. laser light. i.e. it uses a ordinary light.
It produces a three-dimensional
It produces a two-dimensional
2 (3D) image without using the
(2D) image with the use of lenses.
lenses.
Record the distribution of both Record the distribution of
3
amplitude and phase. amplitude alone.
Hologram receives light from In a photograph, recorded
every point of a image and hence negative has definite correlation
there is no one to one relationship. with recorded image as the light
4
These are interference fringes- originating from a particular point
lines, rings etc. and so there is of image is collected by a lens
no correlation. focused on that particular point.
In photography, the light reflected
Holography is constructed by
from the object is made to incident
means of interference of light
on photographic film. Due to the
5 between the reference beam
chemical reaction between the light
and the light reflected from the
and the chemical coated on the
object.
film, the image is formed.
In a photography each point of
In hologram all points of
object relates to a conjugate point
object relate to each point of a
in the image. If the negative is
6 hologram. Thus the entire image
broken into several pieces, it is not
can be reconstructed using a
possible to construct the original
small broken piece of hologram.
image.
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Applications of a hologram.
Apart from the above mentioned applications, holography has many
other important applications. Some important applications are listed
below :
(i) Holographic 3D images of eyes and interferometric testing of
human teeth, chest motion during respiration were carried
out quite easily.
(ii) Holograms are used for security in many industries. Other
security uses include clothing hand tags, certificates, tickets,
passes, many kind of identification and membership cards,
debit and credit cards, etc.
(iii) Holograms made with X-rays or ultraviolet rays are able
to record images of particles smaller than visible light such
as atoms or molecules. For example Microwave holography
detects images deep in space by recording radiowaves they
emit.
(iv) Holographic techniques, such as holographic endoscopies,
X-rays holography, laser holograms are frequently used to
diagnose dangerous diseases.
(v) 3D acoustical hologram of an opaque object is used to see
internal structure of an object. Such techniques are very
useful in the field of medicine and technology.
(vi) A holographic lens is used in an aircraft head-up display
to allow a fighter pilot to see critical cock it instruments
while looking straight ahead through the wind screen.
(vii) Holography is used for point of purchase advertising taking
the place of a photography of a product.
(viii)Holograms can be recorded to provide the same functions as
refractive optical elements such as lenses and prisms.
(ix) Using holography, a large amount of information can be
stored in high density crystals or photopolymers.
(x) Advanced holographic techniques have a variety of
applications in ophthalmology, urology, otology, pathology
and orthopaedics etc.
(xi) Holograms are commonly found on a host of product,
packaging, including compact disc, computer software,
cosmetics, watches and sporting goods.
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Ans :
There are the following requirements in making holography:
(i) The light source used should be monochromatic, as the fringe
pattern produced is a function of wavelength of the illumination.
(ii) Since holography is an interference phenomenon, there should
not be a path difference between the object wave and the
reference wave more than the coherence length.
(iii) Spatial coherence is important so that the reference wave and
the scattered object waves from different regions can interfere
properly. If the source lacks spatial coherence, then each element
of source will produce interfere fringss, which are displaced from
those of other elements.
(iv) Since reconstructed image coordinates depend on wavelength
as well as position of the reconstructing source, it is necessary
that the source emits a narrow band of wavelength and it is
not broad in the interest of obtaining good resolution in the
reconstructed image.
(v) For obtain aberrations free reconstructed image, it is necessary
that the reconstructing source is of the same wavelength and is
situated at the same position with respect to the hologram as
the reference source.
*******
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CHAPTER 7
NUCLEAR RADIATION DETECTORS
or
or
or
or
Ans :
Geiger-Muller counters work in the same manner as proportional
counters, the main difference being that ion pairs form along the
radiation track and produce avalanche. In Geiger-Muller counters,
one avalanche can produce another avalanche within the counter
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one regardless of its height, the counting rate does not change. This
continues up to V = Vc . Beyond that point, the counting rate will
start increasing again because the HV is so high that spurious and
double pulses may be generated. Counter should not be operated
beyond V = Vc
Quenching
The positive ions striking the cathode liberate electrons. Since the
field at wire is no longer reduced because of positive ions already
reaching the cathode. A single ionising event may cause continuous
discharge. The process of prohibiting the secondary pulse is called as
Quenching. There are two ways of quenching.
1. Internal Quenching : The internal quenching method is
accompanied by adding to the main gas of the counter, a
small amount of a polyatomic organic gas or a halogen gas.
These have relatively large molecules, which tend to absorb
the fluorescent emissions of the noble-gas atoms. They also
have smaller excitation potentials than the latter, so their de-
excitation photons have insufficient energy to ionize the gas
and propagate the discharge further. For satisfactory photon
quenching, the absorption spectrum of the quenching agent
should match the emission spectrum of the noble gas. Methane
and ethanol both satisfy these requirements.
2. External Quenching : In external quenching, the operating
voltage of the counter is decreased, after the start of the
discharge until the ions reach the cathode, to a value for which
the gas multiplication factor is negligible. In this method
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Dead Time
Dead time is time from the initial pulse until another pulse can be
produced by the detector and the Recovery time is the time from
the initial full size pulse to the next full size pulse produced by the
detector.
Recovery Time
The recovery time includes a smaller interval of time known as the
dead time. During the dead time, the detector can not respond to
another ionizing event. The dead time occurs because of the effect
that the large number of positive ions have on the voltage potential
across the detector.
In the recovery time, the detector can respond, but because of
a reduced gas amplification factor, the output pulses are too small
to measure. In most common day-to-day use, the resolving time is
usually called the dead time since for all practical purposes, the
detector is dead until a pulse large enough to trigger the electronics
is created. This is illustrated in Figure 3.
Consider two radioactive sources of strength S1 andS2 . Let n1, n2
be the respective count rates recorded and n12 be the count rate
recorded when sources are taken together. Let t be the resolving
time. Let N1, N2 and N12 be the corrected count rates respectively.
Then we have
N1 = n1 , N2 = n2 , N12 = n12
1 - n1 t 1 - n2 t 1 - n12 t
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we have N1 + N2 = N12
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or
Ans :
Given,
Energy required to produce an ion pair,
W = 35 eV
The number of electron-ion pairs produced in the ionization chamber
Ne = 15 # 10 4
So, Kinetic energy of the a -particle
K.E. = Ne W
= 35 # 15 # 10 4
= 5.25 # 106 eV = 5.25 MeV
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or
or
or
or
Ans :
Scintillation counter measure radiation by analyzing the effects of
the excitation of the detector material by the incident radiation. In
a scintillation detector, this emitted light is collected and measured
to provide an indication of the amount of incident radiation.
Scintillators are materials- solids, liquids, gases- that produce sparks
or scintillations of light when ionizing radiation passes through them.
A common example is a television picture tube.
The coating on the screen is excited by the electron beam
and emits light. A material which scintillates is commonly called a
phosphor or a fluor. The scintillations are commonly detected by a
photomultiplier tube (PMT). Scintillation detectors constitute the
other major class of radiation detectors used in nuclear medicine.
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Ans :
Given,
Counting rate, n = 600 = 600 = 10 counts/ sec
60
No. of electrons per count, k = 108 electrons/count
So, the total number of electrons collected is given by
Ne = (Count rate) # (no. per count)
= 10 # 108 = 109 electrons
Therefore, current due to the flow of electrons is obtained as
q
I = = Ne e
t t
where e = charge on one electron = 1.6 # 10-19 coloumb .
^10 h # ^1.6 # 10 h
9 -19
Hence, I =
1
= 1.6 # 10-10 A = 16 nA
Ans :
This counter works in higher applied potential difference region than
ionization chamber. The small pulse amplitude encountered in ion
chambers can be changed by using gas-filled detectors in a different
manner. A proportional counter is a detector which operates in the
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Ans :
As the plateau slope
S = n2 - n1 # 100
nau V2 - V1
Now we have
^n2 - n1h
= 0.1% = 0.1 # 10-2 = 10-3
nau
or
How will you differentiate between three types of gas detectors viz.
ionization chamber, proportional counter and GM counter?
RTU 2012
Ans :
Ionization chamber, proportional counter, and Gigger Mular (GM)
counters are used to detect particles. These detectors generally
consist of gas enclosed in a metal cylinder; a thin metal wire is put
on the axis of the above cylinder as shown in Figure 1. The wire is
insulated from the outer cylinder. A thin window provides the entry
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of the radiation.
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Ans :
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Given,
Observed counting rate,
n = 1000 counts/sec
Dead time, t = 200 # 10-6 sec
(a) Actual counting rate is given by
N = n
1 - nt
Substituting the given values in above formula, we get
True count rate N = 1000 = 1000
1 - ^1000h # 200 # 10-6 1 - 0.2
= 1250 counts/sec
= 12500 = 12500
1 + ^12500h # 200 # 10-6 1 + 2.50
= 3571.4 count/sec
Ans :
Since 15 a -particle each enter micro second, i.e. each second 15 # 106
particle enter. Hence
The total energy of particles entering the chamber is
K.E = 15 # 106 # 5 # 106 eV = 75 # 1012 eV
Energy needed to produce on ion pair is 35.2 eV. So no of ion -pair
produced
12
Ne = 75 # 10 eV = 2.13 # 1012 pair
35.2eV
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Ionization Current
N e 2.13 # 10 # ^1.6 # 10 h
12 -19
I = e =
t 1
= 3.41 # 10-7 A
Ans :
The advantage of proportional counter over GM counter are that it
can be
(1) operated at reduced voltage
(2) the organic quenching gas is not rapidly utilized and
(3) there is no dead time during each pulse.
Ans :
Given, I = 4.8 # 10-13 Amp
If E (eV) be the energy of a-particles, then the total energy of 20
a- particles is
E20 = 20E eV
In producing ion pairs 35 eV per ion pair energy is needed, then the
number of ion pairs produced per second is
Ne = 20E
35
Thus the charge possessed by these ion pairs per second (current) is
I = 20E eV
35
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Ans :
Given,
The efficiency of counter,
h = 90% = 0.9
Maximum count rate of GM counter,
n = 6000 counts/minute
= 100 counts/sec
Since, the efficiency of GM counter is defined as
h= n (1)
N
where n is the observed count rate and N is the actual count rate
given by
N = n (2)
1 - nt
where t is the dead time. So, from Eqs. (1) and (2), we obtain
h = ^1 - nt h
1-h
or, t=
n
= 1 - 0.9
100
= 1 # 10-3 sec = 1 ms
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13. A G.M. counter with a dead time of 300 m sec records 16000 counts/
min. What is the dead time loss in the counting rate ?
RTU 2010
Ans :
Given,
Observed counting rate,
n = 16000 counts/min
-6
Dead time, t = 300 # 10 = 5 # 10-6 min
60
Actual counting rate is given by
N = n
1 - nt
Substituting the given value in above formula, we get
N = 16000
1 - ^16000h # 5 # 10-6
= 16000
1 - 0.08
= 17391 counts/min
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