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ABSTRACT
small business ventures for quite some time, arguing that entrepreneurial ventures are small
growth-oriented, strategically-innovative firms, while small business ventures are neither growth
oriented nor strategically innovative. However, scholars often treat both types of ventures
analogously in terms of both construct and theory, which poses clear problems given their
differences. As a result, we may have missed opportunities to advance both our understanding of
new firm survival and growth and our understanding of how theoretical perspectives in strategic
management apply to entrepreneurial and small business ventures. Since we understand far less
about the strategies of small firms than the strategies of large firms, these problems present a
substantial opportunity to refine strategic management theory for the entrepreneurial and small
business contexts. Thus, in this study we examine the extent to which small firms may engage in
find the essence of small firm strategy is to stay small. We discuss the implications of our
INTRODUCTION
What do Apple, Dell Computer, Microsoft, and McDonalds all have in common? They all
started as small businesses. While virtually all businesses start out small (Aldrich & Auster,
1986), many never move beyond small business ventures, which are businesses that are
independently owned and operated, not dominant in its field, and does not engage in any new
marketing or innovative practices, while a select few become entrepreneurial ventures which
pursue profitability and growth through innovative strategic practices (Carland, Hoy, Boulton, &
Carland, 1984: 358). Yet, strategic management theories at their essence are growth-oriented
(e.g. Penrose, 1959) and the predominant assumption is that small firm strategy should be
growth oriented as well (Aldrich & Auster, 1986; Covin & Slevin, 1989; Merz, Weber, & Laetz,
1994). However, 99.5% of all businesses in the U.S. (U.S. SBA, 2007) are defined as small, with
the overwhelming majority of firms being neither growth-oriented nor strategically innovative
(Carland et al. 1984). In fact, only a very tiny fraction of small businesses ever grow into
successful large firms (Bracker & Pearson, 1986). This gap between the theories in strategic
management and the business contexts, to which they are applied, raises an important question:
Do the growth-seeking tenets of strategic management theory apply only to 0.5% of firms in the
Entrepreneurial ventures and small businesses both play important roles for economic
growth and job creation in society (Solomon, 1986; Storey 1994). Given their importance, can
we accept the Carland and colleagues (1984) assertion that small firms are neither innovative
nor strategic? If we assume that most firms face competition of some sort, then should not all
such small firms theoretically pursue some form of strategy? If so, most prior research on small
firm strategy, which tends to lump non-growth-oriented small firms with growth-oriented firms,
may have missed substantial opportunities to understand better, how theoretical perspectives in
believe opportunities have been missed to: 1) Differentiate forms of strategy among different
types of small firms; and 2) To help explore the relevance and applicability of strategic
management theories to the context of small firms. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to
explore the types of strategies that small firms may theoretically pursue and then to test how
these strategies may affect their performance. Through this study, we seek to contribute by (1)
examining the extent to which small firms may engage in strategic behaviors to determine the
applicability of strategic management theories to the contexts; (2) improving our understanding
of the effectiveness and performance implications of different strategies for the context, and, (3)
enriching our understanding of the strategic management practices that dominate economic
activity.
We organize this paper in the following manner. First, we explore important differences
between small and large firms to determine how these differences might affect the applicability
of strategic management theories and the strategy choices available to small businesses. Then we
examine specific approaches to strategy preferred most strongly by small businesses (NFIB,
2003) and test hypotheses relating these strategy approaches to performance measures. We then
present and discuss our results and conclude with implications for researchers and practitioners.
THEORY DEVELOPMENT
In the United States, a business is defined as small if it has 500 or fewer employees
(U.S. SBA, 2007). Two primary reasons why small firms exist are: (1) to provide goods and
services to satisfy customers needs in a manner that they will continue to use and recommend the
firms goods and services (i.e. customer service business) and (2) to create desired goods and
services so that the investment in the firm is converted to cash as quickly as possible (i.e. cash
conversion business) (Reider, 2008: 17). This emphasis on fostering repeat customers
(sustainability) and steady cash flow (rent accrual) indicates that (successful) small firms pursue
strategic behaviors, and helps to explain how small firms survive, but not necessarily why they
remain small. However, there are a number of other factors that limit small firm growth. This is
because small firms have scale, scope, and learning liabilities and disadvantages relative to large
firms (Stinchcombe, 1965; Welsh & White, 1981). For example, small firms tend to produce a
small volume (scale) of a few products (scope) and typically have a limited capacity for
acquiring knowledge (learning) (Nooteboom, 1993). Small firms differ from large firms in that
they are often resource poor (Welsh & White, 1981) and therefore require different approaches
to strategy, especially in the early stage of a firms existence when the two most important issues
are survival and growth (Aldrich & Auster, 1986). Smaller and younger firms both have limited
resources that are also less valuable than those possessed by larger and older firms. One reason
for this is that smaller and younger firms pay lower wages and offer lower returns to their
employees (Oosterbeek and Van Praag, 1995; Van Praag & Versloot, 2007; Wunnava & Ewing,
2000), they employ individuals with lower levels of human capital (Troske, 1999; Winter-Ebmer
& Zweimuller, 1999), and realize lower levels of capital-skill complementarity (Troske, 1999)
than larger and older firms do. This relative scarcity of resources in small and young firms makes
them more vulnerable to external threats and internal missteps than larger and older firms
(Moore, 2001).
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Small Business Strategies
Despite differences in resource endowments between small and large firms, small firms
do have advantages. First, it is much easier for a small firm manager to attend to the countless
details in running a competitive business when the business is small and the details involve only
a handful of employees and (Slevin & Covin, 1995). Therefore, unlike the managers in most
large firms, the manager(s) of small firms have the ability to influence directly the performance
of their organizations (Wiklund, 1998). Further, in many small firms the owner is typically very
personally involved (often as the hands on manager), has often made a high investment in the
business, and has motives for the firm other than simple maximization of shareholder returns
(Reid & Smith, 2000). Small firms can also often adapt more quickly and benefit more
effectively to changes in the environment than large firms can (Slevin & Covin, 1995).. For
example, recent consolidation of the banking industry, has created a dissatisfied, underserved
customer base opening opportunities for small local and regional banks, who can provide much
better customer service (Tatge, 2003). Given these advantages, small firms are often better off
using their simplicity, flexibility, and ability to respond to opportunities more quickly than large
firms and/or by specializing in niche markets where they can avoid head-to-head competition
with larger, more resource rich, firms. In general, smaller firms have been successful by
identifying and exploiting niches in specialization, quality, size (produces only small lots), price
(sell at a discount all the time), service (high level of service), and location (limits itself to
both the opportunities and constraints are different from those in large organizations (Cooper,
1981). Small firms go through stages inception, survival, growth, expansion, and maturity
differently than large firms that pose unique challenges to their managers (Scott & Bruce, 1987).
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Small Business Strategies
And most small firms, may not even experienced all the stages of a firms life cycle (some
indeed may reach maturity without ever going through growth or expansion) that their larger
counterparts have (Churchill & Lewis, 1983). Unlike larger and older firms, which have
experience significant growth and expansion, enjoy economies of scale and/or scope, and have
achieved the stage of resource maturity (Churchill & Lewis, 1983; Scott & Bruce, 1987), most
small firms are not growth-seeking and age to maturity operating persistently in the stage of
survival, often until they fail due to an insufficient financial reward to remain in business or a
As we have discussed thus far, because small firms vary substantially in their resource
positions (Cooper, 1981), the goals and objectives of their founders (Carter, Gartner, Shaver, &
Gatewood, 2003; Evans & Leighton, 1989; 1990), and their potential for survival and interests in
growth (van Praag, 2003), small firms will also likely vary substantially in the types of strategies
they pursue. However, growth is a core assumption of strategic management theories, yet as we
have argued previously, for a variety of reasons, the vast majority of firms are and remain small,
pursuing strategies to survive, either not wishing to, or not successfully pursuing and achieving
the growth strategies of large firms. Such strategies for survival may be characterized by tactics
such as using minimal overhead (Ebben & Johnson, 2006; Winborg & Landstrom, 2001),
choosing an attractive industry (Stearns, Carter, Reynolds, & Williams, 1995), and building a
loyal customer base (Liao & Chuang, 2004). Conversely, strategies for (small firm) growth may
be characterized by tactics such as a focus on management and workforce training to grow the
size of the employee base, issuing equity to external stakeholders to fund growth, developing
technological sophistication to monitor and manage growth, seeking flexibility to adjust to new
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Small Business Strategies
and changing markets, and introducing new products (Storey, 1994). Since most small firms
appear to pursue survival strategies (Carland et al. 1984), and survival predominately depends
upon a loyal customer base (Reider, 2008), we decided to narrow our scope of small business
strategies to focus on exploring two strategic approaches consistent with building a loyal
customer base -- providing the highest possible quality, and providing better customer service
(Liao & Chuang, 2004). Since another strategic approach to small business survival includes
minimal use of resources (Ebben & Johnson, 2006; Winborg & Landstrom, 2001), we also retain
this approach within the scope of our study. In the next sections, we review the literature on
these different strategies and offer testable hypotheses about the relationship between their use
and a small firms ability to survive and grow. Through examining the relationship between
these dominant small business strategies and their effects on survival and growth, we can shed
some light on the differences and applicability of strategic management theory to the small
business context.
A firm is able to differentiate itself from competitors if it can be unique at something that
is valuable to customers beyond simply offering a low price (Porter, 1985). One way of perhaps
the most common was for a firm to differentiate itself from its competitors is to offer products or
services at a higher level of quality. Such differentiation can lead to competitive advantage and
superior performance when the price premium for the differentiation exceeds its additional costs
(Porter, 1985). The resource-based view also suggests that in order to achieve superior
performance through differentiation, a firm must possess and use valuable, rare, costly to imitate,
and nonsubstitutable resources in its strategy (Barney, 1991, 2001). Because small businesses
7
Small Business Strategies
are resource constrained, they must rely on individual-specific resources to compete against
larger firms (Alvarez & Busenitz, 2001). Individual-specific resources can be an advantage for
small firms because it is easier for managers to organize their limited resources in ways that
concentrate on fulfilling the needs of a small customer base (Morris, 2001). As argued earlier, on
advantage of small businesses over large businesses, is that managers of small firms are better
able to focus on running a totally competitive business with only a handful of employees
because their size and control allows adaptability and rapid response (Slevin & Covin, 1995).
positively related to at least minimum levels of sustained firm performance and competitive
Hypothesis 1a: The extent to which a small firm follows a high quality differentiation
However, if firms who offer a high level of quality in their products and services seek to
grow, they must achieve awareness of their brands in order to reduce advertising costs and
improve customer loyalty. Brand awareness is a dominant choice heuristic in the consumer
choice process (Hoyer & Brown, 1990). Firms advertise with the expectation that increasing
awareness about their brands will increase the likelihood of a consumer purchasing their product
and in turn lead to sales growth (Bogart, 1986). Because smaller firms may have a liability of
newness (Stinchcombe, 1965) and/or have limited resources for advertising, they are less likely
than established, larger firms are to build brand awareness among customer groups. Further,
sales promotions such as advertising are discrete activities that tend to have short-term and
immediate effects on sales (Neslin, 2002). Therefore, a small or new firm may not be able to
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Small Business Strategies
build brand awareness through advertising alone, even if it possessed the resources. Therefore, a
differentiation strategy, based on high quality, is perhaps of more importance for a smaller, or
newer, resource constrained firm as they do not have the resources to build perceived brand
awareness, they can only build brand awareness through reputation and word of mouth. Based
positively related to at least minimum levels of sustained firm performance and competitive
Hypothesis 1b: The extent to which a small firm follows a high quality differentiation
and professional that your customers expectations are exceeded and they look forward to doing
business with your firm again (Reider, 2008: 78). Given that the consumer experience is as
important as, if not more important than, the consumer good (Bowen & Waldman, 1999: 164-
165), one of the advantages of small firm size is the ability to provide a personal touch to the
customers experience (Gross, 1967). Front-line service employees who reside at the interface of
the firm and the customer represent the face of the firm to its customers and play a critical role
in service encounters (Solomon, Suprenant, Czepeil, & Gutman, 1985). To the extent that
employees are able to deliver high-quality services, customers are more likely to have favorable
evaluations of service encounters, experience higher satisfaction, and increase their purchases
and the frequency of their future visits (Borucki & Burke, 1999; Bowen, Siehl, & Schneider,
1989; Liao & Chuang, 2004). The favorable evaluations, high customer satisfaction, and
9
Small Business Strategies
increased visits and purchases should increase both the likelihood that a small firm will be able
performance and competitive advantage (measured through survival) in small firms. Stated
formally:
Hypothesis 2a: The extent to which a small firm pursues a high customer service strategy
positively related to at least minimum levels of sustained firm performance and competitive
Hypothesis 2b: The extent to which a small firm pursues a high customer service strategy
bootstrapping (Winborg & Landstrom, 2001). Bootstrapping is a process of using the minimum
possible amount of all types of resources at each stage in a firms growth (Stevenson, 1984;
Timmons, 1999). This approach is attractive to small firms given their resource poverty positions
because it reduces some of the risk they face in pursuing opportunities by minimizing financial
risks, sunk costs, and fixed costs while optimizing flexibility (Timmons, 1999). Bootstrapping is
essentially a mindset in which the small firm owner begs, borrows, or scavenges the resources it
needs at the time it needs them, instead of accumulating them beforehand (Starr & MacMillan,
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Small Business Strategies
(Timmons, 1999: 322) and investing only if conditions are favorable (McGrath, 1999).
One advantage of a minimal resource bootstrapping strategy gives small firms access to
and control of resources without having to own them (Bygrave & Zacharakis, 2008). In practice,
however, entrepreneurs tend to turn to bootstrapping strategies when they perceive the risk
associated with their new firms to be high (Carter & Van Auken, 2005). In other words, small
firm managers may turn to bootstrapping when they believe their firms are in danger of failing.
At the same time, in small service and retail businesses that are at the end of the value chain,
performance variation may be better explained by limited or poorly developed resources than by
a firms choice of strategy (Brush & Chaganti, 1999). This line of reasoning suggests that
entrepreneurs who minimize their resource bases are either on the verge of failing or do not have
access to resources of sufficient quality or quantity to make the business succeed. Therefore,
based on these arguments, we expect minimal resource strategies, to be negatively related to firm
performance and competitive advantage (measured through survival) in small firms. This leads
Hypothesis 3a: The extent to which a firm relies on a minimal resource strategy will be
A firm employing a minimal resource strategy also has the advantage of fewer sunk and
fixed costs, which provides the firm with more degrees of freedom for how to use its resources
(Winborg & Landstrom, 2001). Small firms that learn how to deal with resource limitations
through their customer and supplier relationships can develop routines that incentivize customers
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Small Business Strategies
to pay up front or earlier and to delay payments to suppliers until the last day possible (Ebben &
Johnson, 2006). Not all small firms will be able to develop such routines, however, because of
differences in their accumulation of experience and how they codify their experience into
organizational routines (Zollo & Winter, 2002). A small firm that is able to develop these
routines creates some leverage with its customers and suppliers as the small firm becomes more
important to them, which in turn imparts legitimacy to the small firm (Ebben & Johnson, 2006).
This legitimacy allows small firms to establish an organizational identity in the minds of their
stakeholders (Clegg, Rhodes, & Kornberger, 2007), to develop other important organizational
routines (Delmar & Shane, 2004), gain access to even more valuable resources (Lounsbury &
Glynn, 2001), and to grow in spite of hostile environments (Ahlstrom & Bruton, 2001).
related to firm performance and competitive advantage (measured through growth) in small
Hypothesis 3b: The extent to which a firm relies on a minimal resource strategy will be
METHODS
Sample
We obtained our data come from a sample of 754 small firms that participated in a survey
by the Gallup Organization in late 2003 (NFIB, 2003). Participating firms ranged in size from
one to 249 employees. The Gallup Organization used a random stratified sample design to
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Small Business Strategies
compensate for the skew toward firms with four or fewer employees (NFIB, 2003). When
necessary, we corrected our data set for missing data as recommended by Roth (1994).
small-businesses: 1) Offering the highest possible quality; and 2) Offering better service (NFIB,
2003). Over 80 percent of small businesses that participated in a national survey on competition
insist that these approaches represent a major portion of the way they attempt to compete (NFIB,
2003). This observation from the data appears logical and consistent with the expectations of
prior research since providing the highest possible quality and better service is consistent with
the survival strategy of building a loyal customer base (Liao & Chuang, 2004). Thus, there
appears to be high face validity of the sample. A third major small business strategy was
operating with minimal overhead. This observation is also consistent with the expectations of
prior research (Stevenson, 1984; Timmons, 1999). Other, less common ways of competing, also
included (in order of significance): maximum use of technology, targeting missed or poorly
served customers, more choices and selection, unique marketing, lower prices, expansion or
growth, a superior location, new or previously unavailable goods and services, alliances or
cooperation with another firm or firms, and franchising (NFIB, 2003). Most of these less
common strategies are consistent with an orientation toward firm growth. For this reason, as well
as due to their low utilization among the small firms in the sample, we excluded them from the
Measures
Dependent variables. The dependent variables in this study are survival and expected
growth. We measure Survival by the number of years a firm has been operating. Larger scale,
older small businesses have higher survival rates over time than smaller, younger firms (Evans,
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Small Business Strategies
1987; Bates, 1995; Bates & Nucci, 1989), and only a fraction of firms from a given cohort of
new firm startups survive (Aldrich & Martinez, 2001; Katz & Gartner, 1984). We measure
Expected growth using a five-point Likert scale question asking Over the next three years, do
you expect this business to: (1) grow significantly, (2) grow quite a bit, (3) grow some, (4) stay
about the same, OR (5) get smaller. We reverse-coded the responses to associate a higher score
Independent variables. The independent variables in this study are the types of
strategies small businesses might pursue: highest possible quality, better service, and minimal
overhead (NFIB, 2003). Each independent variable was measured with a single 9-point Likert
scale question in which a value of 1 meant a given strategy play no part in the business
competitive strategy and a value of 9 meant the strategy comprised its entire competitive
strategy.
Controls. We control for industry effects on performance using NAICS categories at the
two-digit level with dummy variables. Controlling for industry effects is important because
general industry environments often influence the performance of firms (Dess et al., 1990;
Rumelt, 1982, 1991). Without controlling for industry effects, researchers may obtain erroneous
(Armstrong & Shimizu, 2007). We also controlled for firm size by incorporating the natural log
of the number of employees. For tests of hypotheses in which the dependent variable is expected
growth, we controlled for past sales growth. Past sales growth is measured by the percentage
change in last two years sales for each firm using Likert scale values (5 = increased by 30%+; 4
10% or more).
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Small Business Strategies
Analysis. We tested our hypotheses using ordinary least squares regression. We included
all control variables and the dependent variables in the first model. We then tested each
hypothesis step-wise in individual models. Testing each of the small business strategies
individually allows us to identify specific effect sizes and significances for each strategy and
separate effects from non-effects (Armstrong & Shimizu, 2007). Further, the individual tests
more accurately portray the activities of small businesses, since no firm likely attempts to
RESULTS
Table 1 presents the summary statistics and correlations for the study measures. The
mean values for the independent variables show that the preference for small firm strategies was,
in order, highest possible quality, better service, and minimal overhead. The mean values for
highest possible quality (8.02) and better service (7.80) indicate that these approaches comprised
close to 100% of a small firms competitive strategy. The mean value for minimal overhead
strategies (5.87) shows that small firms incorporated this approach for more than 50% of their
overall competitive strategies. These results suggest that small firm owners prefer simpler, less
resource-intensive strategies to compete: doing what you already do more effectively and
efficiently is simpler than creating a unique marketing strategy, expanding, or offering new
goods or services.
Our first two hypotheses address the effects of the two most commonly used small firm
strategies on firm survival and expected growth. In Hypothesis 1a, we predicted that the extent to
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Small Business Strategies
which a small firm relies on a high quality differentiation strategy would be positively related to
survival. The effect of high quality differentiation strategy was positive, as predicted, but not
In Hypothesis 1b, we predicted that the extent to which a small firm follows a high
quality differentiation strategy would be positively related to expected growth. The effect of a
high quality differentiation strategy on expected growth was positive and significant (p < .05).
the effect of a customer service differentiation strategy on firm survival was positive as
predicted, but not significant. Therefore, we fail to observe support for Hypothesis 2a.
In Hypothesis 2b, we argue that a small firms customer service differentiation strategy
would be positively related to expected growth. As Model 3 of Table 3 shows, the effect of better
service on firm expected growth is positive and significant (p < .05). Therefore, we observe
In Hypotheses 3a, we argued that a small firms use of minimal overhead would be
negatively related to firm survival. We observe that the effects of minimal overhead on small
firm survival were negative and significant (p < .05). Therefore, we observe support for
Hypothesis 3a.
In Hypotheses 3b, we predicted that a small firms use of minimal overhead would be
positively related to expected growth. As shown in Model 4 of Table 3, the effect of a small
firms use of minimal overhead on expected growth was positive and significant (p < .05).
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Small Business Strategies
DISCUSSION
Implications
We opened this paper with the assertion that opportunities may have been missed in the
prior research on the strategies of entrepreneurial and small ventures to: 1) Differentiate forms of
strategy among different types of small firms; and 2) To help explore the relevance and
applicability of strategic management theories to the context of small firms. The objective of our
study was to explore the types of strategies that small firms may theoretically pursue and then to
test how these strategies may affect their survival and growth. In these regards, we theorized
differences between the strategies of small and large firms, and explored some of the most
theoretically and practically relevant small firm strategies (high quality differentiation, customer
service differentiation, and minimal resources). We then developed hypotheses for the
relationship between these small business strategies and firm survival and growth, arguing that
the differentiation strategies should be theoretically positively related to both small firm survival
and growth, and that minimal resource strategies would be negatively related to survival, but
positively related to growth. We failed to observe support for our arguments that the strategies to
differentiate on high quality or customer service would be positively related to firm survival. An
interesting implication of these observations is that the dominant survival strategies pursued by
80% of the small businesses in our sample, dont lead to survival. We did, however observe
support for our arguments that the strategies to differentiate on high quality or customer service
that the dominant strategies pursued by 80% of the small businesses in our sample, lead to firm
growth and in a sense eventually cause the small firm to cease being small. Finally, we did
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Small Business Strategies
observe support for our arguments that minimal resource strategies would be negatively related
to firm survival and positively related to firm growth. These observations are consistent with our
expectations and raise some interesting issues for future research on the implications of
bootstrapping.
So, in a sense, our observations may indicate that the essence of small firm strategy is to
pursue a course of action that causes the firm to cease being small (Aldrich & Auster, 1986;
Covin & Slevin, 1989; Merz et al., 1994). Our results indicate, however, that small firms that
pursue a path of growth do so simultaneously increase the likelihood that they will fail. The
correlation between expected growth and firm survival is strongly negative and significant (p <
.01). This finding supports the assertion that small firms suffer from the liabilities of age
(Stinchcombe, 1965) and size (Aldrich & Auster, 1986) that limit the effectiveness of the
strategies they employ in competition. In addition to limiting the effectiveness of strategies, this
finding also supports that assertion that small firms are limited in their choices of strategy due to
Further, our finding that the effects of use of minimal overhead strategies were negatively
and significantly related to small firm survival, may indicate that a small firms efforts to find,
acquire and combine resources to create a unique identity can place limits on the scale and scope
of the small firms operations and therefore limit its strategic options (Morris, 2001). The
commitment of resources to pursue differentiation strategies, reach new markets, or offer new
goods and services may reduce the ability of small firms to survive external shocks and adapt to
Our results, coupled with the results of the NFIB study (2003), also provide support for
our assertion that all small firms do pursue some form of strategy. Small firms recognize that
18
Small Business Strategies
they all face some form of competition and take strategic actions to differentiate themselves to
survive and grow. The mean values for the independent variables of highest possible quality
(8.02 on a scale of 1 to 9) and better service (7.80 on a scale of 1 to 9) were far greater than the
mean value for minimal resource strategies (5.87), indicating most small firms relied on these
approaches for close to 100% of their overall competitive strategies. This finding suggests that
small firm owners are capable of observing and learning from their experiences in competition
What do the results say about Carland et als (1984) seminal argument about small
business ventures versus entrepreneurial ventures? First, we conclude that all businesses follow
some form of strategy in their operations. Most of the businesses in this study are indeed
independently owned and operated, not dominant in their fields (Carland et al, 1984), but many
also do attempt to engage in new marketing or innovative practices. The choice to pursue
innovative, growth-oriented practices, however, presents new challenges to small businesses that
can lead to outright failure of the venture. For this reason we believe that researchers and policy
makers should strive to make a finer distinction between small businesses that are not growth
oriented and those that risk their survival in the pursuit of growth.
Limitations
This study has several limitations that should be addressed in future studies of small firm
strategy. First, our data set, while originating from a reputable data gathering agency, was cross-
sectional in nature. This prevented us from making cause-and-effect connections between small
firm strategies, survival, and expected growth. The data set also relied on self-reporting
responses from small business owners, which could cause this study to have a common method
variance (Campbell & Fiske, 1959; Mowday & Sutton, 1993). This could be particularly
19
Small Business Strategies
troublesome in making the connection between preferences and reliance on different small firm
strategies and expectations for growth. A small business owner may, for example, optimistically
believe that his or her use of a variety of strategies will lead to greater future growth, when in
We used expected growth rather than past growth because we wanted to capture the
effects of small firm strategies on future growth, rather than past growth. Using past growth as
the dependent variable would be illogical for determining the temporal precedent of strategy
choices on future firm performance. In other words, we wanted to make an association between
small firm owners preferences for strategies with the owners performance expectations for the
firm. We capture the effect of past performance for both firm survival and expected growth by
using it as a control variable. Expected growth has been used as the dependent variable in
empirical studies preceding this one (e.g., Beccheti & Trovato, 2002; Dunne, Roberts, &
CONCLUSION
The objective of our study was to explore the types of strategies that small firms may
theoretically pursue and then to test how these strategies may affect their survival and growth.
Through this study, we contribute by (1) examining the extent to which small firms may engage
contexts; (2) improving our understanding of the effectiveness and performance implications of
different strategies for the context, and, (3) enriching our understanding of the strategic
management practices that dominate economic activity. In conclusion, we found that the essence
of small firm strategy may be to pursue a course of action that causes the firm to grow (Aldrich
& Auster, 1986; Covin & Slevin, 1989; Merz et al., 1994). Small firms that choose this path,
20
Small Business Strategies
however, risk their very survival if they pursue the most common strategies of differentiating
through high quality and customer service, or minimal use of resources. Therefore, the best
21
Small Business Strategies
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27
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Models 1 2 3 4
Hypothesis H1a H2a H3a
Variables
Constant 17.646 *** 15.939 *** 15.194 *** 19.780 ***
Firm size 0.074 *** 0.074 *** 0.073 *** 0.071 ***
NAICS 10 13.223 ** 13.347 ** 13.8 ** 13.805 **
NAICS 20 5.149 5.237 5.399 5.483
NAICS 30 7.168 * 7.206 * 7.238 * 8.008 *
NAICS 40 4.241 4.329 4.36 4.574
NAICS 50 0.653 0.725 0.769 0.945
NAICS 60 -1.096 -1.113 -0.942 -0.712
NAICS 70 -1.829 -1.778 -1.701 -1.349
NAICS 80 2.851 2.895 2.929 3.373
Past Sales Growth -1.689 *** -1.713 *** -1.721 *** -1.687 ***
Strategy
Highest Possible Quality 0.214
Better Service 0.31
Minimal Overhead -0.424 *
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Small Business Strategies
Models 1 2 3 4
Hypothesis H1b H2b H3b
Variables
Constant 2.531 *** 2.160 *** 2.169 *** 2.350 ***
Firm size 0.048 0.049 0.044 0.057
NAICS 10 -1.008 ** -0.981 ** -0.923 ** -1.05 **
NAICS 20 -0.506 -0.487 -0.468 -0.534
NAICS 30 0.007 0.014 0.018 -0.061
NAICS 40 -0.275 -0.257 -0.257 -0.302
NAICS 50 -0.227 -0.212 -0.21 -0.249
NAICS 60 -0.270 -0.274 -0.247 -0.301
NAICS 70 -0.332 -0.322 -0.311 -0.372
NAICS 80 -0.225 -0.215 -0.214 -0.263
Past Sales Growth 0.327 *** 0.322 *** 0.322 *** 0.326 ***
Strategy
Highest Possible Quality 0.046 *
Better Service 0.046 *
Minimal Overhead 0.033 *
29