Unit 2 Ecology I

Section 2: Ecosystem Structure

Central Case Study:
Zebra Mussels in North
America
 Central Case Study: Black and White and Spread All Over: Zebra
Mussels Invade the Great Lakes

In 1988, zebra mussels were accidentally introduced to

Lake St. Clair in discharged ballast water
By 2010, they had invaded 30 states
No natural predators, competitors, or parasites
They cause millions of dollars of damage to property
each year
Example of an Invasive species
 Factors Affecting Ecosystem
Structure
Biotic Factors: Abiotic Factors:
- Factors that affect - Factors that affect
the ecosystem that the ecosystem that
are from living are non-living
organisms - Sunlight, winds,
- Adaptations, temperature,
predators, etc. humidity, substrate
type, etc.
 Each Organism has Particular Needs
Habitat = the environment where an
organism lives
It includes living and nonliving
elements (biotic and abiotic factors)
Niche and specialization are key concepts in ecology

Niche = The total way of

life and role of a species
in an ecosystem.
All the physical, chemical,
and biological conditions a
species needs to live &
reproduce in an ecosystem.
Niche and specialization are key concepts in ecology

Specialists = species that have narrow niches

and specific needs
Extremely good at what they do
But vulnerable when conditions change
Generalists = species with broad niches
Use a wide array of habitats and resources
Can live in many different places
 Species are the result of Evolution
Species = a population or group of
populations whose members share
characteristics
They can breed with one another and
produce fertile offspring
Population = a group of individuals of a
species that live in the same area
 Organisms and Species

Organisms, the
different forms
of life on earth,
can be
classified into
different species
based on
certain
characteristics.
 Species Interact with One Another in an Ecosystem
Natural species interactions:
Competition = relationship in which both species are
harmed
Exploitative = one species benefits and the other is
harmed
Predation, parasitism, and herbivory
Mutualism = relationship in which both species
benefit
Competition can occur when resources are limited

In competition, multiple organisms seek the same

limited resources and all competitors suffer
(/ interaction)
Food, space, water, shelter, mates, sunlight
High population density leads to increased
competition
Prey have ways of deterring or preventing predation
 Parasites exploit living hosts
Parasitism = a relationship in which one organism (parasite) depends on
another (host) for nourishment or some other benefit
The parasite harms, but doesnt kill, the host
Some parasites are free-living
Ticks, sea lampreys
Some live within the host
Tapeworms
Others cause disease
These are pathogens
Herbivores exploit plants

Herbivory = when animals feed on

the tissues of plants
Defenses against herbivory include:
Chemicals: toxic or distasteful
Thorns, spines, or irritating hairs
Other animals: protect the plant
 Mutualists help one another
Symbiosis = mutualism in which the organisms live in close
physical contact
Each partner provides a service the other needs (food, protection,
housing, etc.)
Microbes within digestive tracts
Mycorrhizae: plant roots and fungi
Coral and algae (zooxanthellae)
Pollination = interaction in which bees, bats, birds, and others
transfer pollen from one flower to another, fertilizing its eggs
 Trophic Systems
Tracking Energy and Matter in Ecosystems
 Energy passes among trophic levels

Matter and energy move through the community

Matter cycles
Energy flows
Trophic level = rank in the feeding hierarchy
Producers (autotrophs)
Consumers (heterotrophs)
Detritivores and decomposers
Trophic Pyramid of Biomass, Energy, or Population
 Food Webs/Chains

Purpose determines
how energy & nutrients
move from one organism
to another through the
ecosystem
Arrows point from the
producer to the consumer
 Energy Flow in an Ecosystem: Losing Energy
in Food Chains and Webs

2nd law of thermodynamics =

there is a decrease in the
amount of energy available to
each succeeding organism in
a food chain or web.
10% Rule: 90% of the energy
at each energy level is lost
because organism uses the
energy. (heat) Only ~10%
moves up to the next level
 First Trophic Second Trophic Third Trophic Fourth Trophic
Level Level Level Level
Producers Primary Secondary Tertiary
(plants) consumers consumers consumers
(herbivores) (carnivores) (top carnivores)
Heat Heat Heat

Solar
energy

Heat Heat

Heat Heat

Detritivores Heat
(decomposers and detritus feeders)
Detritivores and decomposers
Organisms that consume nonliving organic matter
enrich soils and/or recycle nutrients found in dead
organisms
Detritivores = break down leaf litter and other
nonliving material into simpler chemicals that can be
used by plants
Millipedes, soil insects
Decomposers = scavenge waste products or dead
bodies
Fungi, bacteria
 Some organisms play outsized roles in communities

Keystone species = a species that has a strong or wide-reaching

impact far out of proportion to its abundance
Removal of a keystone species has substantial ripple effects
Significantly alters the food web
Some organisms play outsized roles in communities

Trophic cascade = where predators

at high trophic levels indirectly affect
populations at low trophic levels
Predators keep species at intermediate
trophic levels in check, allowing growth
of species at a lower level
Yellowstone Disaster Wolves unable
to keep deer (consumers) in check
Community succession follows severe disturbance

Primary succession
Community is built from scratch
where NO soil exists
Glaciers, drying lakes, volcanic lava
The first species to arrive in a
primary succession area (e.g.,
lichens, mosses) are pioneer
species
Climax community = community
that remains in place with few
changes until another disturbance
restarts succession