1

Ore microscope-essential for large and economically important group of minerals referred to collectively as "ore" or
"opaque" minerals.

The ore microscope is the basic instrument for the petrographic examination [an analysis to evaluate the integrity
of concrete and understanding of the mineralogy of materials. Talks about detailed descriptions of rocks.
Someone who studies petrography is called a petrographer.] of the large and economically important group of
minerals referred to collectively as "ore" or "opaque" minerals. [not permitting light to pass- not able to be seen
through; not transparent.]

Polarized microscopy is primarily used in the field of geology or petrography for the study of rocks and
minerals, but has many other applications.

Anisotropism is an optical effect where certain minerals appear to change colors as they are rotated while
illuminated by cross polarized light. These minerals are often, but not always, opaque and typically have a
metallic or sub-metallic luster. The gems below are all anisotropic.

It can transmit polarized light as well as reflected polarized light.

An ore microscope consists of additional features of a reflected polarized light when compared to a polarized light
microscope. Hence, some sections of an ore microscope such as rocks and minerals can be examined with the use of a
high powered magnification with the use of polarization process. A basic polarizing viewing device only has the
capability to view thin sections of objects. Polarizing microscopes are also known as petrographic microscope that uses
transmitted light with thin sections. While ore microscopes are also called as mineralography microscope that uses
polarized reflected light.

Metallurgical microscopes are capable to examine polished thick objects like rocks and metals. These viewing devices
can also do a simple plane polarization system but they cannot have polarizer and analyzer both at the same time for
cross polarized illumination. It will not have a bertrand lens or a rotating microscope stage as well. Ore microscopes are
commonly used by geologists for the identification of minerals and rocks. They are used in petrology, mineralogy and
geology. Opaque ore minerals in thin polished sections with the use of a reflected light can be viewed through
microscopy and mineralography.

EXTRA:

1- Petrography is a branch of petrology that focuses on detailed descriptions of rocks. Someone who studies
petrography is called a petrographer. The mineral content and the textural relationships within the rock are
described in detail. The classification of rocks is based on the information acquired during the petrographic analysis.
Petrographic descriptions start with the field notes at the outcrop and include macroscopic description of hand
specimens. However, the most important tool for the petrographer is the petrographic microscope. The detailed
analysis of minerals by optical mineralogy in thin section and the micro-texture and structure are critical to
understanding the origin of the rock. Electron microprobe analysis of individual grains as well as whole rock
chemical analysis by atomic absorption, X-ray fluorescence, and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy are used in
a modern petrographic lab. Individual mineral grains from a rock sample may also be analyzed by X-ray diffraction
when optical means are insufficient. Analysis of microscopic fluid inclusions within mineral grains with a heating
stage on a petrographic microscope provides clues to the temperature and pressure conditions existent during the
mineral formation.
The extraction of specific valuable minerals from their naturally occurring ores is variously termed "ore dressing,"
"mineral dressing," and "mineral beneficiation." For most metalliferous ores produced by mining operations, this
extraction process is an important intermediate step in the transformation of natural ore to pure metal. Although a few
mined ores contain sufficient metal concentrations to require no beneficiation (e.g.,some iron ores), most contain
relatively small amounts of the valuable metal, from perhaps a few percent in the case of base metals to a few parts per
million in the case ofprecious metals. As Chapters 7, 9, and 10ofthis book have amply illustrated, the minerals containing
valuable metals are commonly intergrown with economically unimportant (gangue) minerals on a microscopic scale.

Transmitted light refers to the light diffused from below the specimen. This light is often passed through a
condenser, which allows the viewer to see an enlarged contrasted image.

Reflected light, sometimes referred to as epi- or incidental light, is best suited for opaque samples, such
as metals, alloys, composites and mineral oxides and sulfides.

At its most basic, the POLARIZER focuses the different wavelengths and vibrations of light onto a single
plane.

The relationship of the polarizer and analyzer, in addition to possible filters added, determines the
amount of light absorbed, reflected, refracted and/or transmitted through the microscope.

Birefringence is the optical property of a material having a refractive index that depends on the polarization
and propagation direction of light. These optically anisotropic materials are said to be birefringent: having
two different refractive indices.

A polarizing microscope can employ transmitted and reflected light.

Polarized- restrict the vibrations of (a transverse wave, especially light) wholly or partially to one direction.

Polarizer and Analyzer . The polarizer in a standard ore microscope is usually positioned within the illuminating system
between the lamp and the collector lens but may be located between the diaphragms. It is either a calcite prism or,
more commonly, a polaroid plate that permits only the passage oflight that is plane (or "linearly," see Chapter 4)
polarized, usually in a North-South orientation. In standard transmitted-light thin-section or grain mount petrography,
the polarizer and analyzer are perpendicular to one another. However, many ore microscopists find that polarization
effects are more readily observed if the polars are a few degrees from the true 90 position. This is especially true of
very weakly anisotropic minerals and even some moderately anisotropic grains if they occur in a matrix of more strongly
anisotropic minerals. The slight uncrossing may be accomplished either by having a rotatable analyzer or by slightly
adjusting (by 3-5)the polarizerfrom the crossed position. Rotation of the microscope stage to observe anisotropism and
extinction is not always unambiguous, because ofthe combination ofmovement and the variable anisotropism of
adjacent grains. Alternatively, the stage may be left stationary and the analyzer rotated back and forth through the
extinction position. This eliminates the distraction of movement of the specimen and may allow an unequivocal
determination ofthe presence or absence of anisotropism

Rotatable Stage The microscope stage, on which the polished sections are placed, should rotate freely, be perpendicular
to the axis of light transmission through the microscope, and be centered relative to the objectives. Angular
measurements can be made by means ofthe degree markings at the edge ofthe stage and the verniers pro vided . Most
microscopes accept a mech ani cal stage equipped with X and Y movement for system atic examination or point
counting of grains in specimens.

Microscope objectives may be classified in terms of lens type (achromat, apochromat, or fluorite), their magnification
and numerical aperture, and whether they are for oil immersion or air usage.Occasionally, the focal length or working
distance is also considered. The achromat is the most common and least expensive lens found on most microscopes. It is
corrected forspherical aberration for only one color, usually yellow-green, and for chromatic aberration for two colors.
Thus, when used with white light, color fringes may appear at the outer margins of the image; when black-and-white
film is used in photomicroscopy, the fringes may contribute to some fuzziness. However, if monochromatic light
(especially green light) is used, the image, either to the eye or on a black-and-white film, is sharper. The apochromat is a
better and more expensive microscope objective. It is corrected for spherical aberration for two colors (blue and green)
and for chromatic aberration for the primary spectral colors of red, green, and blue. Thus, the apochromat presents a
sharper image and is better for color photo-microscopy than any other lens. It can also be used for microscope pho -
tometry (seeChapter 5).To achieve the finest performance from apochromats, it is necessary to use them in conjunction
with "compensating" eyepieces. Fluorite lenses (also known as "serniapochromats") are a compromise in terms of price
and quality between the othertwo types oflenses.Fluorite objectives must be used with compensating eyepieces for best
performance. Most objectives give a primary image in a curved plane; however, with additional corrections, these may
be made to give a flat primary image.

Bertrand lens An accessory lens which may be inserted into the light path above the analyser in a transmitted-light
microscope. When determining vibration directions or interference figuresusing parallel or convergent polarized light,
the Bertrand lens is inserted to bring the image of the interference figures into focus. Alternatively, if the Bertrand lens
is absent, the eyepiecemay be removed and the vibration directions or interference figures observed by looking down
the microscope tube. The lens was first used in 1878 by E. Bertrand who adapted an original

Ocular Lenses The ocular or eyepiece system of the microscope serves to enlarge the primary image formed by the
objective and to render it visible to the eye. Most microscopes are equipped with "Huygenian" oculars, of between 5X
and 12X magnification, that consist of two lenses and an intermediate fixed diaphragm. The diaphragm commonly
contains perpendicular crosshairs but may instead be equipped with a micrometer disk or a grid with a fixed rectangular
pattern that is useful for particle size measurement or estimation. Oculars designed for photography do not contain
crosshairs and are often designed to be of the "compensating" type to correct for chromatic aberration. Large research
microscopes may have "wide-field" oculars, which are designed to give a larger, clear field of view.

Illuminating Systems Two main types of lamp are commonly used in ore microscopes: the incandescent filament lamp
and the gas discharge lamp. For most routine work, especially on student microscopes, the incandescent tungsten
filament lamp is adequate. These lamps range from 6-12 V and 15-100 W, with minimum bulb lifetimes of 100-300
hours, and are generally operated by a variable rheostat. Ifthe lamp is operated at too Iowa wattage , if the bulb is old,
or if the microscope is misaligned, filament images and variably colored filamentshaped zones may be visible. Insertion
of a frosted glass screen helps to eliminate the image, but microscope adjustment or even servicing may be required.
The lamp should provide adequate light, evenly distributed throughout the field ofview, without being uncomfortable to
the eyes. The color temperature of tungsten filament lamps varies from about 28500 K for 6 V, 15 W bulbs to about
33000 K for halogen gas-filled 12 V, 100 W bulbs. These temperatures are far below the approximately 6100 0 K color
temperature of xenon discharge lamps and, if used without filters, tend to bias the colors observed under the
microscope toward the yellows and reds. Accordingly, most workers insert a pale blue filter between the lamp and the
remainder ofthe illuminating system to provide a more daylight-like color temperature. The minor variations in the
colors ofthe same minerals when viewed through different microscopes is due in large part to small differences in the
effective color ternperature ofthe light source. Knowledge ofthe actual color temperature ofthe lamp is not important in
routine polished-section examination, but it is important in photomicroscopy because of the specific requirements of
different types offilm. It is also important when measuring the color ofminerals quantitatively,since the color observed is
partly a function ofthe light source (see Chapter 5). The standard illuminating system (Figures 1.2a-1.2c) contains two
lenses, two or three diaphragms, and a polarizer, in addition to the light source. The illuminator aperture diaphragm is
used to reduce stray scattered light. The illuminator field diaphragm controls the angle ofthe cone oflight incident on the
specimen and should be set tojust enclose the field of view;this restricts the light to the most parallel rays, minimizes
elliptical polarization (see Chapter 4), and maximizes the contrast. In many microscopes, a third diaphragm helps
sharpen the image. Reflectance measurement, although sometimes carried out using standard low-wattage
incandescent filament lamps, usually requires either high-intensity halogen filament incandescent lamps or xenon
discharge lamps to provide sufficient light intensity through monochromators in the range 400- 700 nm

The Reflector The reflector is a critical component ofthe ore microscope, being the means by which light is brought
vertically onto the polished specimen surface. Reflectors are ofthree types:the coated 45 plane-glass reflector (Figure
1.2a; Figure 1.4a),the Smith reflector (Figure lAb), and the totally reflecting prism (Figure 1.2b; Figure lAc). When the
coated 45 plane-glass reflector is employed (Figure 1.4a), part of the light from the illuminator is reflected downward
through the objective onto the sample and part of the light passes through the reflector and is lost. The light that passes
downward isthen reflected back up through the objective until it reaches the reflector again. At this point, some of the
light passes through the reflector up the microscope tube to the ocular and some is reflected back toward the
illuminator and is lost. Ideally, the glass plate, coated with a semireflecting material ofhigh refractive index, should
reflect all ofthe light from the illuminator down onto the specimen but then should let all of the light reflected from the
specimen pass through on its way up to the ocular. In fact, coated 45 plane-glass reflectors of maximum efficiency
result in only about 19% of the illuminator light that first reached the reflector ultimately reaching the ocular. This
efficiency is sufficient for most light sources; moreover, only with this type ofreflector is there truly vertically incident
light and illumination over the full aperture ofthe objective. However, reflectors ofthis kind do not produce a perfectly
dark field when the polars are crossed on isotropic specimens due to some rotation ofthe incoming beam ofpolarized
light (see Chapter 4). The Smith reflector (Figure lAb) involves light entering so as to fall on a mirror at an angle of22.5,
from which it is reflected at the same angle onto a glass plate. This plate functions in the same way as the coated 45
plane-glass reflector, although its efficiency as a reflector is slightly less. However, the incident beam ofpolarized light is
subject to less rotation (see Chapter 4), and an isotropic sample between crossed polars appears uniformly dark. The
totally reflecting prism system is one in which light is reflected downward through one-halfofthe aperture ofthe
objective, strikes the specimen, is reflected back upward through the other half of the objective, and passes behind the
prism on its path to the ocular(Figure lAc). In this situation, light is obliquely incident on the specimen. In conoscopic
observation, only half of the polarization figure is visible, because halfofthe optical path is occupied by the prism. The
advantage ofthe prism isthat it permits a greater proportion of light (up to 50%) to reach the ocular. Modern intense
light sources now make the use of the prism less important. In addition, the early models of totally reflecting prisms and
mirrors introduced some elliptical polarization, but these problems have been overcome by the development ofmultiple
reflecting prisms and the introduction ofpolaroid plates on the lower face ofthe prism. Most workers find the plane-glass
reflector adequate or superior for routine studies.

Monochromators Because the optical properties ofminerals vary as a function ofwavelength. it is frequently necessary
to provide incident light ofspecified wavelength. The operable range of most microscopes extends several hundred
nanometers above and below the visible light range of approximately 400-700 nm wavelength. The two most commonly
employed means of providing light ofspecified wavelength through this region are fixed monochromatic interference
filters and continuous-spectrum monochromators (see Figure 1.5). Fixed interference filters consist of a glass substrate
on which alternating layers of low-reflecting transparent dielectric substances and higher-reflecting semitransparent
metal films or dielectrics of high refractive index have been deposited. The light that passes through such filters is not
truly monochromatic but lies within a specified bandwidth. usually

Photometers Photometers. either built into large research microscopes or available as attachments to standard
microscopes (Figure 1.5). are used to measure the reflectance of mineral grains. Most photometers consist of a
photomultiplier tube that has high sensitivity throughout the visible spectrum. To achieve meaningful results.
photometers must be used in conjunction with stabilized light sources. high-quality monochrornators, and reflectance
standards. The use of photometers in quantitative reflectance measurement is treated in detail
Stage Micrometers All textural studies of ore minerals, mill products, and industrial materials require the accurate
measurement of grain sizes. The stage micrometer. usu- 14 THE ORE MICROSCOPE ally a I mm scale subdivided into
hundredths, is invaluable in estimating grain sizes and in the calibration of a scale or grid set within an ocular. Stage
micrometers are commercially available as small mounted metal disks on which the scale has been inscribed; they are
positioned and observed in the same way as the polished section.

Sample Holders Observation under the ore microscope requires that the sample surface be perpendicular to the
incident light beam. This can be accomplished by carefully machining samples so that the top and bottom surfaces are
flat and parallel or by using simple mechanical leveling devices (Figure 1.6a)that press the sample down on a lump
ofmolding clay on which it then is held level(Figure 1.6b). More sophisticated devices include spring-loaded cylinders
(Figure 1.6c), in which the specimen is held against a lip that is machined parallel to the microscope stage, and more
elaborate rapid specimen changers, in which specimens are spring-loaded into holders that are held by leveling screws.
The means ofsecurely holding a specimen with its polished surface normal to the incident light beam is a matter of
personal convenience and equipment availability.

EXPLANATORY

EXAMINATION OF OPAQUE MINERALS IN POLARIZED LIGHT

Summary. The most useful test that can be applied to determine an unknown opaque mineral is the test for
anisotropism. The test is made in less than a minute, and the result is highly definite and instructive. In this test a nicol
prism is placed between the light source and the vertical illuminator of the metallographic microscope ; after reflection
from the polished' surface, the light passes through another nicol prism whose planes of vibration are nearly or exactly
at right angles with the planes of vibration of the polarizing prism. Isotropic minerals cause no change in the polarization
direction of the light impinging upon them. Anisotropic minerals, on the other hand, rotate the plane of polarization of
the incident light, and when the light passes the analyzer of the microscope interference effects are set up. Quantitative
optical data corresponding to those obtained on transparent minerals by means of the petrographic microscope can not
be obtained on opaque minerals. The amount of rotation produced can be measured but is only about 5 for the mineral
causing the greatest rotation; all other minerals show less than this amount. The results that are most valuable are
qualitative. Minerals crystallizing in the isometric system and amorphous minerals are isotropic; minerals crystallizing in
the other five crystal systems are anisotropic. Thus, a mineral can be quickly placed in one of two main classes by means
of this test, and in the determinative tables here given this distinction is the first one made

PROCEDURE
Th e preparation of polished surfaces free from scratches, from thermal and mechanical modification of the sample
surface, and from relief is essential forthe examination, identification, and textural interpretation of ore minerals using
the reflected-light microscope. Adequate polished surfaces can be prepared on many types of materials with relatively
little effort using a wide variety of mechanical and manual procedures. However, ore samples often present problems
because they may consist ofsoft, malleable sulfides or even nati ve metals intimately intergrown with hard, and
sometimes brittle, silicates, carbonates, oxides, or other sulfides. Weathering may complicate the problem by removing
cements and interstitial minerals and by leaving samples that are friable or porous. Delicate vug fillings also cau se
problems with their open void spaces and poorly supported crystals.Alloys and ben eficiation products present their own
difficulties because of the pre sence of admixed ph ases ofvariable properties and fine grain sizes. In this chapter, the
general procedures ofsample selection and trimming, casting, grinding, and polishing (and, in special cases, etching)
required to prepare solid or particulate samples for examination with the ore microscope are discussed. The preparation
ofthese polishedsections, and also polished and doubly polished thin sections, which are useful in the study of
translucent or coexisting opaque and translucent specimens, is described. These are matters about which all students of
reflected-light microscopy should be aware, ideally through personal experience
CUTTING--- The size and shape ofthe sample to be mounted is somewhat arbitrary and must be dictated by the nature
of the material and the intended study: most workers find that circular polished sections from 2.5 to 5 em in diameter
are adequate. It is important that the procedures involved in specimen preparation preserve the precise mineralogical
and textural character of the samples. If the specimen is coherent and has a low porosity, it may be cut to the desired
size and polished directly. The preparation of a flat surface on the specimen by cutting and grinding prior to casting is a
very useful step. because it allows the sample to lie flat on the bottom ofthe mold; irregular specimens may trap air
bubbles and require extensive grinding ofthe polished section to expose sufficient surface area.

GRINDING--- The purpose ofgrinding is to remove surface irregularities, to remove casting resin that covers the sample,
to reduce thickness, to prepare a smooth surface for further work, and to remove any zone ofmajor deformation
resulting from initial sample cutting