CHAPTER 3

PRESSURE VESSEL HEADS WITH

DIFFERENT GEOMETRIES
CHAPTER 3

PRESSURE VESSEL HEADS WITH DIFFERENT GEOMETRIES

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the two geometrical heads of pressure vessels: hemispherical

and torispherical. The analytical expressions for junction stresses of hemispherical heads

with circular cylinders are presented in the section 3.2 for axial and hoop stresses of outer

and inner surfaces. The axial stress at the junction is 30 % greater than the membrane stress.

Section 3.3 describes the geometry of torispherical headed vessel. This section consists of

two parts, one, uniform thickness at knuckle region (section 3.3.1) and the other, variable

thickness at knuckle region (section 3.3.2). In order to reduce the stress levels at this critical

zone, knuckle of variable thickness has been suggested. The variable thickness in the knuckle

region is obtained in two ways: (i) tangent method and (ii) spline method. The descriptions of

the same are presented in section 3.3.2.1 and section 3.3.2.2 respectively.

3.2 Pressure vessel with hemispherical head

The analysis of stresses in cylindrical shell with hemispherical head under internal

pressure is available in the literature [Gill (1970) and Timoshenko (1959)]. The solutions are
obtained by superposing the solutions of membrane and bending theories of classical thin

shells.

3.2.1 Membrane solution

When the shell is said to be in the membrane state of stress, the stresses remain

constant through the thickness, which leads to considerable simplifications of governing

equations as the bending terms become zero. There

23 will be only three equations [Harry Kraus

(1967), Eqns (4.27) and (4.28)]. There is further simplification for the case of axisymmetric

deformations of shell of revolution:

d ( R N )
+ N R cos = 0
d
... (3.1)
N N
+ p=0
R R

where and are the coordinates in the circumferential and the meridional directions, N

and N are stress resultants per unit length (normal stress multiplied by thickness) along the

circumferential and meridional directions respectively, R and R are radii of curvature in

and directions respectively and p is the internal pressure. For a given geometry, there are

two unknowns (N and N). It is a statically determinate problem and the solution can be

obtained for stresses directly.

3.2.1.1 Circular cylindrical shell

With reference to Fig. 3.1 for the cylindrical part ( x, axial direction, r , r

and r = Rc (radius of cylinder), = 90o, and R d = dx ), the above two equations (Eqn. (3.1))

dN x
=0
reduce to dx
N = pRc = h
 pRc
= ... (3.2)
h

RC
. 24
p

x
Fig. 3.1 Representation of circular cylindrical shell.

Integration constant of first equation is obtained from the axial force/unit length in the

circumferential direction at the boundary as:

Rc2 p pRc
= = Nx
2 Rc 2

pRc
x = ... (3.3)
2h

The strain in the circumferential direction is required to obtain the outward radial

displacement:

wc x
= = ... (3.4)
Rc E E

pRc2
and wc = 1 ... (3.5)
Eh 2

3.2.1.2 Spherical head

 With reference to Fig. 3.2 for the spherical part ( along the meridional and along

the circumferential direction, r = r = Rd (radius of dome) and r = Rd sin, radius of parallel

circle), the above Eqns. (3.1)) reduce to:

25

Meridian

Rd

Fig. 3.2 Representation of spherical shell.

d ( N sin )
+ N Rd cos = pRd cos
d ... (3.6)
N + N = pRd

From first part of Eqn. (3.6), multiplying both sides by sin, rearranging and integrating,

pRd
2 0
2
N sin = sin 2 + C ... (3.7)

pRd
applying apex condition, = 0, C =
4

pRd
N sin 2 = (1 cos 2 )
4

pRd
N = ... (3.8)
2
From second part of Eqn. (3.6)

pRd
N = ... (3.9)
2

pRd 26
= = ... (3.10)
2h

The strain-displacement relation for axisymmetric deformation [Harry Kraus (1967), Eqns.

(4.27) and (4.28)]

1
=
Rd
( u cos + w sin ) ... (3.11)

For the junction of dome with cylinder, = 90o and hence

w
= =
Rd E E

pRd2 (1 )
wd = ... (3.12)
2 Eh

Comparing Eqns. (3.5) and (3.12), it is seen that the cylinder undergoes larger normal

displacement than that of the head at the junction, both outward. If both are not joined, there

is a gap at the junction. This is depicted in Fig. 3.3.

wc
wd

wd
wc

Fig. 3.3 Cylindrical shell with hemispherical head-deformed shape with discontinuity at the
junction.
 The gap is equal to wcwd. However, in reality, the cylinder and the dome are welded

at the junction. This tendency for differential 27

deformation induces internal forces; Qo-shear

force/unit length and Mo-bending moment/unit length, as depicted in Fig. 3.4.

Qo wc
Mo

Mo
wd
Qo

Qo
wd
Mo

Mo

Qo wc

Fig. 3.4 Cylindrical shell with hemispherical head-action of Mo and Qo

The state of stress in the neighbourhood of junction gets distributed. Away from the

junction, it will be a membrane state of stress. How fast it decays down to the membrane

stress condition depends on the wall bending stiffness of the shell. To take this into account,

governing equations have to include bending terms also. This analysis is described in the

next section.

3.2.2 Bending solution

At the junction, the membrane stresses are accompanied by local bending stresses

which are distributed symmetrically with respect to the axis of cylinder. In this section, the

bending analysis is presented. There are three governing equations [Harry Kraus (1967), Eqn.

(5.8)] for the shells of revolution.

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 d
d
( rN ) N r cos rQ rr p = 0
d
d
( rQ ) N r + N r r r p = 0 ... (3.13)

d
d
( rM ) Q r r M r cos = 0

3.2.2.1 Circular cylindrical shell

For cylindrical part ( x, axial direction, r , r and r = Rc (radius of cylinder),

= 90o and setting internal pressure, p = 0), the above equations reduce to

dQx N
=0
dx Rc
... (3.14)
dM x
Qx = 0
dx

In the above, there are three unknowns in two equations and hence it is a statically

indeterminate system. This system of two ordinary differential equations is converted to the

single fourth order ordinary differential equation, using stress-strain and strain-displacement

equation:

d 4w
4
+ 4 4 w = 0 ... (3.15)
dx

where, w = radial displacement,

Eh3 4 Eh 3 (1 2 )
Flexural rigidity, D = and = =
12 (1 2 ) 4 Rc 2 D Rc 2 h

For details, reference is made to Timoshenko (1959), Eqn. (276). It is possible to get

the solution for Eqn. (3.15) for the case of constant thickness, as:

e x
w= [M o (Sinx Cosx ) QoCosx] ... (3.16)
2 2 D

29
where Mo - local bending moment at the junction and Qo - local shearing force at the junction

coming through the imposition of edge conditions, Figs. 3.5(a, b).

.
Rc
Mo

.R c
Qo

Fig. 3.5 Cylindrical shell with edge forces, Qo and Mo.

3.2.2.2 Spherical head (R = R = Rd)

With reference to Eqn. (3.13), the three equations with five unknowns need to be

solved, i.e., the order of indeterminacy increases to 2 from 1, in the case of cylindrical shell.

Analytical solution does not exist. In order to overcome this condition, in the literature, it has

been assumed that the hemispherical head (at the junction) behaves in the same way as that

30
of the cylindrical shell of same radius. Due to this, both cylinder and head undergo equal

amounts of radial displacement and rotation at the junction, but in the opposite directions as

depicted in Fig. 3.6.

Membrane Solution
Qo

pRc2
pRd2 (1 ) wc = 1
wd = Eh 2
2 Eh
Qo
Membrane Solution

Fig. 3.6 Local deformation at cylinder-head junction.

The unknown Qo and Mo in Eqn. (3.15) are obtained by imposing continuity

conditions. As the rotations from both sides of junctions are equal, Mo turns out to be equal

to zero. The transverse shear force, Qo is obtained as:

2
pRc 3 D p
Qo = = ... (3.17)
2 Eh 8

The algebraic sum of the membrane stresses and the stresses due to the discontinuity

force Qo for cylinder and hemispherical ends of outer and inner surfaces are given by:

31
For cylinder,

Rc p 3Rc p
x = ( x)
2h 4h 3 (1 2 )

... (3.18)
Rc p 1 3
c = 1 ( x) m ( x )
h 4 4 3 (1 )
2

For spherical end,

Rc p 3Rc p
= m ( x)
2h 4h 3 (1 2 )

(3.19)
Rc p 1 3
c = 1 ( x) ( x )
2h 4 4 3 (1 )
2

where ( x ) = e x Cos x and ( x ) = e x Sin x .

The upper sign applies to the outer surface of cylinder and sphere of the above Eqns. (3.18)

and (3.18). The results of the above equations are plotted in the Figs. 3.7.

1.0 outer surface

inner surface outer surface
1.0 inner surface
0.8
0.8
I = / n

Ic = c / n

0.6
0.6

0.4
0.4

0.2 0.2
Dome Cylinder Dome Cylinder

0.0 0.0
1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25
s (m) s (m)

(a) (b)

32
 1.0 outer surface 0.012
inner surface Deformation
.

Ivon = von / y 0.8 0.010

0.008
0.6

(m)
0.006
0.4
0.004

0.2
Dome Cylinder 0.002
Dome Cylinder
0.0
0.000
1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25
s (m) 1.75 2.25 2.75 3.25
s (m)

(c) (d)

Fig. 3.7 Hemispherical dome-uniform thickness-(a) variation of axial stress index I, (b)
variation of hoop stress index Ic, (c) variation of von Mises stress factor and (d) deformation

3.3 Pressure vessel with torispherical head

The torispherical head with cylindrical pressure vessel is composed of two circular

arcs, crown of radius Rd at the top and knuckle of radius Rk. This is fitted on the cylinder of

radius Rc (Fig.2.1). There is no discontinuity in slope at either the cylinder-knuckle junction

or the knuckle-crown junction, for uniform thickness in knuckle region.

3.3.1 Membrane solution

With respect to Fig. 3.8, o is the meridional angle corresponding to the junction of

crown and knuckle. Ro is the radius of parallel circle corresponding to the junction of crown

and knuckle. is the meridional coordinate of a point on the knuckle. r is the radius of

parallel circle corresponding to that point. R is the radius of the surface in the

circumferential direction. N is the meridional stress resultant acting at the point.

33
 N = pRd / 2

ro A

r B
o
Rk

C
R
N

Rd

Rc

Fig. 3.8 Geometrical details of knuckle region.

ro = Rd sin o

r = Rc Rk + Rk sin = Rc + Rk ( sin 1)

Rc Rk R + Rk ( sin 1)
R = + Rk = c
sin sin

Force equilibrium in the axial direction from Fig. 3.8 is given by

pRd
( r 2 ro2 ) p = 2 r sin N 2 ro sin o (3.20)
2

Second term on the right hand side of the above Eqn. (3.20) represents the boundary

condition imposed by the crown.

N =
(r 2
ro2 ) p + pRd ro sin o
(3.21)
2r sin

34
From second part of Eqn. (3.1),

N
N = R + p (3.22)
R

Substituting r, ro and R in above Eqn. (3.22),

Rc + Rk ( sin 1) Rc + Rk ( sin 1) ( Rd sin o ) + Rd sin o

2 2 2 2

N = p 1 (3.23)
sin 2 Rc + Rk ( sin 1) Rk sin

The above Eqn. (3.23) gives the value of hoop stress resultant ( = h ) at any point B,

represented by the meridional coordinate . At knuckle cylinder junction, = 90, so

Rc2 Rd2 + Rd2

N = pRc 1
2 Rc Rk

R
N = pRc 1 c (3.24)
2 Rk

Rc
1 =0 (3.25)
2 Rk

Rc
If > 2 , the hoop stress becomes compressive. In other words, the torispherical dome
Rk

experiences the compressive stress in the neighbourhood of its junction with the cylinder.

Rc
The magnitude of compressive stress depends on the ratio. The compressive stress
Rk

indicates that the knuckle tries to move inward when it is subjected to internal pressure. This

is the cause of worry for the designers for two reasons: (i) the differential expansion between

the cylinder and dome is much larger than that of hemispherical head Fig. 3.9 and (ii) The

compressive stress is likely to cause failure by buckling with formation of wrinkles

(circumferential modes) in the circumferential direction.

35
 Deformed position of cylinder

wc
wd

Deformed shape of torispherical head

Fig. 3.9 Differential deformations at the junction of cylinder and torispherical head.

Due to this differential expansion in the opposite direction, the internal forces

developed at the junctions Mo and Qo (Fig. 3.4) tend to become very large leading to very

high stresses in the junction. In order to reduce the stresses in knuckle, one option is to

provide knuckle of increased thickness uniformly. However, this will cause stepped

variations at the junctions of crown-knuckle and knuckle-cylinder introducing the additional

complexity in the stress field. The alternate option is to provide knuckle of variable thickness

with matching thickness at its junctions with dome and cylinder. In the present work, knuckle

of variable thickness obtained in two ways, is described in the following sections.

3.3.2 Variable thickness of knuckle

The inner boundary of the knuckle is a smooth curve. There is no discontinuity in the

geometry at both junctions: cylinder-knuckle and crown-knuckle. The radius of curvature of

Rd
inner surface Rk (knuckle radius) is constant and is equal to , where Rd is dome radius,

36
(Fig. 2.1). However, the meridional curvature of outer surface is of variable geometry, which

is obtained by (i) tangent method (ii) spline method.

3.3.2.1 Tangent method

With reference to Fig. 3.10, Ok is the center of the curvature and is the subtended

angle at Ok. A and B are the junctions of outer surface of crown-knuckle and cylinder-

knuckle respectively. A-C and B-C are the tangents drawn from A and B. J is the intersection

point of the inner surface and the bisector of angle . C is the intersection point of the two

tangents. D is the point on the line Ok-C, located at a distance equal to h c from J. E and F

are located at a distance equal to ( 1)h c from points A and B respectively. G is the point

of intersection of lines A-C and E-D. Similarly, K is the intersection of lines F-D and B-C. A

line parallel to Ok-B and passing through K is drawn which intersects the line Ok-C at O.

A circular arc is drawn with O-K as radius (=O-G) and O as the center and passing through

K, D and G. The line AGDKB represents the outer surface. The maximum thickness of the

knuckle is equal to J-D (= h )

Fig. 3.10 Knuckle of variable thickness by tangent method.

37
3.3.2.2 Spline method

With reference to Fig. 3.11, A and B are the junctions of outer surface of crown-

knuckle and cylinder-knuckle respectively. The bisector of the angle subtended by the

knuckle at its center of curvature is drawn. J is the point of intersection of the bisector with

the inner surface. The point D is fixed on the bisector at a distance equal to h from J.

Using spline method; A, D and B are joined. ADB is the outer surface of the knuckle. It is a

parabolic curved shape. It may be noted that there are discontinuities of slope in the cylinder-

knuckle and crown-knuckle junctions. The maximum thickness of the knuckle J-D is equal

to h .

Fig. 3.11 Knuckle of variable thickness by spline method.

38