FLUID MECHANICS - 1

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 Chapter 3: The Bernoulli
Equation
Newtons Second Law
F=ma along a streamline
F=ma normal to a streamline
Physical interpretations
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic and Total Pressure
Examples of use of the Bernoulli Equation
The energy line and the hydraulic grade line
Restrictions of use of the Bernoulli Equation
 Newtons 2nd Law
The momentum of a rigid body of a mass m moving
with velocity V is mV.
Newton second law states that the acceleration of
a body is proportional to the net force acting on it
and inversely proportional to its mass and that the
rate of changing of the momentum of a body is
equal to the net force acting on the body.
Therefore, the momentum of a system remains
constant when the net force acting on it is zero and
thus the momentum of such system is conserved.
Hence, it is called the Conservation of Momentum
 Newtons 2nd Law
This means

The net force acting on the fluid particle must equal to its mass
multiplied by its acceleration.
F=ma
A particle motion with a displacement S a long a curved stream line.
The velocity of the particle is V = ds/dt (i.e. change of displacement
with time).

Acceleration of a particle represents the change of velocity with time

a = dV/dt

The product of the mass and velocity of a body is called linear

momentum, or momentum of the body.

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 Acceleration of Fluid Particle
If a particle move in a radius curvature steam line. The velocity
of the particle is related to the distance

V=ds/dt

In two dimensional flow, there will be two components for the

acceleration, stream line acceleration a s along the streamline
and normal acceleration a n which normal to the streamline

aann

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 Acceleration of Fluid Particle
an

Streamwise acceleration is due to a change in speed

along a streamline.

Normal to the streamline acceleration is due to

change in direction, for particles move along a
straight path a n = 0 due to no change in direction.

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 Acceleration of Fluid Particle
Take velocity of a particle V to be function of displacement (S) and time (t).

The total differentiation is

Dividing by dt gives

Steady flow (velocity does not change with time)

Zero

The acceleration in the S direction becomes

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 Bernoulli Equation
Assumptions made in deriving this equation:

Inviscid fluid, we are assuming that the fluid motion is

governed by pressure and gravity forces only. Inviscid
means fluid viscosity is negligible.

The flow is steady

dS dz

dx

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 Bernoulli Equation

When friction forces are negligible, the significant forces acting in the S
direction are the pressure (acting on both sides) and the weight component
of the particle in the S direction

as
m= X(volume)= dA ds is the mass,

W=mg= g dA ds is the weight of the fluid particle, sin = dz/ds, substituting

into the above equation

Canceling dA from each term

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 Bernoulli Equation
dP gdz VdV 0
Noting that V dV = d(V2 ) and dividing each term by
gives

Integrating the above

Steady flow incompressible ( is constant)

This is the famous Bernoulli Equation

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 Bernoulli Equation

The value of the constant can be evaluated at any point on the

steamline. Hence Bernoulli equation can be used between two
points as follows:
P1 V12 P2 V22
gz1 gz2
1 2 2 2

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 F=ma normal to a streamline
For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow

V2
p dn z Constant across the streamline
R
 F=ma normal to a streamline
(cont.)
When the fluid travels along a curved path, a
net force directed towards the center of
curvature is required, due to either gravity or
pressure or both.
When the streamlines are straight, the
centrifugal effect is negligible and the pressure
variation across the streamline is due to
gravity alone even though the fluid is in
motion.
 Bernoulli equation
Bernoulli equation was obtained from
integration of the equation of motion along a
coordinate in the direction of stream line.
 Back to Bernoulli Equation Physical Interpretation
This is what we derived P1 V12 P2 V22
gz1 gz2
in previous slides
1 2 2 2
Bernoulli equation can be written
Total head
p V2
z H Constant along a streamline
2g Elevation head Potential Energy
-related to potential energy of the particle

Kinetic Energy - Velocity head -vertical

distance needed for the fluid to flow freely (neglecting
friction) if it is to reach V from rest

Flow energy - Pressure head

-height of the column of fluid that is needed to produce the pressure p
 Static, stagnation, Dynamic and
This is what we derived
Total Pressure in previous slides
Bernoulli Equation also can be written as P1 V12 P2 V22
gz1 gz 2
1 1 2 2 2
p V 2 z pT Constant along a streamline
2
Static pressure The sum of static pressure
Actual thermodynamic pressure and dynamic pressure is
Dynamic pressure equal to total pressure
(stagnation pressure)
Hydrostatic pressure provided the flow on the
same steam line (i.e. z=0)
Total pressure or
stagnation pressure
 Static, stagnation, Dynamic and
Total Pressure (cont.)
For 2 points at the same height
Zero

1 1
p1 1V1 z1 p2 2V22 z2
2

2 2
Z1 = Z2

1
p2 p1 V12

2
Stagnation
pressure Static Dynamic
pressure pressure
 Static, stagnation, Dynamic and
Total Pressure (cont.)
Then, p2 is called the
stagnation pressure. It
represents the pressure
where flow velocity is zero
The pressure at
stagnation point, p2, is
greater than the static
pressure, p1
There is a stagnation
point on any stationary
body that is placed into a
flowing fluid
 I am confused, why so many terms in
Bernoulli equation & which one to use?
P V2
gz C This is what we derived originally
2
V 2 Multiply the above equation by we will get
P z C
2
Same
p V2
z H equation, pressure head, velocity head,
Divide above equation by (g) we get this

2g elevation head.
1
p V 2 z C
Static pressure, Dynamic pressure,
Hydrostatic pressure, Total pressure
2
Answer: It depends on the application
of the equation
2 Elevation head
For head calculation p V
zH
Pressure 2g
head Velocity head

For pressure & velocity 1

calculation (Pitot tube) p V 2
z C
2
Static Dynamic Hydrostatic
pressure pressure pressure
1
Energy calculation p V 2 z C
Pressure 2 Potential
energy Kinetic energy
energy
 Pitot Static Tube
Fluid speed can be calculated if we know
the values of the static and stagnation
pressures in a fluid.
p3 p2 Stagnation Pressure
p4 p1 Static Pressure
Dynamic Pressure p3 p4 V 1
2
2

V 2 p3 p4
 Pitot tube

Stagnation
Static
pressure
pressure
Pitot tube in airplanes to determine
Investigator looked into
airplane velocity the possibility that ice
build-up on Pitot tube
sensor of Air France
Airbus A330 Flight 447
from Rio de Janeiro to
Paris which led to the
May 31 2009 crash with
228 people on board.
Why is measuring air
speed important?
Planes have a certain
operating envelope, and
it's dangerous to fly at
too low speed because it
will stall (stop), and it's
also dangerous to fly at
too high speed because
of structural reasons.
 Examples of use of the Bernoulli
Equation: Free Jets

Assumptions
z1=h, z2=0
Reservoir is large, V1=0
Reservoir is open to atmosphere, p1=0 gage
Fluid leaves as a free jet, p2=0
Once outside nozzle, the stream continues as a free jet,
p5=0
 Free Jets (cont.)

h
v2 2 2 gh

v5 2 g h H
 Free Jets (cont.)
This equation shows that fluid particles potential
energy completely converted to kinetic energy
h
v 2 2 2 gh

1
p V 2 z C
2
Potential The elevation head at point (1) is
Pressure Kinetic completely converted into velocity
energy
energy energy head at point (2), remember that
pressure at (1) & (2) atmospheric (i.e.
P1 & P2 = 0)
 Free Jets (cont.)

If exit of tank is not

CC=1 means jet area
is equal to hole area
CC<1 means jet area is
less than hole area
smooth, well
contoured nozzle, the
diameter of the jet will
be less than the
diameter of the hole
vena contracta effect
Contraction
coeficient, Cc=Aj/Ah
jet
hole
 Example
For the system in the figure, h= 11m and the diameter of the side
opening is 0.05m. Find the
(a) Jet velocity in units of m/s
(b) Volume flow rate in units of m3/s

h
Solution 0 0 0
0
P1 + V12 + Z1 = P2 + V22 + z2
Q=AV,

P1 = 0
V1 = 0
Z1 = h h
Z2 = 0
P2 = 0
d1 = 0.05m
Note that: = g, thus: / = g
Z1 = V22
a) V = (2gh) = (2 x 9.81 x 11m) = 14m/s
b) Q=AV,

D 2 0.052
Q V 14 0.027m3 / s
4 4
 Example
A smooth plastic, 10-m long garden hose with an inside diameter of 15 mm is used to
drain a wading pool as shown. If viscous effects are neglected, what is the flowrate
from the pool?
Solution

Point 1
Point 2
Examples of use of the Bernoulli Equation:
Confined Flows
In many cases, fluid is confined within a device
(such as in pipes connected to each other with
different diameters) and its pressure cannot be
prescribed as was done for in previous slides in
free jet examples. Hence, we need to use the
concept of conservation of mass (continuity
equation) along with Bernoulli equation.
 Confined Flows (cont.)
In such case, mass is conserved, i.e. inflow rate must
equal to the outflow rate (V: velocity m/s, A: area m2,
kg/m3)
Volume flowrate (m3/s) AV
Q AV , m Mass flowrate (kg/s)

1 A1V1 2 A2V2 or A1V1 A2V (if incompressible)

 Increase in velocity causes decrease in
pressure
In general, following Bernoulli, an increase in velocity
(could be due to reduction of flow area) is accompanied by
a decrease in pressure.
Example

P1 + V12 + Z1 = P2 + V22 + z2 V1: 1m/s V2: 5m/s

P1:101kPa P2:?
P2 =P1 + (V12 -V22 )=101 + X 1X (1- 25 ) : 1kg/m3

P2 = 101 12.5 =88.5kPa

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 Test your understanding
It is not surprising that a wind blowing directly on an open
door can make the door slam shut.
Use Bernoullis principle to explain how a wind blowing
across a door-way (that is parallel to the opening) can
make the door close. (Assume that the door open inwards.)

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 Answer
From Bernoullis equation, an increase in the
flow speed v corresponds to a decrease in the
air pressure P. The reduced air pressure on
the outdoor side of the door makes the door
swing toward that side, closing it.

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In general, an increase in velocity (could be due to
reduction of flow area) is accompanied by a decrease in
pressure.

Air flowing over the top surface of an airplane wing is faster than that
flowing under the bottom surface. Thus the net pressure force is
greater on the bottom and generate the lift which lifts the airplane.

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 Cavitation
Cavitation is potentially dangerous situation that results when liquid pressure
is reduced to the vapor pressure which causes the liquid to boil and form
bubbles.

For flows of liquids, this may result in cavitation, a potentially dangerous

situation that results when liquid pressure is reduced to vapor pressure and
the liquid boils.

Cavitation is the formation and then immediate implosion of cavities in a liquid

i.e. small liquid-free zones ("bubbles") that are the consequence of forces
acting upon the liquid.
It usually occurs when a liquid is subjected to rapid changes of pressure that
cause the formation of cavities where the pressure is relatively low.

When fluid flow with high velocity it will low pressure which may reach the
vapor pressure and cause cavitation.

When the bubble move to high pressure region, it will collapse. Pressure as
large as 690000 kPa are believed to occur when the bubble collapse. If the
bubble collapsed close to a surface, it cause serious damage to the surface
Cavitation
After
cavitation

Before
cavitation

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 Example
Water is siphoned from the tank as
shown. The water barometer
indicates a reading of 9.2 m.
Determine the maximum value of h
allowed without cavitation occurring. 7.6cm
7.6cm
Note that the pressure of the vapor 9.2m
in the closed end of the barometer
equals the vapor pressure.
2m

12.7cmdiameter
12.7cm diameter
Solution .O
0 0
2 0 2 7.6cm
P1 V P2 V
z1
1
z2 2 9.2m
.
1 2g 2 2g
2
2m
P2 = barometer, Z2= 2m
A2V2 A3V3 .
1
Pvapour V22
0 2m A2
2 2g V3 V2
A3
But
2 2
. 12.7cm diameter
3
Po 9.2m P1 0(abs ) & Po Pvapour D 0.076
V3 V2
2
2 2
11.9 4.7m / s
Pvapour / 9.2m D 3 0.127 0
0 0
2

0 9.2m
V
2m P1 V 2
P3 V32
z1 z3
2 1
2g 1 2g 3 2g
V2 11.9m / s
V3 2 gh 2 9.81 h 4.2m / s
h 0.92m
 Example
Water flows from a large tank as shown. Atmospheric pressure is 100kPa and
the vapor pressure is 11kPa (absolute). If viscous effects are neglected, at
what height, h, will cavitation begin?

10cm

2.5cm 5cm
Solution:
0 large tank 0
P0 V02 P1 V12 0
z0 z1
0 2g 1 2g 10cm

P0=100kPa (absolute)
3 1 2
& P1 =11kPa (absolute)
2.5cm 5cm
Z0=h or
P1 P0 V12 D2 2
h V1 [ ] V2
2g D1
However, where zero
0 large tank
A1V1 A2V2 P0 V02 P2 V22
z 0 ( h) z2
0 2g 2 2g
P0 P2 Because open to environment

Z2 0
Solution:

V22
h 10cm

2g
V12 ( D2 / D1 ) 4 V22 D2 4
( ) h 2.5cm 5cm

2g 2g D1 From previous slide

From this equation, it
P1 P0 V12

h
Combine equations seems that h increases by

increasing D1 &
2g
P1 P0 D2 4 decreasing D2 thus to
h ( ) h avoid cavitation (h small),
D1 D1 should be increased
and D2 should be
P0 P1 (100 11) 103 N / m 2 decreased
h 0.61m
D2 4 5cm 4
[( ) 1] 9800 N / m [(
3
) 1]
D1 2.5cm
 Examples of use of Bernoulli
Equation (Flowrate measurement)
Assumptions steady, inviscid and
incompressible
 Flowrate measurement (cont.)
Between points (1 & 2) High Low
(1-high pressure low velocity) pressure pressure
and (2 high velocity low pressure)
p1 12 V12 p2 12 V22
and
Q A1V1 A2V2
Subsitute
2 2
Q Q
p1 2 ( ) p2 2 ( )
1 1
A1 A2
hence
2( p1 p2 )
Q A2

1 A2 A1 2
 Flowrate measurement (cont.)
The actual measured flowrate, Qactual will be smaller
than this theoretical results because of the
assumptions made in deriving the Bernoulli Equation.

Other flowmeters based on Bernoulli equation are

used to measure flowrates in open channels such
as flumes and irrigation ditches.
Sluice gate flow measurement

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 Sluice gate flow measurement (cont.
1 1
P1 V1 z1 P2 V2 z 2
2 2

2 2
Q=A1V1=bV1z1=A2V2=bV2z2

A1=bZ1 and A2=bZ2

P1=P2=0

Combine the above equations and rearrange

to get the flowrate

See example 3.12 in the text book for application of the above equation

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The Energy Line and the Hydraulic
Grade Line
As discussed previously, the Bernoulli equation is in
fact an energy equation.
The sum of various energies of fluid remains
constant (flow energy, kinetic energy & potential
energy) as the fluid flows from one section to
another).
A useful interpretation of the Bernoulli equation can
be obtained through the use of the concept of
hydraulic grade line (HGL) and energy line (EL).
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade
Line (cont.)
The hydraulic grade line (HGL) and energy line (EL)
represent a geometrical interpretation of a flow and
can be effective to better understand the fundamental
process and Bernoulli equation involved.

If we want to get energy values in term of head (m) so

that we can plot it in a graph, we can use the following
Bernoulli equation.
p V2
z CH
2g
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The Energy Line and the Hydraulic
Grade Line (cont.)

Measures the sum of

the pressure head and
the elevation head. The
sum is also called
piezometric head
 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade
Line (cont.)
By implementing the above equation we will represent the energy in Bernoulli
equation in terms of head, Bernoulli equation states that the sum of pressure head
+ velocity head + elevation head = total head.

Energy line is a line that represents the total head available to the fluid
Under the assumptions of the Bernoulli equation, the energy line is horizontal.
p V2
According to this equation z CH
2g
The total head remains constant along streamline (provided that the assumption
made for Bernoulli equation is valid.

The velocity head, elevation head and pressure head may vary along the stream
line.

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The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line (cont.)
If the fluid velocity changes along stream line, the hydraulic grade line will not
be horizontal.

If the flow is steady, invicid , incompressible, the energy line will be horizontal.
The hydraulic grade line lies in a distance of velocity head V2 /2g below the
energy line.

Thus change in in fluid velocity due to change in pipe diameter results in a

change in the elevation of the hydraulic grade line. At the pipe outlet, the
pressure head is zero (gage) so the pipe elevation and hydraulic grade line
match.

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The Energy Line and the Hydraulic
Grade Line (cont.)
The distance from the pipe to HGL indicates the pressure within
the pipe.
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic
Grade Line (cont.)
If the pipe lies below HGL the pressure within the
pipe is positive
If the pipe lies above HGL the pressure is
negative
Restrictions of use of the Bernoulli
Equation
Assumptions involved in deriving the Bernoulli
equation
Fluid is incompressible ok with liquids
Flow is steady
Inviscid flow
In the absence of viscous effects, the total energy of the system
remains constant
There are no mechanical devices in the system between
the two points along the streamline to which the equation
is applied