Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ICNIRPGUIDELINES
FORLIMITINGEXPOSURETOELECTRICFIELDSINDUCEDBY
MOVEMENTOFTHEHUMANBODYINASTATICMAGNETICFIELD
ANDBYTIMEVARYINGMAGNETICFIELDSBELOW1HZ
PUBLISHEDIN:HEALTHPHYSICS106(3):418425;2014
ICNIRPPUBLICATION2014
ICNIRP Guidelines
in a space that results in a relative change to the magnitude factor that depends on the location within the body, the
or direction of the magnetic eld or (3) both cases combined. size of the body, the shape of the body, electrical proper-
The right-hand term of eqn (1) shows the time rate of the ties of the tissue as well as on the direction and distribu-
magnetic ux in terms of the surface integral of the time tion of the magnetic eld . This conversion factor applies
rate of magnetic ux density over the body area of interest. to a body rotating in a static magnetic eld, moving in a
It is important to note that another fundamental source eld gradient, and staying stationary in a time-varying
of the induced electric eld is given by the electromotive magnetic eld. The conversion factor can be determined
electric eld EvB = v B where v is the velocity of a by computational simulation based on a realistic hetero-
point in the tissue relative to the eld. This eld is asso- geneous numerical model of the human body or body re-
ciated with the magnetic force causing dielectric polari- gion of interest. By using two different human models
zation, i.e., separating positive and negative charges in placed in a static magnetic eld, Ilvonen and Laakso
the tissue (Sanchez et al. 2012, 2009; Redzic 2004; (2009) have computed the conversion factor in the ves-
Bringuier 2003). The dielectric polarization increases tibular system located in the inner ear. In the case of a
until the charges accumulated in tissue boundaries reach head nodding or shaking in a uniform magnetic eld di-
equilibrium, where their electric eld partly counteracts rected from left to right (shaking) and from top to down
the EvB eld (Redzic 2004). For some rotational movements (nodding), the maximum conversion factor for different
the magnetic force manifested by the EvB eld also gen- movements varied from 0.066Y0.132 Vmj1 per Tsj1.
erates a space (bulk) charge inside a conducting body. The The mean of these (maximum) conversion factors was
space and boundary charges may move during the motion. 0.095 Vmj1 per Tsj1. This is close to 0.105 Vmj1
The currents associated with these movements are added per Tsj1 computed by Dimbylow (2005) for a maximum
to the currents generated by the rotational currents de- conversion factor in the brain at 50 Hz (33 Vmj1 per T).
termined by Faradays law, but in most cases of movements These data imply that a reasonable estimate for C might
of biological bodies it can be assumed that rotational be 0.1 Vmj1 per Tsj1. For a detailed discussion of the
currents and electric elds dominate over the dielectric conversion factors used for low-frequency guidelines, see
polarization phenomena. ICNIRP (2010).
The time constant for achieving the equilibrium of The change of the magnetic ux density ($B) is a
the polarization is given by T = D/R, where D is the per- relevant exposure parameter for limiting movements in a
mittivity and R the conductivity of tissue (Redzic 2004). static magnetic eld, as will be discussed later. The relation
For human tissues the time constant may be in the order of of $B with the induced electric eld is given by
milliseconds, which is relatively small compared to the t2
these effects are not considered to be hazardous per se, Peripheral nerve stimulation
but they can be disturbing and may impair working ability. The responsiveness of electrically excitable nerve and
For normal movements, the threshold for peripheral nerve muscle tissue to electric stimuli, including those induced
stimulation is unlikely to be reached with exposures below by exposure to low-frequency electric and magnetic elds,
8 T, although it is possible that the basic restrictions for has been well established for many years (e.g., Reilly 2002;
peripheral nerve stimulation (ICNIRP 2010) may slightly Saunders and Jefferys 2007; ICNIRP 2010). Myelinated
be exceeded by very fast movements. nerve bers of the human peripheral nervous system have
In addition to these movement-induced effects, static the lowest threshold for electrical nerve stimulation. The
magnetic elds may cause direct effects arising from (1) minimum threshold value of around 6 Vmj1 (peak)
induction of electrical ow potentials across blood ves- (Reilly 1998; 2002; Reilly and Diamant 2011) has been
sels due to the movement of electrolytes in the blood, (2) estimated based on theoretical calculation using a nerve
forces on paramagnetic and diamagnetic components of model. However, peripheral nerve stimulation induced
tissues, (3) changes in chemical reactions due to altered during volunteer exposure to the switched gradient mag-
spin chemistry and (4) deection of ionic currents due to netic elds of magnetic resonance (MR) systems sug-
magnetic (Lorentz) force. These direct interaction mech- gested that the threshold for perception may be as low as
anisms are not considered to have a signicant health about 2 Vmj1 (Nyenhuis et al. 2001), based on calcula-
effect when the magnetic ux density is below 7 T (WHO tions using a homogeneous human simulation model. A
2006; ICNIRP 2009a), above 7 T there is too little research more accurate calculation of the electric elds induced in
for any rm conclusions. the tissues of a heterogeneous human model based on data
from the above MR study has been carried out by So et al.
Magnetophosphenes (2004). These authors estimated the minimum threshold
The most established effect of induced electric elds for peripheral nerve stimulation to lie between 3.8 and
below the threshold for nerve or muscle stimulation is the 5.8 Vmj1, based on the assumption that stimulation takes
induction of magnetophosphenes, the perception of faint place in the skin or subcutaneous fat. With stronger stimuli,
ickering visual sensations. Magnetophosphenes are evoked discomfort and then pain ensue. Below 10 Hz the thresh-
by the internal electric elds induced in the retina (and brain old rises due to the accommodation of a nerve to a slowly
tissue) by a time-varying magnetic eld. On the basis of depolarizing stimulus.
human experiments, the threshold for the induction of Vertigo
retinal magnetophosphenes has been estimated to lie be- Movement of the head within a static magnetic eld
tween about 50 and 100 mVmj1 (Root-Mean-Square) at above 2 T frequently gives rise to sensations of vertigo and
20 Hz, rising at higher and lower frequencies (Saunders nausea (Glover et al. 2007). These sensations are pre-
and Jefferys 2007; Lovsund et al. 1980) although there is dominantly due to the induced electric eld which affects
considerable uncertainty attached to these values. Avail- the neural output of the vestibular system that is involved
able studies indicate that the threshold increases as 1/f at in maintaining balance. Volunteer studies have shown that
least down to 5 Hz and probably to lower frequencies vertigo can also be evoked by applying the electric eld by
(Adrian 1977; Lovsund et al. 1980). The threshold at 1 Hz means of galvanic AC or DC currents of the order of 1 mA
would be at least 10 times higher than the minimum fed to the electrodes attached behind the ears in the vi-
threshold at 20 Hz. cinity of the vestibular system (Fitzpatrick and Day 2004).
In the case of exposure to a static magnetic eld, Movement-induced vertigo seems not only to be de-
magnetophosphenes are most likely associated with the termined by the dB/dt, but also by the time integral of dB/dt,
transient electric eld peaks. As noted in Physical As- i.e., DB, the change of magnetic ux density during the
pects, these transient peaks arise due to sudden changes movement, as reported by Glover et al. (2007). They exam-
in the velocity of the head. The spectral components of ined the threshold of vertigo sensations in volunteers in-
a short transient extend into the frequency range of the side a 7 T MR scanner. The volunteers were positioned at
magnetophosphenes. the iso-center of the magnetic eld where they nodded and
The increase in the threshold of magnetophosphene shook their heads. The movements were cyclically repeated
induction below 10 Hz is the reason why the basic restric- to enhance the sensation of vertigo. All of the subjects
tion for the induced electric eld can be allowed to increase reported mild or severe vertigo sensations and some even
as a function of 1/f from 10 Hz down to 1 Hz (ICNIRP 2010). experienced nausea with rapid movements. The datapoints
In the absence of experimental data, this relation is extrap- in Fig. 1 show the threshold of vertigo in terms of DB and
olated to frequencies below 1 Hz until the basic restriction duration of the movement. The peak dB/dt values recorded
based on magnetophosphenes reaches the basic restriction during the experiment ranged from 1.5 to 6 Tsj1, the du-
for peripheral nerve stimulation at a frequency of 0.66 Hz. ration of each shake or nod ranged from 0.5 to 6 s, and the
www.health-physics.com
Guidelines for limiting exposure to electric elds c ICNIRP 421
change in magnetic ux density DB varied from 2 to 6 T. 2007). This effect was ascribed to a difference in the dia-
The dB/dt values recorded during nodding were higher than magnetic susceptibility between the linear-movement sen-
those recorded during shaking. This is in agreement with a sors of the vestibular system and the surrounding endolymph
simple circulating current model which indicates that for uid. A recent study (Roberts et al. 2011) suggests that the
axial shaking (rotation axis parallel to the magnetic eld) the Lorentz force resulting from interaction between the mag-
induced electric eld is a minimum, while for nodding netic eld and naturally occurring ionic currents in the
(rotation axis perpendicular to the magnetic eld) a maxi- endolymph uid might explain the direct effect.
mum electric eld is found near the inner ear where the Therefore, since the sensory effects appear to depend
circulating currents intersect (Jokela and Saunders 2011). on the product of time and dB/dt and given the possibility
Overall, these results indicated that the threshold of ver- of direct magnetic eld effects on the body, it is important
tigo correlated somewhat better with DB than with the to restrict both the static magnetic ux density (B) and the
peak dB/dt and that the most effective frequency range was maximum change of the magnetic ux density (DB) ex-
below 1 Hz. perienced by the body during movement.
It is a common experience from working with clinical
MR imaging that vertigo sensations disappear when move- RECOMMENDATIONS
ment is slowed down. This indicates that there is a nite
time during which the sensation of vertigo develops. In The objective of this guideline is to prevent peripheral
the experiment of Glover et al. (2007) vertigo sensations nerve stimulation and to minimize the possibility of tran-
were reported by most volunteers when the duration of a sient sensory effects as a consequence of electric elds in-
single movement was less than 4 s even though there was duced in the human body by movements in static magnetic
one vertigo observation for longer duration of movement elds within occupational settings. The basic restrictions
(Fig. 1). As a conservative approach ICNIRP decided to and reference levels shown in Table 1 have been deter-
set the basic restriction so that the basic restriction curve mined to achieve this objective. The basic restrictions have
remains below that single observation. There remains, how- been dened for the change in external magnetic ux
ever, a clear need to obtain more data on vertigo thresholds, density and for the induced internal electric eld. ICNIRP
particularly for relatively slow movements. recommends limiting exposure to below both sets of re-
In addition to the effects of electric elds induced by a strictions. Since internal electric elds cannot be readily
movement, a direct interaction of the magnetic eld with determined, reference levels have been derived to assess
the vestibular system cannot be excluded. An altered sense compliance with these basic restrictions. Since the motion-
of balance has been observed in volunteers standing sta- induced electric eld is a non-sinusoidal eld, where the
tionary in proximity to a 7 T MR scanner (Glover et al. spectrum extends above 1 Hz up to 25 Hz, it is necessary
also to apply the basic restrictions and reference levels in
the ICNIRP (2010) guidelines. The restrictions for the
exposure to static magnetic eld have been specied in
ICNIRP (2009a).
A distinction is made between controlled and uncon-
trolled exposures. Basic restrictions for controlled exposure
are intended to be used in work environments where access
is restricted to workers who have been trained to under-
stand the biological effects that may result from exposure,
and where the workers are able to control their movements
in order to prevent annoying and disturbing sensory ef-
fects. Restrictions for uncontrolled exposure apply to all
other occupational situations.
Basic restrictions for DB
In order to prevent transient sensory effects such as
vertigo and nausea arising from motion-induced electric
eld below a few Hz, ICNIRP recommends that the change
of the magnetic ux density DB should not exceed 2 T
Fig. 1. The vertigo threshold in terms of magnetic ux density during any 3-s period. Note that the maximum value for
change, $B, plotted as a function of duration of a head shake or nod
inside a 7 T MR scanner (Glover et al. 2007). The two line segments
the measured DB may not always occur at the end of the 3-s
show the basic restriction for magnetic ux change during any 3 s period because the direction of dB/dt may change during the
period during the movement (see Recommendations). period. The basic restriction for DB has been plotted in Fig. 1
www.health-physics.com
422 Health Physics March 2014, Volume 106, Number 3
Table 1. Exposure restrictions for controlling movement in a static magnetic eld and exposure to a time-varying magnetic
eld below 1 Hz. Above 1 Hz the basic restrictions and the reference levels are presented in the ICNIRP (2010) guidelines.
For uncontrolled exposure the reference levels for a magnetic ux density may be converted to dB/dt by using (eqn 5).
where the constant DB restriction changes to a constant with an extension to frequencies below 1 Hz. The linear
dB/dt restriction at 3-s duration of the movement. increase of the basic restriction for magnetophosphenes as
For specic work applications, exposure to static mag- a function of 1/f ceases at 0.66 Hz where it reaches the level
netic elds up to 8 T can be justied if the environment of 1.1 Vmj1 (peak), which is the basic restriction for
is controlled and appropriate work practices are imple- peripheral nerve stimulation (Fig. 2). Basic restrictions for
mented to control movement-induced sensory effects magnetophosphenes apply only to uncontrolled exposures,
(ICNIRP 2009a). The probability of vertigo and nausea since workers in controlled exposure situations are con-
will be low if it is possible to move so slowly that the max- sidered to be able to avoid this effect by limiting their
imum DB does not exceed 2 T during any 3-s period. motion speed. Basic restrictions for peripheral nerve
In the case of a stationary body in a time-varying stimulation apply to both conditions.
magnetic eld, the peak-to-peak value of the magnetic ux Like vertigo and nausea, magnetophosphenes may be
density is equivalent to DB and consequently should be annoying and disturbing, but they are not considered to
limited to 2 T.
In this context, vertigo and nausea may be annoying
and disturbing, but they are not considered to indicate a
serious long-term health effect. Therefore, no additional
reduction factor has been applied to their threshold.
Basic restrictions for induced electric eld
In order to prevent stimulation of peripheral nerves
in controlled exposure, ICNIRP recommends that the in-
duced electric eld should not exceed the basic restriction
of 1.1 Vmj1 (peak) over the frequency range of motion-
induced eld. This restriction was obtained by converting
the basic restriction of 0.8 Vmj1 (Root-Mean-Square) to
the peak value that applies to all tissues in the frequency
range below 3 kHz (ICNIRP 2010).
Because the stimulation of peripheral nerves is re-
garded as an adverse health effect, a reduction factor of
5 has been applied to the threshold to account for bio- Fig. 2. Basic restrictions for the induced electric eld for uncon-
logical uncertainties. trolled and controlled exposure conditions. The basic restrictions for
In order to avoid the induction of magnetophos- uncontrolled exposures are based on protection against magneto-
phosphenes and peripheral nerve stimulation. The basic restrictions
phenes, the strength of the induced electric eld should not for controlled exposures are based on protection against peripheral
exceed the basic restrictions for occupational exposure de- nerve stimulation only. Above 1 Hz, the basic restrictions are equal
ned by ICNIRP (2010) for time-varying magnetic elds, to the occupational basic restrictions in ICNIRP (2010).
www.health-physics.com
Guidelines for limiting exposure to electric elds c ICNIRP 423
cause serious long-term health effects. Therefore, no addi- compliance with the reference levels for dB/dt should be de-
tional reduction factor has been applied to their thresholds. termined by the weighted peak approach.
Because the waveform of the motion-induced electric In order to avoid electrical stimulation of peripheral
eld is a non-sinusoidal transient, the restriction of the nerves, the reference level for peak dB/dt has been set to
induced electric eld should be based on the weighted 2.7 Tsj1 for controlled exposure conditions. Note that to
peak approach: account for uncertainties arising from the conversion of the
Ai basic restriction to the reference level a reduction factor of
j~ EL cos2pfi t ui Vi je1; 4 approximately 3 is included in this reference level (ICNIRP
i
2010). There is no need for spectral weighting because the
where t is time and ELi is the exposure restriction (peak reference level limiting the stimulation of peripheral nerves
value) at the ith harmonic frequency f i, where Ai, ui, Vi, is constant over a large frequency range (Fig. 3).
are the amplitude of the eld, the phase angle of the eld
and the phase angle of the lter at f i . More explanations AcknowledgmentsVDuring the preparation of this document, ICNIRP was
on the weighted peak method may be found in ICNIRP composed of the following members: R. Matthes, Chairman (since 2012),
Germany; M. Feychting, Vice-Chairperson (since 2012), Sweden; R. Croft,
(2003, 2010). Australia; A. Green, Australia; K. Jokela, Finland; J.C. Lin, United States of
America; C. Marino, Italy; A.P. Peralta, The Philippines; R. Saunders, United
Reference levels Kingdom (until 2010); K. Schulmeister, Austria (until 2012); P. Soderberg,
A practical way for determining compliance with the Sweden; B.E. Stuck, United States of America; A.J. Swerdlow, United
Kingdom (until 2012); Z. Sienkiewicz, United Kingdom; E. van Rongen,
basic restrictions for the induced internal electric eld is to Netherlands; P. Vecchia, Chairman (until 2012), Italy; B. Veyret, France (until
ensure that the magnetic ux density does not exceed the 2012), S. Watanabe; Japan.
The Commission Task Group, which prepared the draft guidelines,
reference levels derived conservatively from the basic re- was lead by K. Jokela, Finland. ICNIRP also gratefully acknowledges the
strictions. The recommended reference levels in Table 1 useful comments received from all the reviewers for their contribution re-
join with the ICNIRP (2010) reference levels for magnetic ceived via the open online consultation.
Finally, the support received by ICNIRP during that period from the
ux density at 1 Hz when the magnetic ux density is International Radiation Protection Association, the European Commission
converted to the peak (amplitude) dB/dt by (Health and Safety at Work), and the German Federal Ministry for the Envi-
ronment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety is gratefully acknowledged.
dB0 p All ICNIRP members are requested to ll in and update a declaration of
2pf 2BRM S ; 5 personal interests. Those documents are available online at www.icnirp.org/cv.htm.
dt
where B0 is the peak value of the sinusoidal magnetic ux
density and BRMS is the Root-Mean-Square value (Fig. 3).
REFERENCES
Note that the reference levels are approximately directly pro-
portional to the basic restrictions except for a small differ- Adrian DJ. Auditory and visual sensations induced by low-
ence in corner frequencies. As in the case of compliance frequency electric currents. Radio Sci 12:243Y250; 1977.
AGNIR. UK Independent Advisory Group on Non-ionising Ra-
with the basic restrictions for the induced electric eld, diation. Static magnetic fields. Report of the independent
Advisory Group on Non-ionising Radiation. Docs. Chilton:
Documents of the Health Protection Agency, RCE-6; 2008.
Bringuier E. Electrostatic charges in v x B elds and the
phenomen of induction. Eur J Phys 24:21Y29; 2003.
Dimbylow PJ. Development of the female voxel phantom, NAOMI,
and its application to calculations of induced current den-
sities and electric elds from applied low frequency magnetic
and electric elds. Phys Med Biol 50:1047Y1070; 2005.
Fitzpatrick RC, Day BL. Probing the human vestibular system
with galvanic stimulation. J Appl Physiol 96:2301Y2316; 2004.
Gabriel C, Gabriel S, Corthout E. The dielectric properties of
biological tissues: I. Literature survey. Phys Med Biol 41:
2231Y2249; 1996a.
Gabriel S, Lau RW, Gabriel C. The dielectric properties of bio-
logical tissues: II. Measurements in the frequency range 10 Hz
to 20 GHz. Phys Med Biol 41:2251Y2269, 1996b.
Gabriel S, Lau RW, Gabriel C. The dielectric properties of bio-
logical tissues: III. Parametric models for the dielectric spec-
trum of tissues. Phys Med Biol 41:2271Y2293; 1996c.
Gabriel C, Peyman A, Grant EH. Electrical conductivity of tissue at
Fig. 3. Reference levels for dB/dt for uncontrolled and controlled frequencies below 1 MHz. Phys Med Biol 54:4863Y4878; 2009.
exposure conditions. Above 1 Hz the reference levels are equal to the Glover PM, Cavin ID, Qian W, Bowtell RW, Gowland PA. Magnetic-
occupational reference levels for magnetic ux density (ICNIRP eld induced vertigo: A theoretical and experimental investi-
2010) converted to the peak dB/dt by using (eqn 5). gation. Bioelectromagnetics 28:349Y361; 2007.
www.health-physics.com
424 Health Physics March 2014, Volume 106, Number 3
Heilmaier C, Theysohn JM, Maderwald S, Kraft O, Ladd ME, Sanchez CC, Glover P, Power H, Bowtell R. Calculation of the
Ladd SC. A large-scale study on subjective perception of dis- electric eld resulting from human body rotation in a mag-
comfort during 7 and 1.5 T MRI examinations. Bioelectro- netic eld. Phys Med Biol 57:4739Y4752; 2012.
magnetics 32:610Y619; 2011. Sanchez CC, Bowtell R, Power H, Glover P, Marin L, Becker A,
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection. Jones A. Forward electric eld calculation using BEM for
General approach to protection against non-ionizing radiation. time varying magnetic eld gradients and motion in strong
Health Phys 82:540Y548; 2002. static elds. Eng Anal Bound Elem 33:1074Y1088; 2009.
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection. Saunders RD, Jefferys JG. A neurobiological basis for ELF
Guidance on determining compliance of exposure to pulsed guidelines. Health Phys 92:596Y603; 2007.
and complex non-sinusoidal waveforms below 100 kHz with Shellock FG. Reference manual for magnetic resonance safety,
ICNIRP guidelines. Health Phys 84:383Y387; 2003. implants, and devices: 2012 Edition. Los Angeles, CA: Bio-
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection. medical Research Publishing Group; 2012.
Statement on Medical Magnetic Resonance (MR) Procedures: So PPM, Stuchly MA, Nyenhuis JA. Peripheral nerve stimu-
Protection of Patients. Health Phys 87:197Y216; 2004. lation by gradient switching elds in magnetic resonance
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection.
imaging. IEEE Trans on Biomed Eng 51:1907Y1914; 2004.
Guidelines on limits of exposure to static magnetic elds. Health
van Nierop LE, Slottje P, van Zandvoort MJE, de Vocht F,
Phys 96:504Y514; 2009a.
Kromhout H. Effects of magnetic stray elds from a 7 Tesla
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection.
Amendment to the ICNIRP Statement on Medical Magnetic MRI scanner on neurocognition: a double-blind randomised
Resonance (MR) Procedures: Protection of Patients. Health crossover study. Occup Environ Med 69:759Y766; 2012.
Phys 97:259Y261; 2009b. doi:10.1136/oemed-2011-100468.
International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection. World Health Organization. Static fields. Environmental Health
ICNIRP guidelines for limiting exposure to time- varying Criteria 232. Geneva: WHO; 2006.
electric and magnetic elds (1 Hz to 100 kHz). Health Phys
99:818Y836; 2010. GLOSSARY
International Electrotechnical Commission. Medical electrical
equipment - Part 2Y33: particular requirements for the basic
Basic restrictions
safety and essential performance of magnetic resonance equip- Limitations on the quantities that closely match known
ment for medical diagnosis. Geneva: IEC; IEC 60601-2-33 biophysical interaction mechanisms with tissue that may
ed 3.0; 2010. lead to adverse health effects.
Ilvonen S, Laakso I. Computational estimation of magnetically
induced electric elds in a rotating head. Phys Med Biol Central nervous system (CNS)
54:341Y351; 2009.
Jokela K, Saunders RD. Physiologic and dosimetric consider- The portion of the vertebrate nervous system
ations for limiting electric elds induced in the body by consisting of the brain and spinal cord, but not including
movements in a static magnetic eld. Health Phys 100: the peripheral nerves.
641Y653; 2011.
Liu F, Zhao H, Crozier S. Calculation of electric elds induced Conductivity (R)
by body and head motion in high-eld MRI. J Magn Reson A property of materials that determines the magnitude
161:99Y107; 2003. of the electric current density when an electric eld is
Lovsund P, Oberg PA, Nilsson SEG. Magneto- and electro-
phosphenes: A comparative study. Med Biol Eng Comput 18: applied to the material, expressed in units of Siemens per
758Y764; 1980. meter (Smj1); the inverse of resistivity.
Nyenhuis JA, Bourland JD, Kildishev AV, Schaefer DJ. Health
effects and safety of intense gradient elds. In: Shellock FG, Electric eld strength (E)
ed. Magnetic resonance procedures: Health effects and safety. Force exerted by an electric eld on an electric point
Boca Raton, London, New York, Washington DC: CRC Press; charge, divided by the electric charge. Electric eld
2001: 31Y53.
strength is expressed in Newton per Coulomb or Volt per
Redzic DV. Conductors moving in magnetic elds: Approach to
equilibrium. Eur J Phys 25:623Y632; 2004. meter (NCj1 = Vmj1).
Reilly JP. Applied bioelectricity: From electrical stimulation to
Electro-stimulation
electropathology. New York, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-
Verlag; 1998. Stimulation of excitable tissue in the body by an applied
Reilly JP. Neuroelectric mechanisms applied to low frequency electrical stimulus.
electric and magnetic eld exposure guidelinesVpart I:
Sinusoidal waveforms. Health Phys 83:341Y355; 2002. Electromotive electric eld (EvB)
Reilly JP, Diamant AM. Electrostimulation. Theory, applica- Electric eld induced by a movement of a conducting
tions and computational model. Boston, London: Artech
House; 2011. body in a magnetic eld.
Roberts DC, Marcelli V, Gillen JS, Carey JP, Della Santina CC, Frequency
Zee DS. MRI magnetic eld stimulates rotational sensors
of the brain. Curr Biol 21:1635Y1640; 2011. doi:10.1016/ The number of cycles completed by electromagnetic
j.cub.2011.08.029. waves in 1 s; usually expressed in Hertz (Hz).
www.health-physics.com
Guidelines for limiting exposure to electric elds c ICNIRP 425
www.health-physics.com