Engineering Geology

Previous year solved papers

By:Ass.Proff.Paramveer Sharma
Civil Engineering Department
 UNIT 1
GENERAL GEOLOGY

QUES.1 - Define geology and subdivisions of geology.(2014,

Ans.
Geology is the study of the earth (geo means earth, and ology means study of). This
is a very simple definition for something so complex. Geology involves studying the
materials that make up the earth, the features and structures found on Earth as well
as the processes that act upon them. Geology also deals with the study of the history
of all life that's ever lived on or is living on the earth now. Studying how life and our
planet have changed over time is an important part of geology

Subdivisions of geology
1. Physical Geology - The structural disposition of the rock bodies & huge bodies of
water & ice form other specific subjects of study is physical Geology. It deals with
internal agents (volcanism & earthquake) External agents (wind, water, ice &
atmosphere)
2. Geomorphology - The study of the features of the earth surfaces mainly the land
like mountains, plains, plateaus, valleys & basins.
3. Mineralogy - It deals with formation, occurrence, aggregation, properties & uses
of minerals crystallography branch mineralogy.
4. Petrology - It deals with formation of various types of rocks, their mode of
occurrence, their composition texture, structures, geological & graphical distribution
of rocks. It is subdivided into.
1. Palacogeography
2. Paleontology
3. Stratigiaphy
5. Economic Geology - It deals with study of minerals & rocks which can be exploited
for he benefits of man. These include.
1. Ore Iron, aluminum, copper
2. Non Ore building stones, rock salt, coal, petroleum, Natural gas

Ques.2 - Discuss the importance of geology for civil engineers.

(2007,2011,2014,2015)

Ans.
Geology plays a very important role in the field of civil engineering. It provides
knowledge about materials used for construction such as
1. Its knowledge is helpful for river control and shipping work.
2. Its knowledge is helpful for constructing dams.
3. Geo technical engineers needs knowledge about this subject for digging work.
4. Its knowledge is required for foundation faults.
5. For design of highways and roads.
6. In construction of tunnels.
7. Soil tests are done before any project.
8. Economical design is advanced.
9. Nature of soil materials can be find out.

Geology for civil engineers

It enables a civil engineer to understand Engg. Implications of certain conditions

related to the area of construction, which are essentially geological in nature.

It enables a geologist to understand the Nature of geological information which is

absolutely essential for a safe design & construction of a civil engineering projects.

The major activities of a professional civil engineering are in

Construction job

Water Resource Development

Town & Regional Planning

I) Geology in construction jobs

In all heavy construction jobs like

1. Dams & reservoirs
2. Tower
3. Tanks
4. Highways & bridges
5. Traffic & hydro power tunnels
6. Embankments & retaining structures
7. Lining of canals
8. Laying of drainage pipes etc
9. We need to have a clear idea about the site, Planning, Design, Construction
i. Planning
a) Topographic Maps
Relief features - essential to understand the merits & demerits
The nature of slopes, depth of valley,Rate of change to elevation in various directions
can be easily computed
b) Hydrological maps
Surface & subsurface water channel, its occurrence & depth.

c) Geological Maps
Rock types
Structural disposition of rocks
Materials of construction
Exploratory operations (test holes etc.)
Subsurface investigation

ii. Design
The existence of hard bedrocks & their depth from & inclination with the surface.
The Mechanical properties of the rock especially compressive, shear & transverse
strength, modulus of elasticity, permeability & resistance to decay.

iii. Construction

To check the quality control of the construction materials like sands, gravels,
gushed rocks & soil.

all are best understood in Geological perspective.

iv. Geology in water Resources Development

Water is an basic needs to our life
Water cycle is the term given to the sum total of water cycle:
evaporation of water from the hydrosphere + its precipitation in the form of rain &
snow + flow back into the lakes, sea & oceans.
It depends on Surface & subsurface water.

v. Geology in Town & Regional planning

A town planner is concerned with landscape & its utilization

i.e. maximum benefits with minimum of disturbance to Natural environment.
A regional planner is responsible for adopting an integrated approach in all such
cases of allocation of land for development projects.

QUES.3 - Write note on internal structure of Earth.

(2007,2009,2012,2014)

Ans.
Structure of earths interior is fundamentally divided into three layers crust, mantle
and core.
Crust
It is the outermost solid part of the earth, normally about 8-40 kms thick.
It is brittle in nature.
Nearly 1% of the earths volume and 0.5% of earths mass are made of the crust.
The thickness of the crust under the oceanic and continental areas are different.
Oceanic crust is thinner (about 5kms) as compared to the continental crust
(about 30kms).
Major constituent elements of crust are Silica (Si) and Aluminium (Al) and thus, it
is often termed as SIAL (Sometimes SIAL is used to refer Lithosphere, which is
the region comprising the crust and uppermost solid mantle, also).
The mean density of the materials in the crust is 3g/cm3.
The discontinuity between the hydrosphere and crust is termed as the Conrad
Discontinuity.

Mantle
The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called as the mantle.
The discontinuity between the crust and mantle is called as the Mohorovicic
Discontinuity or Moho discontinuity.
The mantle is about 2900kms in thickness.
Nearly 84% of the earths volume and 67% of the earths mass is occupied by the
mantle.
The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and Magnesium and
hence it is also termed as SIMA.
The density of the layer is higher than the crust and varies from 3.3 5.4g/cm3.
The uppermost solid part of the mantle and the entire crust constitute the
Lithosphere.
The asthenosphere (in between 80-200km) is a highly viscous, mechanically
weak and ductile, deforming region of the upper mantle which lies just below
the lithosphere.
The asthenosphere is the main source of magma and it is the layer over which
the lithospheric plates/ continental plates move (plate tectonics).
The discontinuity between the upper mantle and the lower mantle is known as
Repetti Discontinuity.
The portion of the mantle which is just below the lithosphere and
asthenosphere, but above the core is called as Mesosphere.

Core
 It is the innermost layer surrounding the earths centre.
The core is separated from the mantle by Guttenbergs Discontinuity .
It is composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) and hence it is also called as
NIFE.
The core constitutes nearly 15% of earths volume and 32.5% of earths mass.
The core is the densest layer of the earth with its density ranges between 9.5-
14.5g/cm3.
The Core consists of two sub-layers: the inner core and the outer core.
The inner core is in solid state and the outer core is in the liquid state (or semi-
liquid).
The discontinuity between the upper core and the lower core is called as
Lehmann Discontinuity.
Barysphere is sometimes used to refer the core of the earth or sometimes the
whole interior.

Temperature, Pressure and Density of the Earths Interior

Temperature

A rise in temperature with increase in depth is observed in mines and deep

wells.
These evidence along with molten lava erupted from the earths interior
supports that the temperature increases towards the centre of the earth.
The different observations show that the rate of increase of temperature is not
uniform from the surface towards the earths centre. It is faster at some places
and slower at other places.
In the beginning, this rate of increase of temperature is at an average rate of 1C
for every 32m increase in depth.
While in the upper 100kms, the increase in temperature is at the rate of 12C per
km and in the next 300kms, it is 20C per km. But going further deep, this rate
reduces to mere 10C per km.
Thus, it is assumed that the rate of increase of temperature beneath the surface
is decreasing towards the centre (do not confuse rate of increase of temperature
with increase of temperature. Temperature is always increasing from the earths
surface towards the centre).
The temperature at the centre is estimated to lie somewhere between 3000C
and 5000C, may be that much higher due to the chemical reactions under high-
pressure conditions.
Even in such a high temperature also, the materials at the centre of the earth are
in solid state because of the heavy pressure of the overlying materials.

Pressure
 Just like the temperature, the pressure is also increasing from the surface
towards the centre of the earth.
It is due to the huge weight of the overlying materials like rocks.
It is estimated that in the deeper portions, the pressure is tremendously high
which will be nearly 3 to 4 million times more than the pressure of the
atmosphere at sea level.
At high temperature, the materials beneath will melt towards the centre part of
the earth but due to heavy pressure, these molten materials acquire the
properties of a solid and are probably in a plastic state.

Density

Due to increase in pressure and presence of heavier materials like Nickel and
Iron towards the centre, the density of earths layers also gets on increasing
towards the centre.
The average density of the layers gets on increasing from crust to core and it is
nearly 14.5g/cm3 at the very centre.

QUES.4- Write note on Weathering and its type.(2007,2014)

Ans.
Weathering causes the disintegration of rock near the surface of the earth. Plant and
animal life, atmosphere and water are the major causes of weathering. Weathering
breaks down and loosens the surface minerals of rock so they can be transported
away by agents of erosion such as water, wind and ice. There are two types of
weathering: mechanical and chemical.

Weathering processes are of three main types: mechanical, organic and chemical
weathering.

Mechanical or Physical Weathering

Mechanical weathering is also known as physical weathering. Mechanical weathering

is the physical breakdown of rocks into smaller and smaller pieces. One of the most
common mechanical actions is frost shattering. It happens when water enters the
pores and cracks of rocks, then freezes. Frost weathering, frost wedging, ice wedging
or cryofracturing is the collective name for several processes where ice is present.
These processes include frost shattering, frost-wedging and freeze-thaw weathering.
Once the frozen water is within the rocks, it expands by about 10% thereby opening
the cracks a bit wider. The pressure acting within the rocks is estimated at 30,000
pounds per square inch at -7.6F. Over time, this pressure alongside the changes in
weather makes the rock split off, and bigger rocks are broken into smaller fragments.

Another type of mechanical weathering is called salt wedging. Winds, water waves,
and rain also have an effect on rocks as they are physical forces that wear away rock
particles, particularly over long periods of time. These forces are equally categorized
under mechanical or physical weathering because they release their pressures on the
rocks directly and indirectly which causes the rocks to fracture and disintegrate.

Mechanical/physical weathering is also caused by thermal stress which is the

contraction and expansion effect on the rocks caused by changes in temperature.
Due to uneven expansion and contraction, the rocks crack apart and disintegrate into
smaller pieces.

Organic or Biological Weathering

Organic or biological weathering refers to the same thing. It is the disintegration of

rocks as a result of the action by living organisms. Trees and other plants can wear
away rocks since as they penetrate into the soil and as their roots get bigger, they
exert pressure on rocks and makes the cracks wider and deeper. Eventually, the
plants break the rocks apart. Some plants also grow within the fissures in the rocks
which lead to widening of the fissures and then eventual disintegration.

Microscopic organisms like algae, moss, lichens and bacteria can grow on the surface
of the rocks and produce chemicals that have the potential of breaking down the
outer layer of the rock. They eat away the surface of the rocks. These microscopic
organisms also bring about moist chemical micro-environments which encourage the
chemical and physical breakdown of the rock surfaces. The amount of biological
activity depends upon how much life is in that area. Burrowing animals such as
moles, squirrels and rabbits can speed up the development of fissures.

Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering happens when rocks are worn away by chemical changes. The
natural chemical reactions within the rocks change the composition of the rocks over
time. Because the chemical processes are gradual and ongoing, the mineralogy of
rocks changes over time thus making them wear away, dissolve, and disintegrate.

The chemical transformations occur when water and oxygen interacts with minerals
within the rocks to create different chemical reactions and compounds through
processes such as hydrolysis and oxidation. As a result, in the process of new material
formations, pores and fissures are created in the rocks thus enhancing the
disintegration forces.

Rainwater can also at times become acid when it mixes with acidic depositions in the
atmosphere. Acid depositions are created in the atmosphere as a consequence of
fossil fuel combustion that releases oxides of nitrogen, sulfur and carbon.

The resultant acid water from precipitation (acid rain) reacts with the rocks mineral
particles producing new minerals and salts that can readily dissolve or wear away the
rock grains. Chemical weathering mostly depends on the rock type and temperature.
For instance, limestone is more prone to chemical erosion compared to granite.
Higher temperatures increase the rate of chemical weathering.

QUES.5- Write note on Geological work of wind.(20010,2011,201)

Ans.Wind is the moving air. Wind blowing over the solid surface of the lands is also
an active agent of landform development. Its activity is particularly intensive in the
deserts and semi deserts which constitute about 20% of the surface of continents.

The geological action of wind is particularly effective in areas that lack plant cover,
have a considerable diurnal and seasonal temperature variation, and low pre-
cipitation.

The geological action of wind can conveniently be divided in to three stages viz.
Erosion, Transportation and Deposition. As a whole, the geological action of wind is
largely governed by its velocity. But wind alone has little influence on shaping the
surface of the ground, because it is only able to move small dry particles.

In humid climatic regions, the surface of the earth is protected by a solid cover of
vegetation and also by the cohesive effects of moisture in the soil from sharp
temperature fluctuations causing physical weathering and the deflation work of the
wind.
Erosion

Wind erosion manifests itself in three forms viz. (i) deflation, (ii) abrasion or corrasion
and (iii) attrition. Wind uses sand as the agent of erosion. Wind and running water
are in many respect similar in the ways in which they erode and transport sediment
particles.

1. Deflation

A strong wind can transport very coarse sand, lifting it from the ground and carry it
for great distances. This process of removal of loose soil of rock particles, along the
course of the blowing wind is known as 'deflation' (from the Latin de flare=to blow
off).

The wind picks up and removes loose particles from the earth's surface, and thus
helps to lower the general level. This process operates well in dry regions with little
or no rainfall. The rate of deflation depends on the force of the wind, the nature of
the rock and the degree of weathering it has suffered etc.

Features Produced by Deflation

(i) Hamada

When the loose particles are swept away the hard mantle left behind is known as
'hamada'. The term has been applied to the stone-strewn surface in the Sahara
desert, left after the finer materials are removed by wind. This is a form of lag-
deposits.

(ii) Blow-outs or deflation-hollows

Deflation sometimes leads to the formation of depression or hollows on the land

surface. At few places, deflation may continue to deepen a blow-out in fine-grained
sediment until it reaches the water-table.

These depressions may range from a few metres to a kilometre or more in diameter,
but it is usually only a few metres deep.

Such depressions, when deepen until '.he water-table and gets filled with water,
create shallow ponds or lakes known as 'Oases'. The position of the oasis is quickly
stabilized by the growth of vegetation-commonly palm trees.

Some oases are very small with only a few trees, whilst others are large enough to
support moderate-sized townships surrounded by gardens and date palms. The pans
of South Africa, the so-called lakes of west and central Australia etc. are probably the
results of long-continued deflation.
(iii) Lag deposits

Sometimes a layer of residual pebbles and cobbles are strewn upon the surface while
intervening finer particles have been removed as a result of deflation. These ac-
cumulations of pebbles and boulders have been designated by the general term lag-
deposits.

By rolling or jostling about, as the finer particles are removed, the pebbles become
closely fitted together forming what is known as a desert pavement. This layer
protects the underlying sediment from further deflation. Its widespread occurrence
is emphasized by the variety of names applied to it: reg in Algeria; rig in Iran, serir in
Libya; the gibbers in Australia.

2. Abrasion

The loose particles that are blown away by the wind serve as tools of destruction,
wearing away the surface with which it comes in contact. This process is also known
as corrosion. Abrasion is mainly effective as part of saltation (a mode of wind
transport) and can operate only near the ground because of the inability of wind to
lift sand more than a few feet.

Its main effect is mostly seen in under cutting and fluting at the base of upstanding
rock masses. Depending on the hardness of the rock and the character of the
material bome by the wind, the surface of rocks is polished, covered with striations,
furrows or grooves, and so on.

For effective abrasion, sand-blasting must continue for a long time and the wind
must have a long fetch across a source area of suitably-sized particles.

Features Produced by Abrasion

(i) Yardang

It is a grooved or furrowed topographic form produced by wind abrasion. The

grooves are elongated in the direction of prevailing winds and are separated by sharp
ridges.

The yardangs commonly develop, where the exposed rocks have vertical layers,
consisting of alternations of hard and soft strata, and when the winds are steady and
blow in one direction, the softer strata are scoured away more rapidly than the hard
and resistant strata.

Thus, there develops a topographic feature consisting of elongated ridges and

furrows, depending on the original rock characteristics. These are also usually under-
cut. These are common in parts of the Asiatic deserts. -
(ii) Ventifacts

These are the pebbles faceted by the abrasive effects of wind-blown sand. These are
developed when sand has been blown over pebbles for a longtime, so that they
become worn from the repeated abrasion and smooth polished surfaces result.

Ventifacts with one smooth surface is called Einkanters, with two abraded surfaces as
Zweikanter and with three smooth faces as Dreikanters.

(iii) Pedestal rock

It is a wide rock-cap standing on a slender rock column, produced because of wind

abrasion.

As we know, the sand-blast action is most effective just above the surface of the
ground where the drift is thickest and it decreases rapidly upwards as a result of
which rocks which projects upwards are under-cut.

When soft rocks capped with harder and resistant rocks are exposed to wind
abrasion, the softer rocks being more deeply worn, produce a mushroom-shaped
form in which the upper widened part of the rock rests upon a relatively thin and
short rock-column.

(iv) Zeugen

These are tabular masses of more resistant rock resting on under-cut pillars of softer
material and are very often elongated in the direction of prevailing wind; besides the
strata are horizontal.

3. Attrition

While on transit, wind born particles often collide with one another and such mutual
collision brings about some degree of grinding of the particles.

Thus rounding of grains become perfect to a great extent and the grains are reduced
to smaller dimensions. The more the length of transit and velocity, the greater is the
degree of rounding.

Feautures Produced by Attrition

Millel-seed sand

These are rounded deserts and grains, produced through the process of attrition and
have resemblance with millet-seed grains. Sands of this type are seen sometimes in
ancient formations giving indication about the former presence of deserts.
QUES 6.- Write note on Geological work of River.(2009,2012,2014)

Ans.

There are three main types of processes that occur in a river. These are erosion,
transportation and deposition. All three depend on the amount of energy there is in
a river.

Types of erosion
The energy in a river causes erosion. The bed and banks can be eroded making it
wider, deeper and longer.

Headward erosion makes a river longer. This erosion happens near its source. Surface
run-off and and through flow causes erosion at the point where the water enters the
valley head.

Vertical erosion makes a river channel deeper. This happens more in the upper stages
of a river (the V of vertical erosion should help you remember the v-shaped valleys
that are created in the upper stages).

Lateral erosion makes a river wider. This occurs mostly in the middle and lower stages
of a river.

There are four main processes of erosion that occur in rivers. These are:

1. hydraulic action;

2. abrasion / corrasion;

3. attrition; and

4. Corrosion.
Hydraulic action

The pressure of water breaks away rock particles from the river bed and banks. The
force of the water hits river banks, and then pushes water into cracks. Air becomes
compressed, pressure increases and the riverbank may, in time collapse. Where
velocity is high e.g. the outer bend of meaner, hydraulic action can remove material
from the banks which may lead to undercutting and and river bank collapse. Near
waterfalls and and rapids, the force may be strong enough to work on lines of
weakness in joints and bedding planes until they are eroded.

Abrasion / Corrasion

The sediment carried by a river scours the bed and banks. Where depressions exist in
the channel floor the river can cause pebbles to spin around and turn hollows into
potholes.

Attrition

Eroded rocks collide and break into smaller fragments. The edges of these rocks
become smoother and more rounded. Attrition makes the particles of rock smaller. It
does not erode the bed and bank. Pieces of river sediment become smaller and more
rounded as they move downstream.

Corrosion / Solution

Carbon dioxide dissolves in the river to form a weak acid. This dissolves rock by
chemical processes. This process is common where carbonate rocks such as
limestone and chalk are evident in a channel.

Transportation

Transportation of material in a river begins when friction is overcome. Material that

has been loosened by erosion may be then transported along the river. There are
four main processes of transportation. These are:

1. suspension / suspended load;

2. solution / solution load;

 3. saltation; and

4. traction.

Suspension is when material made up of very fine particles such as clay and silt is
lifted as the result of turbulence and transported by the river. Faster-flowing,
turbulent rivers carry more suspended material. This is why river appear muddy as
they are approaching bankfull discharge and towards the mouth of the river (where
velocity is greater as is the occurrence of finer sediment).

Solution is when dissolved material is carried by a river. This often happens in areas
where the geology is limestone and is dissolved by slightly acidic water.

Saltation is when material such as pebbles and gravel that is too heavy to be carried
in suspension is bounced along the river by the force of the water.

Traction is when large materials such as boulders are rolled and pushed along the
river bed by the force of the river.

The capacity of a river is the total load a river can transport at a given point.

Deposition

Deposition is the process of eroded material being dropped. This happens when a
river loses energy. A river can lose its energy when rainfall reduces, evaporation
increases, friction close to river banks and shallow areas which leads to the speed of
the river reducing and therefore the energy reduces, when a river has to slow down
it reduces its speed (and ability to transport material) and when a river meets the
sea.

QUES 6.- Write note on Geological time scale.(2007,2009,2012)

Ans.
QUES 7.- What are minerals and properties of minerals.

(2007,2009,2010)

Ans.

The following definitions on what constitutes a mineral were taken from several
different sources and are arranged by year:

"A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and

that has been formed as a result of geological processes" (Nickel, E. H., 1995).

"Minerals are naturally-occurring inorganic substances with a definite and

predictable chemical composition and physical properties." (O' Donoghue,
1990).

"A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous solid, inorganically formed,

with a definite chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement"
(Mason, et al, 1968).

"These... minerals ...can be distinguished from one another by individual

characteristics that arise directly from the kinds of atoms they contain and the
arrangements these atoms make inside them" (Sinkankas, 1966).

"A mineral is a body produced by the processes of inorganic nature, having
usually a definite chemical composition and, if formed under favorable
conditions, a certain characteristic atomic structure which is expressed in its
crystalline form and other physical properties" (Dana & Ford, 1932).

"Every distinct chemical compound occurring in inorganic nature, having a

definite molecular structure or system of crystallization and well-defined physical
properties, constitutes a mineral species" (Brush & Penfield, 1898).

Properties of Minerals

Color

Most minerals have a distinctive color that can be used for identification. In opaque
minerals, the color tends to be more consistent, so learning the colors associated
with these minerals can be very helpful in identification. Translucent to transparent
minerals have a much more varied degree of color due to the presence of trace
minerals. Therefore, color alone is not reliable as a single identifying characteristic.

Streak

Streak is the color of the mineral in powdered form. Streak shows the true color of
the mineral. In large solid form, trace minerals can change the color appearance of a
mineral by reflecting the light in a certain way. Trace minerals have little influence on
the reflection of the small powdery particles of the streak.

The streak of metallic minerals tends to appear dark because the small particles of
the streak absorb the light hitting them. Non-metallic particles tend to reflect most of
the light so they appear lighter in color or almost white.

Because streak is a more accurate illustration of the minerals color, streak is a more
reliable property of minerals than color for identification.

Hardness

Hardness is one of the better properties of minerals to use for identifying a mineral.
Hardness is a measure of the minerals resistance to scratching. The Mohs scale is a
set of 10 minerals whose hardness is known. The softest mineral, talc, has a Mohs
scale rating of one. Diamond is the hardest mineral and has a rating of ten. Softer
minerals can be scratched by harder minerals because the forces that hold the
crystals together are weaker and can be broken by the harder mineral.
The following is a listing of the minerals of the Mohs scale and their rating:

1. Talc

2. Gypsum

3. Calcite

4. Fluorite

5. Apatite

6. Orthoclase Feldspar

7. Quartz

8. Topaz

9. Corundum

10. Diamond

Cleavage & Fracture

Minerals tend to break along lines or smooth surfaces when hit sharply. Different
minerals break in different ways showing different types of cleavage.

Cleavage is defined using two sets of criteria. The first set of criteria describes how
easily the cleavage is obtained. Cleavage is considered perfect if it is easily obtained
and the cleavage planes are easily distinguished. It is considered good if the cleavage
is produced with some difficulty but has obvious cleavage planes. Finally it is
considered imperfect if cleavage is obtained with difficulty and some of the planes
are difficult to distinguish.

The second set of criteria is the direction of the cleavage surfaces. The names
correspond to the shape formed by the cleavage surfaces: Cubic, rhombohedral,
octahedral, dodecahedral, basal or prismatic. These criteria are defined specifically
by the angles of the cleavage lines as indicated in the chart below:

Cleavage Type Angles

Cubic Cleaves in three directions @ 90o to one anotherRhombohedral Cleaves in

three directions but not @ 90o to one anotherOctahedral Cleaves in four
directionsDodecahedral Cleaves in six directionsBasal Cleaves in one
directionPrismatic Cleaves in two directions
Fracture describes the quality of the cleavage surface. Most minerals display either
uneven or grainy fracture, conchoidal (curved, shell-like lines) fracture, or hackly
(rough, jagged) fracture.

Crystalline Structure

Mineral crystals occur in various shapes and sizes. The particular shape is determined
by the arrangement of the atoms, molecules or ions that make up the crystal and
how they are joined. This is called the crystal lattice. There are degrees of crystalline
structure, in which the fibers of the crystal become increasingly difficult or
impossible to see with the naked eye or the use of a hand lens. Microcrystalline and
cryptocrystalline structures can only be viewed using high magnification. If there is
no crystalline structure, it is called amorphous. However, there are very few
amorphous crystals and these are only observed under extremely high magnification.

Transparency or Diaphaneity

Diaphaneity is a minerals degree of transparency or ability to allow light to pass

through it. The degree of transparency may also depend on the thickness of the
mineral.

Tenacity

Tenacity is the characteristic that describes how the particles of a mineral hold
together or resist separation. The chart below gives the list of terms used to describe
tenacity and a description of each term.

Magnetism

Magnetism is the characteristic that allows a mineral to attract or repel other

magnetic materials. It can be difficult to determine the differences between the
various types of magnetism, but it is worth knowing that there are distinctions made.

Luster

Luster is the property of minerals that indicates how much the surface of a mineral
reflects light. The luster of a mineral is affected by the brilliance of the light used to
observe the mineral surface. Luster of a mineral is described in the following terms:

Metallic The mineral is opaque and reflects light as a metal would.Submettalic The
mineral is opaque and dull. The mineral is dark colored.Nonmettalic The mineral
does not reflect light like a metal.

Nonmetallic minerals are described using modifiers that refer to commonly known
qualities.
Waxy The mineral looks like paraffin or wax.Vitreous The mineral looks like broken
glass.Pearly The mineral appears iridescent, like a pearl.Silky The mineral looks
fibrous, like silk.Greasy The mineral looks like oil on water.Resinous The mineral looks
like hardened tree sap (resin).Adamantine The mineral looks brilliant, like a diamond.

Odor

Most minerals have no odor unless they are acted upon in one of the following ways:
moistened, heated, breathed upon, or rubbed.

Taste

Only soluble minerals have a taste, but it is very important that minerals not be
placed in the mouth or on the tongue. You should not test for this property in the
classroom.

Specific Gravity

Specific Gravity of a mineral is a comparison or ratio of the weight of the mineral to

the weight of an equal amount of water. The weight of the equal amount of water is
found by finding the difference between the weight of the mineral in air and the
weight of the mineral in water.

UNIT 2
PETROLOGY

Ques1.Elaborate all Aspects of sedimenatry rocks

(2009,2010,2011,2014,2016)

Ans.
Sedimentary rocks are the most common rock types which are freely exposed on the
earths surface. They are formed from other rock materials since they are made up
from the buildup of weathered and eroded pre-existing rocks. The weathering,
erosion and the eventual compaction of igneous, metamorphic or formerly
structured sedimentary rocks among other biological sedimentations leads to the
formation of sedimentary rocks.So, sedimentary rocks are produced from previous
rocks that are relentlessly weathered or eroded and then deposited where they
undergo compaction and cementation through a process known as lithification-
changing of sediments into a rock. This is how the name sedimentary rock was
coined.

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

All rocks, be it igneous, metamorphic, or the already existing sedimentary rocks are
constantly subjected to weathering and erosion. Tiny debris from the rock masses
and mountains are eroded together with soils, sand, and other granite pieces are
normally washed from highlands to low areas. After many years, these materials
finally settle down through the process of sedimentation. Some may accumulate
under water and others on the lower areas of the land.

The weathering and erosion is normally due to the forces of water, thermal
expansion, gravity, wind, and salt crystal expansion that breaks down the pre-existing
rocks into small pieces and then carried away to some distance low areas. As the
materials move, they are smoothened and rounded by abrasion, and they settle
down by leaving pore spaces between the grains which make them achieve their
distorted shape.

At this point, they are deposited a layer after layer to form a new sheet of
homogenous material. From here, the compaction and cementing agents such as
oxides, carbonates, and silica combine together with the deposited material.

The compaction effect due to the weight of the piling layers of materials reduces the
porosity of the rocks formed and intensifies the cohesion between the grains. At
times, fossil fuels and organic matter may settle within the sediments leading to
cementation. Cementation is the gluing of the rock pieces together either by salt
compounds or organic matter. When these materials eventually harden, the mixture
is transformed into a rock.

Thus, sedimentary rocks are formed from sediment deposits through the process of
weathering, erosion, deposition and finally compaction and cementation. Examples
of sedimentary rocks include mudstone, limestone, sandstone, and conglomerate.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are of three basic types. These include clastic, chemical, and
organic sedimentary rocks.
 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic sedimentary rocks are formed from the buildup of clatics: small pieces of
fragmented rocks deposited as a result of mechanical weathering then lithified by
compaction and cementation. Examples of Clastic sedimentary rocks include
sandstone, shale, siltstone, and breccias.

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed when the water components evaporate,
leaving dissolved minerals behind. Sedimentary rocks of these kinds are very
common in arid lands such as the deposits of salts and gypsum. Examples include
rock salt, dolomites, flint, iron ore, chert, and some limestone.

Organic Sedimentary Rocks

Organic sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation of any animal or plant
debris such as shells and bones. These plant and animal debris have calcium minerals
in them that pile on the sea floor over time to form organic sedimentary rocks.
Examples include rocks such as coal, some limestone, and some dolomites.

Examples of Sedimentary Rocks

As noted from the previous discussions, there are several types of sedimentary rocks.
Here are the detailed examples of the various sedimentary rocks.

Breccia

Brecia are clastic sedimentary rocks made up of angular rock broken parts that are
cemented together. The angular shape means that the broken parts havent traveled
far from their pre-existing materials. The broken pieces are similar to conglomerate
because of their large pea-sizes. Breccias are commonly found along fault zones and
they take any color.

Conglomerate

Conglomerates are clastic sedimentary rocks composed of semi-rounded rock

fragments cemented together. The rounded fragments depict that they have
undergone abrasion and traveled a significant distant from their pre-existing
materials. Conglomerates fragments are commonly deposited along the shoreline or
stream channel and they are pea-sized or larger. They are also sometimes referred to
as pudding stone.

Siltstone
Siltstones are composed of small-sized rock particles which are finer than sand grains
but coarser than clay. It is among the clastic sedimentary rocks which are the most
difficult to identify since it appears almost similar to fine-grained sandstone or a
coarse shale. They normally occur in a wide variety of colors.

Sandstone

Sandstones are clastic sedimentary rocks made up of cemented sand grains.

Sandstones vary from fine-grained to coarse grained are readily distinguishable by
the naked eyes. Mature sandstones or quartz sandstones are light-colored and
majorly consist of rounded and well-sorted quartz grains. Graywackes or immature
sandstones consist of angular grains of diverse minerals. Sandstones are generally
white, red, gray, pink, black, or brown in color.

Shale

Shale consists of clay minerals or clay-sized pieces that have been compacted by the
weight of the overlying rock materials. Shale belongs to clastic sedimentary rocks and
they tend to split into fairly flat pieces. Shales are of many colors including gray, red,
brown, or black depending on their composition of iron oxides and organic materials.
They are generally a good source of fossils and are mostly found at the bottom of
lakes or oceans.

Dolomite

Dolomites are chemical sedimentary rocks that almost resemble calcite. The
similarity is because dolomite at first begins to take shape as limestone but they are
later chemically altered through the substitution of some of its calcium by
magnesium.

Chert

Cherts are chemical sedimentary rocks formed due to the deposition of

cryptocrystalline quartz. Cherts are of dull brown or gray in color and are often found
as nodules firmly enclosed in limestone which protrude out of the limestone when
the limestone is slowly immersed in water. Jasper is red, bright yellowish brown or
reddish brown chert. Flint on the other hand is chert with a waxy luster.

Limestone

Limestones are chemical sedimentary rocks made up of the mineral calcite. They may
be hard to visually identify. Their colors vary from brown, dark gray, to light gray. The
common types of limestone include fossiliferrous limestone rich in fossils,
lithographic limestone that is very fine-grained, coquina limestone composed of
broken shell fragments, encrinal limestone composed of crinoid fragments, and
travertine deposited by the forces of moving surface water.

Rock salt

Rock salt is chemical sedimentary rocks often made up of the mineral sodium
chloride. Salt is colorless or white and might be colored when mixed with impurities
such as clay or iron oxide. It is easily identified by its salty taste and it is also water
soluble. It also has the mineral name halite.

Gypsum

Gypsum belongs to chemical sedimentary rocks. It is soft and can be easily bruised. It
is usually white in color and is used to produce plaster of Paris.

Amber

Amber is an organic sedimentary rock and is naturally plastic and is light-weight

compared to majority of the typical stones. Amber is simply a hardened tree sap and
its colors ranges from transparent yellow to creamy yellow or red to dark brown.

Coal

Coal belongs to organic sedimentary rocks are made up from the buildup of
decomposed plant material in a swampy environment. Coal is combustible in nature
and is frequently extracted for use as fuel. It ranges from brown to black in color and
its concentration depends on the compaction and alterations of the pre-existing
organic materials. Examples of coal in order of the degree of compaction and
alteration include peat, lignite, bituminous, and anthracite.

Ques2.Elaborate all Aspects of igneous rocks

(2009,2010,2011,2014,2016)

Ans:
Igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma molten materials in the earths
crust. The terminology Igneous means fire or heat. In this sense, igneous rocks are
formed when molten rock (magma) solidifies either underneath the earth crust to
form plutonic (intrusive) igneous rocks or on the surface of the earth to form volcanic
(extrusive) igneous rocks.

They are simply the rocks formed through heating then followed by cooling. The
heated material is the molten rock which is made up of partial or complete melting
of previously existent rocks in the earths crust that are consistently subjected to
intense heat, high pressure changes, and alterations in composition.

Formation of Igneous Rocks

Molten materials are found below the earth crust and are normally subjected to
extreme pressure and temperatures up to 1200 Celsius. Because of the high
temperatures and pressure changes, the molten materials sometimes shoot up to
the surface in the form of volcanic eruption and they cool down to form volcanic or
extrusive igneous rocks.

Alternatively, some of the molten materials may cool underneath the earth surface
very slowly to form plutonic or intrusive igneous rocks. It is because of the extreme
heat levels and changes in pressure that igneous rocks do not contain organic matter
or fossils. The molten minerals interlock and crystallize as the melt cools and form
solid materials.

In the long-run, the melt forms a cool hard rock mad

e up of crystals with no open spaces and dont exhibit any desirable grain alignment.
The rocks may be made up entirely of one mineral or various minerals, and their sizes
are determined by the cooling process. Rapid cooling results in smaller crystals while
slow cooling results in large crystals.

Types of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are of two types, intrusive (plutonic rocks) and extrusive (volcanic
rocks).

Intrusive Igneous Rocks

Intrusive igneous rocks are formed when the magma cools off slowly under the
earths crust and hardens into rocks. Gabbro and granite are examples of intrusive
igneous rocks. Intrusive rocks are very hard in nature and are often coarse-grained.

Extrusive Igneous Rocks

Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when molten magma spill over to the surface as a
result of volcanic eruption. The magma on the surface (lava) cools faster on the
surface to form igneous rocks that are fine grained. Examples of such kind of rocks
include pumice, basalt, or obsidian.

Examples of Igneous Rocks

There are more than 700 known types of igneous rocks and most of them are formed
under the earths crust since volcanic events are not all that frequent. On this basis,
we are going to look at the commonly identified types of igneous rocks, both
intrusive and extrusive. They include:

Granite

Granites are the light-colored and coarse-grained igneous rocks. They are intrusive
rocks and they contain three major minerals including feldspar, mica and quartz.
They appear pinkish, gray or tan depending on the grain sizes and concentrations and
grain sizes of the three minerals. Granites are often used in construction activities
because of its strength and presence in great quantities.

Gabbro

Gabbros are the dark-colored and coarse-grained igneous rocks. They are intrusive
rocks and they are made up of mineral elements including pyroxene, feldspar, and
sometimes olivine. They appear grey in color with minute dark spots all over them.

Basalt

Basalts are the dense dark-grey colored and fine-grained igneous rocks. They are
extrusive and are chiefly composed of plagioclase and pyroxene. They are the
commonest type of solidified lava. Basalts are also frequently used in building and
construction.

Diorite

Diorites are the coarse-grained igneous rocks just like the Gabbros and Granite. They
are intrusive and contain a mixture of minerals including hornblende, pyroxene,
feldspar and sometimes quartz. They appear light-colored with some dark spots.

Andesite

Andesites are light grey-colored and fine-grained igneous rocks. They are extrusive
rocks which are mainly made up of plagioclase minerals mixed up with biotite,
pyroxene, and hornblende.

Obsidian

Obsidians are the dense dark-colored and smooth igneous rocks. They are the
granitic or volcanic glass formed by the rapid cooling of lava without crystallization.
Obsidians usually appear dark, but transparent in thin pieces.

Pegmatite
Pegmatite is a form of igneous rock consisting of extremely coarse granite resulting
from the crystallization of magma rich in rare elements. Pegmatite is light-colored
and often contains rare minerals that are not present in other parts of the magma
chamber.

Pumice

Pumice is a light-colored vesicular and porous like igneous rock that forms as a result
of very fast solidification of molten rock material. The vesicular and porous like
texture is due to the gas trapped within the melt during the rapid solidification.
Pumice stones are commonly used as abrasive materials.

Peridotite

Peridotite is a dark coarse-grained igneous rock consisting principally of olivine. It is

an intrusive rock and may also contain some small amount of minerals such as
feldspar, quartz, amphibole, pyroxene, or quartz.

Rhyolite

Rhyolites are light-colored and fine-grained igneous rocks. They are extrusive igneous
rocks and they are typically composed feldspar and quartz minerals. They often have
a smooth surface.

Welded Tuff

Welded Tuffs are extrusive igneous rocks made up of the materials discharged during
a volcanic event. The discharged materials fall on the earth surface after which they
lithify into rocks. Welded Tuffs are mostly composed of volcanic ash and at times
include large size pieces such as clinkers.

Fire Opal

Fire opals are the igneous rocks that are flaming orange or yellow and red in color. At
times they are found in rhyolite and are categorized as one of the most spectacular
igneous geological rocks. They are formed long after the cooling of rhyolite whereby
silica-rich ground water moves into the rocks and sometimes deposit gems such as
topaz, agate, opal, jasper, or red beryl in the rocks cavities.

Scoria

Scoria is a dark-colored vesicular and porous like igneous rock. It is an extrusive rock
and the vesicles or porous like composition is due to the gas trapped within the melt
during cooling and solidification. Scoria usually forms as a bubbling crust on top of
the lava as it flows down from the volcanic vent and eventually solidifies with some
air trapped inside.

Ques2.Elaborate all Aspects of metamorphic rocks

(2009,2010,2011,2014,2015)

Ans:
Metamorphic rocks are the rocks formed from other rocks. They are sedimentary or
igneous rocks that have undergone changes as a result of extreme pressure and heat.
The name defines their formation whereby meta means change and morph means
form. Hence, metamorphic rocks are those whose forms have been changed
through geological process such as large tectonic movements and magma intrusions

Formation of Metamorphic Rocks

Large tectonic movements and magma intrusions create earth movements and
subsequently cause the pre-existing rocks to move and shift. In turn, the movements
subject other rocks buried deep below the earths surface to extreme pressure and heat
which contributes to changes and assemblage of the rocks texture, mineralogy, and
chemical composition.

The changes typically modify the rocks crystal type and sizes and may also subject
the rocks to further radical changes. Metamorphic processes come about at heats
between 150 and 795 Celsius with the capability of producing high energy that can
break and reform the chemical compositions of the rocks. Pressure from the overlying
rocks also increases the process of transformation.

Heat from magma and friction along fault lines is the major contributor of the heat
that brings about the rock changes. Even though the rocks do not actually melt, some
mineral groupings redistribute the elements within the original minerals to form new
compositions of minerals that are more stable at the new temperatures and pressures.

The intense temperature gradient between the country rocks and the surrounding
molten magma is the driving factor for the changes in texture and chemical
composition. As a result, the original rocks are transformed into metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphic rocks formed from direct magma heating and intrusions are termed as
thermal or contact metamorphic rocks.
Those formed as a result of widely distributed pressure and temperature changes
induced by tectonic movements are known as regional metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphic rocks are largely grouped into foliated and non-foliated rocks.

Types of Metamorphic Rocks

There are two main types of metamorphic rocks. These are Foliated metamorphic
rocks and Non-foliated metamorphic rocks.

Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Foliated metamorphic rocks are formed from direct exposure to pressure and heat.
They are the most vital and largest groupings of metamorphic rocks. Foliated
metamorphic rocks have four distinguishable types of aligned textures and they
normally have a banded or layered appearance. Examples include slate, gneiss,
phyllite, and schist. Non-foliated are formed as a result of tectonic movements or
direct pressure which makes their formation highly dependent on their pre-existing
conditions.

Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have a banded or layered appearance. The

extensively known example of non-foliated metamorphic rock is marble. Other
examples include quartzite, hornfels, and novaculite.

Examples of Metamorphic Rocks

There are hundreds of metamorphic rocks across the face of the earth with different
compositions and textures. The best way of learning their various types is by
handling and seeing them in reality. Here is a list of the most known types of
metamorphic rocks.

Hornfels

Hornfels is a fine-grained metamorphic rock formed by the action of heat on clay

rocks, known as contact metamorphism. It has a non-foliated metamorphic rock that
has no specific composition. Hornfels are heated when near heat source such as a
sill, dike, or magma chamber.

Amphibolite

Amphibolite is non-foliated metamorphic rock that is composed chiefly of plagioclase

and amphibole (hornblende), frequently with very little quartz. Amphibolite forms
under conditions of directed pressure and high viscosity through the process of
recrystallization.
 Gneiss

Gneiss is a foliated metamorphic rock made up of granular mineral grains. It contains

a lot of feldspar minerals and bands of quartz and sometimes mica. It normally has a
banded appearance and is sort of laminated. It appears similar to granite.

Novaculite

Novaculite is a hard, fine-grained, dense, siliceous rock. It is non-foliated

metamorphic rocks known to break with a conchoidal fracture. It forms in marine
environments from sediment deposits where organisms like diatoms plentiful in
water the single-celled algae that secret hard shells made up of silicon dioxide.

Marble

Marble is among the non-foliated metamorphic rocks produced from the

metamorphism of dolostone or limestone. It takes high polish and is often used for
sculpture and as building material. Marble is mainly composed of calcium carbonate.

Phyllite

Phylite is mostly made up of very fine-grained mica and sometimes chlorite. It is a

foliated metamorphic rock and its surface is generally lustrous and in certain cases
wrinkled. Geologists say it represents the intermediate state between slate and
schist.

Lapis Lazuli

Lapis Lazuli is one of the rarest metamorphic rocks, especially because of its blue
color. Thus, Lapis Lazuli is famously known for its blue gem material and they are
used for decoration and to make beads in the form of round small stones.

Quartzite

Quartzite is a hard metamorphic rock consisting essentially of interlocking

quartz crystals. It is a non-foliated metamorphic rock formed during the
metamorphism of sandstone.

Slate

Slate is a low-grade and fine-grained metamorphic rock that can be separated into
thin pieces. It is a type of foliated metamorphic rock that is produced by the
metamorphism of shale. Slates are predominantly realigned clay minerals.

Schist
Schist is a foliated metamorphic rock that is well developed and contains substantial
amounts of mica. Because of the high concentrations of mica, schist can readily split
into thin layers. Geologists say it represents the intermediate metamorphic grade
between gneiss and phyllite. Sometimes schist might contain high amounts of
chlorite.

Soapstone

Soapstone is a metamorphic rock primarily made up of talc with a soapy feel and
varying amounts of other minerals such as chlorite, pyroxenes, micas, carbonates,
and amphiboles. It is also a highly dense, soft, and heat resistant rock with high heat
capacity. Because of its properties after metamorphism, it is considered highly used
in a wide range of artistic and architectural works.

UNIT 2
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Ques2.Write an essay on folds (2009,2010,2011,2014,2016)

Ans:
Fold occurs when rock deforms in such a way that it bends instead of breaking. The
rocks, like any other material, deform to the action of external efforts. We do not
grasp this deformation, but we know when a rock is deformed. Folds come from
pressure on the rocks that occur over very long periods of time and vary in size from
microscopic crinkles to mountain-sized folds.

Any material can be deformed in three ways:

1. Elastic deformation

The material is deformed, but when the effort ceases, the deformation disappears
(e.g. a rubber band). It is, therefore, a reversible deformation.

1. Plastic deformation
The deformation is maintained even if the effort disappears (as with the clay). The
deformation is irreversible.

1. Brittle deformation

The material is broken in response to stress (would be the case of a broken glass).
Like the above, it is also irreversible.

When these deformations occur in the Earth materials, they result in recognizable
geological structures, such as:

1. Folds

2. Faults

The elastic deformation, by its nature, will not leave lasting geological structures. This
does not mean that this type of deformation is not given. It is quite common in
earthquakes.

Geological folds are the curvatures in rocks or strata containing them. Most visible
stratified rocks are located in the rivers, quarries or coasts were, originally, sediment
layers deposited in horizontal or near horizontal beds. However, when we observe
today they are not only solidified but usually inclined in one direction or another.

Sometimes when the layers come to the surface, you can see a bow or climb to
descend into a breast. The folds are measured in terms of wavelength (peak to peak
or breast to breast) and height (peak-to-trough). They may be microscopic or have
lengths of kilometers.

An isolated fold is defined by the maximum undulation curvature of the strata. The
hinge is the line connecting the points of maximum folding in each layer. The axial
plane defined meets these lines in successive layers. The shaft is any line parallel to
the line bed ripple. When the shaft is tilted from the horizontal is said to be
immersed.

In the upright folds, the axial planes are vertical, while in the reclined tilt or dip and
are sub horizontal. In the latter, the upper side can detach pushing the bottom and
form a structure known as mantle, common in the Alps or the Pyrenees.

Causes of Geological Folds

The folds arise as a result of the tectonic pressure and stress in the rocks and rather
than fracture, they fold. They are easily visualized by the loss of horizontality of the
strata. When tectonic forces acting on sedimentary rocks are a number of
characteristic forms. Sedimentary rocks are more flexible than the metamorphic, and
when the thrust is not intense enough to move them fold as if they were a piece of
paper.

A fold is a bending of the rocks of the earths crust. It is structured in the form of
waves, successive. As such some of the features of the folds correspond to a wave
either.

Rock layers in Folds

The rock layers in folds can be folded in two ways: as a result of transverse bending
and by longitudinal bending.

Transversal flexure

The layer is bent under the action of forces applied perpendicular to the layer plane
direction. For this slouch, various forces must exist. The folds that arise in this case
are caused by the transverse bending folds. The most characteristic among them
arise as a result of the action of vertical forces applied to the horizontal layers.

For example, the bending folds transversal firm layers that cover the crystalline
basement, elevated above the block bounded by the fractures. The forces that form
pairs are directed from the bottom up to meet the latter and are caused by the
gravitational force, which holds the layers in its original level outside the boundaries
of the block that rises.

Longitudinal flexure

It arises under the action of the compressive force parallel to the direction layers.
The latter, during the longitudinal compression, loses its stability and deforms rather
than uniformly thickening, they are curved. The role of the layered structure of the
rocks during the transverse and longitudinal deflections is not the same.

During transverse bending, even if there are no mechanical dividing determined by

stratification, the deformation end with the formation of a fold. For example, if the
layers are drawn simply in the side wall of a plastic test tube and, therefore, they
cannot play any mechanical role. A result of the first deformation will turn out to be
in a curved fold transverse bending.

The longitudinal bending plays a different stratification geological folds in principle:

without the latter in any way that may form folds, since one of the conditions for
their formation necessary during bending is longitudinal slip between possible layers.
The slouching packet divided by folds of strata slips relieved surfaces, all sliding layer
to the underlying, towards the dome and anticlinal respect to the overlying, towards
the hook syncline.
Due to friction, to bend the strata, all inside layer is under the action of a pair of
forces, one of which (on the roof of the layer) is directed towards the anticlinal
dome. The other (in the wall layer) is directed to the hook of the syncline. This torque
tends to cause a deformation in the displacement layer.

Types of Geological Folds

They can be classified according to various factors independently.

Anticline: the oldest materials are located in the core of the fold.

Syncline: are the most modern materials which are located in the core or
center fold

Monocline: or a fold in knee that only has one flank.

Symmetrical: the angle between the two flanks with the horizontal is
approximately the same.

Asymmetrical: the two sides have distinctly different inclinations.

Inclined: the axial plane forms an angle with the vertical.

Recumbent: axial plane is almost horizontal.

Isoclinal: the thickness of each layer does not vary along the fold. Origin to
bending stresses attributed type.

Antiform: it is a linear type of folds. The strata dip is not close to the axial
center and there is no information of its age.

Synoform: linear type of folds with the strip data moving in the axial center
direction.

Dome: nonlinear type of fold moving the strata dip from the center in every
direction. It is the oldest strata in the center

Basin: nonlinear with strata dip moving toward the center in all the
directions. It is the youngest strata in the center

Chevron: linear type of fold oriented toward the long angle.

Slump: monoclinal type of fold.

Ptygmatic: disconnected, chaotic and random type of fold.

 Parasitic: formed in a large wavelength structure of the fold.

Disharmonic: bends in adjacent areas. The shapes and wavelengths are

different.

Geographical Orientation and Tilt Angle

Any plane can be oriented in space by two measures, which are its geographical
orientation and tilt angle.

In the strata and other geological background, such as fault planes or axial planes of
the folds, these two measures are called strike and dip. Both measures are obtained
by intersecting any plane with a horizontal theoretical level because that is the
original position of strata.

1. Dip is the angle less than 90 , which is our plane with the horizontal plane. It
is the inclination of the plane in the direction in which loses altitude.

2. Address is the geographical orientation of the line of intersection of our plane

with the horizontal plane

Ques2.Discuss faults and their classification (2011,2015,2016)

Ans:

In geology, a fault is a discontinuity that is formed by fracture in the surface rocks

of the Earth (up to 200 km deep) when tectonic forces exceed the resistance of
the rocks. In other words, a fault is a crack in the Earths crust. The rupture zone
has a generally well defined surface called the fault plane and its formation is
accompanied by a slide of rocks tangential to this plane.

Causing dislocation motion can have different directions: vertical, horizontal or a

combination of both. In mountainous masses who have risen by fault, movement
displacement can be thousands of meters and shows the cumulative effect, over
long periods, small and imperceptible movements, rather than a single large
uprising. However, when activity in failure is sudden and abrupt, it can produce a
large earthquake, and even a rupture of the earths surface, creating a
topographic form called fault scarp.
Geological faults happen when stress occurs and determines the faults type after
the event. There are three main categories of stress:

Compression stress

Occurs at convergent plate boundaries. The plates move and crash toward each
other. This is what like when two cars crash into each other.

Tension stress

Occurs at divergent plate boundaries. The plates are drifting away from each
other.

Shear stress

Occurs majorly at transform boundaries. The plates slide past each other
horizontally in opposite directions.

Features of Geological Faults

The following features allow us to describe faults:

Direction

The angle between a horizontal lines contained in the fault plane with the north-
south axis.

Dip

The angle between the fault plane with the horizontal.

Jump fails

Distance between a given one of the blocks (e.g. one surface of a layer) And the
corresponding point in the other, taken along the fault plane.

Escarp

Distance between surfaces of the two lips, taken vertically.

Mirror fault

The flat surface although decline, which occurs along the fault scarp

Triangular facets
Mirrors showing the cutting failures occurred in a mountainous row when the
failure occurs perpendicular to the direction of this mountainous row. Both the
sunken part as the mirror itself fault have triangular appearance, hence the
name.

Active and Inactive Faults

The fault is active when deformed Quaternary sediments. In other words, when
there are evidence of movement over the past 1.8 million years. Some active
faults often are associated with earthquakes, demonstrating that they continue
to operate. There could be sudden shaped jumps leading to earthquakes and the
cause is the collision of two faults when the earthquakes happen to collide
followed by periods of inactivity. The largest earthquakes have been caused by
jumps from 8 to 12 m. The slip can also occur slowly and continuously,
perceptible only with instruments such as GPS stations after several years of
observations.

The first type are seismic faults while the latter are aseismic or crawlers.
However, when considering large time intervals on the order of thousands of
years, both moving at average speeds of a few millimeters to a few centimeters
per year.

An example is the San Andreas Fault in southern and central California in the US,
which has generated earthquakes in San Francisco (M = 8.2 on the Richter scale)
in 1905, Los Angeles (M = 6.5) in 1993 and recently Hector Mine (M = 7) in 1999
and San Luis Obispo (M = 6.2) in 2004.

There are also inactive old faults created in past geological area and survive as
fossils structures to this day. These do not represent any danger to nearby towns.

Types of Geological Faults According to Their Movement

The faults are classified into three types based on the efforts that originate and
relative movements of the blocks:

Reverse fault

This type of failure is generated by compression. The movement is usually

horizontal and the fault plane typically has a 30 degree angle to the horizontal
direction. The ceiling block is located on the footwall.

Normal fault

These faults are generated by traction. The motion is predominantly vertical to

the plane of failure, which typically has a 60 degree angle to the horizontal
direction. The block that slides down is called block roof while rising is called
block floor.

Strike-slip fault

In this type vertical jump component is negligible and the predominant

movement is horizontal. There are two types dextral and sinistral. These two
types of strike-slip faults are distinguished by the researchers. Placing the
observer at any of the blocks and where shifts facing the other, dextral are those
where the relative movement of the blocks is clockwise, while with the sinistral,
the opposite occurs.

They should not be confused with transform faults, which are associated with the
concept transforming edge of the theory of plate tectonics, or with transverse
faults, which are those that allow accommodation of differential movements of
blocks along a fault plane.

Oblique fault

This movement has a vertical component and a horizontal component.

Transform fault

Transform fault or transforming edge is the side edge of a tectonic plate shift
relative to each other. Their presence is remarkable thanks to the discontinuities
of the land. This type of fault connects the mid-ocean ridges while others simply
accommodate movement between continental plates horizontally. The most
important transform fault is the San Andreas Fault in California, USA.

The fault or transforming edge occurs on passive edges of a tectonic plate and is
characterized as a failure of horizontal scrolling, where the plates move next to
each other due to the expansion of the ocean floor, without producing or
destroying lithosphere.

These faults would connect global active belts in a continuous network which
divides the outer surface of the Earth in several rigid plates. Therefore, the Earth
consists of individual plates and along transform faults where the relative
movement is possible between them.

Most transform faults join two segments of a mid-ocean ridge. In addition,

through the transform faults, oceanic crust is created at the ridges and it can be
transported to a zone of destruction, the trenches.

Types of boundaries
The plates can collide away or slide to each other, depending on the type of
movement. There are three different types of plate boundaries:

Converging boundaries

A convergent boundary has an opposite movement to the divergent boundary.

The tectonic plates collide so volcanic activity associated leads and creating relief.

Diverging boundaries

A divergent boundary has an opposite movement to the converging boundary. In

this case, the tectonic plates are separated so they cause the rise of material
from the mantle, creating new soil.

Transform

Two plates sliding in opposite direction by one another are called transform
boundaries.

Worlds Well-known Geological Faults

There are many geological faults in the world, created after natural changes and
events. Two of the most famous are:

The Altyn Tagh fault

It is a fault that was created and continued to exist for about 40 million years ago
during which the Indian subcontinent has been pushing northward, colliding with
the Eurasian landmass. It is more than 2500 km large, including the Kansu fault
that is united in its eastern end. It is located 1200 km north of the Mount Everest,
in the Chinese region of Xinjiang. This fault is probably the biggest active fracture
in the world.

This area is very active in violent earthquakes, which is easily noticeable when we
realize that the Indian continent has moved 2000 km on Eurasia from the
beginning of the collision. This fault caused the Sichuan earthquake that left
60,000 dead.

The San Andreas Fault

It is located between the North American Plate and the Pacific Plate. This system
has a length of 287 km and about a thousand cuts through California, United
States, and Baja California in Mexico. It is famous for producing large and
devastating earthquakes.
Ques2.Describe various type of joints(2007,2012,2016)

Ans: