Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 1

Kayla Cook, Alexis Roberts, Michelle Urbina, Maggie Vanmeter and Mya Yorke

Mrs. Kara Norris

AP Environmental Science

31 May 2017

Comparing Water Quality to the Development of an Area

Introduction

Since the turn of the 20th century, the United States has faced a rapid period of

industrialization that has changed the cultural landscape of the nation. This not only affects the

types of industry and revenue that are located within different regions of the United States, but it

also dictates the types of cultural and environmental problems faced by humans in their day to

day lives and in the future. For example, as industrialization has the led to the rapid growth of

large urban centers in the United States, it has oppositely complemented the more undeveloped

agricultural regions. More urbanized and industrialized regions are characterized by lower pH

levels, higher temperatures, and more runoff from the impermeable surfaces into water sources.

On the other hand, rural and agricultural areas are compromised by increased salinity and

agricultural runoff, which is supplemented by an excess in nutrients. As a result, the differences

between the regions manifest themselves in the environment, and produce different, negative

effects as far as water quality. As water is one of the most vital resources on the Earth, it is

important to understand the impact that different degrees of industrialization have on water

quality. It is traditionally believed that industrialized areas are characterized by the lowest levels

of water quality, and rural areas are characterized by more improved levels of water quality. This

research paper will investigate the extent to which the development of a city, whether it is urban
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 2

or rural, has an effect on the quality of water. Based off of research gathered, it can be inferred

that though rural development leads to extreme salinity, agricultural runoff, particulate matter

and poor pH, urban development plays a harsher role in the aspect of temperature and dissolved

oxygen. This paper will further investigate the differentiation between rural and urban water

qualities, but also help to characterize the contributions that deter water quality from

improvement.

Background Info

One of the most important factors of life is water which, in the usable form, is dependent

on its water quality. Water quality is more complex than it may sound. It can be defined as the

chemical, physical, biological, or radiological characteristics of water (Constabile). Water quality

can be measured using many different parameters, a few including the concentration of dissolved

oxygen, temperature, or the amount of suspended material, also known as turbidity, and pH

levels. Although these scientific parameters are used to describe water quality, it does not

necessarily delineate water as good or bad. The final determination of describing water

quality is concluded based off of a specific body of waters use (Constabile). For example if the

purpose of that water is for drinking, then it is essential that it meets EPA standards. EPA

standards are made specific to locations to ensure that there are safe levels of chemicals and

suspended particles in the water. Having a reliable, clean water source for drinking water is not

only imperative to human health and life, but aquatic life as well. Aquatic organisms have

adapted to living in specific conditions and if these conditions are tampered with, it can affect the

life expectancy of these organisms. In the Florida Keys, seagrass and coral reef communities

clearly prosper in clean water sources and those that have relatively low levels of nutrients
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 3

(Constabile). Although nutrients are important for plant growth, too much can actually decrease

the levels of dissolved oxygen in water, taking away the amount of available oxygen for native

organisms. Correspondingly, poor water quality poses a serious threat for human health.

Pesticides found in polluted water can cause damage to the nervous system as well as incurring a

higher risk of cancer due to the carbonates that they contain (Constabile). In particular, chlorides

are known to cause damage to reproductive and endocrine systems, and nitrates are known to be

especially dangerous to babies that drink milk formula. Nitrates have the capabilities of cutting

off the flow of oxygen to the brain causing blue baby syndrome (Constabile), so if they are

found in excess amount it poses a fatal threat to babies. These aquatic and human life threats

come from a variety of different sources of pollution; pollution that is damaging earths most

prized renewable resource and deeming it endangered. Freshwater has been the root of survival

for millions of years, so with a noticeable decline in water quality across the US it puts a

multitude of people in danger. People are able to go days without food, but not water. Recently,

about over about the past 75 years, water pollution has begun to increasingly threaten the

survival of viable water sources but are also putting humans in danger of using contaminated

sources of water. Most commonly, sources of pollution come from urbanization, human littering,

discharge of untreated waste, agricultural runoff and countless more factors. Millions of people

worldwide do not have access to this basic need, and any way you break it down, the cause can

always be traced back to human activities.

Methods

To further investigate water quality, there were many ways in which our group found

important research information. For example, one of our resources was an interview with a
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specialized scientist, Hilary Abraham. Ms. Abraham is a hydrologist at the Oklahoma Water

Science Center who provided us with vital and relevant information to make a reasonable

conclusion on our research topic. To research and better understand our main question, our group

primarily used EBSCOHost to research for information. This is a database that provides students

with primary and peer reviewed scholarly journal articles to research. Additionally, we used the

Water Quality Watch system from the United States Geological Survey to analyze data

information from our chosen locations in New York State. It provided collected monthly data for

the 2016-2017 year as far as measurements of water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and

turbidity from Sonyea, a rural city in Northwestern New York, and from New York City, one of

the largest urban cities in the United States. In order to display our findings on water quality, we

decided to graph each parameter according to the city, then add a trendline for each graph to

determine the overall average. The trend line was compared to each ideal parameter to determine

what type of development had superior water quality. We then found the population statistics and

population density for both cities in 2016 and 2017, and then graphed the population data to

show through evidence that New York City is qualified as an urban city and Sonyea is qualified

as a rural city. Through this process we were able to gain further knowledge of water quality and

come to a conclusion about the implications development has on the extent of water quality in a

given area in the United States.

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Data and Analysis

pH Levels

Fig. 1: pH levels of tested water in Sonyea, NY from 2016-2017 and trendline for average pH.

Fig. 2: pH levels of tested water in New York City, NY from 2016-2017 and trendline for
average pH.
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 6

Water Temperature

Fig. 3: Water temperatures of tested water in Sonyea, NY from 2016-2017 and trendline for
average temperature.

Fig. 4: Water temperatures of tested water in New York City, NY from 2016-2017 and trendline
for average temperature.
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 7

Dissolved Oxygen

Fig. 5: Dissolved oxygen levels of tested water in Sonyea, NY from 2016-2017 and trendline for
average dissolved oxygen level.

Fig. 6: Dissolved oxygen levels of tested water in New York City, NY from 2016-2017 and
trendline for average dissolved oxygen levels.
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 8

Turbidity

Fig. 7: Turbidity of tested water in Sonyea, NY from 2016-2017 and trendline for average
turbidity.

Fig. 8: Turbidity of tested water in New York City, NY from 2016-2017 and trendline for
average turbidity.
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 9

Population Data

Fig. 9: Population of Sonyea, NY in comparison to New York City, NY in 2016.

Fig. 10: Population of Sonyea, NY in comparison to New York City, NY in 2017.

 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 10

Map 1: Geo Chart of New York City, NY (red) and Sonyea, NY (blue) according to population
size in 2017.

Fig. 11: Population density of Sonyea, NY in comparison to New York City, NY in 2016.

Fig. 12: Population density of Sonyea, NY in comparison to New York City, NY in 2017.
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 11

Ideal Parameters for the State of New York

pH Temperature Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) Turbidity (FNU)

6-8 5-25 5<x x>40

Table 1: Ideal Parameters for Surface Water in New York, USA.

Analysis

In order to compare the quality of water in a rural city to an urban city, one must first find

a city that qualifies as being urban and one that qualifies as being rural. To do so, Figures 9,

10, and Map 1 show the population of two cities within New York: Sonyea and New York City.

To be qualified as an urbanized area, there must be at least 50,000 people living in the area.

Rural areas encompass anything not considered an urbanized area (2010 Census Urban and Rural

Classification and Urban Area Criteria). Based off this knowledge, it can be seen that New York

City qualifies as an urban city with a population of 8,550,405 people as of 2017, while Sonyea is

considered to be a rural city with a population of 3,249 people as of 2017. Considering these

statistics, the two cities were compared with 4 different parameters of water quality: pH,

temperature, dissolved oxygen, and turbidity.

According to the trendline created for average pH levels as shown in Figures 1 and 2,

Sonyeas average pH levels ran from 7.89-8.13. On the other hand, New York Citys average pH

levels ran from 7.78-7.81. The ideal range for pH is 6.0-8.0, as indicated by Table 1. In this case,

the urban city, New York City, indicates better pH levels than the rural city of Sonyea. This

conclusion comes from the pH levels for Sonyea exceeding the ideal level by 0.13 units, while

New York Citys pH average range lies within the ideal level. Based on this data set, it can be
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 12

inferred that urban areas show slightly better pH levels, possibly indicating better water quality

in the urbanized city.

The ideal temperature range for surface water in New York is between 5 and 25

(Table 1). The trendline for average water temperature in Sonyea, NY ranged from 5 and

17.9 (Figure 3). The trendline for average water temperature in New York City, NY ranged

from 7.5 and 22.4. While neither the rural or urban city showed levels that fell out of the

ideal temperature range, it can be seen that the water in New York City was significantly warmer

than the water in Sonyea year-round. This is most likely a consequence of the urban heat island

(UHI) effect, which the National Geographic Society defines as a metropolitan area with

temperatures that are higher than the rural areas surrounding it, and is caused by anthropogenic

activity. With 8,550,405 people in New York City, it is not surprising that it is one of the United

States largest examples of the heat island effect. This can have a negative effect on the

environment of urban areas like New York City because some species need to have a certain

temperature of water in order to survive. Additionally, temperature has an inverse relationship

with dissolved oxygen, another water quality indicator; the lower the temperature of water, the

more dissolved oxygen that can be held within the water.

Dissolved oxygen is essential to aquatic life because it provides the needed oxygen to all

aerobic life forms. Oxygen levels that remain below 1-2 mg/L for a just a few hours can lead to

large fish kills (Cooke). The ideal levels for dissolved oxygen in New York is anything above 5

mg/L. The average range of dissolved oxygen in Sonyea, NY is 9.5-12.7 mg/L. The average

range of dissolved oxygen in New York City, NY is 7.0-8.6 mg/L. Both cities dissolved oxygen

levels were above the recommended level, however New York City had a lower D.O. level,
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 13

overall. This is likely due to the urban heat island effect, considering temperature and dissolved

oxygen have an inverse relationship.

Turbidity is the measurement of the relative clarity of water. High turbidity indicates that

there is a lot of particulate matter within the liquid. Excessive turbidity can represent a health

concern to humans as it harbors pathogens and bacteria, and it negatively affects the environment

by limiting light penetration and productivity, harming the habitat quality, and leading to

increased sedimentation (Perlman). The ideal range of turbidity in surface water is anything

below 40 FNU. The average turbidity of Sonyea, NY was between 7.89 and 8.13 FNU (Figure

7). The average turbidity of New York City, NY was between 7.75 and 7.81 FNU (Figure 8).

Based off of this information, it is shown that the rural city, Sonyea, had a poorer turbidity

content. Therefore, it can be inferred that rural cities have higher amounts of particulate matter

within their waters. This may be a result of increased agricultural activity in rural areas, which

often results in soil erosion and deforestation, which both increase the sedimentation of an area.

Having investigated four different parameters of water quality in an urban city and a rural

city, this study can explain the extent to which development affects water quality. Urban cities,

such as New York City, are likely to have more desirable pH levels and a lower turbidity than

rural cities, such as Sonyea. If only pH and turbidity were considered, it could be assumed that

urban areas have a better overall water quality rather than rural areas. However, rural cities like

Sonyea have cooler water temperatures and therefore higher dissolved oxygen contents, which is

a valuable aspect of water quality. Considering water quality is a complicated term with many

factors that complete it, it cannot be concluded that either urban or rural has the best water

quality. However, it can be concluded that rural areas have better water temperatures and
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 14

dissolved oxygen contents, and urban areas have better pH levels and turbidity contents.

Population

Since 1950, the United States population has grown by over 110% (US Census Bureau).

In addition, the United States has experienced a fairly new phenomenon that has changed the

way humans interact with the environment around them known as urbanization. While

urbanization first emerged in the late 19th century, an urban lifestyle has only recently seen

substantial increases in population. From 1950 to 2011, it is apparent that the urban population in

the US grew by nearly 18% (Shoredits, et al.). In conjunction with urbanization is a phenomenon

relatively exclusive to the United States known as suburbanization, or urban sprawl. Urban

sprawl, the spreading of a city and its suburbs, is often characterized by its vast consumption of

large amounts of both natural and manmade resources. With the invention of the automobile, an

increasing amount of people within the nation could afford to commute from suburbs to their

occupations, quickening the rate of urban sprawl. Of course, these new changes in human

activity result in changes for the environmental quality, as well. Water, one of the most most

essential elements of life, can and has been significantly affected by these changes. Nearly one

third of American rivers have been impaired by the change in land use (Shoredits, et al).

From approximately 1946-1964, the baby boom occurred within the United States,

rapidly expanding the current population size. This rapid influx in population growth in a

postindustrial society led to the desire for many to move outward rather than upward. Thus many

industries followed the outward-growing population, and the development of many edge cities

directly led to higher rates of deforestation. Trees are natural barriers within the watershed, and

without them, the water quality is negatively affected. Sedimentation, nutrient depletion, and a
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 15

decrease in dissolved oxygen are only a few negative results of this. One such example of this

phenomenon occurring happened in Fairfax County, VA, the most populated county in the state

of Virginia. The population and urban sprawl has put an apparent strain on water resources

within the county (Woods). In 2014, the U.S. Geological Survey performed a study on the

countys water quality by examining aquatic macroinvertebrates of selected streams, and

determined that at the exception of one station, the streams throughout Fairfax County are

generally of poor health (Jastram). In cases like this, the growth cannot be sustained, and some

kind of limitation must be put on the immigration or growth of the city in order to preserve water

supplies.

The stress that growing populations put on the water resources reciprocate back on

human populations. In other words, population growth reaps negative effects for both humans

and the environment; there is no sole sufferer. Poor water quality is a perfect factor in fostering

water-associated disease, such as dengue, cholera, or typhoid (Vardoulakis, et al). Research

presented at the 11th International Conference on Urban Health linked the issues of waterborne

disease with detrimental consequences on human society as a whole; water-related illnesses lead

to reduced work or school capacity, which can eventually create long-term effects on wealth,

education, and quality of life (Vardoulakis, et al). A study by Harvard University Professor

Klaus Zimmerman found that in some cases, polluted water can even affect mental health, which

also has long-term consequences on work capacity and the society as a whole (Chowdhury, et

al). The world population is expected to grow by 50% and a much greater proportion of the

population is expected to be living a developed country lifestyle (Daigger). As a result, human

resource demands are expected to also increase just as much. Currently, the amount of people
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 16

who live in countries with water stress is estimated at about half a billion people, but it is

expected to increase to 4 billion people by 2050 (Daigger). Dr. Glen T. Daigger performed a

study showing the need for updated wastewater management and treatment in urban areas in

order to keep up with the growing populations. However, his research also showed that the

increased urban populations also put a strain on drinking water sources for all humans. His

demands for conservation and reform apply not only to wastewater management, but to water

management as a whole.

Lastly, another significant impact that urbanization has had on water systems in the

United States has been what is referred to as the Urban Heat Island effect (UHI). This

phenomenon was defined in the data and analysis section of this research report, but essentially it

refers to the heightened temperatures in urban areas in comparison to the significantly cooler

temperatures in surrounding rural areas. The urban heat island effect has an impact on the

environment that not only affects water quality, but also the aquatic fauna and life. In a research

experiment, several scientists collected temperatures from 60 streams in North Carolina. The

researchers found that the most urbanized streams were 1.6 warmer than the most forested

streams (Somers, et al). Their research showed that urbanization raises water temperatures at

baseflow and when storms come, temperatures surge. It was also found in their study that initial

runoff from paved surfaces can reach extremely high temperatures because the impervious

surfaces can also reach 50 hotter than air. The heightened temperatures of the surfaces can

briefly elevate stream temperatures above the maximum thermal tolerances of some sensitive

organisms (Somers, et al). Even for brief periods, this can stress organisms and affect their

development and behavior. Heat pulses can cause behavioral and physiological changes in some
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 17

invertebrate and fish species (Salmela, et al). They concluded in their study that the strongest

influence on storm-flow temperature increases was due to the percent of development in the area.

Thus, it can be seen that in urban areas, water is more likely to have less biodiversity as a result

of the urban heat island effect, which negatively corresponds with dissolved oxygen content.

Earths Systems and Resources

Earths systems and resources contains the primary focus of research for the overall

question of investigation; the hydrosphere. The hydrosphere refers to anything and everything

that involves water. This includes, but is not limited to, agricultural, industrial and domestic uses

of water and its connection to surface and groundwater issues that come with these uses. The

primary facts that are associated with the issues can be described as water pollution. Water

pollution differs depending on the area, whether rural or urban. These locations play a big role in

how pollution makes it way into the earths fresh water system. The continually decreasing water

supply has recently become in danger of water pollution, especially in urban areas. Urban areas

increase the amount of non-permeable land because of all of the construction of new buildings

and communities. This results in high volumes of storm water building up and becoming

contaminated with traffic related pollutants such as heavy metals, which results in a negative

effect on water quality. Drinking water is easily and commonly affected by how the land is being

used in particular regions of the US (Kofi Eduful). Inadequate land use is caused by humans who

use the water for anthropogenic activities, but with this comes a great environmental impact. The

development of an area produces impermeable surfaces which, in turn, trap pollutants emitted by

factories, houses or commercial building rooftops (Kofi Eduful). This creates the ability for a

greater amount runoff, which carries the pollutants trapped on the surface to the nearby bodies of
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 18

water. It is quite possible that this water source would have been used for drinking, but is now

unsafe for consumption. Another threat to water quality is urban agriculture. Due to economic

holdbacks, families may try and grow their own fruit and vegetables for food instead of buying

them. In order to grow a garden, many pesticides and fertilizers may be used. The chemicals

contained in these products, such as phosphorus or nitrogen, are added into the ground and have

a negative impact on groundwater quality.

In an experimental study conducted about the Liujiang River in Southwestern China, an

investigation was done on the major threat for eutrophication in the area (Baiyang). There is such

an abundance of water in this river basin, that nine cascade hydropower stations were built to

control the overflow of water and better distribute the use. The area surrounding this river has

recently begun to industrialize, causing chemicals from the city to runoff into the river. The

industrialization of the city may seem beneficial for the economic growth and the people, but it

has a harmful effect on the environment. The chemicals that leak into the river end up altering

the waters chemical composition. This means that factors such as pH levels will be changed,

making the water unsuitable for domestic use as wells as harming the aquatic habitat. The

Liujiang is also the main body of water that receives wastewater from sewage systems. This river

faces great potential for major eutrophication which will ultimately lead to poor water quality

and affect living standards (Baiyang). Regions with more urban development are at a higher risk

for poor water standards, because of the air pollutants and sewage that is released and make its

way into the water. This increase of nutrients added into the water brings about the issue of

eutrophication, making the water undrinkable. Pollution from urbanization releases all kinds of

nutrients into nearby water through storm runoff. This eutrophication can affect organisms living
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 19

in the water because it decreases the levels of dissolved oxygen, making it difficult for organisms

to survive. Eutrophication also limits the amount of fresh water available for domestic use which

directly affects us humans.

Richard Kebabjian, director of the Los Angeles County Department of Health Services,

wrote an article exploring similar effects of urbanization in Southern California. Storm drainage

in Southern California is mostly sewage free with the exception of a small amount which most

likely results from animal waste (Kebabjian). Mr. Kebabjians article aimed to determine

whether increased bacteria levels in recreational waters poses a health threat to people in the

water. In particular, Southern California uses two separate systems for sewage and urban runoff.

As far as the processing of sewage in a water source, the sewage is brought to treatment plants

and the urban runoff is directed through a storm drain system which discharges the waste in the

ocean waters or along the shore. Recently the EPA has shown concern that urban runoff may be

an environmental pollutant that could harm people in the California waters (Kebabjian). Urban

runoff, which contains animal waste from the city, is being dumped into oceans and is increasing

the coliform bacteria levels, making the water unsafe for recreational use. Conclusively, the

author states, A study is needed on the west coast to determine whether a correlation exists

between human illness and swimming in recreational waters elevated with indicator bacteria

originating from storm drains. If a relationship exists, the best indicator or combination of

indicators needs to be identified and new standards developed.

A study conducted by Dr. L.V. Sahakyan, an environmental geochemist, intended to

study the water quality of small rivers along a mountain in the city of Gyumri in the Republic of

Armenia. The region of Gyumri is full of mountains with rivers running along them as well as
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 20

being surrounded by urbanized areas. Rivers are a vital part of many urban landscapes as they

are used as a source of drinking water for residents or for irrigation for farmers. Pollution can

negatively affect the rivers, which poses a threat to residents living in the area (Sahakyan). The

purpose of this study was to find an ecological standard based assessment of water quality of

small rivers in the Gyumri area and to determine approaches for protection and prevention of

decreased water quality. In this specific study, the researchers used basic parameters to

determine the water quality of these rivers. This study found that irrigation and urban runoff can

significantly alter water quality, but the worst pollutant is wastewater from drainage collectors

which build up over time. Rivers on these mountains were found to have high concentrations of

heavy metals such as copper and zinc, as well as high biological dissolved oxygen levels and

high levels of suspended particles, which are common indicators of declining water quality

(Sahakyan). The researchers found that the highest levels of pollution were found to be located in

River Ghorghobi, which runs directly through the heart of the city. It is exposed to man made

loads such as chlorides, sulphates, and contents of suspended particles. In order to protect these

rivers, strict requirements need to be put in place to asses the quality of water and determine

what level of pollutants is safe for human consumption (Sahakyan). The study concluded that the

Gyumri rivers acts as a place for discharge and pollution, which explains why the rivers are

characterized by such high levels of pollution. The author concluded that it is imperative that

protective measures, such as sewage cleaning systems, be constructed and urban sanitation be

improved in order to increase the quality of the rivers. This study shows there is a positive

correlation between urban areas and poor water quality, as it evidences how regions that are

highly developed have a negative impact on the environment.

 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 21

Just as urban construction was found to have a negative impact on the environment,

researchers were able to detect that rural areas that have a large sector of agriculture also pose a

threat to water quality. Authors G. Walsh and V. Wepner, students of the Center of Aquatic

Research for the Department of Zoology at the University of Johannesburg, conducted an

experimental study to determine water quality in urban and agricultural areas. The main focus of

their research was to determine how diatoms can be used to help indicate water quality in rivers.

Diatoms are a major group of algae, and are among the most common types of phytoplankton.

These diatoms act as native indicators that show the effects of what happens to the representative

whole of aquatic organisms after normal water quality is tempered with (Walsh). Diatoms can be

used to determine pH levels, dissolved oxygen levels, temperature and many other water quality

factors. The study found that 72% diatom samples in agriculturally impacted rivers had a high

salt tolerance. This suggested that the sampled streams were affected by salinization due to

irrigation. The objective of the study was to determine how patterns of land use, whether

agricultural or urban, can affect the chemistry of water and how community structures of diatoms

were modified because of this. Diatoms in urban areas were found to have high nitrogen and

phosphorus levels as well as high amounts of organic pollution, otherwise known as sewage.

Diatoms in agricultural areas were comparatively found to have water sources that transformed

from mesotrophic to eutrophic, as well as having higher nitrate levels (Walsh). Also, agricultural

areas were found to have greater salinity problems due to the high amount of fertilization and

irrigation use for agricultural crops. This study shows that both rural and urban areas are at risk

for water pollution, although the sources and causes of that water pollution is different for both

regions. Whether land is used for infrastructure or crops, there is always going to be many
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 22

negative consequences that come with it, and many times water quality is often sacrificed for

these advancements in both industry and agriculture.

The Living World

The living world encompasses all biotic organisms in ecosystems around the world

including humans, mammals, insects, reptiles, and amphibians, all of which play a major role in

affecting and contributing to the water quality of a particular area. Any significant decrease in

water quality can be detrimental to the survival of species in the environment as well as to

human health. According to research conducted in China, the decline of water quality has led to a

significant increase in digestive cancers, which poses as a definite threat to human health

(Ebenstein). A similar study conducted in India, focused on the Ganga River discussing the

effects of industrialization of the religiously significant river and how it posed issues to the

health of the inhabitants in the basin (Trivedi). While these case studies take place outside of the

United States, the results can raise questions about the issue of water quality of similar regional

areas within the United States. One of the most prominent and common effects of water pollution

is habitat destruction, or the disabling of natural inhabited areas to support life any longer.

Critical areas of aquatic habitat destruction due to water pollution include estuaries, swamps,

marshes, and wetlands. The Potomac River in Washington, D.C. is a specific example of a

critical area of aquatic habitat destruction within the United States. As it is a main source of

drinking water and is inhabited by various unique species, its worsening of water quality has

made it significantly more difficult for life to continue in the D.C. area (Pekkanen). Aquatic life

is unable to thrive without an appropriate habitat to live in, leading to extinction of species and

therefore a degradation in biodiversity. Aside from habitat loss, the living world can be directly
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 23

affected by water pollution as well. When bodies of water inhabited by organisms are infiltrated

by toxic chemicals and pollutants, these compounds can harm or kill the life in it by ingestion or

even mere exposure. When levels of lead, nitrogen, phosphorus, excess nutrients and other

compounds increase in levels in inhabited water, it can lead to widespread death of organisms

and aquatic life, ultimately resulting in decreased quality of water.

Pollution

While there are many sources that contribute to the deteriorating effects of water quality,

it is most evident that pollution, whether point or nonpoint, has one of the largest impacts.

Depending on the amount of pollution that is present in a water source, the quality of the water

may either be improving or further deteriorating based on federal regulations, human

interactions, and runoff of excess materials into a prominent water source.

Even though water quality is regulated by the federal association known as the EPA, they

set further regulations and restrictions on water quality by releasing acts such as the Safe

Drinking Water Act, which intentionally monitors the amount of contaminants that are found in

a particular water source. This particular act was passed with the intention to combat water

pollution specifically in water sources that are traditionally used for drinking water. The aim of

SWDA is to maintain current pollution levels in a drinking water source or to dramatically

reduce the levels, if the pollution level is deemed unsafe or unsanitary. In order to encourage

compliance of the act after a previous violation, SWDA issues a public notification to increase

the monitoring on the particular source of water. When SWDA was created, the EPA created

standards of water quality that must be met in order for it to be considered a viable drinking

water source, knowns as MCLs. MCLs dictate the threshold below which the health risk doesnt
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 24

exist or has a very small effect on the population. For example, in California, the EPA has a

specific division of SWDA to monitor the pollution levels in local water sources, especially

considering California contains some of the worst levels of water pollutants in the nation. The

main purpose besides the regulation of water sources for SWDA is permitting PDWs, which is a

water system that provides water for human consumption and services at least 25 people a day.

These water sources are monitored by inspectors on a regular basis to ensure the quality of water

is up to par. The systems can be in violation of SWDA by failing to monitor and control the

amount of contamination in the water source. However, the most critical violations are MCL

violations because they are a concern to human health standards. If a violation of the MCL is

detected it immediately triggers a public notification and more intense monitoring of the water

source. The public notification alerts consumers of the dangers that may exist in their drinking

water and possible health effects. If multiple notifications are issued for the violation, then the

water source may have to endure a purification process to ensure the water is free of harmful

contaminants (Grooms, 2016). Considering the purpose of federal regulation of water sources in

the United States is to help improve overall water quality in both rural and urban cities, it is

apparent that SWDA is most commonly used and recognized in urbanized areas of the United

States. Nonetheless, SWDA has helped to improve vital water sources in the United States by

regulating pollutant levels in drinkable water sources.

It is quite apparent that one of the biggest influences of pollution that deteriorates water

quality in urban and rural areas of the US is human irresponsibility. While pets are some of the

most beloved creatures that have entered a humans life, they arent necessarily the best

contributors to water quality, especially in urban areas. In a study conducted by Katherine D.

 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 25

Young and Professor Edward L. Thackston of Vanderbilt Universitys environmental

engineering department, they concluded that one of the primary impacts of household pets on

water pollution is the issue of bacterial pollution coming from excretion of natural wastes. In

particular, their study measured fecal coliform bacteria levels of water in four local

neighborhoods in North Nashville, TN. The particular intention of the study was to determine if

septic systems were the cause of high bacteria levels in local streams and other local bodies of

water. As the study progressed, researchers found that there was very little evidence that

connected septic systems to the local bacterial levels, but it was apparent that there was high

levels of bacterial runoff coming from streets and lawns. If a significant water pollution problem

comes from household pets, then it may result in a public policy issue. In most cases, it is

generally assumed that humans are the source of bacterial contamination in urban areas, but the

study may bring to light a new source of contamination. Although animal wastes are nowhere

near as toxic as human waste, animal wastes can still have a prominent effect on gastric systems.

In addition, exposure to the animal waste can alter fresh streams and rivers considering they rob

them of oxygen and killing aquatic life. Both human and animal fecal coliform bacteria present

itself as similar in contamination regards, but it is apparent that animal wastes have higher levels

of fecal streptococci. Therefore, when the ratio of coliform to streptococci bacteria as fairly low,

it is an indicator that contamination comes from animal waste rather than human. From the

conclusion of the research, it is evident that other studies have found coliform ratios in Nashville

runoff to be low, but were almost ten times higher in areas with sewers and less developed areas.

Therefore, there is a positive correlation between the number of houses in an area and levels of

bacterial contamination in the water. When an animal's waste is disposed of in streets or laws,
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 26

there is very little room or opportunity for decomposition of the waste so it is more likely to

drain into water sources (Salisbury). Overall, this leads to the idea that urbanized areas have

worse water quality than rural areas because as industrialization increases, so does the runoff of

excrement from the household animals into important bodies of water because their waste can

not be decomposed on streets and lawns, so it runs into a water source, increasing bacteria and

coliform presence in the water source.

Contrastingly to urbanized areas of the United States, it is apparent that cities like Flint,

MI are experiencing extreme levels of lead in water sources. In a study that was conducted by

Reuters, they found that citizens in Oaklands Fruitvale were being exposed to increasingly high

levels of lead that are even considered to be intolerable. In particular, when children in this area

were tested for lead poisoning it was found that nearly 8% of the 500 children had high levels of

lead in their bloodstream. The levels of lead found in their blood was about 3% higher than the

recommendation level of the CDC. In response to the excessive amount of lead in this area, the

EPA has regulated that tap water can not contain more than 15 parts per billion of lead per

sample, which is known as the action level. The action level is the amount of a contaminant that

does not cause an adverse effect, so any level above 15 ppm has the possibility to cause an

adverse reaction to anyone who consumes it. Considering lead has serious health risks associated

with it the EPA created another standard known as the Maximum Contaminant Level Goal

(MCLG) of zero for lead. MCLG is the level of a contaminant with which there is not a known

health risk. Lead is okay to be in water that you shower with because it cant be absorbed by a

persons body, but if it exists in drinking water and is ingested it may cause problems with the

central nervous system, kidneys and brain. Some of the worst places for drinking water in the US
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 27

are located in the west and include cities such as San Diego, Las Vegas, Houston, Reno, and

Riverside. The lead may have entered the water source from buildings that were built many years

ago in which the pipes contained lead components. Specifically, the lead enters the water when

the lead pipes corrode and then releases lead directly into the water. In order to protect

consumers, the EPA and other companies have released individual test kits that people can use to

detect the amount of lead that exists in their water. Overall, the EPA and other government

agencies work towards lowering the levels of lead in water, but they are also working to raising

awareness of the danger of lead in water sources (Reeves Journal, 2017). Therefore, this helps to

conclude that water quality is not only in danger in urbanized areas of the United States, but also

in more rural areas, which can have detrimental effects on water sources as well.

While urbanized cities in the United States normally experience bad water quality, it is

quite apparent that rural areas in the same areas of the US also reap the effects of negative water

quality. In particular, it is evident that the concentration of chlorine in water in rural areas of the

US is increasing at a rate that may be harmful to the sources of freshwater in the northeastern

portion of the United States. Due to an increase in the levels of chlorine concentration in

freshwater it may result in the lead to the death of certain organisms because of an increase in

salinity levels. For many years, it has been clear that the salinization of freshwater in the

agriculture industry, but has been associated with the increase of roadway and urban

development. However, it is apparent that there is an increase in sodium and salt levels in the

northeastern region of the US due to salt on the roadways during the winter months of the year.

Salinization is commonly detected by an increase in chloride, especially with an increase of salt

concentration in runoff from roadways. The concentrations of chloride in soils can be around 30
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 28

mg/liter and have been found to damage land and plants that are located near the roadway. If the

increased concentrations of chloride are found in a water source, the effects may be detrimental

to the environment. If the salinity of a water source increases to 1000 mg/liter or more, it has a

lethal effect on aquatic plants and invertebrates. If there is an extreme amount of chloride

concentrations in the water, then it may result in increased levels of sodium and toxic substances

from the salt. In rural areas in the United States such as Baltimore County, MD, Hudson River

Valley, NY, and the White Mountains, NH, these areas have not experienced a lot of population

growth but also have a low density of roads. The watershed sites in Maryland also serve as a

drinking-water source for Baltimore city. One of the main reasons as to why there has been an

increase in salinity levels in water sources is due to seasonal fluctuations in rain levels, resulting

in a rise of stream levels. If the chloride levels continue at the rate they are going, then rural

areas in the northeastern region of the US can expect toxic contamination of freshwater sources

(Kaushal, 2005). Similarly, in more western portions of the US agricultural runoff is becoming a

major problem as excess nutrients are clearly causing deterioration of water quality in the US. In

particular, the excess nutrients are sourced from agricultural sites that runoff into the

Arkansas-White-Red river basin. Considering the Great Plains area of the US made a transition

to agriculture over American history from hunting, it has created a large impact on nutrient and

sediment loads in the streams of the Arkansas-White-Red river basin. The nutrient and sediments

combined with loads from other rivers are the leading cause of areas of hypoxia in the Gulf of

Mexico. However, even though there has been a decline in water quality in the last few decades,

the nutrient quality has actually improved because the amount of agriculture land in use has

stabilized and the clean water act has forced the treatment of wastewater in addition to other
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 29

point source. Even though there has been improvements in the overall consistency of the

nutrients that end up in streams, the nonpoint agricultural nutrients that surface in the streams

continue to degrade water quality. For instance, nitrate concentrations are clearly higher in

streams that have a larger amount of land that surrounds it planted with agriculture. Another

primary reason for a decline in water quality in the Great Plains region is due to a shift in energy

sources. Specifically, the region shifted from fossil fuels to cellulosic ethanol, which requires a

large conversion of land to be used for this purpose. In particular, corn is widely used as a source

of ethanol in the US, so there would be an increase in the amount of corn that is planted in the

region. It is estimated that the target amount of fuel from corn would increase the annual amount

of dissolved inorganic nitrogen by 10-36%, making it impossible to reduce hypoxia in the Gulf

of Mexico. Therefore, it is apparent that it will be hard to help improve water quality in this

region in the future (Jager, 2015).

Energy

Energy often comes to mind as electricity, however most of the time energy comes from

industries that use resources, such as water or land, to produce energy. The majority of the time,

industrialization is located in urban areas of the United States, but rural areas are comprised of

just as many industries but take on a different form of energy use. As a population grows, there is

generally a larger demand for energy resources. This means there will most likely be an increase

in developments such as homes and industries that require more energy to be used for operation.

While construction is a primary source of development, it also includes many factors that have

an impact on the environment, specifically an impact on the quality of water. Ellen Burnes, an

author of an academic journal, provided information on the effects of using ethanol as a source
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 30

of fuel energy in a rural area. A rural area in California decided to discontinue the use of MTBE;

a gasoline additive used as an oxygenate to raise the octane number. This policy generated a

greater demand for ethanol affecting not only the cost, but also the impact on the rural land

(Burnes). Producing ethanol takes up large areas of land where fertilizers are most likely to be

used. This could pollute the local water by draining into a prominent water source after a storm,

ultimately reducing the quality of water.

As for energy consumption, author Ron Hall, a literary editor and well known journalist,

provided information on the use of water to reduce energy consumption while simultaneously

reducing water pollution. As population increases, more buildings, stores, and homes are being

developed. Schools are often built in urban areas due to the concentration of people there. A

group of environmental researchers decided to experiment with a school building by modifying it

to catch storm water. This would ultimately reduce the amount of water runoff and would

conserve water to be used in their school garden (Hall). The water captured by the building

helped to maintain the cool conditions in the summer and the warmth in the winter. Therefore,

this reduced the amount of energy used on air conditioning and heating while also providing an

improvement to water quality by reducing levels of runoff. This study provides evidence that

water can have an influence on energy consumption, while also having an effect on water

quality. In addition, the implications of this research show that more populated areas are more

likely to result in a greater amount of harmful runoff.

Energy shock is a strong pressure wave in any elastic medium such as air, water, or soil

substance, produced by supersonic aircraft explosions, lightning, or other phenomena that create

violent changes in pressure (Barse). The first world countries rely mostly on electrical energy.
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 31

Development in rural areas would increase the demand for energy which could cause a sudden

energy shock, resulting in an increased water temperature. An increase in water temperature

results in an increased presence of algae in surface water and decrease dissolved oxygen levels.

Urban areas may have a high level of general water pollution, but rural areas also contribute to a

large amount of water pollution. This leads to the focus on energy consumption resulting in some

areas with a a large amount of energy use being in danger.

It is apparent that a study was conducted in the city of Rotterdam, Europe, on energy

resources as it is the largest supplier of fossil fuel. The city is facing a crisis because it is being

positioned in a sandwich situation in the lowlands, between a sea with rising levels and rivers

with increasing peak discharges. If it is not managed properly, the fossil fuels will make their

way into nearby water sources and negatively influence the quality of water (Meyer). This

industrial development of fossil fuels is an example of energy consumption negatively affecting

water quality, which resulted in the situation of poor water quality. For example, the integrated

resources recovery facility (IRRF) is a system that could help reduce water pollution while

creating energy. Treating and reclaiming water for: Ecological flow of the recipient body of

water, irrigation, water supply from alluvia deposits and recreation, and groundwater aquifer

recharge after additional treatment, are some of the methods included in the article (Novotny). It

would accept organic solids and concentrated excess water and would recover water, nutrients,

solids, electric energy and heat in much greater quantities than it is possible in the current water

reclamation plan. Considering the information that has been collected, it is evident that energy

sources and consumption influences water quality significantly whether in rural or urban areas.
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 32

Effort of Solutions/Implications

Considering water quality is such an important issue in the United States, there are many

projects that are currently being undertaken as a pursuit to improve water quality and reverse its

negative effects. In order to effectively contribute to the repair of harmed water quality, however,

individuals must be educated on the issue to know what they are doing. Hilary Abraham, a

hydrologist with Oklahoma Water Science Center, agreed that education is essential to any

progress on the issue. She said, I think a huge help would be education. Telling the people what

water actually means to them and how its quality affects them (Abraham). Some of the

suggested reparative actions that are strongly discouraged include flushing pills and medications

down the toilet, pouring cooking grease or cleaning products in the sink, and using harmful

chemical fertilizers in the lawn (Simsbury). Others suggest simple modifications to everyday

procedures, like raking leaves off of the street instead of the lawn or, washing vehicles on the

lawn rather than in the driveway. Aside from habitual efforts by citizens, several different

farming techniques have been proven to work, such as simple changes like utilizing wetlands,

bioreactors, and saturated buffer strips placed near the edges of the agricultural fields (Iowa

Farm Bureau). In multiple areas of the United States, there have been reports of progress in

targeted bodies of water. In early 2014, the Chesapeake Bay Program notified the community

that the Bay had been experiencing a recovery in response to the efforts made (Stardem). This

recovery included aspects such as a reduction in nitrogen and phosphorus, and improved

resilience of grasses in the area. The local efforts that were taken into effect included agricultural

management, improved wastewater, and upgraded smokestack technology. The measurable

difference that has been noted by the Chesapeake Bay Program provides a sense of hope that
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 33

efforts made as individuals are making a difference in the world, and researchers can conclude

that the various efforts by citizens to restore water quality have been working, to some certain

extent. However, it is evident that there have not been many occurrences of negative fallbacks of

water improvement practices. In fact, it has actually been shown that it has sparked significant

rise in general human health, education, and there has even been a marked decrease in

absenteeism in school-aged children, due to a lower frequency of sickness and infection

(Hindawi). Hilary Abraham gave a statement about why people should care about water, People

should care because we need water every single day to survive, no matter how big and bad we

get as a species, this simple thing could take us out in no time flat. She explained that people

care more about money than they do water quality. Therefore protecting water will be more

effective if the issue is framed to show that it will cost you thousands more a year to treat your

water at plants if you continue to let it get worse (Abraham).

Conclusion

Water is, arguably, one of the most necessary sources to sustain life on earth. If

anthropogenic activities continue to increase urban development to a point of excess, there will

likely be a constant deterioration of the quality of water. This has a direct effect on aquatic life as

well as human health. Both urban and rural areas have factors to consider regarding how the

landscape can impact water quality. Urban areas have pollutants that come from motor vehicles

and factories, while rural areas have pollutants that come from fertilizers and pesticides. Both

types of development, rural and urban, have different negative impacts on the environment. After

examining the chemical composition of water in a highly urbanized area and a rural area in New

York, the parameters were shown to be relatively equal. There was no quantitative data that
 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 34

showed one of the areas to have a more demanding poor water quality than the other. But,

through qualitative research, we can conclude that urban areas tend to have a more serious and

adverse effect on water quality. In conclusion, both urban and rural development pose a threat to

water quality, which ultimately plays an adverse role in the life of aquatic organisms as well as

human health. Earths water is so easily affected and as a society there is only so much we can

do to prevent and control its effects. As Hilary Abraham states in her interview, The thing about

water quality is that it is such a delicate balance, there is very little people do that doesnt cause

poor water quality (Abraham).

 Cook, Roberts, Urbina, Vanmeter, Yorke 35

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