U. Schwarz-Schampera P.M.

Herzig
Indium
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
Ulrich Schwarz-Schampera Peter M. Herzig

Indium
Geology, Mineralogy,
and Economics

with 31 Figures and 54 Tables

Springer
DR. ULRICH SCHWARZ-SCHAMPERA
PROFESSOR DR. PETER M. HERZIG

Department of Economic Geology

and Leibniz Laboratory for Applied Marine Research
Institute of Mineralogy
Freiberg University of Mining and Technology
Brennhausgasse 14
09596 Freiberg
Germany

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme

Schwarz-Schampera, Ulrich: Indium: geology, mineralogy, and economics I Ulrich Schwarz-
Schampera ;Peter M. Herzig.
ISBN 978-3-642-07726-5 ISBN 978-3-662-05076-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-05076-7
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 A contribution to

BGR2000

Raw Materials with Short Lifetime Reserves

BGR

Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources

Hannover, Germany
Preface

The extraordinary growth of the computer and semiconductor industries and the
increasing consumption of indium in these technologies in recent years have
placed major constraints on current and future reserves of this metal. In the past,
geoscientists have noticed the occurrence of indium in a large variety of ore de-
posits and detailed geochemical and mineralogical work is available for a few ex-
amples. However, despite the current technological interest, there is no compre-
hensive textbook that deals with all aspects of indium mineralization and
economics. The present study attempts to develop a general metallogenic concept
for indium in identifying the essential enrichment processes and their economic
significance.
The study 'Indium Geology, Mineralogy, and Economics' was commissioned
and funded by the German Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Re-
sources (BGR Hannover) and is a contribution to the research program 'BGR
2000 - Raw Materials with Short Lifetime Reserves'. This program focuses on
raw materials with known reserves confined to the next 20-25 years at static de-
mand. The future availability of reserves is usually estimated by dividing the
known reserves by the current annual consumption. In fact, lifetimes of reserves
are inappropriate measures because they depend on many parameters and there-
fore represent a "snapshot" of a dynamic system. In order to provide a sustainable
use of raw materials with short lifetime reserves, a significantly higher amount of
innovation is needed compared to raw materials with long lifetime reserves.
Specific aspects of this study are part of a Ph.D. thesis, completed by the first
author, which was funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG).
The authors greatfully acknowledge the support of this study by Prof. Dr.-Ing.
Dr. h. c. F.-W. Wellmer, Dr. Th. Oberthur, Dr. H.-0. Angermeier, and Dipl.-Min.
U. K. Vetter, all BGR Hannover. We would also like to thank Dr. M. D. Han-
nington and Dr. I. R. Jonasson (Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa), and Prof.
R. W. Hutchinson (Colorado School of Mines, Golden, USA) for their critical and
constructive comments. Prof. R. W. Hutchinson and Dr. A. Arribas Jr. (Placer
Dome Ltd.) are furthermore thanked for providing various site specific informa-
tion, references, and sample material.
Sincere thanks are due to our colleagues at the Department of Economic Geol-
ogy for providing support, ideas, and information:
Klaus-P. Becker, Bernd Buschmann, Peter Jonas, Thomas Kuhn, Thomas Mon-
necke, Daniel Muller, Sven Petersen, and Thomas Seifert.

Ulrich Schwarz-Schampera, Freiberg

Peter M. Herzig, Freiberg
Table of Contents

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ }
1.1 Historical Aspects ........................................................................................ 1
1.2 Geochemistry ............................................................................................... I
1.3 Analysis ....................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Production .................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Economics .................................................................................................... 5

2 Petrological and Mineralogical Framework..................................................... 9

2.1 Magmatic Fractionation ............................................................................... 9
2.2 Indium Mineralogy .................................................................................... 13
2.2.1 Indium Substitution Processes ............................................................ 23
2.2.2 Experimental Data .............................................................................. 28
2.2.3 Natural Systems .................................................................................. 30

3 Indium Metallogeny ......................................................................................... 33

3.1 Vein-Stockwork Tin and Tungsten Deposits, Porphyry Tin Deposits ....... 33
3.1.1 Mount Pleasant, New Brunswick, Canada ......................................... 33
3.1.2 Mangabeira, Goias, Brazil .................................................................. 39
3.1.3 Baal Gammon, Northern Queensland, Australia ............................... .40
3.1.4 Vaulry, Haute Vienne, France ............................................................ 41
3 .1.5 Charrier, Allier, France ..................................................................... .42
3.1.6 Pirquitas, Jujuy Province, Argentina .................................................. 42
3.1.7 Cfnovec, Krusne Hory Mountains, Czech Republic .......................... .43
3.1.8 Synthesis ............................................................................................. 44
3.2 Volcanic-Hosted Massive Sulfide (VMS) Deposits ................................... 45
3.2.1 Kidd Creek, Ontario, Canada ............................................................ .45
3.2.2 Neves-Corvo, Castro Verde, Southern Portugal.. ............................... 49
3.2.3 Brunswick No. 12, Bathurst Mining Camp,
New Brunswick, Canada .................................................................... 55
3.2.4 Heath Steele, Brunswick Mining Camp, New Brunswick, Canada .... 56
3.2.5 Kuroko, Hokuroku basin, Northeastern Honshu, Japan ..................... 58
3.2.6 Laochang, Changning-Menglian belt, Sanjiang,
SW-Yunnan, China ............................................................................ 58
3.2.7 Maranda J, Murchison belt, Northern Province, South Africa ........... 59
VIII Table of Contents

3.2.8 Volcanic-Hosted Massive Sulfide Deposits

of the Southern Urals, Russia ............................................................ 62
3 .2.8.1 Letneye, Dombarovsk District .................................................... 62
3.2.8.2 Komsomolskoye, Mednogorsk District ...................................... 64
3.2.8.3 Podolskoye .................................................................................. 64
3.2.8.4 Sibaiskoye ................................................................................... 65
3.2.8.5 Gaiskoye ..................................................................................... 65
3.2.8.6 Bakr-Tau, Baimak District, Bashkirian Republic ....................... 66
3.2.9 Volcanic-Hosted Massive Sulfide Deposits in Queensland
and Tasmania, Eastern Australia ....................................................... 67
3.2.9.1 Mount Chalmers, Central Queensland ........................................ 68
3.2.9.2 Waterloo and Agincourt, Northern Queensland .......................... 68
3.2.9.3 Dry River South and Balcooma, North Queensland ................... 69
3.2.9.4 Rosebery, Western Tasmania ...................................................... 69
3.2.10 Active Seafloor Hydrothermal Vent Fields ...................................... 69
3.2.10.1 Southern Lau Back-Arc Basin, Southwest-Pacific ................... 70
3.2.11 Synthesis .......................................................................................... 73
3.3 Sediment-Hosted Exhalative Massive Sulfide (SHMS) Deposits .............. 74
3.3.1 Rammelsberg, Germany ..................................................................... 75
3.3.2 Ungban, Bergslagen District, Sweden............................................... 76
3.4 Polymetallic Vein-Tpe Deposits ................................................................ 77
3.4.1 Tosham, Bhiwani District, Haryana, India ......................................... 78
3.4.2 Akenobe, Hyogo Prefecture, Honshu, Southwest Japan .................... 79
3.4.3 Fukoku, Kyoto Prefecture, Honshu, Southwest Japan ....................... 82
3.4.4 lkuno, Hyogo Prefecture, Honshu, Southwest Japan ......................... 82
3.4.5 Goka, Naegi District, Gifu Prefecture, Honshu, Southwest Japan ..... 83
3.4.6 Omodani, Fukui Prefecture, Honshu, Southwest Japan ..................... 84
3.4.7 West Shropshire Orefield, England .................................................... 84
3.4.8 Les Clochettes, Lautaret, Hautes Alpes, France ................................. 86
3.4.9 Saint-Martin-la-Sauvete District, Loire, France ................................. 86
3.4.10 Kutna Hora, Czech Republic ............................................................ 87
3.4.11 Pohled, HavlickUv Brod, Czech Republic ........................................ 88
3.4.12 Carguaicollu, Oruro, Cordillera Oriental, Bolivia ............................ 89
3.4.13 Bolivar, Cerro Bonete Area, Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia ............ 89
3.4.14 Huari-Huari, Potosi, Cordillera Oriental, Bolivia ............................. 91
3.4.15 San Luis, Berenguela District, Cordillera Occidental, Bolivia ......... 91
3.4.16 San Vicente, Uyuni, Cordillera Oriental, Bolivia ............................. 91
3 .4.17 Colquiri, Cochabamba Area, Cordillera Oriental, Bolivia ............... 92
3.4.18 Colquechaca, Aiquile Area, Cordillera Oriental, Bolivia ................. 92
3.4.19 Pulacayo, Uyuni, Cordillera Oriental, Bolivia ................................. 93
3.4.20 Morococha, Junin, Peru .................................................................... 93
3.4.21 Synthesis .......................................................................................... 93
3.5 Epithermal Deposits ................................................................................... 94
3.5.1 Toyoha, Southwest Hokkaido, Japan ................................................. 94
3.5.2 Nagyborzsony, Borzsony, Hungary ................................................. 100
3.5.3 Kirki (St. Phillippe) Mine, Thrace, Greece ...................................... 100
 Table of Contents IX

3.5.4 McLaughlin Gold Deposit, California, USA .................................... 102

3.5.5 Prasolov, Kunashir Island, Kuril Island Arc, Russia ........................ l 03
3.5.6 Mutnovsky Area, Kamchatka, Russia .............................................. 103
3.5.7 Julio Cesar, La Union District, Cartagena, Southwest Spain ........... 104
3.5.8 Synthesis ........................................................................................... 105
3.6 Active Magmatic Systems ....................................................................... 106
3.6.1 Kudryavyi Volcano, Iturup Island, Kuril Island Arc, Russia ........... 106
3.6.2 Merapi Volcano, Central Java, Indonesia ......................................... 107
3.7 Porphyry Copper Deposits ....................................................................... 108
3.7.1 Central Sredna Gora District, Bulgaria ............................................. 109
3. 7.2 Central District, Southwest New Mexico, USA ............................... 110
3.7.3 Bingham District, Utah, USA ........................................................... 113
3.7.4 Synthesis ........................................................................................... ll3
3.8 Skarn deposits .......................................................................................... 115
3.8.1 Dachang Ore Field, Gejiu, Guangxi, China ...................................... 115
3.8.2 Ulsan, Ulju Gun, Gyeongsangnam Do Province,
Republic of Korea ............................................................................ 119
3.8.3 Kitel, Northern Ladoga, Karelia, Russia .......................................... 120
3.8.4 Gasborn Area, Bergslagen District, Sweden .................................... 121
3.8.5 Oelsnitz, Southwestern Vogtland, Saxony, Germany ....................... l22
3.8.6 Plavno, Krusne Hory Mountains, Czech Republic ........................... 122
3.8.7 Synthesis ........................................................................................... 123

4 Miscellaneous Indium Occurrences .............................................................. 125

4.1 Japan ........................................................................................................ l25
4.1.1 Hokkaido .......................................................................................... 125
4.1.2 Honshu ............................................................................................. 125
4.1.3 Kyushu ............................................................................................. 126
4.2 Czech Republic ........................................................................................ 127
4.3 Commonwealth oflndependant States ..................................................... 127
4.4 China ........................................................................................................ 132
4.4.1 Qibaoshan, Hunan Province ............................................................. 132
4.4.2 Gejiu District, Yunnan ..................................................................... 133
4.5 Peru, Bolivia ............................................................................................ 133
4.5.1 Cerro de Pasco, Peru ........................................................................ 133
4.6 Asia .......................................................................................................... 134
4.7 India ......................................................................................................... l34
4.8 Austria ...................................................................................................... 135

5 Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Indium-Bearing Ore Deposits ....... 141

6 Model of Indium Ore Formation .................................................................. 147

6.1 Tectonic Constraints ................................................................................ 147
6.2 Petrological Constraints ........................................................................... 148
6.3 Mineralogical Constraints ........................................................................ 149
6.4 Precipitation Processes ............................................................................. 150
X Table of Contents

7 Historical and Actual Production of Indium ................................................ I 53

7.1 Indium Production at Toyoha, Hokkaido, Japan ...................................... 156
7.2 Indium Potential in the Bathurst District, New Brunswick, Canada ........ 156
7.3 Indium Potential in Russia ....................................................................... 157

8 Stockpile Situation in Relation to Different Types of Ore Deposits ........... 161

9 Technological Applications and Consumption of Indium

by lndustries .................................................................................................... 167
9.1 Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) ......................................................................... 167
9.2 Indium Plating ......................................................................................... 170
9.3 Indium Alloys .......................................................................................... 171
9.4 Indium Compounds .................................................................................. 171
9.5 Indium Recycling and Substitution .......................................................... 172

10 Characteristics of Indium Deposits ............................................................. 175

10.1 Tables ofDeposit Characteristics .......................................................... 175
10.1.1 Akenobe, Japan .............................................................................. 175
10.1.2 Axial Seamount, Northeast Pacific ................................................. 176
10.1.3 Baal Gammon, Australia ................................................................ 176
10.1.4 Bakr-Tau, Bashkirian Republic ...................................................... 176
10.1.5 Balcooma, Australia ....................................................................... 177
10.1.6 Bingham, USA ............................................................................... 177
10.1.7 Bleiberg-Kreuth, Austria ................................................................ 178
10.1.8 Bolivar, Bolivia .............................................................................. 178
10.1.9 Broken Hill, Australia .................................................................... 178
10.1.1 0 Broken Spur, Mid-Atlantic Ridge ................................................ 179
10.1.11 Brunswick No. 12, Canada ........................................................... l79
10.1.12 Carguaicollu, Bolivia .................................................................... 180
10.1.13 Central District, USA ................................................................... 180
10 .1.14 Central Sredna Gora, Bulgaria ..................................................... 181
10.1.15 Cerro de Pasco, Peru .................................................................... 181
10.1.16 Charrier, France ............................................................................ l81
10.1.17 Chorolque, Bolivia ....................................................................... 182
10.1.18 Cinovec, Czech Republic ............................................................. 182
10.1.19 Co Iquiri, Bolivia ........................................................................... 183
10.1.20 Colquechaca, Bolivia ................................................................... 183
10.1.21 Dachang District, China ............................................................... 183
10.1.22 Deputaskoe, Russia ...................................................................... 184
10.1.23 Dlouha Yes, Abertamy, Czech Republic ...................................... 184
10.1.24 Dry River South, Australia ........................................................... 185
10.1.25 East Pacific Rise l258'N, Pacific Ocean ..................................... 185
10.1.26 East Pacific Rise, 21 N, Pacific Ocean ........................................ 185
 Table of Contents XI

10.1.27 Equity Silver, Canada ................................................................... 186

10.1.28 Forolach, Austria .......................................................................... 186
10.1.29 Freiberg, Germany ........................................................................ l87
10.1.30 Fukoku, Japan ............................................................................... l87
10.1.31 Gaiskoye, Russia .......................................................................... 187
10.1.32 Gasborn, Sweden .......................................................................... l88
10.1.33 Geco, Canada ............................................................................... 188
10.1.34 Gejiu, China ................................................................................. 188
10.1.35 Goka, Japan .................................................................................. 189
10.1.36 Heath Steele, Canada .................................................................... 189
10.1.3 7 Huari-Huari, Bolivia ..................................................................... 190
10.1.38 Ikuno, Japan ................................................................................. 190
10.1.39 Julio Cesar, Spain ......................................................................... 190
10.1.40 Kansay, Kazakhstan ..................................................................... 191
10.1.41 Karamazar, Uzbek and Tadzhik Republics .................................. 191
10.1.42 Katsutoyo, Japan .......................................................................... 192
10.1.43 Kidd Creek, Canada ..................................................................... 192
10.1.44 Kirki (St. Philippe), Greece .......................................................... 192
10.1.45 Kite!', Russia ................................................................................. l93
10.1.46 Komsomolskoye, Russia .............................................................. 193
10.1.4 7 Kudryavy Volcano, Kuriles, Russia ............................................. 194
10.1.48 Kuroko, Japan ............................................................................... 194
10.1.49 Kyzyl Espe, Batystau, Akchagyl, Karagayly, Kazakhstan ........... 194
10.1.50 Langban, Sweden ......................................................................... 195
10.1.51 Laochang, China ........................................................................... 195
10.1.52 La Telhaie, France ........................................................................ l96
10.1.53 Southern Lau Basin, Southwest Pacific ........................................ 196
10.1.54 Les Clochettes, France .................................................................. 196
10.1.55 Letneye, Russia ............................................................................ 197
10.1.56 Lifudsin, Russia ............................................................................ 197
10.1.57 Mangabeira, Brazil....................................................................... 198
10.1.58 Eastern Manus Basin, Papua New Guinea ................................... 198
10.1.59 Maranda J, South Africa ............................................................... 198
10.1.60 Marienberg, Germany ................................................................... 199
10.1.61 McLaughlin, USA ........................................................................ 199
10.1.62 Merapi Volcano, Indonesia .......................................................... 200
10.1.63 Morococha, Peru .......................................................................... 200
10.1.64 Mount Chalmers, Australia .......................................................... 200
10.1.65 Mount Pleasant, Canada ............................................................... 201
10.1.66 Mutnovsky, Russia ....................................................................... 201
10.1.67 Nagyb6rzs6ny, Hungary ............................................................... 202
10.1.68 Neves-Corvo, Portugal ................................................................. 202
10.1.69 Oelsnitz, Germany ........................................................................ 203
10.1.70 Omodani, Japan ............................................................................ 203
10.1. 71 Palinuro Seamount, Italy .............................................................. 203
10.1.72 Panagjuriste, Bulgaria .................................................................. 204
XII Table of Contents

10.1.73 Pirquitas, Argentina ...................................................................... 204

10.1.74 Plavno Zone, Czech Republic ...................................................... 205
10.1.75 Podolskoye, Russia ....................................................................... 205
10.1.76 Pohled, Czech Republic ............................................................... 205
10.1.77 Prasolov, Russia ........................................................................... 206
10.1. 78 Pravourmiiskoe, Russia ................................................................ 206
10.1.79 Pribram, Czech Republic .............................................................. 206
10.1.80 Pulacayo, Bolivia ......................................................................... 207
10.1.81 Qibaoshan, China ......................................................................... 207
10.1.82 Rammelsberg, Germany ............................................................... 208
10.1.83 Rosebery, Australia ...................................................................... 208
10.1.84 Saint-Martin-la-Sauvete District, France ...................................... 208
10.1.85 San Luis, Bolivia .......................................................................... 209
10.1.86 San Vicente, Bolivia ..................................................................... 209
10.1.87 Sarykan, Kumyschkan, Kurgashinkan, Kazakhstan ..................... 210
10.1.88 Seto, Japan .................................................................................... 210
10.1.89 Sibaiskoye, Russia ........................................................................ 210
10.1.90 Silver Queen, Canada ................................................................... 211
10.1.91 Snake Pit, Mid-Atlantic Ridge ..................................................... 211
10.1.92 Eastern-Central Sredna Gora, Bulgaria ........................................ 211
10.1.93 St. Agnes, England ....................................................................... 212
10.1.94 St. George, England ..................................................................... 212
10.1.95 Sullivan, Canada ........................................................................... 213
10.1.96 TAG, Mid-Atlantic Ridge ............................................................ 213
10.1.97 Tosham, India ............................................................................... 213
10.1.98 Toyoha, Japan ............................................................................... 214
10.1.99 Turkank, Czech Republic ............................................................. 214
10.1.1 00 Ulsan, Korea ............................................................................... 215
10.1.101 Vaulry, France ............................................................................ 215
10.1.1 02 Waterloo/Agincourt, Australia ................................................... 215
10.1.1 03 West Shropshire Orefield, England ............................................ 216
10.1.1 04 Zulova, Czech Republic ............................................................. 216

References ....................................................................................................... 219

Subject Index ..................................................................................................... 237