Chapter 1 The Problem and Its Background

Chapter 1 of a thesis or a dissertation should contain a discussion of each of the following topics:

Introduction
Background of the Study
Theoretical Framework
Conceptual Framework
Statement of the Problem/Objectives of the Study
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitations of the Study
Definition of Terms

Introduction

The introduction should give information as to what the study is all about.
Based on the statement of the problem, it should tell the readers the scope and coverage of the study.
It should show the existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a felt problem that needs a solution. That
is, the reason or reasons why it is necessary to conduct the study must be discussed.
The introduction should be linked to the statement of the problem.

Background of the Study

This section should discuss the historical background of the problem.

It must explain the candidates earnest desire to have a deeper and clearer understanding of a situation
so he or she will be in a better position to initiate remedial measures or to find a better way to improve
the situation.
The geographical conditions of the study locale may also be discussed in this section.

Theoretical Framework

This section should present the different theories, models, paradigms, perspectives related to the
variables, problem statement and hypothesis of the present study.
The candidate should test, confirm, validate, or verify the cited theories in other situations or attempt to
formulate a new theory which will be his contribution to his field of specialization.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework should be anchored on the theoretical framework. That is, the conceptual
and theoretical frameworks should be consistent and related.
It should present in detail the variables to be observed in the current study, the concepts defined, the
operationalization of the variable-concepts, and the scheme of measuring the variables.
A paradigm of the study showing a diagrammatic representation of the conceptual framework should be
included in this section. It should depict in a more vivid way what the conceptual framework wants to
convey.

Statement of the Problem/Objectives of the Study

The problem should be stated both in general and in specific terms. The general statement of the
problem is usually a reiteration of the title of the study.
The problem should be stated in the infinitive to such as examine, analyze, determine, measure,
assess, evaluate, or find out.
Specific questions should be stated using the guide question words: How, Will, What, Is there,
etc.

Significance of the Study

The candidate should explain or discuss in this section the rationale, timeliness and/or relevance of the
study to existing conditions.
 This section must show who are the individuals, groups, or communities who may benefit on account of
the study.
The candidate should point out the possible contribution(s) of the study to the fund of knowledge.
It should discuss the implications, including the possible causes of the problems discovered, the
positive effects of the problems, and the remedial measures to solve the problem.

Scope and Limitations of the Study

The candidate should identify the boundaries or coverage of the study in terms of the subjects, the
study area, the research instrument, the time frame, the population or universe, and the issues to which
the study is focused.
The candidate should also define the constraints or weaknesses which are not within his or her control
and hence are not covered by the study.

Definition of Terms

This section should include important or key terms that should be substantially and clearly defined
according to how they are used in the study in order to facilitate understanding of the problem and avoid
ambiguous meaning to terms which can be otherwise interpreted in different ways.
The researcher should defined only what is absolutely necessary. Only terms, word, or phrases which
have special or unique meanings in the study should be defined.
Terms may be defined operationally, that is, based on observable characteristics and how they are
used in the study; or, conceptually, that is, based on definitions taken from encyclopedias, books,
magazines and newspaper articles, dictionaries, and other publications. Definitions taken from
publications should be acknowledged.
Definition should be as brief, clear, and unequivocal as possible.
The terms defined should be arranged in alphabetical order and acronyms should always be spelled out
fully, especially if it is not commonly known or if used for the first time.
 Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature and Studies

The review of the related literature and studies is one of the components of a research process. The
candidate needs to review the write-ups, readings, and studies related to the present study for the following
reasons:

(1) To determine what has already been done that relates to the candidates problem. This knowledge
not only avoids unintentional duplication, but it also provides the understandings and insights
necessary for the development of a logical framework into which the problem fits. In other word, the
review tells the candidate what has been done and what needs to be done. Studies that have been
done will provide the rationale for you research hypothesis; indications of what needs to be done will
form the basis for the justification for your study.

(2) To find out research strategies and specific procedures and measuring instruments that have and
have not been found to be productive in investigating the problem. This information will help the
candidate to avoid other researchers mistakes and to profit from their experiences. It may suggest
approaches and procedures previously not considered.

(3) To facilitate interpretation of the results of the candidates study. The results can be discussed in
terms of whether they agree with, and support, previous findings or not; if the results contradict
previous findings, differences between your study and the others can be described, providing a
rationale for the discrepancy. If the findings are consistent with other findings, the report should
include suggestions for the next step; if they are not consistent, the report should include
suggestions for studies that will resolve the conflict.

The major sources of related readings are laws and department directives such as circulars, order and
memoranda, which are related to the present study. These laws and department directives serve as legal
bases for the paradigm of the study. This also presents the study as having direct or indirect implications to
the government thrusts.

Related literature is composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the present study is related.
These materials are usually printed and found in books, encyclopedias, professional journals, magazines,
newspapers, and other publications.

Related studies are studies, inquiries, or investigations already conducted to which the present study is
related or has some bearing or similarity. They are usually unpublished materials such as manuscripts,
theses, and dissertations.

The following should be remembered in preparing a review of related literature and studies.

The contents of this section should be arranged as follows:

Foreign Literature
Foreign Studies
Local Literature
Local Studies
Relevance of Reviewed Literature and Studies
to the Present Study

Use the past tense to describe the procedure of a study that has already been conducted and to
describe the results of a completed study and the present tense to discuss the meanings and
implications of the results of the study and to present conclusions.
Discuss only the major findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or conclusions in related materials
relevant to the problem under investigation. Such findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or
conclusions should be summarized, paraphrased, or synthesized.

Avoid a review of related literature in which each article is treated in a separate paragraph and started
with the name of the researcher who wrote the described report.
 Avoid excessive use of quotations. They are to be used only when the material quoted is especially
well written and can be inserted without spoiling the continuity of the presentation.

Explain how the study being reviewed relates to the present study and identify similarities and
differences with the present study.

Review both local and foreign studies in order to give a balanced presentation of the investigations
being conducted in various settings.

Present both local and foreign studies by author or writer, by topic, or in chronological order.

The section on relevance of the reviewed literature and studies to the present study should justify the
direct bearing and relevance of the related readings, related literature, and related studies to the
present study.

The candidate should justify the difference between the proposed study and the past related studies.
He should make it clear that there is no duplication of the studies and that present inquiry may only be a
replication of another study.

The candidate should also stress that in spite of similar studies, the present study is still necessary to
find out if the findings of the studies in other places are also true in the locale of the present study.

The candidate should point out that there is a need to continue with the present study to affirm or
negate the findings of other inquiries about the same research problems so that generalizations or
principles may be formulated. These generalizations and principles would be the contributions of the
present study, together with the other studies to the fund of knowledge.
 Chapter 3 Research Methodology

Research Method Used

Identify the research design applied in the study whether historical, descriptive or experimental.

Discuss the procedural part of the research design and the rationale for selection; that is, its
appropriateness to the present study, and its advantages.

The following table may be used in choosing the suitable research design.

*******
Population and Sample Size

Define the population from which the sample was drawn. The population is the group of interest to the
researcher, the group to which he or she would like the results of the study to be generalizable. The
defined population must have at least one characteristic that differentiates it from other groups.

Describe in detail the method of finding the appropriate size of the sample. To determine the sample
size, any of the following formulas may be used.

(a) The Slovins Formula

N
n
1 Ne 2
where: n = the sample size
N = the population size
e = the margin of error

Ss

NV S e2 1 p)
(b)

NS e V 2 p(1 p)
where: Ss = the sample size
N = the population size
V = standard value (2.58) of one percent level
of probability with 0.99 reliability
Se = sampling error (0.01)
p = largest possible proportion (0.50)

Table 2, prepared by Krejie and Morgan based a formula originally developed by the United States
Office of Education, may also be used to determine the sample size needed in order for the sample to
be representative.
 Table 2

Sample Sizes (S) Required for Given Population Sizes (N)

N S N S N S N S N S
10 10 100 80 280 162 800 260 2800 338
15 14 110 86 290 165 850 265 3000 341
20 19 120 92 300 169 900 269 3500 346
25 24 130 97 320 175 950 274 4000 351
30 28 140 103 340 181 1000 278 4500 354
35 32 150 108 360 186 1100 285 5000 357
40 36 160 113 380 191 1200 291 6000 361
45 40 170 118 400 196 1300 297 7000 364
50 44 180 123 420 201 1400 302 8000 367
55 48 190 127 440 205 1500 306 9000 368
60 52 200 132 460 210 1600 310 10000 370
65 56 210 136 480 214 1700 313 15000 375
70 59 220 140 500 217 1800 317 20000 377
75 63 230 144 550 226 1900 320 30000 379
80 66 240 148 600 234 2000 322 40000 380
85 70 250 152 650 242 2200 327 50000 381
90 73 260 155 700 248 2400 331 75000 382
95 76 270 159 750 254 2600 335 100000 384
Table 2 suggests the following generalities:

1. The larger the population size, the smaller the percentage of the population required to get a
representative sample.
2. For smaller populations, say N = 100 or fewer, there is little point in sampling; survey the entire
population.
3. If the population size is around 500 (give or take 100), 50% should be sampled.
4. If the population size is around 1,500, 20% should be sampled.
5. Beyond a certain point (about N = 5,000), the population size is almost irrelevant and a sample
size of 400 will be adequate.

***
Description of Respondents

Explain how and where the respondents of the study are taken. It can be the entire population or
census if the population size is small or a sample if the population size is large.
Mention the agency and the frequency of the subjects.
Include in the description of respondents such information as the age range, proportions of each gender
if both males and females are used, educational attainment, and so forth.

***
Instrumentation

Identify and describe all instruments used to collect data pertinent to the study, such as questionnaires,
tests, interview, observation schedule, checklist, or rating scale.
Explain explicitly each part of the research instrument. The description of each instrument should relate
the function of the instrument to the study and what the instrument is intended to measure.
For standardized research instruments, the following should be discussed:
1. the scores obtained and what they purport to measure;
2. the evidence of reliability and validity; and
3. the relationship of each measure to the hypotheses.
 For instruments that have been developed especially for the research study, the following should be
discussed:
1. a detailed description of the manner in which it was developed;
2. the suggestions and corrections made on the draft to improve the instrument;
3. the different persons involved in the correction and refinement of the research instrument;
4. the pretesting efforts and subsequent instrument revisions;
5. the types of items used in the instrument;
6. the reliability data and evidence of validity; and
7. the steps involved in scoring and guidelines for interpretation

Place in the appendix of the thesis or dissertation a copy of the instrument itself, accompanying scoring
keys, and other pertinent data related to the newly developed test.

Data Gathering Procedure/Flowchart

Describe, in sufficient detail, each step followed in conducting the study, in chronological order.
Discuss, in terms of their seriousness or probable consequences, any unforeseen events which
occurred which might have affected the results such as changes in the schedule for administering tests,
disturbances during the testing situation, or unexpected respondent reactions.
Any insights regarding ways to improve procedures should be shared so that other researchers may
profit from the investigators experiences.

***
Statistical Treatment of Data

Describe the statistical techniques that were applied to the data and justify their use in terms of their
appropriateness.
Mention the preselected levels (levels of significance) and the results of each analysis.
For each hypothesis, the statistical test of significance selected and applied to the data is described.
Common statistical formulas need not be presented; only the new, the complex, and the seldom-used
formulas are to be presented in the text.

Research Locale

Explain how and where the respondents of the study are taken. It can be the entire population or
census if the population size is small or a sample if the population size is large.
Mention the agency and the frequency of the subjects.
Include in the description of respondents such information as the age range, proportions of each gender
if both males and females are used, educational attainment, and so forth.
 Chapter 4 Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data

Chapter 4 of a thesis or dissertation discusses the findings of the study derived from the data that have
been gathered, processed and analyzed.
Answer all specific questions in Chapter I under Statement of the Problem supported with statistical
tables or figures.
Emphasize only those aspects of the results that are important and noteworthy.
Avoid making the mistake of preparing a table and then discussing every entry in the table whether
significant or not.
Identify and interpret the major data. Discuss possible reasons why these results occurred, fit the
results into the findings of previous researches, suggest field applications and make theoretical
interpretations.
Deal with each hypothesis in the study in the presentation of results.

Chapter 5 Summary of Findings, Conclusions,

and Recommendations

Chapter 5 of a thesis or dissertation presents the general summary of the study, summary of findings,
conclusions, and recommendations.
This is the last chapter of a thesis or dissertation and the most important part because it is here where the
findings are summarized; generalizations in the form of conclusions are made; and the recommendations
for the solutions of problems discovered in the study are addressed to those concerned.

General Summary of the Study. This section includes the summary of the statement of the problem,
hypotheses, research design, determination of the sample size, sampling design and technique, the
subjects, the research instruments, validation of the research instrument, data gathering procedure, data
processing method, and statistical treatment.

Summary of Findings. This section summarizes the results based on Chapter 4. If there are only
three specific questions stated in Chapter 1 and answered in Chapter 4, there are only three results
summarized in this section and no presentation of tables.
If there are specific questions with subquestions, each subquestion should be answered and summarized.

Guidelines in writing the summary of findings. The following should be the characteristics of the
summary of findings:

1. There should be a brief statement about the main purpose of the study, the population or
respondents, the period of the study, method of research used, the research instrument, and the
sampling design. There should be no explanations made.

2. The findings may be lumped up all together but clarity demands that each specific question under
the statement of the problem must be written first to be followed by the findings that would answer it.
The specific questions should follow the order they are given under the statement of the problem.

3. The findings should be textual generalizations, that is, a summary of the important data consisting of
text and numbers. Every statement of fact should consist of words, numbers, or statistical
measures woven into a meaningful statement. No deduction, nor inference nor interpretation should
be made otherwise it will only be duplicated in the conclusion.

4. Only the important findings, the highlights of the data, should be included in the summary, especially
those upon which the conclusions should be based.

5. Findings are not explained nor elaborated upon anymore. They should be stated as concisely as
possible.

6. No new data should be introduced in the summary of findings.

 Conclusions. Conclusions should dovetail with the findings of the study. If there are only three
summarized results, there are three conclusions.
Conclusions are arranged as it appears in the findings. Moreover, rejection and acceptance of hypotheses
are explained in this section.

Guidelines in writing the conclusions. The following should be the characteristics of the conclusions.

1. Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications, interpretations, general

statements, and/or generalizations based upon the findings. Conclusions are the logical and valid
outgrowths of the findings. They should not contain any numeral because numerals generally limit
the forceful effect or impact and scope of a generalization. No conclusions should be made that are
not based upon the findings.

2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of the
investigation in the order they are given under the statement of the problem. The study becomes
almost meaningless if the questions raised are not properly answered by the conclusions.

3. Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry. However, no conclusions
should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects of the findings.

4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short, yet they convey all the
necessary information resulting from the study as required by the specific questions.

5. Without any strong evidence to the contrary, conclusions should be stated categorically. They
should be worded as if they are 100 percent true and correct. They should not give any hint that the
researcher has some doubts about their validity and reliability. The use of qualifiers such as
probably, perhaps, may be, and the like should be avoided as much as possible.

6. Conclusions should refer only to the population, area, or subject of the study.

7. Conclusions should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the thesis. They may be
recapitulations if necessary but they should be worded differently and they should convey the same
information as the statements recapitulated.

Recommendations. Recommendations are based on the conclusions. This is arranged as it

appears in the conclusions. In addition, recommendations may include further research of the study.

Guidelines in writing the recommendations. Recommendations are appeals to people or entities

concerned to solve or help solve the problems discovered in the inquiry. They should have the following
characteristics:

1. Recommendations should aim to solve or help solve problems discovered in the investigation.

2. No recommendations should be made for a problem, or any thing for that matter, that has not been
discovered or discussed in the study. Recommendations for things not discussed in the study are
irrelevant.
3. There may also be recommendations for the continuance of a good practice or system, or even
recommendation for its improvement. This is to insure a continuous benefit being accorded to the
universe involved.
4. Recommendations should be feasible, practical, and attainable.

5. Recommendations should be logical and valid. If the problem is the lack of facilities. It is only
logical to recommend the acquisition of the lacking facilities.

6. Recommendations should be addressed to the persons, entities, agencies, or offices who or which
are in a position to implement them.

7. There should be a recommendation for further research on the same topic in other places to verify,
amplify, or negate the findings of the study. This is necessary so that if the findings are the same,
generalizations of wider application can be formulated.