Chaps 6 Water Suppty ENGINEERING IL. INTRODUCTION WATER BORNE DISEASES Polluted water spreads certain communicable diseases, holera, Typhoid, Paratyphoid, Bacillary dysentery 1. Bacterial origi 2. Protezoal origin: Amoebic dysentery 3. Viral ai Poliomyelities Infectious Hepatitis (Yellow Jaundice) 4. Helminthal origin: Hookworm, Roundworm and Tapeworm diseases 5. Chemical origin: (@) Methemoglobinemia—{Blue Baby Syndrome}—Occurs only in infants less than 6 months old due to NITRITES in drinking water (b) Fluarosis: Dental fluorosis: Enamel of teeth is destroyed Skeletal fluorosis: Bones louse elasticity and become stiff, Blood coagulation and tissue respiration are also affected (c) (Endemic) Goitre: Thyroid gland affected due to deficiency of Iodine in drinking water (@) Lead: Cumulative poison, Water Related Diseases They spread because of insect vectors breeding on water: Malaria, Filaria, Yellow fever, Dengue, Chicken guineaProtected Water: Water is said to be protected when itis 1. Aesthetically attractive 2. Palatable (tasty) 3. Hygienically safe and free from diseases causing germs. 4. Possessing concentration of minerals just at optimum level. 5. Free from odours and colours. DEMAND OF WATER 1. Domestic demand—for drinking, bathing, cooking, washing, flushing, cleaning, and ablution. It depends on (i) customs and habits of people, (i/) climate, (iil) system and supply, (ir) quality of water, (0) method of sewage disposal, (71) status of consumer, (cn) distribution pressure, (viii) method of charging, and (ix) alternate sources. As per Indian Standards, it is 135 litres /capita /day. 2. Industrial and commercial demand. 3. Public demand 4. Fire demand (0) Based om Population (i) National Board of Fire Underwriters Q = 3860 JP [1 -0.014P |. (ff) Kuiehlings Q=31801F (ii) Freeman (i>) Burton = 5660 JP ‘Q= Quantity of water in litres / minute P= Population in thousands: (b) Based on the “Nature” of Materials Insurance Services Office Formula: Fea7xCx yA F = Fire flow in litres ‘second (= Coefficient depending, on the inflammability of the type of construction: 15 for inflammable materials as wood 1.0 for ordinary construction 11.6 for fire resistant construction A= Total Floor area in all the storeys of a building in sq.m. Aminimun of 4 streams to supply water jets incessantly fora minimum of 4 hours is required,5, Leakages, losses and thefts. Leakages are due to bad quality pipes, appurtenances and bad workmanship. Losses are due to bad management. Thefts are illegal tappings. METHOD OF FORECASTING FUTURE POPULATION 1. Arithmetical increase method, P= P+ x P= Present population P, = Population after ‘n’ decades a = Average increase per decade It gives too low results for young cities. Best suited for old towns with sluggish growth, +1 2. Incremental increase method, P= P41. 4 at b where f= Incremental increase per decade, 3. Geometrical increase method, !, = [ ef a where r= Per cent growth per decade, It gives very high rates. Best suited for cities in their i 4, Decreasing rate of increase method: (Declining growth method) rs r—2s]| p 1+—_}|1 1+ =| ot io’ wheres = decrease in % growth, 5, Graphical method. A neat curve of population versus Decades is drawn with the existing data and itis skillfully extended for the future decades, 6. Comparison method, The city under question is compared with a well developed city having similar features and future population computed, tial stages of growth. DESIGN PERIOD It is the pericd of posterity for which treatment units a3 pumps and pipe lines are to be designed. 10 to 60 years are adopted in India If (1) Inflation rate is high, (if) Rate of interest on the loan for the projected is low (iii) City has slow growth rate (iv) Superior quality pipes and fittings are available {@) Difficult to relay the pipeline then longer design periods are adoptedQUALITY OF WATER Jinpeirity Canses Susperated Impurities (a) Silt, Clay (6) Bacteria Pathogenic Non-Pathogente (c) Virus (@) Algae and Protozoa (e) Helminths Discolnwt Impurities CaSO, MgEQ,, CaCl, MgCl, {H) Na,SO, (cl NaF (d) Iron and Manganese fe) Lead 4) Nitrates tg} OO, wis (a) CafHCO,),, Mg(HCO,),, Turbidity Typhoid, Paratyphoid, Cholera, Bascillary, Dysentery. 1. Slime forming bacterla 2. Iron bacteria—Cause pitting, turbidity, 3. Sulphur bacteria Acidity, corrosion. 1 Infectious hepatities (Jaundice) 2. Poliomyelities, —Colour, Turbidity, Odour, Taste, Acidity and Amoebic dysent —Tape worm, Round worm Alkalinity, Hardness Hardness, Laxative effect Corrosion Foaming, in boilers Fluorosis Red, Brown/Black Cokoue, Taste, Coeroston, Cumulative Poison, Plumbo solvency Methamoglobinernia (Blue babies) Acidity, Corrosion Acidity, Coreesion and Foul-smell, TESTS ON WATER ALKALINITY It is the ability to neutr: Sources, photosynthesis, Types. Bicarbonate alkalinity, Carbonate alkalinity, Hydroxide alkalinity, ae He ions, alts of weak acids and strong bases, remowal of CO, by algae duringPhenolpthalein end point (at a pH of 8.3) indicates complete neutralization of OH" alkalinity + half of CO5~ alkaliny Methyl orange end point (at a pH of 4.5) indicates the total alkalinity due to OH™, Oy and HOO;. Bicarbonate alkalinity and hydroxide alkalinity do not coexist. Hydroxide alkal s alse called caustic alkalinity While Bicarbonate Alkalinity is almost harmless, Hydroxide Alkalinity is highly undesirable, Phenoiphthatein pH=83 FE End Point TeP Matty Orange pH 45 T End Point T= Ped T<2P T>2P FIGURE 6.1 When f= Ponly Hydroxide alkalinity exists When f= 2P only Carbonate alkalinity exists When P= (only Bicarbonate alkalinity exists When 1 '< 2P, Hydroxide alkalinity = 2P - 1, Carbonate Alkalinity = 2(T = P) When > 2P, Carbonate Alkalinity = 2P, Bicarbonate Alkalinity = T—2P Estimation. Alkalinity is expressed as mg/l of CaCO, _ Vol. of acid x Normality of acid (0.02 Nj x 1000 % Eg. wt.of CaCO, (= 50) = Vol. of sample Effects, Natural waters are slightly alkaline. Alkalinity imparts bitter taste. Excess alkalinity is harmful for irrigation, Excess bicarbemate alkalinity induces hardness and seale formation, ACIDITY It is the capacity to donate A’ ions, Sources, Hydrolysis of salts of strong acids and weak bases (as AISO,, FeSQ,), Carbon dioxide, Industrial wastes as those from Rayon mills, Metal finishing operations. Types. Mineral acidity (pH < 4.5) is given by methyl orange end point. Phenolphthalien end point (pH > 8.3)gives total acidity i., bath Mineral acidity and Carbon mn. Acidity is expressed as mg/lof CaCO, Acidity can be obtained by titrating the water sample with 0.02 N Sodium Hydroxide using methy] orange and phenolphthalein as indicators,Effects. Acidity interferes with water treatment operations as softening, It corrodes steel and zinc coating of pipe material. It affects aquatic life. It neutralises the binding, power of cement when used in ROC. HARDNESS The water readily gives lather with soap is called SOFT WATER, ‘The water that consumes more soap to give lather is called HARD WATER Sources. [t is mainly due to soluble bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates, nitrates and silicates of divalent metals. as calcium, magnesium, strontium, iron and manganese. Hardness = (2.5 x Ca** + 4.12 x Mg* + 1.14 x Sr? + 1,79 » Fev + 1.82 x Mn**) me/l as aco, Types. Temporary hardness (Carbonate hardness) Permanent hardness (Non-carbonate hardness), Hardness is expressed as mg/l of CaCO. It is estimated by titrating the water EDTA using Eriochrome black Tas indicator. Or By titrating the water sample with standard soap solution. When alkalinity is less than total hardness, Carbonate hardness = Alkalinity Non-carbonate hardness = Total hardness—-Carbonate hardness When alkalinity is greater than total hardness. Carbonate hardness = Total hardness Non-carbonate hardness = 0, Classi tion: Ute 75 mg/l —Soft 75 to 150 mg/l —Moderately hard 151 to 300 mg/l —Hard more than 300 mg/l —Very hard Effects. Scales formed in boilers because of hard water are insulators of heat. Hence more fuel is consumed. More soap consumed in laundry. Vegetables are toughened. Advantages of hard waters: Taste is induced to water because of dissolved salts. Moderately hard wate Absolutely soft waters are “aggressive” Cardiovascular diseases are reported with soft water as the calcium of hard waters replaces Cadmium that causes heart troubles. Calcium also strengthens bones. i preferred to absolutely soft water for irrigation. . dissolve metals in them.CHLORIDES Sources, Waste waters, ground sources, industrial wastes as tanneries. Estimation. Chlorides are estimated by titrating the water sample with silver nitrate using potassium chromate as indicator: ie, all the chlorides are converted to silver chloride which is insoluble in water and forms white precipitate. Afterall the chloride is precipitated, Silver of silver Nitrate reacts with chromate of Potassium chromate forming silver chromate, brick red in colour. Effects. Excess chlorides are injurious ta people suffering from heart and kidney troubles. Sodium chloride alone gives the saline taste. Chloride concentration < 250 mg/lis desirable for domestic consumption. Chloride anion corrades the pipe material and increases conductivity. RESIDUAL CHLORINE Itis the amount of chlorine remaining in water 15 to 30 minutes after the application of chlorine. Residual chlorine can be estimated by adding ""Orthotolidine” to the sample and comparing the intensity of yellow colour developed which directly gives the amount of residual chlorine. Generally an amount of 0.05 to 0,2. mg/ of residual chlorine is required for municipal water supply. DISSOLVED OXYGEN Itis the amount of oxygen soluble in a water sample at a particular temperature and pressure. Its solubility increases with pressure but reduces with increase in temperature, As impurities gather its concentration gets rectuced. Dissolved oxygen for pure water at U°C and at atmospheric pressure is 14.6 mgy'l Dissolved oxygen for pure water at 20°C and at atmospheric pressure is 9 mg/'l Dissolved oxygen for pure water at 35°C and at atmospheric pressure is 7 mg/L Sources, D.C). may shoot up to 30 mg/1 momentarily because of photosynthesis of algae. Estimation. Winkler 's (lodimetric) Test: Oxygen present in water sample oxidizes Mn" to Mn**** when NaQH and KL are added. On aciditicat Mn‘** reverts to Mn‘* liberating free iodine from Kl. ‘The liberated iocline is titrated against 0.025 N sodium thiosulphate using starch as indicator. Effects. A minimum DQ. of 2 to4 mg/l is required for the survival of aquatic life. Higher D.O. causes corrosion. SUSPENDED SOLIDS They are insoluble particles remaining, suspended in water because of velocity currents. Size-between 0.1 mm to 0.001 mm. Sources. Oils, greases, clay, silt, plant fibres, alpae, bacteria. Estimation. One litre of sample filtered. Non-filterable solids represent suspended solids.Effects. They give unpleasant appearance. Because of them chemicals are adsorbed, pathogens are shielded. DISSOLVED SOLIDS Size 10 to 10 mm. Sources, Inorganic and organic solids, decay products of vegetation. Estimation, Filtered water when heated to 104°C the residue left over givens out, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS). When the residue is further ignited at 600°C for 1 hourthe content still remaining is called ‘Fixed Solids” and it represents—" Inorganic fraction” of TDS. The content got volatilised is called ‘vollatile matter" and represent organic fraction of TDS. Effects, Dissolved salts cause taste, odour and colour to water. They may alter the water quality and even render the water toxic. However ‘taste’ is attributed to water because of TDS only: For domestic consumption concentration of TDS + 1000 mg/l and preferably less than SUT ng, CONDUCTIVITY It is the capacity of a water sample to conduct electricity through it. Sources. Pure water is a poor conductor of electricit, More is TDS in a water sample more is its specific conductance. Estimation. Specific conductance is the conductivity in a cubic centimetre field as 25°C. lis measured as millisiemens per metre. lonised salts readily register mare specific conductance whereas salts that do not ionise readily will not register any. TURBIDITY It is the interference due to suspended and colloidal matter for the passage of light. Amount of turbidity depends on: number, size, shape and refractive index of suspended particles. Sources, Particles of clay, silt, finely divided organic matter, micro-organisms, soaps, detergents. Estimation. 1 mg of silica dissolved in I litre of distilled water is one unit of turbidity. Instead of silica when 1 mg of Formazin is dissolved in 1 litre of distilled water it iscalled Formazin Turbidity Unit (FTU) Effects. Turbidity presents unpleasant appearance. It adsorbs chemicals and causes odours and tastes, interferes with light penetration and hence photosynthesis. Sediments deposited may harm aquatic life. It shields bacteria and hence more amount of the disinfectant is required to kill them, Tt also increases load on filters SCHMUTZE DECKE (Zongleal layer) of slow sand is very high. The slow sand fitter may go out of operation. gets coated with silt when turbidityCOLOUR Colour is a visible pollutant, Apparent colour is because of suspended solids. ‘True colour is due to dissolved solids. Sources, Iron, manganese, industrial wastes as mining, refineries, pulp and paper, chemicals, textiles and slaughter houses, decaying organic matter, Estimation, 1 mg of platinum (in the form of chloroplatinate tone) + ; mg of metallic cobalt dissolved of 1 litre of distilled water gives 500 hazen units of colour. Pure water is supposed to be COLOURLESS. Presence of colour degracies the quality of walter. Effects. Colour is aesthetically objectionable. It prevents photosynthesis of aquatic plants. Stains clothes. plumbing fixtures. Not suited to laundering, dyeing, paper, dairy and beverage manufacture Water for domestic consumption should not have colour greater than 5 units. TEMPERATURE It isa catalyst, a depressant, an activator, a restrictor, a stimulator, a controller, a killer-is the most influential parameter. Temperature affects self purification of stream, rate of chemical reactions, biodegradation of organic matter and solubility of gases. Rise in temperature enhances toxicity of poisons and intensity of odours. ‘Low temperature affects coagulation, filtration and efficiency of chlorination. Taste gets affected with rise in temperature. Sudden increases in temperature indicates thermal pollution. TASTES AND ODOURS Water of agreeable taste is desired for domestic consumption. Taste of a water sample can be sweet, sour, bitter or salty: While odourless water is required for domestic consumption, offensive odours reduce appetite for food, impaired respiration, nausea, vomiting, mental perturbation and hence lowered water consumption, Flavour Profile may be analysed as Aromatic, Bitter, Cucumber, Earthy, Fishy, Geranium, Goaty, Grassy, Mouldy, Putrefactive and Vile. Sources 1. Microorganisms as ‘Actinomycetes’ (bactoria) and blue greon algae ny Decomposing organic matter Dissolved gases Chlorine (due to the formation of Chlorophenols) Industrial wastes Bok ws Minerals.Estimation, Threshold Odour Number (TON) _ =ml of odourous water sample + (21 x) of ed water x Itis the ‘DILUTION FACTOR’ required to produce odour just perceptible. TON greater than 3 is not recommended from aesthetic sense. Effect. Tastes and odours may be objectionable trom aesthetic point of view. Drinking water should have pleasant taste but without any odour. Salt waters cannot quench the thirst and on the other hand aggravate the thirst. pH (potential Hydrogen) It is the Hydrogen ion concentration or Hydrogen ion activity. PH is the negative logorthm of the Hydrogen ion concentration, A sample is said to be acidic when its pH is greater than ‘0 but less than‘ A sample is said to be alkaline when its pH is greater than “4.5" but less than ‘14°, ‘Thus in a pH range of 4.5 to 8.3, the sample can be acidic due to Carbon dioxide acidity (H,CO,) or alkaline due to Bicarbonate (HOO) Alkalinity, Thus bath Acidity and Alkalinity may coexist in a sample. IRON AND MANGANESE Ferrous [ron—(Fe**) and Manganous salts—(Min**) are highly soluble in water and cause—colour (lron—red colour, Mn—black colour), turbidity and metallic taste. Consumption of [ron rich water may not pose problems, but over a prolonged period may cause HEMOSIDEROSIS—leading, to liver disorder. Eggs easily get spoiled when washed in waters rich in iron concentration, Clothes are stained when washed in [ron and Manganese rich water, Cooking utensils and plumbing fixtures (as wash basins and commodes) are also stained. In the presence of oxygen, gets converted to Fe*** and this ferric iron is precipitated and deposited as rusty, gelatinous, slimy lumps of TUBERCLES of Ferric Hydroxides on the walls of the carrying pipe. Tubercles roughen the surface of flow and reduce the carrying capacity of the pipe line, While Ferrous and Manganous salts are soluble in water, Perric (Fe***) and Manganic (Mn++) salts are insoluble and get separated, INDICATOR ORGANISM ESCHERCHIA COLI (E. Coli) are Aerobic, Non spore forming, Gram stain, Negative rods those ferment lactase with gas production within 48 h at 37°C (Human body temperature). E. Coli are bacteria those stay in the intestine of human beings and come out along with excreta, Hence its presence in water indicates of contamination, It is called as indicator organism as its presence indicates bacterial contamination,Standards for drinking water Turbidity + 5 Units (NTU} Colour + 5 Units (Platinum Cobalt scale} Taste None objectionable Odour + 3 (Theshold Qdour Number) Total solids =} 500 mg/l pH + FHBS Total Hardness + 200 mg/l (as CaCO) Chiorides + 200 mg/L Sulphates + 200 mg/l Fluorides. + Img/l Nitrates + 45 mg/l Tron + O.ime/t Manganese + 0.05 mg/l Zine + Simg/l Lead + O.. mg/t Cadmium + 0.01 mg/l Coliform bacteria Nil/100 mi (E. Coli or B. Coli) SOURCES OF WATER 1. Surface Sources 2. Ground Sources: Surface Sources Lakes. An elevated lake (formed on mountains slopes) gives the purest water as chances for its pollution are less. A lake is said to be Oligotrophic, when its waters are clear, transparent and nutrient poor. Slight increase in the nutrient content makes the lake Mesotrophic, Waters of mesotrophic lakes are green coloured and rich in aquatic plants. When a lake is turbid, nutrient (Nitrates and Phosphate) rich, rich in blue green algae and coarse fish, itis called Eutraphic lake. Ponds and tanks are smaller lakes. A reservoir is artificially created lake by constructing a dam across the flow of a river or a stream. Lake, pond, tank or reservoir water need not be subjected tosedimentation as they had little or no velocity of flow and are the stilling basins themselves. Rivers, Rivers are large bodies of flowing water. Stream is a small river. Many stream merge to form a river.Because of velocity of flow they gather suspended and colloidal solids, Rivers are the mostly polluted bodies because both domestic and industrial waste waters are let off into them and as they flow over a vast catchment area GROUND SOURCES Wells, (1) Shallow well, (f) Deep well, Shallow well is the well-formed by tapping the aquifer nearest to ground level. Itis known for delivering impure water. It may get dried up during summer, A deep well is formed by tapping an aquifer below an impervious layer. Hence its quality may not reflect the conditions nearer to ground level. It is less prone for pollution but may contain more dissolved solids. Infiltration well is one provided nearer to river banks with an idea of getting pure water. Pure water requiring only disinfection shall get collected. Infiltration Gallery isa perforated open jointed tunnel like pipe laid along or across a stream course at shallow depth to lap relatively pure water. An Artesian well is a deep well with ils aquifer confined between two impervious layers— and is under pressure. Intakeisa device to draw clean, safe and palatable water of sufficient quantiti from surface sources. inall seasans Treatment of Water Impurity Treattrent 1, Floating solids 2. Suspended solids 3. Colloidal solids Sedimentation aided by enagrulation 4, Micro organisms Filtration, Disinfection 5, Dissolved gases Aeration 6, Hardness ‘Clremnical Treatment 7, Colour Coagulation Filtration through activated carbon bed, chlorination 8, Turbidity ‘Coagulation, Filtration 9, Tastes and odours. Aulsorption, Coagulation and Filtration, Chlorination, Aeration Flow diagram Raw water ==» Screens —=» Presedimentation ——> Aeration — > Coagulation ——+ Sedimentation —— Filtration ——> Disinfection ——> pH Correction ——+ Distribution Screens. They are mechanical devices to exclude (floating) debris, (leaves, twigs etc.), fish and eels. Mesh sereens with opening size of 1 mm to 25 mm are used,AERATION Aeration is the mechanical dispersion of water in alr or injection of air into water to 1. expel colowr and taste producing substances as H,5 and volatile organic compounds. 2. oxidise colour causing Fe'* and Mn‘! compounds to insoluble Fe''* and Mn°**' compounds. 3. expel acidity causing CO, 4 inject oxygen into water which improves taste, reduces BOD or nuisance potential, oxidises imputities and also disinfects water. Caseades: It is the water in thin sheets falling theough a head of 1 ta 3m at the rate of surlace loading of 100 to 200 m2/m"/s ata velocity of 0.3 m/s over sloping floor or that with a flight of steps. Perforated or Packing tower is a cylindrical container of less than 3 m diameter through which water falls or trickles over a number of perforated plates while air current is sent up the column in the reverse direction of flow. Some times instead of perforated plates packed bed of broken stone is provided above air supply and below water jets. It is designed at the rate of 2000 m1/m2/d Nozzles: They are 20 t0 40 mm in diameter horizontally spaced at intervals of 0.5 t0 3.5 m, Spraying 5 to 10 [/s of water as fine jets operating at a pressure of 70 kPa. Stand Pipe: It isa cylindrical pipe operating at a head of 1 to 9m through which waler flows up and slides along its perimeter during which time it is getting aerated. It is designed at 100 to 300 m3 /m?/'s Spray Tower: A round and cylindrical pipe ofa number of circular trays are arranged ata verlical spacing of 250 te 750 mm. The lower most tray is of bigger diameter and the diameters of trays decrease with increase in height. Some times the trays are filled with coke coated with a strong oxidising agent as potassium permanganate or dichromate the hasten oxidation. The rate of loading is 1 to 1.5 m?/m? per minute. The trays are designed at 5 to 150 m4/m?/s. Diffused Aerators: A reclangular lank is provided with perforated floorand sides is designed to have a width of 3 to 9 m, water depth of 2.5 to 5m and the volume of the tank should not be greater than L50:n'. ‘Through the diffused holes compressed air is injected into the water al the rate of 0.1 to 1m? of air per m? of water. SEDIMENTATION It is the separation of suspended solids from water by stilling the water. Sedimentation is the settling of solid particles from a liquid medium due to (i) difference in the specific geavities of the solid particles and the medium (i) size and shape of the particles and mass action (iii) viscosity of the medium Types of Sedimentation Tanks {i) Conventional type (ii) Shallow depth type or tube settlers(a) Fill and draw type. Tanks are filled and kept stand still for the period of detention and then emptied. They are rarely used except for industrial use. (8) Continuous flow type, Water shall be flowing ata velocity of 25 mm to 5 mm/s (15cm to 30 em per minute). Based on shape they are mainly classified as (i) Rectangular tanks (fi) Circular tanks (ii) Hopper bottomed tanks \ ¢_, Ruantlty treated per day’! savers the efficiency rather than the } Over flow rate Surface area detention period. Rectangular Tanks {) Plain type (b) Baffled type The purpose of the baffles is to increase the length of flow. Design factors: zi 4 aft 4 12m Liquid depth =3to4m Free board =0.5m Surface loading = Mte33 mim /d Weir loading $250 m3/m/d ‘ wv Detention period = oe hours = 1 to 8 hours usually where ¥ = Volume of tank (m*) Q = Discharge (m?/day) Horizontal velocity of flow 4 2.5 mm/s Circular Tanks (a) Radial flow type () Peripheral flaw type Circular tanks have a diameter upto 6( m but 30 m is most common due to operational problems of sludge scrapper. Hopper bottomed Tanks They are circular or square in plan with steep sloping (about 60° with horizontal bottoms). They are ideally suited for small quantities of highly turbid watersTube Settlers They are shallow depth sedimentation tanks, They consist of steeply inclined tubes 50mm diameter /side circular, square of hexagonal in ceoss-Section and 600 mm long. Water flows upwards—more is the contact area and sludge settles at bottom COAGULATION Colloids are very fine particles of 1 to 5001 nanometres (or millimicrometres) in size. They possess like charge and hence repel each other and move helter skelter called Benwnian Movement They are either hydraphobic (hate water) ar hydrophilic (love water). Coagulation is the process of destabilizing (by reducing repulsive force between them) these colloids by the addition of a coagulant. The inorganic and organic colloidal particles causing turbidity are hydrophobic and can be easily separated from water by the addition of Aluminium salts (alum) and iron salts (Copperas, Ferric Chloride etc). Coagulant is an electrolyte which peutralises the electric charge of colloids and hence they get agglomerated (came close to each other) as a FLOC, Flocculation is the process of geouping of the decharged colloids by gentle mixing or stirring so that they become bulky and settle, A coagulant aid is a substance that stimulates floc formation, reduces the amount of coagulant and widens the pH range of the coagulant. Activated carbon, activated silica and polyelectrolites are some coagulant aids. Solutions of starch, soap and synthetic detergents contain hydrophilic colloids which are mre stable. Flash mixing (rapid mixing of coagulant for | minute), Flocculation (promoting the growth of floc by gentle stireing for about 30 minutes) and then sedimentation for 2 to 4 hours is the ideal treatment before filtration when the turbidity exceeds 25 NTU. Hlocculater—elarifier or clarifloceulator is a single unit where "mixing, of coagulant", “flocculation” and “sedimentation” are performed in a single compartment, Its overflow rate may be anywhere in between 20 and 100 mi! /m2/day, depending on the quality of water. FILTRATION Filtration is the process of straining the water through a geannular bed. Colour, turbidity, colloidal solids, taste and odour causing substances, iron, manganese and bacteria are remaved by filtration. Theory of Filtration 4. Mechanical Staining: Particles of smaller size pass through their voids and bigger particles are retained on sand. 2 Sedimentation and Adsorption: Voids between sand particles may act as miniature sedimentation tanks where very fine solids may settle down, Impurities may get adsorbed on to the sand particles. 3. Electrolytic Action: Media of filter have an electrolytic charge and impurities of apposite polarity are readily attracted. 4. Biological Action: Biological impurities as Bacteria, Protozoa, Algae and higher organisms get collected over the filter bed as a 2oogleal layer, called SCHMUTZE DECKE. This zoogleal film consumes the impurties of water. Based on the rate of filtration sand filters are clas ed as slow sand filters and rapid sandSlow Sand Filter Itis a water tight rectangular bed of 1000 to 5000 m? in an 0.25 fo 0.35 mm sand of 900 to 1500 mm depth is laid over 30 to 280 mm sized gravel of 300 to 500 mm depth. A aoogleal mat Schmutze (dirty) Decke (skin} comprising of bacteria, algae and protozaa~ formed on the top of the filter removes most of the impurities of the raw water. Though the rate of fillration is very low, il removes 99.9% of bacteria, [E does not require any pretreatment other than pre-sedimenation. But when the turbidity of the raw water is more than 40 units the bed easily gets Clogged. Rapid Sand Filter Itis § to 200 m? square or rectangular tank with an enclosure tank. ‘0.4 mm to 1 mm sand of 600 to 750 mm depth is laid ower 450 mm thick gravel layer. Perforated pipes or perforated plates provided below the gravel bed collect filtered water and lead ta the main. When head loss increases and rate of filtration considerably gets reduced, wash water flowing upwards in the reverse direction of filtration cleans the media, This process is called Back washing. Tent 5.5.F. RSF. 1, Rate of filtration, 2. Size 3, Bed compesition 4. Size of sand Uniformity co-etf. 5. Arrangement of sand grains 6. Under drainage 7. Loss. of head 8. Penetration of suspended solids 9. Interval of cleaning 10. Method of cleaning Lito 10 oni? oh (LL tor OL lity’ m 2/8) 2000 m? 300 min deep gravel layer below a sand layer of Em reduced to 640 mm due ter scrappings 0.25 mm to 0.35 mm, 203 Unstratified Halt round tile laterals draining into main 64 cum initially 1200 mm finally: Superficial 20 to 60 days. (f) Serapping of top 12 mm layer (it) Cleaning the exposed bed by jets of water 100 200 ome fd {1 to 23 lim? s) 40 mn? to 400m 45) mm deep gravel below asand layer of 750 mm. (45 mm and higher s1k Finest ak top. Size increases with depth, Perforated lateral pipes draining into main pipe SOK} em initially 2.7 ow finally. Very deep. ; day to 2 days. () Agitating the media by compressed air, (ii) Latting, the impurities by the flow an the reverse: direction of filtration.11. Quantity of wash water 12, Pro-treatment 13. Post-treatment Major process of treatment 0.2% to (6% of quantity filtered Acration, Sedimentation with oe without coagulation Chlorination (optional Entrapment of impurities in the sovsgleal film (SCHMUTZE toptionall 1% ber 68% OF qauamtity Filtered Aeration, Sedimentation aided by coagulation. Chioginatinn (compulsory) Interception and interparticle settling of sand media. DECKE) 14, Cost of construction | Higher Lower 15. Cost of operation Lower Higher 16. Depreciation of plant | Lower Higher 90% bacteria remowed ‘Colour removed if flacculated Turbidity removed by coagulation. Can take ‘of turbidity of natural waters, Efficiency depends on skilled supervision, Pressure Filter, [f isan enclosed cylindrical filter 1.5 bo 3m in cliameter and 3 to 8 m high, Its composition of media is same as RS, Filters, But @ pressure of 3 x 10° to 7 10° Pa is applied for rapid filtration. Its rate of filtration is about 120 m3/m?/d (14 litym?/s) to 250 mt /m2/d (2.8 litre m4’), However their use is confined to swimming pools and industries, Also back washing it not so effective in pressure filters, 17. Efficiency 96 to 99% of bacteria removed Colour fully removed if flocculated Turbidity remaved without coagulation Bed gets clogged if turbidity exceeds 40 units most any amount 18. Skill in operation Highly skilled operation not required DISINFECTION Disinfection is the opposite of “infection” Le, it is the removal of causative organisans responsible for infection £¢., pathogen removal. Sterilization is the total destruction of all life iv, pathogenic. Factors influencing disinfection 1. Turbidity—shields the organism from the influence of disinfectant, 2 Colloids and particulates—adsarb the disinfectant. 3. Viruses, cysts and ova—are more resistant to disinfection, They need higher doses of disinfectant for their elimination. 4. Higher temperatures and longer time of contact increase the efficiency of disinfection. A disinfectant showld— 1, be easy of prepare, handle ard store, 2. notalter the quality of water, 3. not corrode the pipes nor containers. », flora and fauna both pathogenic and non-Chlorine: Chlorine is a yellowish green coloured gas with pungent odour, It is 2.5 times heavier than air and is moderately soluble in water. It is highly toxic and the toxicity increases with temperature. Chlorine is the mostly used disinfectant. Besides killing pathogenic and nuisance micro- organisms, it precipitates iron and manganese in water, destroys odour and taste causing elements. pia Cl, + Ho E25, Hoc + Hel pi (toch HOC] > H! + OCI Chlorine existing in water as “Hypochlorous acid” (HOCI and “Hypochlorite ion" (OCP) ‘hlorine™. is defined as “Free available “HOC? is more effective than OCE and hence disinfecting power of chlorine decreases with rise in pH. AbHSC-Percentages af free available chlorine. pH % of HOC] % of OCI 4 96.8 32 * 752 Me 75 49. 50.9 8 ma 768 4 29 o71 When ammonia present in water chlorine reacts with it to form Monochloramine (NH,CI) and Dichloramine (NHCI,) called Combined Available Chlorine’. The disinfecting ability of Combined Available Chlorine is inferior to that of ‘Free Available Chlorine’ and takes more time, Break Point Chlorination When chlorine is a continuously applied for disinfection and ‘Residual Chlorine’ is gauged the following curve OACBD is obtained: Flesiual chtorine: o Chiotine dose FIGURE 6.2 Oto AFree chlorine oxiclizes reducing agents as nitrites, hydrogen sulphide, ferrous and manganous ions etc. and gets reduced to chloride which is not a disinfectant.Ato C—Organic matter reacts with chlorine to form chloro-organic compounds. Ammoni Present in water reacts with chlorine to farm monochloramine and dichloramine (NH,Cl +NHCL) called “Combined Residual Chlorine”. When its concentration exceeds 2 to 3 mg/l, it destroys pathogens alter a contact period of 30 minutes. Cto B—Further addition of chlorine produces trichloramine (NC1,), N, NjO—none of which are disinfectants. Hence further addition of chlorine reduces available chlorine. B—Break Point B to D—AIl reactions are completed and ammonia is completely oxidized. Any subsequent addition of chlorine shall remain as free available chlorine (HOCI). A minimumtof 01.2 mg/l of residual chlovine is desirable to guard against post-contamination. To improve efficiency of coagulation, reduce tastes and odours and to reduce the load on filters—chlorine may be applied before filtration. It is called Prechlorination During epidemics a chlorine residual as high as 1 or 2 mg/1is left in drinking waters to prevent the spread of waterborne diseases. It is Super Chlorination. Advantages of Chlorine: Chlorine is a very cheap disinfectant. It is highly bactericidal at low concentrations and leaves considerable residual. It is non toxic to higher forms of Life. H controls Algae, Iron fixing and slime forming bacteria in pipe lines, Filter Mies on Trickling fillers, controls HLS, anaerobic conditions besides reducing BOD. Higher doses of chlorine induce odour, taste, cough and throat infection. Chlorinated hydrocarbons as Trihalomethanes: Chlorinated hydrocarbons as Trihalomethanes (THM) are suspected to be carcinogenous. Super chlorinated waters are also corrossive. Chiorine is toxic to fish and causes eye irritation to swimmers. Hence Dechlorination is done by reducing agents such as sodium sulphite, sodium bisulphate, 50, or by adsorption on Activated carbon or by Aeration or boiling. Residual chlorine in a water sample can be measured by adding “orthotolidine” to the water. Chlorine in water reacts with orthotolidine to form '’Holoquinone”, a yellnw coloured compound. The intensity of the yellow colour is proportional to the amount of residual chlorine present. Bromine is used to disinfect swimming pool water. It causes less eye irritation compared ba chlorine. lodine is used to disinfect small quantities of water. Ozonation Ozone is an unstable isotope of oxygen of pungent smell. Tt requires less contact time (30 5), less sensitive to pH, kills viruses and spores more effectively, oxidises other impurities causing tastes and odours, oxidises [ron and Manganese as well, the end products are non toxic and on the other hand enrich the water quality and is not carcinogeneous. But as it is highly unstable, at least 3 times as costly as chlorine, leaves no resicual—not universally adopted. Ultra Violet Rays Special mercury lamps enclosed in quartz globes emit ultraviolet rays. Clear waters (free from turbidity) in layers not deeper than 13) mm are exposed to the rays. Ina contact time of less than 155, bacteria, viruses and even spores are killed,Excess Lime Treatment Too high or too low a pH causes pathogen kill. Excess lime raises pH to greater than IL, kills 99.9% of coliforms, lons of Heavy Metals Silver, Copper and Mercury exert bactericidal properties. About 0.05 mg/l of Silver is highly effective, It is more efficient at higher temperatures. Ultra Sonic Waves at frequencies of 20 to 400 kHz kill bacteria over contact period of 25 to Gl min. SOFTENING Hard waters do not readily give lather with soap. They form scales in boilers. However, extremely soft waters are tasteless, and cause pipe corrosion, Hardness is mainly because of 1. CHHCO,); ‘Temporary hardness or % MaGR Us)! cavpocate atdiend 3. CaCl, } ; 4. Mel, | REAnEnERy eres 5. CaSO, Os | ‘ é& Maso, | Non-carbonate hardiness Lime-Soda Process. Calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide are almast insoluble in ‘water, Hence salts of calcium are precipitated out by the addition of soda (Na, CQ,) as CaCO, and those of magnesium by the addition of lime [Ca(OH),] as Mg(OH)}, CaCO, is precipitated ata pHi of 4 ta 9.5 while Mg(OH), is precipitated at a pH of 11, Lime soda process is reasonably effective in reducing Turbidity, Colour, Bacteria, Viruses and Fluorides. Zeolite or ion exchange process. Hard water is passed through sodium zeolite which absorbs Caand Mg getting converted toCa and Mg zeolites, releasing sudium salts, The rate of (hydraulic) loading is 230 to 460 m?/m?7/d. After some days of operation the entire sodium zeolite bed may get converted toCa and Mg Zeolite. When the effluentis harder than the influent, itis called Breakthrough, Regeneration with 1% NaCl brine solution rejuvenates the bed, Limitations of Zeolite Process: 1, Raw water rich in turbidity, oi] and HS coat the zeolite bed and make it ineffective. 2. Concentrations of Fi zeolite, and Mn‘ greater than 2 mg/loxidize and precipitate on grains of 3. Hardness greater than 8{MP mg/l require frequent regeneration. 4. Effluentis rich in Na salts-continuous consumption of which may affect people suffering from heart, kidney or circulatory ailments. 5. Waters are not to be chlorinated before the zeolite process treatment.DEFLUORIDATION Fluorine is the most active element known. [tis not found free in nature. It is present in more than 100 minerals as Fluorite, Cryolite, Apatite and Topaz, and in igneous rocks as Granites, Pegmatites and in volcanic flows, More is the non-carbonate hardness (of Ca and Mg in particular) less is the fluoride concentration. Effects of Fluorides During the state of formation of permanent teeth in young children, fluorides combine chemically with tooth enamel forming harder and stronger teeth more resistant to ‘Cavi tweth’ called Dental Caries. Fluorides im water reduce the incidence of ‘Ostenporosis’ (bones easily getting weakened) and hardening of arteries in old people. Hon in Excess concentration of fluorides causes “Hypoplosia of teeth’ (mottled enamel or Dental fluorosis). Skeletal Auore the other disease where bones Loose their strength, joints become stiff, chest loses its mobility and breathing becomes abdominal, Pain develops over the entire body with tingling sensation because of the acute poisoning of the central nervous system. ‘Jeenovolgam’ is skeletal fluorosis with bent leg bones. Animals also are affected. Molars show abnormal wear, their teeth do not oppose each ather in upper and lower jaw’s and mastic action is rendered difficult, Hence they refuse to eat. Because of stiff joints they develop dragging gait. Crops grown on fluoride rich belts contibute fluorides. Threshold Limit Higher is the temperature, mo ISI-+-0.6 to 1.2 mg/l ICMR—1 to2 mg/l WHO—1 to 1.5 mg/L. is the water consumption and bess is the tolerable limit, Removal Methodologies 1. Bone charcoal. Degreased bones are heated to 400°C to6t"C for 1 minutes and powdered. Bones contain Tricalcium Phosphate for which Muorides have good affinity. 2. Alum along with Activated silica clay and lime can remove fluorides, 3. Dolomite Lime (lime rich in Magnesium) can remove fluorides. 4. Activated Carbons as burnt paddy husk, Bentonite clay, Puller’s earth, Silica gel, Bauxite and Sodium Silicate remove fluorides by ‘adsorption’ REMOVAL OF IRON AND MANGANESE Fe* and Mn** are soluble in water,Effects: 1. They cause turbid, yellow, red, brown or black waters causing stains in laundering and plumbing fixtures. 2. They support the growth of micro organisms in distribution system (Iron bacteria as Leptothrix, Crenothrix & Gallionella) clogging pipes. 3. Metallic taste is attributed to water, 4. A disease called ‘Hemosicerusis’ is caused because of consumption of excess Iron. Removal: Fe** and Mn* are removed along with hardness, Fe** and Mn*** are insoluble in water. Fe** alone can be removed by Aeration, Sedimentation and Filtration. But when both Fe™* and Mn** along with organic matter are present, strong oxidising agents are required. 1. Raw water —+ Lime — > Aeration —+ Chlorination —+ Clarification —4 Filtration —> Chlorination —, Distribution. 2. Raw water —+ Potassium Permanganate (Oxidation) —+ Clarification —+ Filtration —4 Chlorination — Distribution 3. Raw water —» MgO —+ Diatomateous carth (Calcined MgCO,) —+ Rapid mix —+ Diatomateous (earth filter) —+ Chlorination — Distribution (3 to 1) 4. Feet /Min®* + Na.Z —» PeZ/MnZ + 2Na* (@oaiites 5. Adsorption on a bed of Pyrolusite (Min®,). DESALINATION It is reduction of the mineral content of water. Fresh water shall be having a total dissolved solids of less than 1000 mg/l whereas sea water around 35000 mg/L The salt content can be minimised by the following methods: 1. Distillation. When water boils steam of water vapour with volatile impurities emerges out leaving dissolved salts behind. Condensation of the water vapour gives oul salt free waler. In multi-staged distillation 10 to 50 compartments of boilers are kept in series—each one operating at @ pressure less than the preceding one—so that water boils and steam generates at low temperature. The condensing vapour of one heats the contents of the next unit Distillation is quite costly but is indepedent of total dissolved solids concentration. The treated water has a sodium content of concentration less than 100 mg/l and chloride concentration less than 200 mg/l.2. Freezing. When a refrigerant is added to salt water and made to freeze—pure water forms ioe crystals whereas salty matter remains in solution. The ice can be melted to vield pure water. 3. Reverse osmosis, When a thin layer (0.1 to 0.15 mm thick semi permeable membrane) separates bwe salt solutions—water from dilute sample flows into that of higher concentration and is called osmosis, Bul when a pressure greater than osmotic pressure is applied waler flows from a denser liquid to the dilute liquid. Itis relatively a cheaper process. DISTRIBUTION OF WATER Methods of Distribution 1. Gravitational System. When the source of water is.at a higher level (as a reservoir formed on mountainous slopes) than the area of distribution, it is adapted. 2. Direct Pumping System. It is pumping of the water fom the source to the consumer, 3. Combined Pumping and Gravity System. It is pumping of the treated water to an overhead lank from where waler reaches the consumer by gravil Systems of Supply 1, Continuous System. Water is supplied to the consumer round the clock. Il is the best suited system provided the city had less undulations. 2. Intermittent System. It is supply of the water during a part of the day. When a city is full of undulations, water may not rise to the summits unless other distribution is cutoff. Also repairs can be easily done during non-supply hours. But in case of any leakages exfillration takes place during supply hours and infiltration takes place during non-supply hours, Further if a fire accident occurs during non-supply hours no water will be available to fight the fire. Layout of Distribution Net Works 1. Dead end system, Ifhad only one main from which sub-mains and laterals branch off but nowhere any two pipes merge again and hence full of “dead ends”, Slagnant water columns are formed at dead ends. “Blow off valves" are to be provided to throw off the stagnant water, Computations of discharges can be done easily and this system is the only system suited to irregularly grown cities. 2. Ring system, [tis an improved dead-end system where the dead ends are interconnected. 3. Grid iron system, [tis a closely knit network of mains, submains and laterals mutually at rightangles or parallel to each other, Itis free from dead ends and wateris under perfect circulation, Aplanned city with rectangular layout of roads either perfectly levelled ar on a gentle slope alone is suited bo it. 4, Radial system, An elevated reservoir is created for every zone provided with radial network of roads