PLANTING STRATEGIES AND SPECIES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF HABITATS

COASTAL EDGES

Those land areas bordering the coastal waters, including all waters assigned a salt water
"S" classification and all tributaries that have experienced excessive growths of
microscopic or macroscopic vegetation.

WETLANDS

Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil, or is present either at or near the surface of
the soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year, including during the growing
season.

WETLANDS
Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil, or is present either at or near the surface of
the soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year, including during the growing
season.

Wetlands are found along the shorelines of oceans, lakes, rivers and in local
depressions.

The water in natural wetlands derives from tidal flows, lakes, flooding rivers, or
connections to groundwater.

The water table in wetlands is at or near the surface, and the land is often covered
with shallow water.

TYPES OF WETLANDS

1. Bog
2. Marsh
3. Vernal Pools
4. Slough
5. Swamp
6. Fen
7. Prairie Pot Holes

BOGS are an area of wet, spongy ground consisting mainly of decayed or decaying
peat moss (sphagnum) and other vegetation.

Bogs form as the dead vegetation sinks to the bottom of a lake or pond, where it
decays slowly to form peat.
 Bogs form from shallow lakes, slowly moving water, and where there is bad water
runoff. They usually have no inflow or out flow.

They are covered in Ericaceouss shrubs rooted in the Sphagnum moss and peat. The
gradual accumulation of decayed plant material in a bog functions as a carbon sink.

Bogs are widely distributed in cold, temperate climes.

New Forest Valley Bog, UK

 An expanse of wet Sphagnum bog.
Spruce trees can be seen on a forested ridge in the background.

TYPES OF BOG
1. Valley bog

These develop in gently sloping valleys or hollows.

2. Raised bog

These develop from a lake or flat marshy area, over either non-acidic or acidic
substrates.

3. Blanket bog

n cool climates with consistently high rainfall, the ground surface may remain
waterlogged for much of the time, providing conditions for the development of
bog vegetation.

4. Quaking bog

Quaking bog is a form of bog occurring in wetter parts of valley bogs and raised bogs,
and sometimes around the edges of acidic lakes.

5. Cataract bog

A cataract bog is a rare ecological community formed where a permanent stream

flows over a granite outcropping.
Mer Bleue Bog, a typical peat bog, in eastern Ontario
 Biebrza natural bogs

Sphagnum moss and sedges can produce

floating bog mats along the shores of small lakes. This one also supports a
carnivorous plant, Sundew.

Many species of evergreen shrubs are found

in bogs
 Unique plant life grows in bogs. Carnivorous plants such as the flytrap and pitcher
plant grow in bogs.

Variety of wildflowers, grasses, rushes, and sedges are also found.

There is often an abundance of mosses and sphagnum moss.

Bogs do not usually have a lot of different types of animals, other than insects,
because the water is very acidic.

Migratory birds, however, often stop off at bogs to rest along their journeys.

Some bogs will also have certain fish species such as the smallmouth bass.

Reptiles and amphibians such as frogs, salamanders, turtles, and snakes are found.

Pitcher plant and Venus flytrap

 Sun Pitcher Plant

Marsh is a type of wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant
species.
 Marshes can often be found at the edges of lakes and streams, where they form a
transition between the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.

They are often dominated by grasses, rushes or reeds.

If woody plants are present they tend to be low-growing shrubs.

This form of vegetation is what differentiates marshes from other types of wetland
such as swamps, which are dominated by trees, and bogs, which are wetlands that
have accumulated deposits of acidic peat.

Marshes provide habitat for many types of plants and animals that have adapted to
living in flooded conditions.
The plants must be able to survive in wet mud with low oxygen levels.
Many of these plants therefore have aerenchyma, channels within the stem that
allow air to move from the leaves into the rooting zone.
Marsh plants also tend to have rhizomes for underground storage & reproduction
which include cattails, sedges, papyrus and saw grass.

There are of two types salt water marshes and fresh water marshes.
 Marshes have shallow water and floating leafed plants and grasses. Fresh water
marshes are dependent upon rainfall, runoff, and flooding that occurs during
certain seasons.
Salt marshes are generally influenced by wind and tides and have special plants
that have adapted to the salty life of a salt marsh.

A marsh along the edge of a small

river.

Salt Marsh in Scotland.

Vernal pools are seasonal depressional wetlands that occur under the Mediterranean
climate conditions of the West Coast.
They are covered by shallow water for variable periods from winter to spring, but may be
completely dry for most of the summer and fall.
These wetlands range in size from small puddles to shallow lakes and are usually found in a
gently sloping plain of grassland.

Vernal pools are a type of marsh found only seasonally in shallow depressions in the
land.
They can be covered in shallow water, but in the summer and fall, they can be
completely dry.
Vernal pools tend to form in open grasslands, whereas in the east they often occur in
forested landscapes. They also form in pine savannas and Flatwoods.
Many amphibian species depend upon vernal pools for spring breeding; these ponds
provide habitat that is free from fish which eat eggs and young of amphibians.
An example is the endangered gopher frog (Rana sevosa).
Similar temporary ponds occur in other world ecosystems, where they may have
local names. However, the term vernal pool can be applied to all such temporary pool
.
ecosystems .

Slough is a shallow depression or low spot on the floodplains that contains slowly
moving water.

Many animals depend upon these areas for food and water during dry periods.
 Plants and trees that could be found in a slough include pickerelweed, alder, willow
and bulrushes.

Creatures found in the water and nearby include snails, stickleback fish, tiger
salamanders, bitterns and grebes.

Swamps are forested wetlands. They are often found near rivers or lakes and have
mineral soil that drains very slowly. They have trees and bushes. They may have water
in them for the whole year or for only part of the year. Swamps vary in size and type.
Some swamps have soil that is nutrient rich, other swamps have nutrient poor soil.

Swamps are often classified by the types of trees that grow in them.

Conifer Swamps
Trees like white cedar, northern white cedar, eastern hemlock, eastern white pine,
pitch pine, loblolly pine and black spruce are common in conifer swamps.

Hardwood Swamps

Hardwood swamps have trees like red maple, black willow, aspen, cottonwood,
ashes, elms, swamp white oak, pin oak, tupelo and birches.

Shrub Swamps

Shrub swamps have small trees and bushes like buttonwood, willow, alders and
dogwood.

Cypress Swamps

Cypress swamps are named for the bald cypress tree.

Fen is a type of wetland fed by alkaline, mineral-rich groundwater and characterized

by a distinctive flora.
Fens are fed primarily by rainwater and often inhabited by sphagnum moss, making
them acidic.

Fens will ultimately fill in and become a terrestrial community such as woodland
through the process of ecological succession.
Prairie pothole is a small wetland that can be found in the grasslands.
These areas were formed from glacial activity that carved out a large number of
potholes.

Snowmelt and rain fill the potholes in the spring and many species of plants such as
cattail and bulrushes begin to grow.

Mallards, pintails and gadwalls as well as many other species of ducks nest in the
pothole marshes.
 Plants favoring high water table conditions fall into two distinct categories - those
with thin sword-like leaves and those having large broad leaves and Low grasses.

For trees or shrubs growing around parts of the perimeter of wetland area, the
varying conditions will add to the range of plants suited to high water table
conditions.

In designing the planting for wetland garden, the height of the plants in relation to
the line of sight have to be considered, as access among the plants is likely to be
limited to viewing from the periphery or from a path system raised above the water
table.

Plants low in height occupy the foreground, group of tall plants helps to give unity to
the planting scheme and prevents all the planting being seen in one view. Larger
groups of different species are arranged in a group.

General Types of Aquatic Macrophytes

Submergent Plants that grow entirely under water. Most are rooted at the bottom
and some may have flowers that extend above the water surface.

Floating-leaved Plants rooted to the bottom with leaves that float on the water
surface. Flowers are normally above water.

Free Floating Plants not rooted to the bottom and float on the surface.

Emergent herbaceous or woody plants that have the majority of their vegetative
parts above the surface of the water.
Special Adaptations
 Benefits of Aquatic Plants
Primary Production
Wildlife Food
Oxygen Production
Shelter
Protection from predation for small fish
Fish Spawning
Several fish attach eggs to aquatic macrophytes
Some fish build nests in plant beds
Water Treatment

Wetland plants are very effective at removing nitrogen and phosphorous from
polluted waters.

Alligators also build nests from vegetation.

Submerged macrophytes can provide shelter

for young fish as well as house an abundant food supply.
 Some fish will attach their eggs to aquatic
vegetation.

The range of plants available includes the water loving species of 'sword-like' plants
like irises, sedges, rushes, and some bamboos, Low growing plants with conspicuous
flowers - marsh marigolds, globe flowers, and candelabra primulas Tall plants with
conspicuous flowers - Astilbes, Lythrum, and day lilies Fern species, and the large
leaved plants - Gunnera, Rodgersia, and Ligularia Shrubs favoring wetland habitat
conditions are the red'Stemmed dogwood and shrub willows.

The planting design can produce a rich landscape in itself. Winter appearance is a
problem with wetland garden because the high water table is not helpful in trying to
achieve a neat soil surface when the vegetation decays.

Some of rushes and bamboo Evergreen - hart's tongue fern {Phyllitis scolopendrium) ,
shrubs - red-stemmed dogwood are found in all seasons.

Minor changes in the surrounding ground levels so that at the perimeter the change
in plant species will be gradual from the high water table plants to normal water table
conditions, arranged by a bank with normal water table planting and a low lying area
with the water table at a depth between that of the wet area and the normal depth,
and planted with species suited to the 'transition conditions.

COASTAL EDGES - Land next to the sea

CSD (coastal sand dunes) are dynamic but fragile buffer zones of sand and vegetation
where the following three characteristics can be found

large quantities of sand

 persistent wind capable of moving the sand

Suitable locations for sand to accumulate.

Some of these are:

It is a dynamic area with frequently changing biological, chemical and geological

attributes.

It is an area of high economic significance, which is often subject to fast economic

development, large population migrations and urban development.

The coastal area acts as a barrier for land-based pollution and discharges to the sea.

The coastal areas are affected, through the coastal hydrodynamics by the actions of
the sea (storms, coastal erosion/accretion, flooding, tsunamis etc.).
THE ROLE OF FORESTS AND TREES IN PROTECTING COASTAL AREAS

Mangrove forests grow in coastal areas and estuaries, mostly in muddy alluvial soil
that is submerged by seawater at least once a day. The tree species belong to various
families such as Avicenniaceae, Rhizophoraceae, Euphorbiacea, and Combretaceae.

Mangrove forests are vegetated inter-tidal wetlands that provide goods and
environmental services, including protection against wave impact and erosion.

Mangroves are the most abundant natural species that grow well and serve a
sheltering function in tropical coastal regions. In India, for instance, some coastal and
wetland regions have many different mangrove species. They can reach heights of 30
to 35 metres, but typically are much shorter (720 metres).

A typical zonation pattern for

mangroves
Other types of (non-mangrove) forests and trees are generally found on sandy
beaches or atolls. Species typically found in the Indian Ocean include Terminalia
catappa, Casuarina equisetifolia, Pandanus spp. and Cocos nucifera .

PLANTING DESIGN STRATEGIES ON WETLAND

Plant tall trees Since shelter distance is proportional to the height of the trees,
consideration should be given to planting species that, other factors being equal,
grow rapidly, have a high final height for the region being reforested and can
withstand high winds in the soil conditions in which they are planted.

The shelter distance is determined by the average height of the row of tallest trees.
Not all rows of a shelterbelt need be the same size to achieve this effect, so smaller
trees (perhaps those able to withstand higher winds) could be planted on the
oceanward side of larger trees.
PLANTING DESIGN STRATEGIES ON WETLAND

Casuarina is one species that is both tall and quite salt-tolerant and can be used on
the landward side of the shelter behind the low-level protection afforded by shorter
species. They can contribute substantially to wind reduction and the capture of sea-
spray droplets and salt particles.
Plant as far into the ocean as is feasible. The rising sea bottom near the shore
magnifies wave action and increases sea-spray generation and damage owing to
storm surge.

Large spray droplets and sea-salt aerosols captured by vegetation over water allow
salt to be washed off and quickly returned to the ocean rather than taking up
residence in inland soils.

Even if the shelterbelt is not contiguous to the shore, the offshore belt will enhance
sea salt deposition back to the ocean.

Large droplets generated by breaking waves, particularly in the coastal zone, are
indicated by large blue dots.

Smaller droplets with low gravitational settling velocity are indicated by small blue
dots.

The rough surface created by the forest increases the size of turbulent eddies and
brings more small droplets and salt particles into contact with the vegetation, where
they can be captured and prevented from travelling further inland.

PLANTING DESIGN STRATEGIES ON WETLAND & COASTEL EDGES

The role of coastal trees in protecting against coastal erosion

Vegetation: Important for improving slope stability, consolidating sediments and

providing some shoreline protection.

Coastal types

Coastlines comprise the natural boundary zone between the land and the ocean
Cliff coast

This type of coast typically has a short shore platform that is usually exposed during
low tide.

Natural erosion is attributable to slope instability, weathering and wave action and
leads to regression of the shoreline

PLANTING DESIGN STRATEGIES ON WETLAND & COASTEL EDGES

 Sandy coast

This type of coast consists of unconsolidated material mainly sand from rivers and
eroded headlands, broken coral branches (coralline sand) and shells from the fringing
reefs.

Coconut trees, waru (Hibiscus tiliaceus), Casuarina catappa, pandanus, pine trees and
other beach woodland trees are common here. Most erosion is caused by loss of

(1) the protective function of the coastal habitat, especially coral reefs (where they are
found) that protect the coast from wave action; and

(2) Coastal trees that protect the coast from strong winds.

PLANTING DESIGN STRATEGIES ON WETLAND & COASTEL EDGES

Clayey bank coast

It is common on estuarine coastlines and often has nearly vertical banks ranging from
one to five metres in height. The rate of erosion is relatively high compared to the
hard coast because it is composed of weaker and less resistant material.

Erosion is mostly due to coastal processes, weathering and loss of vegetation cover
(ARC, 2000)., vegetation cover plays a significant role in protecting the coast from
flooding.

PLANTING DESIGN STRATEGIES ON WETLAND & COASTEL EDGES

Sand dune coast

This type of coast experiences short-term fluctuation or cyclic erosion accretion

and long-term assessment is needed to identify erosion as a problem here.

Generally, erosion is a problem when the sand dunes completely lose their vegetation
cover that traps wind-borne sediment during rebuilding, improves slope stability and
consolidates the sand.

This type of coast can act as a barrier for the area behind the dunes. Sand dunes and
their vegetation cover are the best natural protective measures against coastal
flooding and tsunami inundation.

PLANTING DESIGN STRATEGIES ON WETLAND & COASTEL EDGES

Intertidal/muddy coast

This type of coast is characterized by fine-grained sedimentary deposits,

predominantly silt and clay that come from rivers. It has a broad gentle seaward
slope, known as an intertidal mud flat where mangrove forest, saltmarshes, shrubs
and other trees are found.
Most erosion is generated by river damming that reduces sediment supply,
diminishes vegetation cover (usually mangroves and saltmarshes) and exposes
vegetation roots by lowering the mud flat.

PLANTING DESIGN STRATEGIES ON WETLAND & COASTEL EDGES

Conclusions

Coastal forests and trees can, under certain conditions, act as bioshields to protect
lives and valuable assets against coastal hazards, including: tsunamis, cyclones, wind
and salt spray and coastal erosion.

The degree of protection offered by coastal bioshields depends on a number of

variables, including: (i) the characteristics of the hazard itself (e.g. type, force,
frequency); (ii) the features of the site (e.g. bathymetry, coastal geomorphology); and
 (iii) the characteristics of the bioshield (e.g. type of forest/tree, width, height and
density of the forest).

The importance of incorporating coastal protection as an integral part of coastal area

planning and management is recognized.

The natural features of

coastal systems

GUIDELINES FOR ESTABLISHING COASTAL FORESTS AND SHELTERBELTS

Choosing the types of trees to be used for shelterbelts is dictated largely by the local
climate and soil conditions. Of particular concern for shoreline environments is the
tolerance to high salt conditions.

If the leading edge of the shoreline shelter is to experience regular immersion in

saltwater, the most likely choice is a species of mangroves, owing to their high salt
tolerance and tolerance of frequent or constant inundation by seawater.
 Locations beyond the inundation zone have more options for species and allow for
the consideration of characteristics that provide ecological and economic benefits in
addition to more effective sheltering properties.

To enhance the sheltering function, tall trees with strong rooting characteristics, rigid
branches and dense foliage would be optimum.

The vegetation that is native to sand dunes is very unique and is tolerant to:

Saltwater spray from sea waves

Can sustain high and salty wind

Can stand high daytime temperatures when the sand gets very hot

Has special roots that can find footing even in loose sand and reach the soil
underneath

Plant Life

The types of vegetation found in each region of the wetland are based on what stage
of creation/deterioation is occurring there.

The dynamic nature of the deltaic cycle leads to rapid changes in soil stability,
salinity, and subsequently vegetation type in the active zone of the marsh.

The remainder of the marsh is much more stable and exists along a salinity gradient.
The marshes begin with the barrier islands and move inland to the bottomland
hardwood swamps.

The M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) of Chennai, India provides a list
of species that can be used for coastal forests and shelterbelts in India:

Anacardium occidentale L. (Cashew nut)

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (neem tree)

 CASE STUDY

India has a long coastline of about 7500 km including its island territories

These coastal areas and areas of endangered animals are considered as critical
habitats as they are unique, fragile and exhibit high biodiversity supporting several
coastal and marine plants.

View of Pichavaram Mangrove

The mangroves may penetrate some distance upstream along the banks of rivers.

The Mangroves

Mangroves are salt tolerant plants. They are found in tropical and subtropical coastal
areas. Mangroves are of two dominant types, the riverine-type that fringes rivers
(Fig.1) and tidal creeks and the open water type that is directly exposed to waves
(Lugo and Snedaker, 1974).

The former type is the most common. In India, mangroves at Pichavaram and Gulf of
Mannar islands are examples of above types.

Mangroves act as a barrier against cyclonic storms, protecting the land behind. They
also act as a buffer against floods, preventing soil erosion.
 Mangroves trap fine sediments that are carried into the coastal zone by floodwaters,
and there is a significant net export of nutrients from the mangroves into the coastal
zone, which acts as a source of enrichment for the marine environment.

Mangroves prevent inorganic nutrients being sunk in the sea through swift flowing
terrestrial runoff and synthesize organic matter absorbing the inorganic nutrients.

Hence various inorganic nutrients from the terrestrial runoff are recycled within the
mangrove environment.

Well-developed mangrove

NALLAVADU VILLAGE, PUDUCHERRY, INDIA

Nallavadu is a coastal village with sand dune coverage of about 6 km2 extent, present
at a distance of about 14 km towards south on the way to Cuddalore from the
Puducherry main town

The coastal zone of Puducherry comprises newer and older dunes including saline
areas of clayey texture.

The study area experiences mean annual temperature of 30.0 C and mean annual
rainfall about 1,311-1,172 mm

Coastal landforms

The characteristic features and morphology of the land in the coastal zone.

They are subject to processes of erosion and deposition as produced by winds, waves,
tides, and river discharge.

The interactions of these processes and the coastal environments produce a wide
variety of landforms.
Processes directed seaward from the land are dominated by the transport of
sediment by rivers, but also include gravity processes such as landslides, rock falls,
and slumping

The role of vegetation in dune formation is critical and is that of a wind trap, sand
binder and dune stabilizer (Wagner 1964; Dahm et al. 2005). The foliage of dune
plants breaks wind activity leading to less erosive activity on the lee side (Chapman
1976).