MEHB493 Lecture 5

Syllabus Topic 5 - Fuel for IC engines

Fuels for SI engines; volatility, octane ratings and detonation
characteristics; diesel fuels; cetane number and other
properties of diesel.

Reference Chapter 4 of the textbook. Please read the relevant sections of this
chapter.
1
Fuels for SI Engines

The main fuel for SI engines is gasoline (petrol), which is a

mixture of many hydrocarbon components and is
manufactured from crude petroleum.

Crude petroleum is made up almost entirely of carbon and

hydrogen with some traces of other elements. It varies from
83% to 87% carbon and 11% to 14% hydrogen by mass.

The carbon and hydrogen can combine in many ways to

form many different compounds.

One test of a crude oil sample identified over 25,000

different hydrocarbon compounds.

2
The crude oil mixture taken from the ground is separated into
component products by cracking and/or distillation using
thermal or catalytic methods at an oil refinery.

Cracking is the process of breaking large molecular

components into more useful components of smaller
molecular weight.

Distillation is used to separate the mixtures into single

components or smaller ranges of components.

Generally, the larger the molecular weight of a component,

the higher is its boiling temperature. This is the basis of the
distillation process to extract different hydrocarbon
components from crude petroleum.

3
4
Low boiling temperature
automobile gasoline
components (smaller
diesel fuel
molecular
aircraft gasoline
weights) are used for
jet fuel
solvents and fuels, while
home heating fuel
high boiling temperature
industrial heating fuel
components with their large
liquified petroleum gas
molecular weights are used
lubrication oil
for tar and asphalt or
asphalt
returned to the refining
alcohol
process for further cracking.
rubber
paint
The component mixture of
plastics
the refining process is used
explosives
for many products, including:

5
Gasoline Components

Gasoline is largely a mixture of hydrocarbons, although

some may contain significant quantities of ethanol and some
may contain small quantities of additives such as
tertiarybutylmethyl ether as anti-knockagents to increase
the octane rating.

The hydrocarbons consist of a mixture of n-paraffins,

naphthenes, olefins and aromatics.
(n-paraffins: normal or straight chain paraffins)

Naphthenes, olefins and aromatics increase the octane

rating of the gasoline whereas the n-paraffins have the
opposite effect.

6
The aromatics consist mostly of a mixture of benzene,
toluene and the xylenes.

The benzene content is kept to a minimum (but is not

negligible) due to its perceived toxicity.

Originally lead tetraethyl was added as an anti-knock agent

but is now prohibited in most countries due to its toxicity.

The composition of a gasoline can vary significantly

depending on the source of the crude oil, the method
employed for processing and its intended use.

7
Paraffins
The paraffin family (sometimes called alkanes) are chain
molecules with a carbon-hydrogen combination of CnH2n+2,
n being any number.
The simplest member of this family, and the simplest of all
stable hydrocarbon molecules, is methane (CH4), which is
the main component of natural gas.

8
Other members of this family include ethane, propane,
butane, pentane, hexane, heptane, and octane.

9
Paraffin (Alkane) Series of Hydrocarbons
n Molecule Name Primary use
1 CH4 Methane Natural gas
2 C2H6 Ethane Natural gas
3 C3H8 Propane Bottled gas (LPG)
4 C4H10 Butane Bottled gas (LPG)
5 C5H12 Pentane Gasoline
6 C6H14 Hexane Gasoline
7 C7H16 Heptane Gasoline
8 C8H18 Octane Gasoline

10
Sometimes the chains in the molecules are branched,
and different molecular structures are obtained with the
same number of carbon and hydrogen atoms (e.g.
isobutane, isooctane).

11
Naphthenes (also called Cycloparaffins or Cycloalkanes)
Naphthenes (cycloalkanes) are types of alkanes that have one
or more rings of carbon atoms in the chemical structure
and a chemical
formula CnH2n.
Examples are
cyclobutane (C4H8 )
and cyclopentane
(C5H10 ) .

12
 Examples of Olefins
Olefins
The olefins
family
consists of
chain
molecules
that contain
one double
carbon-
carbon bond.
The chemical
make-up is
CnH2n.

13
Aromatics
Aromatic molecules have a ring structure with a double
carbon-carbon bonds and a general chemical formula of
CnH2n6. The basic molecule in this family is the benzene ring.

14
Other members of this family are obtained by replacing
one of the hydrogen atoms with various groups.

When more than one hydrogen atom is replaced, many

isomers are possible.

15
When more than one ring combine in a single large molecule,
many additional species are possible.

16
Gasoline
Gasoline is a complex mixture of components which vary
widely in their physical and chemical properties.
It is used over a wide range of operating conditions, such as
variations in fuel systems, engine temperatures, fuel pumps
and fuel pressures.
It is also used in a variety of climates, altitudes, and driving
patterns.
The properties of gasoline must be balanced to give
satisfactory engine performance over a very wide range of
circumstances as indicated above.

17
Octane Number
An octane number is a quantitative, but imprecise measure
of the maximum compression ratio at which a particular fuel
can be utilized in an engine without some of the fuel /air
mixture "knocking" or self igniting.
This self ignition of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder results
in a loss of peak power.
As the compression ratio of the engine increases so does the
required octane number of the gasoline if engine knocking is
to be avoided.

18
Knocking (also called knock, detonation, spark knock,
pinging or pinking) in spark-ignition internal combustion
engines occurs when combustion of the air/fuel mixture in the
cylinder starts off correctly in response to ignition by the
spark plug, but one or more pockets of air/fuel mixture
explode outside the envelope of the normal combustion front.
The fuel-air charge is meant to be ignited by the spark plug
only, and at a precise time in the piston's stroke cycle. Knock
occurs when the peak of the combustion process no longer
occurs at the optimum moment due to self-ignition in the
pockets. The shock wave creates the characteristic metallic
"pinging" sound, and cylinder pressure increases
dramatically.
Knocking should not be confused with pre-ignition, which is
the occurrence of self-ignition before the sparks plugs fire.

19
Knocking can cause overheating of the spark-plug points,
erosion of the combustion chamber surface, and rough,
inefficient operation, and if prolonged, may even destroy the
engine.
Fortunately, modern car engines are equipped with engine
knock sensor. When knocking is detected, engine control
system take action to stop it by controlling the ignition timing.

20
The performance of an engine is dependent upon many
factors, one of which is the severity of operation.
Accordingly the performance of a fuel is also dependent
upon engine severity. To account for differences in the
performance quality of a fuel two engine octane numbers
are routinely used.
The Research Octane Number (RON) simulates fuel
performance under low severity engine operation.
The Motor Octane Number (MON) simulates more severe
operation that might be incurred at high speed or high load.
The octane of a gasoline may also be reported as the
average of RON and MON or (R+M)/2. This is known as the
Anti Knock Index (AKI).

21
Conventionally, both RON and MON are measured with a
standardized single cylinder, variable compression ratio
engine.
For both RON and MON, the engine is operated at a
constant speed and the compression ratio is increased until
the onset of knocking.
For RON engine speed is set at 600 rpm and MON is at 900
rpm. The test conditions for the RON and MON
measurements are given in the table shown in the next
slide.

22
Test Conditions for RON and MON Measurements

23
The octane number measured is not an absolute number
but rather a relative value based on accepted standards.
By definition, n-heptane has an octane number (RON and
MON) of 0, while iso-octane (also called 2,2,4-trimethyl
pentane) is 100.
Linear combinations of these two components are used to
measure the octane number of a particular fuel.
A 90%/10% blend of iso-octane/n-heptane has an octane
value of 90. Any fuel knocking at the same compression
ratio as this mixture is said to have an octane number of 90.

24
If several fuels of known ON are mixed (e.g. fuels A, B and C),
a good approximation of the mixture octane number is:
ONmix = (% of A)(ONA) + (% of B)(ONB) + (% of C)(ONC)
Actually however, octane numbers do not blend linearly (i.e.
above formula is just an approximation).
In actual practice, to obtain gasoline with the desired octane
number precisely, complex blending calculations are used.
There is no universal blending program used industry wide.
Often, blending calculations are specific to a refinery.

25
Effects of Octane Number
In general, the RON affects low to medium speed knock and
engine run-on or dieseling. If the RON is too low, the driver
could experience low speed knock and engine run-on after
the engine is shut off.
The MON affects high speed and part-throttle knock. If the
MON is too low, the driver could experience engine knock
during periods of power acceleration such as passing vehicles
or climbing hills.

26
The antiknock performance of a fuel, in some vehicles,
may be best represented by the RON, while in others it
may relate best to the MON.

Extensive studies indicate that, on balance, gasoline

antiknock performance is best related to the Anti Knock
Index (AKI), the average of the Research and Motor
Octane Numbers, (R+M)/2.

27
Octane Number Requirement
Whether or not an engine knocks is dependent upon the
octane quality of the fuel and the Octane Number
Requirement (ONR) of the engine. The ONR is affected by
various engine design factors and in-use conditions. (See
table on next slide.)

There is no advantage in using gasoline of a higher RON,

MON or AKI than the engine requires to operate knock-free.

28
29
Volatility
Gasoline is metered in liquid form, through the fuel injectors
(or in older vehicles, carburetors), and mixed with air and
atomized before entering the cylinders.
Therefore, it is very important that a fuels tendency to
evaporate is controlled to certain standards. A fuels ability
to vaporize or change from liquid to vapor is referred to as
its volatility.
Volatility is an extremely important characteristic of gasoline
and has an effect on the areas listed in the table shown in
the next slide.

30
31
Gasoline which is not volatile enough results in poor cold
start and poor warm up driveability as well as unequal
distribution of fuel to the cylinders in carbureted vehicles.
These fuels can also contribute to crankcase and
combustion chamber deposits as well as spark plug
deposits.
Gasoline which is too volatile vaporizes too easily and
may boil in fuel pumps, lines or in carburetors at high
operating temperatures. If too much vapor is formed, this
could cause a decrease in fuel flow to the engine,
resulting in symptoms of vapor lock, including loss of
power, rough engine operation, or complete stoppage.
Fuel economy could also deteriorate and evaporative
emissions could increase.

32
Voltility Parameters
There are four parameters used to control volatility limits:
vapor liquid ratio, vapor pressure, distillation, and driveability
index.
Vapor-Liquid Ratio is a test to determine the temperature
required to create a Vapor-Liquid (V/L) ratio of 20. More
volatile fuels require lower temperatures to achieve the ratio
while less volatile fuels require higher temperatures to create
the same ratio. V/L ratio helps in rating a fuels tendency to
contribute to vapor lock.

33
The Vapor Pressure Test can be performed by a variety
of laboratory procedures and automated measurement
devices.
One test procedure, referred to as the Reid Method is
performed by submerging a gasoline sample (sealed in a
metal sample chamber) in a 37.8C (100F) water bath.
More volatile fuels will vaporize more readily, thus creating
more pressure on the measurement device and higher
readings. Less volatile fuels will create less vapor and
therefore give lower readings.
The vapor pressure measurement from the Reid test
method is referred to as Reid Vapor Pressure or RVP.

34
The V/L ratio and vapor pressure tests are measurements of
a fuels front end volatility, or more volatile components,
which vaporize at lower temperatures. If the front end
volatility is too high, it could cause hot restart problems. If it is
too low, cold start and warm up performance may suffer.
The distillation test is used to determine fuel volatility across
the entire boiling range of gasoline. Gasoline consists of a
variety of mostly hydrocarbon components that evaporate at
different temperatures. More volatile components evaporate
at lower temperatures, less volatile (slower vaporizing) ones
at higher temperatures. The plotting of these evaporation
temperatures is referred to as a distillation curve (see next
slide).

35
36
ASTM specifications set temperature ranges at which 10%,
50%, and 90% of the fuel will be evaporated as well as at what
temperature all the fuel has evaporated.
The 10% evaporated temperature must be low enough to
provide easy cold starting but high enough to minimize vapor
lock/hot driveability problems.
The 50% evaporated temperature must be low enough to
provide good warm up and cool weather driveability without
being so low as to contribute to hot driveability and vapor
locking problems. This portion also affects short trip fuel
economy.
The 90% and end point evaporation temperatures must be low
enough to minimize crankcase and combustion chamber
deposits as well as spark plug fouling and dilution of engine oil.

37
The trend today is toward lower and lower volatility fuels
to reduce evaporative emissions.
While fuels of low volatility do reduce evaporative
emissions, they also vaporize less readily and in some
cases may contribute to poor cold start/warm up
performance especially in sensitive vehicles.
Because of this a Driveability Index (DI) has been added
to the ASTM specifications to help improve cold start and
warm up performance.
The DI is calculated with a formula that utilizes the
temperature at which ten percent, fifty percent, and ninety
percent of the fuel is evaporated. This formula is shown in
the next slide.

38
ASTM D 4814 specifies
a maximum DI for the
various gasoline
grades. A number
lower than that
specified is acceptable
but a higher number
may cause poor cold
start or poor warm up
performance.

39
Other Fuel Specifications
While octane and volatility are the most important
specifications, there are other fuel standards covered by
ASTM guidelines. The table on the next slide lists the various
specifications and their importance.

40
41
Gasoline Additives
A variety of specially formulated additives are added to
gasoline to enhance fuel quality and erformance, and to
maintain fuel standards during distribution.
These gasoline additives are blended in very small
quantities.
Many of these additives are also available in diluted form
as over-the-counter products for consumer addition.
The table on the next slide lists the most common
additives and why they are used.

42
43
Diesel Fuels
Diesel fuel is characterized by the following properties:
Density
Higher-density fuels have more energy per unit volume.
Also, in general, heavier fuels have higher boiling points.
Specific gravity
The density of petroleum products is usuallyexpressed as a
specific gravity. The specific gravity is defined as the ratio
of the mass of a volume of the fuel to the mass of the same
volume of water. It is dependent on the temperature of both
the fuel and the water.
It is commonly expressed as sp gr @ 60F/60F which
means that both the fuel and water are at 60F (15.6C).

44
API gravity
The American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity is also a
widely used measure of a fuel's density. It is related to the
specific gravity of the fuel by the following equation:
141.5
API gravity
131.5
sp gr @ 60 F/60 F
Ignition indices
A very important property of a diesel fuel is its readiness to
self-ignite at the temperatures and pressures present in the
cylinder when the fuel is injected. The cetane number is the
standard measure of this property.

45
46
Cetane Number (ASTMD613)
The cetane number is an engine-based test that uses a
single-cylinder, indirect-injection diesel engine, with the
following conditions:
Engine speed is fixed at 900 rpm
Engine is naturally aspirated
Intake air temperature is held at 150oF (65.6oC)
F/A and compression ratio adjusted to produce standard
ignition delay of 13 with the test fuel
Test fuel is removed from the engine and a blend of
reference fuels is added.

47
The primary reference fuels are n-cetane (n-hexadecane),
which has a cetane number of 100, and heptamethylnonane
(HMN), which has a cetane number of 15.
Different combinations of these two fuels are added until a
blend is found that restores the ignition delay to 13 degrees.
When this occurs, the cetane number is computed from the
following relationship:
Cetane Number = % n-cetane + 0.15 (% HMN)

48
Normal cetane number range is about 40 to 60. For a given
engine injection timing and rate, if the cetane number of the
fuel is low the ID will be too long. When this occurs, more
fuel than, desirable will be injected into the cylinder before
the first fuel particles ignite, causing a very large, fast
pressure rise at the start of combustion. This results in low
thermal efficiency and a rough-running engine.
If the CN is too high, combustion will start too soon,
Pressure will rise before TDC, so more work required during
compression stroke, resulting in reduced power and lower
efficiency.
CN below 40 results in unacceptable levels of exhaust
smoke and is illegal under many emission laws.

49
Cetane index
The cetane index is a calculated quantity that is intended
to approximate the cetane number. It is much cheaper to
determine than the engine-based cetane number.
However, the cetane index generally does not provide an
accurate indication of cetane number for non-petroleum-
based alternative fuels or if the fuel contains cetane-
improving additives.

50
Two methods are available for computing the cetane
index.
ASTM Standard D976 gives the following empirical
equation for the cetane index:
Cetane Index = 454.74 1641.416D + 774.74D2
0.554T50 + 97.803 [log10(T50)]2
where D = fuel density at 15oC in g/ml
T50 = temperature corresponding to the 50% point
on the distillation curve.

51
ASTM Standard D4737 gives the cetane index according to
the following equation:
Cetane Index = 45.2 + 0.0892 (T10N) + 0.131 (T50N)
+ 0.0523 (T90N) + 0.901B (T50N) 0.420B (T90N) +
4.9 104 (T10N)2 4.9 104 (T90N)2 + 107B + 60B2
where T10N = T10 215
T50N = T50 260
T90N = T90 310
T10, T50, T90= temperature corresponding to the 10%,
50% and 90% point on the distillation curve in oC.
B = [exp ( 3.5 DN)] 1
DN = density at 15oC (kg/l) 0.85

52
Diesel index
The diesel index is an ignition index that roughly correlates to
the cetane number. It is calculated from the following
equation:
API gravity
DieselIndex Aniline point ( F)

100

A high aniline point indicates a low aromatic content and

therefore a greater likelihood of a high cetane number.
A high API gravity indicates a low density, which is indicative
of a high paraffin fraction and high cetane number.

53
The cetane number of a fuel can be increased with fuel
additives that are designed to readily decompose.
Typical compounds used are alkyl nitrates, ether nitrates,
dinitrates of polyethylene glycols, and certain peroxides.

54
Cold flow properties
The heavier diesel fuels will crystallize, or gel, if the
temperature is low enough. Different tests are used to
characterize this property.
Cloud point (ASTM D2500, IP 219)
The cloud point is the temperature at which a cloud of wax
crystals first appears in a fuel sample that is cooled under
controlled conditions.
Pour point (ASTM D97, IP 15).
The pour point is the lowest temperature at which movement
of the fuel sample can be determined when the sample
container is tilted.

55
Low-temperature flow test (ASTM D4539).
The low-temperature flow test (LTFT) is designed to
evaluate whether a fuel can be expected to pass through
an engine fuel filtration system. The test determines the
lowest temperature at which 180 ml of fuel can be drawn
through a 17 m screen in 60 seconds or less with 20 kPa
of vacuum.
Cold filter plugging point (IP 309).
The cold filter plugging point (CFPP) is similar to the LTFT
test. It determines the lowest temperature where 20 ml of
fuel can be drawn through a 45 m screen in 60 seconds
with 200 mm of water (1.96 kPa) of vacuum.

56
Volatility
Diesel fuel volatility can be characterized by the distillation
curve and the flash point.
Distillation curve (ASTM D86).
The distillation curve is determined by measuring the fraction
of a fuel sample removed by heating a fuel sample to
progressively higher temperatures. Typically, the curve is
characterized by the initial point, which is the temperature of
the fuel when the first drop of liquid leaves the condenser, the
temperatures when 10% of the liquid is removed; and the
temperature for the last drop of fuel which is called the end
point.

57
The temperature where 90% of the fuel has been
removed is believed to be related to crankcase oil dilution.
Higher 90% distillation points increase the likelihood that
some fuel will escape combustion and leak past the piston
rings to the crankcase.
Flash point (ASTM D93).
The flash point is the lowest temperature at which a
combustible mixture can be formed above the liquid fuel. It
is important for fire safety considerations and depends on
both the lean flammability limit of the fuel as well as the
vapour pressure of the fuel constituents.

58
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. The
greater the viscosity, the less readily the liquid flows.
Viscosity is measured by determining the time required for a
volume of liquid to flow under gravity through a calibrated
glass capillary tube. The kinematic viscosity is then equal to
the product of this time and a calibration constant for the tube.
The dynamic viscosity can be obtained by multiplying the
kinematic viscosity by the density of the fluid.

59
Other Properties
Heating value, net and gross (ASTM D240).
Two heating values are in common use: the higher, or
gross, heating value and the lower, or net, heating value.
Both quantities are measured using a calorimeter that
measures the heat transfer from the hot combustion gases
as they are cooled to the initial temperature of the
reactants. The higher heating value assumes that all of the
water in the products is condensed liquid while the lower
value assumes that all of the water is present as vapour.
The lower heating value is normally used for engine
applications.

60
Properties of Fuels

61
Ramsbottom carbon residue (ASTM D524)
This test involves heating a small sample of fuel to
550C. The volatile matter evaporates and the heavier
fraction undergoes cracking and coking reactions. The
amount of residue, as a percentage of the original
sample, is used as an indicator of a fuel's tendency to
form combustion chamber deposits.
Sulfur content (ASTM D2622)
Petroleum includes a large number of sulfur-containing
compounds. Sulfur can contribute to higher engine wear,
can poison catalysts, and can produce sulfates that form
part of the exhaust particulate matter.

62
Ash (ASTM D482)
This test involves heating a small sample of fuel to 775C
until all organic material is either vaporized or burned off.
The residue is an ash that usually originates fromsoluble
metallic compounds or contaminants such as dirt and
rust.
Water and sediment (ASTM D1796)
Water in diesel fuel causes corrosion of storage tanks
and fuel injection equipment. The total amount of water
and sediment is determined by centrifuging the fuel and
reporting the result as a percentage of the fuel.

63
Copper corrosion (ASTM D130)
Fuels can be corrosive, largely due to sulfur compounds.
The copper corrosion test is a general indicator of this
effect; it involves placing a polished copper strip into a
heated fuel sample for 3 hours and comparing the tarnish
on the strip to a standard scale. A rating of 1
correspondsto slight tarnish and 4 is corrosion.

64
Diesel Fuel Specifications
The ASTM standard for diesel fuels is ASTM D 975
Standard Specification for Diesel Fuel Oils.
This standard covers seven grades of diesel fuel oils.
These grades include numbers 1-D (S15), 1-D (S500), 1-
D (S5000), 2-D (S15), 2-D (S500), 2-D (S5000) and 4-D.
The grades are listed in order of increasing density and
viscosity. In other words, a 2-D grade is denser and of
higher viscosity than grade 1-D.

65
The parenthetic numbers such as (S15) refer to the
maximum sulfur level for the grade.
Thus 2-D (S15) refers to No. 2 diesel with a maximum of
15 parts per million (ppm) of sulfur.
When the word diesel fuel is used, it is usually in reference
to No. 2-D grades, since that is the grade generally used
in all on-road vehicles as well as the majority of off-road
applications.

66
67
Alternative Fuels for IC Engines
Fuel economy of engines is greatly improved and will
probably continue to be improved.
But sometime in this century, crude oil and petroleum
products will become very scarce and costly to find and
produce. Gasoline and diesel fuels will become scarce and
costly.
At the same time, there will likely be an increase in the
number of automobiles and other IC engines.
Alternate fuel technology, availability, and use must and will
become more common in the coming decades.

68
Another reason motivating the development of alternate
fuels for the IC engine is concern over the emission
problems of gasoline engines.
A third reason for alternate fuel development is the fact that
in many countries a large percentage of crude oil must be
imported from other countries. This has become an
economic and security issue in some countries.

69
What Are the Alternative Fuels for IC Engines?

The following alternative fuels are listed by DOE (US):

Biodiesel
Electricity (not relevant to IC engines)
Ethanol Several emerging fuels are currently under
Hydrogen development. Many of these fuels are also considered
Methanol alternative fuels:
Natural Gas Biobutanol
Biogas
Propane Biomass to Liquids (BTL)
Coal to Liquids (CTL)
Fischer-Tropsch Diesel
Gas to Liquids (GTL)
Hydrogenation-Derived Renewable Diesel
P-Series
Ultra-Low Sulfur Diesel
(http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/index.html)

70
Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a renewable fuel that can be manufactured from
vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant greases.
Biodiesel is biodegradable, and its use significantly reduces
greenhouse gas emissions.
Pure biodiesel or biodiesel blended with petroleum diesel
can be used to fuel diesel vehicles.
Biodiesel can be blended with petroleum diesel in any
percentage. The percentages are designated as B20 for a
blend containing 20% biodiesel and 80% petroleum diesel,
B100 for 100% biodiesel, and so forth.

71
B20
20% biodiesel and 80% petroleum diesel - B20 - is the most
common biodiesel blend.
Using B20 provides benefits while avoiding many of the
cold-weather performance and material compatibility
concerns associated with B100.
B20 can be used in nearly all diesel equipment and is
compatible with most storage and distribution equipment.
B20 and lower-level blends generally do not require engine
modifications. Not all diesel engine manufacturers cover
biodiesel use in their warranties, however.
Biodiesel blends between B6-B20 must meet prescribed
quality standards - ASTM D7467 (see next slide).

72
Property Test method Limits Units
Viscosity at 40C D445 1.9-4.1 mm2/s
Flash point D93 52 C
Distillation temperature, 90%
D86 343 C
evaporated
Ramsbottom carbon residue on
D524 0.35 max % mass
10% bottoms
D5453
Sulfur (S15) 0.0015 max % mass
(S500) 0.05 max
Cetane number D613 40 min -
Ash content D482 0.01 % mass
Water and sediment D2709 0.050 max % mass
Copper corrosion 3 h at 50C D130 No. 3
One of the following must be met:
(1) Cetane index D976-80 40 min
(2) Aromaticity D1319-88 35 max

73
Biodiesel contains about 8% less energy per gallon than
petroleum diesel.
For B20, this could mean a 1 to 2% difference, but most B20
users report no noticeable difference in performance or fuel
economy.
Greenhouse gas and air-quality benefits of biodiesel are
roughly commensurate with the blend; B20 use provides
about 20% of the benefit of B100 use and so forth.
B5 is now available at some outlets in Malaysia.

74
B100
B100 or other high-level biodiesel blends can be used in
some engines built since 1994 with biodiesel-compatible
material for parts such as hoses and gaskets.
Those intending to use biodiesel blend significantly higher
than B20 must be aware of a number of concerns.
These are the lower energy content of biodiesel and
potential issues with impact on engine warranties, low-
temperature gelling, solvency/cleaning effect if regular diesel
was previously used, and microbial contamination.

75
Ethanol
Ethanol is a renewable fuel made from various plant
materials, which collectively are called "biomass. Ethanol
contains the same chemical compound (C2H5OH) found
in alcoholic beverages.
Ethanol is usually mixed with gasoline in a low-level blend
to oxygenate the fuel and reduce air pollution.
Ethanol is also increasingly available in E85, an
alternative fuel that can be used in flexible fuel vehicles.

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Ethanol

Several steps are required to make ethanol available as a

vehicle fuel, as shown below.

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What is Ethanol?
Ethanol, CH3CH2OH, (also known as ethyl alcohol, grain
alcohol, and EtOH) is a clear, colorless liquid.
Its molecules contain a hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded to a
carbon atom.
Ethanol can be produced from starch- and sugar-based
feedstocks such as corn grain (as it primarily is in the
United States) and sugar cane (as it primarily is in Brazil) or
from cellulosic feedstocks.

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Making ethanol from cellulosic feedstocks - such as grass,
wood, crop residues, or old newspapers - is more
challenging than using starch or sugars. These materials
must first be broken down into their component sugars for
subsequent fermentation to ethanol in a process called
biochemical conversion.
Cellulosic feedstocks also can be converted into ethanol
using heat and chemicals in a process called
thermochemical conversion.
Research are being done to improve this process to make it
more commercially attractive.

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Ethanol works well in internal combustion engines. It is a
high-octane fuel.
Low-level blends of ethanol, such as E10 (10% ethanol,
90% gasoline), generally have a higher octane rating than
unleaded gasoline.
Low-octane gasoline can be blended with 10% ethanol to
attain the standard 87 octane requirement.
However, pure ethanol (E100) contains 34% less energy
than a gallon of gasoline.

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E85
E85 (85% ethanol, 15% gasoline) is used to fuel E85 -
capable flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs).
The 15% gasoline content in E85 enables FFVs to operate
normally under cold conditions; fueling a vehicle with pure
ethanol (E100) creates problems during cold-weather
operation.
Ethanol can also be mixed with gasoline in lower-level
blends, which provide many benefits.
Other than lower gas mileage, motorists will see little
difference when using E85 versus gasoline. E85 has about
27% less energy per litre than gasoline.
However, E85 is typically priced lower than gasoline, so
that cost per mile is comparable.
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Hydrogen
Hydrogen/Natural Gas (HCNG) Fuel Blends
Natural gas can be blended with hydrogen to make HCNG.
Vehicles fueled with hydrogen/natural gas blends (HCNG)
are an initial step toward the hydrogen-based
transportation of the future.
HCNG vehicles offer the potential for immediate emissions
benefits, such as a reduction in nitrogen oxides (NOx)
emissions.
They can pave the way for a transition to fuel cell vehicles
by building early demand for hydrogen infrastructure

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Methanol
Methanol (CH3OH) is also known as wood alcohol. Today,
most of the world's methanol is produced by a process
using natural gas as a feedstock.
Methanol can be used to make methyl tertiary-butyl ether
(MTBE), an oxygenate that is blended with gasoline to
enhance octane and create cleaner burning fuel. However,
MTBE production and use has declined because it has
been found to contaminate ground water.
The use of methanol as an IC engine fuel has declined
since the early 1990s, and auto makers are no longer
manufacturing vehicles that run on it.

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Natural Gas
Natural gas is an odorless, nontoxic, gaseous mixture of
hydrocarbons - predominantly methane (CH4). Because it
is a gas, it must be stored onboard a vehicle in either a
compressed gaseous or liquefied state.
Compressed natural gas (CNG) is typically stored in a tank
at a pressure of 3,000 to 3,600 psi (20.7 to 24.8 MPa).
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is super-cooled and stored in
its liquid phase at 260F (162C) in special insulated
tanks.

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Natural Gas Vehicles
NGVs operate in one of three modes: dedicated, bifuel, or
dual-fuel.
Dedicated NGVs run on only natural gas. Bifuel NGVs
can run on either natural gas or gasoline. Dual-fuel
vehicles run on natural gas and use diesel for ignition
assist. Light-duty vehicles typically operate in dedicated
or bifuel modes, and heavy-duty vehicles operate in
dedicated or dual-fuel modes.
On the vehicle, natural gas is stored in tanks as CNG, or
in some heavy-duty vehicles, as LNG.
Many NGVs are used as taxis in Malaysia.

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A CNG fuel system transfers high-pressure natural gas
from the storage tank to the engine while reducing the
pressure of the gas to the operating pressure of the
engines fuel-management system.
The natural gas is injected into the engine intake air the
same way gasoline is injected into a gasoline-fueled
engine.
The engine functions the same way as a gasoline engine:
The fuel-air mixture is compressed and ignited by a spark
plug and the expanding gases produce rotational forces
that propel the vehicle.

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Natural gas vehicles are similar to gasoline or diesel
vehicles with regard to power, acceleration, and cruising
speed.
The driving range of NGVs is generally less than that of
comparable gasoline and diesel vehicles because, with
natural gas, less overall energy content can be stored in
the same size tank as the more energy-dense gasoline
or diesel fuels.
Extra natural gas storage tanks or the use of LNG can
help increase range for larger vehicles.

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CNG vehicles are fueled using pressure-sealed dispensers.
CNG fueling stations can be configured to fuel vehicles at
various rates.
Slow-fill stations fuel parked vehicles overnight, taking
advantage of off-peak electricity rates and smaller
compression equipment.
Fast-fill stations fill vehicles rapidly using larger
compression equipment and high-pressure gas-storage
systems

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Emissions
Compared with gasoline and diesel vehicles, NGVs
produce significantly lower carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxide, nonmethane hydrocarbon, particulate matter, and
other toxic emissions, as well as greenhouse gas
emissions.
Also, because CNG fuel systems are completely sealed,
CNG vehicles produce no evaporative emissions.

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Propane
Propane, also known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG or
LP-gas), or autogas in Europe, is a three-carbon alkane
gas (C3H8). Stored under pressure inside a tank, propane
turns into a colorless, odorless liquid.
As pressure is released, the liquid propane vaporizes and
turns into gas that is used for combustion. An odorant,
ethyl mercaptan, is added for leak detection.
Propane has a high octane rating and good properties for
spark-ignited internal combustion engines.
Propane is produced as a by-product of natural gas
processing and crude oil refining.

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Propane sold as vehicle fuel can be a mixture of propane
with smaller amounts of other gases.
According to one specification for propane as a
transportation fuel, it must consist of 90% propane, no more
than 5% propylene, and 5% other gases, primarily butane
and butylene.
Propane is stored onboard a vehicle in a tank pressurized to
around 300 psi (2070 kPa).
Under this pressure, propane becomes a liquid with an
energy density 270 times greater than the gaseous form.
Propane has about 25% less energy content than gasoline.

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