Atmosphere of Earth

Air redirects here. For other uses, see Air (disam-

N2
biguation).
Qualities of air redirects here. It is not to be confused 78.084 %
with Air quality.

O2
20.946 %
Ar
0.04338 % 0.9340 %
Blue light is scattered more than other wavelengths by the gases in
the atmosphere, giving Earth a blue halo when seen from space
onboard ISS at a height of 402424 km

The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, com-

monly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is
retained by Earths gravity. The atmosphere protects life
on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warm- CO2
ing the surface through heat retention (greenhouse ef- 0.0407 %
fect), and reducing temperature extremes between day
and night (the diurnal temperature variation).
Ne
By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95%
oxygen,[1] 0.93% argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, and
0.001818 %
small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a vari- H2 He
able amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea 0.000055 % 0.000524 %
level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air content Kr CH4
and atmospheric pressure vary at dierent layers, and air 0.000114 % 0.00018 %
suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and
breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earths Composition of Earths atmosphere by volume. The lower pie
troposphere and in articial atmospheres. represents the trace gases that together compose about 0.038% of
The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.151018 kg,[2] the atmosphere (0.043% with CO2 at 2014 concentration). The
three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; numbers are from a variety of years (mainly 1987, with CO2
and methane from 2009) and do not represent any single source.
36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thin-
ner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no denite
boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The
Krmn line, at 100 km (62 mi), or 1.57% of Earths ra-
dius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere as temperature and composition.
and outer space. Atmospheric eects become noticeable The study of Earths atmosphere and its processes is
during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude called atmospheric science (aerology). Early pioneers in
of around 120 km (75 mi). Several layers can be distin- the eld include Lon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard
guished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such Assmann.[3]

1
2 2 STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

1 Composition Earths atmosphere Lower 4 layers of the atmosphere in

3 dimensions as seen diagonally from above the exobase.
Main article: Atmospheric chemistry Layers drawn to scale, objects within the layers are not
The three major constituents of air, and therefore of to scale. Aurorae shown here at the bottom of the ther-
Earths atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Wa- mosphere can actually form at any altitude in this atmo-
ter vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere spheric layer
by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a green-
house gas) varies signicantly from around 10 ppm by
volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as 2.1.1 Exosphere
much as 5% by volume in hot, humid air masses, and
concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically Main article: Exosphere
quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor).[4] The
remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases,[5]
among which are the greenhouse gases, principally car- The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earths atmo-
bon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Fil- sphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It extends
tered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical from the exobase, which is located at the top of the ther-
compounds. Many substances of natural origin may be mosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level,
present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) where it
as aerosols in an unltered air sample, including dust of merges into the solar wind.
mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densi-
spray, and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also ties of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules
may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to
(elemental or in compounds), uorine compounds and the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart
elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without col-
hydrogen sulde and sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) may be derived liding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer
from natural sources or from industrial air pollution. behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into
space. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajec-
tories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere
2 Structure of the atmosphere or the solar wind.
The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any me-
2.1 Principal layers teorological phenomena to be possible. However, the
aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in
the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into
In general, air pressure and density decrease with al-
the thermosphere. The exosphere contains most of the
titude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has
satellites orbiting Earth.
a more complicated prole with altitude, and may re-
main relatively constant or even increase with altitude
in some regions (see the temperature section, below). 2.1.2 Thermosphere
Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude
prole is constant and measurable by means of instru- Main article: Thermosphere
mented balloon soundings, the temperature behavior pro-
vides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers.
In this way, Earths atmosphere can be divided (called The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earths
atmospheric stratication) into ve main layers. Ex- atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which sep-
cluding the exosphere, Earth has four primary layers, arates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80
which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to the thermopause at an al-
thermosphere.[7] From highest to lowest, the ve main titude range of 5001000 km (310620 mi; 1,600,000
layers are: 3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause varies con-
siderably due to changes in solar activity.[8] Because the
thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere,
Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km (440 to 6,200 miles) it is also referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the
thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi)
Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km (50 to 440 miles)[8] above Earths surface, contains the ionosphere.
Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km (31 to 50 miles) The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases
with height. Unlike the stratosphere beneath it, wherein
Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km (7 to 31 miles) a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of ra-
diation by ozone, the inversion in the thermosphere oc-
Troposphere: 0 to 12 km (0 to 7 miles)[9] curs due to the extremely low density of its molecules.
2.1 Principal layers 3

The temperature of this layer can rise as high as 1500
C (2700 F), though the gas molecules are so far apart
that its temperature in the usual sense is not very mean-
ingful. The air is so rareed that an individual molecule
(of oxygen, for example) travels an average of 1 kilo-
metre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other
molecules.[10] Although the thermosphere has a high pro-
portion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel
hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too
low to conduct a signicant amount of energy to or from
the skin.
This layer is completely cloudless and free of water va-
por. However non-hydrometeorological phenomena such
as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasion-
ally seen in the thermosphere. The International Space
Station orbits in this layer, between 320 and 380 km (200
and 240 mi).
2.1.3 Mesosphere
Main article: Mesosphere
The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earths atmo- sphere where the air is coldest. This is the highest layer
sphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and that can be accessed by jet-powered aircraft.
below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause
at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the
mesopause at 8085 km (5053 mi; 260,000280,000 ft)
above sea level.
from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the
top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000
ft) above Earths surface to the stratopause at an altitude
of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000
ft).
The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere
is roughly 1/1000 the pressure at sea level. It contains
the ozone layer, which is the part of Earths atmosphere
that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas.
The stratosphere denes a layer in which temperatures
rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is
caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) ra-
diation from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts
turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be
60 C (76 F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the
stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 C.[13]
The stratospheric temperature prole creates very sta-
ble atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the
weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in
the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost
completely free of clouds and other forms of weather.
However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are oc-
casionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmo-
2.1.5 Troposphere

Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the Main article: Troposphere

mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of
the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has
an average temperature around 85 C (120 F; 190 The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earths atmosphere.
K).[11][12] It extends from Earths surface to an average height of
about 12 km, although this altitude actually varies from
Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the about 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles to 17 km (56,000
very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated ft) at the equator,[9] with some variation due to weather.
into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a
highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to boundary marked in most places by a temperature inver-
the naked eye if sunlight reects o them about an hour sion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder
or two after sunset or a similar length of time before sun- one), and in others by a zone which is isothermal with
rise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around height.[14][15]
4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. A type of lightning
referred to as either sprites or ELVES, occasionally form Although variations do occur, the temperature usually de-
far above tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere clines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because
is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon at- the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer
mospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be ac- from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere
cessible to aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit (i.e. Earths surface) is typically the warmest section of
orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence
sounding rockets. the origin of its name in the Greek word , tropos,
meaning turn). The troposphere contains roughly 80%
of the mass of Earths atmosphere.[16] The troposphere is
2.1.4 Stratosphere denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a
larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere
Main article: Stratosphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty per-
cent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the
The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earths at- lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the troposphere.
mosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found
4 3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earths to stratify by molecular weight, with the heav-
weather takes place. It has basically all the weather- ier ones, such as oxygen and nitrogen, present
associated cloud genus types generated by active wind cir- only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The
culation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds upper part of the heterosphere is composed al-
can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the most completely of hydrogen, the lightest ele-
lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional aviation ment.
activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only
layer that can be accessed by propeller-driven aircraft. The planetary boundary layer is the part of the tro-
posphere that is closest to Earths surface and is di-
rectly aected by it, mainly through turbulent diu-
2.2 Other layers sion. During the day the planetary boundary layer
usually is well-mixed, whereas at night it becomes
Within the ve principal layers that are largely deter- stably stratied with weak or intermittent mixing.
mined by temperature, several secondary layers may be The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges
distinguished by other properties: from as little as about 100 meters on clear, calm
nights to 3000 m or more during the afternoon in
The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. dry regions.
In this layer ozone concentrations are about 2 to 8
parts per million, which is much higher than in the The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earths
lower atmosphere but still very small compared to surface is 14 C (57 F; 287 K)[19] or 15 C (59 F; 288
the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly K),[20] depending on the reference.[21][22][23]
located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from
about 1535 km (9.321.7 mi; 49,000115,000 ft),
though the thickness varies seasonally and geograph- 3 Physical properties
ically. About 90% of the ozone in Earths atmo-
sphere is contained in the stratosphere.
3.1 Pressure and thickness
The ionosphere is a region of the atmosphere that
is ionized by solar radiation. It is responsible for Main article: Atmospheric pressure
auroras. During daytime hours, it stretches from 50
to 1,000 km (31 to 621 mi; 160,000 to 3,280,000
The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is dened
ft) and includes the mesosphere, thermosphere, and
by the International Standard Atmosphere as 101325
parts of the exosphere. However, ionization in the
pascals (760.00 Torr; 14.6959 psi; 760.00 mmHg). This
mesosphere largely ceases during the night, so auro-
is sometimes referred to as a unit of standard atmo-
ras are normally seen only in the thermosphere and
spheres (atm). Total atmospheric mass is 5.14801018
lower exosphere. The ionosphere forms the inner
kg (1.1351019 lb),[25] about 2.5% less than would be in-
edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical impor-
ferred from the average sea level pressure and Earths area
tance because it inuences, for example, radio prop-
of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by
agation on Earth.
Earths mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the
The homosphere and heterosphere are dened by total weight of the air above unit area at the point where
whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with
The surface-based homosphere includes the tro- location and weather.
posphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the low- If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform den-
est part of the thermosphere, where the chemical sity from sea level, it would terminate abruptly at an al-
composition of the atmosphere does not depend titude of 8.50 km (27,900 ft). It actually decreases ex-
on molecular weight because the gases are mixed ponentially with altitude, dropping by half every 5.6 km
by turbulence.[18] This relatively homogeneous layer (18,000 ft) or by a factor of 1/e every 7.64 km (25,100 ft),
ends at the turbopause found at about 100 km (62 the average scale height of the atmosphere below 70 km
mi; 330,000 ft), which places it about 20 km (12 (43 mi; 230,000 ft). However, the atmosphere is more
mi; 66,000 ft) above the mesopause. accurately modeled with a customized equation for each
layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular com-
Above this altitude lies the heterosphere, which position, solar radiation and gravity into account.
includes the exosphere and most of the thermo- In summary, the mass of Earths atmosphere is dis-
sphere. Here, the chemical composition varies tributed approximately as follows:[26]
with altitude. This is because the distance that
particles can move without colliding with one
50% is below 5.6 km (18,000 ft).
another is large compared with the size of mo-
tions that cause mixing. This allows the gases 90% is below 16 km (52,000 ft).
 5

99.99997% is below 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft), the ideal gas law). Atmospheric density decreases as the
the Krmn line. By international convention, this altitude increases. This variation can be approximately
marks the beginning of space where human travelers modeled using the barometric formula. More sophisti-
are considered astronauts. cated models are used to predict orbital decay of satel-
lites.
By comparison, the summit of Mt. Everest is at 8,848 The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion
m (29,029 ft); commercial airliners typically cruise be- (51015 ) tonnes or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. Ac-
tween 10 km (33,000 ft) and 13 km (43,000 ft) where cording to the American National Center for Atmo-
the thinner air improves fuel economy; weather balloons spheric Research, The total mean mass of the atmo-
reach 30.4 km (100,000 ft) and above; and the highest sphere is 5.14801018 kg with an annual range due to
X-15 ight in 1963 reached 108.0 km (354,300 ft). water vapor of 1.2 or 1.51015 kg, depending on whether
Even above the Krmn line, signicant atmospheric ef- surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat
fects such as auroras still occur. Meteors begin to glow in smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of
this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until water vapor is estimated as 1.271016 kg and the dry air
they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earths mass as 5.1352 0.00031018 kg.
ionosphere, important to HF radio propagation, begin be-
low 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison,
the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typi- 4 Optical properties
cally orbit at 350400 km, within the F-layer of the iono-
sphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to
See also: Sunlight
require reboosts every few months. Depending on solar
activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric
drag at altitudes as high as 700800 km. Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives
from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space,
but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the
3.2 Temperature and speed of sound incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reected
by the atmosphere.
Main articles: Atmospheric temperature and Speed of
sound
The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by ref- 4.1 Scattering
erence to temperature is discussed above. Temperature
decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations Main article: Scattering
in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature
stabilizes through a large vertical distance through the rest When light passes through Earths atmosphere, photons
of the troposphere. In the stratosphere, starting above interact with it through scattering. If the light does not
about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due interact with the atmosphere, it is called direct radiation
to heating within the ozone layer caused by capture of sig- and is what you see if you were to look directly at the
nicant ultraviolet radiation from the Sun by the dioxy- Sun. Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in
gen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of the atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when
increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high you cannot see your shadow there is no direct radiation
altitudes, in the aptly-named thermosphere above 90 km. reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another ex-
Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed ample, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering,
of sound depends only on temperature and not on the gas shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer
pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are
with altitude takes on the form of the complicated tem- seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are
perature prole (see illustration to the right), and does not red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Suns
mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure. rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach
your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out,
leaving the red light in a sunset.
3.3 Density and mass

Main article: Density of air 4.2 Absorption

The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m3 (1.2 g/L, Main article: Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)
0.0012 g/cm3 ). Density is not measured directly but is
calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure Dierent molecules absorb dierent wavelengths of radi-
and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of ation. For example, O2 and O3 absorb almost all wave-
6 6 EVOLUTION OF EARTHS ATMOSPHERE

lengths shorter than 300 nanometers. Water (H2 O) ab- ent is large. An example of such eects is the mirage.
sorbs many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule See also: Scintillation (astronomy)
absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule.
This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools
by emitting radiation, as discussed below.
The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the at- 5 Circulation
mosphere leave windows of low opacity, allowing the
transmission of only certain bands of light. The optical
window runs from around 300 nm (ultraviolet-C) up into Main article: Atmospheric circulation
the range humans can see, the visible spectrum (com- Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of
monly called light), at roughly 400700 nm and contin- air through the troposphere, and the means (with ocean
ues to the infrared to around 1100 nm. There are also circulation) by which heat is distributed around Earth.
infrared and radio windows that transmit some infrared The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation
and radio waves at longer wavelengths. For example, the varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains
radio window runs from about one centimeter to about fairly constant because it is determined by Earths rota-
eleven-meter waves. tion rate and the dierence in solar radiation between the
equator and poles.

4.3 Emission
6 Evolution of Earths atmosphere
Main article: Emission (electromagnetic radiation)
See also: History of the Earth and Paleoclimatology
Emission is the opposite of absorption, it is when an ob-
ject emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and
wavelengths of radiation depending on their "black body"
emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit 6.1 Earliest atmosphere
more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects
emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For exam- The rst atmosphere would have consisted of gases in
ple, the Sun is approximately 6,000 K (5,730 C; 10,340 the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen. In addition, there
F), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the would probably have been simple hydrides such as those
human eye. Earth is approximately 290 K (17 C; 62 now found in the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), notably
F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much water vapor, methane and ammonia. As the solar nebula
too long to be visible to humans. dissipated, these gases would have escaped, partly driven
[28]
Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits in- o by the solar wind.
frared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earths
surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is
because clouds (H2 O) are strong absorbers and emitters 6.2 Second atmosphere
of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder
at night at higher elevations. Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases pro-
duced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by
The greenhouse eect is directly related to this absorp- huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting
tion and emission eect. Some gases in the atmosphere largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases.[28]
absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact A major part of carbon-dioxide emissions soon dissolved
with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples in water and built up carbonate sediments.
of these are CO2 and H2 O.
Researchers have found water-related sediments dating
from as early as 3.8 billion years ago.[29] About 3.4 bil-
4.4 Refractive index lion years ago, nitrogen formed the major part of the then
stable second atmosphere. An inuence of life has to be
The refractive index of air is close to, but just greater than taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmo-
1. Systematic variations in refractive index can lead to the sphere, because hints of early life-forms appear as early
bending of light rays over long optical paths. One exam- as 3.5 billion years ago.[30] How Earth at that time main-
ple is that, under some circumstances, observers onboard tained a climate warm enough for liquid water and life, if
ships can see other vessels just over the horizon because the early Sun put out 30% lower solar radiance than to-
light is refracted in the same direction as the curvature of day, is a puzzle known as the "faint young Sun paradox".
Earths surface. The geological record however shows a continually
The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giv- relatively warm surface during the complete early
ing rise to refraction eects when the temperature gradi- temperature record of Earth - with the exception of one
6.4 Air pollution 7

cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the 6.4 Air pollution
late Archean eon an oxygen-containing atmosphere be-
gan to develop, apparently produced by photosynthesiz- Main article: Air pollution
ing cyanobacteria (see Great Oxygenation Event), which
have been found as stromatolite fossils from 2.7 billionAir pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere
years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (isotope ratioof chemicals, particulate matter or biological mate-
proportions) very much approximates current conditions, rials that cause harm or discomfort to organisms.[35]
suggesting that the fundamental features of the carbon cy-
Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by air pollu-
cle became established as early as 4 billion years ago. tion, chiey from chlorouorocarbons and other ozone-
Ancient sediments in the Republic of Gabon dating from depleting substances.
between about 2,150 and 2,080 million years ago pro-
vide a record of Earths dynamic oxygenation evolution.
These uctuations in oxygenation were likely driven by 7 Images from space
the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion.[31]
On October 19, 2015 NASA started a website contain-
ing daily images of the full sunlit side of Earth on http:
//epic.gsfc.nasa.gov/. The images are taken from the
6.3 Third atmosphere Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) and show
Earth as it rotates during a day.[36]
The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tec-
tonics inuences the long-term evolution of the atmo-
sphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large
continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in
8 See also
the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the
Great Oxygenation Event and its appearance is indicated Aerial perspective
by the end of the banded iron formations. Before this Air (classical element)
time, any oxygen produced by photosynthesis was con-
sumed by oxidation of reduced materials, notably iron. Air glow
Molecules of free oxygen did not start to accumulate in
the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen be- Airshed
gan to exceed the availability of reducing materials. This Atmosphere (for information on atmospheres in
point signies a shift from a reducing atmosphere to an general)
oxidizing atmosphere. O2 showed major variations until
reaching a steady state of more than 15% by the end of Atmospheric dispersion modeling
the Precambrian.[32] The following time span from 541
million years ago to the present day is the Phanerozoic Atmospheric electricity
eon, during the earliest period of which, the Cambrian, Atmospheric models
oxygen-requiring metazoan life forms began to appear.
The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has uctu- Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) (in
ated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of the U.S.)
about 30% around 280 million years ago, signicantly Atmospheric stratication
higher than todays 21%. Two main processes govern
changes in the atmosphere: Plants use carbon dioxide Aviation
from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen. Breakdown of
pyrite and volcanic eruptions release sulfur into the at- Biosphere
mosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount Carbon dioxide in Earths atmosphere
of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic erup-
tions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can con- Compressed air
vert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the
amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Peri- COSPAR international reference atmosphere
ods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated (CIRA)
with rapid development of animals. Todays atmosphere Environmental impact of aviation
contains 21% oxygen, which is high enough for this rapid
development of animals.[33] Global dimming
The scientic consensus is that the anthropogenic green- Historical temperature record
house gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are
the main cause of global warming.[34] Hydrosphere
8 9
Hypermobility (travel)
Kyoto Protocol
Leaching (agriculture)
Lithosphere
Standard Dry Air
U.S. Standard Atmosphere
Warm period
Water vapor in Earths atmosphere
Ozone layer
9 References
[1] Zimmer, Carl (3 October 2013). Earths Oxygen: A
Mystery Easy to Take for Granted. New York Times. Re-
trieved 3 October 2013.
[2] Lide, David R. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC, 1996: 14-7
[3] Ultraviolet radiation in the solar system By Manuel
Vzquez, Arnold Hanslmeier
[4] Wallace, John M. and Peter V. Hobbs. Atmospheric Sci-
ence; An Introductory Survey.Elsevier. Second Edition,
2006. ISBN 978-0-12-732951-2. Chapter 1
[5] Trace Gases. Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Archived from the orig-
inal on 9 October 2010. Retrieved 2010-10-16.
[6] Source for gures: Carbon dioxide, NOAA Earth Sys-
tem Research Laboratory, (updated 2013-03). Methane,
IPCC TAR table 6.1, (updated to 1998). The NASA total
was 17 ppmv over 100%, and CO2 was increased here by
15 ppmv. To normalize, N2 should be reduced by about
25 ppmv and O2 by about 7 ppmv.
[7] http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/science/
mos-upper-atmosphere.html#.VHg5AzHF8vY
[8] Randy Russell (2008). The Thermosphere. Retrieved
2013-10-18.
[9] The height of the tropopause. Das.uwyo.edu. Retrieved
2012-04-18.
[10] Ahrens, C. Donald. Essentials of Meteorology. Published
by Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2005.
[11] States, Robert J.; Gardner, Chester S. (January 2000).
Thermal Structure of the Mesopause Region (80
105 km) at 40N Latitude. Part I: Seasonal Varia-
tions. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2000 57:
6677. Bibcode:2000JAtS...57...66S. doi:10.1175/1520-
0469(2000)057<0066:TSOTMR>2.0.CO;2.
[12] Joe Buchdahl. Atmosphere, Climate & Environment
Information Programme. Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Retrieved
2012-04-18.
REFERENCES
[13] Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences (1993).
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[14] Barry, R.G. & Chorley R.J. (1971). Atmosphere, Weather
and Climate. London, Menthuen & Co Ltd., p. 65
[15] Tyson, P.D., Preston-Whyte, R.A. (2013). The Weather
and Climate of Southern Africa. (Second Edition). Ox-
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[16] McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science & Tech-
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[17] ISS022-E-062672 caption. NASA. Retrieved 21
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[20] NASA Earth Fact Sheet. Nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov.
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[22] Earths Radiation Balance and Oceanic Heat Fluxes.
[23] Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Control Run
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[24] Geometric altitude vs. temperature, pressure, density, and
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[25] The Mass of the Atmosphere: A Constraint on Global
Analyses. Ams.allenpress.com. 1970-01-01. Retrieved
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[26] Lutgens, Frederick K. and Edward J. Tarbuck (1995) The
Atmosphere, Prentice Hall, 6th ed., pp14-17, ISBN 0-13-
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[27] Atmospheric Temperature Trends, 1979-2005 : Image
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[28] Zahnle, K.; Schaefer, L.; Fegley, B. (2010).
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[29] B. Windley: The Evolving Continents. Wiley Press, New
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[30] J. Schopf: Earths Earliest Biosphere: Its Origin and Evo-
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|date= (help)
 9

[32] Christopher R. Scotese, Back to Earth History : Summary

Chart for the Precambrian, Paleomar Project

[33] Peter Ward: Out of Thin Air: Dinosaurs, Birds, and

Earths Ancient Atmosphere

[34] Summary for Policymakers (PDF). Climate Change

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[35] Starting from PollutionDenition from the Merriam-

Webster Online Dictionary

[36] Northon, Karen. Daily Views of Earth Available on New

NASA Website. NASA. Retrieved 2015-10-21.

10 External links
Ignacia, Sandra; Jimnez, Ramrez (2014). Peter M.H.
Kroneck and Martha E. Sosa Torres, ed. The Metal-
Driven Biogeochemistry of Gaseous Compounds in the En-
vironment. Metal Ions in Life Sciences 14. Springer. pp.
114 The Early Earth Atmosphere and Early Life Cata-
lysts. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9269-1_1.

NASAs Earth Fact Sheet

American Geophysical Union: Atmospheric Sci-
ences
Outreach of the GEOmon project See how Earth at-
mosphere is observed and monitored by a European
project that combines many approaches.

Layers of the Atmosphere

Answers to several questions of curious kids related
to Air and Atmosphere

The AMS Glossary of Meteorology

Paul Crutzen Interview Free video of Paul Crutzen
Nobel Laureate for his work on decomposition of
ozone talking to Harry Kroto Nobel Laureate by the
Vega Science Trust.
10 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

Mean atmospheric water vapor

Space Shuttle Endeavour orbiting in the thermosphere. Because

of the angle of the photo, it appears to straddle the stratosphere
and mesosphere that actually lie more than 250 km below. The
orange layer is the troposphere, which gives way to the whitish
stratosphere and then the blue mesosphere.[17]

100 Krmn line

Thermosphere
90
aurora

80 Speed of sound Mesopause

ionosphere D layer
70
Geometric altitude (km)

Temperature meteor

60 Mesosphere

50
Stratopause
weather balloon
40
NASA X-43A
Stratosphere
30
ozone layer
SR-71 Blackbird
20 Concorde
Density
typical airliner
10 Tropopause
Pressure Mt Everest
Troposphere
0 Burj Khalifa
0 0.5 1 1.5
Density (kg/m)

0 50 100 150
Pressure (kN/m)

200 250 300 350

Speed of sound (m/s)

150 200 250 300

Temperature (K)

Earths atmosphere Lower 4 layers of the atmosphere in 3 di-
mensions as seen diagonally from above the exobase. Layers
drawn to scale, objects within the layers are not to scale. Auro-
rae shown here at the bottom of the thermosphere can actually
form at any altitude in this atmospheric layer
Comparison of the 1962 US Standard Atmosphere graph of
geometric altitude against air density, pressure, the speed of
sound and temperature with approximate altitudes of various
objects.[24]
 11

An idealised view of three large circulation cells.

These images show temperature trends in two thick layers of the
atmosphere as measured by a series of satellite-based instruments
between January 1979 and December 2005. The measurements
were taken by Microwave Sounding Units and Advanced Mi-
crowave Sounding Units ying on a series of National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) weather satellites. The
instruments record microwaves emitted from oxygen molecules in
the atmosphere. Source:[27]

Oxygen content of the atmosphere over the last billion years. This
diagram in more detail

Temperature and mass density against altitude from the

NRLMSISE-00 standard atmosphere model (the eight dotted lines
in each decade are at the eight cubes 8, 27, 64, ..., 729)

Most of the
Visible light Long-wavelength
infrared spectrum Radio waves observable
Gamma rays, X-rays and ultraviolet observable radio waves
absorbed by from Earth.
light blocked by the upper atmosphere from Earth, blocked.
atmospheric
(best observed from space). with some gasses (best
atmospheric observed
distortion. from space).
100 %
Atmospheric
opacity

50 %

0%
This animation shows the buildup of tropospheric CO2 in the
0.1 nm 1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 m 10 m 100 m

Wavelength
1 mm 1 cm 10 cm 1m 10 m 100 m 1 km
Northern Hemisphere with a maximum around May. The max-
imum in the vegetation cycle follows, occurring in the late sum-
mer. Following the peak in vegetation, the drawdown of atmo-
Rough plot of Earths atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) spheric CO2 due to photosynthesis is apparent, particularly over
to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, including the boreal forests.
visible light.
12 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text
Atmosphere of Earth Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth?oldid=719434143 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Zun-
dark, Malcolm Farmer, Andre Engels, Youssefsan, XJaM, Christian List, SimonP, Ram-Man, Patrick, JohnOwens, Pit~enwiki, Dante
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Nikai, Jeandr du Toit, Lancevortex, Caelice~enwiki, Mxn, Pizza Puzzle, Victor Engel, Trainspotter~enwiki, Pablo Mayrgundter, Denni,
Cos111, Fuzheado, Doradus, Zoicon5, Maya~enwiki, Tpbradbury, Dragons ight, SEWilco, Omegatron, Morn, Wetman, Jusjih, Carbuncle,
Donarreiskoer, Robbot, Sander123, Friedo, Chrism, Fredrik, Stephan Schulz, Lowellian, Academic Challenger, Caknuck, Bkell, Mush-
room, Seth Ilys, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Fudoreaper, Tom harrison, Mihail Vasiliev, Mark.murphy, Karn, Theon~enwiki,
Peruvianllama, Everyking, Curps, Alison, Michael Devore, Home Row Keysplurge, Waltpohl, Guanaco, Mboverload, Mobz, Brockert,
JRR Trollkien, Robsteadman, Antandrus, Beland, Onco p53, Eroica, MistToys, Rdsmith4, Kesac, Aeconley, Latitude0116, Borameer,
Icairns, Rlcantwell, Cynical, Marcos, Aknorals, Syvanen, Clemwang, Deglr6328, GreenReaper, Adashiel, ELApro, Mike Rosoft, Rn-
cox, Eyrian, JTN, Imaglang, Discospinster, Zaheen, Rich Farmbrough, Alsadius, Vsmith, Florian Blaschke, Murtasa, Xezbeth, Ponder,
Dbachmann, GregBenson, Paul August, Bender235, ESkog, Loren36, Brian0918, Pmetzger, RJHall, CanisRufus, El C, Lankiveil, Joan-
joc~enwiki, Worldtraveller, Aude, Shanes, Art LaPella, Antwerp42, Triona, Jpgordon, Adambro, Sole Soul, Bobo192, Dreish, Duk, Sampo
Torgo, Pokrajac, Jerryseinfeld, Pschemp, Merope, Knucmo2, Ranveig, Mrzaius, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Iggykin, LtNOWIS, Eric
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AdamButtery, Tiptoety, Radon210, Permacultura, Wowrogue, JetLover, Wilson44691, Jake cadenhead, Seospamer, Jc-S0CO, Aruton,
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The-G-Unit-Boss, BenoniBot~enwiki, Dr Thermo, LonelyMarble, Mygerardromance, Allaboutbball, Yitscar, Vy7, C0nanPayne, Angelo
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ishclassinmediacenter, Robert the dee dee dee, Leonard^Bloom, Delswick, Nintendoggys, Njardarlogar, LarryMorseDCOhio, Iohannes
11.2 Images 13

Animosus, M.O.X, Naruto82494, Darkemagik, TheresaWilson, Calor, 25abs25, Thingg, Aitias, Laurenraeieskites, Johnuniq, SoxBot
III, HumphreyW, Egmontaz, Apparition11, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Attaboy, HimsAhimsa, DumZiBoT, Ramisses, Crazy Boris
with a red beard, BendersGame, Evababygirl, XLinkBot, Hotcrocodile, Gohglendon, Fastily, Nathan Johnson, Ovis23, Allsaints23, Little
Mountain 5, Avoided, WikHead, Sergay, SilvonenBot, Mifter, Aog2000a, Alexius08, Benboy00, ZooFari, HexaChord, Addbot, Willk-
ing1979, Jojhutton, Tcncv, AnnaJGrant, Crazysane, Montgomery '39, Ronhjones, Sarkozila, Amrad, CanadianLinuxUser, NjardarBot,
Cst17, MrOllie, DFS454, Glane23, Tosan, Chzz, Debresser, Doniago, LinkFA-Bot, Clansmugglar, 5 albert square, IOLJe, DubaiTer-
minator, Tide rolls, , QuadrivialMind, Teles, Ettrig, Martin Hanson, Frehley, Dunk402, Luckas-bot, TheSuave, Yobot, 2D, Boto
dakkel, NGYlions, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, TaBOT-zerem, Bubblesf11, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, KamikazeBot, Sedathut, Pentajism,
, Eric-Wester, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, AndrooUK, Bavetta, Kristen Eriksen, 1exec1, Xosema, Anotherstani, Beryllium-
9, Killiondude, IRP, Galoubet, Reaper45693, Levipetersisgay, Shock Brigade Harvester Boris, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Flewis,
Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Eyal Morag, OllieFury, E2eamon, ArthurBot, RealityApol-
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pherKingChemist, Omnipaedista, Shirik, Imhatap, RibotBOT, Hoifon, Geopersona, Wongo237, Doulos Christos, MerlLinkBot, N419BH,
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TheJiggySaw, 10metreh, Hamtechperson, Achaemenes, Hoo man, Pikiwyn, Btilm, Brian Everlasting, SpaceFlight89, Jandalhandler, Ja-
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Wikipelli, Mirandarockstar, GalenD, Solomonfromnland, John Cline, ZOMG.co, F, Gzap4me, Nyi.napper, Fred Gandt, DaveDaytona,
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entic29, EvenGreenerFish, David1010, ChuispastonBot, ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31, RockMagnetist, 08004KAREN, 9Questions,
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wise, 7D HMS, Gggbgggb, Inblakey, Cntras, Friecode, Sbeyda72, Pragmaticstatistic, Hello4680, Calabe1992, Bibcode Bot, Thek4k1ng,
Zijiwiki, BG19bot, Pine, MKar, TimOsborn, PTJoshua, Blake Burba, Northamerica1000, Benzx132, Gaga123456789, PhnomPencil,
Hallows AG, ElphiBot, Mikeditol, Stick9Figure, Zedshort, Comfr, BattyBot, Th4n3r, GoShow, Zgomez99, JYBot, Kelvinsong, Dexbot,
Mogism, Ranze, RPgzLp, CuriousMind01, Respect.compassion, Reatlas, Rfassbind, SamoaBot, Dustin V. S., Sotkil, Clr324, Kuyi123w,
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RIT RAJARSHI and Anonymous: 1443

11.2 Images
File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.
jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Frank Vincentz
File:AtmosphCirc2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/AtmosphCirc2.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: DWindrim
File:Atmosphere_gas_proportions.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Atmosphere_gas_proportions.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized version of w:Image:Atmosphere gas proportions.gif (originally by Brockert). I SVG'd
it a) to make it more international (chemical symbols) b) to make it (hopefully) clearer when rendered as a thumbnail and c) to make it
easier to modify. Original artist: Mysid
File:Atmosphere_model.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Atmosphere_model.png License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Atmospheric_Temperature_Trend.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/ce/Atmospheric_Temperature_
Trend.jpg License: PD Contributors:
NASA Ocial website, [1]. Original artist:
NASA image created by Jesse Allen, using data provided courtesy of Remote Sensing Systems. Caption information courtesy Carl Mears,
Remote Sensing Systems, and Paul Newman and Joel Susskind NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
File:Atmospheric_Water_Vapor_Mean.2005.030.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Atmospheric_
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