1.

0 Properties of Metals
Metals are valuable due to their many properties such as:

Properties and Description

Shiny appearance
The free electrons in metals absorb and re-emit light to produce a shiny appearance.
Good conductors of electricity

The availability of delocalised electrons (electrons not confined to a valance shell) allows a metal to conduct electricity. These free electrons
move from the negative terminal to a positive terminal when a current is applied.

Good conductors of heat

In solid state, the atoms of metals are closely packed and this allows for efficient heat transfer via conduction. Delocalised electrons also assist
in transferring heat along the metal.
Have high densities

In solid state, the atoms of metals are closely packed per unit volume thus giving the metals a high density.

Atoms of a metal in a solid state are very closely packed.

Have high melting and boiling points

Metals have high melting and boiling points due to the large amount of heat required to weaken the metallic bonds present. Metallic bonds form
between the positive metal ion and the delocalised electrons.
Metals are malleable and ductile

Metals are malleable (ability to bend without breaking) and are ductile (ability to be drawn into wires without breaking), as the atoms within a
layer of metal are able to slide over each other to allow the metal to take on various shapes. Their metallic bonds do not break due to the ability
of atoms to slide over one another when a push force is applied.
Layers of atoms can slide over one another

Ability to form ionic compounds

This is due to metals forming cations and thus able to transfer electrons to non-metals to form an ionic compound.

The sodium atom transfers an electron to the chlorine atom to form the ionic compound, sodium chloride.
1.1 Properties of Alloys
Alloys are mixture of pure metals with other metals or even non-metals. Alloys are stronger than pure metals as the regular arrangement of
atoms in a metal is disrupted by the various sizes of the different metal atoms present. As a result, the atoms can no longer slide over one another
hence making them harder.

Large green zinc atoms disrupt the regular arrangement of smaller blue copper atoms

Some common alloys and their uses are listed in the table below.

Alloy Applications
Brass (Copper + Zinc) Door knobs and musical instruments as brass is harder and stronger
Pewter (Tin + Antimony + Copper) Ornaments and Jewellery due to its shiny and lustrous appearance
Solder (Tin and Lead) Circuit Board and plumbing accessories due to its low melting point
which allows it to be melted to join various parts together.
Cupronickel (Copper + Nickel) Used as coins as they do not corrode easily
Steel (Iron and Carbon) Used in construction of infrastructure as it is strong and corrosion
resistant
 1.2 The Reactivity Series
Metals are arranged in the reactivity series from more reactive to least reactive based on their reactions with cold water, steam and dilute acids.

Reaction with Cold Water Reaction with Steam Reaction with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid
Potassium Potassium hydroxide is formed through a violent Reacts explosively to form potassium oxide Reacts explosively to form potassium chloride
(Most reaction. Large amount of heat is produced that causes and hydrogen gas. and hydrogen gas.
reactive) hydrogen gas to catch fire and explode to produce a 2K(s) + H2O(g) K2O (s) + H2 (g) 2K(s) + 2HCl (aq) 2KCl (aq) + H2 (g)
lilac flame.
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Sodium Sodium hydroxide is formed through a violent Reacts explosively to form sodium oxide Reacts explosively to form sodium chloride
reaction. Large amount of heat is produced that causes and hydrogen gas. and hydrogen gas.
hydrogen gas to catch fire and explode to produce a 2Na(s) + H2O(g) Na2O (s) + H2 (g) 2Na(s) + 2HCl (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)
yellow-orange flame.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Calcium Reacts quickly to form calcium hydroxide and Reacts explosively to form calcium oxide Reacts violently to form calcium chloride and
hydrogen gas. and hydrogen gas. hydrogen gas.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g) Ca(s) + H2O(g) CaO (s) + H2 (g) Ca(s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Magnesium Very slow reaction to form magnesium hydroxide and Reacts violently to form solid white Reacts very quickly to form magnesium
hydrogen gas. magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas. chloride and hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g) Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO (s) + H2 (g) Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Zinc No reaction occurs. Reacts rather quickly to form hot yellow Reacts rather quickly to form zinc chloride and
zinc oxide solid and hydrogen gas. Zinc hydrogen gas.
oxide is a white solid when cooled. Zn(s) + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Zn(s) + H2O(g) ZnO (s) + H2 (g)
Iron No reaction occurs. Heated iron reacts very slowly to form iron Reacts very slowly to form iron (II) chloride
oxide and hydrogen gas. and hydrogen gas.
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g) Fe(s) + 2HCl (aq) FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Lead No reaction occurs.
Hydrogen Hydrogen is a non-metal. Metals more reactive than hydrogen, will displace hydrogen in dilute acids to form a metal salt.
Copper
Silver No reaction occurs.
(Least
Reactive)
 Set-up to react metal with cold water

Hydrogen is insoluble in
Water present in the water, hence it is collected by
glass wool is boiled to displacement of water
produce steam. method.

Set-up to react metal with steam

1.3 Using The Reactivity Series
The reactivity series can be used to account the result of the following reactions:

Reaction Description
Displacement reactions of metals A more reactive metal higher up in the series can displace a less
reactive metal lower down in the series. This is because more reactive
metals have a higher tendency to form ions to displace less reactive
metals from its salt solution.

Iron displaces copper from its salt solution of copper (II) sulphate.

Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + Cu (s)

Ionic equation can illustrate how the iron ion displaces copper ion
from its salt solution.

Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) + SO42- (aq) Fe2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) + Cu (s)

Remove the spectator ion that is SO42- to obtain the net ionic
equation

Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) Fe2+ (aq) + Cu (s)

As clearly seen from the net ionic equation above, displacement

reaction of metals is a redox reaction. The oxidation number of iron
increases from 0 to +2 and oxidation number of copper decreases from
+2 to 0.
Reaction between a metal and the oxide of another metal The oxide of a less reactive metal can be reduced by a more reactive
metal.

Iron can displace copper from copper (II) oxide to form iron (II) oxide
and copper metal.
Mixture of Iron and
Copper(II) Oxide Fe(s) + CuO(s) FeO(s) + Cu(s)
powder

Set-up to reduce the oxide of a less reactive metal

using a more reactive metal
Reduction of metal oxides by carbon and hydrogen The oxides of less reactive metals as shown in the diagram on the left
can be reduced by carbon via extraction. The carbon would extract the
metal from its oxide to form metal and carbon dioxide.

Copper (II) oxide can be reduced by carbon to form copper and carbon
dioxide.
Reduced

2CuO(s) + C(s) 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)

Oxidised
Reduction by carbon is also a redox reaction. This is because the
oxidation state of copper decreases from +2 to 0 as it is reduced, and
the oxidation state of carbon increases from 0 to +4 as it is oxidised.
Carbon is thus the reducing agent as itself is oxidised.

Metals higher up the series like aluminium, magnesium, calcium,

sodium and potassium are more difficult to be reduced by carbon.
Instead they are extracted through electrolysis.
 Set-up to reduce
copper oxide to
copper using
charcoal (carbon)

Reduction of metal oxides by hydrogen Metals that are below hydrogen in the reactivity series can be
extracted through reduction of their metal oxides by hydrogen gas.
Metal and formation of steam are the products of this reduction
reaction.

Reduced

CuO(s) + H2(s) Cu(s) + H2O(g)

Oxidised
Reduction by hydrogen is also a redox reaction. This is because the
oxidation state of copper decreases from +2 to 0 as it is reduced, and
the oxidation state of hydrogen increases from 0 to +1 as it is oxidised.
Hydrogen is thus the reducing agent as itself is oxidised.

Set-up to reduce copper oxide using hydrogen gas

Metals higher up the series like zinc, iron, aluminium, magnesium,

calcium, sodium and potassium are more difficult to be reduced by
hydrogen gas.
Effect of heat on metal carbonates A less reactive metals carbonate is easier to be decomposed by heat
to form a metal oxide and carbon dioxide gas.

Copper carbonate would decompose upon heating to form copper

(II) oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
Heat
CuCO3 (s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)

Below is a table to show the effect of heat on various metal

carbonates.

Metal Carbonate Effect of Heat

Potassium Carbonate None.
Sodium Carbonate
Calcium Carbonate
Magnesium Carbonate Decomposes into respective
Zinc Carbonate metal oxide and carbon dioxide
Set-up to decompose a metal carbonate by heating
Iron(II) Carbonate gas.
Lead (II) Carbonate
Copper (II) Carbonate
Silver Carbonate Forms silver oxide and carbon
dioxide gas and oxygen gas.
However silver oxide is not heat
stable, hence it would
decompose further to form
silver metal.

Sonias Exam Tip: Heating of carbonates is a reliable and easy to perform

method to obtain metal oxide from metal carbonates.
 1.4 Extracting Iron from Haematite
Iron occurs mainly in the form an ore called haematite. Haematite contains iron(III) oxide combined with impurities such as sand and clay. The
iron is extracted from this ore in a blast furnace as shown below.

Production of CO2 Haematite, Coke

and Limestone
The carbon in coke undergoes combustion when it is
blasted with hot air.

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) Waste Gases

Production of CO Impurities are removed

The CO2 produced earlier is reacted with more carbon Limestome or CaCO3 is decomposed by
to produce carbon monoxide. heat.

C(s) + CO2(g) 2CO (g) CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2 (g)

Reduction of Haematite to iron. Hot Air Hot Air

Slag
The CO produced earlier reduces iron(III) oxide to
iron. Reduced
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g) Molten Iron

Oxidised
Formation of Slag
Iron in Iron(III) oxide is reduced. Its oxidation
number decreases from +3 to 0. Calcium oxide is reacted with silicon dioxide and other impurities to form
molten slag, CaSiO3. The purpose of this step is to remove impurities. Slag
Carbon in carbon monoxide is oxidised. Its oxidation floats on molten iron and hence is easy to tap off.
number increases from +2 to +4.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(l)
1.5 Applications of Steel

The iron obtained from the blast furnace is known as cast iron and does contain impurities. Hence it is mostly used in the production of steel.

Gaseous oxides vented Removing impurities via oxidation

off from here Cast iron is added here where oxygen gas is blown through it. The oxygen
Brick lining of furnace would oxidise impurities to form oxides that can be vent out of the furnace.

Alternatively, acidic impurities are reacted with basic calcium oxide to form
Furnace slag. The slag will then be tapped off.

As a result, pure iron is left behind. Carbon and other metals can be added to
the molten iron to form various types of steels as shown in the Table 1.1 below.

[Table 1.1]: The various types of steels, their composition, physical properties and applications.

Composition Physical Properties Applications

Low Carbon Steel 99.5% iron and 0.25 % carbon Tough, strong and malleable Bridges and ship building
High Carbon Steel 98.5% to 99.55% iron and 0.45% to 1.5% carbon Brittle but strong Knives and cutting tools
Manganese steel Iron, 0.8% to 1.25% carbon and 11% - 15% manganese Very strong and hard Drills and bicycle frames
Stainless steel Iron, carbon, chromium and nickel Resistant to corrosion and Surgical instruments, plumbing
durable accessories
1.6 Rusting

The process of rusting involves oxygen and water in the form of moisture. Iron, oxygen and water chemically combine to form rust or hydrated
iron (III) oxide. The equation for rusting is as follows:

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2xH2O(l) 2Fe2O3.xH20(s)

Where x in the chemical formula indicates the number of water molecules.

An investigation to determine the conditions essential to form rust is illustrated in the figure below.

Test Tube Conditions Results

No.
1 Dry air and calcium chloride added.
2 Layer of oil added and boiled water is used.
3 Water and Air
No rusting occurs as water is absorbed by calcium chloride hence there is no
moisture present.
No rusting occurs as oxygen is absent. Air and oxygen are kept out by a layer
of oil and water is boiled to remove oxygen.
Rusting occurs due to presence of oxygen and water.
1.7 Rust Prevention
Rust causes damage to metallic structures. There are a few methods that can be used to prevent rusting as shown in the table below. These methods
prevent exposure of iron or steel surfaces to oxygen and water.

Type of Rust Prevention Method Application Additional remarks

The use of a protective layer
The use of a sacrificial metal
Using alloys
Painting
Lubricating with oil or grease
Coating with a layer of plastic
Tin-plating
Chrome-plating
Zinc-plating (Galvanising)
Attaching zinc or magnesium blocks
Stainless steels
Cars, ships and bridges If protective layer peels or wears
Tools and Machine Parts off, the iron surface beneath the
Kitchen ware layer will be exposed to oxygen
Food cans and water. Rust formation may
occur.
Taps, plumbing accessories and The chrome-plating confers a
bicycle parts bright shiny appearance.
Dustbins, kitchen sinks and pails The iron surface will not rust even
if the zinc layer chips off. This is
because zinc is more reactive than
iron, hence it will corrode first
instead of iron.
Steel piers, underground pipes Magnesium and zinc will undergo
corrosion first as they are more
reactive than iron.
Surgical instruments, building Chromium in stainless steel forms
materials a protective oxide coating that
prevents rust formation.

Sonias Exam Tip: Rust prevention methods have many industrial

applications. Hence its very important to know these applications.
1.8 Recycling Metals
Metals are naturally occurring resources only present in limited amounts. As the world progresses, demand for metals would be more than its
supply, hence the need for recycling of metals.

Common metals such as iron, lead and aluminium are recovered through scrap metal recycling. There are advantages and disadvantages to
recycling.

Advantages of Recycling Disadvantages of Recycling

Recycling helps to conserve naturally occurring resources such as Economic issues
fossil fuels.
Some companies may find that recycling metals are most costly than
This is because a large amount of energy is required to extract metals directly extracting them from their ores. Thus, these companies that are
from their ores. The energy is generated through the combustion of the highest consumers of metals may be unlikely to adopt recycling of
fossil fuels. metals.
Reduces environmental problems that arise from the extraction of Social issues
metals from their ores.
It may be tough for people to adopt a mindset that encourages
The extraction of metals from their ores requires large land area to find recycling. It takes time to develop such a mindset.
these ores. More than 90% of the metal ores is just waste materials.
Hence the extraction of metals leads to usage of large land area and
production of waste materials.
Decreased in production of harmful gases Environmental issues

Extraction of metals using the blast furnace leads to formation of Recycling of some metals such as lead causes the production of
harmful gases such as carbon monoxide. If metals are recycled, less poisonous gases that when released, would harm the environment.
extraction is required and hence decreased production of harmful
gases.