LI M ES TO N E R OC K S U R MOU N T E D BY P AG OD A (T E SSE

NA R IM D IV I S I ON ) .

V O L. II .
BU R M A U N D E R BR I T I S H

RU L E
AN D B E F O R E
BY J O H N NISBET D (E C
.

LA TE C O N S E R VA T O R O F F OR E S T S , BU R M A

AU T H O R OF
B RI TI S H FO R E S T T RE E S
"

STU D I E S I N F O RE S T R Y
" OU R

FO RE S T S AN D WOO D

L AN D V E T C

V OL II

W E ST M I N S T E R
ARC HIBAL D C O N ST AB LE {9 C O LT D

2 WH I T E HAL L G ARD E N S

1 01
9
 C ONTEN TS

P AG E
HAP T E R I
C

B R I TA I N A N D F R A N C E I N F U RT H E R I N D I A AN D

S O U TH W E S TE R N C H I N A
- I I

C HAP TER I I
R A I LW AY S I N B U R MA AN D
, T H E I R P R O P O S E D E XTE N
S I O N A C RO S S YU N N A N . 24

C HAP TE R I I I
B U R M A S F O R E S T W EA LT H A N D T H E

MA I N TE N A N C E
O F T H E T EA K T I M BER S U PP L Y 47

CH AP TE R I V
B U R M ESE B UD D H I S M . 89

C HAP TE R v

TH E B U D D H I S T P R I E S T H OO D AN D R ELI G I OUS OB

S E RV A N CE S I 23

C HAP TER V I
B U R M E S E BE L I E F S A N D SU PE R S T I T I O N S . 1 55

C HAP TER V I I
N AT IO N A L H AB I TS A N D CUST OMS I 8I

Vii

1 3 81 1 5 7
 C O N T EN T S
P AG E

C HAP TE R V I I I
TR A I TS O F B U R M E S E C HA RA C TER 22 x

C HAP TE R I X
THE S O C I A L S YS TE M 233

C HAP TE R X
N A T I O N A L F E S T I VA L S A N D A M U S E M E N TS 25 7

C HAP T E R X I
SC I EN C E AN D AR T A MO N G TH E B U RME S E 2 80

C HAP TER XI I

L A N G U AGE AN D L I TERA TU R E 3 09

CHAP TER X I I I

WET H AN D AY A: ON E OF THE TE N G R E AT
B I RT H
ST O R I ES
32 I

C HAP T ER X I V
F O L KL O RE .
3 56

C HAP TE R X V
AR C H /E O L O GY 375

C HAP T E R X V I
THE H I LL TR I BE S .
4II

I N D EX .
44 3

v iii
 Ch a p t e r I
B R I TA I N A N D F R AN C E I N FU RT H E R I N D I A AN D
S O U T H W EST ERN C H I NA
-

H E RE can be no doubt that o ne o f the greates t o f

commercial problems i n the near future concerns
itself with the openin g u p o f China to t rade A nd no .

cou nt r y can possibly be more affected by this problem

t han Great Bri t ain whose commercial inte r ests i n China
,

at the presen t moment bulk much larg e r than those of

any other foreign nation Whils t the S outh A fr ican
.

troubles rem a in unsettled progress must almost n e c es

,

sa r i l y b e re ta r d e d i n pushing B ritish i nteres t s i n sou t h

'

western C hina ; bu t certain aspects o f the problem are

so intimately connected w ith B urma as t o re q u ire ca r eful

consideration and particularly with regard to the much

,

talked o f proposal to extend the north eas t ern branch of

- -

the Burma railway system across the mou ntains and val
leys o f Yunnan to some objective o n the Yangtse rive r .

A part from the purely commercial point o f view this ,

project is so closely concerned with political and stra

t e g i c mo t ives that it is h a rdly possible to consider and
criticise it adequa t ely w ithout rst o f all t aking a pu r
view o f the affairs o f B ri t ain and F rance in I ndo China -
,

and g iving a summary o f the chief events o u t o f which

t he existing positions of these t wo Powers have arisen .

While B ritain w a s grad ually th rou g h force o f circum

,

st a nces acq u iring the Burmese territories after the rst

,

( I 8 2 6 ) second
, and third ( I 88 5 ) Bu rmese wars ,

F rance has during the last generation and a half p os

sessed herself of a still larger territory o n the eas t ern
side of the F urther I ndi a n peninsula The methods by .

w hich B ritain and F ra nce gra dually ac q u ired these pos

V OL . II . I B
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
sessions diffe r essenti a lly accordin g to the n a tional c ha
ra c te r i s ti c s The three successive annexations separated
.
,

by w ide intervals o f time o f the B ritish in B urma were ,

absolutely forced o n them by agg ressions insults and , ,

deliberate violations o f treaties by the Court o f A va and ,

were only u nwillingly made when all diplomatic me a ns

o f improvin g m a tters h a d been tried and found useless ;

whereas the French E mpire i n I ndo China has been -

built up by d irectly and fra nkly a gg ressive measu res .

I n 1 8 5 8 Cochi n China w a s i nvaded by the French

, ,

a n d S a igon was t a ken in the following year seven yea rs ,

after we had permanently a cqu ired R angoon ; and i n

1 86 7 the whole o f Cochi n Chin a came u nder French
,

rule I n I 86 3 a Protectorate was established over

. ,

C a mbodia proving the prelude t o annexation i n 1 884

, .

H a noi was taken in I 8 7 3 and a Protectorate a sserted ,

ove r Tonqu in which was i n tu rn followed by annexa

,

tion A nnam became protected in I 8 7 4 and w a s

.
,

ceded entirely by the Franco Chinese treaty o f 1 884 -

.

H ostilities breaking ou t again Ton q u in wa s a nnexed i n ,

1 88 5 .

These vast acqu isitions form ing an empire larg er than ,

France were however merely a base u pon which to

, , ,

fou nd schemes for further an n exations towards t h e wes t

and south H aving despoiled Chin a su fciently fo r the
.

time bein g French attention was next given to encroach

,

ments on S iam as soon as m ilitary affairs in T onqu i n

permitted o f this .

O n pretence o f demanding recti cation of the western

boundary of A nnam i n accord a nce with conditions that ,

had a ncien t ly obtained French troops i n A pril I 8 93 , , , ,

occupied S tung Treng a n d K aun g o n the lower ,

M ekong This was a purely a ggressive a c t as w a s

.
,

also a subse q uent advance made from A nn a m ; bu t

t hese we r e neither o f them actions which B ritain could
p roperly obj ec t t o When however French w a rships . , ,

approached the M enam river to threaten Pakn a m an d

B a ngk Ok i n J uly 1 893 L ord R osebery found himself

, , ,

compelled to protest because there were no French ,

interests at B a ngkOk and B ritish commerce there ,

amounted to tenfold the combined tra de o f all othe r

 F REN C H A C TI O N I N S I A M
fo r ei g n n a tions I n deance o f orders fro m his Govern
.

ment the F r ench commande r took his ships into Pak

,

na m harbou r ; and u nfortunat ely the S iamese forts

, ,

u nwisely opened re o n them A F r ench ul t imatu m .

w as the result ; a blockade was decla r ed and severe ,

pen a lties were exac t ed .

L ater events a lso arising from claims to ancient

,

A nnamese possessions pe r mitted as will be shortly ,

explained the expansion o f the F r ench te rr itories up

to the river M ekong so that now fo r abou t 1 0 0 miles
, ,

bet ween latitude 2 0 and N the bou ndaries of .

British I ndia and F r ench I ndo C hina march together -

.

This extension of F rench territo r y deprived S iam o f

about I o o ooo square miles o r o ne t hird of its total
, ,
-

a rea, includin g t he town o f L uang Prabang while C han ,

t a bu n was occupied temp or a r i ly

t ill the diffe r ences
between the two Govern ments were settled A lthough .

this is somewhat anticipating the r esul t s o f the g r adual

developmen t o f events it may he r e be no t ed that ass u r
,

a n ce s had p r eviously been given i n Paris tha t the in t e

g yri t of S iam would be respected tha t F r ench warships ,

would not enter t he M enam t ha t F rench I n dO China ,

-

shoul d not be extended up t o the borders of British

I ndia and t h a t Chantabu n would be evacuated wi th) :
,

a m om/z

E ve ry on e o f these assu r ances has been deli
.

b e ra te l y violated Chan t abun is still occupied and the

.
,

F rench assert it wa s n ot i n t ended to be evacua t ed till all

diffe r ence s including t hose crea t ed subse q uently to I 893
, ,

and presumably also those which may still be created as

occasion offers are a t an end between the two coun tr ies
, .

S erved by men o f the s t amp of the F renc h C onsular

A gents a g itating in Mandalay i n 1 8 85 and i n Ba ng k k ,

i n I 893 there will never be lack of i n ci den ts r equiring
,

settlement and hence appa r ently j ustifying the retention

,

o f Chantabu n indenitely by France .

Previous to t he F rench ac t s of aggr ession against

S iam i n 1 89 3 arrangements had been i n p ro gr ess for
,

th e peaceful rectication by diplomatic means o f the , ,

extreme ea s t ern boundary of the Bri t ish possessions in

Burma B ritai n bein g willin g t o g ive some small unim
,

po rtant S han S tates to C hina and S iam o n the guarantee

3
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
tha t they should not cede any portion o f those to an y
othe r country withou t the previous consen t 0 ! B ritain .

By t he Bu rma China trea t y o f I 89 2 the S han S tates of

-

K eng H ung and M ong L e m were ceded to China o n

this cond ition and negotiations were i n pro g ress for
,

similarly handing ove r anothe r small S tate ( Ken g

chen g) to S iam B ut Frenc h action rendered such a
.

cou r se impossible When France seized the g reat east

.

e r n bend o f the M ekong in 1 893 China no tw i ths ta nd , ,

ing her trea t y engagements with Britain g ave ove r to ,

the French the trans M ekon g portion of wh a t is known

-

as the S i bsa u ng Punna a confederation of twelve S tates

, ,

a t the he a d o f which w as K en g H ung O n strong .

representations being m a de by B ri ta in about C hina s

e r d a se t o ff was made by the promise o f O penin g

y
-
p ,

up the Wes t or Can ton river to trade and o f del imiting

and pe r manently demarcating the B urma China bou n -

da r y a work which has n o w r ecen t ly been completed

, .

U neasiness being felt at the gra dual contact o f French

and British t er r i t ory a C ommission wa s appoin t ed i n
,

1 894 9 5 fo r t he delimi tation o f a

buffer S tate bet w een
the B ritish and t he French possessions M Pavie .
,

F r ench agent at Bangk ok ac t ing for France and M r , , .

S co tt S uperin t endent of t he N orthern S han S t a tes for

, ,

Bri tain The endeavour i n this direction failed com

.

p l e t e l y. The French ag had already been hoisted at

the town o f M Ong S ing wh ich was the starting point o f ,

the work of the Commission ; and the Bri t ish Commis

s i o ne r had t o be g in O pe rations i n displacin g the French

by the B ritish ag and in garrisoning t he town with a

,

fe w Gurkha t r oops u nde r a British o fce r .

I t soon became app a rent t hat the French I ndo

C hinese party we r e bent o n ac q u iring possession o f
M ong S ing the capi tal o f the small K en g chen g S tate
, .

a lthou g h this as a tributa ry to t he B ritish S han S tate o f

,

K engtung was u ndoubtedly British terri tory

, AS M . .

Pavie persisted in declining to acknowledge the exist

ence of K engcheng as a S tate the affairs O f the C o m ,

mission at once came to a deadlock D iplomatic .

negotiations we r e consequently transferred to Paris a n d

L ondon the outcome o f which a fter serious d i fferences
, ,
 A N G L O F RE N C H C O N V E N TI O N I 896
-
,

almost ver g ing o n war was the A n glo F rench C o nv e n

,
-

tion of J anuary I 896 Under this British cl a ims t o

, .
,

territory east of the M ekon g were abandoned the river ,

bein g adopted as the bounda r y line between the French

and the B ritish possessions i n l a titude 2 0 and 2 1 N

while the integrity o f the M enam valley which consti ,

t u te s the richest the most populous and the mos t valu

, ,

able portion o f S iam was mutu a ll y gu a ranteed against

,

armed intrusion The small British garrison was with

.

drawn from M Ong S i n g a n d K en gt ung t h e capital of , ,

the larg e S tate o f that name n o w forms ou r extreme ,

easte r n frontier station having a gar r ison of one B urma

,

r eg ime nt .

A s re gards the F ranco S iamese boundary the r esults -

,

o f the F rench encroachments i n 1 8 9 3 and o f diplomacy , ,

thereafter were that the French frontier has been pushed

forward so as t o include all territo ry on the left bank of
the lo w er M eko ng a nd that F rance has O btained practical
,

control over a s t rip of land t wenty ve kilometres wide -

a long the right bank o f t he M ekong while S iam has ,

been prohibited from mai ntain in g forts o r troops o n the

M ekong or in A n g kor and B a tta m b ong and from keeping ,

armed vessels on the M ekong o r the Great L ake .

F rench consulates were established a t Khorat M uang ,

N a m and elsewhere ; an d Ch a nt a bu n occupied

, f em ,

p om r i ly,was fortied This too althou g h i n t he.

, ,

French trea t y o f I 8 6 7 with S iam the provinces to the

north west o f C ambodia had been formally acknowledged
-

to be S iamese .

The A n g lo French Convention of I 896 guaran t eed the

-

integrity of the M en a m valley amounting to abou t ,

square miles in extent and agreed that no exclusive ,

advanta g es should be gained by eithe r nation i n the

s a me But it acknowl ed g ed and thu s virtually assigned

.
,

t o Fra nce as a sphere of independen t action the north

,

eas t ern portion o f S iam extend ing to about , square

miles ; while it proposed nothin g with rega r d to the
termination o f the tempor a ry occupation of C h an tabu n

o r to the twenty v e kilometre zone withi n which F r ench

-

a g ents have autho r ity i n S iamese territo r y west of the

M ekon g river .

5
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
This eastern portion o f S iam is o f considera ble v a lu e
from the fact that it i ncludes K hora t w hence a rail ,

way runs t o Ba ngkOk Yet the French I ndo C hinese

.
-

p a rty in Tonqu in were loud i n denouncing the Con

v e n t i o n and in regrettin g that arrangements had been
,

come to short o f annexation o f the whole o f S iam .

A s m a tters stand there is always a d a n g er that u nde r ,

o n e pretext o r another and F rench a g ents are talen t ed

,

in cre a tin g pretexts the F rench frontier may be
,

adv a nced s o as to i ncorpora te i n her I ndo Chinese -

empire the whole of the territory n o w reco g nized a s

formi ng her sphere o f in uence This much however .
, ,

is certa in that w ithout absolute and fl ag ra nt breach o f

,

the Convention made with Britain F rance can n ever ,

again send her warships up the B a ngk ok river to threaten

and coerce the capital of S iam in any o f her fu t u re dealin g s
w ith the S iamese Government But t h e past action o f
.

F rench a g ents i n Upper Bu rma as well as i n S iam , ,

during the last sixteen o r ei g hteen yea rs has very clearly

shown th a t if the F r ench I ndo Chinese party can possibly
-

embroil S iam in any sort of en tanglement afford in g a

pretext for i nterference a n d seizure o f territory written ,

gu a rantees an d pled g es ( s e e v ol i page 6 3 ) will be . .,

thrown to t he winds if the occasion be deemed opportune

fo r acquirin g the sole o r the preponderatin g pol itic a l and
commercial in uence at Ba n g k Ok the heart o f S i a m , .

Previous t o 1 90 0 about ei g hty per cent o f the S hipping

, .

o f B a n k Ok was British but since then a g reat de a l o f

g ,

it ha s passed u nder the German ag The steamships .

fo r local trade were bu ilt to negoti a te the bar blocking

entrance to the river at low water ; and in 1 90 0 the , ,

N orddeu t sche r L loyd bou g ht the two chief l ines from

the British rms concerned i n order to work them a s
,

feeders fo r their main l ines between China and E u rope .

A D an ish line of steamers also ru ns d irect from Ba ng k Ok

to E urope . A mid this fo reign enterprise British i n
t e r e s ts a r e painfully remaining more o r less stationary .

The French possessions in I ndo China a ggregate -

about s q uare miles or o ne thi rd of th e whole

,
-

peninsula and contain a total population o f a bou t

,

2 They are thus abou t half as large a gain as

6
 T H E F RE N C H I N I N D O C H I N A -

the British possessions and t hey contain a population ,

amou nting to more than twice tha t o f Bu rma and the

S han S t a tes Bu t while the B ritish provi nce is pros
.
,

e ro u s and with a rapidly expanding trade the Govern

p ,

ment o f French I ndo China is carried o n at a heavy -

annual loss I n place of developing considerably the

.

vast trac ts already acqu ired F r ance s mo t ives i n I ndo ,

Chi na seem rathe r to be political rivalry a t any cost than

peaceful commerce and civilization French I ndo China .
-

is merely a base from which to carry o u t whenever ,

co nvenient political movements south west towards the

,
-

M enam valley and northwards into Yunnan and

,

S zechuan so as if possible to raise up obstacles t o the

, , ,

development of British overland commerce between the

I rrawaddy and the Yangtse rivers Wherever France can .

do so s he inva riably closes the door by heavy imposts in

,

order to prevent British t rade competin g o n equal te r ms

with F rench commerce B ut for the heavy import duty .

levied ag a ins t British g oods there can be no doubt that ,

British trade with south ea stern Yu nnan woul d rapidly -

expand alon g the H anoi L aokai route to Yu nnan S e n -

.

H ence althou g h it is admitted that the approach from the

,

seaboard i nto the interior o f C hina is i ncomparably the

more important from a purely tradin g point of View yet ,

the complementary land route from B urma is a virtual

necessity if British commercial and political i n uence is
to be fully main t ained a n d adequately extended because ,

di r ect commu nication seems far mo r e feasible wi t h B urma

t han with A ssam further to the north , .

T he nancial condition of French I ndo China is -

o fcially s t ated t o be showing some improvement The .

total trade o f I 898 was 1 6 6 million francs an increa se ,

o f twenty three millions over the estimate ; and fo r the

-

rst half o f I 899 the receip t s a mounted to twenty six -

m illion francs or three millions more than estimated

, .

B u t these returns ha r dly bea r comparison with the trade

and revenue statistics of B urma previously detailed in ,

chap ters ix to xiv o f V ol I

. . . .

I t is not only by mea ns o f the convention with F rance

t hat Britai n has evinced her friendship for a n d support o f
S iam as a neighbourin g power i n Furthe r I ndia S he .
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
has also lent O fcers mostly from Burma fo r the improve
, ,

ment of some of the chief branches o f the administration

s ince the beginnin g o f 1 89 6 R eforms have thus been .

effected in the F inancial Police F o re s t a nd S urvey D ep a rt , , ,

ments and in the collection o f the land tax But while

,
.
,

the regeneration o f S i a m and the development o f British

commerci a l i nterests at Bangk ok are thus being assisted ,

an element o f latent d a n g er has been i ntroduced by the

recent appointment o f a R ussian M inister a t the Court of
B a n gk Ok although R ussia ha s absolutely no i nterests
, ,

political o r commercial in S iam no r any subj ects resident , ,

there I t i s only too much to be feared that this new

.

featu re in S iamese pol itics may here a fter prove a distu rb

in g fa ctor ever re a dy to lend its a i d to F rench diplomacy
in thwarting British in uence for maintainin g the st a tus
gu a ranteed by the Convention of 1 896 .

F rom this point of V ie w the ac q uisition o f the two ,

local s t eamship l ines by the N o r dd e u tsche r L loyd in 1 900

m a y perhaps prove l ittle short o f a God send to S iam ; -

because Germany with its vast army ever rea dy fo r wa r

, ,

will certainly not submit to anything like the treatment

from Fra nce which B ritain has s o often put u p w ith
complaisantly A n d F rance an d R ussia will pause and
.

consider fo r a very long time before adopting a course

which must be opposed by the combined p rotests of
Germany and Britain .

A part from the machinations o f thei r a gents o n the

spot eve r ready to embroil their Government and to
,

force on action almost necessarily a ggressive what is the ,

F r ench ofcial view o f the situation in I ndo China ? -

S peaking i n the Chamber o n N ovember 2 4 1 899 , ,

M D elcass e M in is t er for Foreign A ffairs said :

.
, ,

D o you n ot t i h nk h
t a t ou r p l l
o i ti c a ac ti on h l b v
s ou d a o e all be
mn
d eter i e d by
the i tere st of n
ra c e ?F n h h n
N o w, w a t d oes t i s i tere st
co mm n a d ? e er a W h n G m ny k p
too osse ssi o n i Ch
o f K ao E n gl n
ow an d a d
of We i -hai we i , i t wa s a s ed ,
-
k h b
An d w a t a ou t u s m n
Ar e we to re ai
h mp
wi t e ty a d s h n p pl f g h
B ut eo e or ot t a t on the Ch n f n i
i ese ro t er we
were in p osse ssi o n
o f an e ti re e n m p I n Ch
ir e , g n
d o in a, a r e i o twi c e the
F
si z e o f ra c e W/zo wou l d d a r e say t/za t Ilzz: E mp i r e a s now i f:
n .
'

de n i ti ve oun a a n a ?

B u t d oes n ot si

mpl g
e n h
ood se se say t a t i ts

p osse ssi o s ou d n ee h l k p
us ro f m
a n y te mp n
tati o nq
to c o h h
u ests w i c

l b n h h
wou d a d d to our u rd e s, w i c ar e al read so ea y h vy P
8
 M I N I S T E R I A L U TT E RA N C E S
I k n ow the a g m n ts by wh i c h th i s m d n s fo t i to i al e p n
r u e a e s r err r x a

si on i s j ti e d I t i i d I f only the P o we s woul d d ecl e th t th y

us . s sa ,
r ar a e

a e s ti d
r a b u t j u t s in A f i c th ey p u t fo ward the t h eo y f the
s e : ,
s a r a r r o

d th y t a i n g on of i n u n ce o th a t the p ti ti on of
'

E t l
n er a n , e are r c z es e ,
s ar

Ch i n wi ll oon b e c ompl i h ed Th i s i p ossi bl e nd e v e n y

a s a c s .

s ,
a e as

o n p pe a r .

L et d mi t fus m om en t the on e th eo y Wh at th en woul d

a or a z r .

F n h v e to l im ? E vi d e n tly i t i o I n d o Ch in e E mp i e wh i h
, ,

ra ce a c a s ur -
es r c

g i ve the n swe to th i q u e ti n nd th i on i s the p o ti on of Ch i n a

s a r s s o a s z e r

b o d e in g u p on T on q i n nd i n l d i g Y u nn an Kw n g i
r r d u ,
a c u n , a s ,
an

Kw n g t n ga U n fo tu n tely th i on e i n ot i n t t W e g d to
u . r a s z s ac . e ar ur e

conq uer Yu nn a n w i t/zou t kn owi ng w/zet/zer the g a m e i s wor t/z t/ze ca n d l e .

B ut i t i s f orgotten t/za t by Cl a use 4 of t/ze Tr ea ty of 1 8 96 F r a n ce a n d

E ng l a n d na ve ag r eed n ot to seek i n Yu nna n a ny sp eci a l a dva n tag es .

A n d tai s si tu a ti on becomes cl ea r f r om t/ze very p osi ti on of Y unn a n 1 F or .

u s, a s for a d, Y u nnE n gl n
a n i s the m i S h n
ost d re c t r ou te to war d s z e c ua .

l h h h p vn h l m n p n E ngl n
I t i s sett e d , t ere for e, t at t i s ro i c e s ou d r e a i o e to a d

a s to u s . ng
A s for Kwa si , i t i s the p g n Ch n
oor est r e i o in It n
i a wa ts .

b n
r esou rc e s, b u t a ou d s i n p i ra tes S h uc g n h h mi gh
i s the re i o w i c t .

n
c o sti tu te o ur z o e n I h nk
d o n ot t i n j fy
i t i s of a atur e to usti
. the
f v h mp i n
e er i s i at e c e of c er ta inn p p ews a ers .

T he i m p n h ng
or ta t t i y p n
for the se c uri t of ou r ossessi o s i s t at no h
h l
on e s ou d b e a bl l f n
e to sett e on our ro ti e rs Ch n g h
i a ha s a re ed to t i s, .

an d o u r r o n
l e co si sts i n watc i h ng h h n g g m n
t at t i s e a e k p
e t be h
e t a n d t at
n p
o ur i te r e sts b e r es e c te d Th h l n n v ng
i s s ou d b e our c o cer , d e o ti . o ur
se lv es, a t the sa m me ti e , to the p i n
r o te c t o n m n
o f the ec o o i c i terests
esta bli h
s e d on o t e rh p n o i ts of the Ch n Emp i ese Th
i re n ese i terests ar e .

n ot s i l gh t, a n d I a m h ppy
a n f
to see ou r m a u ac tur ers a n d m h n erc a ts
b g innin g to l ook o the se ; fo e on om i in te est b o d wi ll
e a cr ss as r c c r s a r a

b om e m o nd m e the b i s of p li ti l cti on
ec re a or as o ca a .

The Ch mb e wi ll l e n n o d ou b t wi th pl ea su e th t i n the
a r ar ,
r ,
a

e xpl oi t ti n of Ch i n e e te i t
a o y we h v e not l gged b eh i n d oth e n ti on
s rr or a a r a s.

O ut o f kil om et es o f i l way con ce i n s we h av e ob tai n d r ra ss o e

m o e th n h l f o f wh i h
r n d e on st ucti on We h v e l o
a a c are u r c r . a a s

ob t in e d fo F e n h m n o F e n h
a r omp ni e
r c g e t n u mb e of on e
e r r c c a s a r a r c c s

s i on of l e d p t ol e u m m e
s a y g e n ti f ous l e d a d sulp h u m i n e
,
e r rc ur ar er a n r s.

F e n c h m en n d th e e Fren h
, , ,

B u t i t i s to b e d i ed th t th es es r a e r a s c

comp n i e a so e g e to ask fo c on c essi n s s h ou l d n ot l et th ei

s, a r l r o ,
r z ea

c ool wh e n th ey h a v t b u ti l i ed fo th e e i s l way s som e b od y e d y

e o e z r r a r a

to p o t by su h sh o t
r min gs T he m j o i ty of th e e e n te p i ses a e
c r co . a r s r r r

d e v e l op ed i n eg i on th e th n th re wh i c h i f the p ol i c y of
s o n e ofr a os zo s

i n ue n ce p e v i l ed mi gh t on sti tute the F e n h o n e

,

t th i s

r a ,
I c r c z . s no

e n ough to cauti o n u g i n st the on e ous v agari e of wh i c h I p ok e j ust

s a a r s s

n ow n d to i n d u c e u
,
a o n the on t y to k ee p Ch i n o p e n to the f e e
s, c ra r ,
a r

c on i t o f the i n tell i g e n c e
c nd p i tal of the wh l e wo l d ? a ca o r

1
B y th
d ec arati o of J a uar ,
e l n n y 1 896 , S
h u n i s l i k ewi se one o f
z ec a

p vn
the t wo ro i c es i n w i c i t was a h h g reed th at al l p ri v i l eg es and ad v n a

g
ta es sec ured e i t er by
a d or h E n gl n Fr n c e sh oul d be re n d ered c omm on
a

t o ot b hP
o wers .

9
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U L E
The main objection to this enunciation o f policy o f
course is that whenever F r ance can s he deliberately
shu t s the door a gainst free trade and protects F rench
interests by heavy imposts o n goods O f other nations .

I t is quite true that Kw a n g si is thinly populated i n

comparison with some other parts o f China thou g h ,

perhaps less s o than K w eichow and Yunnan ; while t he

western part o f S zechuan abutting o n Thibet is mou n
, ,

ta i n o u s and also poorly peopled .

I n A pril 1 898 a ssu rance w a s g iven by China to

, ,

Fra nce with re gard to the three provinces ( K w an g tun g ,

K wan g si and Yunnan ) marchin g with French I ndo Chin a

,
-
,

similar i n terms to th a t g iven to Britain i n j anuary 1 896 , ,

with reference to the Y a n g tse region namely that they , ,

will not be ceded or leased to any other Power permission ,

also being given for the construc t ion o f a r ailw a y from

the frontier of Tonqu in to Yunnan S e n .

The Yangtse draina g e comprises t he rich provinces o f

K ian g su N ga nhu i K iangsi H upeh H u nan S zechuan
, , , , , ,

and the northern portions of Kweichow a n d Yun nan the ,

t ra de to and from all o f w hich must naturally proceed by

way o f the Yan g tse K ian g .

S o far as British commerce i n the main portion O f

the Yan g tse valley is concerned th e natural l ines of ,

transport all converg e towards S han g hai and the ,

trade capable o f d evelopment i n that sphere could

never protably nd its way ou t th r ough Burma ;
while the promise extended to F rance with regard to the
three southern provinces ( K wantung Kwangsi and Yu n , ,

nan ) marchin g wi t h F rench l ndo China is very far from

-
,

being equ iv a lent to gran t in g that empire the sole ri g ht of

t ra d ing there A t the s a me time we shall indeed be neg
.

l e c t i ng the lessons learned during the past decade and a

half if we do no t carefully watch the action of ou r French
nei g hbou rs o u r political and commercial rivals in south
,

western China ; for Consul H a a s the negotiator o f the ,

secre t F ranco Burmese treaty in 1 88 5 and a typical

-
,

stormy petrel o f French diplomacy is now Consul o f ,

F rance at Chungk ing i n S zechuan H ence as history is .

,

so ap t to repeat i t self apprehension o f similar a t tempts in

,

Yu n n a n and S zechu a n seems justied The S implest and .

10
 B R ITI S H C O N S U LA R P O S T S
cheapes t method of fru strating unfriendly i ntentions is ob
v i ou s l y to be beforeh a nd i n enterprise The atta inmen t .

o f this end would probably be assisted by the commercial

occupa t ion o f a ll essenti a l points by means o f i ncreasin g

the nu mber o f British Consuls Bet w een the present .

Consular posts of Chunking i n S zechu a n and those o f , ,

M omein and S z u m a o i n Yu nnan the dist a nce is abou t

, ,

6 0 0 miles. The diplomacy which early in 1 898 obtained , ,

from China t he i ndirec t and informal guarantee a gains t

cession o f any portion of t he Yang tse valley to any
forei g n powe r and the right to construct a ra ilway from
t he B urmese frontier across Yu n nan should if necess a ry , , ,

be able to obtain the privile g e o f postin g Consuls a n d

allowin g Bri t ish subjects to establ ish themselves and to
t rade a t important points furth er w est such as S u ifu , ,

C hi ng tu fu T o ng t chu e n fu and T a lifu

, ,I n addition to .

the Consuls a t Momein and S z u m a o the only other ,

resident B ritish o fcials now o n that Chinese frontier are

the subalterns in charge o f det a chmen t s o f the Bu rma
mili tary pol ice force sta t ioned at S im a and S a d On ,

between Momein and M yitkyina and at S a ti su about , ,

forty miles to the north east o f the Ku nl On ferry on the

-

S alween river . The F rench are mea nwh ile sho w ing
g reater activity than ou rselves French Consuls left T o n .

qu i n for various posts in Yu nnan durin g February 1 90 1 , .

T he n a tural outle t fo r trade in the most important part

o f the Yangt se valley bein g a s already stated eastwards
, ,

towards the coast it would be only a n insignicant

,

portion o f its co m merce which could be protably diverted

towards B urma With the Yangtse navigable fo r
.

miles as to its main branch v i z to S u ifu for bo a ts , .

,

o f 6 0 tons ; to Pin g shan abou t twenty m iles higher up

, ,

for boats O f thirty tons ; and beyond that for a li g ht d raft ,

stern w heeler to K iatin g 2 80 miles further u p the limit

-
, ,

o f navigation , the r e seems l ittle chance o f any import

ant deection o f trade from this natu ra l outlet to w ards
S hanghai . B elo w Chu ngkin g the only practical c o m
petition which can be O ffered to this n a tural l ine o f least
resistance is the railway from Canton to H anko w w h ich ,

is already i n process o f construction by the A merican

B rice S ynd icate .

1 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
T h e trade routes lead ing westw a rds from the province
are mule and cattle tracks literally footp a ths o f the most,

primitive description ascending and descendin g steep

,

hillsides What trade there is on the Yu nnan platea u

.
,

which varies from to feet i n elevation and ,

w hose capital is Yu nnan S e n though by far its most ,

i mportant tra din g centre is Tal ifu feet i n eleva tion ) ,

very probably alrea dy nds its w a y into Burma without

any expensive rail wa y S o fa r as concerns the bulk of
.

the tra fc that will in terest E u ropeans ho w ever this must , ,

natura lly proceed e a st wa rds down the Yan g tse K i a ng .

M r Bourne of the Bl a ckburn Commercial M ission has

.
, ,

S hown th a t the rst step to w ards tappi ng this trade

is not a railway but the ex t ension o f steam navi g ation
,

o n the Great R iver fr om I chan g to C hungking and ,

thence to S uifu miles from S h a n g h a i To w ards

, .

t his end the recent promise o f Ch ina to open the rivers

t o trade and to establish a tre a ty port in H u nan is a
d istinct step S ound commercial proposals are certai n
.

to be seriously entertained as soon a s ever merchants

obtain something in t he shape O f gu a rantees respectin g
t he c a pital involved i n extensive investments of this
natu re To give o r to O btain su ch g uarantees is also
.

obviously the duty o f the British Government i n the

interests of British commerce The loan to Chin a i n .
l
,

1 89 8 of , at three per cent i s stren g thened .

,

by the conditions a ttached to it in itself a lmost o f the ,

nature o f an informal guarantee that British commercial

i nteres t s in the Yan g tse v a lley will be adequately safe
guarded by the B ritish Government .

Previous to the P a n t ha y or M ohammedan insu r rection

o f 1 8 5 4 i n Yunnan when the population is supposed to
, ,

have been reduced from something bet ween

and to about the commerce of this
hi g hl a nd re g ion is reported to have been extensive and
val uable T h e present population i s variously estimated
.

1
The Fren c h G ov e nm e n t h av e sa n c ti on ed a g uaran tee of four a n d
r

a h a l f p er e n t for se v e n ty ve y ea s o n a su m o f
c .
-
r f an c s r

r eq i e d for the e x te n si on
u r o f the T o n q ui n l i n e f o m r

Laokai to Yu nn a n S en i n te e t b ei n g g ua an teed by ann ual gr n t

,
r s r a

u n d er the l aw o f D ece mb er 1 8 98 ( se e p ag e
,

12
 T RA D E R O U T E S T O Y U N N A N
a t from to u pw a rds o f and some
assert t ha t i t is q u ite as larg e n o w as eve r it was .

S O far as the trade o f the south eastern portion o f the -

p rovi nce o f Yu nnan is concerned consideration o f t he ,

geog raphical and physical features o f the cou ntry seems

t o indicate that t he natural lines of trade are eithe r by
the Wes t river ( S i ki a ng) to and from Canton and c

H ongkong o r else by the R e d river ( S on g k a ) and

,

H anoi the capital o f the F r ench possessions in Ton q uin

,
.

The F rench mai ntain that i n the latter rou t e they have
sol id advan tages They are certainly nearer to t h e
.

trac t s to be tapped ; bu t the commercial advantages

gained by China s agreement o f j u ne 1 896 to th row

, ,

open the West river to foreign trade as far as Wuchow

fu and the incl usion o f N a n n i ng fu on the Yu kiang a
, ,

tribu ta ry o f the Wes t rive r as a treaty port in F eb,

r u ar
y , 1 8 99 should , t end t o equal ize t he natural possi
b i li ti e s between H ongkong and H anoi I n any case .
,

however the commerce th roughout by fa r t he g r ea t e r

,

portions of the provinces o f K w angs i and K wang t ung

mus t proceed by t he valley o f the S i k ia ng to and from
Canton an d H ongkong I f the trade o f south eas t e r n
.
-

Yunnan nd its natural outlet through Ton q uin a n d even ,

if i n addition thereto a considera ble share o f the wes t e r n

, ,

Kwan g s i trade be attracted towards the F r ench railway

now bein g pushed o n from H anoi i n the di r ection o f
N a nn i ng fu abou t 2 0 0 miles t o the north eas t the g reat
,
-
,

trade centre o n the Y u river the main sou t hern t ribu ,

tary o f the S i ki a ng there still remains a n a mple and

promising el d fo r commercial energy radiating from
H ongkong and C anton j ust as has a lready happened
.

i n the case of Chun g ki n g an d the upper Y a ng s te valley ,

s o also will trad ing developments o r othe r considerations

i n du e time lead to the extension o f the ag reemen t o f

u ne 1 8 9 7 and g r adually include the upper portions o f
j , ,

the West river .

But w ith the conclusion of t he A nglo German Ag ree

,
-

ment publ ished i n the autumn o f 1 90 0 t he pol itical and ,

the future commercial position ha s chan g ed entirely

throu g hout southern China This Ag reement bet ween .

the g reatest military and the grea t est naval powers i n

I S
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
the world to keep the Yangtse river and the se a ports o f
China free and open to trade and to every o t he r

le g itimate form o f economic a ctivity o n behalf o f all
n a tions to make no use o f the present complicati o ns to
,

w rest territori a l advant a g es from China and to ende a vou r ,

to maintai n the i nteg rity o f th a t empire has completely ,

altered the political complexion o f m a tters I f France .

,

urged mainly by purely selsh motives continues to try ,

and push northwards with feverish has t e i n order to

establ ish a prepondera tin g inuence in a n y so called -

S phere o r zone it seems very probable t h a t such action

,

would i n consequence o f t his A n g lo German Ag reemen t

,
-

as to the Yan g tse valley result in a j oint protest from ,

these two po wers in terms which coul d not be very

agreeable to her a m ou r p r op r e ; because although the ,

Yangtse valley is not specically mentioned i n the

A greemen t i t is obviously the maintenance of the open
,

door all a long the Yangtse river that is mea nt i n the
exchan g e of notes between the British and the German
Govern ments .

There need be no dis g uisin g the fact that B ritain

mi g ht if s o inclined have obta ined p a ra moun t inu ence
, ,

on the Y a n g tse as an offset for R ussi a n ag g ression at

Port Ar thur and in Manchuria and for Germany s ac t ion ,

i n K iao Cho w But the oppor t unity was not then taken
.

advantag e o f and to d a y o n e very good reason thou g h -

,

probably not the only one for this forbearance is patent ,

to all F or years the S o uth A fric a n war had been loom

.

in g on o u r colonial horizon and the A n g lo German ,

-

A greement was S imply makin g the best of thin gs s o fa r

a s the Yangtse valley and the res t of China is concerned .

I ts conclusion and its publication were no doubt e x p e

d ited by the expression given by the highest Chinese
authorities to thei r views r egarding the extreme serious
ness of the si t uation O n I s t S eptember 1 90 0 ( s e e Blue
.
,

Book Cni n a N o 5 1 901 ) the Yan g tse V iceroy Chan g

, ,
.
, ,

C hih T ung teleg raphed as follows to Consul General

,
-

Warren a t the same time requesting him t o transmit the

,

messag e to the British Government

I m q it
a ti e d t h t E n g l n d
u e sa s lly d oe n ot d e i the p ti ti on
a a r ea s s re ar

of C h in aB t i t i t b fe
. u d t h t i f he m e ly l ook
s o e n
ar e d d el y a ,
s re s o an a s

I 4
 RA I L W A Y C O N S T R U CT I O N
to t k
a c ti on
e a l l so t of c o mpli ti on wi ll
,
a i e ; a d the si tu ti o n
r s ca s ar s n a

i the Y n g tse v ll ey in pi t of ou m
n a a u
,
fo the p
s e v ti on f r eas res r r eser a o

ord wi ll b e
e r, i n ed by the d i tu b n e wh i h will
ru i e in v y s r a c s c ar s e er
p ovi n ce nl e a
r u a ti o n o f h osti l i ti
ss c ess i s m d q u i c k ly es a e .

Chu ngkin g the commercial metropolis o f S zechu a n

, ,

with an es t ima t ed population o f and d istant

abou t 5 0 0 miles i n a s t raight line no rth east from Talifu -
,

is the prope r poin t from which A nglo Chinese r a ilways -

S hould be constru cted s o as to ra diate throu g hou t

S zechuan and K weichow an d perhaps u l ti m a tely become ,

con nected with the Bu rma railway sys t em at t he Ku n l On

ferry A s ye t however this does not seem to be a press
.
, ,

ing necessity H ankow the terminus o f the A me r ican

.
,

Brice S yndica t e railway from Can ton now being rapidly ,

pushed o n is very much neare r Chungking than the

,

Ku nl On ferry is Canton is also nea r e r to Chu ngking

.

than K u nlOn is an d s t ill mo r e so is t he tr eaty por t O f

,

Wucho w A nd there can be no doubt wha t ever tha t

.

a railway from C a nton or Wu chow t o C hungkin g wou ld

hold o u t far be t ter prom ise O f being r emunerative than

any Ku nlOn Chun gking scheme because ( 1 ) i t would be
-
,

easier and cheaper to constru c t and mai ntain ( 2 ) it would ,

pass through or close t o coal t ra c t s an d ( 3 ) i t would tra ,

verse areas having a large r t rade and better commercial

prospects than the mountainous province o f Yunnan I f .

a railway were made from Wuchow to C hu ngkin g ( 5 0 0

m iles d irect ) v i a K weilin capital of K wangsi and , ,

K w eiyang capital o f K weichow goods fro m H on g kong

, ,

could be delivered in four days in p l ace of t aking three

months as at present This r ou t e is said by Consul .

H osie to present no ve ry g r ea t di f culties while coal and ,

iron are reported to be obtainable nea r K weiyang in tracts

through which the railway would pass F r om Wuchow .

to K weilin it could follow the F u o r K w e i k i a ng canal ,

which is n ot sugg es t ive o f enginee r ing d i fculties such as

are inevitable in Yunnan A nd even as r egards Yu nnan .

S e n the route from H on gkong b y Can t on Wuchow

, , , ,

N a nn i n g fu and P o s e ti ng ( Posai) the limit o f navigation

, ,

o n the Yukiang is maintained by many to be the best

,

way of reachin g Yun nan S e n by rail way ; for i t follows

a g radual slope in place of crossing t he moun tains and
I 5
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
valleys as must be the case between the Ku nlOn ferry
,

and the town of Yu nnan S e n .

N ow wha t have o u r F rench neighbours done in the

,

way o f railw a y construction i n Tonqu in and what proj ec t s ,

appeal most d irectly to them i n t he immediate future ?

A mong the railways o f rs t importance is o n e j ust ,

completed running north westwards from N a m D inh v i a

,
- -

H anoi to L aokai to receive the trade o f the southern

,

part o f Yu nnan .

I n D ecember 1 898 t he C olon ial C ommit t ee of the

, ,

F rench Chambe r ag reed to guarantee francs

for this l ine and the Chamber almos t ,

u nanimously adopted the B ill fo r a loan of
francs 5 , fo r the construction o f other railways
g uaranteed by the Governmen t o f I ndo C hin a T he -
.

chief project cove r ed by this was the Ton q u in r ailway ,

begu n i n 1 890 running nort h east from H anoi to L ang

,
-

s u n and extendin g northwa r ds to L a n c h w within the

, g o ,

borders o f K w angsi as far as which it is no w constructed

, .

E ndeavou rs will probably be made to continue i t north

east to N a nn i ng fu and t hence to the treaty port o f W u
,

chow o n t he West river F r om N a n n i ngfu a branch .

will extend to the trea t y seaport o f Pakhoi B ut provi .

sion was also made for a coast line i n the direction o f

A nnam and a l ine t e r minating i n Cochin China
,
.

Taking a comprehensive and l ibera l view of affairs ,

Britain can well give her best wishes to a French l ine

fr om Ton q uin into sou th eastern Yu nnan v i a the R e d -

rive r p rovided Britain secures possession o f all trade

,

routes trending in any western d irection through Talifu

o r other northern rou tes into B u r ma and A ssam .

F rench activity must natura lly attract to wards H anoi

a certai n propor t ion o f the t rade that now exists or that
may be capable o f being developed E ven if such .

a t traction amou n t ed actually to deection it w ould not be ,

O f much conse q uence were it not that B ritish commerce

is handicapped a gainst French t rade by heavy impo rt

d uties i n Tonqu in .

I n 1 898 a railway reconnaissance su r vey was made by

French O fcials from K wangtung through H u nan to
H ankow and indications have already been g iven tha t
,

F r ench agents would like to construe the B ritish sphere

1 6
 S ke t c h Ma f
p o

B U R M A , T O N ! U IN
S O U T H E R N C HIN A .

S ca le O f M IIC S
0 5 0 IO O 200 3 00 4 00
 TH E
F REN C H I N Y U N NA N
o f inuence i n the Yan g tse ( T a ki a n g o r g re a t river )

valley as terminatin g at the Ton g Ting lake above which ,

the uppe r Yan g tse is generally called the C hi ng chow

river M ore recen t ly however pa r ticul a r a tt ention has

.
, ,

been bes t owed upon projects havin g special reference to

Yunnan and S ia m D u ring t he sprin g of 1 899 M
.
.

D oumer Governor General o f French I ndo China

,
- -
,

visited Yu n nan S e n and pressed upon the Chinese V ice

r o y considera t ions r egardin g the ex t ension O f t he railway

line fr om L aokai to t he provincial c a pital F ifteen .

French surveyors were en gag ed i n operations ne a r this

t own while other seven teen surveyed betw een there and
,

t he French frontier A mon g other concessions desired

.

was the demand fo r the immedia t e bu ildin g o f a t erminal

station ; bu t at the same time M D oumer made it his .

p a rticular c a re t o t ry and interfere in the negotiations of

the Burma Chinese B ou ndary Commission H e p ro
-
.

lon g ed thou g h he could not otherwise interrup t the

, ,

successful conclusion o f M r S cott s m ission N umbers .

.

o f a g ents o f French syndicates went to Yu nnan S e n

seeking concessions of v a rious sorts F rench shops were ,

opened and the tricolour e w from the cen t re of the

,

ci t y There was j ubilation among the F rench that t hey

.

appeared to be stealin g a march on t he British ; but i t

was premature D uring the summe r a strong anti
.

French feeling manifested itsel f The t ricolour ag s .

were torn down by the m o b and the V iceroy ha d to issue ,

a proclamation wa r ning the inhabitants a g ainst moles t ing

F rench surveyors Bu t the French railway su rvey a n d
.

t he denite alignments were stopped s o that the g raves ,

o f the reve r ed ances t o r s o f t he popul a tion were no longer

r u t hlessly insulted withou t substantial and s a tisfactory

compensation bein g given Of course the murde r o f a .

few surveyors would be at once utilized to make enor

mous demands having for t heir true object l ittle else than
the obstruction of British commercial in t erests a n d thei r
normal expansion A s Yunn a n S e n is n o t a town of a n y
.

r eal impo r tance the anxiety to connect it with L aokai by

,

railway mu st clearly h a ve some other than a comme rcial

obj ec t .
1

1
Wh i l e th ese p g es e b ei n g p assed fo p ress the foll owi n g th e
a ar r ra r

V OL . 11 . 1
7 c
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
The only counterpoise to this ceaseless F rench activity ,

inau g urated by the R oman Catholic missionaries and

S e i u add iti on to ou i n f m ti n o th i s s bj e t app e in the Ti m
r o s r or a o n u c ar s es,

M ay

C A N TON , M ay 3 , vi a R a goo , M ay 2 2 n n The o i ti c a
. p l
a c ti l t vi y
d i s p a edly by the F n
re c h i n th s re o i gi n
has d ou t ess h e ed to bl lp
b ng
ri h o e to the Ch i ese auth ori ti es the d a g ers wi th wh c h the
m n n i
r ec k ess
l p l y
o ic o f the ol d r e g i m b n f g
e ha s ee rau h t U d e r th
. n e

e erg e ti c i
n mp l u se o f M H . in
ar d o u F n the re c h C o su , wh
n l l n o has ea r t

F n p l
,

a l l the a pp v m
ro ed eth od s o f re c h lp p n m
o i ti ca S m
ro a g a d i s i n ia ,
the F n
re c h a re u nq n ly m k n g n
u e sti o a b a i str e u ou s e ffor ts to asse rt s p e c a
i l
l im
c a s to i u e c e i n a n d arou d C a to
n n n n n l n . F n
N o ess th a si x re c h

g u oa ts h a e e e se t to atro the C a to waters, a s a ste a er

nb v b n n p l n n m ll m
ha s ee su b si d z e d o i a
b n i n m n lly yF n m l
to c arr re c h mH n k n
ai s fro o g o g to -

C a to , an d the usua i d uc e e ts a re e
n n l n m n b in g O ffere d to Ch i e se u
n j nk
n
o w e rs to y the tr i c o ou rl F n b n ill
.A re c h a k w sh ort o p e a ra c h
ly n b n
v m f
h ere, an d ari ou s oth er sc h e es are on oot to ace re c h e ter p ri se
pl F n n

en evi a en ce

The c o mm l in
er c i a F n
tere st s o f ra c e i n C a to , wh c h
n n i
m nly n O m ll S
.

ai c o si st f a s a h are, are 1 5 per ce t , o f the si k trad e

b ly n l .

wi th Ly n o s, c ann ot p ossibly xpl n e ai th i s su d d e

n b iv y
ou t u rst o f a c t i t
F n
.

S ll l
ti e ss c a n t h e y xpl in
e a n
the ee d wh i c h ra c e h nlya s s ud d e d is
v
c o er ed for ay l in n p n n bl m S n Am y
g a n i d e e d e t c a e fro ai g o to n o , wh e c e

i t c an d re c t c o ec t w th the R u ssi a s ste o er the or th er te e

i ly nn i n y m v n n l
g pra h wi re s D . esp i te the m ost lib l m n
era tr e at E n
e t wh i c h the aster

l g p F n
T e e ra h C o a has a cc ord ed to re c h p osessi ons, th i s sc h e e
mp ny m
has o g ee a d oca ted
l n b n v by F n
the re c h c o o
l ni l p y a ar t , b u t i t wa s, o r

c ou rse, p oo h p ooh e d i n
-
Bii r t sh c i rc e s wi th o ur c usto
l m y Op m m ar ti i s ,
n l b
u ti a out th r e e we ek s ago n m
e ws c a m Am y
e fro F n
o th a t a p re c h sh i

ha d e ter ed a n d a d ed a c a e th ere
n l n bl It m p
was a s art i ece o f wor
. k
c arr i e d ou t i n a b n lku si e ss i e fash i o
-
n wi th the u t ost sec re c , r e d e r
m y n
i n g te egr a h c o
l p mm n n b
u i ca ti o n F n
e t wee E n
r a c e a nd her F ar as ter
p i n n p n n
ossess o s i d e e d e t o f c a bl n B es u d er ri ti s h c o tro
n l .

The ro i c e s of K wa g si a nd Y u n-n an h a e h i th er to e e r eg ard e d

p vn n -
v b n
as the m n bj iv
ai o e c t es of F n re c h c o o i a
l n l xp n n m n in e a si o fro T o gk g
G v n G n l In
.

M D m
. ou er, the o e r or- e e ra of n d o Ch i a, has un d e rta e a
k n
-

j n y E p
ou r e to uro e wi t h the a owe d o
v bj e c t o f u rg i g u o
n p n F n the re c h

G v nm n
o er e t the c o m l n l y nn in g n k n g
p eti o of the rai wa c o ec t T o g i wi th
th os e p vnro i c e s, b ut th e r e i s so m n
e reaso b l v to e i e e th a t a
p j ro e c t,

l y n ng
w h e reof we are a read wi t essi p limin y p b n m
the re ar ste s, i s e i g ature d

n p F n
for i c ud i g wi th i the s h ere of re c h e a si o the wh o e ro i c e
n l n xp n n l p vn
o f Kwa g - tu g wi th C a to
n n n n l f S m nx y
i tse o .e a nly g in
i e t i s ce rta i be
nin g to b e fe t, n ot o
l nly by the Ch ese a uth ori ti es, b u t a so i n re sp o n
in l
s ibl l H n n
e c i rc e s i n o g k o g, a s the rosp eri t of our co o i s d i sso u
p y l ny in l bly
b n
ou d u
p wi ft h r ee d mo o f t ra d e i n C a to
n n an d the we a th
l y vn p ro i c e
o f wh i c h i t i s th p l F n p
e c a i ta . re c h ni m
rote c ti o kills has m ed t he i p or
ta t trad e wi th
n S in p F n p
g a ore for e r c arri ed on wi th the re c h osses
m ly
i n
s o s, b ut Sn p
i g a or e has a mpl e r e sou rc es i n i ts o wn E nter /a n d .

H n k n
o g -
o g , o n the c o tr ar , i s wh o
n y lly d e p e d e t u o the
n n p n m in n n a te a c e
o f the o e p n d oor on the m nl n ai a dF n r e c h a c ti
vi y
. n n t i n C a to , th er e
l f lly
fore, d eser es a t east to b e c are u wa tc h ed
v
.

1 8
 RA I L W A Y S I N S I A M
energ etically supported by the French Government is ,

the enco u ragement o f British pionee rs o f commerce in

western China U nfortunately however British me r .
, ,

chants have only too often been urg ed to p r oceed slowly ,

if no t actu a lly snubbed when appeal in g fo r assis tance

a nd encour a g ement .

M D ou mer also during the spring o f 1 899 visited

.

S iam to try and impress o n K ing C hu l a l o ng k o r n t he

desirabil i t y of extending the existing S iamese ra ilway
li ne eastwards towards the F rench frontier The only .

l ine in S iam is a short one from Ban gk ok to K ho rat o n

the north east The cont r act for this S tate rail way was
-
.

g iven to an E nglish rm while the D irec tor General ,

-

appointed to supervise t he work w a s a German w ho had

tendered fo r the work u nsu ccessfully H ence inevitable .

friction arose The contra ct was cancelled in 1 896 and

.
,

w as after wa rds g iven to a German rm fo r completion .

The matter was brough t t o the notice of the H ouse o f

Commons in 1 899 but Government decided that t he ,

action constituted no breach of the B r itish S iamese t rea t y -

.

A s K hora t is no commerci a l centre nor likely to ,

become o ne the railway is foredoomed to commercial

,

failure Yet railways are a pressin g wa n t o f the cou ntry

. .

U ndeterred therefore by their u nfortunate experience i n

, ,

this i nstance the S iamese Government have decided o n

,

an immediate survey fo r a r ailway from B a ng k Ok to

C hiengmai ( Z imm e) the second city O f t h e kingdom and ,

an important trade centre about 4 0 0 miles to the no r th ,

west A larg e vol ume O f trade already passes up and

.

down t h e M enam river between B a n gk Ok and C hieng

mai but the wa ters fall so low during the dry season t h a t
,

naviga tion becomes i nterrup t ed Writing o f T he Pro .

g ress o f S iam the special correspondent o f the Ti mes
, ,

o n A p r il 4 1 899 remarked of this scheme that

, ,

The p p t of ros h a l i n e e p e b I t wou l d b e only 4

ec s suc ar su r . 00

mil e in l n g th nd wou ld p fo i ts e n ti e d i tan e l on g one f the

s e , a ass r r s c a o

ri hc t v ll y s i n the wo l d
es a e I h av e t ve ll e d wi d ely i n A i a nd 1
r . ra s , a

c on i ds th t th er u n t y u p th M e n m v ll e y f om B
a e co r g k Ok t h ou gh
e a a r an r

Ch i n g m i t the n th w t f n ti e of Si m i s the i h e t I h av e e v er
e a o or -
es ro r a r c s

se en E v y e wi ll g w p d d y R i e i s the t p l e exp o t f m
. er acr ro a . c s a r ro

S i m ; i t i wi th i c th t the n try p h e B i ti sh g od N w
a s r e a c ou urc as s r o s . o

i t i only the n ei g h b ou h od of the l owe pl i n t h t e n d

s r o i e t r a s a s s r c o

I 9
 B U R M A U ND E R B R I T I S H R U LE
B gkOk
an If ai l w y we e b u i l t to Ch i en g m i
. a r a rth ous n d of sq u e a ,
a s ar

m i l es now g owi n g only su f i en t p d d y fo h om con s mp ti on w ul d

r c a r e u o

be th own u n d e u l ti v ati n
r r c o .

With the contemplated extension o f the R angoon

M a nd a lay line from Pe g u t o M oulmei n almost i n the
immediate future Chie n gmai would be cer tain to be
,

linked up ; and this stren g thening o f the position of

S i a m would probably mean more to Britain than the
stren g thening o f ou r position o n the lofty plateau of
Yunnan .

U nder the Tr ea ty of Ti en tsi n negotiated with C h ina ,

by L ord E l g in in 1 8 5 8 it w a s open to a B ritish subject ,

to cl ea r hi s g ood s

o f al l tr a n s i t d u es h
y pay m en t
of a

s i ng l e ha rg e
c The tra nsi t dues thu s a rra n g ed were
.

dened to be a su m i n the n a m e of tr a n si t d u ty whi ch

w i l l f r ee g ood s whether of ex p or t or i mpor t to p a ss

, ,

hetween por t of ship m en t or en try to or f r om a ny pa r t

of C h i n a w i th ou t f u r th e r ch a r
g e f
o t ol l oct r oi or ta x , ,

escr ip ti on w h

This single p a ymen t
of an
y d a ts o ev er .

was not to exceed 2 % per cent a d va l or em ( in addition .

t o the ve per cent customs du ty on imports ) and

. on ,

pay m en t ther eof a cer ti ca te sha l l he i ssu ed whi ch sha l l

ex emp t th h h r es wh

e
g oods
f r om a l l
f u r t e r i n l a n d c a
g a t
soeve r .

N otwithstandin g the clear stipulations on the point ,

t his transi t pass system has been allowed to become t o

-

a g reat extent inoperative owi n g to the trea t y rights not

h a vi n g been a b i n i ti o enforced to their full extent by
the British Government There is n o necessity to a d .

d uce elaborate proofs in support o f th is statement T hey .

are convincingly given i n Consul General B ren a n s -

report of 1 89 7 on the S ta te of Tr a d e a t the Tr ea ty P or ts

i n Chi n a and L ord Charles Beresford s B r euh up of

-
,

Chi n a bristles with concrete examples of this habitual

violation of the treaty stipulation .

O w in g to this w ant of prevision and o f rm insistence

o n the stipul a t ed conditions from 1 8 5 8 on wa rds a system

o f provincial exactions o f the nature o f transit dues ,

octroi o r toll has become established wh ich is decidedl y

,

prejudicial to t he interests and the expansion of B ritish

tra de These indeni t e i n land taxes are known a s
.

20
 T H E L I KI N EXA C TI O N S

L i hi n . The further the provincial authorities are

from the cen tral Governmen t o f China the more inde
pendent d o t hey become and the more openly a re they ,

able to exact these illegal transit dues wh ich cause delay

and loss to trade and hinde r i ts expansion This L i hi n .

o r ill ici t provincial customs duty is levied i n every p ro

vince and sometimes i n every dis t ric t of a provinc e .

Wheneve r any new trade route is opened a L i hi n

exaction is at once imposed and u nless paid delay and ,

loss inevitably result I n fa ct the provincial govern

.
,

ments rel y to a grea t extent upon L i hi n fo r their r evenue .

These L i hi n exactions a r e notoriously heavy and vexa

tious i n t he Kwangtung and K wan g si provi nces but ,

t hey also operate greatly a gainst trade i n Yu nnan T hus .

,

between Bhamo and Yunnan S e n goods are said to be

s ubjected en r ou te to no less than seven different duties ,

which m us t o f course act as a dete rr en t to commercial

expansion .

Great difculty is however encou ntered in endea

, ,

vou r i ng to obtain somethin g like a true estim a te of almost

anything connec t ed wi t h Yunnan even from t hose who ,

have visi t ed the cou ntry Thus M r Colquhoun ( Chi n a

. .

i n Tr a n sfor ma ti on 1 898 p 1 4 ) says o f Yunnan t hat i ts

, , .

m i n er a l wea l th i s g r ea ter a n d m or e va r i ed tha n tha t of

e r p r ovi n ce

a ny oth Consul H os i e s statements i n h is
.

repor t s h a rdly co rr oborate t his eulogy althou g h he ,

mentions copper as being found i n the north east and -

tin mines as bein g worked i n the south o f the province ;

while Captain W ingate who recently crossed from ,

S hanghai v i a H unan K weiya ng and Yunnan S e n to

, ,

R an g oon describes Yu nnan and K weichow as being

,

sparsely popula t ed and poo r i n comparison with the

wealth and enormous possibilities o f H u nan .

S o fa r as is yet known coal is not fou nd in Yunnan ,

althou g h in S zechuan i t fo r ms the fu el of the people the ,

pine fores t s having long since been destroyed M r . .

j a mieson when
,
Consul a t S z u m a o r epo r ted i n 1 8 98 ,

tha t
I t i d i f u l t to u n d e st n d on wh t g ou n d s suc h san gu i n e h op es
s c r a a r

o f Y u nn n
a futu re p osp eri ty e b s d wh en i t i s se en wh t li ttl e

s r ar a e ,
a

su pp o t h
r as b e n gi v e n to suc h i ll uso y i d e s by omp eten t o b e ve s
e r a c s r r

21
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
c nv e s n t wi th ac tual f c ts
o r a I m q ui te p e p ed to d m i t th t the
a . a r ar a a

m i n e l weal th o f Y u nn n i g e t b t the d i f c ul ti in the w y of

ra a s r a ,
u es a

wo k i n g the sam e a e so fo m i d bl e th t th ey
r r e e t i n to d t
r ll
a a ar c r a e er a

who wi sh fo om e e tu n on th ei
r s ou tl y f o m i nv esti n g
r r pi t l i r a r ca a n

m i n i n g en te p i es t l e st i n the south ern a d we te n e ti on O f

r r s ,
a a n s r s c s

the p o v i n c e
r A pa t f om m i n e l s the p ov i n ce p o es few oth
. r r ra r ssess er

e ou ce
r s r n d the in h bi t n ts a e
s, a n en te p i in g nd l y t d g ee
a a r u r r s a az o a e r .

S o l on g s th y gro w e n ou g h i ce to feed th e m selv

a e nd p u r es, a roc re

e n ou gh o tton wh
c e wi th to m k e the fe w a ti c l es of c l oth i n g n
er a y
a r ec ess r

i n th i s e q u bl e c l i m ate th ey
a e on t e n t ar c .

Mr . L i t ton ,
Consul a t Chungkin g l ikewise reported ,

in 1 899 t hat a l ine from Burma to Chu ngkin g d irec t

would pass through an excessively d ifcult cou ntry ,

which is commercially worthless O n the other h a nd .

,

C onsul Bou rne said in a recent r eport

Th ere are great p ossi b i l i ti es of exp an si on o f t ade i n western an d r

sou th weste rn Y u nn a n b u t e astern Y u nn a n i s a p o or c ou n t y c on si sti n g

-
, r

fo the m ost p art of d y wi n d swe p t d o wn s o n wh i c h n oth i n g i s g own

r r -
r

e x c e p t p e h ap s o ne c ro p of I n d i a n com a y e a
,

r r.

The agents O f the Yunn a n syndica t e o f course g o

m uch further and assert th a t commercial prospects are
fa vourable for railway enterprise and their o fcers sen t , ,

during the dry season 1 898 99 to m a ke a rou g h recon

naissance be t ween the Ku nl On ferry and Chungkin g ,

reported t hat what they considered a practicable route

mi g h t be fou nd for a l ine about miles lon g from
K unl on v i a Yu nnan S e n to L uchow between S uifu and ,

Chun g king o n the Upper Yan g tse .

A g ain as to the a ctual cond itio n of existin g tra de

,

there seems to be the same sort of contradiction in st a te

ments Thus i n the memorandu m o n trade presented
.
,

to L ord Charles Beresfo r d by the China A ssoci a tion

at S hang h ai in October 1 898 the following d e s c r i p , ,

tion of affa irs is given ( The B r ea h up of Chi na 1 899 -

, ,

pp 89

B ut i f the B
h Gove nm en t has all owed the p rov i si on s of the
ri ti s r

T e ti es to b ecom e a d e d l etter oth er n ati on s h av e b ee n l ess c om

r a a ,

pl ac e n t wi th Ch i n a i n th ei r h an d l i n g of the m tte an d i t i s som ewh at a r,

h umil i atin g to nd the foll owi n g p assag e i n the e p o t of M r C o n su l r r .

B ourn e who acc om p an i ed the rec e n t B lac kb u n M i ssi on to Ch i n a

, r .

W i ti n g u pon the t a d e of Y u nn an M B ou n e say s S i n ce my vi si t

r r ,
r. r :

t th i s pl ac e in
o 8 85 the i mp ort trad e i n fore i g n g ood s ha s a lm o t
1 s

22
 Y U N NA N T RAD E S T A TI S T I C S
e n ti ly h i fted f o m th W t i ve ou t vi a P e T in g ( i e th B i ti sh
re s r e es r r r e os -
. . e r

r o ut ) t e the To n gk in g
o o t by w y of the R d i v e d M ngt u r u e a e r r an e z

( th F n h o t ) Th i e v l ti on g t in d d i f the on e v ti ve
e re c r u e . s r o u ,
re a ee c s r a

h b i t f the Ch in
a s o e m e mb ed i n ti ely d e to th e n g y
e se ar re er s e r u e er

o f th F e n h in vi g
,

e r u ly n fo in g n th Ch i n e G v nme n t th e i
c oro s e rc o e es o er r

r i gh t to t n i t p e t
ra v g d f om M n g t u t Y nn n E u
s a ss s o co er oo s r e z o u a .

Ag i n n the m bje t M
a ,
o B ell d N v i ll e the m mb
sa e su f c ,
e ssrs . an e , e ers o

th M i i n w i t Th e e i s l i ttl h n of y i n
e ss o ,
r e : of t de r e c a ce an c r e a se ra

( i n to Y nn n ) by th o v l n d o t f o m B h m ( i the B u m e e
u a e er a r u e r a o . e. r s

f on ti o te ) f g o d mi n g th i w y e ubj ted t
r er r u , or l s
o s co s a ar s ec o no es

th n sev n d i ff e n t d ti
a e wh by th M en g t u u t t n i t
er u e s, ere a s e z ro e ra s

p asses a r e ec og n i d d t he 7 % p e
r n t p i d t the I mp e i l
ze , an r ce . a o r a

M i ti m Cu tom s x em p t the g d f m ny fu th e t x ti n I f
ar e s e s oo s ro a r r a a o

the F n h h v
.

re b en bl t e n f
c au p n the Ch i n e e G v e nm n t
e e a e o o rc e o s o r e

th i s spre t o f T e ty i g h t
ec ho w i i t th t we wh h ol d
r a m i x ty r s, s a ,
o so e s

fu p
o r n t of Ch i n tot l fo i g n t d h v
er c e . e n ti ly f i l d P
a s

a re ra e, a e so re a e

This seems perfectly clear and i ntelli g ible Yet it is .

entirel y a t va ri a nce w ith the report of the Commissioners

o f Customs at M e n ts e i n southern Yunn a n for 1 8 99
g , , .

This s a ys that in 1 89899 the tra f c , ,

r e ac h ed a to ta l v al ul g t m unt e of a b ou t b ei n g the ar es a o

sin the pl
ce e w op e n ed t f i g n t ad e nd the y i d e i b d
ac as o o re r a e ar s sc r e

a s a pop on fo m e h n t i
r s s p i te o f f e q e n t
e r ou s d ven i
e r rc a s, n r u an e n

i ng w e k
c r eas f j nk i t he R e d i v e
r c The i mp o t
s O m o n te d i n
u s n r r. r s a u

v l ue t b ou t
a o f wh i h n i n e ty ev e n p e
a n t m e by o c -
s r ce . ca

w y of H n g k on g th e m in i n g th e p
a o n t e p n ti g T n q in
,
e r a re er c e . r r ese n o u

t dera Th e p t
. ep e nt d e g h ly x o f wh i h
or s i g h ty
r r se e r ou , c e

th e p e
re n t w n t to H n g k n g t h m in d b in g the h e f
r ce . e o o , e re a er e s ar o

T n q u in
o .

Both o f these statements can not possibly be correct o n .

o f them must be at least partially w r on g The F rench .

do more however for encoura gin g a n d pushin g thei r

, ,

tra de bec a use they have consular a gents residen t both

,

at M e ngts e a n d Yunnan S e n .

But i n any case it i s qu ite certain that the provincial

, ,

L i hi n ex a ctions must natura lly act as a barrier to the

expansion of B ritish trade w hile other two very serious ,

O bsta cles need also to be removed before commerce can

increase rapidly T hese a re th a t ri g ht of residence in .
,

the interior O f the cou ntry and no t merely a t the Treaty ,

ports a s at present should be secured to British subjects , ,

and th a t the ri g ht to trade in the interior of the country

should also be O btained .

23
 Ch ap t e r I I
RA I LW A Y S I N B U R M A AN D T H E I R P R O P O S E D
,

E XT ENS I O N A C R O SS Y U NNAN

H E railways in B urma are a l l of metre gauge .

They consist o f two main tru nk lines of very

u nequal len g th both of w hich were originally S tate
,

railways That constructed rst and opened to trafc i n

.

M a y 1 8 7 7 the I r r a wa d dy V a ll ey S ta te R a i l way ru ns
, , ,

from Ra ngoon the capital a n d the chief sea port o f

,

Burma situated near the mouth o f the I rraw a ddy river

, ,

northwards for 1 6 3 miles to Prome an impo r ta nt town ,

on the left bank o f the I rrawaddy I t was rst projected .

i n 1 8 6 8 but the estim a tes w ere not prepared till 1 8 7 3

, .

The rst s o d was turned in j uly 1 8 7 4 l a rg e numbers , ,

o f fa mine immi g ran t s from B enga l being employed o n

the earthwork .

Throu g hou t most of its length this rail way follows the
m ilitary road constructed at the close o f the second
Burmese war ( 1 8 5 2 5 3 ) to connect R angoon with the
-

o l d frontier st a tion o f Thayetmyo forty v e miles north ,

-

o f Prome This line passes through rich rice e l d s and

.
-
,

has been a very remunerative i nvestment A part from .

the st rategical obj ects which w ere of considerable i n

u e n c e in determinin g the Government o f I ndia o n i ts
construction it has contributed i n a very m a rked degree
,

t o the spread of rice cultivation and the increa se o f revenu e

th roughout the H a n tha wa d d y Tharrawaddy and Prome , ,

districts Where twenty v e years ago i n T harra waddy

.
-

there were vast compact areas O f tree forest only broken

into here and there by patches of perm a nent cultivation ,

there are now enormous stretches of rice lands ; while

t he area still u nde r forest o n the plains has been reduced
24
 RA I L W A Y S R O A D S A N D R I V E R S
, ,

to fa r lower propo r tions than a re desirable i n the

in te r ests o f agriculture Fortu nately th e summer ra ins
.

brough t by t he south wes t monsoon neve r fail throu g hout

-

the cen t ral and southern portion o f t he dis t ricts t raversed

by the railway so that anythin g l ike a famine consequent
,

o n excessive clear a nce O f the primeval forest need n o t

be fe a red The only trac t s t hat still remain u ncle a red

.

for rice cultivation w ithi n easy re a ch of the l ine o f

railway are areas reserved as S tate forests fo r fuel and
fodder o r as g razing g rounds s e t apart for the plough
,

cattle .

A fter the comple t ion of this rst short line the survey ,

was pu t in hand o f a similar l in e o f about equal len g th

( 1 6 6 miles ) ru nnin g rst north by eas t through the
P eg u and S hwe g yin districts a n d then due north to ,

Toun g oo the other old frontie r military station o n the

,

S ittan g rive r The prospect of this S i tta ng V a l l ey S ta te

.

R a i l w ay O pened in 1 884 paying a s w ell as the line o n

, ,

the Prome side was not very promising a t rst ; bu t

str a tegical reasons were far stron g er in this than i n the
previous case F rom R angoon to Prome and Thayetmyo
.

there had always been good river commu nic a tion by

means of the I rrawaddy Flotill a Company s steamers

whereas the troops in Toun goo w ere much more o ut o f

touch with the central milit a ry authorities Toun g oo .

could i t is true be reached either by land o r water

, , .

B u t the l and route i nvolved marchin g for more th a n

1 6 0 miles over a very bad ro a d crossed by several larg e

streams some o f the largest o f w hich we r e neither

,

brid g ed no r served by ferries M oreover only the rst .

,

fty miles o r so o f the road were metalled a nd very ,

badly metalled to o so t hat this route was only practic

,

abl e between t he months o f N ovembe r and A pril .

The river commun ication was equally bad The .

passage from the Pegu river to the S itt a n g and con ,

sequently t he ascen t of t he l a t t er could only be made ,

during the fortni g htly spring tides at w hich periods the ,

stron g bore rushin g u p the w i n e ll e r shaped mouth o f -

the S ittang rive r was sometimes d a n g erous The ascent .

by rive r from R an g oon usually t ook from ten to t w enty

d a ys in great d iscom fort a n d it wa s all but i m p ra c ti c
, ,

25
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
able d uring the ood season lasting from j une to

A t that time prior to 1 884 there were few steam

, ,

launches i n R angoon and the conveyance o f troops and

,

of other t ravellers took place in boats roofed i n w ith

a thin l ow awn in g o f thatch
, I t wa s u ncomfortabl e .

to have to l ie do wn all day lon g and day after day on , ,

the hard boards o f a so called Chittagong boat and a -

,

relief to get ou t and walk up and down a s a ndb a nk w hile

the evenin g meal wa s being cooked O ne could o f .
,

course come do w n stream much qu icker D urin g t he

, .

rains o f 1 880 I m a de the j ou rney fr om Toungoo to

R an goon i n four and a half days in a B u rmese boat of
about fty tons This contained as my fellow passen g ers
.
,
-
,

fou r se rvants one pony one do g and v e boatmen

, , , .

Tha t was however tra velling i n unusual comfor t fo r

, ,

those days as I could no t only s i t upright all day bu t

, ,

even had a small t a ble and a chair in the centre compart

ment o f the boat n ext to my pony The compartment
, .

immediately beyond that my cook u sed as his kitchen .

A ll movements o f trad e bet ween R an g oon and the

S ittang river were l ikewise limited to the high tides
recu rrin g fo r tnightly as at other times t he Ky as u creek
, ,

le a ding from the Pe g u river across into the S itt a ng w a s ,

blocked fo r want of water S uch was the rather u m .

pleas a nt S tate of affa irs u ntil the openin g o f the S ittang

V alley S tate R ailw a y i n 1 884 .

D uring 1 88 7 88 the I rraw a ddy and S itt a ng l ines

, ,

extendin g over 3 3 3 miles which had cos t over 2 89 lacs ,

o f rupees made net earnings o f nearly

1 5 lacs of r upees g iving a return o f 1 per

cent o n the c a pital

. .

Permanent cultivation nea r the newer line o f rail way

soon beg an to ex t end thou g h nothing like so r apidly as
,

ha d been the case in the less t hinly populated t racts

traversed by the Prome line The S itta ng railway had .
,

howeve r this g re a t advantage that it was capable o f

, ,

extension northwards to Mandalay whe n ever cir e u m a

st a nces mi g ht render su ch a scheme feasible Th a t .

this opportu nity was actually forced upon us mainly ,

throu g h the action o f the F rench in adoptin g thei r

26
 RA I L W A Y T O M A N D A LA Y
customary plan O f t ry in g to steal in behin d the tracts
occupied by Britain is now a matter o f history
, .

The annexation of Upper B urm a o n j anu a ry I ,

1 88 6 and the military O perations entailed there a fter i n

,

the occupation and the p a c i ca t i o n o f the new territories ,

necessit a ted the extension o f the S ittang line to M a n

d a lay The work of survey an d o f construction be gan
.

t owards t he close of 1 886 taking place simultaneously

,

fro m M andalay southwards for forty miles and from ,

Tou n g oo northwards for sixty miles ; bu t in the inter

ve ni n
g 1 2 0 miles some delay occurred i n making a co m

m e n c e m e nt as the work had to be c a rried o n in tracts that

,

were seriously disturbed by pred a tory b a nds o f d a coits or

armed robbers I t is perhaps the nest achievement o f
.

o u r civilization in B urma th a t this extension m easu rin g ,

2 2 0 miles from Tou n g oo to M a nd a lay was opened to

,

tra f c e a rly i n 1 8 89 w ithin three and a quarter years of

,

the a nnexa t ion o f Upper Bu rma T he chief credit o f

.

this great work i s mainly du e to S i r Ch a rles B ernard ,

the Chief C ommissioner o f B u rma ; for it was really

throu g h his personal i nsistence th a t the ex t ension scheme
w a s some wh a t reluctantly approved by the Government
o f I ndi a and r ecommended to the S ecret a ry o f S tate .

T his extension skirted the S h a n hills passin g within

,

fteen to t wenty miles of the mouths o f the p a sses

throu g h which the ca ravans from the southern S tates
reach the plains a n d open ing up a l a nd locked tract
,
-

inaccessible by any navigable streams Work on this .

line provided labou r for large numbers o f people an d ,

materially assisted the p a c i ca ti o n o f t hese eastern d i s

t r i c ts w hich were for some time amon g the most tur
bulent in the province .

One of the results o f this throu g h ra il wa y co m m u n i c a

tion between the moist tracts o f L ower Bu rm a and the
centra l dry zone o f U pper Burma i n w hich owin g ,

mainly to excessive cle a rance O f the ori g in a l forest

covering the humidity of the atmosphere is very low a nd
,

the storage capacity of the soil for retaining moisture has

been ruined while the surface soil is easily eroded and
,

washed away during hea vy rainfall has been th a t in

y ears o f scarcity such
,
as have been o f frequent recu r
27
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U L E
rence recently larg e supplies of rice and other food
,

stu ffs can be pou red into the af icted districts A t the .

s a me time the peopl e ca n easily if they l ike be trans , ,

ferred by rail t o the vicinity o f tra cts not far dista nt i n

L ower B urma where danger from d rou g h t does no t
,

exis t and w here good land can s t ill readily be obtained

,

from Government for clearance and permanen t occupa

tion o n uncommonly e a sy terms .

O n the completion o f the line to M a ndalay a su rvey ,

was almost immediately put in hand for fa cil itating

m ilitary opera tions and opening u p the n ew provi nce
by extend ing the rail way system north w a rds towards
S h w ebo and then beyond that to Kath a to M ogaung
, , ,

a nd to the upper portion o f the I rra waddy river about ,

1 0 0 miles north o f Bhamo The M yohaun g ( ancient
.

c a pital ) s tation a fe w miles sou th o f M and a lay w a s
, ,

chosen as the most convenient poi nt o f j unctio n and ,

from this a short branch was thrown o u t westwards to

A m arapura H ere the I rrawaddy has now to be crossed
.

i n larg e and po w erfu l ferry steamers to the town o f

S a g ai n g ( thou g h it will probably soon be brid g ed at an
estimated cost of abou t w hence the M u
V alley S tate R ailway was constructed ru nnin g north
w ards throu g h the S a g ain g S hwebo Katha and Bhamo , , ,

districts to M og aun g and M yitkyina I n its course .

throu g h S h w ebo and K atha it passes within twelve miles

O f the Wu ntho g ol d e ld s from w hich so much g old w as
,

expected a n d so l ittle has up to date been obtained .

T his rail way wa s O pened to trafc i n sections rst o f all ,

to S hwebo in 1 8 9 1 then to Wu ntho in 1 89 2 to Katha o n

, ,

t he I rrawaddy ( which i s connected with the main line by

a short b ranch ) i n 1 89 5 to M o gaung in 1 89 7 and nally
, ,

t o M yitkyin a durin g the autumn o f 1 898 T his M u .

V alley l ine onl y commenced to pay i n 1 90 0 but its pro ,

s e c ts are good
p .

M yi tkyina the headquarters o f a new district o f the

,

same name is the term inus o f the railway l ine up the

,

I rrawaddy v a lley a t a point 7 2 4 miles distant from

,

R an goon by r ail w ay and abou t miles by rive r .

I t is situated o n the right bank o f the r iver abou t ,

t wenty v e m iles below where the t wo branches t he

-
,

28
 T H E U P P E R I R RA W A D D Y
Ma l i k ha and the M a i k ha u nite to form the I rr a waddy
, .

A t M yitkyin a a n d for about twelve miles further north

, ,

the ri ver is n a vi gable for steam lau nches ; bu t beyond

that ste a m n a vi gation is impra cticable and must remain ,

so. F rom D ecember t o M ay steam launches can ru n

between Bh a mo and Myitkyina but no t during the rainy ,

se a son from J u ne t ill t he end of N ovember ; for i n the

gorg e known as the rs t dele the oods risin g ,

over ei g hty feet high and pen t up till they pou r over a
na r row open in g only fty to sixty yards wide c a lled
, ,


the P a s ha w gate render navigation ei t he r u p or down
,

stream e q u a lly impossible E ven in the dry season

.

there a re stringent regulations as to the departure o f

lau nches u p wa rds from B hamo and do wnwards from
S i nbo in order to obviate casualties i n the dele U nder
, .

no circums t ances could larg e steamers make the j ourney

at any time O f the year ; and wh a tever tra fc there is ,

o r there ever will be the requ irements o f commerce are

,

fa r better se rved by the railway than they possibly could

be by river steamers plying between Bh a mo and
M y itkyina .

From Wun t ho northwards the line passes through

thinly popul a ted districts w hich are certain t o be more
extensively cultivated later on To the nor t h and east
.
,

Myitkyina is shut in by lofty hills thickly wooded and ,

sparsely inhabited by wild Kachin j u n g le tribes A ny .

remunerative extension of this m a in l ine beyond M yit

k y i n a i s therefore hardly to be thought o f in the mean
time t hough a branch from M oga ung northwards by
, ,

way o f K a m a in g up the H ukong valley to connect w ith

,

the A ssam r ail wa y system has been considered so far a s

to have been the object o f a reconnaissance survey
durin g 1 89 5 96 T he results were however not s u f
.
, ,

c i e n tl encoura g ing to hold o u t any hO e that the projec t

y p
ca n for the present be considered remu nerative I t is .
,

nevertheless a scheme perhaps more worthy of considera

,

tion than t he constr u ction of a ra ilw a y across Yu nnan .

A fter the O penin g of the M u V alley R a il way the ,

variou s l ines were am a lgamated and cal led the B u r m a

S ta te R a i l w ay s ; but this name was altered when the
B u r m a R a i l w ay s Comp a ny L i m i ted took over all t he
, ,

29
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
existin g lines and projects o n S eptember 1 1 896 T his , .

C omp a ny formed i n j ul y 1 896 contracted to t a ke over

, , ,

from the S ecret a ry O f S tate for I ndia the open system

o f r ail ways in B urma then a gg regatin g 8 3 4 m iles i n
,

len g th also to complete a n d eventu a lly work other lines

,

i n pro g ress amounting to 3 6 0 miles mo r e o r a bout

,

miles i n all and to construct a nd work such other l ines

as the S ecreta ry o f S ta te m a y think t to entrust to it ,

Govern ment arra n g ing to contribute further c a pit a l o r

enabling the C ompany to ra ise the same The capital is .

of which half has been called u p and o n ,

which the I ndi a n Government guarantee a d ividend of two

and a half per cent per annum to g ether w ith o ne fth o f
.
-

the surplus earnings beyond th a t interest I t wa s also .

guaranteed that this o ne fth should no t be less th a n a

-

q uarter per cen t for the rst ve years endin g w ith j u ne

.
,

1 90 1 . Provisions were like w ise made i n the contract as to

the utilization o f the net e a rnin gs fo r discharging interest
on an
y debentures raised and fo r p a ying to Govern
,

ment interest a t two a n d a h a lf per cent per annu m o n the .

capit a l expended i n constructin g the rail wa ys F urther .

,

Government reserved the ri g ht o f determinin g the c o n

tract a t six months notice i n 1 9 2 1 o r in a n y tenth year

thereafter o r i n the event o f the u ndertaking not paying

,

its e x penses for three successive half ye a rs I n the -

.

case of such determination the sh a re capit a l is to be ,

rep a i d at p a r Ij hat is to say the onus o f ndin g money

'

.
,

for all constructions w ithin British territory really falls o n

the Government o f I ndia whose n a ncial position does
,

not j ustify thei r rush in g into rash expenditure B eyon d .

th a t responsibility fo r surveys and other ch a rges in Yu n

,

nan c a n h a rdly be forced upon the Government of I ndia .

The sta tus o f the Burma rail ways is thus clear a n d

denite The Comp a ny not only took over the a ctive
.

man agement o f the existin g O pen lines o f ra il way the ,

l ines i n cou rse o f construction and the proj ects u nder ,

consideration bu t they a lso vol u ntarily incurred the

,

l i a bility to construct fu rther extensions ordered by the

Government o f I ndia o n the gu a ra ntee from the l a tter
o f an u ncommonly l o w ra te o f i nterest for investments o f

t he nature i n question i n a country l ike Bu rma .

3O
 TH E M A N D A LA YK U N L ON RA I L W A Y
The c a pital outlay o n the Bu rma rail ways system
including open l ines lines i n construction and su rveys in
, ,

connexion with proj ects then u nder consideration u p to

A u g ust 3 1 1 896 w hen the enterp r ise was handed over by
, ,

Government to the Bu r ma R ailways Company amou nted ,

to 7 8 7 7 1a cs o f rupees o r ve and a q u a rter million pou nds

1
-

sterlin g O f this total 7 7 1 % lacs

. 1 represented
,

outl a y o n O pen l ines ; and these yielded durin g 1 896 9 7

n e t earnings to the amount o f 3 4 71 lacs
g ivin g pe r cent o n t he capital i nves t ed The last
. .

dividend declared by the Company was three and three

qu a rters per cent for the half yea r ending J une 3 0 1 90 0
.
-
, .

The principal ex t ension now i n cou rse of construction

is the much talked o f branch extending from Myohaun g ,

near M a ndalay which i s also the j unction for t he M u

,

v a lley section to M o gaung and M yitkyi na eastwards ,

throu g h the northern S han S tates by way o f Maymyo ,

the l ittle hill station o f Bu r ma Thibaw L ashio and

, , ,

M on g Y a w to some poin t a t o r near the Kunl On fe r ry o n

t he S al ween river .

The detailed survey for th is li ne was begu n in t he

autumn o f 1 892 but the proj ect was n o t sanctioned till
,

1 89 5
. The estimated dis tance from M yohau ng j u nction
to the Ku nlOn ferry is 2 2 4 miles a nd the sanctioned ,

estimate was fo r 1 8 3 lacs o f r upees though

this would probably be exceeded conside r ably .

Bu t i n U ppe r B urma the r e a r e two other importan t

b ranch l ine s One o f these about sixty m iles i n lengt h
.
, ,

begun in I 896 as a famine work r u ns fr om Thazi nea r the , ,

headquarters o f the M eiktila d ivision and that important

military station to Myingyan o n the I rrawaddy nea r
, ,

where this receives fr om the no r th west its chief tributary -

,

the Chi nd w in r iver T his line which was opened to

.
,

tra f c in N ovember 1 899 t raverses the principal cot t on

, ,

producin g district i n B urm a whose short stapl ed crop is ,

-

largely exported i nto Yunnan v i a B hamo F rom S againg .

another impor tant branch about seven t y miles lon g runs , ,

through M yinmu and M onywa to A l On o n the Chindwin , ,

which passes through fe r tile rice lands and tracts produc

ing cotton cattle and salt The construction of a branch
, , .

from L etpadan ( on the P rome line ) by way o f H enz a da , ,

31
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
to the seaport o f Bassein is n o w i n active pro g ress .

T his will p a ss throu g h a well popula t ed hi g hl y culti ,

v a te d and r ich rice producin g cou ntry

,
-
A survey is now .

being m a de fo r a branch railway extendin g from Pegu ,

on the mai n R an g oon Mandalay line to M oulmein

-
, .

S hort feeder l ines are bein g su rveyed for between Pegu

a n d S yriam the ancien t M on capi t al near the mouth of
,

the Pe g u river and from D alla j ust opposite R a ngoon

, , ,

to D edaye o n the tidal creeks A nother survey is bein g

, .

m a de from Thazi ju nction to Taunggyi and the L ocal ,

Government are prepared to make and work this li ne

themselves u nless other arra ngements are meanwh ile
,

entered i nto in the event o f t he survey showing that the

,

cost of construction and o f maintenance would be re a son

able. A nd i n the near fu t ure a branch about 2 00
miles in leng t h will most likely be extended southwards
from Thiba w o n the Mandalay Ku nl On line throug h
,
-
,

Ke hs i M a nsam and L a i kha to M on g N a i ( M on e) i n the

-

heart O f the S outhern S han S ta t es the su rvey fo r wh ich ,

was begu n i n 1 8 9 7 H ere a certain amoun t o f trade

.

already exists which is capable of bein g greatly inc r eased

, .

These S tates are sm a ll principal ities which prio r to annex ,

ation were u t t erly d isorganized by in t erneci ne strife a nd

,

thinly populated by r eason of constant petty wa rfare .

U nder good government they are now howeve r showing , ,

g re a t improvement with rapid d evelopment of trade

, .

I n 1 89 2 the total tra de o f the S outhern S han S tates with

B urma amoun t ed to
i n 1 899 1 900 it was
This capital has all been crea t ed since t h e
annexation when cultiva t ion was conned to absolute
,

r e q uirements fo r ac t ual existence N 0 statis t ics are .

available a s to the t rade of these S tates with S iam China , ,

a n d Tonqu in but if the railway being su rveyed for fr om

Thazi to Taunggyi can be continued ac ross the S han
S ta tes to Mon e ( thus forming a loop with t he Thibaw
M on e branch ) and o n to K en g tung t rade w ill probably ,

develop very rapidly The country is fairly fer t ile and

.

possesses a good climate suitable fo r g rowing tea coffee , ,

fru its ve g eta bles and g rain as well as for breeding

, , ,

cattle H ence g iven the rail way there would prob a bly
.
, ,

soon be a large development of trade eastwards fr om

32
 T H E N O RT H E R N S H A N STATE S
Ken g tun g and the cou nt ry beyond for the S hans are e n
dowed with ve ry keen trading i nstincts M oreove r i t .
,

would bring ou r military station at K en gt ung no w 3 5 0 ,

miles dis tant from the ra ilway line at Thazi into consider ,

ably better touch w ith i t s main bases at Mandalay and

R an g oon The extension of the ra ilway in this direction
.

would therefore be an important strategic movement in

protectin g Burma a gainst any ank movement from
Tonqu in o r S iam .

But even the S han S tates are not everywhere cap a ble
of being opened ou t to an unlimited ex t en t I n Th ib a w .
,

the most important of the N orthern S han S tates which is ,

being t raversed fro m west to east by the railway from

M a ndalay to L a sh io irrigation i s already ex t ensively
,

adopted for cultivation The soil a clayey lo a m resulting

.
,

from the decomposition o f l imestone rock is fertile s o ,

lon g as it ha s a su fcient suppl y of moistu re A lready .

t he ori g inal fores t covering on the hill sides has in many

places been s o mu ch denuded that further extensive
clearings for cul tivation may i n t erfere prej udicially with
the w a ter storage capacity of the soil and consequently
-
,

w ith its productivity a n d with the wellbein g of the

cultivators and o f thei r cattle This is ho wever a
.
, ,

dan g er that will no doubt be guarded a gains t i n due

time by those respons ible for the admin istra tion of the
S tate . The Forest D epartment ha s a lready been called
upon to give attention to this matter .

R emune r ative extensions of t he railway w ill also

ultimately be feasible beyond Mo g aung for t h e country
in the north of the Myitkyina dis tr ict though poorly ,

popula t ed and as y e t only partially adm in istered is rich ,

in future possibilities The proj ect o f linkin g up the

.

Bu rma line with the A ssam railway for w h ich the pre
,

limina ry surveys were comple t ed i n 1 896 must again in ,

due cou rse be brought forward for favourable considera

tion I n 1 89 2 a reconnaissance was made from M inhla
.

throu g h the A n pass across the A rakan hills to Chitt a

g on g and it w a s found that an al ignment was feasible
, .

B ut as it ascended to
, feet and required a t unnel
fee t lon g a t the top of the pass the p r oject was no t
,

t aken into furthe r consideration .

V OL . 11. D
33
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U L E
E ven u nde r the most favourable circu mstances i t can
no t no w be a n ticipated tha t the r ailway will reach Ku n l On

o n the S alween for several years From t he Ku nlOn fer ry .

,

about feet above s ea level a line can be formed o n ,

the far t her side o f the S alween extendin g north eas t u p -

the N a m t i ng valley and across a col abou t feet i n

elevation to Yunchow ( Y i n c ho ) and thence northwards
l
,

fo r abou t twenty v e m iles to S hu nningfu both o f whic h

-
,

places are abou t that same elevation This extension .

would be about 1 6 0 to 1 7 0 miles long and over thi rty ,

miles of i t would have to be of a g radient of o ne in forty .

Bu t it is only afte r reaching Yu ncho w or S h unn ingfu

t hat the r eally g reat obstruction becomes unavoidable .

The M ekong owing from twenty to thirty miles to the

,

east of these towns presents a fo r midable obstacle as a ,

gorg e fee t deep and be t ween t wo and t hr ee miles

i n b r eadt h Beyond that the possible route and its
.
,

obs tacles a r e as yet mainly conjectu re The r e is no longer .

any talk o f its goin g to Talifu feet ) the empo r ium ,

o f northern Yu nnan The reconnaissance made by the .

Yu nnan Company s su rveyors i n 1 898 99 sugges t s a

-

possible alignment v i a Yu nchow throug h south wes t ern ,

-

Yu nnan to Yu nnan S e n and thence by way of L uchow ,

to C h u ngkin g A survey party was during 1 899 1 900

.

en gaged in ascertainin g details o f this route B ut .

perhaps su fcient has been said to sho w that railway

cons tr uction into t he heart of Yunnan will be abnormally
dea r and that the cost o f working over high grad ients
,

will be u nusually heavy wi t hou t natural supplies of good

s t eam p roducing fu el nea r its easte r n end
-
.

I f for pu rely comme r cial purposes it be desired t o

extend th e M andalay K unlOn line in to Yu nnan it should -
,

n o t i n t he nea r futu re proceed beyond Yuncho w o r S hun

ni n g fu either o f which would serve as an additional

,

1 Li eu t R o x f the F en h n vy who acc omp n i ed P i n ce H en i

. u ,
o r c a ,
a r r

d O l e ns ( F om T q i

r a rt I di 898 pp 3 7
on u n p ut M ei n
o n a, 1 , . 2, s

n i n gfu ( N am ti ng d ai n g e ) t fe t the p as b twee n the S al ween

r a a e ,
s e

an d the M ek on g a t f t Y u n h ow t fe t S h unn i n gfu t

ee ,
c a e , a

feet and the M ek on g ri v at

,
fe t U nl ess i t ca n b e er e .

p oved th at th se ob se v ati on a e v astly o v eresti m ated th e n the co

r e r s r , n

stru ti o n o f
c lin e wi ll equi re to ov e c om e n atu al ob stacl es of un u u l
a r r r s a

d i i c ul ty

.

34
 E FF E C T O F R A I L W A Y S
focus and dis tributing cen tr e for any comme r ce capable
o f development L ate r on fu rthe r knowledge would be
.
,

ac q uired which should make additional ex t ensions ,

amoun t ing to vast inves t ments less o f a leap i n the ,

dark tha n mus t be t he case if large wo rks a r e hu rried

o n prema t u rely Pol itical reasons may pe r haps howeve r
.
, ,

make it desi rable t o p roceed ultimately as fa r as Yu n

nan S e n to which a you ng engineer O f ce r is said to have
,

fou n d wha t may p r ove a practicable r ou t e v i a Y unchow

ch
( Y i n o
) i n 1 898 99 with a r ail
, way distance o f abou t
35 0 miles fr om the K u n l On I t is pu rely a q ues t ion of a
.

B ritis h Gove r nment gua ran t ee to t he ex t en t of about

a y ear o n the r equ i r ed capital outlay o f p rob
ably ove r
The O pen railway lines i n B u r ma convey a large and
a s t eadily increasing tra f c The extension o f the main
.

l ine to M ogau n g and M yi t kyina though no t immediately ,

remu ne rative will become so i n course of t ime B etween

, .

t hese t wo small t owns th e r ail way passes th r ough dense

mala rious j ungle which will have to awai t the ar r ival o f
,

settle rs befo r e th e fo r es t s can be clea r ed for permanent

cultivation The t apping o f Yu nnan by a rail way would
.

n ot likely bring down cultivators from the r e ; while mou n

ta i n ee rs fr om lofty regions soon sicken and die o n the l ow ,

hot mois t plains

, M ogau ng r eceives th e p roduce of
.

t he jade mines a t N anyaseik above K amaing and the , ,

ambe r coming fr om M a i ngkhwa n ; w h ile i n d i arub be r

fr om t h e wild fores t t rac t s to the no rth fo r me rly taken ,

by boat t o Bhamo befo r e it could be se n t sou t h is now ,

brough t to M o gaung and M yitkyina for di r ect transpo r t

to R angoon .

S ince r ailway cons tru ction was commenced at M yit

k y i na a considerable po rt ion of t he Yu nnan t r ade fo r ,

merly borne o n pack mul e s and bullocks westwards

t hrou g h M omein to Bhamo has n ow been deected from ,

the Taiping valley t owards Myitkyina I t is q ui t e l ikely .

that t his de ection of the petty inland trade may con

tin n e and t hat Myitkyina a b rand new to wn will to a
, . , ,

certain extent g row a t t h e expense of Bhamo B ut

, .
,

ca ter i s pa r i h u s the valley rou t e by t he Taiping ri ve r is

,

the easier t rack and the r e seems no fea r o f the t rade a t

,

35
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
Bhamo becoming extingu ished I t i s most probable .

tha t trade may increase considerably bo t h at M yitkyina ,

and Bhamo thou g h the l imi t s o f its possible expansion

,

seem some what narrow B hamo i n addition to trade .

,

v i a t he Taiping valley mus t continue to be the empo ,

r i u m o f the Chi nese muleteers coming down throu g h

N a m k ha n o u r frontier town o n the S hweli river which

, ,

wa s i n 1 89 7 connected with Bhamo by means of a well

cleared track fty s i x m iles i n length -
.

E ven in ascend in g and crossin g t h e S han plateau

considerable d ifculties have t o be overcome o n the
Mandalay Ku nl On l ine From M yohaung j u nc t ion the
- .

ascent o f the S han hills from a level o f about 5 0 0 feet ,

o n the plain t o feet o n t he edge o f the plateau

wi thi n a distance of less than t en m iles i nvolves wi th , ,

two r eversing stations a gradient o f t h e unusual s t eep ,

ness o f o n e in twenty v e wh ich may ultima t ely for -

, ,

public sa fety have to be reduced at great expense to

,

o n e in forty The a l i g nment follows a zigzag cou rse

.

across the face o f a precipitous h ill roundin g sharp ,

c u rves passing under heavy cu t tings and g oing through

, ,

rocky g alleries When once this short section was

.

O p ened s o tha t rails could reach t he pla teau the layi ng of ,

t he pe r manen t t rack followed rapidly up to the Gokteik

gorge abou t t he eightieth mile T his Gokteik gorge
, .

fo r med howeve r a very form idable na t ural obs t ruction

, ,

t o furthe r progress A ssure in the hills incomplete i n

.
,

o n e short portion resembling ra t her a g eological fault

, ,

apparently r esulted i n once d amm ing u p the bed o f the

Gokteik stream n ow lying hund r eds of fee t below A .

lake m ust have been formed u ntil in course o f time the

waters forced an outle t for themselves by percolation ,

a n d pressure in t he form o f a sub t erraneous passag e

,

extending for abou t half a mile throu g h t he dam o f l ime

stone rock T h e stream no w d isappears fo r t his con
.

s i d e r a b l e dis t ance into a huge c a vern while the fault ,

a bove it fo r ms a N h r n a tural brid g e across which

g o o

the o l d trade r ou t e from China to M andal a y passes .

l

1
W h en I v i i ted the G Okteik g o g e i n M y nd J un 898 th e e
s r , a a e, 1 ,
r

sto od o n the N go h j ust b el ow wh e e the b i d g e n ow c osse a q u i n t

'

,
r r r s, a
l i ttl e m on u m en t ab out sev en o ei gh t feet h i gh I t w s Ch i n ese i n
r . a

36
 G OK T E I K G O R G E
TH E
This tr ade r oute has within comparatively r ecent t imes
been completely dominated by the Chinese That such .

has been the case is apar t fr om d irect histo r ical records, ,

clearly apparen t from the en t renchments the remains o f ,

w hich are easily t raceable at di fferent points along the

route T he road bu ngalow a t S ein
. about half
w a y between Thiba w and L ashio is built within one of ,

t he best p r eserved of these ; bu t they are to be found

even so fa r wes t as M aymyo nea r the wes t ern edge o f ,

the S h an plateau and withi n about forty miles of A m ara

pura and A v a fo r ve centuries the capitals o f th e B ur
,

mese kingdom .

N atural bridges of t his sort a r e common throug h ou t

the S han S ta t es where the prevailing rock i s limestone
, .

The G okteik go rge is c r ossed by a lofty iron bri d g e

elevated about 85 0 fee t above the stream and
feet in length The contract fo r this viaduct was given
.

to an A merican rm and the work w a s completed i n ,

D ecembe r 1 90 0,
This obstacle bein g surmounted
.
,

there was no t hing o f u nusual di fculty to hinder the

rails being rapidly laid up to T h ibaw 1 2 3 miles as far , ,

as which the l ine is now open for tra fc .

O w ing partly to the d i fcul t ies connected wi th the

descent to the S alween and the fa r greater di fculties
beyond tha t and also partly to the d isturbances and
,

poli t ical un r est throu g hout China it has been very wisely ,

decided that L ashio is t o form the terminus of this rail

way fo r the present .

Many w ho have had exceptionally good oppor t uni t ies o f

forming a sound j ud g men t o n the m a tter have all along
been strongly o f opin ion that either L ashio o r else o n e o r
othe r o f the smal l towns o f M ong Yaw o r M ong Ky e k ,

respectively about t wenty ve and forty miles east o f -

fo m
r a nd a pp en e and b o e i n i p tio n s i n Ch i n ese and B urm e
ara c ,
r sc r es .

The l tte ra nra s f ll ows

a O n the e on d d y of th w x i n g m oon
o s c a e a

of T b a u n g
a ,1 33 (i e
2 b out M h. . a d i n g the i g n f th
a rc ,
ur re o e

Th i baw S wb w M ah wun th th i ba d m R j th i s Yatt u ng p ss

a a, a - a- -
a a a a, a a ,

wh i c h wa s i n bad on d i ti on was e p i e d by the t wo H i n ( h ad m e n )

c , r a r e e

o f Y atte i n nd T u n g d e i k so as to m k e i t p
a a ,bl e for men d l ad e n a as sa an

o xe n . H nc e th ey hav e ea ned the g ood wi sh e of the N t ( g u d ian

e r s a ar

sp i r i t ) a nd o f men I t i s to b e h op ed t h at th i s q uai n t ec o d ha

s . t r r s no

b e n d estroyed by the b ri d ge wo k
e r .

37
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
L a shio and p r efe rably the forme r should deni t ely
form the terminus o f the railway line B eyond that the . ,

coun t ry descending t o the S alween aga i n becomes d i f

cul t and the expense o f cons t ruction and workin g will
,

be considerable The extension from M ong Ky e k to

.

the S alween river would be about fty miles in length

and ve r y cos tly .

When t ravelling along t h e r oads leading up from the

plains o f B urma into the no rt hern and the sout h ern
S han S t a t es o ne con t inually meets caravans o f bullocks
,

car r ying small loads of abou t a hu ndredwei gh t pe r he a d ,

packed in bamboo baskets slung ove r t he withe r s of

e a ch animal while the C hinese caravans consist both
,

o f bullocks and o f mules ca r ryin g loads o f 1 2 0 lbs B ut .

i t mus t be r ecollected tha t even wit h the l imited nu mber

,

o f t r uck s necessitated by t h e h igh gradients o n parts o f

this line o n e t rai n could convey abou t

, bullock
lo a ds ; and when several hundreds of thousands o f p os
sible bullock or mule loads are conver t ed into t ons o f
trafc t he amount o f comme r ce thereby represented is
,

comparativ ely so u n i m portan t tha t it fails t o promise

anything l ike ade q uate re t urns to a hi g h grade railway -

abnormally expensive to cons t ruct to maintain and to , ,

work .

L ong ca r avan routes can o f cou rse never compete

, ,

s uccessfully with d irect t ranspo rt by river o r rail when

once t h is is provided H ence when t he railway line is
.
,

O pen to L ash io this will absorb all the caravan tr afc

,

n o w proceeding t o M andalay and caravan trade w ill b e

,

attracted towards the line bo t h from ou r own S han

S tates and from the territo r ies beyond T h e b ulk of .

whateve r trade exists or is capable o f development i n

t he wes t ern po r tion o f Yu nnan m us t na t u rally following ,

the li nes o f least r esistance nd its way in t o the I rra

,

w a ddy valley eithe r through S a d On to Myitkyina or

, ,

down t he Taiping valley ( Manwaing ) o r t h e S hwel i

valley ( Na m kha n) to Bhamo o r by the Ku nlOn fer ry to
,

the r ailway line from Mandalay The ca ravan trafc .

from the south o f that which no w crosses t he S alween

by the T ak a w o r other ferries and passes throu g h
T a unggyi the head q uarte rs o f the southern S han
,

38
 T RA N S F R O N T I E R T RA D E
S ta t es and thence proceeds down a fa irly good r oad
,

fo r 1 0 6 miles to th e railway line at Thazi ( or to the

P yawbw e s ta t ion south o f t hat which o ffers better ,

natu ral advantages for the ca t tle ) may perhaps n o t ,

be affec t ed to an y appreciable extent u ntil the proposed

branch line is in course o f time made from Thibaw
, ,

southwards th rough Ke hs i M ansam to M Ong Na i ( M on e) ,

t he capita l o f the S h an S t ate bearing the same name .

I nland transfrontie r trade with S iam K arenn i the , ,

S han S ta t es and Yu nnan reached , in valu e

during 1 8 99 1 900 O wing to improved commu nications
.

and greater safety O f the frontier t rade routes and par ,

t i cu l arl y o f those leading into Yun nan this class o f t rade ,

is increasing ra pidly and is d ist r ibu t in g i t self ove r a

,

larg e nu mber o f products .

The main imports from Yu nnan are n ow g old leaf

larg ely used fo r the decoration o f pa g odas and religious
shrines horns orpiment and raw silk ; while the chief
, , ,

e x po r ts to i t are raw co t ton silk and woollen goods , ,

twist yarn and co tton piece goods A t presen t t he total

, , .

t r ade amounts to abou t a yea r .

The t rade with the S han S tates is more impor tan t .

Wi t h the sou thern S han S tates alone it amou nted to

5 7 5 5 5 6 i n 1 899 1 goo which however includes exports
,

, ,

o f teak timber by river and it a g gregated fo r

the northern S han S tates T o the S han S tates the .

chief exports are cotton piece g oods silk and woollen , ,

goods sal t and salted sh ; w h ile dry an d pickled tea

, , ,

timbe r gin g e r chillies onions and hides form the chief

, , , ,

imports therefrom .

With S iam trade amounted altogether to ove r 3 5

in 1 899 but this includes teak timber imported by the
,

S alween A s the teak timber imports from S iam Karenn i

.
,

and the S han S ta t es range in value from 2 to

a year h oweve r these data yield a fair basis
, ,

fo r contrasti ng the relative merits of Yu nnan with those

o f the sou t hern S han S tates and western S iam as a eld

for rail w ay extension in the immediate future .

M uch can of cou rse be done to facilitate the at t rac t ion

, ,

o f t r ade to the existing railway and steame r l ines It .

would be o f enormous advantage if B ritish commercial

39
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
syndicates could in the rst insta nce in ant i c i pat i on o f
, ,

subsequent rail way concessions secu re the control and ,

mana g ement of inland trade routes between the Yangtse

and the I r ra w addy and Bra hm a putra o n guaranteeing to
the Chinese C ustoms D epartmen t a s u m in excess o f
the provincial exactions m a de i n contra vention o f treaty
,

ri g hts in the shape of L i hi n dues annually derived o n

,

the a verag e durin g the last ve years This ough t not .

to be impossible nor should it be impossible to organize

a semi m ilitary transport system a long improved trade
-

routes i n the weste r n Chinese provinces marchin g w ith

o u r I ndi a n E mpire .

A part from purely pol itical and st rateg ical considera

tions the improvement of existing commu nications con
,

verging o n impor tant points on river o r railway and the

formation of branch l ines of railway withi n B u rma seem
to afford m uch more promising commerci a l opportun ities
than the early construction o f a costly railway in t o and
across Yu nnan T he Government o f Bu rma is certain
.

to do its duty in this respect s o far as l ies within its,

power ; bu t i t has for many years been the main gr i e v

ance of this rich province that an u ndue share of its
su rplus revenu e is usurped by the Government o f I ndia
fo r I m perial purposes instead o f bei n g more liberally
allotted for the improvement o f communications i n
Burma I n 1 89 7 a road was made from B hamo to
.

N a m k ha n ( fty s i x m iles ) and another leading east to

-
,

S i n l u m g a ba ( thir t y m iles ) w hile in 1 8 9 8 o ne was co n

,

structed from M yitkyina to the fron t ier o n the rou te to

M omein A good mule track h as been opened from
.

M omeik o n t he S hwel i rive r th rough M og ok the head

, , ,

quarte r s o f the R uby M ines district to M aingl on in the ,

T hibaw S tate w h ence it can easily be extended south

,

west and south east t o meet the new rail way line at
-

T hOng z e and at Pyaungg au ng .

A s to new railways M oulmein is soon l ikely to be con

,

ne c t e d with Pegu o n the R angoon Mandalay line while

-

the most important o f the works actually in hand is the

const r uction o f a li ne from the seaport of Bassein no rth
east to H enzada on the I r rawaddy This will traverse .

r ich r ice tracts a t present lying u nserved by any di r ect

4o
 A N G L O C H I NE S E A G R EE M E N T 1 897
-
,

commu nication with the main river Again n umerou s .

,

small branches could be very protably thrown out from

the Prome and the Mandalay lines to a c t as feeders i n
facilitati ng the t ransport of rice and timber the two main ,

staple products o f Bu rma to R an g oon , .

T o form a correc t idea abou t it the question o f ex ,

tending the R angoon Ku nlOn l ine into south western

- -

Yunnan and onwards s o as ultimately to reac h some

,

obj ec t ive point o n the Yangtse river requ ires t o be ,

viewed both in its pol itical and i t s commercial aspects .

The A nglo Chinese a g reement of j u ne 1 89 7 ( A rticle

-
,

XI provided for the const r uction o f ra il ways in Yu nnan

being considered in the event o f tra d e conditions justify
,

in g this and for such r a ilways bein g connected with the

,

B urmese l ines This concession coupled with the ri g ht

.
,

o f posting Consuls a t M omein a n d S z u m a o had lon g ,

been desired by comme r ci a l men S eve r al comme r cial .

s yndicates have already taken active steps by sending

o u t small survey parties to make special investi g ations

and to collect i nforma t ion o f all sorts r equired before the

Ch inese and the B r itish Governments can reasonably be
approached with denite requests for concessions o r
guarantees B ut it is perhaps to be re g retted t h at these
.

v a rious syndicates d o not co opera te instead o f remainin g

-

as separa te mercantile interests Un ion is strength and .

no nation a ppreciates t he advantag es o f co operation more -

i ntelligently than the C hin ese o r kno ws better ho w to

,

tri e with divided i nterests o f this so r t .

I f matters advance beyond these preliminary s t eps

u ndertaken by merchant adventurers of the C ity o f Lo n
don then all fur t he r negotiations re ga rdin g concessions
,

and gua rantees must in equ ity be g uaranteed by the British

Government ; othe r wise to involve the Government o f
,

I ndia i n such a ma t ter will be adding anothe r to the

m a ny nancial wrongs already done to I ndia i n the name
o f I mperial requiremen t s The S ecretary o f S tate may
.

indeed brin g p r essu r e to bear o n the Government of

I ndia to have the rail way constructed up to the ext r eme
lim its of B urma ; but beyond that arrangements for the
, ,

extension into Yu nnan if ultimatel y decided on must rest

, ,

entirely with the British Government on its o wn nancial

41
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H RU LE
responsibility This is more essentially the cas e if politi
.

cal and strategical reasons with regard to British interests

and inuence i n China are to be allowed g rea t e r weigh t
than purely commerci a l interes ts connected with the trade
o f Burma I f imperial political considerations are to r ule
.

the B r i t ish policy then no doubt the C ity o f L ondon can

,

very easily fu r nish mill ions o f c a pital fo r railway con

st r uction at the low guarantee as i n the case o f the ,

B urma R ail ways Company of two and t h ree q ua rt ers per

,
-

cent with prospect o f a sha r e of furt h e r surplus ea r nings

.

when ( or if) realized .

1

The commercial prospects o f enterprise i n Yunnan ,

howeve r u nfortunately appea r anything bu t prom i s i ng

,
.

B ritish Chambe rs o f C ommerce told to look upon Yun

nan as an E ldo rado should to avoid the probabil i ty of ,

disenchan t ment and d isappointment ca r efully study the ,

opinions expressed by the mos t rel iable o f t h e British

Consuls personally ac q uainted wit h the count ry th rough
w hich the propose d line o f r ailway would pass C o ns e .

quently there are solid r easons for believing tha t B r itish

commercial in t erests i n the immediate fu tu re would be
be t t er served by devoting the money which railway exten
sion beyond t h e S al ween would cost t o l ink ing together
the B urma and A ssam r ailways to t he proposed li ne ,

from B urma to Ba ngk Ok th e capi ta l o f S iam t o the

, ,

cons tr uction o f branch lines as feeders o f the exis t ing

tru nk lines and t o the formation o f shor t new l ines falling
,

entirely within o u r o wn territories T here exist ve ry .

favou rable openings i n Bu rma for p rotable i nvestment

o f capital and it seems much more desirable t h at money
,

a vailable in B ritain s h ould be well invested in o u r o w n

fertile bu t only pa rtially developed provi nce than that it

shoul d be sunk i n as ye t q uestionable en t e rprises in the
mountainous trac t s of Yunnan .

These vie w s o n the commercial O pen ings in B urma are

my individ ual opinions based on a knowled g e ac q uired by
se r vice there extendin g over nearly a quarte r o f a centu ry ,

on personal ac q uaintance w ith almos t every d ist r ict i n the

province and o n r ecen t tou r s made i n the northern a nd

,

the southern S han S tates B u t they coincide with the

.

1
V id p
e fo the F e n h g u
. 1 2 r n tee of the L aokai Y u n n l i n e
r c a ra o
n a .

42
 P R O S P E C T S I N Y U N NA N
opinions held gene r ally i n o fcial and comme rcial circles ,

and with t hose reec t ed by t he local P r ess Any ab u o r .

mally expensive endeavour to ta p t he trade o f south

weste r n Yu nnan by means of a railway will n ot be
remune ra t ive for the very simple r eason tha t this lofty
plateau p roduces no t hing in t he na t u r e of a trade ca pable
o f g r ea t expansion I t is n ot asser t ed t h at i t is in any way
.

impossible as beyond engineering skill to construc t such

, ,

a line to Y u nnan and thence t o the banks of the Yang t se ;

bu t it is mai n tained t hat i t will be eno rmously expensive
to bu ild and to work tha t it will not give adequa t e re t u r ns
, ,

and tha t in any case ex t ensions and r am i cations o f t he

railway net t hroug h ou t Bu r ma are prefe rable so fa r as
the pu r ely commercial aspec t of a ffai r s is concerned T o .

be protable o r even possible t rade must be reciprocal ;

, ,

and t he r e seem to be no produ c ts in Yu nnan which can

be utilized in exchange for goods of Bri t ish manufacture
to a su fcien t exten t to make t he railway in qu es t ion
remu nera t ive .

The p r esen t population o f Yunnan numbe r ing prob ,

ably between and o r only abou t

fty to the square mile is dependent mainly o n ag r i cu l

,

ture w h ile o ne of the presump t ive obj ects of the p roposed

r ailway is to exploit t h e repu t ed m ineral wealth of t he
province But no coa l has ye t been found in Yunnan
.
,

while even pinewood for fuel is comparatively scan t y i n

many par t s ; and this wan t o f abu ndant supplies o f cheap
fu el will much increase the cost o f workin g a railway .

A s for g old w hy go to Yu nnan when the Wunt h o

,

o l d e l d s a r e with in twelve to t wenty m iles o f the M u

g
V alley R ailway a nd while the Pau nglaung ran g e o f
,

hills east O f the S it tan g river but within easy reach of

,

the R angoon M andalay line is known to be rich i n pre

-
,

c i ou s metals P

Coal is being worked at K abwet between the I rra ,

waddy and the railway in the K a tha district and m ore ,

important el ds are believed to exis t th rou g hout the

northern S han S ta t es within fairly easy reach o f the
Mandalay L as hio l ine
- .

A nd a f or ti or i if development o f a griculture is another

, ,

objec t i n View why not concen t rate efforts on the vast

,

43
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
stretches of rich l a nds lying u nclea red and u ncul t ivated
throu g hou t the plains and valleys o f Burma i tself ? A gain ,

all the a g ricultu ral produce Yu nnan ca n yield ( chillies ,

onions g in g er etc ) can be equally w ell raised in Burm a

, , .

and i n the S han S tates ; w hile the cotton betel nuts ,

-
,

cutch piece g oods etc required fo r Yunnan necessary

, , .
, ,

in fact m u st be t aken inland either from the I r r a w addy

, ,

a t Bh a mo o r else from emporia situated on o u r B urm a

ra ilways Opium a lmos t the staple o f Yu nnan is n ot
.
, ,

wanted as an impo r t into Burma .

U nder any circu mstances we already command the

bulk o f the trade that is possible without embarking o n ,

questionable railway extensions o f considerable nancia l

mag nitude in Yu nn a n I t must also be considered that
.

i n ac t ual distance in a straig h t l ine the Ku nl On ferry i s

, ,

about 5 5 0 miles from S uifu the l imit of the navigability ,

o f the Yangtse to boats o f about sixty t ons and about 6 6 0 ,

miles from Chungkin g the l imit o f navi gation for j unks

,

up to ei g hty tons which latter may be taken as the l imit

,

o f possibility for carg o ste a mers o f large size On t he .

other hand H on g kon g ( Ka wl On) is only about 6 80 miles

, ,

Canton 6 0 0 miles and Wucho w 5 00 miles from Chu ng

,

king That is t o s a y the Ku nlOn ferry and H ongkon g

.
,

are practically about equ id is tant from Chun g kin g the ,

most important objective o n the uppe r Yan g tse rive r ;

and there is good reason to believe that the construction
o f a railway from H on g kong t o Chungking would hav e

fe w er natural difculties to contend with t h a n a lin e

t a ke n ac r oss the mou ntains o f Yunnan A nd there are .

the o t her t wo very g reat advantag es that a li ne from

H on g kong vi a C anton Wuchow K weilin and K wei
, , , ,

yang would pass through tracts more populous than

Y unnan and more likely to be productive of local supplies
'

of the coal s o essential fo r the working o f a railw a y at

anyt hin g like a moderate cost .

Considerin g the natural difculties of the cou nt ry H ong ,

kon g i s practically nearer to Yu nnan than R a n g oon ; and

t he natural route to the Yunnan plateau i s by the gradua l
ascent from the east v i a Wuchow N a nn i ngfu and Pose , ,

t in g ( Posai ) where rive r commu n ication ends

, .

A s this B urma Yunnan ra ilway scheme has been so

-

44
 D E V E L O P M EN T O F B U R M A
much talked of I venture to repea t that u nless it can be
,

s hown th a t railwa
y constru ction extendin g far beyond
t he S alween will be less u nduly expensive than has
hithert o been su rmised and can offer th e prospect o f
better returns than have generally been anticipated by
those most competen t to form an O pinion o n the subject ,

the sol id reasons for advocating the i mmediate fu rther

d evelopment o f the railway net throu g hout Bu rma i n the
rst place an d then fo r u niting it wi t h Z imm e and Bang
,

k ok i n the second place seem much stronger than those

,

fo r ex t ending the l ine eastwards into China N 0 pressu re

.

has been brou g h t to bear on Governmen t from the Ra n

goon C hamber o f Commerce the Press o f Burma o r the
, ,

Burma R ail w ays Company I f the proj ect w ere really

.

very promisin g these w ould probably have been the rst

,

to u rg e the necessity for action o n the part o f the Govern

ment ; for they have mos t to gain by whatever w ill
increase the bulk o f the trade passin g through R an g oon .

They however would prefer that the i nland c o m m u n i ca

, ,

tions of B urma by road and rail should be improved and ,

tha t private capital should be encouraged to ow normally

into Burm a fo r the more ra pid d e velopment of the pro
vince ra ther th a n that Government should commit them
selves in the immediate future to g uarantees for extensive
rail way works extending a cross the mou nt a inous tracts
of Yu nnan .

A part from the speci a l projects now en g ag ing the atten

tion o f t he B u rma R ailways Company much may e a sily
be done by other B ritish c a pital ists in the wa y of openin g
o u t feeder railways ; and su itable compan ies woul d prob

ably be able to obtain concessions o f th is sort o n liberal

terms . I n the l a s t A dmin istration R eport o n Burma
( 9 9 ) it is expressly stated w ith reference to trans
1 89 1 0 0

por t o f the rice crop that commu nic a tions are not yet so

perfect a s t o make free export follow demand and the ,

inade q uacy of the rolling stock o f the Bu rma R a ilways

Company in Upper as in L ower Burma makes it i m p os
sible to put mu ch o f the grain o n the market T he .

markets are t herefore in most d istricts local a nd prices

,

vary considerably from distric t to district .

A mon g feed er lines which may thu slb e indica t ed as

45
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
l ikely to p rove prot a ble and wo rthy o f th e a tt ention of
capitalis ts a re railways fr om Pegu to S hwegyin i n L owe r
Bu r ma and from S ali n to S inbyugyu n in Uppe r Burm a
, .

But t h e r e are m a ny others bes ides these t wo A s .

above mentioned a su r vey for a line is now bein g made

,

from Thazi ( on the Ran g oon M a ndalay l ine) to Taun ggyi

-
,

t he capital o f t he southern S han S tates with a view to

,

i ts cons t ru ction ou t o f provincial funds . N o doubt if a ,

weal thy syndica t e made suitable ove r tu res this p roj ec t for
,

O pening up t he southern S han S tates might be handed

over to it by the L ocal Government o f B urm a as the ,

desi rabili t y of a t tracting B ritish capital fo r the develop

ment o f this r ich province is fully r eco g nized by the
L ieutenant Governo r
-
,
S i r F rede r ic F rye r ; and this
would only be in accordance with the l ibe ral and p rog re s
sive policy pursued by the G ove r no r General L ord
-
,

C u rzon o f K edleston .
 C h ap t e r I I I
B U R MA S
F O RES T W E A LTH AN D T HE M A I N T ENAN C E
O F T HE TE A K T I M B E R S U PP LY

H E s ta t emen t may certainly appea r r emarkable

tha t t he diminution i n the suppl ies of o a k timbe r
i n E ngland r e q u i r ed for maintaining the K ing s n avy

towards t he end of t h e eighteenth and the beginning

of the nineteen t h cen t u ries had a by no means r emote

connexion with the rs t and the subse q u ent annexations

o f por t ions o f Burma by the British . A nd yet such s ta t e
ment is q ui t e in accordance wit h fac t .

D u r ing t he g r ea t period of naval wa rfare about a cen

tu r y ag o the suppl ies of timbe r for ship building became
-

practically exhausted th r ou gh out Britain T o satisfy the

.

r equirements o f the chief naval yards a substitute fo r

,

oa k was fou nd i n t eak

( Tecton a g r a n di s) fr om I ndia I t .

was rst of all expo rt ed fr om the Bombay dockyard ,

which d r e w i t s supplies fr o m t he K onkan and Malabar

fores t s lying be t ween th e wes t e r n Gh at s and the s e a
coas t H e r e t he easily obtainable supplies of large S ized
.
-

timbe r soon gave out and t h e bulk of the demands had

,

to be d rawn from M artaban i n B u rma D uring the .

cou rse of this cen t ury t he evolution o f ship bu ilding has -

made t eak almost a necessity fo r this la rg est species o f

,

the V er henacew con t ains an essen t ial o i l which preserves

iron and steel comin g i n con tac t wi th it or embedded in
,

i t i n place o f rusting and co rr oding them like the tannic

,

acid contained in oak .

A t the te r mina t ion o f the rs t B u r mese wa r i n 1 8 2 6, ,

it was obvious tha t A ssam and t he seaboard province o f

A rakan should for poli t ical r easons become integral po r
t ions of Bengal to pu t a stop to t he B u r mese i nte rfe r
,

47
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
ence and annoy a nce within the frontiers o f that province ;
bu t the annexation of the far d istant and poorly p Op u
l a ted tract o f Tenasserim wa s mainly occasioned by the
fact that though much o f the timber came from the
,

S iamese a nd S han S tates lying further to the north and

eas t this tract w as bel ieved to conta in rich supplies of
,

teak which were much needed for the demands o f the

,

naval docks in E n gland I t was soon found o u t that .

the forests in Tenasserim w ere nothin g l ike so rich i n

teak as those i n Pegu ; and when the line of fron t ier

wa s arbitrarily drawn at l a titude 1 93 N to conclude the .

second B urmese w a r i n 1 8 5 2 it was supposed that now , ,

at any ra te all the nest t e a k forests had been secured

,

against w a s t eful destruction M any rich forest tracts .

were thus included ; but those perhaps richest of all i n

teak and s ituated bet w een 1 93 and 2 0 3 N i n the
,

.

drainage o f the S ittang river were j ust missed I t was , .

i n these N ingyan forests that the commercial trouble

occu r red with a B ritish fo resting corpo ration which ulti ,

m a tely became the cause of the third Burmese war of

1 8 85 A s the whole of B urma was annexed o n J an u ary
.

1
,
1 8 8 6 all the vast fore st wealth i t contains was taken
,

over by t h e B ritish and the province o f Burma forms

,

the great natur a l storehouse of teak from which the

whole world s re q u irements o f this i nvaluable timber is

mainly s upplied at present With the conservative .

treatment which the best o f these vast forest tracts are

n o w receiving and with the works o f improvement n o w
,

being carried o u t i n selected po r tions o f the reserved

a reas the supply o f teak timber that t hey will yield i n
,

th e future is fa r more likely to i ncrease greatly than t o

diminish at all .

I mmedia t ely a fter the annexa t ion of Tenasserim in ,

1 82 6 D r , Wallich the Government botanist was sent

.
, ,

down from C a lcutta to inspec t the tea k forests that had

thus been acqu ired O n receipt of his report Govern
.
,

ment resolved to reserve them as S tate property ,

and to work the forests o n the A ttara n rive r by direct

a g ency The rst a t tempts at this proved d i s co u rag
.

ing M oulmei n having j ust been founded as p rovi nci a l

.

c a pi t al and the chief garrison nearly opposite to the s ite

48
 P R O T E C TI O N O F F O RE S T S
o f the Bu r mese town o f M a rtaban there w a s n o market ,

fo r timber as commerce had not ye t had time to de

,

v e l op
. The timber had therefore to be sen t to C a lcutta
for s a le where the prices real ized we r e so bad as to
,

cause Government to abandon the scheme of direct

ext raction and throw the forests open to private enter
,

prise in 1 8 2 9 Teak had however always been o ne o f

.
, ,

the r oyal monopol ies in Bu rmese times and the Gover n ,

ment o f I ndia had no i ntention O f abandoni n g the r i g hts

i nherited from the K in g o f Bu rma S o the new system .

adopted w as to issue licences r estric t ing to fou r fee t the

minimu m g irth o f t r ees t o be felled and r e q u iring p a y ,

ment of a royalty of 1 5 per cen t a d va l or em Fou r years .

later it was fou nd necessary to en t e rtain a small native

establishment i n connexion with protection but it wa s ,

not till 1 84 1 that any o fce r was formally placed in

charge of the forests N e w forest rules were then .

issued providing for the r esump t ion of t he ol d l icences ,

the issue o f leases for t wenty y ears and the con t rol of ,

forest work by the E xecutive E n g i n eer of M oulmein a s ,

S uperintendent o f Fores t s A mong the con

ex o y ci o
-
.

d i ti o n s cont a ined i n the leases n o t ree was to be killed ,

fo r felling if less than s i x fee t in girth and ve you ng ,

trees were to be pl a n t ed for each tree killed These .

were the r st of the forest rules w h ich have ever since ,

been continuously u ndergoing changes and amplications

in order to meet the necessities o f th e new conditions
evolving themselves .

On the annexation of Pegu i n 1 8 5 2 immediate s t eps , ,

were taken fo r the protection of the forests By p rocl a .

mation they were decl a r ed t o be the p r operty o f the

,

S ta t e i n acco r dance with establ ished cus t om all teak ,

trees having been the propert y of the K ing an d teak

timbe r bei ng a r oyal monopoly T o deal with forest .

business the appointmen t o f S uperintenden t of the Peg u

Fo r ests was created and was lled by D r M ac C le lla nd
, .

o f the medical service V arious notications were issued

.

and rules promul g ated o f a mo r e o r less ten tative

nature fo r it was difcult to n d the p rope r cou rse to
,

pursu e so long as next t o nothing was known abou t t he

forest resources and the g rowth of t eak L igh t was .

V OL . II .
49 E
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
only beginnin g to shine in the mids t of t his darkness
w hen D r M a c C le l la nd r esigned i n 1 8 5 5
. I n his su c , .

cesso r D r ( no w S i r D ietrich ) Brandis appointed in

, .
,

J anuary 1 8 5 6 the man was fou nd who substantially

, ,

laid the fou ndations of the Forest D epartment i n

Burma Working o n the lines o f policy recommended
.

to Governmen t by h is predecessor and brin g ing to the ,

t ask in hand sou nd j udgmen t and grea t de termination in

facing t he opposi t ion w i t h which his proposals we r e met
by t h e E u ropean merchants en gaged in the timber busi
ness D r B rand is succeeded in gradually establ ishing a
, .

sou nd and p rotable system of Fores t Conse r vancy du r

ing his six years labou r i n this eld before he w as trans

fe r red to I ndia o n special duty in I 86 2 and t hen appointed ,

I nspec t o r General of Fo rests in I ndia i n 1 86 3 a post he

-
,

held wi t h conspicuous ability and success till his r etire

men t in 1 883 .

I n the autumn o f 1 8 5 6 new rules were published fo r

brin g ing t he Pegu forests u nder regular conservancy
and preventing their destruction by removal of all the
matu r e marketable seed bearing trees wh ile a rou g h
, ,
-
,

working plan was fr amed for regula t ing t he killing and

felling o f t eak t r ees for ex t raction When R angoon was .

th r own open t o trade i n 1 8 2 6 the chief business which

sp r ang up t here before its annexation i n 1 8 5 2 wa s in teak
timber T he rice expo rt trade n ow the great staple was
. , ,

only in its early stage o f development and the me r ,

chan t s raised great opposition to the conservancy mea

sures urged by D r B randis I t was clear t o him that
. .

the only effective me t hod of r e t aining full con t rol over

forest ope rations was to form a body of departmen tal
con t ra c to r s among t he B urmese to ext r act the timber o n ,

Governmen t accou nt and t o sell it by publ ic auc t ion a t

,

a cen t ral t imber dep ot esta bl ished at R angoon .

T he r s t point however was to form some estim a te

, ,

as to the existing s t ock o f marketable teak timber and

its rate of growth and to determine what number o f
,

trees migh t annually be killed and m arked for extrac

tion O ne g reat prac t ical difcul t y was tha t t he t eak
.

tree is not of g regar ious habit forming pu re fores t s but , ,

u sually only occu r s individually or i n smal l family groups , ,

50
 W O R K I N G P LA N OF I 85 6
sprinkled throu g hout a ma t rix consisting o f abou t a hun
dred and fty d ifferent genera and species o f t rees which ,

form an ove r wood to dense masses o f bamboos of differ

ent kinds usually from t hirty to six ty fee t i n hei g ht but
, ,

often S hooting up to 1 0 0 feet or more when able to

obta in fr ee enjoymen t of l i g h t i n blank spaces A s a .

r ule the proportion of t eak i n wha t are called the teak

forests seldom amounts to over ten per cent o f the to t al .

crop on t he area and in most cases it is considerably less

,

than t his Under any circu mstances t h erefore the fell

.
, ,

i ng o f ma t ure seed producin g teak trees had to be

-

a rran g ed fo r with caution in orde r tha t the competi

,

tion and the s t ru gg le for existence a m ong s o many

o t her kinds o f trees and among the dense bamboo
,

u nderg rowth m ight no t resul t i n the g radual extin e

,

tion o f teak .

The results o f the investiga t ions made by l inea r va l u a

tion surveys made i n 1 8 5 6 seemed to S how that a teak
tree could no t be considered mature and ma r ke t able till
i t gir t hed four cubi t s ( S ix feet ) near its base and this ,

was adop t ed as t he minimum size o f a rs t class tree ; -

W hile those between three and fou r cubits ( fou r a n d a

half to six feet ) were denominated second cl a ss trees -
.

I t was also found tha t the fores ts a cqu ired i n 1 8 5 2 i n

Pegu cont a ined about r s t class trees ; and it -

was estima t ed o n t oo sangu ine a calculation as s u b

,

se q uent experience S howed tha t i t would t ake abou t ,

twen t y four years fo r a second class tree o f fou r and

- -

a half fee t girth to develop into a rs t class tree o f -

six feet girth The rou g h working plan o f 1 85 6 was

.

therefore framed on the assumption that 5 8 rs t

class t rees were available for extraction during the nex t
twen t y fou r yea r s and it was a rranged tha t durin g the
-
,

next s ix years ( 1 85 6 6 2 ) one fourth of t hese should be -

gi r dled or killed by rin g ing The fo rests were grouped .

into s i x main d ivisions to be ope rated upon su ccessively

,

during the next six years F or the selection o f the trees

.

to be gi rdled instructions we r e given t o the girdl in g o f

,

cers tha t not mo r e t han o ne i n four o f the r s t class t rees -

should be killed tha t isola t ed t rees sho u ld be spa r ed for

,

seed production and th a t over mature t r ees and such as

-
,
-

5 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
overshado wed g roups of young teak s hould be gi r dled
i n preference to others .

Girdling consists i n cuttin g t hrough t he bark and sa p

wood till the darke r coloured heart w ood is entered about
-

an inch below the su rface The effect o f this operation

.

i s by re m ovin g a complete r ing of the cambium to

, ,

check the possibil ity o f s a p risin g from the root system -

.

D eprived o f food supplies the leaves wither within a

few days o f the operation and the tree dies A process
, .

o f natural seasoning o n the stock then follows the bark ,

and t he t w i g s and smaller branches gradually fallin g o ff

d uring the n ext year or t wo years and the seasoned stem ,

being ready for felling and ext raction i n two y ears o r

more according t o th e depth o f the g irdle and t he g irth
,

o f the trees . I f the tiniest bit of sapwood be left in any

o f the uted portions of the stem the tree will gradually ,

r ecover i n place o f dying s o g reat is i ts vitality and

,

r ecuperative power T r ees thus operated on during the

.

r ainy season lose t heir bark much earlier than those

girdled du ring the dry season bu t as a rul e gi rdlin g ,

work always pe rfo rmed u nder the selection and the

immedia t e supervision o f gazetted o f ce rs can only for ,

cl ima t ic r easons be carried o u t during the dry season

, .

When selected fo r girdling a S tem is measured num , ,

bered blazed and marked with a hamme r at the bas e

, , .

A fter girdling it is again marked above and below t he

girdle with a hammer showing the d ate o f the O pe ration
, .

Gi rdling has thus several advan t ages I t seasons the .

trees evenly and as t horoughly as is possible in two o r

three yea rs ; it makes d ragging t o t he oating st r eam
much easier than would otherwise be t he c a se i t greatly
facili ta t es oat ing ope rations ; and it forms the best check
against illegal g irdling and extrac t ion The only draw .

back to it is the loss o f increase in volume be t ween the time

o f girdli n g and t hat o f extraction ; bu t this is insi g nican t

in comparison with the ve ry sol id advantages gained .

I t was an o ld Burmese cus t om the purpose o f w h ich

was mainl y to ensure successful oating of teak apt to ,

si nk if pu t green into oating streams and only season ing ,

u nevenly at bes t while liable to be damaged o r consumed

,

by j ungle res if felled and left to season o n the g r ou nd .

52
 W O R KI N G P LA N O F 1 86 0
Ye t the reten t ion o f this most excellent custom met with
a sto r m o f opposition from the E u ropean merchants who ,

no doubt wished to have a less e fcient check placed

upon their foresting ope rations .

The Peg u fores t rules publ ished in Oc tober 1 85 6

, , ,

permitted tra ders to purchase dead and girdled t imber

within specic tracts assi g ned t o them u nde r leases n ot
exceeding three years But private g i rdling operations
.

we r e no t perm itted and the timbe r remained the property

,

o f the S tate till r evenue was paid o n it at a xed rate .

A workin g plan l ike that fo r Pegu was formed in 1 860

for the teak forests o f the Mart a ban and Tenasserim pro
vinces which we r e added to the Peg u charge i n 1 8 5 8 a nd
, ,

the whole o f the forests were worked o n similar girdl in g

principles till the end of 1 86 7 the number o f t r ees killed
,

averaging a y ea r U ntil the g irdlings o f 1 85 7 a n d

.

subsequent yea rs became thorou g hly seasoned and avail

able for extra ction only trees killed by the spirits
( N a tth a t) those
, dyin g from na t ural causes were felled and ,

oated o u t for the R an g oon marke t This work was .

given to Bu rmese and K arens l ivin g in the forests and ,

advances were made to them for the purchase o f elephants

for d ragg ing .There were heavy decits for the rst
t w o years bu t afte r that a substantial surplus was earned
,

by these d irec t dep a rtmental operations .

Meanwhile the O pposition offered by R an g oon mer

chan ts to the conservancy measures neve r relaxed .

N aturally desiring to be able to i nc r ease thei r business

rapidly they tried every argumen t and i nducemen t to be
allowed to enter the forests and to fell and extract all
teak trees of marke t abl e size T hey pressed home the .

argument that restriction o f felling was inte rfering co n

s i d e ra bl
y with the more rapid development o f trade i n
R angoon . Their argumen ts being backed by the i n
u e n c e o f importan t rms i n C alcutta the Govern ment ,

o f I nd ia then in nancial st r aits after the q uell ing o f the

,

I ndian M utiny resolved to throw open the Pegu forests

,

t o private enterprise and sent orde r s to R angoon to this

,

effect early in 1 86 1 I n accordance with these orde r s all

.

the forests west o f the I rrawaddy river and most o f those ,

in Ma r taban drained by the S ittang r iver we r e let to ,

53
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
me r chan t s o n t welve yea r leases w it h perm ission to girdle
-
.

Fo r some o f the o t he r t racts permits to work were issued

fo r t h r ee and s i x years o n paymen t o f xed rates for
timbe r ex t racted while felling operations were conned
,

to trees girdled by forest ofcers Fortunately however .

, ,

the orde r s o f t he Government o f I ndia did not n ece ss i

t a te t he whole o f the fo r ests been thrown open a t once ,

and t he best o f all t he teak forests i n the Tharra waddy

and Prome d ivisions continued t o be worked by di r ec t
depar t mental a g ency .

I n these latter areas many o f t he most valuable

teak producin g tracts were closed t o extrac t ion by
-

natu ral obs tr uctions i n the oating strea ms ; and from

1 85 8 onwa rds for more t han thirty years blasting
,

parties were employed during each dry season fo r t he

removal of these rocky obstructions in the st reams o w
in g from the Pegu Yoma hills west wards in t o the I rra
waddy and east w a rds to the S ittang river a work that
is still being vigo rously prosecuted i n the m ore recen t ly
acqu ired territory .

On the three Commissionerships in B urma being

formed into the Chief Commissionership of British Burm a
i n J anuary 1 86 2 all the forests of A ra kan Pe g u a nd
, , , ,

Mar taban were placed in charg e o f D r Brandis as C o n .

,

s e r va to r o f Forests ; and in the follo w in g year the

Tenasserim forests hitherto u nder the civil authorities
, ,

we r e also transferred to the charg e of the Forest D epa rt

m ent . I n N ovember 1 86 2 D r B randis was t ransferred
, , .

t o I ndia where he was soon after appointed I nspector

,

General of Forests to the Government o f I ndia I n .

t his position o f g reater inuence and i n direct touch with,

the supreme Government he could do even more for the ,

conservancy and improvemen t o f the B u rm a forests than

when he h ad them u nde r his direct charge as provinci a l
head o f the Forest D epartment .

I n 1 86 5 it was fou nd necessary to pass a Forest A ct ,

and to promulgate n e w and more denite rules dealin g

with the bou ndaries o f the Government forests the u s e ,

o f markin g hammers by lessees o f forests and purchasers

o f timber t he methods o f disposal o f S tate timbe r and

, ,

va r ious o t her matters U nauthorized killing o f t eak trees

.

54
 F O RE S T A CT A N D R U LE S 1 86 5 ,

w a s absolutely fo r bidden and clearances fo r shiftin g h ill

,

cultiva t ion we r e only to be made wi t h special permission

in places where teak trees we r e to be fou nd g rowing .

Unde r t hese rules whic h ( with modica t ions ) remained

,

in force t ill t h e issue o f t he r ules of 1 88 2 u nde r t he B urm a

Forest A c t all g i rdling work was prohibited except such
,

as was carried o ut by the fo r es t o fcers ; fo r the r isks

and disadvantag es conse q u en t o n the o r de rs o f 1 86 1
had already become apparent t o Government without ,

their being able t o cancel e x is t ing ar rangements except

in the few cases where it could be absol utel y proved t hat
the a g ents o f t h e perm i t holders or lessees had been -

gu ilty o f illici t girdling o n a large scale The timber .

g irdled by Govern ment might ei t her be sold as i t s t ood i n

the forest t o priva t e parties for extraction or it m ight be ,

b r ou g ht out by d irect departmental agency and disposed

o f by publ ic auction o r by sales o n indent .

Wi t h the F o r es t A ct and R ules o f 1 86 5 the second

pe r iod of p rogress commenced i n the history o f forest
adminis t ration i n B urma I t was soon fou nd that as
.
,

the A ct did no t r elate to forei g n t imber impo rt ed from

Uppe r B u r m a S iam and the S han S tates all the rules
, , ,

dealing there w ith were illegal hence special amendmen ts ,

ha d to be made A s the workin g plans of 1 8 5 6 for Pegu

.

and o f 1 86 0 fo r Mar taban and Tenasserim lapsed in 1 86 7 ,

n e w proposals fo r girdling opera tions had to be prepared

before the autumn o f 1 86 8 A s in 1 8 5 6 l inear valu a .
,

t ion su rveys ( ove r abou t acres ) and investigations

r egard ing the rate of growth fo r med the basis o f t he new
working plan I t was es t im a ted tha t the stock of mature
.

teak timber amounted to rs t class trees and that -

,

it took seventy two years fo r a young second class tree of

- -

fou r and a half feet gir t h t o develop into a rs t class t ree -

o f six fee t that is to say thrice as long as was i n 1 8 5 6

,

calculated to be requ isite S ubsequent experience how

.
,

eve r again sho w ed that this estimate was too u nfavour

,

able as th a t o f 1 8 5 6 had been too sangu ine A s a

, .

precau tion a gai ns t overworking the forests t he number

o f t r ees t o be annually girdled was redu ced from 2 4 3 00 ,

to 1 and t his yield w as xed fo r the next ve years ,

1 86 8 t o 1 87 3 .

55
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
By t h e time t h is new working plan lapsed i n 1 8 7 3
ex t ensive illicit g irdlings by lessees ha d been discovered
i n t he forests o n both sides of the S ittan g river and the ,

Governmen t of I ndi a had ordered that henceforth no

fresh leases were to be granted The last lease expired .

i n 1 87 7. A fter 1 8 7 3 no specic working plan wa s

adopted fo r the regulation of girdling operations F o r .

several years these were almost suspended be ing con ,

ned merely to localities which sho w ed a fte r examination ,

by a forest ofce r that re g eneration o f teak w a s g ood

,

enou g h to permit of some of the matu re trees bei ng

removed withou t endangering the reproduction o f this
species in the forest .

The following seven o r eight yea rs till t he pass ing o f,

the B urma Forest A ct 1 88 1 formed a period o f grea t

, ,

activity i n the then still small Forest D epartment U ntil .

1 8 7 3 pro t ection extended only t o teak and not to any ,

other trees B ut in t hat year thitka ( P en ta ce B u r m a n i ca )

.

and thitkado ( Ced r el a Toona ) woods like mahogany i n

,

a ppearance and texture were declared to be rese r ved

,

trees A s both o f these were found su itable for furnitu re

.

and tea boxes l a rg e quantities o f them were extracted

,

for home u s e as furniture and for export t o Calcutta

,

fo r making tea boxes By reserva tion and levying royal ty

.

o n these two tr ees the Gove r nment not only obtained

revenue to which they were leg itimatel y entitled bu t ,

also caused timbe r consumers to turn their attention to

the many other useful kinds o f timber as yet u nreserved ,

an d therefore able to be ext racted for home co nsu m p

tion o r for expo r t free from all payment of r evenu e .

W i t h the i ncrea se o f popul a tion u nder good g overn

ment and the rapid development then taking place in the
t rade and g eneral prosperity throu g hou t B ritish Burm a ,

the extraction of u nrese rved woods soon assumed such

propo rtions as to j ustify Government i n r eserving other
twelve species of trees o n I st January 1 8 7 6 A t the , .

same time t he boundaries were extended within which

the forest rules appl ied a new procedure was provided
,

fo r making R ese rves or S tate Forests and r egulations ,

w ere issued fo r the gran t ing o f permits to extract res e r ved

kinds of timbe r .

56
 R ESE R V E D T R EE S
A s r egards the r ese rved t rees the principle adopted
w a s that Government was entitled to payment o f a low
rate o f royalty o n all such timbe r ext rac t ed fo r purposes
of trade T wo cl a ss es o f licenses were the r efore intro
.

d u ce d ,

t rade pe r mits and free pe r mits w h ich could

,

be issued by gazetted civil ofce r s as w e ll as by the

o fcers of the Fores t D epa r tment E ach permi t speci .

e d whe r e the timbe r was to be ext racted fr om and ,

where i t was to be marked with eithe r the sa l e o r the

r ee hamme r before being d isposed o f o r cons umed
f .

Theo r etically t he reserva t ion o f these twelve ki nds o f

t rees was qu ite sound but i n practice it did not work
,

very successfully a lt h ough i t produced a fair amou n t o f

,

revenue I n a thickly fo r ested cou ntry containing a t

.

least fteen hundred different species o f trees there were

o f course many which i n t he log were practically ind is

t i ng u i s ha b l e from o n e o r other of the actu a lly r ese r ved

species F or example i t is almost impossible to dis
.
,

t i ng u i s h between lo g s o f pyinma ( L ag er str oem i a R eg i ne2) /

and l eza ( L tomen tosa ) ; hence o n ar r ival at a revenue

.

station t he latte r were declared to be unreserved and

exemp t from du t y w h ile a fter conversion t hey we r e for
,

sellin g purposes practically pyinma wood H owever .

,

o n e o f the obj ec t s o f Governmen t was g ained i n causin g

attention to be given to the many oth er good woods i n

the Burma forests that had hitherto remained u nutil ized .

R ather than be a t the trouble and i nconvenience o f

obtaining free perm i t s fo r r eserved wood requ ired fo r
domestic or a g ricultural purpose s the people in general
took to utilizin g other kinds o f timber w h ose useful ,

q ualities gradually in t roduced these to the m a rket .

The system which has no w i n course o f time S prun g

up from these beg innin gs is that certain k inds of trees
having specic commerci a l value a r e cl a ssed as reserved
trees and can only be cut and extracted u nder licenses
,

u pon p ayment of revenue varying according t o the value

o f the particular kind o f timber while u nreserved t r ees
,

g rowi ng o n land outs ide areas r eserved o r prel iminarily,

n otied fo r r ese rvation as S tate forests can be cut

,

unrestrictedly fo r hond de home consumption .

I n 1 8 7 0 the Government o f I ndia had al r eady becom e

57
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
convinced t ha t the maintenance o f a future supply o f
teak timbe r could only be secu red by t he formation o f
pl a n t ations ( in L owe r B urma ) and that simple cultural ,

operations could no t be r elied o n to e ffect sa t isfacto ry

regeneration They therefore at this time laid down that
.

the principal work o f the Forest D epartmen t should con

sist i n the selection o f the bes t areas to be formed into
S ta t e reserved forests and i n the formation o f teak planta
tions F r om 1 84 2 onwa rds experimental planta tions had
.

been made mos tly with u ns a t isfac t ory results in the Ten
, ,

a s s e r i m forests and from 1 8 5 7 on w a rds at various places

,

in the I rrawaddy and the S ittang valleys The area s .

were cleared prepared and sown by direct departmental

, ,

agency bu t these s o called regular pl a ntations proved

-

s o expensive t ha t i t soon became a pparen t t hat some less

costly method was essen t ial The idea had lo n g been .

entertained o f tryin g to induce the K aren hill tribes t o

plan t teak along with the r ice raised in their hill clearings ,

thus u t ilizing as a means o f p ropagatin g teak the wasteful

Ta u ngy a system o f cultivation shifting annually I n 1 86 8 .

M aj or ( now Major General ) S eaton the Conse rvator o f

-
,

F orests succeeded i n gettin g work o f this sort done i n

,

several forest districts the cultivators bein g paid so much

,

pe r hundred pl a nts al ive when t he rice crop was harves ted

i n autumn Gradually the Karens t ook to the business
.
,

nally becomin g s o eager i n earning this additional income

t hat n o w the di fculty is rather to nd withi n the re
protected portions of the S t a t e reserved forest areas
su itable for planting that is to say wit h out al ready con ,

t ainin g t eak trees to a grea t e r o r less extent than to

persuade the K arens t o form such plantations The .

r esult has been that up to 1 898 , acres o f reg ular

,

and acres o f Ta u ngy a planta tions have been

formed mos t ly o f teak but a lso includ in g some cutch
, ,

among the la t te r cl a ss The method n o w usually adopted

.

is to ma rk o u t the cleared area with pegs at nine feet by

fou r feet plants pe r acre) this having been fou nd
,

p r eferable fo r subsequent weedin g operations to six feet

, ,

by s i x feet o r any othe r dis t ance I n good plantations .

canopy is fo r med du ring the second o r thi r d years and ,

t henceforth t he rate of g r owth is ve r y rapid a h eight o f ,

58
 S T A T E R E SE R V E D F O R E S T S
seven t y fee t or mo r e being often obtained within abou t
sixteen to t wenty years .

The work of selecting S ta t e forests as r ese rves was

also prosecu t ed vigo rousl y more especially during the ,

C onservatorship of M r R ibbentrop ( 1 8 7 5 . who later

became I nspecto r Gene ral o f Fo rests to the Government
-

o f I ndia
( 1 88 5 U nder t he r ules o f 1 8 6 5 any d ivi
s i o na l fo r est o fce r could reserve areas u t o 1 0 0 acres
p
in ex t ent T his was merely in t e n ded and was su f cien t
.
, ,

fo r enabl ing experimen t al plantations to be fo r med in

su itable local i t ies ; but the existing legislation was h a rdly
su fcient to deal with rese r vation o n a la rge scale such ,

as was necessary in the bes t interests of the province ,

when the advantages of forest conservancy became

be tt er understood and apprecia t ed The task fa ced by .

the small D epartment w a s to select fo r reservation the

best te a k producing tracts throu g hout the whole o f Pe g u
-

and Tenasserim for te a k is not i ndi g enou s to any portion

,

of Arakan and to demarcate them permanently after

,

once t hey had been notied as S tate reserves Bu t great .

practical di fculties were experienced i n carryin g o u t this

work and an immense amount o f prejudice and opposi
,

tion o n the part o f the district civil authorities had often

to be overcome sometimes at the cost o f the loss of very
,

valuable portions o f fores t land H ence it not i nfre .

quently happened t h a t the reserves had to be formed not

o f the very best t racts o f woodland bu t only o f such ,

port ions as could be O btained with the consent o f the

civil authorities .

The S ta t e as the inherito r o f the righ ts o f the K in g

,

of B urma could not bu t be re garded as having the owner

,

ship o f all waste land and forest not al ienated by grant o r

under the customary tenu re fo r agricultu ral occupation .

O n the o t her hand however the people g enerally had

, ,

been from immemorial t ime in t he habit of making u n

, ,

r estricted use o f the forests fo r fell in g wood and bamboos ,

extracting wood o i l for t orches cutting grass fo r tha t ch

-
,

ing gr azing t hei r ca t tle and clearing fo r est land for

, ,

tempora ry o r pe r manent cultiva t ion Thus althou g h . ,

they had no actual p r op r i eta ry r i ghts the people li v ,

i ng within the forests and in t h ei r vicinity had been

59
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
accustomed to p r i vi l eg es amountin g p ractically to r i ghts
o
f u se
, r which requ ired careful consideration in connexion
with the selection o f reserved fores ts The policy adopted
.

w as to regard t h is customary user as a ri g h t or privil ege ,

but only as one which the S tate as g ua r dian o f the g eneral

,

interes t s of the province had t he powe r to dene and r egu

,

l a te to commute by compensation i n land o r money o r

, ,

to extin g uish This p r ocedure was in accordance with

.

the views o f Government adopted and embodied i n t he

forest la w s successively passed for d ifferent provi nces o f
the I nd ian E mpire . B ut in giving effec t to these pro
visions the special habits and customs of the people ha d
of course to be duly considered At rst there was a
.

good deal o f discontent among the h ill tribes and o f ,

friction with them ; but when once they found o ut the

advantages t o be derived from forming teak plantations
for Government within the R ese r ved forests and from
other remunerative work given to them by the Fores t
D epa rt ment the opposition to reservation soon subsided
, .

T he cord ial relations which n o w exist bet w een the

ofcers o f the D epartmen t and most o f the villages i n
the vicinity o f the forests and particula rly of the K aren
,

hamle t s embodied withi n t he reserves are a proof o f the

,

w ise and pruden t manne r i n which t he gre a t benecial

wo r k o f r eservation w as u ndertaken and carried ou t .

A ll alon g the frin g e o f the hill ran g es l ittle v illa g es

an d hamlets w ere scattered here and there while withi n ,

the hills themselves the K aren t ribesmen practised ,

a lmost entirel y u nrestrained their immemori a l system o f

,

Ta u ngy a or hill garden shiftin g annually as approved
, ,

by the tribal o racle This wasteful system o f cultivation

.

d id ( a n d still does ) eno r mous damage annually to the

forests Besides the a ctual was t e it caused i n timbe r the
.
,

res li g h t ed to reduce the trees and bamboos to a shes

were al lowed to spread u nhindered th rough the forests ,

destroying seedlings and greatly inj urin g both you ng and

o l d trees. When the work of selecting reserves was at
leng t h t aken in hand vigo r ously i n 1 8 7 5 6 i t was
found essential to demarcate an outer line which should
exclude B urmese o r othe r hamlets fringi ng the plains ,

an d also to x inner l ines pra ctically markin g off Ta u ngy a

60
 K A R EN T A U N GY A T R A C T S
lands within which the Karen tribesmen mi g ht conti nue
to exe rcise their peculia r method o f hill cultiv a tion .

The work was at rst done by a Forest D emarcation

P a rty consis t ing o f a Forest Ofce r who selected the ,

t racts for reservation proposed lines of demarcation and

, ,

blazed and hammer marked t hem if approved by t he C ivil

-

O fce r deputed to accompany him and see that the ri g hts

o f the B urmese and the K a rens to land fo r cultivation ,

shiftin g o r permanen t and to forest produce o f all the

,

u su a l kinds re q u ired for domes t ic and agr icultu r al pur

poses were no t infringed The reco rded proceedings and
.

r eports of this D emarca tion Par t y were scru tinized by the

D eputy C ommissione r o f the D istrict and by the Com
missione r o f the D ivision before bein g submitted for t h e
nal orders of the Chief C ommissioner and it was n o t ,

u ntil the notication of reservation had appeared i n the

o fcial gaze t te tha t t he areas became S tate rese rves and
could be permanently d emarca t ed S ome o f t he D eputy .

Commissioners and t he C ommissioners we r e ex tremely

antagon istic to t his work o f t he D epar t ment with t he ,

resul t that t he Karen a r eas enclosed here and there
,

withi n large blocks o f reserves were re a lly often more ,

than amply su fcient for all t he existing re q u irements o f

the hill men and that the interests o f B urmese village r s
,

living i n the vicinity of t he r ese rved tracts were p ro

v i d e d for o n fa r t oo gene r ous a scale The p rO p osals o f.

the Fo rest D ema r cation Pa rty we r e usually accepted ,

subjec t perhaps to certai n modications This was . ,

howeve r not always the case for i n 1 8 7 9 the C hief

, , , ,

Commissioner S i r Charles A i t chison disapp r oved o f

, ,

nearly all t he season s work done in the K abaung valley

( Tou ngoo d is tr ict ) during 1 8 7 8

7 9 as not showin g
su fcient conside ration for t he K aren inte r ests and ,

ordered t he whole of the proposals to be revised and

r e submi t ted
-
during t he following camping season .

S ince then a ve r y elabo ra t e and t echnically legal syste m

,

of fores t se t tlement has been introduced by more

recen t legislation which will be specially refe r red to
,

late r o n
Up to 1 898 the r e we r e over s q ua r e miles
of fo r ests
( 49
8 o f which are burdened w ith T a u ngy a

61
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
privileges ) either r eserved o r in process of settlemen t
as S ta t e forests to be permanently m a intained for the
benet o f futu re generations w hen the increase of p O p u
lation by natu ral augmentation and immi g ration and ,

the consequent clearance o f tree forest and j ungle S h a ll

have caused t he unreserved fores t s and waste lands to be
occupied for cultivation B ut there are s t ill vast t racts
.

o f forest land throughou t U pper B u r ma which a wait

examination and it will be many years before the import
,

ant w ork o f reservation can possibly be completed B y .

the time this has been accomplished there w ill p r obably

be abou t squ a re miles o f rese rves o r about ,

twelve per cent o f the to t al area These permanen t S tate

. .

forests will i nclude not only r ese rves fo r teak and cu t ch ,

bu t also large fuel reserves near t he chief towns and ,

forests r eserved for climatic and agricultural purposes i n

the central d ry zone The rate o f clearance o f tr ee forest
.

i n some of t he more populous districts has now made even

the district o fce r s anxious t o push o n the work o f fores t
demarcation Bu t in many places i t is too la t e t o do this
.

effectively fo r t he forest has often comple t ely disappeared

,

by clearance .

I t was o f course only within reserved area s that teak

, ,

plantations were formed and S O far as possibl e these were

,

conned to tra cts i n which there was not already a fa ir

S prinklin g of teak throughout the forest crops But the .

advantages of carrying ou t special measures fo r t he

improvemen t of teak and for freein g it from excessive
competition o f other t rees and o f bamboos soon became
apparent ; and these cultu ral O perations for the pur

pose o f increasing the propor t ion o f tea k scattered sin g ly

o r in family grou ps throughou t the forests were carried

on simultaneously with the formation o f pl a ntations .

They chiey consisted in girdlin g trees overshadowing

o r o t herwise interfering w ith the grow t h of te a k and i n ,

sowi ng or dibbling seed in places w here bamboos had

owered a n d died But fo r the success o f each of these
.
,

measures o f improvement it was necessa ry to ar range ,

fo r the protec t ion against ju ngle res o f the areas O pe r

a ted o n.

The q ues t ion as to whet h er the ground re s which

, ,

62
 FO R EST F I RES
u nchecked an nually traversed t housands of square miles
,

o f t he drie r fores t s throughou t Bu rma were benecial

o r n o t wi t h rega r d to the propa g ation o f teak and to

a s s i s tI ng I t I n its life stru g gle with othe r species was one ,

which was hotly d isc u ssed E arly i n March at the

.
,

beginni ng o f eac h ho t season the wisps of straw left ,

s tandin g in t he rice elds are bu r ned par t ly to remove ,

them easily an d t hus help speed the plough later o n the ,

g r azing tra c t s are r ed to promote the early g rowth o f

coarse succulent grasses for the cattle at the hottest time
,

o f the year and the hill men r e the trees a n d bamboos

,

felled o n t heir Ta u ngy a clea rances F rom t ime imme .

morial res o f this sort and camp r es l it by travellers i n

the j ungles we r e allowed to sp r ead a s t hey ple ased ea t i ng ,

their way along the grou nd consu m ing entirely the carpet,

o f dead leaves shed by the trees and reducing com ,

p l e te l
y to ashes lo g s left lying o n t he ground windfall ,

stems and the l ike A ll ove r the cou ntry except i n the
, .
,

naturally p r otected damp evergreen forests these ground ,

res passed T hou g h fortu nately they never as some

.
, , ,

times occu rs i n coniferous forests took the form of vast ,

co n a r a t i o n s spreading among the trees from crown to

g
crown yet they d id a gre a t amount of d a mage T hey
, .

removed the natural covering o f the soil rendering it ,

easily eroded at the commencement of the subse q uen t

rainy season C atching hold o f logs an d s t ems w hich
.

had lain for some t ime o n the g rou nd they would con
sume t hem so completely t h a t only a long line o f white
an d grey ashes would mark their places Growing t rees .

were apt to be badly dam a ged and even killed outright ,

s o that t h ey either ro t ted and fell o r were bu rned stand

ing in subsequ ent y ears I t would be impossible to

.

estimate a n d difcult even t o exa gge rate the destruction

thus c a used by j ungle res passing year after yea r ove r
the drie r forest tracts H und reds of t housands o f timbe r
.

trees were and still are annually destroyed from t his

, ,

cause tho u gh t he dam a ge thus done c a nno t be ex

,

pressed i n any monetary e q uivalent owing to the fac t t ha t

no remu nerative market ye t exis t s except for teak ,

p y i ng a d o cu t ch padauk and a comparatively fe w o f

, , ,

the many other good woods constitu t ing Bu rma s fores t

63
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
wealth . O ve r vast tracts o f count ry formerly covered
by pine i n the S han S tates a n d o n the Chin hills next to
nothin g in the sh a pe o f woodlands is n ow to be found
w hile in other g reat tracts of less elevated hills su ch as ,

the hill tracts of N orthern A rakan t h e original tree ,

forest has had to give place to a poor class of j ungle con

s istin g almos t entirely o f bamboos among which t rees
,

are merely to be seen dotted here and there E ven in .

the moist reg ion o f L owe r Bu rma the annual forest res
,

c a used the dryin g u p of w ater springs as is shown by the

,

fa ct that afte r a few years o f successful re protection

in some of the r eserves i n the Tharrawaddy district
perenni a l springs are no w to be found w here formerly
the wate r supply gave o ut early i n t he ho t season .

W h en such grou nd res obtained a footing i n y oung

teak pl a ntations they not infre q uentl y killed t he young
plants outright and almost invariably inicted consider
,

able damage The leading shoot was often destroyed ;

.

a nd though s t ool shoo t s mi g ht be p r oduced to replace it ,

the inj uries thus caused to the plantations were permanent

i n their nature A gain where cul t u ral O pe rations w ere
.
,

carried ou t the girdling and felling of trees and bamboos

,

interfering with the growth and development o f teak

unavoidably increased the amount of inammable matte r ,

dry a s tinde r littering the g rou nd : hence operations o f

,

some effective sor t were necessary for the protection of

al l plantations and cultu r al a r eas agains t re .

The endeavours made by the Fores t D epa rtment to

int roduce re protection r oused a vast amount o f O pposi
tion among the people living i n t he forests and amon g ,

the dist r ict ofcers who s a w nothing but harshness and

,

O pp ression in any a t tempt to interfere with the individual

liberty the u nrestrained license of kindling res at will
, ,

a n d allo w ing them to sp r ead u nchecked wherever the

wind listed to w a ft them E ven among the ofce rs of

.

the Forest D epa rt men t i tself there were a nd still a r e , ,

some who think that re pro t ection is apa rt fr om a reas ,

including plantations and cul t u ral opera t ions of les s ,

assistance to t eak than to o t her kinds of t r ees competing

with it for possession o f the soil and for the enj oyment o f
t he ligh t and ai r necessary fo r normal developmen t I t .

64
 P R O T E C TI O N F R O M F I R E
has oft en been mainta ined in suppor t of thes e assertions
t ha t t eak seedlin g s a r e mo r e nume rous i n the fo r ests
annually ove rr un by re t han i n t hose portions o f t he
r es e rves w h ich a r e specially pro t ec t ed ; bu t i n the vas t
majori t y of cases these seedling like plants are me r ely -

young shoo ts S prin g ing up yea r after yea r from the root
only to be killed by t he res i n M arc h and A pril T hus .

t he stru ggle goes o n fo r years u n t il a gene ral seeding o f

t he bamboo takes place when t he new growth of bamboos
,

sp r inging u p keeps t he soil damp for a few yea rs an d

limi ts t he p r og r ess of t he g r ou nd res I t is only during .

such periods o f na tu ral p r o t ection t h at the you ng teak

have a fair chance o f es t abl ishing themselves and of
r apidly shoo t in g up in t o poles capable of subsequen t ly
resis t ing th e effects o f t he r es I f the r oots o f such .

plan t s appa r ently of r ecen t seedling growth be dug up

, ,

and examined t hey will O ften sho w fteen o r t wenty o r

,

mo r e close nar row concen t ric r ings of annual g r ow t h

, , .

The necessi t y fo r ex t ending re pro t ec t ion over as

large a p r opo rt ion o f th e reserved fo r es t s as is possible
with t he funds available for this pu rpose has been fully
r ecognized by Governmen t and t he Governmen t o f I ndia
,

neve r no w lose an oppo rt uni t y o f impressing this on all

o f t heir provincial Governments Bu t t he r st steps.

taken i n B u r ma t owards protection o f plan t a t ions cultural ,

ope rations and selected por t ions o f rese r ved fores t s were
,

rough and even humo rous in t heir simpl icity t h ough

, ,

t h ey we r e no t by any means cheap This o r iginal system .

of r e p ro t ec t ion consisted in being r s t i n the eld ,

and i n bu r ning a ll r ound the a r eas to be protected b e

fore the villag ers be g an t o re t heir elds and grazing
lands or the Ka rens to burn t heir hill clea rances A s for .

s t opping the r es fr om sp r eading into the u np ro t ec t ed

po r tions of t he fo r es t and thence into neighbouring and
,

then o n to d istan t t rac t s l ittle or no attemp t was made

,
.

A ll tha t was done was to clear a trace o f abou t t en t o

t wen t y feet in b r eadth rou nd the t rac t to be protected to ,

re the d bris as soon as d r y enough and let t he re ,

burn ou t wards so as t o destroy early in t he d r y season , ,

ma t erial which could feed t he g rou nd res coming from

the elds and the Ta u ngy a Cross l ines within the
.

V OL . 11 . 65 F
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H RU LE
plantations were cleared and the d bris ca refully bu r ned
i n the cen t re but all alon g the oute r edge o f t he p ro t ected
,

area the re was allowed to spread s o that la t er res

coming from beyond that should d ie ou t th rough want of
m aterial to feed thei r prog r ess .

S ome advance has been made o n th i s ve r y pr i m i t i ve

sys t em o f re protection by fo r min g a second t race o r
clea red belt about I 5 0 fee t beyond the re t race encircling -

the a rea to be p rotected by endeavouri n g t o keep the

,

re within these limits when bu r ning t he d eb r i s and by ,

r epeating the r ing a t in t ervals as the d ead leaves co n

t i nu e falling down from the t rees B u t no method has
.

ye t been devised which can be applied to la rg e blocks o f

fo rest land so as to ensu r e e fcient p ro t ection at a com
a ra t i ve l y sm a ll ou t lay D u r ing 1 898 1 7 5 6 s q uare miles
p .
,

were successfully pro tec t ed ou t o f a t o t al o f re

t raced and a tt emp t ed to be p ro t ected at a to t al cost of,

This o f cou rse gives very l i t tle ide a of the

compa ra t ively high cost of pro t ec t ing planta t ions and
cul tu ral a reas whe r e nume rous traces have t o be clea red
and kep t in prope r order large numbers of re watchers
,

being employed for t he pu r pose from t he end of J anuary

till t he adven t of the heavy rains abou t t he end o f A pril
o r t he middle of May A nd the success o f the whole
.

operation depends essentially and m a inly o n the goodwill

o f t he people l ivi ng i n the vicinity o f t h e forests who ,

can easily with l i t tle r isk of discove r y r evenge them

, ,

selves by i ncendiarism fo r wrongs o r fancied wrongs done

to t hem by fo r es t subordinates by t he Fores t D epa rt ment
, ,

o r by the S t a t e gene r ally .

By 1 880 t he wo r k of the Fo rest D epa rt ment had

expanded so much and had become so important that ,

t he leg isla t ion provided by t he Fo r es t A c t of 1 86 5 was

found inade q ua t e for t he business tha t h ad now to be
con t rolled and adminis t e r ed A n e w A ct was therefore
.

passed i n 1 88 1 and r ules u nde r i t we r e issu ed in 1 88 2

, .

Wi t h modica t ions fou nd necessa ry from time to time ,

t h ese still constitute the fores t laws ; and t hey were

appl ied t o Uppe r B urma sho rtly afte r t he annexation in
t he form o f a R eg ulat ion and of rules made thereunder
, ,

with su itable al t erations meeting the special local r equ i r e

66
 R E SE RV A T I O N O F S T A T E F O R E S T S
ments With the passing o f the B u r ma Fo r est A ct 1 88 1
.
, ,

and the issue of the Forest R ules o f 1 88 2 the third and ,

mos t p r og ressive pe r iod o f fores t his t ory i n B u r ma was

en tered on .

I t would be q u i t e ou t o f place to give h ere anythin g

like a comple t e su r vey o f the A ct and R ules bu t men t ion ,

may a t any ra t e be su ita bly made of t he provisions under

which the r eserva t ion of S t a t e Fo r ests t h e r e p ro te c ,

tio n o f r ese rves and t he gene r al working o f the fo r ests

,

take place .

Wheneve r i t is p roposed to r eserve any pa rt icular

trac t o f forest t he fo r est o fce r w ho has examined it
,

submits his proposals s t a t ing th e O bjec t s of r ese rva t ion

,

and givi ng t he r esul ts of his inspection a desc r iption of ,

t he tract and a s t a t emen t of the bou nda r ies proposed

, .

T h is report accompan ied by a map is forwarded to the

, ,

D eputy Comm issione r th e chief civil au t ho r i t y in each

,

district A fte r conside ri ng the proposals and r ecording

.

his concu rr ence o r obj ec t ions t he p roj ec t is transmi t ted

,

to t h e Com m issione r o f t he division is fo r wa r ded by him ,

to th e Conse r vato r o f Fores t s o f the Circle and submit t ed ,

by t he lat te r through t he R evenue S ecretariat fo r the

orders o f the L ocal G ove r nment T hus before any o f .
,

t he ne c essary legal s teps are taken t o wards reserva t ion ,

the civil au t horities have an oppor t uni t y o f reco r ding any

p r i ma f a ci e objec t ions they feel t owa rds t he p roposals

and the C onse rva t o r of Fores t s has the opportu ni t y o f

explaining away t hei r obj ec t ions or adducing addi t ional
arg uments for rese r va t ion .

O n such proposals bein g preliminarily app r oved by

t he L ocal Governmen t a no t ication is published i n t he
o f cial g aze t te specifying t he si t uation and t h e l imits of the
land intima t ing tha t it is p roposed t o constitute t he same
,

a r ese rved fores t and appointing a Civil O fcer a s Forest

,

S e t tlement Ofce r to i n q u i r e in t o and de termine the

existence natu r e and extent o f any ri g hts o r claims to
, ,

exercise privileges o f variou s kinds within the specied

tract This notication is also publ ished in B urmese a t
.

t he h eadquarters of the township concerned and copies ,

o f it t ogethe r w ith an explanation o f the conse q uences

,

that will ensue o n r ese rvation a r e dis t ribu t ed to all the,

67
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
villages and hamle t s si tua t ed in t he vicini t y o f t he t rac t
in ques t ion ; while a period o f not less t han th r ee mont h s
is allowed du r in g which t he villa g e rs may make w r i tt en
o r ve r bal objection to reserva t ion When this g iven .

pe r iod has elapsed the Fores t S et t lemen t O f ce r who is

, ,

usually assisted in his in q u i r y by t he Forest O fce r ,

visits the locali t ies in q ues t ion and makes fo r mal in q u i ry

in t o the obj ections raised D uly empowered with special
.

lega l qualica t ions he may al t e r t he boundari es of t he

,

p r oposed r eserve s o as t o excl u de land for th e exe rcise

of Ta u ngy a o r shifting cul t iva t ion or may include ,

Ta u ngy a a r eas as separately demarcated trac t s wit h in

the r ese rve o r may r efuse to perm it this class of cul t i
,

vation if amply suf cien t land exis t s fo r i ts exercis e

outside the proposed bou nda r ies R igh t s o f way o f .
,

wa t e r cou rses of wate r use r o f pas t u r e and of fo r est p ro

,
-
, ,

duce a r e also adj udica t ed o n I f such claims a r e fou nd

.

r easonable t hey a r e p rovided fo r by excluding suf cient

,

land for t hei r exe rcise by r eco rd ing an o r de r gran t ing

,

t he privilege of pas t u r ing so many head of ca t tle or of

ex t racting ce rt ain q uantities of fores t p r oduce annually ,

or by commuting th e r igh t s in t o a paymen t o f money o r

a gran t of land .

O n t he t e r m ina t ion o f the in q u i ry th e p roceedings of

t he Fo res t S et t lemen t O fce r ar e sen t to t he D eputy
C ommissione r o f the dis tr ic t and a period o f t hree ,

months is allowed for the r eceip t o f obj ec t ions to the

S e t tlement O fcer s decisions I f suc h are r eceived t he
.
,

D epu t y C ommissione r ac t s as appella t e o fcer and ,

approves modies or upse ts t he j udgmen ts made by

, ,

the S e t tlemen t C ou rt o f rst ins ta nce T h e S e t tlement .

p roceedings a r e then fo rwarded t o t he C ommissione r for

r eview and r ema rk who sends t hem to t he Conse rva t or
,

fo r submission to the L ocal Governmen t I t is not u n t il .

all these p r escribed legal steps h ave been taken and t he

whole o f the proceedings have been subj ec t ed t o car eful
sc r u t iny by va r ious responsible o fce rs and by t he
R evenu e D epartmen t o f Govern ment tha t nal orders
are notied decla r ing the area i n q uestion t o be a r es erved
forest from a ce r tain da t e .

Ca refully as the existing right s of v illage communi t ies

68
 D I SA FF O R E S T A T I O N
and of individual village r s or hill tr ibesmen ar e t h u s
in q uired in t o and safegu a rded legal p rovision is m ade ,

fo r t he r evision by t he L ocal Gove r nmen t of any such

no t ica t ion du r ing the following ve yea r s F u r the r .

t han th is p rovision i s also made u nde r th e A c t fo r

,

enabling t he L ocal Governmen t wi t h t he previou s ,

sa nc t ion of t he Gove r nmen t of I ndia to di r ec t tha t any ,

r eserve or any po rt ion of a r ese r ve shall cease t o be

r ese rved . Thus if land su i t able fo r pe r manen t self
,

sus taining cul t iva t ion s h oul d h appen t o have been included
wi th in a fo r est r ese r ve and t he inc r ease o f popula t ion
,

s h ould subse q uently show tha t i t is desirable to thr o w

i t ou t of r ese r va t ion and u tilize i t agr ic ul t u rally t he ,

necessa r y powe r for e ffec t ing su c h changes is p rovided

in prope r legal fo rm I n a t hickly fores t ed bu t th inly
.

popula t ed coun try like Bu r ma it seems especially desir

able t ha t fores t r ese r vation should in the in t e r es t s of ,

wa t e r s t o r age and of ag r icul t u r e gen e rally be ca rr ied out ,

as rapidly and extensively as is p racticable so t ha t fr esh ,

cul t iva t ion excep t among t he t rue h ill men should break
( )
gr ou nd chiey o n t he plains leaving t he cul t ivable p or
,

tions o f t h e tr ue forest t racts to be se t tled only when

r ende red necessa ry by t he inc r ease of population .

I t is no t and i t neve r has been the desi r e o f t he

, ,

Fo r es t D epar tmen t in Bu rma t o drive t he hill tr ibes ou t

o f t he fo r es t clad hills
-
O n t he con t rary i t has eve r been
.
,

i t s objec t to concilia t e and win t he goodwill of t he

K a ren and o t he r hill tr ibes whose assis tance is e sse nti
,

ally necessa ry for t h e fo r mation of plan t a t ions for fu r nish ,

ing labou r for cul t u ral ope rations for r e protec t ion and , ,

fo r wo r king t he fo r es ts Wi t hou t having gai ned t hei r

.

co rdial goodwill and assistance based o n mutual ,

advan t ages t h e his t o r y of fores t conse r vancy could not

,

possibly have been t he con t inuous r eco r d of mat e r ial and

nancial prog r ess whic h i t is .

F or th e las t twen t y ve yea r s t he wo r k o f r ese rva t ion

-

has been pushed o n as ene rge t ically as ci r cums tances

h ave permi tt ed . Bu t m any yea r s must elapse befo r e
i t can be comple t ed i n t he g r ea t fo res t trac t s of t he
no rt he r n po rt ion of t he p r ovince When once t he .

dema r ca t ion of suc h permanent fo r es t es t a t es has b een

69
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
effected they will be found sc a ttered more o r less i rre g u
,

l a rl y over t he face o f the province being o f course mainly ,

conned to the hills in which t he feeders o f the great

rivers h a ve thei r sou rces G radually i n course o f time .
, ,

as popul a tion increases all the land no w u nde r tree fo r est ,

will be cleared fo r cultiva t ion and only t he a r eas S peci ,

~

ally reserved as S tate fores t s or dema r cated as g razing

trac t s will be left under tree g row t h A lrea dy i n some .

o f the more populous sou t he r n districts clea rance o f fo r est

ha s du rin g the las t quar t e r of a cen t u ry p r oceeded so

rapidly as to have had a se r ious effec t on the h ealth and
mortality of t he ca t tle while t he agricul t u r e would also ,

have su ffered grievously bu t fo r the fact tha t t he districts

i n q uestion not far r emoved from t he seaboa r d receive
, ,

copious rainfall fr om t he sou t h west monsoon The -

.

n ea re r the hea rt o f t he cen t ral d r y zone in Uppe r Burm a ,

the more impo rt an t i t is t ha t forests should be r ese rved ,

or fo r med i n some pa rt s if necessa r y fo r t he b e n e t o f

agricultu r e apa rt from any o f t he o t he r advan tages to be

derived .

C learing land t respass inj u ring t rees and s e t ting re

, , ,

to a rese r ved fores t are o f cou r se acts p r ohibited and

pen a l ized B ut th e A c t and R ules often make provisions
.

which it i s p r ac t ically impossible to carry out F or .

example with rega r d t o r e p r o t ec t ion t he r ule is as

,

follows

4 . B e twee n y nd the 5 th d ay of J un e n o
the 1 sth d ay of J a uar n a 1

p erson sh ll wi th i n two m l
a , b oun d y of ese v e l ea v e ny
i es of the ar a r r , a

e b u n i n g u nle s he sh all h av e t k e n the foll owi n g preca u ti on s

r r , s a ,

n am ely
( ) H e h all at l e st on e week b e fo e k i n d l i n g suc h e h av e
a s a r r

g i ve n n oti ce of hi i n te n ti on so to d o to the n ea est Fo est O f ce ;

s r r r

( 5 ) H e sh ll h av e c l ea ed of i n am m abl e m atter a b el t o f groun d

a r

of not l ess th n twen ty feet i n b e ad th arou n d th

a e pl c e wh e eon r a r

he p op oses to k i n d l e uc h e
r s r

( c) H e h all h v e k i n d l ed u h e t a ti m e wh e n no h i gh wi n d
s a s c r a
i s bl owi n g i n the d i e c ti on of the reserve r .

An y p e son who i n c o n t v en ti on f th i
r ul e l ea v es n y e b u nin g
ra o s r a r r

i n su h m ann er a to e n d an g e a e se v ed fo e t i s p u n i s h abl e u n d er
c s r r r r s
s e cti on 6 of the A t wi th i mp ri onm e n t fo a te m wh i c h m y
2 c s r r a

ex te n d to i m on th s or wi th ne wh i c h m y ex t n d to R s 5
s x a e . 00

o wi th b oth i n dd i ti o n to u h c ompe n ati o n fo d am g e

r
, a s c s r a
d n e to the fo est as the onv i c ti n g C ourt m i gh t d i ec t to b e p ai d
o r c r .

70
 P R O T E C TI O N F R O M F I R E
F i r e p r o t ec t ion is essen t ial to t he good manag emen t o f
t he forests and i t can only be successfully effected as
, ,

al r eady men t ioned through th e goodwill of the people

,

t og e th er with conside rable o utlay . B ut the above

r es t ric t ions a r e to t ally at variance wi t h immemorial
custom ; and any a t temp t to apply th ese powers except ,

in glaring cases o f actual incendiarism would produce an,

enormous amou n t of e asily u nde rs t ood d isconten t I n .

many m a t te r s t he r ules necessa r y fo r e f cien t fo r es t

conservancy are q u i t e a t variance wi t h t he past cus toms
o f the people bu t t here can be n o doub t t hat t he re str i c
,
a

tions imposed upon an ind ividual l ibe rt y w hic h h ad

degene rated i n t o l icense a r e re q uisi t e fo r t he general
benet of the p r ovi nce at la rge A nd i t i s bu t fai r to
.

say tha t t he Fo res t R ules are applied only i n a well

considered and l enien t manne r which fully r ecognizes
,

the fact tha t i n many r espec t s t hey mus t appea r harsh

and opp r essive to t hose l iving i n t he vicin i t y of the
fo r es t s
.

Wi t hin th e r ese r ved fo r es t s eve r y th ing is th e p ro

pe rt y o f Gove r nment except i n so fa r as absolute
,

owne r s h ip has been modied wi t h r ega r d to orders

passed at the t ime o f rese r va t ion O n all o th er land
.

covered by fo r est teak and o t he r r ese rv ed trees a r e

t he p r ope r ty of Government t h e t rees ac t ually r ese r ved
,

varying i n t he diffe r ent par t s of the province N one of.

the r ese rved t r ees can be cu t or ex t rac t ed withou t special

l icenses T h e felling and extrac t ion of u n r ese r ved t rees
.

g r owing o n un r ese r ved areas can ta ke place u n restrictedly

by residen t s in t he vicini t y o f t he fo res t s p r ovided t he
timbe r is to be u sed for bona de ag r icul t ural she r y o r

, ,

domestic pu r poses or for reli g ious works o f publ ic utility

, ,

such as bu ildin g res t houses and b r idges ; but felling and

-

ext rac t ion of t imbe r fuel and o t he r fores t p r oduce for

, ,

trade pu rposes can only take place unde r license and

u pon pa ment of r evenue
y .

The policy adopted i s to con ne t he wo rk of ex t rac .

t ion so fa r as possible to t he un r ese rved forests s o as ,

t hus to u t iliz e t he exis t ing suppl ies o f timber of al l so rts

befo r e t hes e a r eas a r e ul t ima t ely clea r ed for pe r manent
cul t ivation No t hing i s t here done for r egene ration and
.

71
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
r ep roduc t ion The fo r es t s a re left to na t u re and t he
.
,

only p ro t ection given is to r es tr ic t t he felling to tr ees o f

ma t ure l imits T rade l icenses a r e th us given u nde r
.

suitable r es tr ic t ions fo r all kinds o f u n r ese rved and

r ese rved tr ees excep t t eak t he gi r dling and en t i r e
, ,

con tr ol o f which r emains now as fo r me rly in t he hands , ,

o f t he Fo r es t D epa rt ment .

I n th e S t ate r ese rves howeve r i t is d iffe r en t T h e

, , .

momen t a fo r es t has been decla r ed a r ese r ve i t is save ,

u nde r excep t ional ci r cu ms t ances absolu t ely closed to ,

t he g i rdling of t eak o r t he ex trac t ion of r ese rved or

un r ese r ved tr ees o r o th er u t iliza t ion of p roduce not
,

specially au th o r ized u nde r the Fo rest S e t tl emen t I t is .

thus p r ac t ically closed even agains t depa r tmen t al ope ra

t ions u ntil a wo rking plan h as been specially p rep ar ed
fo r its fu t u r e t r eatmen t .

The rs t r egula r working plan o f t his so rt was made

in 1 884 and since t hen s t eady t hough slow p rog r ess h as
,

been made in th e endeavou r to p rovide sou nd sc h emes

o f working fo r th e r ese r ved fo r es t s A s t he wo r k of .

selecting rese rves is still only i n p rog r ess as the fo r es t ,

su rvey en tails m uc h t ime and as t he wo rki ng plans,

pa r ties can only ca rr y ou t t hei r ope ra t ions when de t ailed

maps a r e available i t will p r obably take mo r e than
,

t wen t y years befo r e all the r ese rved fo r es t s of B u rma

can be b r ough t u nde r t he p r ovisions of specic wo r k
ing plans .

The basis of such plans is a map o n a scale of fou r

inches to the m ile showing all t he t opog raphical de tails
,

o f s tr eams h ill ranges r avines dells swamps and the

,
-
, , , ,

like The p r epara t ion of th ese maps is en t rus t ed pa rtly

.

to t he Topograp h ical S u r vey b ranc h o f t he S u rvey o f

I ndia and pa rtly to the Fo r es t S u rvey b ranc h ; and for
,

some yea rs pas t t h r ee su rvey pa rt ies h ave t hus been

con t inually employed in Bu rma fo r t he p repa ra t ion of
the maps necessa ry befo r e t he fo r es t working plans
.
-

part i es can ope ra t e .

O n t he receip t of t he maps each wo r king circle as

th e a r ea is called ( usually a d rainage a r ea ) to w h ic h t he
p r ovisions o f one workin g plan a r e intended t o apply
is ma r ked ou t in su i table blocks and subdivided in t o
72
 R A T E O F G R O W T H O F T EA K
com pa r tmen t s fo r med wi t h due r ega r d t o t he c on g ura ~

t ion of t he soil and its na t ural bou ndaries o f ridges and

streams T he compa r tments oft en va r y considerably in
.

size acco r ding t o t he na t u re o f t he fo r es t and th e quantity

o f t eak con tai ned i n i t bu t they u sually ave r age about
,

o ne s q uare mile or mo r e in exten t A ll ove r t he fo r es t .

sample plo ts a r e ma r ked O ff so as to be fairly evenly

dis tr ibu t ed t hroughou t t he a r ea and t hese amou n t ing to , ,

be t ween one fth and one q ua rt e r of t he whole wo rking

- -

ci r cle a r e ca r efully examined t o asce rtain t he existing

,

s t ock of t eak trees of d iffe r en t gir t h classes from seed -

,

l ings and poles below t h r ee fee t i n girth up to ma t u re tr ees

above seven fee t in gi rt h and of o t her r eserved trees
,

gi rth ing over t h r ee fee t At the same t ime inves t igations

.

r egarding t he r a t e of g r owth of t eak are made by

means o f P ressle r s inc remen t gauge o r bo r e r a well

,

known German inst r umen t and by exami ning t h e annual

,

r in g s o n t he tree s t umps to be fou nd i n eve r y fores t t ha t

has been wo r ked wi t hin t he las t t wen t y or thi rt y yea rs .

The data ac q u i r ed by cou n t ing ou t t he sample plo t s and

by estima t ing t he r a t e of growth of t eak fo r m t he basis
fo r t h e p r oposals made in the wo rk ing plan .

When the el d wo r k has t h us been comple t ed a work

ing plan r epo rt is p r epared I t rs t of all gives a
.

descrip t ion o f th e s itua t ion soil and cl imate of the, ,

t rac t deal t wi t h of the composition and condi t ion of t he

,

fo r est of the pas t sys t em of management and of t he

, ,

ex t en t to w h ich t he fo r es t p r oduce has been utilized .

The bases of th e p rOp osals a r e then detailed giving t he ,

exis t ing s t ock as estima t ed by th e cou nti ngs o n t he

sample a r eas and t he asce rtained r a t e of grow t h of t eak
,

fr om gir t h class to gir t h class

-
Generalizing broadl y
-
.

from da t a collec t ed i n various pa rt s o f t he country it

takes a second cl ass tr ee ( fou r and a half fee t i n gi rt h )
abou t t h i rt y t h r ee to thi rt y eigh t yea rs or say t hi rt y ve
- -
,
-

o n th e ave r age t o develop in t o a r st class tr ee ( six fee t

,
-

gi rt h ) ; and i t t akes fr o m 1 5 0 in mois t fo r est to 1 80 year s

in d r y fo r es t for th e p roduction o f a fully ma t u r e t eak
tree of seven feet or above i n gir t h W ith e fcient r e .

protec t ion howeve r as we know from t he evidence o f

, ,

ou r plan t a t ions th e t ime re q u i r ed should no t exceed

,

73
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
abou t 1 00 t o 1 2 0 years respectively in the mois t a nd the
dry fores t s while t he timber itself will be o f bette r
,

qual ity if its l ife h istory records no damag e by r e .

The working plan usu a lly con nes itself onl y t o pro
o sal s wit h reg ard t o the girdling o f t eak because the
p ,

supplies o f other rese rved kinds of t rees are not ( u nless

i n exception a l cases l ike p y i nga d o or ironwood if r e
qu ired locally fo r railway S leepers ) in tended t o be utilized
i n the meantime so long as supplies are still available fo r
u tilization in the u nrese r ved fores t s E xcep t i n t he ve r y
.

dry fo r ests w here t eak of cou r se does no t a ttain such

,

large dimensions as i n moiste r trac t s with conditions

more favourabl e fo r vegeta t ion the gi r dling propos a ls
,

are l imited t o ma t ure t rees o f seven fee t in g i r th T he .

wh ole t e r m o f rot a t ion ( abou t 1 5 0 to 1 80 years ) is

divided in t o ve o r six periods of abo ut thi rty yea r s
each and the p roposals of t he workin g plan ex t end to
,

t he utilization of the t rees which have at tained o r will

probably a ttain fully matu r e dimensions du r ing t he rs t
pe r iod o f abou t thirty years I t sometimes happens i n
.

virg in tr ac ts o r such as have been bu t little worked

, ,

that t he t rees ove r seven fee t in gir t h a r e larg ely i n

excess o f those g irthing from s i x to seven feet e g i n , . .
,

o ne working ci r cle t he fo r me r agg r ega t ed al mos t exactly

twice as many as the la tt e r and ove r

acres ) I n such a cas e t he ques t ion a r ises w h e t her
.

the g i rdlings s h ould use up all t he fully ma tu re timbe r with

i n the rs t period o r should sto r e some to e q ualize the o u t
t u r n du r ing the second pe r iod the modus oper a ndi usuall y
,

depending o n t he soundness o r t he overmatu ri ty of the

o l d t rees A long wit h t hese speci c gi r dling proposals
.

for t eak recommenda t ions ( some t imes gene ral some t imes
, ,

special ) a r e also made with r egard t o works of imp rove

men t such as sowing and plantin g r e p ro tec t ion cu tt ing
, , ,

o f woody climbe r s and epiphytic F i ci and blas t ing opera

,
:

tions fo r facilita t ing t he work o f oa t ing .

N 0 working plan for any rese r ved fo r es t can come in t o

ope ration b e fore i t has been approved by t he L ocal Govern
men t and t his approval is not l igh t ly given Wh ile the
, .

eld operations a r e in p r og ress the wo r king plans o f ce r ,

w ho has p r eviousl y discussed th e m a t ter with h is C on

74
 F O RE S T W O R K I N G P LA N S
se r va tor and w ho is al ways i n di r ect commun ication with

h im submits a p r eliminary r epor t settin g forth the na t ure

,

and condition o f t he forest and S ke t ching the proposals

h e will probably make This is forwarded with remarks
.

to th e I nspec tor General o f F ores t s i n I ndia and

-
,

r e t u r ned to the Conservato r along wi t h any cri t icisms o r

suggestions w h ich seem desi rable O n t he working plan
.

and forest maps being comple t ed they a r e submitted by

the Conse r va to r to t h e L ocal Government and forwarded ,

by them to the I nspecto r General fo r favou r of his

-

opinio n and advice an d it is not until the L ocal Gove r n

men t have assu r ed t hemselves that t hei r technical advise rs ,

the Conserva t o r and the I nspector General concu r i n

-
,

recommending the proposals submi tt ed tha t these are ,

approved and appl ied to the working circle for the nex t
thirty years o r so .

A nd apa rt from t hese precautions there is an additional

,

safeg ua rd T he girdl ing t hus sanc t ioned is a maximu m

.

es t ima t e w h ich mus t not i n any g iven case be exceeded ;

,

but t he wo r k of gi rdling is ca rr ied o u t only u nde r s t rict

applicat ion o f sylvicul t u ral principles H ence it oft en
.

happens tha t i n orde r to leave seed bea r in g t r ees i n pa rts

-

poo r i n teak some o f th e ma tu re tr ees r equire to be left

s tanding i n place o f being girdled fo r ex t raction F r om .

this i t must be clea r tha t none of the rese r ved forests

can possibly be exposed to t he dange r of bein g ove r
worked and becomin g exhaus t ed The p resen t avera g e
.

annual outtu r n in teak is exceedi ngly l ow bu t t his must ,

g radually imp rove with r e p r o tection and t he cul t u ral

imp rovemen ts o f va r ious sor ts no w r egula r ly ta king place
for increasing t he p r opor t ion of t eak among the many
o t her kinds o f tr ees fo rm ing t he g rea t majority in t he
s o called teak fo r ests
-
.

I t is impossible to give any description o f t he fo r ests

o f Burma in a fe w words I n Lowe r B urma alone the
.

enumera t ion of t he t r ees made by the la t e S ulp i z K u rz ,

i n his F or est F l or a of B r i ti sh B u r ma 1 8 7 7 includes

, ,

some species ; and the unknown species of Uppe r

Bu rma and t he S han S ta t es would probably increase t his
total ve ry conside rably .

I n speaking of t he d ry zone of cen t ral Burma w h ich was ,

75
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
p r eviously d escribed ( vol i page .i t was men t ioned
.

t ha t the rainfall increases conside rably as o ne dive rges

i n different d irections from t h is central a r ea A nd t he .

cha rac t e r o f the forest cove r ing throughou t diffe r en t parts

o f t he p r ovince va r ies to a conside r able exten t acco r d ing

t o the amoun t of rainfall t he humidi t y of t he a t mosphe r e

, ,

and t h e prevailing t empera t u r e O ne r esul t of t he g rea t.

gene ral humidity o f t he cl imat e and of th e compa ra t ively

lo w t empera t u r e of th e grea t e r par t o f t he p r ovi nce as
con tras t ed with t he in t e r io r of t he con t inen t o f I ndia is
t ha t a large numbe r o f tr ees belonging to t he fo r est
o ra a t the foot of t he H imalayan r ange is to be fou n d
a t comp a ra t ively l ow eleva t ions i n B u r ma g r owin g along ,

with the mo r e cha r acte r istically tropical vege t a t ion .

Fo r es ts o f an eve rg reen or pseudo everg reen d escri p -

t ion are t o be found in the l i tt o ral trac t s and mangr ove

swamps fr inging the sea coas t and occupying t he mu d
banks o f t he tidal c r eeks in t he swamp fores t s cove r ing
t he depressions in t h e alluvial plains and the low land s
subjec t t o inu ndation du r ing t he rainy season ; i n t h e
t ropical fo r ests g rowing luxuria ntly i n t he shady valleys
and o n the coole r hill l p es in t he regions o f plen t eous
rainfall ; i n t he damp hill fo r ests with thei r oaks ches t , ,

nu t s and magnolias oft en t o be fou n d a t eleva t ions of

, ,

from or fee t upwa rds and i n th e pine trac t s

whic h occupy t he highe r r egions of t he S han pla t eau and
th e C hin h ills .

N one of t hese possess as ye t any ve ry g rea t nancial

value bu t t he tropical fo r ests a r e ma rvellous in t h ei r
,

luxuriance of vegeta t ion A bundan t rai nfall on th e o ne

.

hand and comple t e p r o t ec t ion of t he su rface soil and t he

,

soil moistu r e o n t he o t he r are t he essen t ial r e q uisites for

,

t his t ype of fo r es t H ence t hey are not to be fou nd

.

wi th in th e dry zone bu t occu r in all the othe r pa r ts of t he

,

coun t ry . H ere t he fo r es t consis t s p ractically of t h r ee

tie rs of t rees exclusi ve of t he u nde r wood of sh ru bs
, ,

bamboos palms sc r e w pines ra t tans woody cl i mbe rs

, , , , ,

fe r ns and h e rbs ( wi t h few g rasses howeve r ) which cove r

, , ,

the soil The lowes t t ie r consists o f tr ees like G a r ci n i a

.
,

D i ospy r os, Ci n na mon u m , Tetr a n ther a A r d i si a M i lletti a , , ,

F i cu s, E ug en i a My r i sti ca and a h ost o f ot h e r s

, ,
A bove .

76
 T YP E S O F B U R M E SE F O R ES T S
t hese a r e loft ie r s pecies F i cus, B u r ser a S emeca rp us
of , ,

Ced r el a , L ag er str oemi a , M a ng if er a , and o th e r genera ;

w h ile over these again towe r t he s t ill loft ie r crowns of
fo r es t g ian t s belonging t o t he gene ra S ter cu l i a Tetr a ,

mel es, A r toca rp us, P a r hi a D ip ter oca rp u s, P a r a shor ea

, ,

H op ea , A n i sop ter a A n ti a r i s, and many o t he r s

, S ome o f .

th ese a tt ain a heigh t o f 2 5 0 fee t, and i t i s not u nusual to

se e Kanyin s t ems ( D ip ter oca rp u s tu r bi na tu s ) o f eno r mous

gi rt h ru nning up , s traigh t as a n a rr o w, to a heigh t o f

abou t 1 2 0 o r 1 3 0 fee t befo r e showing t he rs t o f t hei r
fe w b r anc h es The luxuriance o f ve g e t a t ion in suc h
.
_

fo r es t s i s ma rvellous T here is oft en a dense and al mos t

.

u nb roken mas s o f foliage fro m t he g r ou nd up to a h eigh t

o f 2 00 feet , t he c r o w ns being fes t ooned wi t h gigan t ic

woody climbers ga rlanded wi t h beau t iful owers .

I t is i n fores t s of t he eve rg reen class i n t he colde r r egions

o f U ppe r B urma fr om abou t t he la t i t ude o f M ogaung
,

northwards i n t o A ssam t ha t t he caou tc h ouc o r I ndia

,

r ubbe r tr ee ( F i cus el asti ca) is i ndigenous H eavy annual .

rainfall humidi t y o f a t mosp h e r e and a conside rable

, ,

deg r ee of cold for a subtropical r egion see m r e q uisi t e for ,

i t s t h r iving .

The mo r e t ypically deciduous fo r es t s consis t of tr ees

w h ich shed t hei r foliage d u r ing J anua r y o r in February o n
t he approach of th e hot season and b r eak ou t i n t o leaf ,

ag ai n i n March or A p r il afte r th e adven t o f t he mango

s howe r s , o r as soon as t hey h ave imbibed a suf ciency

o f subsoil mois t u r e These deciduous fo r ests consis t of

.

va r ious well marked t ypes d iffering essen t ially fr om eac h

othe r and a re distinguishabl e as t he scr u b fo r es t s o f the
,

d r y cen tral zone t he I ndaing o r L ate r i t e fo r es t s an d t he

, ,

mixed fo r es ts o n t he lowe r hill r anges .

T h e sc r ub fo r es t s of t h e d ry zone are of some nancial

value o n accoun t of t he cu t ch ( A ca ci a Ca techu ) which , ,

along wi t h dah at ( Tectona H a mi l toni z) is o ne o f t he ,

mos t cha rac t e r is t ic of t he tr ees B u t t hei r chief claim to

.

dese r ve careful a ttention is on accoun t of t he benets

tha t r ese r va t ion will p robably b r ing wi t h it i n regard
t o wa t e r s t o r age i n t he soil and amelio ra t ion o f t he
p recarious conditions u nde r wh ich agricultu r e now labou rs
owing to r eckless clea r ance of d r y fores t s that once
77
 B U R M A U N D E R B R IT I S H RU LE
existed on the plains The number o f trees and sh rubs .

to be fou nd here is comparatively small and they are o f ,

cou rse fo r the most part leg uminous as might ( for n ow ,

well known r easons ) be expected ; while o n the hill sides

they are scantier still w ith species o f E uphor i a as t hei r
,

most striking characteristic .

The I ndaing o r L aterite fores ts a r e t o be found

whe rever this pecul iar g eological formation c rops o u t o r
forms the subsoil close below the su rface T he cha rac .

t e ri s t i c t r ee is I n ( D ipter oca rp us tu ber cu l a tu s) which ,

fo rms the principal kind along with ot h e r genera such

as S hor ea P en ta cm e D i ll e n i a Z i zyphus
, , , , S try chn os ,

M el a nor r hoea E m ti ca Ter m i na l i a Ca r ey a

, and palms
, , ,

of va r ious sorts These fores t s a r e ercely hot duri n g

.

the month of Marc h u ntil t hey b r eak ou t into thei r fr esh

foliag e They cove r an enormous ex t ent o f coun try and
.
,

t here a re p robably considerably larger su pplies o f I n t h an

o f any othe r t imber tr ee in t he p r ovi nce .

The mixed forests cove r ing the greate r pa rt of all the

lowe r hill ranges are those o f the most impo rt ance to th e
B urma Forest D epar t ment and to B ritish commerce a t ,

present because t hey constitute the g rea t sources of su pply

,

of revenue drawn from teak

( Tecton a
g r a n d is
) py g
i n a do ,

o r ironwood Xy l i a dol a h
( r z or m i s
f ) sh a o r cutch
( A ca ci a ,

Ca techu ) the fe w o t he r r ese rved woods an d the many

, ,

u nrese rved woods yielding valuable kinds o f timbe r for

local r e q u i r emen t s They are to be fou nd covering
.

p robably about two thirds of t he hill ranges lyi ng back

-

fr om the seaboard i n the in t e r io r of the coun try beyond

,

the l imits o f t orr ential r ainfall (of 2 00 inches and mo r e )

characte r is t ic of t he coas t wi t h th ei r evergr een trop ica l
fo r ests.

These mixed fo r es t s occupying the u plands and the ,

cen t ral hill ranges vary somewhat i n character according

,

as they g row on alluvi u m on soft siliceous sandstone or , ,

o n metamorphic rocks They form the matri x through

.

(
o u t which the as yet
) nancially mos t valuable kinds o f
timbe r trees occu r singly or i n kno ts and patches as
family g roups among abou t a hund r ed and fty othe r
kinds o f trees such as species of E ug en i a B om hax
, , ,

S ter cu l i a , C a r ug a , P ter osp er m u m , S p ond i as , Ter m i na

78
 E F F E CT S O F T H I R D B U R M E S E W AR
l i a A nog e i ssus H oma l i u m B r i ed el i a Cor d i a G mel i n a
, , , , , ,

N a u cl ea and many o t he r s in t erspersed amon g which

, ,

are bamboos of va r ious kinds n ow fo r ming only an ,

underwood , and ag ain g r owi ng mo r e luxu riantly w here

n ot overshadowed by a c r own of fol iage .

These cons t i t ute t he fou r mai n types o f forest i n B u rma ,

although there a r e also great tracts of bamboo j ungles

on many o f the hills ( showin g the t rack of the was t eful
shifting Ta ungy a ) and o f savannahs g r owing coarse
, ,

gigantic ha i ng or elephan t grass ( S a ccha r u m sp onta neu m) ,

an d Thehheo r tha t ch grass ( [mp er a ta cy l i n d r i ca ) etc , o n , .

the g r ea t p l ains marking sites probably once cleared for

cultivation bu t now r everted i n t o a low type of j ungle
and awaiting r e conversion in t o r ice elds
-
.

I t will be r ecollected that a ca su s hel l i in 1 88 5 was

fo r ced upon the B r itish by the refusal of the Cour t o f
A va t o submi t to the i nvestigation an d decision o f a
mixed court as acco rde d by trea t y r igh ts the q uestion
, ,

of alleged malp r actices o n the pa r t o f t he Bombay Bu rma

T radi ng Co rporation engaged in very extensive fores t

,

ing ope ra t ions in d ifferent parts of Upper Bu rma O n .

the assumption o f sovereign t y the arran g ements mad e

be t ween the Co rporation and the K ing were terminated ,

but the B r itish Governmen t vi rtually r enewed them i n

t he shape of l eases a t the very l o w ra t es of royalty
o f ten r upees
( 1 3s 4d
) pe r t on
. for large sized and six
.
-

ru pees (9s ) fo r small s ized logs

.
-
.

With vast sources of supply a t t heir comman d a t t his

nominal r ate of royal t y t he Corpo ra t ion p rac t ically com
m a n d e d th e market fo r t eak in E u r ope and t he timber ,

trade in R angoon was exposed to the grave danger of

becoming almos t the absolute monopoly o f t his rich and
inu ential rm Their prots we r e eno r mous and thei r
.
,

shares increased t o considerably ove r fou r hundred per

cent in marke t val ue The few othe r rms of R an g oon
. .

dealing exclusively i n timber whic h we r e forced to procure

,

t hei r supplies from the Governmen t auction sales a t the

t imber d ep ot coul d n ot hope to compete successfully
,

agai ns t so rich a rm drawing their m ain supplies from

Uppe r B u r ma o n payment only of a ridiculou sly low
rate o f royalty in add ition t o actual cost of extrac t ion .

79
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
Hence assistance o f some so rt wa s needed t o enable
even the p r incipal o ne among these mino r r ms t o
main tain i tself agains t the supremely advanta geou s posi
tion acquired by the C orporation .

This was arranged fo r by g ranting a pu rchase con

t ract ( l ea ses having been forbidden by t he Governmen t
o f I ndia i n 1 8 7 3 ) to t he rm of M ess r s Mac gr ego r
. Co
.

for the extraction o f all the girdled t imbe r i n the no rt h

wes t e r n po rt ion of t he Toungoo d istric t . A l t hough
these fores t s a djoined t he N ingyan ( Pyinmana ) forests
held by the Co r pora t ion and were more d ifcul t to
work and altho ug h the ra t e o f royalty xed was t wen t y
,

o ne rupees (1 1 8s
.
) pe r ton o r more than twice wha t
,

t he C orpo ration we r e paying ye t this foresting business

,

p r oved very r emu ne ra t ive besides having t he advan tage

o f ensuring a t known xed ra t es a cer t ain p r opo rt ion o f

t he timbe r r e q ui r ed t o keep the sawmills at work H ad

.

d ependence o n the Gove r nment auc t ion sales been t he

sole source o f supply t he Corporat ion wi t hou t ma t erially
, ,

enhancin g the avera g e cost of t hei r o wn raw ma t e r ial ,

migh t have soon forced up prices till conversion mus t

needs have mean t hea vy loss m i g ht h ave main ta ined
,

them the r e t ill th e othe r rms had been driven into

the bankrup t cy cou rt and mi g ht th en subse q uen t ly have
,

offe r ed merely nominal ra t es for t he t imbe r ex t rac t ed by

Govern men t . T o preven t t he t eak expor t t rade o f
R angoon from becoming an absolu t e monopoly Gove r n
men t we r e fo r ced t o conside r t he con t ingencies of ei t he r
giving subs tan t ial suppo rt to enable a solven t and ene rgetic
rm to compe t e wi t h t he C orpora t ion or o f nding t hem
selves d r ifting onwards t o the p r ospec t o f being ul t i
mately fo r ced t o r u n sawmills of thei r own ; and fo r
ve ry obvious r easons they wisely chose the fo r me r
al terna t ive.

T he policy thus i nitia t ed i n 1 889 h as been consistently

followed and expanded S eve ral R angoon r ms have
.

now contrac t s fo r the ex t raction o f teak from diffe r ent

well de ned fo r est a r eas i n t he S i t tang valley and
throughou t Uppe r B urma while all the r emaining t racts
,

are wo rked departmen tally by means o f na t ive c on

tractors . The de t ermination o f the numbe r o f trees to
80
 T RA D E I N T EA K TI M B E R .

be g i rdled res t s wi t h t he Fo r es t D epar t ment and the ,

wo r k is carried ou t by i t s ofce rs only bu t the working

o u t o f t he t imbe r t akes place pa rt ly by E uropean r ms ,

upon paymen t o f a r oyalty varying fr om abou t 1 5 s to .

2 pe r t o n o f fty cubic feet fo r th e suppl y of t heir

,

sawy a r d s i n R angoon and pa rtly by t he Forest D e

,

a rt m e n t for i t s auc t ion sales at t he d e p Ots in M andalay

p
and R angoon The pick of all t he nes t t imbe r b rough t
.

annually to the Gove r nmen t dep ot a t R angoon goes as ,

it ought to go to supply t h e i nden t s r eceived from t h e

,

naval dockya r d a t B ombay .

The yea r 1 899 was t he last i n wh ic h t h e Bombay

Bu rma C o r pora t ion could procu r e supplies of t imbe r at
th e l ow rate cove r ed by t heir leases of 1 88 7 and t hei r ,

f r
dividend o 1 899 1 900 was 3 0 pe r cen t B ut t hey .

a r e s t ill i n an abno rmal position of grea t ad vanta g e

in havin g accumula t ed i n thei r R an goon ya r ds vast
s t ocks of timbe r pu r chased a t a low r a t e of r oyalty .

T hu s in 1 89 7 98 th e C o rpo ra t ion ex tr ac t ed from Uppe r

,
-
,

Bu r ma n o less than t ons of t eak on payment o f

while M essrs M acgrego r . C O had t o pay .

t he much highe r revenue of on tons

extracted from the Toungoo fores t s .

The obj ec t of Governmen t in con t inu ing t he pu rchase

cont rac t sys t em t o R angoon r ms now tha t t he Uppe r
B u rma l ea ses have termina t ed is t wofold I n t he r s t .

place conside r at ion had to be given to th e fac t tha t o n

,

t he o ne hand se r ious loss might be ca u sed to t he r ms

i n q uestion if t hei r fores t ing ope r a t ions we r e discontinued ,

fo r t he elephan t s buffaloes and pe rsonnel fo r workin g on

, ,

a la rge scale rep resen t inves t men t s t hat can nei th e r be

acqui red no r disposed of all a t once while on the othe r
hand t he p resen t strengt h of the Fo r es t D epartment ,

hardly able to cope wi t h t he business al r eady u ndertaken ,

is perh a ps inadequate for embarking o n larger fo r esting

operations t han a r e a t present bei ng car ri ed o ut by direct
departmen t al agency A nd i n t he second place it seemed
.

clea r t hat t he wises t cou rse t o adop t in placing t he t eak

t imbe r expo r t t rade i n Rangoon o n a permanently sou nd
basis was to pe r mi t the va r ious subs tantial E u ropean
rms to wo r k ou t for t hemselves at r easonable ra t es o f ,

V OL . II . 81 c;
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
royalty sufcien t suppl ies O f timber to p rovide a fai r
,

proportion o f t h ei r annual requiremen t s sa y o ne third to ,

-

o ne h
-
al f l eav i ng them to O btai n at the Gove r nmen t a u c t ion
,

sales the rem a inde r necessary for the mainten a nce and
the exp a nsion o f their business Govern ment i s thus a lso
.

enti t led to anticipate ob taini ng the true market valu e for

the timber extracted depa r tmentally u nless all the various,

rms should form a ring and combine to keep prices

low S uch a dange r may ultimately have to be con

.

s id e re d thou g h hardly fo r some years to come and the

, ,

remedy against it will e a sily be found .

The teak trade o f R an g oon is now o n a much sou nder

footin g than it has ever been previously bu t it will n ot ,

be on a t h oroughly sound basis till t he large and che a ply

a c q u ired stock o f logs held by t he Corpo ra t ion is
exhaus t ed w hen all r ms will be able to compe t e on
,

nearly equal t erms as regards the price paid fo r timber

in the rough A fter that even should the sou rce of
. ,

supply be con ned solely to the Governmen t au ction

sales which is no t no w l ikely to be the case t he milling
, ,

alone should a lways yield a fai r return o n the capital

invested apart from the other t rade prots
, I t is a .

b ranch o f t rade s t ill capable o f very considerable ex

a n s i o n in the futu r e
p .

M u ch is now bein g systema t ically done t o inc r ease t h e

supply of t eak D uring the thi rty years that have elapsed
.

since the Government o f I ndia ( in 1 8 70 ) dened the main

du t ies of the Fo res t D epartment to consist i n the extension
o f teak plan t ations o n a large scale in a few well selected

b locks t he dema r cation o f t he most valuable forest

,

t r acts as S ta t e forests and careful husbanding o f t he

,

resou r ces o f t he existing fo rests m eanwhile vast changes ,

have taken place bo t h as t o the ex t en t and as t o the

cons t i t ution of the t eak producin g areas en t rusted t o the
-

manag ement and cont rol o f t he F orest D epa rtment I t .

then seemed not improbable t h a t Pegu and Tenasserim

would have to be considered t he main sou r ces from which
the world s fu t ure suppl y o f teak timber would have t o

be drawn and ade q uate measu res had to be adop t ed

,

fo r ensuring t he main t enance o f a s us ta ined yield o f

m a rketable teak t imbe r N o w however there is not
.
, ,

82
 T H E T EA K F O R E S T S
only a well o rg an ized system of mana g ement throughou t
t he principal t eak fores t s in L ower B urma but w e have ,

also the control and a fairly good knowledge o f the vast

teak producing tra cts sp r ead ing over enormous a reas in
-

Uppe r Burma and the S han S tates which cer tainly e q ual ,

and probably far excel the fo r es t s o f L owe r B urma in

the qu a n t i t y of rs t class marketable teak which they are
-

capable of s upplying i n perp etu o .

With such resources at command it is no longe r n e ces

sary to look to plan t ations as the mai n source for supplying
ou r timbe r re q u irements in fu t u r e S o much so is this t he
.

case t ha t the time has now come fo r considerin g w h ethe r

i t may n ot be advisable t o curtail t eak plantation work
and to concen t ra t e energy o n improvemen t fellings for
the bene t o f immatu re teak to be found in greater o r
,

less abu ndance th r ou g hou t all the teak producing areas -

.

Where teak is no t no w found as a constituent amon g

the t rees o f any fores t o r is only sparsely represen t ed it
, ,

stands to reason t ha t i t can only be in t rodu ced articially

by means of sowing o r plan t ing A par t from excep t ional
.

cases such a s relate to agreements o r questions o f policy

,

with re gard to the Karen or K achin and other tribes ,

where the Fores t D ep a rtmen t is ( o r may be ) committed

to forming plan t a t ions i n order to secure the good will of
such hill tribes o r to carry o u t a greemen t s made at the
time of fores t settlement o f rese r ves the views have bee n ,

spreading t ha t plan t ation operations should be cur tailed

and that more a t tention should be devo t ed to improve
ment fellings I n teak producing a r eas i t is seldom th a t
.
-

Ta u ngy a tracts can be selec t ed so as to include no teak ,

and in some instances the damage done to the existin g

s t ock o f teak and o f cutch is su fcien t to s t amp t he
forma t ion of planta t ions in such locali t ies as u nnecessary .

When t eak pl a ntations we r e originally started it was

hoped that after about t wo yea rs weed ing and cleaning

they migh t be trus t ed to ou tgrow d a nge r from lofty

grasses creepe rs softwoods etc E xperience has shown
, , , .

that such is no t the case I t i s only i n very exception a l

.

cases tha t plan t ations can be left u nweeded in t heir t hird

year and some t imes the operation has to be r epeated
,

during the fou r th year E ven then weeding and clean

.

83
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
ing have to take place at intervals fo r several years mo r e ;
and such weeding and cleanin g ope ra t ions are hardly ( or

perhaps no t ye t ) comple t ed w h en o ne nds one s self face
to face with the necessity for t h inning .

A reas su i table for improvemen t fellings abou nd

th roughou t the majori t y o f the teak p roducing tracts
-

fo rming t he r eserved fo r es t s bu t cultu ral operations o f

,

this class can only be successfully ca r ried ou t wi t hin re

pro t ec t ed areas .

Unless articially assis t ed in i t s s t ruggle fo r exis t ence

wi t h t he various othe r kinds of forest t rees e t c many of
, .
,

which a r e o f more rapid growth than teak i t m us t ,

na tu rally follow th at a la rger outturn o f this and a highe r

nancial retu r n from t he r ese rved forests can only be
expec ted in p roportion t o the expenditure incu rr ed unde r
competent supervision in assisting the t eak i n its s t ruggle
for existence i n shortening the duration o f such s tru ggle
, ,

and in obtaining for teak special advantages fo r g rowth

and developmen t by the felling o r girdlin g of epiphytic
F i cu s t rees o r woody cl imbers w h ich strangle i t o r dom i ,

na t e o r othe rwise inte rfere with its c rown o f foliage and

i t s free exposu r e to li g h t and air.

The t o ta l area o f r ese r ved fores t s i n B u r ma will p rob

ably befo r e t he selec t ion of S tate rese rves is comple t ed
, ,

amou n t to over 2 s q uare miles O f this it may be

.

estima t ed t ha t no t less than s q ua r e miles will be

t eak p roducin g t rac ts which should be gone over by
-

i mpr ovement f el l i ng s a t inte rvals no t exceedin g ten years ,

if we a r e to accord to the teak fores t s the t r ea tmen t

essen t ial towa rds p rovidin g anything like t he ou t turn i n
t imbe r and money which t he S tate may easily derive
from thei r ve ry valuable fo r est prope rties .

Bu t t he r e is a t p r esen t no sta ff of trained subo rdinates

such as is necessa ry to ope ra t e properly ove r even a
tithe o f so ex t ensive an area as square miles
annually because technical O pe ra t ions o f this sor t can
,

no t be en trusted t o u ntrained o fce r s .

These can only be t rusted to fell all t rees ( whe t he r

t eak or not ) being dam a ged by epiphytic F i cu s and to ,

cut wood y cl imbers . When this prelimina ry s t ep has

once been taken t he r e s t ill r emains for conside ra t ion how ,

84
 T H E T EA K F O R E S T S
and to wha t ex t en t tr ees i n t e rfe r ing with t he g row t h o f
,

teak should be removed L eaving bamboos and o t her .

lofty g rasses o u t of conside r ation the t rees t ha t it may ,

be desi r able to dea l wi t h for t he bene t of t he t eak tr ees ,

poles or seedlings may be classi ed as

,

( )
1 Tr u e hea r twood tr ees, whic h die o n being gi r dled ;
( )
2 S ap wood tr ees whose vege t a t ive processes do not
,

appea r t o be in t e rfe r ed wi t h by girdling and

3) F a l se hea r twood tr ees, whic h sicken or are disti nc t l y
i n t e rfe red wi t h tempo r arily i n g row t h by gi r d
l ing bu t a r e not killed by the O pera t ion
, .

T h is las t o r in t ermediate class consis t s of kinds o f

t rees w h ich migh t perhaps i n many i ns tances be killed
o ff by a second girdling if i t were practicable to g o ove r
,

t he a r ea again and re gi rdle i n t he following yea r-

.

The tr u e hea r twood tr ees comprise t he more valuabl e

kinds o f t imbe r trees like teak itself cu t ch ( A ca ci a ,

Ca techu ) padau k ( P ter oca rp us I nd i cu s) p y i nga d o ( Xy l i a

, ,

d ol a hr if or m i s) ingyin ( P en ta cme S i a men si s) and more

,

t han a score of othe r t rees .

The sap wood tr ees include at leas t fr om t hi rt y t o fty

o t he r kinds and the f a l se hea r twood tr ees also numbe r
,

more t han a score of others .

E xperimen tal improvemen t fellings ca r ried o u t i n 1 89 7

showed not only t h a t forty two per cen t o f the t rees -
.

girdled su rvived t he operation although the gi r dl e was ,

deep and b r oad bu t also t ha t ve months la t e r i n many

, , ,

cas es no ma t e r ial r educ t ion was no t iceable in the density

o f t heir foliage and i n tha t o f t he shadow cas t by t hem

o n the unde r wood .

A s r egards th e trees which die when girdled the gird ,

l ing O perat ions can be pe rformed under the supe rvision

of any subo r din a t e Bu t wha t canno t be safely ent r usted
.

to un t rained ofcers is the selec t ion of t rees to be

removed I n such cases it has only to o often happened
.

tha t large t rees have been gi rdled fo r the sake of very

small seedl ings H ence t he resul t has often been to
.

bene t othe r species of t rees o r bamboos fa r more t han

t he young t eak Bes ides t his inspec t ion has shown that
.
,

85
 B U R M A U N D ER B R ITI S H R U LE
u nt rained ofcers lose all sense o f proportion between
the cost of girdl ing a l a rge t ree on the one hand and the
prospective benet to be gained o n t he other hand i n
affording special pro t ec t ion to a very small seedling o r
a badly grown pole .

With regard t o the other t rees it appears ve ry q ues ,

t i ona bl e whe t her it would be safe to ent r us t such opera

tions to any bu t trained superv ision t o direc t and control
t he killing o f the t rees s o as to ensu re tha t their removal
will no t be i n r eality mo r e benecial to useless trees ,

bamboos e tc than to the t eak it is intended t o benet

, .
, .

A nother ve ry import a nt matter re qu iring consideration

i n connection with a scheme for improvement fellings is
the oweri ng seedling and dying off o f the Ky a tha u ng
, ,

bamboo which mus t occur soon over eno r mous trac t s o f

,

teak forest o n bo t h sides o f the Pe g u Yoma T h is will .

be a sylvicultural opportunity such as has neve r p r eviously

occurred i n Burma S imultaneously with t he u se of re
.
,

u nder due con t rol as a des t ruc t ive agen t for destroyi ng
the germinative powe r of t h e bamboo seed imp r ovement ,

fellin g s sowings d ibbli ng s e t c will have t o take place

, , , .
,

o n the larg es t possible sc a le capable o f being ade q uately

con trolled and ca r ried ou t .

Proposals rega r ding the above impor tant mat t ers have
already been submitted fo r the consideration of Gove r n
ment Wha t eve r the l ine o f action may be that is decided
.

on , the above rough sketch of the position o f affai rs

will show t hat the measures being t a ken are such as will
ade q ua t ely main tain suppl ies of teak i n the fu tu re I t is .

almost certain that t he work now bein g done will in

cou rse of time enable la rger supplies of t eak timbe r to
be ex t rac t ed than have been obtained i n the pas t while , ,

even if the future marke t price of t eak should fall to a

considerably lowe r level th an at p r esent the ext raction ,

o f this ne timbe r will always r em a i n a mos t p r otable

source of i ncome to the S tate to the export comme rce ,

of the province and to a ve ry large propo rtion o f t he

,

population residen t i n or near the fores t s .

The bare statemen t that i n 1 899 t he ne t su rplus

, ,

r evenu e derived by Government from t he fo r ests

amoun t ed t o can convey no idea o f the vast
86
 O T H E R F O R E S T P R O D U CT S
ex t ent and r esources of Burma s fo r est wealth I n addi
.

tion to t eak which provides the bulk of this su rplus

, ,

t here are valuable sources of r evenu e in cutch I ndia ,

rubber py i ng a do fo r railway sleepers and pa da u h

, , ,

superior in qual ity to t ha t expor t ed largely fr om the

A ndaman I slands A ll t hese present sou rces of revenu e
.

a r e bein g duly conserved while the t rade i n them is

,

being developed i n t r acts hitherto unworked s o that in ,

future large r supplies should be produced than a r e now

obtained A nd besides these already well kno w n p ro
.

duc t s the r e are enormous q uantities of ne timber of

various kinds for which no remu ne ra t ive marke t yet
exis t s t hou g h t his may develop in t ime M any of these
, .

are too h eavy for oatin g u nless lashed to bamboos bu t ,

with t he expansion of t he railway net this d i fculty will

soon disappea r O ne o f the commones t trees in B urma
. ,

I n (D ipter oca rpu s tu her cu l a tu s) resembles J arrah closely ,

i n appearance and seems su itable for wood paving if i t

,
-

could only ge t a rst footing on t he E u ropean marke t .

Fu rt he r the r e a r e vas t quan t i t ies o f gu ms resins dye

, , ,

stuffs and tanning materials wh ich will no doubt i n ,

course of time emerge from thei r p resen t state o f bein g

mere was t e products of the woodlands The su i t ability .

o f the climate fo r the p roduction o f caoutchouc is being

demonst rated by the formation by Governmen t o f a

H evea rubber plantation at a cos t o f i n S outh
Tenasse r im which it is calculated will yiel d a la rge prot
,

i n t welve years t ime or less There is plenty o f scope .

fo r s uch rubber planta t ions by p r iva t e commercial com

pames .

There is a fas h ion i n woods as i n othe r commodities , ,

and markets cannot be forced to buy unknown products .

H ence the work o f the Forest D epartment has hither t o

mainly been i n connection with woods al ready h a ving a
marke t value and in the forma t ion of S ta t e rese r ves
,

that will g r ow in eve r y kin d o f economic value as

t he u nreserved areas g radually become clear ed fo r
agricultu r al occupation .

T h e presen t fores t r evenue p r obably represents only

abou t o ne pe r cen t of the capital value o f the fores t s ;
.

and t he wo r k which is being done by the Fo r es t D epart

87
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
men t will not only increase this percentage conside rabl y
in the fu t ure bu t should also ve ry mu ch enhance t he
,

ca pi tal val ue o f these the greatest and t he mos t remu

,

n e ra t i ve o f all t he fo r est esta t es owned by the I ndian

Governmen t .

88
 Ch ap t e r IV
B U R M ES E B U D D H I S M
U D D H IS M is second only to B ra h minism i n
an t i q ui t y A l t hough i t now fo r ms th e rel i g ious
.

bel ief o r at any r a t e t he professed rel i g ion o f abou t

, ,

fou r hund r ed and t wen ty ve millions of human beings

-
,

yet compara t ively li t tle is generally known i n B ri tai n

abou t i t s tr ue na t u r e and fou ndations .

When B ishop T i t comb t he r s t A nglican B is h op o f

,

R angoon wen t o u t to B urma in 1 8 7 7 he was anxious

,

to ob t ain knowled g e at rs t h and as t o the fu nda

men t al t ene t s o f Bu ddhism S eeing a yellow robed
.
-

r eligious performing his devotions at t he great golden

pagoda he asked him throu g h an inte rpre t e r t o whom he
, ,

was p r aying and wha t h e was praying for T he reply

, .

promp t ly given was

, I am p raying to nobody and for ,

nothing Tha t t his was t he onl y poss ible co r rec t answe r
.

mus t be clea r to any o ne w ho u nderstands t he p r inciples

o f th e Buddhis t philosophic c r eed .

B u r mese Buddhism is an offshoo t fr om t he ol d Ar yan

r eli g ious sys t em which had its bir t hplace i n or nea r tha t
c r adle of r eligion t he H indu K ush From th is nucleus
, .

sp rang all the sys t ems o f reli g ion which have supplanted
the fetishism and sp i r i t worship of t he primitive tribes
t ha t they came i n con t ac t with and which h ave radia t ed
,

in all direc t ions impelled by t he evolu t iona r y centrifu g al

,

fo r ce beg o t ten o f the movemen t of th e Aryan tribes

fr om the locali t ies they originally occupied J ust as in .

wavelets prod uced o n the surface o f smooth water when

a s t one is th r own i nto it their individual fea t u res become
less and less marked and dis t inc t as the ripples extend
far from t he cen t ral poin t s o also in al l the variou s
,

89
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
reli g ious systems that have sprung from the O ld A ryan
centre close r esemblances graduall y disappear while
, ,

essential differences o f every sort become wider more ,

prominent and more marked the fu rther they are removed

, ,

i n time from the period o f prim itive bel ief The B rah .

m i ni s m that gave birth to offshoots forming the three

g reat religions o f the present day Buddhism M oham ,

m e d a n i s m and Christianity which evolved themselves as

, ,

the primitive teac h ings spread east wa rds sou t hwards and , ,

westwa r ds has u ndergone such vast changes during t he

process o f evolution as to be almost unreco g nizable T o .

a t tempt t o t race this evolu t ion even i n a compara tivel y

,

brief and S ketchy form would here be ou t o f place

, .

I n lookin g back however alon g the vis t a of centuries

, ,

i n t he direction of the time w hen the R i g V ed a p ract i

cally embodied the original A ryan religion o n e canno t ,

bu t notice that the reli g ious diffe rences have not been o f
gradual growth as in t h e processes o f evolution in t he
,

animal and the vege t able kingdoms N or can o ne fail to .

be struck with the fact that these t h r ee g reat offshoots

from Brahmin ism have all been produced by Violen t
convulsions o r revolutions causing them to u ndergo
ch a n g es so g rea t as t o make each a new r eligion
not only differen t from bu t also violently antagonistic to
, ,

the r eligion or rel igious philosophy from which it is an

offshoot and against wh ich it fo rms a p ro test .

I n each o f t hese three g reat b ranches i nto which the

main stem o f the tree of primitive A ryan rel i g ion has
ra m i e d
, similar causes ha ve supervened t o make the
evolution of these di fferent religions wha t t hey now a re .

I n each of t hem human na t u r e has asser t ed itself and has ,

been the main cause in moulding the rel igious tene t s to

the shape i n w h ich they a r e to day t o be found I n each
-
.

of them the r eligious power and the r ewit h also t he secular

,

powe r t o a very g reat exten t was usu rped and held ,

tenaciously and j ealously by a priestly sec t or cas t e ,

which gradually evolved itself in t o a t y rannical and

domineerin g scou rg e prac t ically con t rollin g t he affa irs o f
,

the community enforcin g t he O bse r vances o f religion

, ,

and ultimately also prescribing the rules for the gu idance

o f social and domes t ic l ife .

90
 OR IGI N OF BU DD H I SM
I n that branch o f t he primitive reli g ion which came
down t o us th rou g h the J ewish r ace t he evidence of the ,

Old Testament clearly g oes to prove tha t t he priestly

tribe or caste o f L evi was st rongly leavened with the
ty rannical powers and desires similarly usu rped by the
B rahmins i n I ndia A s t ime r olled on abuses na t urally
.

crep t i n and became so marked as to call forth the oppo

s itio u of a reforme r I n ou r own religion this was J esus
.

Christ the greates t o f all r eligious r eforme rs whose

, ,

t eaching was an enunci a tion o f the highest physical ,

moral and spiritual pu r ity and w h o i n his o wn person

, ,

exemplied his doctrines by a life of u nparalleled sim

p l i ci t
y and beau t y I n addition. to correc t in g many othe r
abuses and deviations from the primitive religion o n e ,

very marked featu r e of C hrist s doctrine was the revival

of the bel ief i n the immortality o f the soul which j udg , ,

ing from most p a rts o f the Old Tes tament seemed to ,

have been ei t he r d isca rded or else lost sigh t o f .

S imilarly t he great reformer Mohammed cleansed

,

another branch o f religion from many of the abuses

tha t had crep t in and gave i t fresh impetus i n a new
,

direction .

A nd a gain simila r causes p roduced simil a r effects with

,

regard to wha t was destined t o become Buddhism t he ,

great south e a s t ern branch of religion when G a u d a m a

-
, ,

the B uddha dedicated his l ife to the overth row o f

,

Brahmi nism i n N ip al and to t h e enu nciation of a n ew

philosophy concernin g the religious duties of t he people .

The inuence which developed into B uddhism was

originally an uprising of a young H indu o f the K shatriy a
or ghting caste a so n of t he ruler o f Magada a smal l
, ,

principali t y i n the N ip al t erai o r marshy j ungles to the

south o f the H imalaya I t was a t rst a st r on g protest
.

against t he t yranny of t he B ra hmins o r priestl y cas t e ;

and it then developed into an offshoo t from Brahminism ,

j ust as C hristianity was a later offshoot from J udaism .

But Buddhism was a pol itical and social revol ution as ,

well as a movement towards r eligious refo rm I n the .

early V edic period t he K shatriya or ghting man was the

most impo r tan t caste bu t g radually the Brahmins had
,

succeeded i n u su rping the premie r place and in arr ogating

91
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
to themselves the sole righ t o f celeb ra t ing r el i g ious r ites
and O bse r vances F inally this t y ranny o f the B rahmins
.
, ,

who claimed t o have sprung from t h e mou t h o f Brahma ,

became u nendurable ; and the result was t he foundation

o f a new religion o r what may perhaps more co r rectly
,

be termed a new philosophy called Buddhism , .

Buddhism takes its name from t he Pal i wo rd B u ddh ,

which means a being having the form of a man bu t

endowed with wisdom and vir t u e u ne q ualled throughou t
the S ehy a u niverse o r world who is t he supreme obj ec t ,

o f adoration bo t h durin g t he time o f h is exis t ence and

after his attainment o f emancipa t ion or perfect rest

ei hh
( N a n ) . The Bu r mese s a y t ha t twenty seven known -

B uddhs have preceded G au d a m a durin g the presen t

g rand pe r iod o f time ( M a hag a t) whe r eas the C i nghal e se
main tain t ha t only four B uddhs ( Ka uk asa n G aw na g u n , ,

Ka thab a and G a u d a ma) have ye t appea r ed and t ha t all

, ,

t races o f the th r ee rst named have enti r ely vanished

from human knowledge A ft h Buddh A r i ma te ya is .
, ,

ye t t o come B uddhs ho weve r only appea r aft e r i n t e r

.
, ,

vals r egularly recu r ring i n a series t ha t has nei t he r

beginning no r end .

M etempsychosis or the transmigration o f souls afte r

,

t he death of t he body du r ing t he present s ta t e of exist

ence o ne of t he fu ndamen tal doctrines i n Buddhism
, ,

was merely i nco rporated into i t by bo rr owin g fr om the

H indu religion o r philosophy i n which it fo r med the ,

agency for pu r ifying t he soul from i ts imperfec t ions and

worldly dross B u t t he B uddhism o f Burma is very
.

different from t he original B uddhistic r eligion o r philo

S ophy as laid down i n t he B uddhistic scriptures ( B i da
g )a t
, whic h are contained in th r ee great sections for t he
g uidance o f t he lai t y of the pries t s and o f the N a t and
, ,

B r a hma o f the celes t ial worlds The original H indu .

idea was al t ered by the r eformers so fa r as t o assert tha t

when a man died his whole being was dissolved so t ha t
nothin g rem a ined bu t t he in uence ar ising from the
works o f merit or demerit his good and bad a ctions , ,

t hroughout this life and tha t such good o r evil inuence

,

was the determining cause as to a person en t ering into

t he futu r e state of happiness or u nhappiness Thus t he .

92
 G AU D A M A ,

TH E BUDDHA
Buddhis t ic philosophy t eac h es t ha t t he new bein g is q u i t e
independen t of t he fo r me r and t ha t i t is an entirely new
,

entity owing its exis t ence to the fundamen t al principle

o f r ewards for good and punishmen t fo r evil ; but the

Bu rmese laity u ndoub t edly hold tha t afte r death the soul
m ig ra t es and becomes embodied in ano t he r being whose ,

na t u re is de t e r mined en t i r ely by t he i nuence of the

K a n the merit o r t he deme r i t accumula t ed by t he
, ,

person durin g his or he r presen t s t a t e of exis t ence .

H ence the B uddhism of B urma or to speak mo r e ,

co rr ec tly o t he B u r mese lai t y is p ractically the main
f,

te na n ce of a debi t and credi t accou nt t h r ou g hout life s

course S o long as o ne has on the t erm ina t ion of t h e

.
,

presen t sta t e of exis t ence a c r edi t balance i n one s favo u r

,

that means p r omotion to a higher o r de r o f beings ( N at )

afte r death I f the balance be o n the debi t side a
.
,

descen t will have to be made ; h ence o ne may be

plu nged in t o t he depths of hell or become suc h a c r ea
ture as a snake a t oad or any of t he lowe r animals
, , .

F r om suc h a position as pu nishments are n ot endless

, ,

oppo r tu ni t y is again g iven for imp r oving one s posi t ion

by r eappea r ing as a man o r woman ; and fur t he r descen t

o r r e ascen t mus t be
-
made t ill aft e r countless ages , ,

deliverance or c omple t e emancipation ( N ei hha n ) is

a t tained .

G au d a ma t h e , B uddha was a ma n l ike ou r selves
, .

I n na t u re he was exac t ly as we are ; bu t he a t tained t he

perfec t knowledge which we lack H e n ever t augh t the
, .

i dea o f any sup r eme being and ce rt ainly neve r a rr ogated

,

t o h imself any divine origin or power O n the cont rary .

,

h e invariably exhibited himself to his disciples as a

man like themselves doomed to d ie H is doctrines a r e
, , .

a t heism pu r e and si mple D espite effo rts made a t a

.

compa ra t ively r ecen t d ate to r aise up the notion of a

sup r eme being ( A d i B uddha ) Buddhism is emphatically ,

an at h eis t ic religious philosophy A nd i t is the philo .

S ophy o f ex tr eme pessimism fo r o ne o f its fundamen t al ,

p r i n ciples is tha t life is not wo rth l iving bu t r a t he r to b e ,

despised t hough wilfully taki ng t he life o f anothe r or ,

delibera t ely t e r mina t ing one s o wn existence is t he most

u npa rdonable of s ins S ome such ex t reme penal t hrea t

.

93
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
is only na t u ral i n a religious philosophy of s o pessimistic
and cynical a cha racter I t merely forms an essentially
.

necessary sa feguard S u icide is conse q uentl y o f ex

.

t re m e l y rare occurrence among t he Bu r mese .

Buddhism acknowledges no God or supreme ruler and ,

no Providence shaping the des t i nies o f each i nd ividual ;

fo r it holds that man s des t iny l ies in his o w n hands

.

M oreover it is a purely selsh religion While i t can

,
.

not be denied tha t many of the duties imposed by the

Buddhis t law upon human beings for their guid a nce i n
this life are bea utiful teachings yet they are cold and ,

cynical They absolutely lack sympathy T hey do not

. .

i nc ulca t e chari t y o r anythin g like doing to one s nei g h

bou r as we would tha t he should do u n t o us T he .

bestowal o f alms offerings of rice t o priests t he found

, ,

i ng o f a monastery the bu ilding of a bridge or of a res t

,

house fo r the convenience of travellers are all works of ,

religious meri t ( K utho) promp t ed not by love o f one s

fellow crea t u r es but simply and solely i n o r der to place

-
,

so much credit to one s own current life account S e l sh

.

ness i s the sole motive fo r which g ood works are u nder

taken That they m a y be o f benet or convenience to
.

other people does not enter a t all into cons ideration ex ,

cept i n so far as that determi nes t he fac t of such particula r

performance being ra nked as a work of me r it I t is t o .

save himself from punishment or degrada t ion in a fut u r e

state of existence that wo r ks o f meri t o r benevolence a r e
carried o ut by a Burman .

B uddhism is thus s impl y the religious philosophy o f

pure selshness I n this respec t i t forms t h e very an t i
.

thesis o f the altruism which is t he l ivin g spirit of Chris

t i a n i ty
. F or a l l the l a w i s f u l ll ed i n on e w or d even

,

i n thi s ; thou sha l t l ove th y n eighh o u r a s th self
y is a ,

sta t emen t qu ite i ncomprehensible to the Buddhist A n .

absolu t ely impassable ba r rie r a fathomless abyss tha t ,

canno t possibly be brid g ed ove r exis t s be t ween t he ,

e t ernal law as enunciated by G au d a ma and S t Paul s .

noble i n t erpreta t ion o f the Christian law that l ove i s the

f u l li n
l g o th
f e l a w or t,hat h e tha t l oveth a nother ha th

f ul l l ed the l a w . The Buddhis t m ind is i g no rant of
altruistic feeling o r o f any th ing like wha t is implied in
94
 M E R I T A N D D E M E R IT
ch a r i ty wh
,i ch i s the hon d o
f p e rf ect n ess Wh a teve r he .

may perchance d o in the way o f alleviatin g sufferin g by

means o f bes t owi ng alms is not done in order t o relieve
t he wan t s of others bu t solely to gain religious merit for
,

himself .

The fea r o f becoming an o x o r an ass in t he next

s tate of existence leads him to be devou t and atten t ive
to r el i g ious ce r emonies and to make meri t for himself,

even though he m a y thereby leave his family absolu t ely

penn iless That it should also lead hi m t o be patien t
.

with and kind to such animals as well as to vipers , ,

mosquitoes and all o th er noxious crea t u r es necessarily

, ,

follows as a corollary O therwise might he not pe rhaps .

,

be he a ti ng o r abusing t he incarnation o f his father or his

mother if their merit ( K atha) had not been i n excess of
,

t hei r demeri t (A hzi tha l a ) From this teac h ing i t there

fore follows that all the lower orders o f animals differ
from man only i n condition an d no t i n na t u re for they ,

a r e the temporary abodes o f the souls of human beings

who are u ndergoing pu nishment o n accou n t o f having
had a debit balance to their l ife account and who were ,

conse q uently compelled to descend i n the scale o f beings

in place o f ascending to become N a t and B r a hm a i n the
twen t y s i x celestial regions
-
.

E ven G a u d a m a himself recoun t ed ho w he had passed

through many existences i n the embodimen t o f the lowe r
animals owing to demeri t during a past sta t e o f exis t ence
,

as a man H ence as a rule the taking o f l ife is most

. , ,

repugnan t to t he Bu r man for one may perhaps be killing ,

the i ncarnation o f a los t friend o r relative B uddhist .

monks ( P ongy i R a ha n ) are even forbidden t o cu t down

t rees or to pull up weeds i n order to avoid killin g insects , .

A ve r se as the average B urman may be to taking life ,

however he h as no scruples whatever about partakin g

,

o f t h e food produc ts the r eby ob t ained in the way o f

s h esh o r fowl A ny de merit connec t ed w ith thei r

, , .

dea t h is no t his and is no t chargeable to the debi t

,

side of his life accoun t .

Gandama the fou nder o f B uddhism was born i n the

, ,

year 6 2 3 and died i n 5 4 3 B C H e was the son o f

, . .

S udd a wd a na ( S u d d hod a na ) t he R aj ah o f Ka p p i la wu t ,

95
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
( K a p i l a va s t u
) si
,
t ua t ed amid the s u b H imalayan fores t s -

o f N ip al by M aya his wife

,
and he was known as S ei d
,

da tta ( S iddhartha) before he r enou nced t he wo rld an d

became G a u da m a the Budd h ( lite rally the wise o r
, ,

learned H aving more than once appeared i n the

fo rm o f a man and having passed th rough va r ious stages
,

o f existence as a lowe r animal on accou n t of his want o f

rel igious merit when a human being he was nally i n ,

6 2 3 B C bo r n in t h e L umbin i forest o f S al trees ( S hor ea

. .

r obu sta
),
whil e his pu r e and piou s mothe r was on a

jou rney to the place o f he r bi rt h D elive ry took place .

while his mother s t ood i n an u pri g h t position and she ,

felt no pain ; bu t she died seven days afterwa rds when ,

sh e became t h e daugh t e r o f a spiri t ( N a t

) .

V arious m a rvellous signs p r evailed a t t he t ime O f

G a uda ma s bi r th The ea rt h rocked and swayed t he

. ,

sky was l igh t ed up with as h ing me t eors and t rees burst ,

into full blossom to heral d th e auspicious even t F r om .

the moment o f his concep t ion wi t hin h is mothe r s womb

t he spiri t s inhabiting t he six lowe r celestial r egions ( N a t

and D ewa ) came forth to pay h im honou r and to offe r
homage a t the time of his birth as also di d t h e supe r io r ,

beings ( B r a hma ) abid ing i n t he twen t y divisions of the

hi ghe r celestial regions T h ese B r a hma of B uddhism
.

and thei r archangel M a ha B r a hma are n ot to be con

founded wit h the Brahma of t he H indu t riad B eing .

superio r to spi r its ( N a t) they a r e i n every way greate r

,

and mo r e r ichly endowed wit h r egard t o lon g evity an d

othe r ma t te r s They feel neithe r hea t nor cold n or
.
, ,

sexu al passion When t he age allotted to t hem has

.

been attained t hey may become bo r n again as men or as

animals o r may even pass away in t o some othe r wo rl d
, .

N o soone r was S e i d d a t ta born than he at once gave

evidence o f h is fu tu r e grea tness for he s t ood erec t and ,

announced to his mo t he r the glo ry o f his futu r e and t he

omniscience he was destined to a ttain On sixty fou r as t ro .
-

l og e rs being consulted they predicted t hat he would eithe r

,

be a S a hy a Wa de a gr eat and mig h ty ruler o f the universe

, ,

or else a B ud dh a without however bein g a ble t o dis

, , ,

ce rn to which alte r native consummation the infant prince

had been bo r n A mbi t ious as a ruler and lled with
.
,

96
 EA R L Y L I F E O F G A U D A M A
h a tred o f the B r ahmin o r pries tly caste S u dd a w d a na , ,

his r oyal fa t her a prince o f the K shatriya o r g h t ing

,

caste trained him to arms as t he champion o f the lat t e r

,

against the forme r A t the age o f S ixteen he was

.

ma rried to t he Princess Y a saw d a ra who having been , ,

his consort i n past sta ge s o f existence was born a g ai n ,

into this w orld o n the same day as S u d d awd a na in orde r

to assist him in the fullment of the du t ies necessa r y fo r
t h e attainment o f his hi g h destiny .

For thirteen years he l ived su rrou nded by t he luxu r ies

of a court enjoyi ng the companionship of his wife
, ,

Y a sa w d a ra and o f their son R a b ulo

, Bu t t he t ime was, .

then app r oach ing when he was to receive the call to the
reli g iou s life to which he had been predestined a n d ,

which the tra ining o f his fa t her and the comforts o f his
princely home could neither prevent n o r obviate It .

was then that he received the four great signs
em e i h l e h ) a n ol d m a n a leper a corpse and a
( N a - -
, , ,

recluse the sigh t o f which and the lessons thereby ,

inculcated induced him t o renou nce the world previous

,

to becoming G a u d a m a the Buddha ; for these four

great si g ns impressed him with the nothingness and the
burden of this l ife and indicated that the only possible
,

mode of ob t a ining relief therefrom was i n rel igious c o n

t e m p la t i o n .

Whils t su r rounded by luxu ries and living in the

enjoymen t o f them he one day drove forth in hi s chariot
,

drawn by four gorgeously caparisoned lily white horses -

fo r the pu rpose of promenadin g i n hi s g a rden situated , ,

as is usual in Upper I ndia at some distance from the ,

palace O n his way he met a toot h less inrm and

.
, ,

decrepi t old man with grey hair and bent form who was
, ,

slo w ly and painfully making his way along the road with
the aid o f a stick A stonished at such a s ight he asked
.
,

if there were many people o f that sort and was surprised ,

to learn that t he o ld m a n was once youn g and strong

like himself an d that he himself too in course of t ime
, , ,

w ould become old inrm and stricken i n years , Thu s

,
.

were t he impermanence and the transitoriness of things

impressed upon his mind Four months later he was .

again driving alon g this r o a d to the pleasure garden ,

V OL . II .
97 H
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
when he met a miserable leper S itti n g o n t he roadside ,

whose foul slou g hing sores a nd l t hy squalid appear

, ,

ance agita t ed him so much that he returned at once t o

the palace being lled with the t hought of the misery to
,

which man is born in being liable to foul diseases as well

as t o the decrepitude o f ol d age and senile decay .

A ft er ano t her period of fou r mon t hs the third sign ,

c a me to him in the form of a funeral procession bearing ,

onwards t o the sacred rive r a loa t hso m e corpse in an

advanced stag e of putrefaction and decomposition .

A gai n he learned that such to o would o ne d a y be hi s

state ; and this caused him to ponder ove r the fact that
death and i t s consequences are added t o the inrmity o f
age and t he m ise r y O f disease .

Four mon t hs late r on the day o f the full moon in the

,

month A esola he beheld the las t of t he fou r great si g ns

, .

D riving along as before he beheld a r ecluse seated on

,

the ground oblivious of all arou nd engrossed in deep

, ,

and peaceful medi ta t ion and lled wi t h t he philosoph ic

,

calm begotten thereof ; and thus he learned how the

pains an d penalties of life and O f dea t h m ight best be
obvia t ed by pursu ing a cou rse which would bring rest
and peace .

Thu s the fou r g r e a t signs were given and all was ,

completed i n o r der th a t the as t rologe r s prophecy should

enter upon its fullment T he luxu ry of his hi g h estate

.

lost i ts desirability in the eyes of S e i dd atta w ho at once ,

determined to abandon his l ife of ease and comfort to ,

dedicate himself solely to the atta inment o f N ei hha n

N a ch t o hi s fellow crea t u res the only
( i r vana ) and
, t o p r e -

way of securin g happiness in this l ife and nal eman e i ,

p a t i o n hereafter R eturn
. in g to the palace he took o n e ,

las t fond look at his beloved wife and child ; and then ,

donning the garb of an asce t ic a nd subsisting on alms

received by the wayside he set forth at the age o f ,

twenty nine upon the s i x years pil g rimage which w as

-

t o intervene before t he time s h ould arrive when the

Buddhahood would be attained by him .

D uring this t ime S e id d a tt a was a B a wd i sa t o r being ,

destined to become a Buddha T here are many such .

beings for t he term includes all who avow themselves as

,

98
 T H E T EN C A RD I NA L V I R T U E S
candidates When ages el a pse withou t the a ppe a rance
.

o f a B uddh some compassionate B r a hm a d w ellin g in o n e

,

o f the hi g her celestial worlds seeks o u t a B a wd i sa t and

in spires him with the resol ution enablin g him to form

t he wish t o become the te a cher of the t hree worlds ( o f
men N a t and B r a hma ) i n orde r th a t he may relea se all
, , ,

sentient bein g s from the evils of existence .

D urin g the time of h is B a wd i sa t S e i d d a tta practised

,

the ten cardinal virtues ( P d r a mi se ha ) i n w hich he ha d

- -
,

to become mature befo r e att a ining the Buddhahood .

These were ( 1 ) giving away as alms every t hing he

possessed ; ( 2 ) observin g all the precepts in the th r ee
deg r ees ; ( 3 ) abandoning all kinds o f possession o r
wealth ; ( 4 ) the virtue proceedin g fro m wisdom through ,

the revelation to others of what his puried eyes beheld ;

(5 ) the virtu e proceedin g from determined courage ; ( )
6
enduri ng wi t h composure the opposi t ion of u nj ust men ,

re g arding i t as if i t were merely the p r attle of a ch ild ;

( )7 speakin g the words o f t ruth and thus
, exercising the
virtue proceedin g therefrom ; ( 8) the resolute perform
ance of wha t is good without g ivin g way to evil ; ( 9 ) the
,

virtue of kindness and affection by g ivin g away what he

,

possessed to aid the necessities o f othe r s and by taking ,

their sorrows upon hi m ; ( 1 0 ) the vi rtue of equanimity ,

by regarding with an equal mind both those who e x e r

c i se d the most severe cruelties upon him an d those who

assis t ed and were kind to him .

T he attainment of the Buddhahood took place u nde r

the sacred Bawdi tree ( the tree o f knowledg e F i cus

,

r el igi osa
) at G a ya i n
5 8 8 B C
. F o.r seven times seven
d ays he was plunged in the profou ndest meditation .

F o r seven days he remained u nder the shade of a Bawd i

t ree seated upon a golden throne which had a scended
,

miraculously from the interior O f the earth For seven .

days he stood close to this spot beholding the throne

that he had left t hen w alked backwards and forwards
,

in the air for a n equal space o f time Other seven days .

he spent i n a bej ewelled g olden house built fo r him by

spirits (N a t) and seven more u nder the shade o f a Pipul
,

tree ( F i cu s r el igi osa ) ; whilst durin g another period of

seven days he was seated on a d rag on whose body and
99
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
wings protected hi m from storms ra g in g round about
him I t was du rin g one o f these periods t h at he was
.

attacked by the chief o f the spirits ( M an N a t) inhabit

i n g the lower celestial re g ions w hose assaul t was po wer
,

less against the B a wd i sa t shielded by the p a noply of

purity and o f good deeds w ho would have looked upon
,

death a s but an en t ering upon the p a th leading onwards

to N ei hha n D urin g the last o f the periods he u nder
.

went the tempt a tion o f the dau g hters o f the M an N a t ,

bu t successfully withstood their allurin g blandishm ents .

H a ving duly passed through the necessary stages o f

meditation g ood works tri als and temptations t he
, , ,

B a wd i sa t nally attain ed the B uddh a hood as G au d a m a , ,

the perfection of wisdom .

F rom Gaya he se t forth as an itinerant reli g ious

reformer preaching the g reates t of crusades that was
,

to attack B rahminism and caste and laying the rm ,

foundations o f the n e w r eli g ious philosophy which is

n o w more or less strictly adhered to by over one quarter

of the human race A little to the north of B en a res i n a

.
,

dee r park known as the M i ga d a wa n forest he enu nciated ,

the famous L aw of the Wheel o r manifestation o f the

fou r sublime and t ra nscendent truths a n d drew to g ether ,

the sm a ll body O f disciples formin g the ori g inal excel

,

lent assembly (P a r a m a t Thi ng a ) who w ere afterwards ,

to be the t eachers spreadin g his doctrines fa r and wide .

I t is impossible not to notice that G a u d a m a s method of

procedure closely resembles that subsequently a dopted

by Christ the g reat J e w ish reformer who founded the
, ,

l a test and nobles t o f religions But o n e essential point

.

o f difference is equally clear : for while Christ is st a t ed

,

to have bestowed upon his a postles the supernatural

g ifts of prophecy and o f the power to forg ive sins ,

G a u d a ma rst subjected his disciples t o seve r e discipl ine

and then simply conferred on them the powe r o f admit
ting to the assembly ( Thi ng a ) such conve rt s as they
mi g ht think worthy o f this dis t inction .

I n this new religious philosophy the social d ivisions

o f c a ste w ere broken down and ignored This w a s o n e .

o f its main features and indeed that which must have

,

appealed with intense stren g th to the lo wer castes l ike

1 00
 TH E NE W PH I LOSOP HY
the S udra who were n o t even deemed worthy o f being
,

a llowed to re a d the sacred books From Benares sixty .

hi g h born men o f the K sh a triya o r g hting caste joined

-

him as converts while hundreds of Brahmins ocked to

,

him from t he metaphysical schools eage r to enrol them ,

selves as members o f the new reli g ion and the latest

advance in philosophy B u t another social revolution.

was at the s a me time accompl ished by the S akya M uni -

,

as G a u d a m a wa s now g enera lly called ; fo r he aimed at

the abolition of the seve r e restrictions placed u pon the
personal liberty o f w omen an d fou nded a female reli g ious
,

order into which his aunt and foster mother P a tz ap ati -

, ,

wa s enrolled alon g with 5 0 0 maidens o f noble birth .

I t will thus be seen that G a u d a m a was much more

th a n a reformer for he became the fou nder of an entirely
,

n e w reli g ious philosophy H e shook himself free from

.

Brahminism by proclaiming u niversal equal i t y in opposi

t ion to caste differences H e acknowled g ed no supreme
.

being or beings as the rulers o f the u niverse but declared ,

man to be ultimately the maste r o f h is o wn desti ny and ,

prayers sacrices and gifts to p r iests t o be o f them

, ,

selves o f no av a il I n found ing a new rel i g ious p hi los o

.

phy o n these lines he a t the same time sowed the seeds

,

o f a social revolution w hose fru its have been reaped by

hu ndreds of millions of hu man bein g s during the last

t w enty ve centuries
-
I t is thus tha t the women o f
.

Burma enjoy l ike those of J apan entire immunity from

, ,

t h e prison like restrictions o f women i n I ndia and tha t

-
,

they occupy a position as free a nd untrammelled as in

any of the western nations which have advanced fur t hes t
in the d irection of civilization a n d hum a nity .

F o r ve and forty years the S akya M u ni wandered as -

a mendic a nt with h is disciples a ll clad in yellow robes , ,

teachin g his new doctrines and making converts through

o u t northe r n I ndia The only change that gradu a lly
.

crept into his doctrine was that he real ized ho w vows o f

absolu t e poverty became impracticable Therefore he .

modied his teaching s o as to permit o f gifts o f monas

t e ri e s sacred bu ildings and land being a ccepted from
, ,

pious laymen fo r the use o f the r eli g ious body .

Fi nally a t the age o f ninety years the S akya M uni

, ,
-
,

101
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
G a u d a m a the Buddha h a ving spent more than h alf o f ,

his long l ife i n endeavou ring to point o u t to human

bein g s the way o f happiness and the path leading to
emancipation from all evils prepared to depart from this ,

st a te o f existence Calling to him his favourite disciple

. ,

A nanda he s a id , I am weary and wish to l ie down

,

.

Pl a ce a couch qu ickly bet ween two S l trees and tu rn its ,

he a d to wards the north

R eclinin g thus his soul passed .
,

a way from his body and attained the perfect d el iverance

and the complete emancip a tion o f N ei hha n H ence .

B uddh ists regard the north a s the most excellen t quarter

o f the he a vens G au d a m a s body was cremated and its

.
,

ashes were distributed among the rulers o f the places

where his t eaching had been most cordially received .

Ten s t upas or monumen t al topes were e r ected over

these remains a t d iffe r en t places throughou t B e h ar and
,

T i r hu t A bout t w enty y ears later the relics were all

.

collected and enshrined n ea r the capital o f B eh a r ,

whence abou t t he year 2 5 0 B C they were distributed

, . .
,

throu g hout I ndia Of t hese Bu rma appears to h a ve .

obtained mo r e t han the lion s share ; for there are n o w

i n B urma alone accord ing to the le g ends connected with

,

the various much venera t ed pagodas far more relics ,

than ori g inally existed .

S ome idea o f the ori g inal scope an d obj ect of

Buddhism may perhaps best be gained by two quota
tions from B i ga n d e t s L ife or L eg en d of G a u d a m a ( 1 880

v o l i p a ge 1 1
. . A t the time o f his havin g attained the
perfect knowledge of a B uddha Gan dama meditated o n ,

the best use to which this should be pu t I n this medi .

t a ti on his though t s pu r sued the following t rain

T he k n owl e dg e of the l aw a nd O f the four great truth s wh i c h I

a l o n e p osse s i s v e y hs d to b e ha d
r The l aw i s d ee p i t i s d i f u l t
ar . c

to kn o w a n d u n d e stan d i t i t i s v ery subl i m e an d c n b e c o m p e

r : ,
a r

h e n d ed o nly by the m e n s of ea n est m e d i tati on I t i s sweet ll i n g

a r .
,

the sou l wi th j oy an d ccessi bl e o nly to the wi se

,
a N o w l l b e i n g s are . a

su nk v e y l o w by th
r e i n u e n ce o f the ve g ea t p assi on s ; th ey c ann o t r

fre e th e m selv es f o m th ei r b n e ful O p e ati on wh i c h i s the sou c e of all

r a r ,
r

m u tabil i ty B ut the l aw of m u t bil i ty i s the o pp osi te of the l aw o f

. a

N e ikb a n o r est Th i s l aw i s h ard to be u n d erstood I f I ev e p ea h

r . . r r c

th t l w b e i n g s wi ll n ot b e bl e to u n d er tan d m e a nd f o m my p eac h
a a , a s ,
r r

i ng th e e wi ll re sul t b u t a u sel ess fa ti g u e n d u n p o t bl e we in e s

r a r a ar s .

1 02
 TH E S E R M O N O N TH E M O U N T
B ud d h a th u e m i n d alm ost d i sin l i n ed to un d e t k e the g e t d uty of
s r a e c r a r a

p a h i n g the l a w The g e t B h m O b e v i n g wh t w t k i n g pl e
re c . r a ra a, s r a as a ac
i n B d d h s oul c i ed out
A l s l l m n k i n d e d oome d to b e l o t

u a s ,
r ,
a a a ar s .

H e who d e v e to be wo sh i pp ed by l l b ei n g n ow fe l no d i p o i
ser s r a s e s s s
ti o n to nn ou n c e the l aw to th e m H e i n sta n tly l eft hi s eat nd h v
a . s ,
a a
i g
n p i ed to the p e enc e of P y a ( i e G nd m ) his l oak ove hi
re a r r s a . . a a a , c r s
s h o l d e s wi th the x t emi ty h n gi n g b ck wa d he b e n t hi s kn ee li ft d
u r e r a a r , , e
u p hi s j in e d h n d oto the fo h ead b e fo e the ag e
a nd sai d to hi m
s re r s ,
a

M ost i ll u t i ous B ud d h who t d o n ed wi th th si g l o i es d o

s r a, ar a r e x r ,

c on d e s e n d to p e c h th
c m ost ex ell en t law ; the n umb e of th se
r a e c r o
b u i ed u n d e the wei gh t o f lth nd p i on i s omp tiv ely sm all ;
r r a ass s c ara

i f th ey d o n ot l i ste n to the l aw th e e will be no g eat l o s B ut th e i r r s . re s

an i mm e n n u mb er o f b i n gs wh wi ll un d e t n d the l aw I n th i
se e o rs a . s
wo l d th e a e b ei n g s who
r er m ode tely gi v e n up to the g ti ti n
r ar e ra ra ca o
of e n su l
s pp eti tes and th e e e l o a g e t m ny who e foll owi n g
a a r ar a s r a a ar

h e eti c l op i n i on s to wh om the k n owl edg e of t uth i s n ec essa y and

r a r r
L y n ow O p e n the w y th at wi ll l e d to the
,

who wi ll easi ly co m e to i t . a a a
p f c ti on f A eyas th ose p e fe ti on s e the g tes of N e i k b an
er e o r :
1
r c ar a .

Th s he e n t e ted B ud d h
u The B h m a had b een i n the tim e of
r a a . ra ,

B udd h K th b a R h n ( i e o of the c ed o d e of p i sts)

a a a a, a a . . ne sa r r r r e ,

u nd e the n m e of T h b ak
r an d w s t
a n sf rre d to the t se t of a a, a ra e rs a
B h ma fo the d u ti on f the wo l d
ra r ra o r .

The rst g rea t public occasi on on which G a u d a m a is

recorded to have enunciated his doctrines is the celebrated

S ermon o n the Mount near the villa g e o f G a y a thi tha ,

where accomp a ni ed by a thousand followers he ascen ded

, ,

to the top o f a hill and addressed his disciples as fol

lows ( i hi d page .

B lov ed Bei kkus ( i e m en d i n ts) al l th at i s to b e m et wi th in the

e . . ca ,

th e b od e
re a f me N t an d B a h m i s l i k e
s o b n i n g am e B ut
n, a , r a a ur .

why i s i t so ? B ec u e the ey e a b n i n g m e the obj e ts p e

a s s are ur a c r
c ei ved by the e y the v i ew o f th ose obj e ts the fee l i n g
es, eate d by th at c , cr
v i ew a e al l l i k e b u n i n g m e The sen s ti on p od uc ed by th
,
r a r a . a s r e
ey es use ca c e si o n O f pl e
a su c n t and p in ful fe l i n g b u t th es are
s asa a e s, e
li k wi e b n i n g am e Wh t a e the c uses p od u tive O f uc h
e s a ur . a r a r c s a
b n i n g ? I t i s the e f c on u p i en e of n g e O f i g n o n ce of
ur r o c sc c , a r, ra ,

b i th of d e th of ol d ge nd of nx i ety A g i n the
r , a , i a bu n
a , a a . a , ear s r
i g m e the sou n d s the p e ep ti o n f the so n d th
n a n ti on p o
, rc o u s, e se sa s r
d u e d by th oun d a
c al l b u n i n g am e wh i h i s fed by the e of
e s s, re a r , c r
c on c u p i s n e an ge i g n o an c e b i th ol d age d eath anx i ety te s
ce c ,
r, r , r , , , , ar ,

a f i c ti on n d t o bl , a Ag i n the sen e of sm ellin g i a b u n i ng m e

r u e. a , s s r a :
the o d ou the p e p ti on of od ou the e n s ti o n p od u ed by od ou s
r s, rc e rs, s a r c r ,

a re a ll a b u n i n g m e the pl e
r e n d p ai n esul ti n g t h e e f o m
a : e asu r a r r r ar

1
A n A rey i s one who has b ec om e i n d ep e n d e n t o f the c o mm on l a ws
a

o f tra n m i g ato y e xi ste n ce an d wi ll a t ta i n [Vei h

s r r h n o a nn i h i l ati o n a t the a r

e n d o f the p e s en t l i fe r .

1 03
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
b ut a b urn i n g m e fed by con p i n c e n g i g n o n c b i th old
a ,
cu sce ,
a er, ra e, r ,

a g d eath d i sq i e tud e te s af i ti n a nd
e, ,
u ow A g in the taste
,
ar , c o ,
so rr s. a ,

is ab u n i n g m th bj e ts t st d th p e ce pti on f th o e obj e t
r a e : e o c a e ,
e r o s c s,

the se n s ti o n s p d u ed by th e m
a e al l b nin g m e k ep t u p by the
ro c ,
ar a ur a ,

e o f con u p i ce n ce n g e i g n o n c b i th ol d ge d e th
r c s ,
nxi ety
a r, ra e, r ,
a ,
a , a ,

te sar i i ti on
,
a d so w cAg i n the en e of feel i n g th obj cts
, an rro . a ,
s s , e e

fel t th p e e p ti on of th o e obj e t the sen s ti n p od u ed by th e m

, e rc s c s, a o s r c ,

a e a b
r n i n g am e the pl e s e nd p i n e ul ti n g th e e f om
ur b ut a ur a a r s r r are

a b u n i n g m foste d by c on c p i en c e n g i g n o n e b i th ol d
r a e, re u sc ,
a er, ra c ,
r ,

age d e th , nx i ety te s f i c ti on and so o w A g i n the h e t i s

a , a ,
ar
,
a ,
rr . a ,
ar a

b n i n g m e well s ll the bj c ts p e ei v d by i t nd the en

ur a ,
as a a o e rc e a s sa

ti o n p d uc d i n i t the pl
s ro su e a nd p i n
e u se d by the h rt e lo ea r a ca ea ar a s

a b u n i ng me
r k e pt up by the e of on c p i e n c n g i g n n e
a , r c u sc e, a e r, o ra c ,

b i th old g d e th d i q i t d te s f i ti on d so ow B el ov ed
r , a e, a s u e u e, ar a c an rr .

I h v e p e ch ed nd ee
, ,

B e i k ku th ey who u n ds, t n d th d oct i n ers a e r e a r a ,

a s

th ro u gh i t a e full of wi sd o m and d e e v e to b e c ll d my d i i pl e
, r s r a e sc s.

Th ey e d i pl se d wi th the sen se the obj ec t of th sen

ar s ea m tte s, s e ses, a r,

pl easu e and p i n as well s wi th ll th ffe ti on of the h e t Th ey

r a ,
a a e a c s ar .

b om e f ee f om on c upi s en e nd th e efo e x e mpt f om p i on

ec r r c c c , a r r e r ass s.

Th ey h av e a q i red the t ue wi d o m th t l e d s t p erfe ti n th ey e

c u r s a a o c o ar

d e l i v e ed t on ce f o m the m i se i es of n oth e b i th
r a r H avin g p ti ed r a r r . rac s

the m ost e x ell e n t wo k s n th i n g m o e c em i n to b e p fo m d by

r ,
o r r a s er r e

th e m Th ey w n t no m o the gu i d n of the si x tee n l ws fo th y

. a re a ce a ,
r e

h ave reac h ed f b ey on d th em H v i n g th s p ok en B u d d h e m i n ed
ar .

a u s ,
a r a

si l e n t H i h e e s fel t th m e lv es wh olly d i e n t n g l ed f o m the

. s ar r e s s a r

tr a mm e l of p s i on s sn d d i sen gag e d f o m
a s l l a ffe ti on to m te i l
, a r a c s a r a

obj ect ; nd th e y who h d b ee n b t R h n b e

s a m R h nd a u a a ca e a a a .
1

I n this discou rse to the voluntary mendicants ( B ei hhu)

who were his d isciples the lead in g principle in the ,

Buddhis t ic r eligious philosophy the u nsubstanti a l ity an d ,

u nreality o f everythin g i n this world was tersely laid ,

down F rom the three evil principles evil des ire

.
,

anger and i g norance o w all the other p a ssions o r

,

deme r i t s ; and o f these t hree i g nora nce is the worst ,

as it is the fou n tain head from which t he other two

Th at i s to say the R a h n or S impl e p ri est or a sceti c l i t p erfec t
1
,
a , .
,

was ad va n c ed to b ec o m e a R ha nd a or A ey o f the h i gh est ord er who a r a ,

has a ttai n ed the fou th o f the p ath s l ead i n g to 1Vei hh n The R ha n d

r a . a a

or R a ha t p ossessed the ve g reat p owe s o f work i n g m ir a c l e s o f h ear r ,

in g al l soun d s of kn owi n g the th ough ts of oth e b ei ng s o f kn owi n g

,
r ,

wh at bi th s were r ec e i v ed i n oth e ag es a n d of kn owin g wh t b ir th s

r r , a

will b e r ece i v ed by a ny b e i n g i n fu ture g es B ut a l l R h n d d o n ot a . a a a

p ossess th ese g i fts i n equal d eg ree th ough al l a ttai n [Vei hh n on th eir , a

d e th a T he R a ha nd
. may fe e l b od ily p in b u t k n o ws n o m e n ta l a a ,

a n gu i sh or sorrow A ll th ose who ha ve n ot a ttai n ed the state of a R ha t

. a

a e su bj ec t to th
r e i n ue n c e o f the th re e e v i l p i n c i pl es e v i l d e sir e r ,

a n ge r and i gn oran c e
, .

1 04
 G AU D A M A S

RELI GI OU S PH I LOSOPHY
sprin g
. H ence ignorance is the root o f all moral
disorders Truth being hidden from t he eyes of ordi n a ry
.

mortals by the thick mists of t he th r ee evil principles ,

man fails t o d iscern right from wrong a t taches an undue ,

importance to m aterial O bjects a n d fans the a m e o f passion,

by like o r dislike of mere illusions T he powe r o f these .

main demeritorious inuences is incre a sed by such second

ary or incidental circums t ances as bir th sorrow anxiety , , ,

o l d age and death

,
B u t these arise solely from the i n
.

u e n ce o f deme r its and t he law o f m eri t s and demerits is

,

propou nded as the solution of the question rela t in g

to the a t tainmen t o f freedom fr om the res of evil
i n uences A ny one born i n t o the sta t e of existence
.

o f a man must conse q uently gravitate t owards perfec t ion

by means o f acqu irin g merit O therwise he must owing .

,

to hi s imperfections and demerits be born a g ain to ,

succeeding existences s o as to allo w him oppor t unities o f

,

acqu iring merit by the practice of virtu e Those who .

have obtained virtue lose all pleasu r e in passion and ,

material obj ec t s become indifferent to the m H ence .

,

when ol d age and death come the causes o f existence ,

are removed and the next step places the i ndividual

,

beyond the in uence o f the powe r o f attraction fe t tering

all human bein g s i n the vortex of existences I t carries .

him to wards the centre o f perfection and b r in g s him ,

o n one o f the four paths leadin g t o complete rest ,

emancipation and deliverance from inuences of any

,

sort ( N e i hha n) .

S uch is a brief ou tline of the r eligious ph ilosophy

t a ught by G a u d a ma I t was the exposition o f the
.

eternal law ( Ta r a) which existing l ike truth from all

, ,

time to all time had never t heless become obliterated

,

from t he minds o f men t hrou g h abuses and ne g lec t S ince

, ,

the days o f a former B uddha B y means o f hi s perfect .

kno wledge and omn iscience however G a u d a m a was , ,

enabled to r eformulate i t and t o preach it t o men for

,

their gu idance in escaping from the effects o f the evil

inuences operating to prevent them from the a t tainment
o f N ei h ha n The enu nciation o f this law would be a
.

code o f the very highest morality bu t fo r t he damning

fact tha t the good works inculcated a r e t o be done from
1 05
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
purely selsh motives and do no t spring from chari t able
impulses o r fro m sympathy with suffering humanity .

I t wa s enunciated i n a more popular an d less philo

S ophical form than that adopted in addressin g the
B e i hhu or disciples when o n e o f the spirits ( N a t)
c a me at nightfall and entreated G a u d a ma to issue
i nstructions that would assist men to u nde rs tand many
points o f the law hitherto obscured to them G a u d a m a s .

words were as follo ws ( B i g a n d e t op ci t p 1 2 3 ) , . . .

Y o ng N t h e eu e the m a , t e x ce ll n t th i n g m n an d N 1 o ugh t
r ar os e s e 3 3

to tte n d to i n
a d to c p,
i t te th e m e lv e fo the t te of N i kb an
or er a ac a s s r s a e :

to h u n the c o mp ny o f th fool i h ; t
s a b e l w y wi th the wi e ; to e s o a a s s

p or h om g e to th os who a e d v i n g of i t to m i n i n pl c e
'

er a e r eser re a a a

b e omin g on e s con d i ti n to h v e l w y wi th on e sel f the i n ue n ce

c

o a a a s

s

o f fo m e g o od wo k ; ste d i ly to m i n tai n p fe t b e h v i
r r r s to b e
a a a er c a ou r

d el i g h t d t h e e an d see m o h i o d e to i n e e kn owl d g ; to
ar uc ,
n r r cr as e e

tud y l l th t i ot i n f l pply n e s l f to q ui e the k n owl edg e

s a a t s n s u o a o s e ac r

f I V i i ( ul e f r co n d u t of p i ts e sp ec i lly ) L t e v e y on e

o / n r s o c on r es a . e r s c
,

v e ti on b e g ul ted by i g h teou p i n ipl

rsa re a l e t e v y o n m i n i te to
r s r c es er e s r

the w n t o f hi a f th e n d m oth
s s p ovi d e l l the n e e i e fo hi
a r a er r a c ssar s r s

wi f e nd h i l d n p e f m no ti n u n d e the evil i n uen e of tem p

a c re r or ac o r c

t ti on ; b e tow lm s ; ob e v th p ep t of the l aw ; i t on e
a s a s r e e rec s a ss s s

rel ti v e
a nd f i en d s a p e fo m o ti n b u t su h s e ex emp t f om
r s r r n ac o s c a ar r

Si n b e ev d i li g e n t i er uc h v oi d i n g an d ab t i n f om i n tox i c tin g
n s a , s a r a

d i nk
r L e t n o o e b e em i
. i n the p a ti e of the l w f m e i ts
n r L et
ss r c c a o r .

ev e y on r be sp e t to
e l l m n be e v e h mbl e b e e a i ly
ar r e c a ti e d e r u s sa s

a nd on t n t ; g
c tefully
e kn owl e d g e f v ou li t n t th p h i n g of
ra ac a rs s e o e r e ac

th l w ie it p p
a n ti m e ; b p ti e n t ; d li gh t i
s ro er g ood onv e ti on e a e n c r sa

v i i t th li g i o f om ti m e t ti m ; onv e o el i g i ous s bj e ts ;
s e re us r o e c er s n r u c

c ul tiv t the vi tua e f m ti c ti on ( i e

r e o l f d en i l ) p ti wo k of
or a . . se a ra c se r s

v i t e ; p y tt n ti n l w y s to the f u gre t t th s ; k e p the ey es

r u a a e o a a o r a ru e

x d N i kb n Fi n lly l e t o i n th m i d d le of the eigh t ai ti ons

e on e a . a ,
ne e c

o f th i wo l d b e li k e the R ah d
s r m wi th ou t d i q u i tud e f
,
le s an a, r , s e , e ar s ,

wi th p e fe t mp u e 0 y oun g N t wh oev ob e v e th e e
a r c co os r . a , er s r s s

p e f t l w h ll n ev e b e v e om e by the en em i es of the g ood he

r ec a s s a r o rc :

sh ll enj oy the p ea e f A ey s
a c o r a .

H ere within these thirty three terse precepts is an

,
-
,

epitome of almost all the moral virtues in the form of ,

a n address w hich is several centu ries older th a n anything

relatin g to Christianity .

Burmese Buddhism ha s retained to a considerable

extent the primitive simplicity o f G a u d a m a s precepts

rst tau ght o n the banks o f the G a nges more than ve

and a half centuries before the dawn o f the Christian
era The teachin g s of G a u d a m a were meant no t only
.

1 06
 RE L I C S O F G E N I O LA T R Y
fo r men but also fo r t h e spiri t s (N a t) inhabitin g the
,

inferio r celestial reg ions and fo r the mightier spirits

,

r ah
( B m a
) abiding i n the highe r celes t ial re g ions all ,

t hree of which classes are included i n the category o f

human beings I t is easy to u nders t and that a religion
.

o r religious philosophy of this sor t d is t inctly reco g nizin g ,

spirits ( N a t) and a ngels ( B r a hma ) woul d appe a l

, ,

s t ron gly to and nd ready acceptance wi t h the half

civilized M on g olian t ribes dwelling to the nor t h of the
birthplace o f B uddhism whose sole rel igious beliefs
,

consisted i n a kind of geniolatry or spirit worship such

as s t ill forms t he religion O f many different t ribes occupy
ing t he mountainous t racts of eastern and north eas t ern -

I ndia .

When Budd hism was in t roduced into B urm a abou t

t he year 2 4 0 B C it wa s but little subjected to d e te r i o r
. .

a t in g and corrupting i nuences I t was mainl y no .

,

doubt du e to the geographical position of Bu r ma

, ,

though perhaps par tly also favoured by political c a uses ,

that it r emain ed u ncorru pted and u naltered by inuences

which t inged t he original doctrines wi t h H indu myths in
N ip al and w ith ancestral worship i n Ch ina : bu t it is
,

equally certain that its reco g nition o f N a t and B r a hma

enabled the new religion t o supplan t o r overlie the
primitive bel ief in spirits .

The very ease however wherewi t h the new religion

, ,

adap t ed i tself to procu re t he conversion of the r aces

with which it came in contact and at the same time t he ,

great tole rance of Bu ddhism itself served to keep alive , ,

as somethi ng far more than th e smoulderin g ashes of a

half dead re the belief in S pirits an d in the e fcacy of
-
,

offerin g and sacrice with a view to t he propiti a tion of

the u nseen inhabitan t s of the earth the a i r and the , ,

wa ters su rr ou nding t he e a rth H ence even no w i n the .

,

Burma of to day the B urmese Buddhist is distinctly

-
,

imbued with a more o r less denite belief i n the power

o f spirits which pure relic o f g en iolatry ha s for centu ries
,

been co existen t w ith the belief i n the N a t and the B r a h

-

m a o f pure B uddhism I t is impossible to draw a ny h ard

.

and fas t line separating t hese two beliefs i n the minds o f

th e B u r mese and more par t icularly among the vast
,

1 07
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
majority form in g the ru ral a nd ag ricul t ural population .

B u t j ust as if y o u scratch a R ussian it is said you will

, , ,

nd a Tartar so a lso if yo u could look into the inner

, ,

most recesses o f the ord inary B urman mind you would ,

nd a vast number o f Burmese B uddhists to be i n

reality practically l ittle else than spiri t worshippers .

This does not mean to imply that B uddhism is i n ,

Burm a a mere veneer superlying a fou ndation o f gen i

,

o la tr
y bu t the fact seems indisputable th a t the fo u n d a

tions o f belief are much more frequently primitive spiri t

worship than the true B uddhism o r reli g ious philosophy
fou nded by G au d a m a H ence when the Censu s R ep or t
.
,

o f 1 89 1 tells us th a t there are nea rly B u d dhists

in Burma or over nine tenths o f the tot a l population the
,
-
,

g ures must be understood as simply including all those

who choose to call themselves B uddhists A B urman .
,

w ho may be at heart a spirit worshipper would be ,

ashamed to adm it himself t o be this ; it is much more

convenient and respectable t o call himself a B uddhist .

Can we blame him for being pharisaically conventional

S pirit worship is in B u rma a despised rel igion still pro
fessed only by less than persons o r littl e ove r ,

o n e ft i e th o f
-
the total population who are almos t ,

en t irely wild j u n g le tribes Bu t while it has gradually

.

g iven way to B uddhism nominally as a matter o f fact ,

the primitive N a t worship o r g eniolatry usually r emains

the true cult o f the rural population .

N a t worsh ip is curio u sly enou g h still o ne o f the

, ,

preva iling forms of belief a t T h a ton in Tenasserim , ,

originally and for centuries the s tronghold of B uddhism .

E nshrined in a temple there is t he image of the N a t

Popo o r g randfather who is said t o have been asked
,

to become the guardian spirit of T ha tOn by the two

miss iona r ies who introduced B uddhism here in the
third century A long with him i n the temple bu t e n
.
,

shrined in othe r chambers a r e the i ma g es o f two other

,

spirits subordina t e to Popo A n annual fes t ival is held .

i n honour of these N a t S o to o at T a u ngb y u n n ear

.
,

Mandalay a N a t p we i s held i n J uly o r A ugust o f each

,
-

year i n honour of t w o spirits whose images are ensh r i ned

there .

1 08
 F I R ST B U D D H I S T S Y N O D
A mong a people possessin g the characteristics o f t he
Bu r mese i t mi g ht no t have been matter o f su rprise if
, ,

after having fo r over t wo thou sand years erected count

less brazen and ma rble images t o G au d a m a they had ,

chan g ed t he p r imi t ive form of B uddhism by elevating

Ga n dama to the rank o f a god S uch is h owever .
, ,

emph a tically n o t t he case Gandama still r emains what .

he declared himself t o be a man and n ot a g od , .

H onou r o f every sor t is shown to hi s memory millions

o f images of him have been wrou g ht in wood i n brass , ,

and in ma rble ; he is the cen t ral gure i n all the ol d

rel i g ious plays an d throughout the ancient writin g s ; bu t
,

he neve r has been raised to the s t a t us o f g odhead If .

o u ask a Burman to what religion he belon g s he will

y ,

invariably reply i n words which mean I ven er a te the ,

d octr i n e of the B u ddha ( B u dd a h h h h ) N

at a o
g we t e o .

B u rman would ever thi nk of sayi n g

I w or ship the ,

B u ddha .

The success which at t ended G au d a ma s efforts t o

es t abl ish throughout Ti r hu t and B ehar a new and pure

r eligion caused imitators to strike ou t independent paths
fo r themselves M oreover the austerity w ith wh ich he
.
,

enforced the l ife of poverty an d self deni a l was occasion ~

ally fou nd irksome and u nnecessarily severe by some of

the d isciples H ence even durin g G a u d am a s l ifetime
.
,

heretic a l priests ( P a r a hd i h) appeared as false teachers

endeavouring to spread a ne w doctrin e that there is
no futu re world and th a t all hu man bein g s at death
,

become resolved into the four primary elements earth ,

air re and wate r O n the death of G a u d a m a schisms

, ,
.

and dissensions even crept into the A ssembly ( Thi ng a )

i nto which the disciples ( B e i hhu ) had been formed
duri n g his l ifetime ; and it wa s found desirable to call
together a council to settle all points of controversy .

This rst Buddhist cou ncil or synod ( Thi ng a Ya na )

wa s held i n 5 4 3 B C sixty one days a fter the death o f
. .
,
-

G au d am a .I t w a s attended by 5 0 0 reli g ious of the

A ssembly I t del iberated for seven months and gave

.
,

rulin g s publicly and authori t atively I t was at this .

cou ncil that the B uddhist era was xed t o begin on t he

rs t day of the waxing moon of Tabaung ( M a rch ) o f the
1 09
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
year in w hich G a u d a m a d ied This era i s t o l a st ve .

thousand yea rs which is the period assigned by G a u d a ma

,

himself to the dura tion of the religion taught by h im .

The second B uddhist council w a s held exac tly o ne

hundred yea rs late r ( 4 4 3 i n order to counteract t he
deterioration a nd correct the laxity wh ich had gradually
fou nd its way into the A ssembly I t was at t ended by .

seven hu ndred o f the religious most celebra t ed for

thei r learning and knowled g e S ome o f t he ten relaxa .

tions which were claimed by a considerable po rtion o f the

A ssembly seem quaint t o Wes t ern ide as as fo r example , , ,

the wish to be allo wed to add condiments to the food

received as a lms and to preserve salt for more than the
s a nctioned seven days to perform religious ce r emonies i n
,

private instead of in public to drink whey after noon ,

thou g h the drinkin g of whey was forbidden t o si t o n

( ) ,

seats covered with cloth instead o f on ba r e wood and to ,

accept proffe red alms of gold and s ilver ( the use of wh ich
was prohibited ) B ut those who wished t o relax the
.

severity o f the reli g ious l ife we r e t hwar t ed and the ,

council afte r si t tin g for ei g ht months decided against

, ,

the schismatics and punished them with deg rada t ion .

The third o r grea t es t o f all t he religious cou nc ils

wa s held a t P a l i p atra ne a r the modern Pa t na about , ,

2 4 1 or 2 4 3 B C during t he seventeenth yea r o f t he reign

. .
,

o f K ing A soka and lasted i nto t he followin g year 1

.
,

I t was at t ended by
selected religious of the
A ssembl y who made a careful and exhaustive revision
,

o f the Buddhist scrip t u res r r

( B i d g )
a at and estored thei
original puri t y These sacred books written i n Pali
.
, ,

are subdivided into three sections Viz the instructions , .

,

( T h at
) fo r the l a ity the instructions ( Wi
, n z
) addressed
to the rel i g ious and the me taphysica l portion ( A hid
,

a ting to the N a t an d the B r a h a o f the lowe r

a mm a
) rel m
and the higher celes t ial regions .

This third council was the grea t apostol ic synod a t

which it was resolved to spread abroad th e doc tr ines o f
1
T he B m
ur l eg e n d asse ts th at th i s c ou n i l w h el d i n 3 6 to
e se r c as 0

3 7
0 B C B u t as i t i s k n o wn t h t A sok a cel eb ted ed i ct p i ll
a

s ra

ar

ne F
. .
,

ar b dw
er oz a a ec t d b o t the m i ddl e of the th ir d c en tury B C
as er e a u . .
,

th i state m en t i s o bv i ously i n c o e t
s rr c .

1 10
 I NTRO D U C T I O N O F B U D D H I S M
B uddhism over a much larger area than that to which
it had hi t herto been ex tended U ntil then it had been .

conned to the l imits o f Magada in N ip al B ut at the .

conclusion o f the thi r d great council it was de t ermined

to send for t h apostles o r missionaries in all d irections to
d isseminate the mos t excellent teaching of the eternal
law enunci a ted by the al l wise B uddha -
U nder the .

pat r onag e o f K ing A soka whose arms we r e then every

,

w here triumphant and who was at that time the mos t

powerful r uler throu g hou t I nd ia the propaga t ion of ,

Buddhism was rapid and extensive .

Two o f these apostles T hawna and U ttara were sen t

, ,

south eastwards t o the S iwan a Bami ( S u va rna Bh m i )

- - -
,

or Golden Land by which name Bu rma appears t h en
,

to have been k nown in U ppe r I ndi a They landed at .

T ha tOn the capi t al o f the M On kin g dom o f R a m a n y a

,

( Pegu a n d M a rtaban
) now the
,
headquarters o f a civil

district in L ower Bu r ma and s itua t ed abou t t en m iles

distant from the Gulf o f Mar t aban though a t tha t time ,

o n the sea coas t o n a ton g u e o f land be t ween the S alween

and the S i tt ang rivers F r om this central point i t spre a d

.

northwards in t o Uppe r B u rma and eastwards into the

S han S tates and S iam S ome of the Burmese legends
.

assert that G a u d a ma visited Burma and introduced his

new religion in person while o t hers state that it was
,

brough t direct by Thawna and U t tara across the hills

o f A ssam and Manipu r to Tagau ng the oldes t known ,

city in Uppe r B u r ma now a small j ungle town o n t he

,

left bank o f the I rrawaddy be t ween M andalay and

Bhamo The former of these s tatemen t s is known to be
.

incorrect and well founded doubt exists about the la t ter

, ,

as these hills were and s t ill are inhabited by erce a nd

, ,

u ncivilized tribes o f spirit worshippers Othe r le g ends .

o f Burma collated with th ose o f Ceylon seem to estab

, ,

lish the more probable statement that the two m ission

aries Thawna and U ttara r eached Tha ton by s ea from
, ,

Ceylon a bout the year 2 4 1 B C This i s all the m ore . .

probable as Bu r mese Buddhism dis t inctly belon g s to the

southern or C i nghale s e school whose scrip t u res we r e rst
,

o f all transmitted orally fo r over two centuries and t hen

wri t ten down i n the Pali language O t he r wise it would .

1 1 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
have belon g ed to the Thibetan o r northern school whose ,

sacred writings are in S anskrit .

I t was no t u ntil the be g inn ing o f the fth cen t u ry A D . .

t ha t any copy o f the B uddhist scrip t u res ( B i dag a t ) was

brought to Burma F rom the time of the introduction
.

o f Buddhism in t o R a m a n y a by Thawna and U ttara do w n

to that date the Pal i teachin g s had been transmitted

ora lly from generation to generation B u t in 4 0 0 A D . . .
,

accordin g to the legend a pries t named B uddha G hosa ,

-
,

or the voice o f Buddh a w ent across to Ceylon where

, ,

he occupied himself for the next thirteen years in trans

cri b i n the Pali text o f the B i dag a t and the othe r sacred
g
books . H is task completed he returned t o T hatOn , ,

brin g ing with h im the fru its of his d iligence H ere these .

scriptu r es remained fo r over s i x and a half centu ries till ,

A n a w ra ta z a w King o f P a gan ( now a subdivision o f the

,

M yingyan civil district) having made war upon the M On ,

country an d overthrown the Talain g s i n 1 0 5 8 A D . .

,

sacked the capital T ha tOn and carried off the whol e

, ,

collec t ion of scriptures brought by Buddh a G b osa from -

Ceylon t o g ether with the most learned o f the R a ha n o r

,

religious With thirty two elephant loads o f scrip
.
-

tu res and monks t hus said to have been t ransferred

to Pagan this city became the head centre of Bu r mese
,
-

Buddhism u ntil 1 3 6 5 A D when the c a pital of the K ing . .

,

o f Burma w a s establ ished a t A v a D urin g these 3 0 0 .

years a g re a t revival o f Buddhism took place an d from ,

this e ra most o f the great monuments d a te whose

remains still rouse the admi ration of visitors to the
r uined ci t y of P a gan .

A ccording to the Buddhis t idea a state of exis t ence

( B a wa
) consists o f three worlds or divisions a past a ,

present and a future E ach u niverse o r wo rld comprises

, .

three sections namely one re g ion ( K a ma ) in which there

, ,

is form desire and sensuous g ratication ; another (R up a )

, ,

in which there is form without desire or sensuous grati ,

ca t i o n and a third ( A r upa ) a state o f u nconsciousness ,

withou t either form desire o r sensuous g ratication

, ,
.

I n each such u niverse the ladder of existence consists o f

t hirty one ru n g s
-
Of t hese thirty one d ivisions -

1
S t tly sp e k i n g h owe ve th e th i ty one B or b od e c on i st
i
r c a ,

r, se r -

on a s

s

I I2
 F U T U RE P U N I S H M EN T
it may be said th a t eleven belong to desire ( K a m a ) s i x ,

teen to mat te r ( R upa) and four t o imma teri a lity ( A r upa ) , .

I n order to accou nt fo r the presence of man i n this

world the Burman presu mes the exis t ence o f B r a hma i n
,

a previous world This w orld having been des t royed .

throu g h the action o f the laws regula t ing changes in

matter some o f the B r a hma descended i n a ll the g lory
,

of their bri g ht resplende n ce fr om the sixteen h igher

celestial re g ions F o r some u nknown reason these .

al most ethereal beings ate o f a co a r se kind o f rice

( T h ale
) through the evil
, inuence o f which desire and
passion ge r min a ted i n their hi th erto passionless souls .

S O g reat was t his deterioration that t hese B r a hma

descended i n t he scale and became men beings t yran ,

n i z e d by passion a t e desires a nd bl inded by the mists o f

i g norance w ho are tossed hither and thither in the

,

whirlpool of exis t ence accordin g to their ind ividu a l

merits o r demerits during this probationary s tage o f
In a n ho od .

Whether a man accordin g to the debit balance o f his ,

demerits in th is life m a y be relegated to o n e or other o f ,

the eight stories of hell there to su ffer u nspeakable ,

tortures o r may have to expiate his offences i n a scarcel y

,

less terrible manner a s a monster o f hideous form ,

suffering fa r more th a n D amoclean tortures i n any o f

the sixteen i nferior hells surrou ndin g ea ch of these main
reg ions o r may become incarnated i n the form of o ne or
,

other o f the lower animals or brute creation yet he w ill ,

always after punishment and expi a tion commensu rate

,

with th e nature o f hi s demerits be g iven another O pp or ,

t u n i ty o f acqu iring su fcient merit

1
( K atho
) to entitle

of ( ) p
1 A e o r fou r sta tes o f p u ni sh m e n t ( Al a
gy e o r h e ll ,
A th u ra h e or

g ru e som e m on ster s,

P y eztta or
a b u l ou s a n i m al s,
'

f
a n d Ta r ei h sa n or

b rute r se v e n stag e s h c h d e si re a n d in

( )
2 K a m a o w i
f
passi on are el t ( i n c l ud i ng man , and the N a t i n h ab i ti n the si x l ower g
c e l esti a l r eg i on s) ; ( 3 ) R up a or si x tee n stag es o f vi si b i l i ty a n d m a teri
a l i ty , in c l ud i n g
the B r a hm a o r b ei n g s su p e r i or to m e n a n d to the N a t,
in n i bl e to h e t o ol d n d e n ti ly f e f o m p i n
se s a r c ad esi re re r a ss o or re ,

in h b i ti n g th i x te n hi gh el e ti l g i on ; d ( 4 ) A p
a e s e er c fo s a re s an ru a or ur

stag e f inv i i b i l i ty n d i mm te i l i ty in wh i h the b e i n g h av e n o

s o s a a r a ,
c s

b od i ly fo m b t ej oi ce in the on t mpl ti n f ab t t t uth

r u r c e a o o s ra c r .

1
T e b t i n th i
O r -
O p p o tun i ty i ot l w y h owe v e an e y th i n g
o a s r s n a a s, r, as ,

V OL . 11 . 1 1 3 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
him to a sea t in the celestial abodes o f N a t and B r a hma ,

and to reach t he M ag t he fou r pa t hs leading to N ei hha n

, .

S o r row is l ike a disease t he cleaving t o existence is l ike

t he cause o f t hat disease ; N ei hha n is l ike the curing of
t he disease ; and the fou r paths each o f which is d ivided ,

i nto the t wo g rades of perception of t h e course o f duty

and fr uition or enj oyment of t he same are like the medi ,

cine which causes the cure E ven the B r a hma of the .

higher celes t ial re g ions though the aggregate elements

formin g t hei r bodies be different from o ur common clay ,

and thou g h they have only att a ined thei r exalted position
by t he exercise o f soul purifying rites may when the
-
,

age allo t ted t o t hem as B r a hma has passed away be ,

bo r n agai n into t his world as men o r as animals or may ,

be born i nto any othe r wo rld .

T h e greatest demeri t s are th ose incur r ed by t he non

observance of the ve gr ea t r eligious duties (P y i nsa
Thi l a ) incu mbent upon the laity and binding o n all ,

c r eatures n a mely ( 1 ) no t to take life ; ( 2 ) not to steal ;

, ,

(3) not to commit adultery ; (4) not to lie ; and (5) n o t

to touch any intoxicating dri nk I n the case of the .

R a ha n o r
r el igious the ten O bli gatory du ties ( D a tha
Thi l a ) forbid ( 1 ) the taking of l ife ; ( 2 ) t he takin g of
what is not offered t o them ; ( 3 ) sexual i ntercourse ; ( 4 )
the sayin g o f that w hich is not true ; ( 5 ) the use o f
intoxica t ing d r inks ; 6 ) the pa rtakin g o f solid food after
midday ; ( 7) attend a nce upon d a ncin g S ingin g musical , ,

festivities o r dramatic performances ; ( 8) the adorn ing

,

o f the body with owers and t he u se of pe rfu mes o r

,

unguen ts ; ( 9) the use o f seats over the prescribed heigh t

o f one and a half cubits and ( 1 0 ) t he receiving o f gold
o r silver . These vows must be taken by every candidate
before he can be admit t ed t o t he pries t hood A ll t en .

precepts S hould be observed even by the laity on the

four ceremoni a l days ( U hohsa u ng ) occu rr in g in each

luna r month and also throughou t the whole of the three

,

months of L en t ( Wa ) i n each yea r from the full moon

for the D unl a h a ng a h

-
a or ve t i
-
h n gs d i f cul t o f a tt i nm en t are ( ) b ei n g
a 1

a B h
u dd a, h
( 2 ) eari ng
the l a w, ( 3 ) b ec om i n g a p i est ( 4 ) b ec om i n g a
r ,

rI ghteous m a n, a n d b m n g h u m n b ei n g
.

( 5 ) ec o i a a .

1 1 4
 T H E T H REE A P P EA RA N C ES
in J une o r J uly to the full moon i n S eptember or
October .

The mere observance of all the ve p r ecepts by the

layman cannot immediately ra ise him o n the cessation ,

of his exis t ence as a man beyond the sphe r e of the six

,

lower celestial r egions occupied by the S pi r i t s ( N a t)

and full of sensu a l pleasu res and enjoy m ents M o re .

illustrious me r i t is obtainable by the further inuence o f

the ve g rea t acts o f renunciation ( S u ngy i ngy i ng a ha ) - -

through surrenderin g one s child r en property life wife

, , , ,

and whole individuality fo r the purpose of searching

more eag erly a fte r truth an d perfect res t Promo t ion .

from spirit land to the blissful s ixteen sea t s of th e

-

B r a hma and the fou r sta t es o f immateriali t y is ob t ain

able only through in tellectual efforts such as the thorough

comprehension of the three principl es or appearances

hh etha nd h n h
( or imper

A n ei ssa A

,
D o a n a tta , L t o a -

m a ne n c e misery and u nreality) and the exercise o f

, ,
-

profound medita t ion reg a r ding truth The s t udies of .

the ve parts of meditation and contemplation ( Z a n )

include t he ca r eful examination o f no less than s i x
hundred o bjects connected with the regions o f materiality
up a r upa
( R ) and o f immateriality ( A ) D emerit by n on
.

observance o f t hese duties however plun g es the Budd hi s t

, ,

i nto o n e or other o f t he depths o f hell there to u ndergo ,

punishment commensu rate with t he amou nt of the minus

balance of his personal accou nt u ntil he may be born ,

aga in i n the condition of man after due expiation o f

his misdeeds Wheneve r the evil inuence crea t ed by
.

t he demerit becomes exhaus t ed the punishmen t ceases ,

and the mise rable t ortu red sinner ascends a gain from
the dept h s of the earth to the abode o f man in order
t o ac q u ire the meri t t hat will t ranslate him to the cou ntry
o f the N a t . T h e same laws apply to women as to men .

From the rel igious point o f view the re is no diffe r ence

be t ween the sexes excep t tha t a B uddha mus t be bo r n a
,

man A woman inva riably prays that she may becom e

.

a man I n her n ext releg ation to this world .

The ve great precepts ( P y i nsa Thi l a ) are always

repeated when B urmans proceed to the pagoda for
r eligious exercise and reference is also made to the
,

1 1 5
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE

t h r ee precious gems of Buddhism ( P ay a Ta r a

, ,

Thi ng a Ya da n d thon ha ) the Buddha the La w and

- -
, ,

the A ssembly o f the R eligious I t is to these that the .

Burmese Bu ddhis t looks fo r an escape from the horrible

po t entialities to which he is exposed in this whirlpool
of existence A s previously remarked the B urman
.
,

does no t p ray t o G au d a ma the Buddha who has by the , ,

a t tainmen t o f N ei hha n absolu t ely ceased to exert any

d irect or indirect personal inuence o n human l ife save
th r ough the enu nciation he left behind h im of the law
o f existence and the path o f truth N or does he pray .

to either o f the two remai n in g gems H e merely .

venerat es the L a w and the A ssembly o f t he R eli g ious ;

bu t he nei t her prays to them nor w orships them .

There is indeed no such t hing as pra yer a t all in

Buddhism When B urmese men and w omen most o f
.

them o ld it m a y be remarked and evidently a nxious to

, ,

secu re a balance o n the proper side o f life s account are

seen kneeling reve r ently before a p agoda o r other holy

shrine and makin g respec t ful obeis a nce with perh a ps a ,

sacred o wer o r a votive offeri ng clasped bet w een the

palms o f their hands and more especially when o n e ,

hears them repeating what sounds extremely l ike invoca

tions to the deity i t mi g ht na t urally be supposed that
,

they are en ga g ed in prayer Of cou rse n o t all o f .

,

those seen will be e q u a lly devout and absorbed i n

meditation While some are earnest others will be
.
,

looking arou nd an d performing their rel i g ious du ties a s

mech a nically as the ord inary British church g oing
Pharisee But prayer in the form o f an invocation to
.

a S upreme B eing ha s no meaning t o the Buddhist

, .

What m i g ht be m istaken for prayer o n his part i s what

he considers medi t ation aided by the repetition of ,

stereotyped precepts and formul a e used for the purpose

of xing his thou g hts o n the con t emplation of the afore

said three precious g ems

.

The A ssembly ( Thi ng a ) as t he B uddhist priesthood ,

is called is no more homog eneou s than the Chu rch o f

,

E ngland Previous to each of the three g reat cou ncils

.

of 5 4 3 B C 443 B C
. . and 2 4 4 B C even although the
, . .
, . .
,

rs t o f these was only held six t y o n e days after -

1 1 6
 H I G H C H U R C H A ND L O W C H U R C H
G a u d a m a s dea t h dissensions had al r eady occ u rred i n

the A ssembly fo r t he removal o f the causes o f which

,

the latter was in each case called .

A gain la t er o n when Bu r mese B uddhism had for

, ,

cen t uries r mly established i tself as an independ ent

branch of that r eligion simila r dissensions begu n i n ,

P agan were con t inu ed i n A va where the rival schools ,

of Tong o i ng and Yong a i ng roughly cor r esponding t o

H i g h C hu r ch and L o w C hu rch eac h asserted th e ,

o rt hodoxy o f th ei r r espec t ive manne r o f celebrating the

religious O bse r vances H ence Bo daw Paya t he s on o f
.
,

A laung Pay a who reigned from 1 7 8 1 to 1 8 1 9 and t rans

,

fe rr ed t he capital from A va to A m ara pu ra conside r ed ,

it advisable as head o f th e C hurc h fo r the headship

,

o f both Chu rch and S t a t e was combined in t he royal

person of t he K ing to convoke a meeting of the
A ssembly i n o r de r to d iscuss t he r eligious variances in
publ ic . The end of t his fou r th council was t ha t t he
K ing sided wi t h the Yong a i ng o r L ow C hu rch par t y

and c a used the leader of t hose holding O pinions differing

from his o wn to be s tr ipped o f the yellow priestly r obe
( T hi n an
g ) and t h r ust o u t from t he A ssembly .

D uring the las t seventy yea r s howeve r dissensions of a , ,

similar nature have again made t h ei r appearance causing ,

the A ssembly to be divided in t o a H i g h Chu r ch party

and a L o w Church par t y These t wo parties have .

va r ious names in different pa rt s o f t he cou ntry but t hey ,

are bes t known r espectively as the S u l ag a n di o r D way a ,

( l i
. t

a hole o r and t he M a h ag a ndi or K a n ,

( l i
. t

a deed an , E ach sec t differs sl igh t ly
f rom the othe r bot h in doct r ine and i n d r ess The S ula .

a n d i o r H igh Chu r ch pa r ty are mo r e careful and strict

g
in t heir religious O bservances and i n t heir adherence to
all that is laid down in the ritual while t h ey also main ,

tain that man is endowed wi t h free will in accep t ing t he

knowledge o f t he external wo rld conveyed to him t h r ough
the conscious ope r a t ion of the organs o f sense i e t h r ough , . .

the holes or apertures forming t he o rgans o f sense The .

M a hag a n a i or L ow Church party o n t he othe r hand are

, ,

less rigid and exact i n the performance of the p r iestl y

rites while they deny t ha t there exists su ch a t hing as
,

1 1 7
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
free will but hold that everythin g is brought abou t by
,

K a n the secre t inuence o f an action o n one s futu re

destiny The forme r maintain th a t the merit of a good

.

deed ( K atho) depends o n the intention o f the doe r ,

whereas the latter argue th a t the inuence ( K a n ) o f any

good deed p er se becomes po tent fo r good ir r espective
o f the i ntention o f the doer .

To smooth away these d issensions t he late K ing

M ind on ( 1 8 5 3 7 8) convoked another A ssembly at Man
dalay and added to his many g randilo q uent titles that o f
,

Convener o f the fth B uddhist S ynod This Council

.

practically came to nothing Thou g h the K ing sided .

with the K a n or L o w Church party yet h is Chief Q ueen ,

w a s i n favou r o f the D way a ; and l ike a prudent hus

band knowing the valu e of domestic peace the head of
, ,

Bu rmese B uddhism j us t allowed matters to go on as

t hey were .

The differences between S u l ag a n d i and M a hag a nd i

are i n r eality comparatively slight and trivial s o fa r a s ,

t he religious philosophy itself a nd i ts inuence o n t he

daily life of the people are concerned When a lay .

man o f the H i g h Church party has built and endowed

a monastery ( Ky a u ng ) and the pries t l iving there has
,

died the founde r ( Ky a u ng tag d ) very naturally obj ects

,

if a monk ( P ongy i ) of the L ow C hu r ch party enters and

t akes possession o f it S ometimes such things cause

.

heartburn ings and bickerings in the vill a g es but o n the ,

whole the differences are fa r more nom inal than r eal I n .

proof o f this the statement may be made that it i s not

easy t o nd any o n e in a ju ngle vill a g e who can explai n
what di fferences really exist betw een the doctrines of the
t wo parties The Village monks always belong to o ne
.

or t he ot h er r ival schools and the villagers accordingly

,

consider t hemselves adherents of the same sect Beyond .

the fact t hat the S u l ag a nd i a re stric t e r in the performance

o f reli g ious duties and in the observ a nce o f ritual and

rubric than t he M a hag a nd i the people i n g eneral really

,

know little and care less .

Owin g to the fact tha t Burmese Buddhism i s i n r eal ity

but a superimposed lay er upon a hidden t h ou g h more o r ,

less perceptible fou nda t ion of bel ief in the efcacy of

,

1 18
 A N I M I ST I C T R A C E S
spirit wo r ship i t is di fcult to es t imate correctly t he
,

inuence that the pu r ely B uddhistic reli g ious philosophy

exerts o n the na t ional cha r ac t e r and o n the daily l ife o f
t he people .

I f one examines any of the thousands of bell shaped -

pagodas or s tupas with which the whole of B u r ma is

s t udded it will be fou nd t hat such monumen ts have at
,

t heir core a cen tral r elic chamber and th at they main t ai n

t heir sol idity no t only fr om t h e b r ic ks of which t hey are
bu ilt but also fr om the mo r ta r used in cemen t in g t hese
,

t oge th er t he r esul t bein g a s tr uctu r e capable wi t h due

, ,

ca r e and at t ention of las t ing for cen t u ries

,
.

A nd it is very much the same with t he rel igious bel ief

of the Burman H e professes himself t o be a Buddhist ;
.

and he would i ndignantly repel a ny insinua t ion that he

is perhaps n o t really a B uddhis t but mo r e o r less o f
,

a spirit worshipper But withou t t his interm ingling o f

.

animistic worship it is hi ghly improbable that Buddhism

would have main t ained itself s o long as the avowed
national religion of Burm a I n youth and manhood the
.

Burman goes fr equen t ly t o the pagoda o n the sacred

seventh day ( U hohsa u ng N e) indicated by ea ch phase of

the moon a nd as old a g e approaches he becomes qui t e

,

regular i n attendance H e t hen even goes eve ry evening

.

about twili g ht to worship at some sacred place H ere .

he lights up t iny candles o r deco ra t es a favou ri t e shrine

wi t h owers o r little a gle ts i n honou r of the r evered
memory o f the omniscient G a ud a ma and here he makes
small O fferings o f fruits or of boiled r ice for t he bene t of
t he poor and for t he satisfac t ion of the carnal appetites
,

o f those who are n o w expiating thei r demerits in the

form of c r o ws o r dogs and like an imals H ere too i n

, . , ,

an attitude o f lowly obeisance he devou t ly repeats the

,

rel igious precepts and formul ae learned as a small boy at

t he monastery and declaims the veneration and p rofou nd
,

respect w ith which he ado res the th ree precious gems
o f the Buddhist philosophy .

These are t he bricks with which his spiritual pagoda

is built up withi n t h e r ecesses of his heart but they are ,

cemented to g ether and s t reng t hened by t he mortar con

sisting o f a mo r e or less denitely consci ous belief i n the
1 19
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
power o f good and evil spirits to inuence his daily l ife ,

his heal th h is happiness and his fu t u re state A nd

, , .

deeper still forming the ve ry core o f this reli g ious ed ice

, ,

t here rests the origin a l animistic belief servin g as the

actual basis upon which the whole philosophic structure
ultimately rests .

This in termin gl ing o f superstition with Buddhism is o f

cou rse more distinctly noticeable among the rural p op u la
tion than in the to wns I n these la t ter indeed and more
.
, ,

particularly in R angoon contact w ith Christians J ew s , , ,

H indus M ohammedans Parsis and Taoists u n fo r t u

, , ,

n a te l y seems to be g radually we a kenin g the hold o f any

reli g ion upon the Bu rmese T he v a st m ajority o f those .

w ho come to venerate the three precious gems at the

foot o f the worl d famed S hwe D agOn Pagoda a re cou n t ry
-

people and not r esiden t s i n Rangoon T hroughou t the

,
.

cou ntry at large however the Burman S till endeavou rs

, ,

to propitiate the spirits o f the earth and t he air the ,

dryads of the forests e tc by offerin g s and various little

, .
,

attentions H e venerates the Buddha he pe rforms the

.
,

L a w and he respects the A ssembly ; bu t a long with this

,

there are simultaneous veneration and propiti a tion o f the

spirits ( N a t) which almost amoun t t o worship E ven
, .

i n Pagan for centuries the centre o f Burmese Buddhism

, ,

an a ncient N a t temple still exists as a survival o f the

older cult .

Three mai n causes have led to this These are rstly .

, ,

t he primitive spi rit worship which fo r med a g ood soil fo r

t he sowing o f B uddh ism with its s i x lowe r celestial ,

regions forming the abode o f the N a t ; secondly the ,

t olerance o f the Buddhistic rel igion ; and thirdly the ,

temperament and t he n a tu ral characteristics of the Bur

mese themselves Bearing this in m ind it w ill readily be
.
,

u nderstood tha t tru e Buddhism re a lly has now bu t little

effect on the daily l ife o f the Burmese A s t he work of .

education progresses throughout the province it seems ,

probable that t he hold which this cold and cynical r eli

gio ns philosophy has over the heads and the hearts o f
the more intelligen t classes will gradually become w eaker
and weaker .

E ven the slight hold that true Buddhism now has o n

1 20
 B U D D H I ST N U N S
the daily life o f the people is mainly due to the fac t o f
education th roughou t all t he rural t racts resting solely
with the monks ( F ongy i ) dwelling in the monastery to be

seen at the ou t skir t s of each l ittle vill age E very boy .

must a tt end a monastery H ere he learns by heart the

.

var ious reli g ious precepts binding upon the l a ity and ,

wears the yellow robe ; and here he is also taugh t to

re a d to write an d to work ou t simple p r oblems i n ari t h
, ,

metic H ence respect fo r his t eachers and vene ration

.
,

for the A ssembly in g eneral are i nfused into the you ng

male Bu rman during his early and most impressionabl e
years A s the monastic rules forbid a P dngy i to look
.

upon the face o f any female t he girls have l ittle o r no edu

,

cation for the nu ns ( M ethi l ay i n ) are themselves illi t e ra t e

,

and t herefore incapabl e of imparting elementary i nstr u c

tion to girls Though B uddhism acknowledges t hat
.

w omen h a ve souls yet i t re g ards them as dis t inctly

,

inferior to men ; and no provision is made by i t for

the education o f girls This i n itself now con tains a
.

danger which Buddhism will have t o encounter fo r i n ,

B urma the girls and women are a s a rule gifted with , ,

greater ability and q u icker wits than the boys an d the

men ; and the reli g ious philosophy which forbids the
recognized t eachers o f religion to look u pon the face of
a wom a n or to impart instruction to g irls must now i n
, , ,

these d a ys of progress i n B urma either voluntarily sub ,

m it itself t o radical changes of a most sweeping sor t or

else u nderg o a process of gr adual deteriora t ion and decay
throu g h t he inuence o f lay schools and the educa t ional
emancipation o f women .

I n a ll the larg e towns of B u rma Government schools

are m aintai ned in wh ic h education is imparted according
,

to Western me t hods and ideas and there a r e bu t few o f

,

the smaller to w ns withou t la y schools as well a s m onas

te r i e s
. E ven in m a ny o f the larg er vill a ges a lay school 0

m a y here and there be fou nd These are all nuclei o f

.

a progress that is bound in time to a ffect the religious ,

the political and the social in uence which the yellow

,

robed monks of B uddhism still have over the people .

This monastic inuence is considera bly greate r t han t h e

religious power exerted by Bud d hism ove r the Bu rmese ,

121
 B U R M A U N D E R B R IT I S H R U LE
but the gradual advance o f civil ization in Burma mus t i n
course of time sap t he political and social powe r of t he
monks and must thereby inevitably t end to lessen t he
,

in uence which Buddhism still r e tains ove r the daily l ife

o f the Burman .

1 22
 Ch ap t e r V
T HE B UD D H I S T P R I ES T H O O D AN D

R EL I G I O U S
O B SERV AN C ES 1

H E yellow robed monks ( R a ha n ) o r pries t s ( P ongy i )

-

o f B u ddhism i n B urma stand o u t in bold relief

from the rest o f the population L ike the lilies o f the .

eld they toil no t neithe r do they spin ; and if they are

,

not also arrayed like o ne of these at any rate they can ,

claim an advantage ove r the lilies i n t hat they d o no t

require t o p roduce their o w n raiment L ike the food .

upon which they subsis t the r obes worn by the monks ,

are the gift of pious almsgivers Clad in pic t u r es q ue .

yellow robe the B uddhis t monk is a daily obj ec t lesson

in humili t y an d i n wi t hdrawal from the pomp and van i
ties o f this life ; for yellow is to the Burman a symbol of
mourning afiction so r row and humility
, , ,
.

These monks o r priests were originally made known

t o E u rope by the Po r tuguese under the name of Ta l a
p oi n s proba bly a cor r up tion of Ta l ap a t ( or Ta r ap a t
,

in Bu r mese ) t he name o f the large fa n made o f the leaf

,

o f t h e Tal ipat palm ah with which

( B or a ssu s
el l i or m zs
f ) ,

1
St i tly p k in g th
r c s ea , ere ar e n e i t e r h p r i ests, nor monhs, n or mon a s
teri es i B m
n Th gh B m
ur a. ou ur e se B ud d h i sm i s an orga i z ed re i g i o
n l n
in h av i n g h b i sh op b i sh op s and h ead s
an arc ,
l ,
o f re i g i ou s h ou se s, ye t
th ere are n o p r i ests h a vin g the care of sou l s, n or a re th ere monks

b el ongi n g to any pri estly fra tern i ty The correct term for any m emb er .

of the A sse mbly wou l d b e si mply the re l i g i ou s an d i n so far as he

v ol un ta i ly wi th d aws h i m sel f from worl d ly affai rs and the soc i ety of

r r

m en oth er th a n th ose a l so rel i g i ous

he m ay b e c all ed a ,

rec l u se .

Wh e e v e the word p i est i s h ere used i t i s i n te n d ed to m ea n the

r r r

P ongy i or g reat g l ory the c h i e f rel i g i ou s i n any re l i g i ou s a b od e

, ,

wh i l e the ter m monh m ea n s a ny oth er R a ha n or p e fec t on e r esi d i n g

r

i n a re l i gi ou s b u i l d i n g I n the sam e way the wo d monastery i s j ust

. r

a s l a xly a ppl i ed t o an
y ed i c e wh ere a ny o f th ese rel i g i ous re si d e

.

1 23
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
every priest sh a des his eyes i n order to prevent piou s
meditations being in t erfered with by beholdin g the face
o f a woman when h e walks abroad to collect alms o r for

any other pu rpose I n Burma however they a re termed

.
, ,


P ongy i the grea t glory o r R a ha n the perfect one
, , ,
.

U ntil the annexation o f Upper Burma o n J anuary 1 ,

1 8 86 the K ing of A va was the head o f the Buddhist

,

Church i n Burma A s th e archbishop ( Thatha nt a i ng

. ,

or

possessor o f discipline i nst ru ction ) l ikewise r e ,

sided i n o r near the capit a l it naturally followed that fo r ,

centu ries Upper Burma and the metropol is in p a rticular

, ,

has been the great stronghold of Burmese B uddhism

and the acknowledged fou ntain he a d o f s a nctity and
lea r ning O n the accession o f any king to the throne o f
.

A va i t was customary for h im to bes tow the ti t le o f

a r chbis h op on the pries t in whose monaste ry he ha d
received h is instruction a s a boy I n this case the .

nominee o f the late K ing simply reverted again to his

previous status as a B ongy i o r R a ha n
.

The archbishop formerly exer t ed much grea t er po w er

th a n he wa s allowed to possess after the a ccession o f
K ing M ind on to the throne of A va in 1 8 5 3 Under .

this monarch who wa s not inclined to brook any inter

,

ference w ith his pol itical po w e r, and the pries t hood or

A ssembly had u ndoubtedly considerable inuence

among the people the authority o f the Thd tha n d ha i ng
,
-

w a s much more nomin a l than real Formerly his j u ris .

diction extended t o all the territories u nder the sway of

the K in g o f Burma an d he sent emissaries to examine
,

and report o n the s t ate o f discipline to enforce rigid ,

obedience regarding the ins t ructions to priests and to ,

expel from the A ssembl y those who were fou nd to be

u nduly lax in the performance o f t hei r vows D uring the .

latter days o f the cou rt of A va however the archbishop , ,

was shorn o f much of h is former power thou g h other wise ,

treated with the most illustrious and respectful attention .

The monaste ry in w hich he l ived along w ith two or

three monks was more richly decorated than any o f the
other monasteries bein g covered both outside a n d i nsid e
,

with gold leaf as well a s havin g its teak woodwork

,

richly carved When borne o n a gilded l itter and

.
,

1 24
 T H E B U D D H I ST A R C H B I S H O P
accompanied by a large escort of priests and laymen ,

he visited the palace o n certai n xed occ a sions fo r such

special purposes as to remind the K ing o f the Ten L aws
( Y a z a dd n ) t he prac t,
ice o f which is incumbent on a

kin g t he la t ter qu it t ed his elevated seat o r dais and

,
1

se a ted himself almost but not qu ite o n a level with h is

ofcers of state and courtiers while the archbishop took
,

the superior place vaca t ed by his royal disciple Behind .

these outward si g ns of r eve r ential deference however , ,

there rem a ined but l it tle power The Thd tha naha i ng .

wa s no longer backed by the temporal po w er or even ,

of cially pe r mi t ted to despatch his emissaries to super

vise the manner i n which the priests performed t he
duties they had vowed t o observe when ord a ined or how ,

they attended to the religious education o f t he youn g

boys sent to their monasteries to receive instruc t ion A s .

there w a s thus no sort of central and supreme a d m i ni s

t ra t i o n laxity has crept into the religious orde r ; and the
,

A ssembly can no lon g e r be considered the same auste r e ,

asce t ic body o f volu n t ary mend ica nts a s it was a t the

time when G a u d a m a collected his B ei hhu or disciples
arou nd him o r a s it continued down even to very recent
,

times B ut all ques t ions involving points of difference

.

among pries t s were usually referred to M andalay fo r

the decision o f the archbishop T hus even during the.
,

last days of the Court o f A va the r eligiou s body still

,

possessed considerabl e pol itical and social inuence

throughout Upper Burma A ccording ly as head of
.
,

the A ssembly the Thatha n aha i ng was i n 1 886 treated

,

with great consideration by the Government o f I ndia .

O n the stren gt h o f assu rances given by the l a tter n ot to

i nterfere with the rel igion of the cou ntry the archbishop
rendered g ood pol itical service du ring the troublou s
years immedia t ely followin g the annex a tion by exhort ,

in g the A ssembly t o maintain a passive attitude and by

endeavou rin g to r estrain the monks from wh a t would
1
Th ese Ten L aws are n ot to l et a n g er o v erc o m e hi m ; ( ) to 2

b e u p i g h t n d h on est ; 3 ) n ot to b e op p e ss iv e ; ( 4 ) to b e p ati en t ; 5 )
r a r

to b e sto w a lm s fre e ly ; ( 6 ) to fee d the p oor ; ( 7 ) to b e g e n tl e ; ( 8) to

p ac ti se sel f d e n i al ; ( 9) not to m i x wi th the p eop l e ; a n d ( ) to b e
r -
10

p i ou s and ob se v an t of r eli g i o us c ere m on i es

r .

1 25
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
have been a very natu ral desire to use thei r r eli g ious i n
u e n ce i n order to stir up the feel in gs o f the population
a gainst the Bri t ish who had deth r oned thei r monarch
,

and annexed t heir cou ntry H is services in this respec t.

have O ften been deprecia t ed by the r emark that after all

they were no t o f much use : but if he had been openly
hos t ile o r had played false t he pac i ca ti o n o f Uppe r
, ,

Burma might have cost Britain far more o f he r bes t

ghting blood a s well as o f t r easure and time than
, ,

actually w a s t he case be t ween 1 88 5 and 1 890 A nd .

there can be no doubt t ha t he had more than once

strong t empta t ions to adopt the l a t t er cou rse .

The Thatha n d ha i ng d ied at M andalay i n J anuary ,

1 89 5 bu t up to da t e no successor to the archiepiscopal

ofce has been r ecognized by Government A n election .

was made by an assembly of local priests bu t as it was ,

not u nanimous Government decl ined to acknowled g e it .

The choice fell on t he Pakhan S adaw or bishop of ,

Pakhan who is acco r dingly venera t ed a s the archbishop

,

by the priesthood and the people .

The p r ovincial head among t he pries t s correspondin g ,

to a bishop in the A nglican C hurch is the district

,

ruler ( Ga i ng 0h) or great teache r ( S ay ada w S a daw )

, ,

who has j urisd iction over all the monas t eries t hroughout
the towns vill ag es and hamlets in his dist r ict H e settles
, , .

the l ittle s q uabbles th a t occu r from time to time in his

diocese and passes j udgement on probationers monks
, , ,

o r priests accused o f b r each o f duty With the present .

lack o f archiepiscopal supervision sometimes even a ,

bishop is less unconcerned abou t mu ndane affairs t han

he should be A S ad aw whom I w as in the habit of
.

visiting in Mandalay in 1 89 1 used fre q uently to S how me

wi th great pride a very highly prized l e tt er received by
him fr om S i r Frederick R oberts whom he always p ro ,

p h e t i ca l l
y called L a d R abbat A nd ( alas fo r t he
.

decadence i n the observance of p r iestly instructions I) ,

he even showed it to and shook hands with my wife ,

whom with hi s permission I h ad t aken to s ee him and

, ,

his monastery .

T he B ongy i or g reat g lory i s the head o f each

monastery ( Ky a u ng ) and therefore corresponds with an

,

1 26
 TH E RE L I G I O U S C O M M U NI TY
abbot o r supe r io r There a r e u pwards of twen ty ve
.
-

thousand P ong y i and monks th roughou t B urma while

the to t al number of males connected wi t h the reli g ious body

is over a hu ndred and twelve thousand H e may l ive here .

along with othe r monks ( R a ha n or pe r fec t ones like

himself or else he may sha r e t he monaste ry only with

,

probationers and acolytes The sole difference be t ween .

the B ongy i and t he R a ha n is t ha t the fo r mer happens to

be the head of the monastery : bu t both a r e R a ha n .

When an elder P dngy i speaks to a you nge r o ne he uses

t he t e r m A wa tha w while the la tt e r r espectfully add r esses
,

his senio r as B a nde .

N ex t below the R a ha n i n t he r eligious o r de r ranks t he

Upa z i n o r probatione r who canno t be ordained or a d
, ,

m i tte d in t o t he A ssembly till he has r eached his twen t i e t h

year Previou s to at tain ing t he probationa r y position o f
.

an Up a z i n t he young ascetic mus t have lived for som e

time as an acolyte .

The acolytes be a r names ( S hi n lord o r mas t er

,

M a u nggy i o r K oy i u

elder bro t her ) indica t ive of the
,

respect entertained by lay adults fo r even a small boy

who temporarily dons a yellow r obe while an inmate o f
the monas t ery I t i s i ncum bent on every male Bu r man
.

t o spend n ot less than seven days in a monastery bu t in

order to perform t his duty properly and to g et something ,

like the B urmese equ iva lent of t he hall mark of a pass

degree at a U n iversity the K oy i u ou g ht to spend a t least
,

the whole o f the th r ee months constitutin g o n e len t ( Wa ,

from J u ne or J uly to S ep tembe r o r October) in practising

t he aus t erities of the religious order even al t hough he ,

m a y h ave no intention o f a spiring to become a probatione r

a n d la t e r o n a monk I f he desi r e to become a candi
.

da t e for the priesthood he wears a co r d rou nd his

neck previous to assuming the r obe p roper to the
novitiate .

Fo r merly it was the almos t universal custom th r ough

o u t Burma as also i n S iam
, t o make boys enter the ,

monastery about t he age of puber t y and to keep them ,

the r e for a yea r o r two in o r der to g ive them a

fuller knowled g e o f the law and place them i n the
bes t of positions for ac q u iring the me r i t r equ isi t e fo r
1 27
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
fu t u r e existences T his event called S hi npy u is still
. , ,

o ne of the grea t epochs i n t he life o f a B urman

( see
pag e
A ccord ing to the census of 1 89 1 t he r e we r e no fewer ,

t han monasteries throu g hout Bu rma more th a n ,

t wo thirds of which were in Upper Burma This was at

-
.

the ra t e o f o ne fo r every n inety th r ee hou ses and ave r -

,

aged more t han two for each village and t own W ithin .

these monasteries there were monks constituting

the A ssembly ( Thi ng a ) in B urma probationers , ,

and acolytes Of the las t n a med ra ther more than

.
,

o n e half were then u nder fteen

-
years o f age C on .

s i d e ra b l y more than o n e half of the pries t s a r e to be

fou nd in L owe r B urma while t he majority of t he

,

p rob a t ioners and acolytes are to be met with in Uppe r

Burma This i s however easily explain a ble partly o n
.
, , ,

account o f the much larger population of L owe r B urma ,

and partly from the fac t of M a ndalay bein g the cen tre
of B uddhistic lea r ning throughou t Burm a B ut where a s .

it is comparatively rare to nd more than o ne pro

b a ti o n e r i n a monastery in L ower B urm a it is no ,

u ncommon thing to nd seve ra l i n the larg er monasteries

o f Upper Burm a .

These ninety thousand yellow r obed men lads and

- -
, ,

boys constitu t e t wo and a half per cent o f the whole o f the .

Buddhist m a le popul a tion i n Burma B esides t hese the r e . ,

is the army o f small boys ( Ky a u ng Thag a l e small sons ,

o f a monastery o r Ta h i scholars d isciples sen t at
)

y , ,

a bout ei g ht to ten years o f a g e to be tau g ht reading ,

w r itin g elementary a r ithmetic a n d some o f the easie r

, ,

formul a e for repetition durin g reli g ious meditation F o r .

tu na te l y for these you ngsters the multipl ication table

,

K
( gy o a un )
g only goes up the length o f the sacred
nu mbers ni ne times nine I n addressing any ord inary
.

l a y man the priest uses the term .
great d isciple

( T a hy i d )
a w ; but if the latter has fou nded a monastery

K
( y g) aun , o r built a pagoda
( y )
P a d o r performed some ,

other work of gre a t rel i g ious merit then he is a ddressed ,

as Ky a u ng tag d P ay d tag a etc S imilarly when a lay

,

,
.
,

man commu nicates w ith any priest either i n writin g o r ,

in convers a tion he add r esses him as L ord ( P ay d )

,

1 28
 LA Y B RE T H RE N A N D N U N S

an d speaks of h imself as you r lo r dship s d isciple

a h i da w
( y
P a a T y ) .

I n addition to t he r ecognized membe r s o f t he A ssembly

( T h i g )
n a lay
, bre t h r en ( P othu da w) are also to be found ,

who lead a life o f pove rt y and celibacy wi t hou t aspiring

t o r eligious eminence V estiges o f th e female order o f
.

R a ha n ins t ituted by G a ud a ma th r ough the admission in t o ,

t he A ssembly of his aun t and foste r mothe r together ,

with 5 0 0 maidens of high bir t h a r e also still to be fou nd ,

in t he nuns They migh t howeve r be , ,

mo r e correctly called lay sis t e rs They wear robes of .

coa rse whi t e cot ton or pale buff and are usually middle ,

aged o r old women who walk qu ietly along O ft en with

, ,

t he aid of a stick hold ing in thei r hands a r osary of

,

black wooden beads upon which they cou n t t hei r daily

ta l e of religious fo r mul ae A mon g these nuns o ne .

seldom sees any female w ho could be called a girl o r a

young woman o r could be th ough t good looking They
,
-
.

enjoy lit t le or none o f t he es t eem and vene ration paid to

monks There can be no doub t howeve r tha t if they
.
, ,

had been cha rged by the L a w with the du t y o f givin g to

l i t tle g irls elemen t ary ins t ruction simila r to tha t inculca t ed
in t o small boys a t all t he monas t e r ies t hey would have ,

been en t i t led to and would p r obably have enj oyed

, ,

a considerably highe r position i n t he publ ic estima t ion .

The religious commu nity which may be found in a

typical monas t ery consis t s of t he head monk one
o r more o t her monks ( R a h an
) o ne or more probationers,

( p
U a z i n
) and, perhaps seve r al lads se r ving t empo r arily
as acoly t es ( S hi n o r Koy i n ) leav i ng o u t of consideration
-
,

of course t he disciples ( Ta h
,

y )
i o r small boys u nder
going ins tr uc t ion and discipline who are often th e most ,

cha r mingly m ischievous and roguish l ittle u rchins ima

i na b l e
g .

The P ongy i or supe r ior may ei t he r be appointed t o the

monas t ery by t he foun de r ( Ky a u ng tag a) or else he may

be elec t ed by the monks When a P ongy i dies i n any .

small monas t e r y nea r a j ungle village any other R a ha n ,

may t ake possession without being invi t ed to do so by

the fou nder I t corresponds to a deodand Once dedi
. .

c a te d t o the A ssembly i t can be taken possession o f by

,

V OL . 11 . 1 29 x
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
any member o f that religious body S hould the villa g e r s .

object to t his procedure o n the pa r t of a monk then ,

they need n o t emb race the opportunity he gives them o f

pe r fo r ming a work o f religious me r it bu t may allow the ,

mendican t friar to s ta rve i n place of l iving as most ,

P ongy i a nd R a ha n do o n t he B urmese e q u ivalent t o the

fat o f the land .

Within his monaste ry t he P ongy i or S ay d

h as u ncontrolled sway H e supe r vises the perform

.

a n ce s of all ceremon ies enforces obedience to the rules

,

o f the orde r sees that the ten precepts o r rel igiou s du ties
,

o f a m onk ( Thed i n T hi l a)
, are not transgressed or

ci rcumvented and m a i ntains order and good feeling

,

among a ll t he inma t es of the monastery .

F o r the ins t ruction o f probationers and of a l l members

o f the A ssembly the multifarious du t ies and religious
O bservances prescribed a r e contained i n a manual o f
B udd h ist priests ( P a ti m a uh) the supreme bea t itu de o r
,

complete enfranchisement The basket ( B i dag a t)

.

of t he Buddhist scriptures is divided into three g reat

divisions instructions ( Thu t) for the laity instructions ,

( W i ni
) for the A ssembly and instructions,
( A hi a a mma
)

fo r the N a t and B r a ma respectively abid in g i n t he s i x

lower and t he t w enty hi g he r celestial regions The .

priestly inst r uc t ions are agai n subdivided into ve s e c

tions o f which t he rst t wo ( P a r a z zga and R a z ei h) form
,

a code o f o r dinances r elatin g to pries t ly crimes and

misdemeanou rs and the third and fourth ( M a ha wa and
,

S u l a wa ) con t ain rules and re g ulations for ordination a nd

miscellaneous ceremonies while t he fth ( B a r i wa ) is a
,

recapitulation of the fou r previous sections .

These ins tructions are all collec t ed and codied in the

manual fo r monks ( P a ti ma uh) and it i s prescribed that ,

the r eadin g of this or at any ra te o f parts o f it shall t a ke

, ,

place by a certai n number of the A ssembly o n a l l holy

d a ys and fes t ivals i n a chapel ( Thei n ) specially s e t apa r t
for the perfo rmance o f reli g ious rites such as ordination , ,

excommunication e t c T he P a ti ma u h is to the R a ha n
, .

ve ry much what his b r eviary is t o the R oman C a thol ic

priest ; a n d many o f t he monks can repeat by heart the
whole of the con t ents o f thei r manual .

1 30
 T H E F O U R C A RD I NA L S I N S
The sins of commission or omission which are detailed
in it number no less than 2 2 7 many o f which are O f the ,

mos t childish trivial and ludicrous nature For these

, , .
,

howeve r the pu nishments incu rred a r e also childishly

,

l ight They include such acts o f penance as walkin g up

.

and down i n fron t of the monastery fo r a certai n time

durin g the heat of the d a y and carrying po t s o f w ater or
,

basketsful o f earth a certa in d istance I ndeed penance .

,

o f any severe n ature corporeally is entirely O pposed to the

whole essence and ideas o f Burmese Buddhism There .

is howeve r a du t y chapel ( Wu thy a u ng ) or a ch apel of

,

,

,

penance of a t emporary or permanen t nature at t ached

,

to the monastery for the use of monks i n which the majo r

works of penance are usually performed during a mo nth
( Tahod w )
e corresponding more o r less w ith F ebruary .

The 2 2 7 si ns o f the priesthood detailed in the P a ti

m a u h are divided i nto seven mai n sections of which only ,

the rst t wo (P a r a z zga a nd P a z ei h or Thi ng a d i z ei h) are

o f any r eal impo r tance The P a r a z zga enumera t es the
.

four u npardonable sins w h ich if committed by any monk

, , ,

must be punished by permanent expulsion from the

A ssembly These include killin g o r directly causing
.

death theft forn ication and a vain glorious false p ro fes

, , ,

sion of havin g attained the status of a R a ha t On the .

d a y of admission into the A ssembly the p r obatione r is

d uly warned of these sins durin g the recital o f the ordi
nation service ( Ka mm a wa) N o remission is possible if .

any o ne o f these four cardinal sins be committed A t .

once the culprit is deposed from religious duties and

,

ceases to have any longe r a place in the A ssembly A ll .

other sins may be expiated by confession and penance ,

but n o t any o ne o f those fou r A ny backsliding with .

regard to continence is visited by the laity themselves ,

not exac t ly rigid moral ists with extreme severity T he

, .

fallen and disgraced p r iest is ejected from his monastery ,

stripped o f his yellow robe and driven forth from the

village precinc ts while h is paramour becomes an equally
,

vile obj ect and an outcast I n U ppe r Burma until the

.
,

annexation priests thus guilty o f incontinence w ere some

,

t imes publ icly punished even the dea t h penalty being

,

occasion a lly exac t ed .

1 31
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
The second sec t ion Thi ng a di z ei h) o f the P a ti ma u h
comprises the othe r t hirteen maj o r sins w h ich l ike all t he , ,

r emaining 2 1 0 minor sins may be a t oned fo r by co nfes

,

sion and penance Of these thir t een maj o r sins the rst
.

ve deal with personal cleanliness and uncleanl iness g reat ,

modesty i n publ ic confession o f failings avoiding o f sin

, , ,

and t he shu nnin g of t emp ta tions ; while the remainin g

eight consis t o f suc h offences as in t ending t o erec t a
monastery withou t the aid of a lay founder ( Ky a u ng tag a) ,

placin g t he foundations o f a monas t ery i n any spo t whe r e

they a r e likely t o dest r oy many insec t s b r inging false ,

charges o f incon t inence persis t ing o r assis t ing i n sowi ng

,

d iscord among the monks conti nu ing despite a d m o ni

,

t ions to t ransgress the rules i n mino r ma tt e rs and scan ,

d a l ou s behaviour such as giving laymen false accou n ts

o f wh a t goes o n i n the monas t e r y .

The r egula t ions binding upon monks with r ega r d to

coming i n con t ac t with t he fai r sex a r e s t ric t a nd ci rcum
s ta n t i a l . They may neithe r look upon the face o f a
woman no r accep t anyt h in g from h e r hands nor t ravel
, ,

i n the same boat o r car t nor r emain even t empo rarily

,

u nde r t he same roof s a ve when surrou nded by some o f

t he younge r inma t es o f t hei r monas t e ry When men .

an d women mee t a t t he monas t e r y or t he res t house -

( y )
Z a at t o hear por t ions o f the law r ead o n each holy

seventh day t he monks protect their eyes wit h th eir

,

large fans in the same way as th ey do when walking

abroad les t their gaze rest on t he face of a woman
, .

E ven should a priest s mo t he r fall i n t o a di t ch he is fo r

bidden t o st r etch forth h is hand t o pull he r o ut ; t he mos t

he can do is t o offe r he r t he end o f his r obe o r a s t ick ,

and even i n doing t h is he is orde r ed t o imagine t hat he

is only pulling o u t a log o f wood .

Confession ( P a wdy an a) amon g p r ies t s and probatione rs

exis t s i t is tr ue though it is bu t li ttle indulged in save by
, ,

monks o f t he s t rictest school and by proba t ioners i n the

,

perfervid zeal displ a yed previou s t o t he ordination cere

monial A mong t he latte r i t is some t imes even reso rt ed
.

t o twice a day Bu t i t is no longer the conscien t iou s

.

and austere practice which it was i n t ended t o be when t he

third great Council of t he A ssembly d r ew u p t he B i dag a t
132
 C O N F E S S I O N A N D P E NA N C E
in t he t ime of K ing A soka ( 2 4 3 B C The prescriptions . .

of t he second section o f these Buddhistic scriptures Wi n i )

o r iginally o r dained tha t when any R a ha n had been guilty
o f violating eithe r by commission o r omission any o f the
, ,

2 2 7 rules con t ained in the P a ti ma u h he was to o to

g ,

his B ongy i and kneeling before him confess t he faul t

, , .

O n occasions when the monks we r e assembled i n the

chapel ( Thei n ) se t apart for ce r tain religiou s ceremonies ,

t he confession was to be made the r e ; and all sins great ,

or small were t o be u n r eservedly confessed wi t hout con

,

cea l m e nt o r ex t enua t ion The P dngy z was th e r eupon to

'

impose a penance p r escribing t he nu mbe r of times dur

,

ing the ensuing night tha t po r tions o f the sacred wri t ings
and pious formulae were to be r epea t ed and t he penitent ,

was to p romise to r efrai n from transgressing t he rules i n

fu t u r e 1
.

N o man can simul t aneously belon g bo t h to the laity

( L a wh a
) and to t he A ssembly ( Thi ng a ) H e who is no t .

o f th e la tt e r must be o f the fo r me r The monk h as .

,

howeve r t h is advan tage ove r t he layman t hat whe r eas

, ,

admission to th e A ssembly always entails a ce rt ai n

amoun t of delay and ce r emonial the P dngy i o r R a ha n ,

may at once r e en t e r t he worl d by simply d o f ng his

-

yellow robe and q u i tt ing t he monas t ery The r ule of .

t he R omis h Ch u r ch once a p r iest alway s a priest does

, ,

1
The a m nn
er i n w i c co h h nf
essi o n
i s now mad e has t u s een h b
d esc ri ed b by
the a te l B h p
i s o B i gand e t ( L ife of Ga ndama , 1 880 , vol .

ii . p 2 84
.
)

Th
i s e traord i ar x n y p b
r ac ti c e i s o served now, one wou d sa , l y p r o

p n n pp h
f or ma The e i te t a roac es his su eri or,
. p kn l nb f
ee s d ow e ore h i m,
an d , a i h v ng h n f h
hi s a d s rai sed to hi s ore ead, sa s y
n bl p
V e era e su eri or,
I nf h n h g ly
d o c o ess ere al l the si s t at I may b e u i t o f, and b eg ard o p n
for the sa e m
n p n l n m
H e e ters u o no d etai ed e u erati o of hi s tres
. n
p a sses, n or d oes h e s ec i p fy ny h n g p n g h n
a t i r es ec ti t ei r ature an d th e
m n
c i rc u sta c es atte d i t e n ng h m p m n
The su e ri or re ai s sati s e d
. by ll n g te i
hi m : We , ta e care est you rea the re u ati o s of ou r ro essi o

ll k l b k g l n y p f n
h n f
t e c e orward e d ea our to o ser e t en v b v h m h l y He m
wi t de it

d i s i sses .

h
hi m wi t out ic t in in g
an y p n n
e a ce on hi m Th n i n
us a n i sti tu t o , so
.

ll l
we cal c u ated to put a restrai t and a c ec U o n h k p nh m np u a n
assi o s, so

we ll tted to re e t man fro p v n m

occ asi o a n lly b k n g mm n g v n
rea i co a ds i e
to h im , o
r at east fro ls i m l pp n g n
i ng h b
i to the d a erous a i t of d oi ng i t,
by
i s n ow, n f v
the wa t o f er our and e er n gy h n h b y
i n the a d s of t at od ,
re d uc ed to b e no m h l l
ore t an an u se e ss a n d r i d i c u ou s c ere m ny o , a me
re

h h lly p b by the Wi n i

s a d ow of w at i s ac tua rescri e d .

1 33
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
n o t obtain i n the B uddhist Thi n a A bbot monk pro
g .
, ,

b a ti o ne r and acolyte can each o f them cast asi d e his

,

beggar s robe and depart a s a man ( L u twet) by

merely leavin g the monastery and returning to mix with

the world A monk can even do this and afterwards
.

enter a gain i nto the A ssembly by u ndergoing the ordi

nation ceremony M ost monks rej oin the world fo r a .

time ; those who do n o t are held in special reverence

a n d respect H ence when the impulse to wards any o f
.
,

the four u npa rdonable sins o f the priesthood beg ins to

m a ke itself felt as u ncontroll a ble the monk ca n obviate ,

the shame dis g race a nd pen a lties that would other w ise
, ,

u nfaili ngly awa it him by qu itting the irksome restra ints

o f the monastery and return in g to the world o f men So .

long however as he remains o n e of the A ssembly he

, ,

is vowed to poverty ; he ca n possess no property ; he 1

subsists o n u nsolicited al ms collected during each morn

ing s progress from door to door ; he may no t accept o r

even touch gifts o f gold silver o r precious stones ; he , ,

d resses in a robe theoretically o r nomin a lly consisting of

rag s and dyed in the yellow colour ind ic a tive of sorro w
a n d humility ; a nd he dedicates himself to a life O f chastity ,

self denial and self effacement Poverty humility co n

-
,
-
.
, ,

t i n e n ce and self denial are indeed the fou r card in a l

,
-
, ,

virtues embodied i n the t en religious duties o f the pries t

hood ( D a tha Thi l a ) a lready enu mera t ed H is deportmen t .

should alwa ys be though i n practice it i s not such as to , ,

indica t e hu mility and utter i nd ifference to all w orldly

things ; for it is only thus th a t he can exhibi t the
u nconcern he should feel to wards the sho w y and shad owy
u nrealities o f th is li fe of t ra nsitoriness and u n su b s ta n
t i a l i ty H ence downcas t eyes and lowly gait habitu
.

ally mark t h e prog r ess o f a procession of priests an d

monks .

1
One d oe s n lly com e ac o s c ses i n wh i c h p i e t own p o
occa si o a r s a r s s r

p e ty b ut th y e v e y
r ,
i n d e ed
e Th ey e a d i ti n t i n f i n g em en t
ar r rare . ar s c r

of the el i g i u s l aw nd
r vi ol ti on of the vow of p ov e ty 1 h v e now
o a a a r . a ,

h ow v b efo e me p eti ti on i n wh i h p i est i n the P om e d i t i ct

e e r, r a c a r r s r

as k ed m e i n 896 fo f e gr n t of th i ty teak t ees g owi n g p on l n d

1 r a re a r r r u a

own d by hi m an d for wh i c h he reg u l a ly p i d the G ov e nm n t l n d

e ,
r a r e a

rev en ue d e m n d a .

1 34
 TH E W AYFA R I N G M O N K
F or t he sake o f humil ity it i s prescribed t ha t t he
monk shall shave o ff all the hai r wi t h wh ich nature has
adorned o r pro t ected his body ; hence complete tonsure i s
applied to every member of the A ssembly as also t o all ,

the proba t ione rs a n d acoly t es who wea r the yellow robe o f

poverty When making t heir mornin g rounds from door
.

to door in order to collect alms O f food from t heir lay

supporters o r when w alking ab road for o t he r purposes
, ,

i t i s prescribed a presc r ip t ion n o w s o l ittle heeded as

a

t o be almos t habitually disregarded t ha t they mus t g o

barefooted save i n th e cas e o f sickness o r inrmi t y when ,

plain l i g ht sandals of a cer t ai n size shape and colour , ,

may be worn A t all t imes when he goes abroad from

.

his monas t ery the P dngy i is allowed t o bear i n his hand ,

wi t h t he long handle resting o n his forearm a large palm ,

l eaf fan ( A wa na Ta r ap a t) with whic h he can shade

,

himself from t he he a t of the s u n o r screen from his

vision t he si g h t of imprope r o r u ndesirable obj ects such ,

as the face o f a woman N o w adays however it i s

.
, ,

usual to meet the wayfaring pries t shod in s tou t sand a ls

and carryin g i n place of the fan o ne of the o rdina ry paper
, ,

umbrellas o f t he cou ntry B u t the P dngy i s umb r ella

.

is never coloured with any sort o f pain t The o i l a n d .

va r nish with whic h the paper is manipulated to r ende r

,

it waterproof make it d iaphanous an d yellow t he colou r

, ,

su itable for those wearing the robe o f t he A ssembly .

D isregarded though these and various simila r p r escrip t ions

habitually a r e yet i t is only fair to say that many o f the
,

more conscien t ious of the B ongy i d o adhe r e wi t h s crupu

lous a tt en t ion to t he performance of t he reli g ious injun e

t ions S uch priests a r e usually t o be fou nd livin g a l ife
.

o f comparative seclusion n ea r small villages s itua t ed i n

forest trac t s where cultiva t ion i s sparse and the cultiva

,

tors t hemselves are n ot ove r well endowed with this

w o r ld s g oods

.

I n order to weaken and uproo t t he cleaving t o exis t ence

and the hankering after worldly possessions t he pra ctice ,

o f t he following thir t een classes o f aus t eri t ies ( D uti n se -

tho n h
) is enj oined n all members of the A ssembly :

a
-
o

o r eject all g a rmen t s save those o f t he meanes t

( )
1 T
descrip t ion ; ( 2 ) to possess a robe consis t ing of only t hree
I 35
 B U R M A U N D E R B R IT I S H R U LE
garmen t s o r pieces of cloth 3 ) t o ea t no food save that
which has been given as alms and u nde r cer t ain r e str i c
t ions ; ( 4 ) t o h al t before all houses alike when car ryin g
r ou nd the al m sbowl each mo r ning for alms of food ;
5) to r emain in o n e sea t while eating u ntil the rep a st be

nished ; ( 6 ) t o eat only from o ne vessel ; ( 7 ) to cease

eating when ce rtain prescribed things occu r ( 8) to reside
withou t t he town o r Village ; ( 9) t o reside a t the foot of a
tr ee ; ( 1 0 ) to r eside i n an open space ; ( 1 I ) t o r eside i n a
cemetery ; ( I 2 ) t o ta ke any seat t hat may be offe r ed and
( 3)
1 to refr ain fr om lying down u nder any circums t ances .

Only two of the above thirteen austerities t ha t may be

practised by monks are prescribed for lay devotees i n
d ul g i n g in t emporary meditation i n t he p recinc t s o f a
monaste ry eigh t may be O bserved by nu ns and twelve ,

by p robatione r s N eedless to say all t hir t een are never

.
,

now carried out b y even the mos t devou t o f P dngy i .

T h e ex tr emes t auste r ities ( M a wneya th e remaining

,

t i r ed fatigued ) are so severe tha t during t he t ime of a
,

Budd h only o ne person can be fo und capable o f practising

them as thei r perfo rmance i nvolves t he total esche wme nt
,

o f sleep They are admit t edly so trying that even the

.

most en t husias t ically religious monk cannot p r ac t ise t hem

fo r longe r t han twelve yea rs H e w h o p r actises them
.

for seven yea rs is only entitled to be considered moder

a t ely zealous T he least enthusias t ic membe r of t he
.

A ssembly should however be able to perfo r m them i n

, ,

thei r entirety for seven d a ys but the number who test ,

t hei r powers even in this leas t enthusias t ic manne r is

p r obably limited in t he nar r owes t degree I t is onl y by .

means o f such austeri t ies and by t he profoundest medi

,

ta ti o n and religious contempla t ion t ha t t he monk can ,

become r eple t e with t he s i x ki nds of ex traordina ry

wisdom ( A hi ny a n ) and the eight kinds of ex traordina ry
1

a t tainments ( Tha mma ha t) withou t which h e can neve r

,

a ttai n t he Buddhahood .

A s the possession o f p rope r ty of any so rt is essen t ially

opposed to a l ife of self den ial a nd self e ffacemen t a bso
- -
,

1
Th ese are ( I ) seei n g l i k e a N a t 2 ) h eari n g l i k e a N a t 3 ) c reati v e
, ,

p ower ( 4 ) k n owl edg e of the th ough ts of oth ers 5 ) f eed om from

, , r

passi on and ( 6) k n owl edg e of our past states of ex i sten ce

, .

1 36
 RE ! U I S IT E S O F A M O N K
lute poverty was o n e o f t he conditions imposed by the
founde r o f B uddhism upo n all hi s disciples who desired
to en t e r t he A ssembl y H ence immediately p r evious to
.
,

t he p roba t ioner being o r dained and permitted to attain

the sta t us o f a R a ha n some pious relative o r friend sup
,
s

pl ies him wit h the eight articles requ ired in t he l ife o f

poverty upon w hich he i s about t o embark These r e q u i .

sites include the three garments fo r m ing the pries tly robe
Thi ng a n S i wa r a n ) the girdle wo r n round the loins
, ,

h h ahei h P a ttwa
( R ) t he r ou nd mendicant s bowl ( )

a an , T ,

in which al ms o f food are received during each morn in g s

r ou nd a small ha t chet o r adze

, a needle ( A t) ,

and a s trai ne r ( F esi t) fo r ltering his drinking wa t e r -

.

The rs t fou r a r e p r ivate re q uisites ( A twi n l e ha ) while - -

,

the r emain ing fou r are public r equ isites ( Apy i n l e ha ) - -

.

I n addi t ion to t hese ei g ht essentials the priestly fa n

( A w a n a T p )
a r a at
, made with
, a somewhat S shaped -

wooden handle so as t o be borne o n t he a r m o r res t ed

,

o n t he s h oulde r and othe r articles to a t o t al numbe r o f

,

sixty m ay be owned by the monk but t hey are all thin gs

, ,

of n o int r insic value and n o t such as can poss ibly excite

,

cupidity or encou rage avarice .

The priestly r obe ( Thi ng a n ) consis t s of the th ree ga r

ments which alone the R a ha n is permitted t o ow n viz , .

the loose ski r t ( Thi n ha i ng ) reaching from t h e waist to ,

the heels and fastened rou nd the loins wit h a leathe r n

,

g i rdle ( R aha n ) the r ec tan g ula r bodice cove r

ing the shoulde rs and b r east and extending down to ,

below t h e knee ; and t he r ectangula r cloak ( D ug dh) ,

which folded many t imes is thrown ove r the left

, ,

shoulde r as a cloak or else may be u sed to s i t upon i n

,

defaul t of any prope r seat The Thi ng a n is dyed yellow .

wi t h the wood of the J ack fruit tree ( A r toca rp us i nteg r i-

f ol i a
), and ough t s t rictly as
,
prescribed t o be made only ,

of rags picked up here and the r e and sewn togethe r into

a robe Tho ugh often en t irely dis r ega rded this p re scri p
.
,

t ion is u sually nominally obse r ved by the yellow silk o r

cotton ( and generally t he former) which is r eceived from ,

a pious layman being rent into squa res and then stitched
,

to g e t he r I n o ne o f t h e corne r s o f each garmen t t he

.

P dngy i makes t h r ee ce r emonial holes ( K apa h ei n d u ) in ,

I 37
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
the form o f the mathematical a bbrevi a tion fo r there

fore to i ndicate the three precious g ems
B uddha the L a w a n d the A ssembly E very priestly
, ,
.

formula be g ins w ith the expression o f the profou ndest

veneration towards these three g ems .

The presentation o f ne w religious robes to a monk

takes place i n the sacred period (K a d ei n ) falling abou t ,

o u r month o f October
( ) The cloth pre

Ta aa u ng m on .

sented by t he pious laym a n is received in the chapel

Thei n ) by a chapter consis t ing o f at leas t ve monks ,

and the question is t hen pu t asking who stands mos t in

need of a robe This formula is generally disregarded
.
,

the piece of silk o r co tton bein g handed to the R a ha n

engag ed i n readin g extracts from the sacred writings .

A fter this the assembled monks a ssisted by the laymen ,

present tear the cloth into squares make the three gar
, ,

ments formin g the robe and then dye it yellow the , ,

w hole opera tion bein g performed i n the space o f o n e

day The most hi g hly esteemed kind o f robe is o ne
.

( M a tho t
-
hi n an
g ) woven entirely w ithi n the period o f t he

nigh t o f the full moon o f Ta z a u ng m on

.

N o R a ha n is permitted by the rules of the order to

ask for anythin g but this inj unction is nowadays very
,

often ignored S eldom a month went past without my

.

receiving re q uests eithe r o ra lly o r in writin g from some

, ,

P dngy i askin g for a free grant o f some valuable kind o f

timber for making a l a rg e c a noe or for repairing his ,

monastery o r such purpose I f it be poin t ed o u t to him

,
.

tha t this is hardly the right t hing for h im t o d o he ,

merely g oes off and gets a laym a n to peti t ion for h im .

E ven befo r e accep t ing any gift o r offering ( D ana A hat) ,

respec t fully made by a layman the ceremonial question

mus t be put I s it lawful , This ce r emony is likewise
observed in such pet t y ma tt e r s as when food o r wate r
is brough t t o the B ongy i by the acolytes a ctin g as postu

lants o n such occasions I ndeed any infraction of this

.
,

ceremonial i s conside r ed a s i n re q u iring confession and

expiation .

The monas t e r y whe r e the monks and others who wear

,

the yellow robe l ive u nder the supervision of the superior ,

was i n the primi t ive days of B uddhism me r ely a hut o r

1 38
 L I F E I N A M O N A ST E R Y
shed bu ilt beneath the shade and shelter o f trees as a
tting abode for r ecluse mend ican t s A s time w ent o n .
,

laymen a nxious t o gai n religious merit vied w ith each

other i n fou ndin g commodious monas t eries of imposing
dimensions often with enormous posts o f teak richly
, ,

carved bo t h inside and outside and sometimes adorned ,

with gold and coarse precious stones By far the nest .

monasteries tha t have been built withi n the last half

century a r e those which were to be seen i n M a ndalay
previous to the i ncendiary res o f A pril 1 89 2 which , ,

u nfor t unately des t royed many o f the nest o f them ,

thereby in ic t ing o n Bu r mese ar t a loss w hich can

never again be r epaired With the b r eaking up of th e
.

Cou rt of A v a in 1 8 85 and the death o f the last recog

,

n i z e d archbishop in 1 89 5 Burmese B uddhism has in fa ct

,

received t he greatest shocks it ha s eve r encou ntered ,

and it may n ow a lmost be said to have n o longer a ny

g reat central stronghold Though duly recognized as
.

t he national religion it i s no longer specially su ppor t ed

,

o r e ncou raged by the S tate .

I n the monastery e a rly risin g is invariably the order o f

the day O n g etting up about d a y li g ht t he P ongy i cleans h is
.

mouth and rinses it with wa t er w a shes his face a nd hands , ,

and repeats the prescribed formul ae A sin is committed .

by any pries t who does no t eat a toothstick regularly

o n rising every d a y before d awn and before performing ,

the prescribed ablu t ions H e then sall ies forth about

.

half past seven o clock accompan ied by monks proba

-

, ,

t i o n e rs acolytes and a few o f t he small sc h oolboys to

, , ,

make the daily round fo r alms o f food thus allowin g ,

pious l a ymen to h a ve an opportu nity o f acqu irin g reli

i o u s merit by giving a cupful o f boiled rice vegetables
g , ,

and fruit to t he mend icant followers o f the B uddha The .

rice o r food thus bes t owed is called S u n a n d th e accept ,

ance of food ( S u n ha n the) is t he t erm used for the daily
morning pe rambulation .

The monkish procession moves slowly along in I ndian

le following in the manne r o f priests ( Thi ng a z i n )
,

.

O n en t ering the village it is not lawful for any of t he

religious to look mo r e tha n six fee t ( fou r cubits ) i n fr on t
o f him and the a lmsgive r shoul d remain at a dis t ance o f
,

I S9
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
three feet when h anding the dole o f food When offe r .

ings o f food o r othe r g ifts are b rought by laymen to t he

monas t e r y they should remain a t a distance of six ya rds
( twelve cubits ) from the B ongy i A s the procession

.

passes each house i n tu r n it halts momen t arily to allow

the i nma t es an oppor t u ni t y o f placing a cupful of r ice in
t he a l m sbo wl ( Tha hei h) supported i n fron t o f the chest
,

by a band slu ng ove r the neck A s t he alms g ive r .

approaches bearing the rice in a lac q ue r ed basket ( S u n

,

d a u ng ) made fo r this pu rpose each monk raises the t i n ,

lid of the a l msbo wl ( a mode r n innovation o n i t s p r imi

t ive simplicity ) a llo ws a cupful t o fall in t o i t and t hen
, , ,

wi t hou t any word of thanks or o f r ecognition passes ,

fo r ward and hal ts again for a moment before the nex t

house S hould t his opportun i t y of ac q ui r ing religious
.

merit no t be taken advantage of by the lai t y i t is t h e ,

plai nest o f plain hints t o any P ongy i t hat he is no t

app roved of and tha t h e had be tt e r go elsewhe r e o r

,

doff his yellow r obe and become once mo r e a man F o r .

t he collection o f th e food o f the remaining inma t es o f t he

monas t ery t wo o f t h e li t tle sons of the Ky a u ng bea r

a la rger uncove r ed a lmsb owl of su i table dimensions i nto ,

w h ich food is cas t in simila r manner D urin g th e r ainy .

season i n all places where i t is impossible to collec t t he

,

alms rice by foo t the P ongy i makes his daily r ound i n a

-
,

long canoe ( L a u ng ) simila r to a racing skiff .

H aving made t he daily morn in g r ou nd o f t he village ,

o r o f h is o wn pa r ticula r q uarte r o f t h e town nea r wh ich

the P dngy i r esides the p rocession les back abou t half

,

p a st eight o clock to the monas t e r y to pa rt ake o f the t wo

meals pe r diem allowed to the R a ha n T hese are t he .

mo r ning r epas t ( M a netsu n ) pa rtaken o f abou t 9 a m, ,

and th e midday meal ( N esa n) which mus t be ea t en ,

befo r e the hou r o f noon .

I n t aking any meal t he layman is sai d to eat rice

bu t when the P ongy i eats the t erm employed ( S u np on

p e th e) l iterally means tha t he

gives glory t o the alms

food . I t being no t fo r his own grati ca t ion tha t h e
collects food but me rely t o allow t he laity t o have t he
,

opportu ni ty o f acqu iring me r i t by a good act he is only ,

a means t owa rds t he a t tainmen t of a desi rable end The .

1 40
 L I F E I N A M O NA S T E R Y
alms o f r ice t hus gloried are however in the vas t , ,

maj o r i t y of cases not th e olla podrida borne back
from t he morning r ou nd These are usually g iven to .

t he small boys and wha t remains aft er they have

,

satised t hei r appe t i t es is th rown o u t to t he pariah dogs

wi t h which t he precincts o f eve r y monas tery aboun d .

Ti t bi t s a r e g enerally supplied by the suppor t er o f the

-

monaste ry ( Ky a u ng tag a) and by o t he r admire rs bein g ,

ca rr ied to the monaste ry i n a at t ray ( By a t) p r o t ec t ed

by a pagoda shaped cover ( 0h) Bot h tray and cove r
-
.

a r e made only o f t eakwood and are lac q uered i n red , .

A s a mat t e r of fac t the self denying yellow robed

,
- -

B uddhist mendican t usually fares on t he bes t o f food ,

ob tai ning t he nes t o f rice selec t ed condimen t s t he best

, ,

o f seasonable fru it and dainty swee t mea t s

, H e l ives o n .

the fa t of the land like t he F riar o f Order G rey in days

,

o f yore . I have seen a B ongy i in Uppe r Bu rma break
fasting at 7 a m o n rice wi t h no fewer than eight d ishes
.

o f cu rr y and condiments while t wo be gging bowls s t ood

,
-

o n s t ands near him for t he sake o f appearance .

.

E a t ing is accompanied by variou s ceremonies T he .

food to be partaken o f is placed i n a d u t y bowl

( W u th wet
)
, which is brought forward by an acoly t e to
whe r e t he monks a r e seated T he latter are forbidden .

t o ea t t heir food w ith r elish They are s imply to rega r d .

the p rocess in precisely the same ligh t as the s t oke r

r ega r ds t he coaling of an engine s fu rnace E ach mouth .

ful t aken is to be small and it is to be thoroughly ,

mas t ica t ed and swal lowed before ano t he r is conveyed by

hand to th e mou t h A t t he principal or forenoon meal
.

he is to take no mo r e food than simply su fces to carr y

hi m o n u n t il nex t mornin g s breakfas t To cu rb any .

t endency towards eating for eatin g s sake he is directed

t o r eec t on the inj u nc t ion that food is t o be taken to

suppor t l ife an d not fo r the indulgence o f carnal appe t ite .

S trictly speaking the diet should be only of rice

, ,

vege tables and fruits bu t now the u se o f sh and esh

,

has c r ept in like various othe r laxities among th e

,

p r iestly O bservances I t is t rue tha t the taking o f l ife is

.

a s i n and one o f the worst of demeri t s ; bu t t he par takin g

,

of es h t hus ob t ained does no t cons t i t u t e any t hing like

141
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
an abetment o f the s i n Gorging and gluttony are .
,

howeve r not chargeable to the priesthood The monks

,
.

are as a r ule men o f spare habit a n d mo r e o r less ascetic

appearance ; and this would hardly be t he case if ,

with their life o f bodily inac t ivity they were at the ,

same time classiable as hearty eate rs A lthou g h the .

par t aking of sol id food o n any day afte r noon is

prohibited yet fou r articles may be used w h en necessary
,

to ward off the pangs of hu nger oil honey molasses , , ,

a nd butter .

A bstinence fr om i n t oxican t s of all so rts the ft h of t he ,

acts forbidden i n the ten precepts inc u mbent o n a priest ,

is ri g idly a nd scrupulously obse r ved B ut as a refresh . ,

i n g l ight stimulant is not especially fo rbidde n i n the holy

w ritin gs the che wi ng o f a quid consisting o f a p iece of
,

b etel nut of the A r eca pal m and a leaf o f the betel vine
- -

( C h a vi ca hetl e
) avou r ed with
, a t iny bi t o f t obacco

and a touch of lime is la rgely indulged in and smokin g

, ,

also t o a less exten t L ike the feeding bowl the betel

.
-
,

box (K on i t) is always brought forward by an acolyte

a nd placed nea r the P on When not either sleep ng

gy i i . ,

eatin g or enga ged i n r epeating religious precepts

, ,

priests and monks may be sai d to be almost always

chewing betel .

The dangers of a l ife o f ease of this so rt have been

dul y foreseen and provided for and the R a ha n i s ,

enj oined to tell o n the beads of his rosa ry at least o n e ,

hundred and twenty times a day the four medita t ions ,

concern ing the re q uisites o f food clothin g abode and , , ,

medicine I eat t his rice to maintain life and not to

satisfy a ppeti t e I wear this r obe to hide my nakedness ,

and no t from vanity ; I l ive i n this monastery to b e

p r otec ted from wind and wea t her and not from vanity ; ,

I drink medicine to keep my heal th and enable me to ,

perform my religiou s duties They are l ikewise .

orde r ed to repeat daily t he forty great subj ects o f

med itation which are detailed in condensed form in the
fo r ty sec t ions o f t h e medita t ive rite ( B d wa n d ) .

When not otherwise engaged the R a ha n can b rin g ,

h is m ind in t o a contemplative mood by mut t ering the w

A nei ssa D ohha A n a tta : L etha n a thon ha

formula ,

,

,
- -
,

1 42

TH E RE L I G I O U S LI FE
lea ding his though t s to the contempl a tion o f transitori
ness misery unsubsta ntiality : t he three unrealities o f
, ,

the present s t ate of existence and su rely a wide and

pro table eld of contemplation fo r all whether professed ,

Buddhists or no t .
1

The monks usually give themselves up t o this sort o f

contemplation i n a recumbent position after the midday
meal and soon medi tate aloud with the heavy regular
, , ,

nas a l intonation o f snorin g .

The rosa ry ( S ei hp a di : beads for coun t i ng ) used

by monks nuns and laymen consists o f 1 0 8 hea d s

, , ,

r epresenting the n ine times t welve diffe rent kinds o f

l iving animals subj ect to t he eternal la w enunciated by
Ga n dama The beads m a y be made o f bone of horn
.
, ,

o f the hardened gum o f the Z i tree Z i zyph

( us
j a ah
j a
) ,

of cocoan ut shell or of imit a tions o f precious stones , .

V iewed as a w hole there can be no doubt that even , ,

amon g such a lazy and indolent nation as the Bu rmese

certainly a r e t he l ife of a priest or monk is regarded
,

by many as rather an easy and pleasant way of g ettin g a

living They are not priests o r monks in the A n g lican
.

o r the R om a n C a tholic sense of the word nor are they ,

m inisters o f reli g ion i n the S cottish meanin g of the

te r m T hey read the l a w to the l a ity on the fou r holy
.

days of each month Bu t they do not either by word .

,

o r deed exhort the men an d women of the world to

,

renou nce its sins and t emptations o r to cl ing stea d fastly

to the better life They merely read mech a n ically the .

scriptu res contai ning the enunciation of the eternal law ,

and leave it to t he m e n and women to devote themselves

to works of merit o r demerit as they may choose I n .

addition to repeatin g the ve great precepts for lay life ,

and the principal t enets of the reli g ious philosophy of

G a u d a m a the P ongy i recites periods i n praise of t he

1
S h oul d th e e el d s of m edi tati on n ot s f ce he may l e d his
s u ,
a

t h ough t i n t su h sp e i l
s o h nn el a the v g e te t si n s b i n g in g
c c a c a s s e r a s r

i mm ed i at t ib u ti on k i ll i n g a f th
e re r kill i n g m oth e k ill i n g a e r, a r, a

R h nd
a a b out to b om e a B ud d h i i n g a bl i t on B ud d h
a a ec , ra s s er a

h l f k n m k n g h i m n the A se mbly ;
( w o es i e c t b e t a nn o
e ) n d i a c i,
a a a s s s

the ve g e t d ee d e n u n i ti o n su e n d e in g on e h i l d en
r a of s r c a rr r s c r ,

p op e ty li fe wi fe an d on e o wn v l i ti o n ; the th e w ys of p u tti n g
r r , , ,

s o r e a

aw y si n m om e n t i ly te mp or a i ly
a ar nd e n ti ely ; an d m an y o th
,
r , a r ers
.

1 43
 B U R M A U N D E R B R IT I S H R U LE
vene rable B uddha and d wells feelingly o n t he g rea t
merit ob tained by almsgiving

S ometimes it is true .
, ,

t he B ongy i is called to t he chambe r o f the rich I n t his .

case howeve r it is no t to soo t he t he suffe r ing sinner and

, ,

to lead his t hough t s into a religious channel tha t he is

c alled ,bu t merely because a remnan t o f t he geniolatry

u nderlyin g Burmese B uddhism the sick man h opes

tha t the repetition o f t h e pious formul ae will per h aps help
to drive a way the evil spirits causing his sickness H ere
. .

t he pa tt e r o f the priest is but the incan ta t ion which it is ,

hoped will break t he spell cast by the S pirits When

, .

asked to go o n such a n errand o f mercy the P dngy i will ,

s ay, I f circums t ances allow I will come I f any , .

denite promise we r e made o ne of t he p r ies t ly r ules ,

would be violated .

The P ongy i does no t assume t he yellow r obe fo r t h e

purpose of visiting and p r eaching to the sick or minis t er

i ng to the spiri t ual wants o f those who are saddened wi t h
s orrow o r suffering fr om s i n T his cold cynical at h eistic
. , ,

r eli g ious philosophy i s essen t ially diffe r en t fr om the

s ympa t hetic charity o f C hristiani t y calling aloud C ome
, ,

u n to me all ye tha t labou r and a r e weary and I will give

, ,

u rest The layman becomes a simply and

y o . P on
gy i
s olely i n o r de r t o save himself in t he next state o f

e xis t ence by the acqu isition o f r eligious meri t durin g th is

l i fe
. H e neither cares nor pre t ends t o ca r e a bout any
, ,

o t he r person s hereafter excep t h is o wn H e has no

.

cu re o f so uls H e feels no call either to r eason wi t h

.

t hose w h o d is regard the law o r to r ebuke those w ho

habi t ually t ransgress i t By dedica t in g h imself to t he
.

(r el igious life he simply i n t ends t o walk mo r e t ho r oughly

i n t he t rue path of the e t ernal law so as t o obvia t e t he ,

c hance o f his rebir t h as a bru t e animal i n the next s ta t e

.

-o f exis t ence B y becoming a religious mendican t t he

.

R a ha n merely transfo r ms himself in t o an objec t upon

w h ich t he r eli g iously inclined layman can shower al ms
.and pile up for himself merit i n the shape of good works
K h h o) whose good inuence ( K a n ) will affect his o wn
( t ,

fu t u r e des t iny .

Works o f r eligious meri t are various i n description ,

incl uding eve ry thing t ha t may be of u se t o t he public or

1 44
 W O R K S O F M E R IT
to t he priesthood ; bu t naturally from the inuence o f ,

the latte r the works of merit are chie y for t he bene t

,

o f t he reli g ious Whoever suppl ies t h e P a r ei hhay d o r

.

eight r e q uisites for t he ordination o f a probatione r b e

comes a R a ha ntag d whoeve r fou nds a monastery b e ,

comes a Ky a u ng tag a whoeve r bu ilds a pagoda becomes ,

a P ay d tag a and so on , The highes t honou r in t his .

r espect is the title of P y i ssi te ha B ay ag a t o him who p ro - -

vides the fou r g ifts of a monas t e r y a p r iest s robes food ,

, ,

and med icine O ne o f t he mos t useful of these cus t oms is

.

t ha t of bu ildi n g bridges across s t reams and r es t houses -

( Z ay at fr om S a a t a place o f eating nea r monaste r ies

, y , ,

pagodas or alongside o f the permanen t r oads or pa t hs

, .

T hese r es t houses are all r aised above th e g r ou nd an d

-

consis t of a long open ve randah lead ing in t o a somewha t

h i gh e r but low roofed chambe r either u nwalled o r else
-

closed o n th r ee sides M any o f th em in U ppe r B u rma .

,

especially are beautifully ornamented wi t h ca r ved wood

,

work all r ou nd t he eaves and alo ng the roof t r ee -

.

A ppa r en t ly tree plan t ing has never i n B urma been

conside r ed a work o f religious meri t as i t was in N orthe r n
I ndia even as ea rly as the time o f A soka acco rding to ,

t he inscrip t ions o n h is monoliths dating from the m iddle

o f the th ird cen t u r y B C Bu t t his p robably was because . .
,

excep t i n t he d r y cent r al zon e o f Upper B urma all t he ,

r oug h clearances for ca rt t racks or paths supplying th e

place o f roads ran for t he mos t pa rt t h rou g h t r ee j ungle
, ,

giving a m pl e shade and s h elte r One form o f religious .

merit particularly agreeable t o t he weary wayfarer is the

erection here an d t here of wooden stands ( Yeoz i n ) upon
wh ich pots o f drinking wate r a re placed to q uench t he
thirst of the passe r b y -
.

Consec ra t ed p r ope rt y is divided in t o t hree classes

th at belonging t o monks of a pa rt icula r local ity that ,

belon g in g to R a ha n and la y men al ike and that belonging ,

t o a Buddha and R a ha n alike .

I t is u nfortu nate however t ha t meri t fo r himsel f is

, ,

n o t ob t ainable by any o n e w ho carries o u t repairs t o a

monastery o r rest house Whatever me r i t i s thereby

-
.

ac q u irable goes to the accoun t o f t he original builde r .

H ence if a s on or daughte r carry ou t r epai r s t o an

,

V OL . II . 1 45 L
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
edice built by thei r father o r mother it w ou l d i mply ,

tha t t he l ife account o f t he latter was lackin g i n merit .

The conse quence o f this is that after the lifetime o f the

bu ilders the mon a s t eries o r rest houses are very often -

a llowed to fall into disrepair and to become ru ins ,

h a rbou rin g snakes and other noxious animals M ore .

over there is now a distinc t tendency o n the part of

,

men accumulating savings to hoard o r inves t them in

pl a ce o f spendin g them in w orks o f this sor t U nder .

B urmese rule to be known o r suspected o f havi n g

,

we a lth meant O ppression a n d squeezing ; whereas u nder

Bri t ish rule the B urman knows now that w hat he has he
holds wi t hout fear o f r eceiving special a t tention from
those s e t i n authority over him except a s regards the ,

collection o f income ta x I t was not w ithou t good

.

r eason that the Bu r m a n i ncluded t he governin g classes

a mong the ve kinds o f enemies rulers wate r re

, , ,

thieves and w ind This grea t er security o f l ife and

,
.

property unde r British governmen t must con t ribute

to w a rds the g radual lessening o f the hold of Buddhism
on the people at larg e I t certainly has done so in
.

R angoon where wealthy Burmans m a y n o w be seen

,

d riving abou t i n carriage and pair with an ostentation

- -

which t h ey dared not have ventured on u nder Burmese

r ule I n M oulmein o n the other hand tw o builders o f
.
, ,

pagodas o n e male and one female have recen t ly been

, ,

rushing headlong to pecuniary ru in in the desire o f e a ch

to acqu ire illustrious merit for themselves by ou tshining
the othe r i n the dimensions and mag nicence o f the
pagod a s built by them .

The mere giving of gifts is n ot i n itself held to

be indiscriminately meritorious fo r a distinction is ,

made between the gifts o f the righ t eous m a n and

those o f the wicked F urther d is t inctions obtain such
.
,

as whether o ne makes gifts o f articles superior o r e q ual , ,

or inferior to what o n e uses one s self w hether the ,

gifts are made freely or grud g ingly or whether they are ,

made in a spiri t o f faith and with due respect t o the

T he P ong yi has always been treated w ith t he p r ofou nd

est veneration by every o ne from the kin g downwa rds , .

1 46
 I N F L U EN C E O F M O N K S
I t is considered a S ign of extreme rudeness if any Bu r

man passes a rel igious without stoopin g i n a n attitude

of respect This venera tion is sh own to hi m after death

.

as well as du ring l ife ; and the obsequ ies o f a priest

( h a lways cons t itute a g reat festival through

P o n
gy i y a n
)
o u t the whole countryside .

The strong hold which the P ongy i u ndoub t edlypossesses

over his c o reli g ionists i n B urma arises mainly from the

-

two facts th a t hi s life is save only in most exceptional,

cases o n e of purity a nd tha t for cen t u ry after cen t ury

, ,

the monastery has u n t il compara t ively recently been the

, ,

only seminary i n which the arts o f r eadin g writin g and , ,

elementa r y arithmetic have been taugh t R esidence i n .

the monas t ery is no life of mere mock modesty cloakin g

debauchery and sensuality I t is even allowin g for the .
,

relaxation that now exists from the primitive austerities ,

still a life o f self denial and continence The custom o f

-
.

sendin g youn g boys to wear the yellow r obe for a time

and to l i ve i n t he monastery has fostered a spirit o f
respectful deference and venera t ion which n ever becomes
completely lost i n later years ; for the cleanness and the
purity o f a P ongy i s l ife a r e very d iffe r en t from th e

sensuality o f the Brahmin priest o f I ndia who bullies ,

his c o reli g ion ists and domineers over them

-
.

The reli g ious ceremonies connected with adm ission

into the A ssembly vary a ccord in g a s the postulant is a n
acolyte ( S hi n o r M a u ng S hi n ) of t en de r years or a pro
b a ti o ne r ( Up a z i n ) who has r eached the prescribed
twentie th yea r of a g e .

Before a boy becomes a S hi n abou t the t ime of at t ain ,

ing the a g e of puber t y he i s duly instructed i n such

,

matters as how he shall address his reli g ious superiors ,

how he mus t dress and eat wha t duties he must perform , ,

etc There is a separate ordinance ( S hi n hy i n Wu t) de

.
-

tailin g all these re g ulations O n the day xed for this .

auspicious event the lad is decked o ut in whateve r n e r y

his parents possess or can borrow T hen he is seated o n a .

pony and with a golden u mbrell a borne a loft over his

,

head fo r this one occasion a n honou r other w ise reserved

fo r roy a lty o r for t hose only who a re thus favoured by
,

royal prero g ative he i s led circu itously through the

I 47
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
s tr eets o f t he t own o r village to t he monaste ry Th is is .

t he g r eates t festival in a Burman s l ife for in t he fun and

ol l i ca t i on o f h is own obsequ ies h e can obviously take no

j
ac t ive pa r t i n p r op r i af or ma A fte r prelimina ry beating of

a small d rum ( P a l uhtuh) the me r ry mins trelsy strikes up

and heads the procession wending i t s way slowly to t he
monaste r y I t is accompanied by a gay esco rt of fr iends
.

and r elatives a t ti r ed in gorgeous array and bea r ing gifts

,

o f every possible description fr om e ggs fr u i t betel boxes , , , ,

bowls and t he like to lamps clocks and even long arm

, , , ,

chai r s T he g r eates t ostenta t ion possible to t he means

.

o f the paren t s is obse r ved i n order t o ma r k t he honou r

the lad is en t itled to in thu s t u r ning his back u pon the

pomps and van i t ies of life and seeking t he seclusion o f a ,

monas t e ry H uman na t u r e is howeve r much t he same

.
, ,

all th e world over and an imposing S hi npy u p rocession

,

is rega rded i n Burma ve r y much in the same li g h t as a

ne wedding i n E ngland .

O n arr ival a t the monas t ery the P ongy i is fou nd

1

seated along wi t h his m onks and p r obatione rs the ,

faces o f all being p r o t ec t ed by t heir large fans from the

dis q u ie t ing i nuence o f the eyes o f t he fai r sex H ere .

t he lad is stripped of h is ne ry while ex t racts a r e r ead ,

from t he sacred books When his g ay appa rel has been .

r eplaced by a spotless piece o f new whi t e cotton his long ,

hair is cu t o ff and handed to his mother o r sister t o be ,

offered up at any shrine or pe rchance to be used as a

switch t o su pplemen t scanty locks The t onsu re is then .

applied t he lad meanwhile bending his head ove r a white

,

cloth held at t he co r ners by fou r o f the elde r male members

o f the family stock t o which he belon g s H is shaven .

head is nex t smeared with saffron and washed with a

p repa ra t ion of the fru it o f the soap acacia ( M odecca tr i l o
ha ta ) . T hen he is bathed from head to foo t a rich ,

waist cloth is wrapped r ound his loins and he is ready ,

t o app roach t he P o i with t he re q uest to be admitted

n
gy
i n t o the monas t e ry K neeling down in an a tt itude of
.

respec t ful obeisance he repeats t he p r escribed formula

1
In L ower B m ur a the c ere m ony often t k es pl ace i n a temp o ary
a r

e rec ti o n (M a nda t ) i n fro t of

n the pa r en ts h ou se b u t the p op er c e e

,
r r

mony i s as a b ov e b
d escri e d .

1 48
 T H E A C O L YT E
for pe r mission to become a proba t ioner for the pries t hood .

The eight r equisi t es fo r a monk havi ng previously been ,

p rovided by t he pa r en t s or r ela t ives are handed to hi m ,

by t he B ongy i and this constitutes admission to t he

m onastery .

Wearin g the three yellow garments forming the monk

ish r obe he nex t morning takes par t i n the processio n
,

making the daily morni ng round fo r the alms of food

upon which the r eli g ious body is enj oined t o subsist .

B ut as a ma tte r o f fac t meals of the ordinary kind a r e

, ,

often sent from his late worldly home for his speci a l use .

I n addition to practising reading writing and elemen , ,

ta r y arithme t ic t he youn g lad is supposed to apply him

,

self d ili g en t ly t o the study o f the sacred books and also ,

t o ministe r to the wants o f the monks Thus he brings . ,

forwa r d thei r meals and a supply of water at the proper

times places t heir betel boxes i n a convenient position
, ,

and performs many simila r menial du t ies H e also .

accompanies them wheneve r they may have occasion to

go abroad D u r in g his residence i n t he monas t ery he
.

mus t obse r ve all t he ten precep t s bindin g o n a monk ,

and not merely the ve duties incu mben t o n the laity .

For at leas t seven days the acoly t e must r emain i n the

monastery at the end o f which t ime he may wi t h t he
, ,

consent of his parents return again t o the world bu t it

,

is considered much more becomin g i n a young lad to

remain so long as to include a t L eas t one L en t ( Wa ) .

T h is pe r iod may be and very oft en is ex t ended to t wo

, ,

o r t h r ee yea r s Throughout such time he may visi t his

.

paren t s provided that he is neve r absen t from the

,

monas t ery between su nse t and su nrise D urin g this .

period he no t u nfr equ en t ly becomes imbued with the

desire fo r the l ife religious o r else feels the easy lazy
, , ,

and hi g hly respected status o f a monk not a t all a bad

substitute fo r the ha r der life o f a layman I f the la tt e r .

have mo r e ple a su res i t has also g rea t e r hardships and

,

greater t empta t ions to works of demerit ; hence the

chance of becomin g a dog o r a cat a snake o r a worm , ,

in t he nex t s t ate o f existence is most easily and e ffe c tu

ally ci r cumven t ed by adherin g to the placid mono t ony o f
life in t he monas t e r y I n t his case the acoly t e pays mo r e
.

1 49
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
attention to the readin g o f the sacred books and to the ,

studies of the duties r ules and obli g ations O f the priest

, ,

h ood and thus he becomes a probationer for R a ha n ship

,
-
.

The ordinat ion ceremony ( Thei hha ti n) by means o f -

,

which a probationer is admitted into the A ssembly can ,

only take place i n a chapel ( Thei n ) measuring not less than

twelve cubits in len g th excl u sive o f the por t ion where
,

t he probatione r aw a its ordination H ere the chapter .

assembled must nu mber at least ve monks i n ju ngle

places o r small villages and not less than ten in towns
,
.

The sen ior priest presen t is constituted the president

( pU az i n
) wh ile another
, P dn
gy i undertakes the duty O f

ord ination teacher ( K a m m a wa S ay a) who reads the ,

ordination service ( K a m m a wa) a ddresses to the cand i ,

date the ceremonial questions prescribed i n the latter ,

and thereafter presents the novice to the chap t er for

admission into the A ssembly The book containin g the .

ordination service of t he Burmese p riesthood is w ritten

i n t he Pal i character either on the pal m leaf o r else o n ,

o l d waist clo t hs worn by the kin g o n me t al or o n ivo ry , , .

A s no o ne was permitted to wea r the old silk waist cloths

O f t he kin g they were lacquered rst in black and then
,

i n red till they became as exible as thin whalebone

, ,

when they were c ut into strips o f abou t ei g hteen o r

t wenty inches lon g by four and a half inches broad and ,

on this grou nd of smoo t h bright red lac q uer the squ a re

Pal i tex t was written with black va r n ish an exudation ,

from the Thi tsi t ree (M el a n or r hoea u si ta ta ) S uch are

'
.

s t i l l n o t difcult to ob t ain but t hose o n ivory a r e rare

,

and valuable .

This prescribed ri t ual in t errogates t he proba t ioner as

to his fr eedom from hereditary congeni tal diseases such ,

as leprosy and scrofula as to his bein g legitima t e and a

,

freeman and as t o his being twenty years of age and

,

provided with t he ei g ht requ isites o f a p r iest I t t h en .

proceeds t o recite circumst a ntially the ten p r ecepts t o be

observed by the religious and ends wi t h detailing and
,

warnin g him agains t t he fou r S ins u npa rdonable i n a

monk after which the candidate r eceives t he Up asa m
,

pa da or full admission t o the privileges O f membership

o f the A ssembly .

15o
 EXC O M M U N I C A T I ON
A nother ceremony thou g h o ne of rare occurre n ce
, ,

which can only take place i n the Thei n or ch a pel is ,

that o f excommu nication or inver t in g the a l m sb o wl

( T h a h ei h h m a u h ) N 0 .o n e who has been admitted to the

d uties and privileges of the religious can be e x co m m u n i
c a t e d by any individual B o ngy i a chapter of not less than

ve R a ha n being necessary .

The monk charged with a n y of the fou r unpardon a ble

sins o f a priest is cited before the chap t er S tandin g in .

the place where once he stood as a probatione r hi s case

is investigated portions o f the K a mm a wct are read the
, ,

culprit s robes are taken from him hi s a l m sb o wl is

inverted and placed mouth downwards on the grou nd ,

and he is driven forth an outcast to become a soci a l , ,

pariah from whom no pries t will knowin gly accept alms

, ,

and w ith w hom no l a yman will willingly have any deal

ings T hus banned the excommunica t ion is notied to
.
,

all other R a ha n and all in uenti a l l a ymen i n t he district

, ,

by means of let t ers t o avoid ( Ky i n sa )

.

True excommunication c a n only be c a rried o u t i n the

case o f a membe r o f the A ssembly for no o ne can s i m ul ,

t a n e o u sl y be both monk and layman But a somewhat .

S imilar ce r emony known by the same name is sometimes

, ,

carried o u t when a P ong y i i n his daily mornin g rou nd

refuses the offerin g of any particular layman by invertin g

his a l m sb o wl N o monk would dare to do su ch a thing
.

without some well established r eason When this pro

-
.

ce e d i n
g is ex t ended t o a whole section o f a village it is
t he mos t powerful protes t that the priesthood can make
agains t conduct t o which they obj ect .

A s in the case of ou r own church followin g t he ancient ,

custom prescribed amon g the J ews Burmese Buddhism ,

prescribes that a day for observing the performance

o f religious du t ies h oh shall be s e t apart
( )

U sa u n
g N e

once a week These d uty days are xed accordin g

.

to the phases of t he moon bein g respectively the day o f ,

t he change to t he n e w moon t he ei g hth d a y of the ,

waxing moo n t he full moon and the eig h t h day o f the

, ,

w a ni ng moon The days o f t he n ew and of the full

.

moon are conside red t he mos t impor tan t for observance .

On th e evening before the duty day t he pious laymen

I 5 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
assemble a t the r es t house ( Z ay at) and th ere spend t he
-

night in medi ta t ive p r epa rat ion fo r the communion that

is to be held o n the following day O n all o t her .

occ a sions in life only the ve precepts fo r laymen are

binding but during t he whole t ime o f Uhoh all t he t en

priestly p r ecepts ought to be observed .

The men occupy separa t e res t houses from th e women -

o n t hese occasions o f medita t ion a nd r eligious contempla

tion O ne cannot fail to remark that the men and

.

women who obse r ve t hese holy days are fo r the most

par t very o ld people anxious to make sure about hav
ing a bal a nce o f merit standin g t o the credit o f thei r
life account N ex t mornin g the B ongy i a nd monks

.

come to the r est house where seated apart from t he

-
, ,

laity and wi t h t hei r large fans placed so as to screen

t hei r eyes from the fa t a l beau t y of women they read ,

portions of t he sacred books A fter th e readin g o f the .

law the res t o f the day is spent i n the t elling o f beads

, ,

in r epea t ing religious fo r mulae while prostrated i n fr on t

o f the pagoda o r kneeling devoutly befo r e some shrine

containing an imag e of G au d a ma and i n meditation , .

S ecul a r conversation de t rac ts from t he meri t otherwise

obtainable The du t y day is thus a day o f fas t ing
.
,

praye r and communion

, .

The three mon t hs r eckonin g from t he full moon o f

t he be g inning of L ent ( Wa so J une o r J ul y) t o the full

, ,

moon of the conclusion of religious duties ( Tha d i ngy u t

,

S eptember o r October) constitu t e the Bu r mese L ent

( W a
) ,a season regarded by devout and especi a lly by

elderly B uddhists as a peculiarly sacred se a son to be spent

i n fasting in regula r attendance at pag odas and shrines
, ,

and in careful observance of all the prescribed r eli g ious

duties D urin g this L en ten period a monk s taying away
.

from his monastery for a night loses h is religiou s charac

t er through breach o f monastic vows unless he continues
r epea t ing the p r esc r ibed formula fo r permission The .

pio us layman suffering from s ickness should t o be ,

orthodox re q ues t a dispensa t ion ( Wa ha n) from the

,

duties o f L ent .

The es t eem i n which a P ongy i is held is gauged

ccete r i s rih by the number o f L en t s he has kept

p a us ,

1 5 2
RE L I G I O N A ND NA TI O NA L C H A R A C T E R
u ninter r up t edly without severing his connexion with the
A ssembly and min g ling again with the laity E ven a .

superio r or a bishop will pay respectful homag e to a

simple monk whose r ecord i n this respect excels his own .

The xation o f L ent durin g the th r ee mon t hs o f

summe r and no t in spring most probably has its origin
, ,

in the fact tha t i n Mag had a ( Beha r o r N ip al ) where ,

B uddhism was fou nded t hese constituted the heigh t o f

,

the rainy se a son when t he monks keep as much a s

,

possible to their monas t eries ; and this would of course , ,

give them ample opportuni t ies for studying the law and
r epeating it to the pious laymen who migh t ock there
for instruc t ion.

W ithout studying their B uddhism thei r priesthood , ,

and their reli g ious O bservances it is impossible to a cqu ire

any true insi g ht into the Burmese character as it wa s , ,

and as it s t ill is Thei r future is alas ! in some respects

.
,

no t a pleasant subj ect o f contemplation for those who

love B urma and the B urmese This anachronism as .
,

the B u rman has been ca lled by more t han one shallow

and supercial observer ( who knowing l it t le o r nothin g
,

o f the cou ntry save what can be read in lightly w rit t en

books and supplemented by a fortnigh t s tou r in B urma

au nts h is experience in print ) is u nfortunately l ikely to

,

be only t oo soon brough t up to da t e B u t the so called .

-

anachron ism is t he only possible product of the reli g ious

beliefs and t he poli t ical and soci a l evolution o f B urma in
t he past S ince the annexation o f Pegu in 1 8 5 2 however
.
, ,

indeed dating fr om befo r e t he rs t Burmese War in

,

1 8 2 6 missionary and educa t ional fo r ces have been a t

work which canno t be left out o f conside ration with

r egard t o the fu tu r e Within the las t sixteen years
.

t hese forces have been vastly augmented by the depor ta

tion o f K ing Thibaw i n 1 885 t he annexation of Uppe r
,

Burma in 1 86 6 and t he dea t h o f the A rchbishop of

,

Mandalay in 1 895 S ecula r schools are bringin g a

.

wider edu cation t o young B urmans than could eve r

possibly be given t o t h em by the P ongy i ; and m uch

is no w also being done fo r the edu cation of g irls w ho ,

were entirely neglec ted u nde r the Buddhist philosophy .

B u t o t her factors are also workin g besides education .

I 53
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
The acqu isition o f w ealth is not no w one o f the greatest
o f personal dangers as i t was in the good ol d palmy
,

days when the K ing o f A va was the secular head of the

Buddhist church : and this d irectly i nuences the a mou nt
spen t by many wealthy townsmen o n special works o f
religious merit M oreover th e popul a tion S ho ws a
.
,

decided tendency to becom e very mixed and whereve r

there has as yet been any con ict of r aces the easy ,

g oin g Burman does not a ssert hi mself as t he ttest to

survive .

S lowly but su rely the fabric of Buddhism which ha s ,

existed for over t wo thousand years i n Burma is bein g ,

broken down and i s crumblin g a w ay l ike s o m a ny of the

pag odas and shrines bu ilt to commemorate its illustrious
fou nder G a u d a m a N othing is l ikely to intervene an d
, .

stop the gradual process o f deterioration and decay whic h

has already beg un in various pa rts o f t he country .

Though Bu rma is and will i n course of time more an d

,

more become the battleeld o f Christian missions from

,

many parts of the world yet it is i mpossibl e to sa y

,

in what direction the religious bel ief of the B urmese will

tend i f they should happen to r emain as a d istinct
nationality which seems extremel y doubtful
, .

O ne thin g however is certain U nless t hey abandon

, , .

atheism and become bel ievers in some cen t ral bein g o r

,

powe r domin a tin g and g uidin g all thin g s whatever ,

chan g e is produced i n their reli g ious belief will be a

ch a n g e for the worse Cold cynic a l and tho rou g hl y
.
, ,

selsh thou g h Buddhism u ndoubtedly be yet i t is still by ,

far the purest an d the noblest o f all the creeds that have
eve r been es tablished except that which inculcates t he
beau t y o f sympathy and of charity i n addition to exho rt
ing its p rofessors to lead a life of pu rity simplicity and , ,

self deni a l in orde r to t them fo r a future state mo r e

-

g lo r ious than N ei hha n .

15 4
 C h ap t e r VI
B U R MESE B E L I E F S AN D S U P E RST I T I O NS
I K E every other nation which has not advanced fa r
up the plane of civilization and progress the ,

Bu rmese are superstitious i ntensely superstitious and ,

consequently credulous to a degree Thei r supersti t ion .

a nd their credu li t y are practically unbou nded In .

their religious a nd qu a si historical writings time and -

distance are dealt with i n the mos t open handed and -

irresponsible manner imaginable The ocean ( Tha m ud .

d a r a ) is supposed t o consist of equal parts o f salt

and water an d to be the scene o f eigh t great wonders
, ,

vi z
.
,
the continu ous al t erna t ion of ood and ebb the ,

keeping back of the waters from submergin g the land ,

the t hrowing up of dead bodies alon g the s ea shore the ,

swallowin g up of the v e g reat rivers ( no t to mention

t he 5 0 0 minor streams ) s o that these entirely lose thei r
,

names the cons t ant and unvarying volume of the w a ters

, ,

the complete fusion of the sal t wate r so as to become but

one subs t ance t h e gems and precious stones stored up
,

there as i n a repository and the spirits N a t) which have

,

thei r abode i n the w a te rs T h e ear th w z ) supplies .

t he element o f wh ich t wenty parts o f the body are

formed including t he hair nails skin t eeth bones etc
, , , , , , .

E ach l iving an imal body ( K a nd a ) is formed o f ve

constitu en t parts v i z ma t eriality t he org ans of sens a t ion
, .
, , ,

the organs of perception th e organs of r eproduction and ,

destruction an d t he o rga ns o f in t ellect and thou g ht

, .

There are ve good bod ily q ualities ( Ka l i d n a ) associated

with t he esh bones skin hair and one s a g e The

.
, , , ,

happy female possessing these ve bea uties woul d have a

wealth of hai r ruby l ips regular white teeth and a u niform
, , ,

colou r o r complexion no t marked by any blemish while

I 55
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
s he would never look O ld even thou g h she bore t w enty

children no r have a single gr ey hair thou g h S he l ived to

, ,

be 1 0 0 years of age The full force o f this las t .

mentioned gift can only be duly appreciated when the

barbarous seven days roastin g of you ng mothers a t the

t ime of childbirth is borne in mind .

Bein g fatalis t s to a ve r y grea t extent the Bu r mese ,

dul y reco g nize the dest r uctive currents of life w hich ,

bear away hum a n creatures T hese fa tal inuences .

( A w g )
a fourfold
, i n n umber are c a used by the cur r ents
,

of libidinous desire of l ife s vicissitudes o f personal

,

con tact and o f i g no rance and folly I n addition to the

, .

many othe r dan g ers with which the B urman s pil g rim a g e

t h r ou g h t he p r esen t state of existence is beset he is ex ,

posed to the mal ignant in uences of the three great evil

periods ( K a t) in which famine pestilence and S l a ugh t e r
, , ,

are r ife F ive kinds of enem ies ( Ya n ) have also to

.

be contended against v i z rulers of all sor t s ( includin g

, .
,

the su n and the moon ruling the day and the night) , ,

wa t er re thieves and ill w ishers I f a cultivator s r ice

, , ,
-
.

elds have been pa rched by drought o r destroyed by

inund a t ion he will usually describe his m isfortu nes as
,

caused by t he ve enemies
There a r e fo u r diffe rent .

kinds o f re ( Tez a w) i n t he body only o ne o f which is ,

b e ne c e n t the re ( D a t) that p r events cor r up t ion even

,

as s a lt prevents esh from becomin g tainted The .

remaining three are mali g nant including the re ( Tha n ,

d a hha n u ) arisin g from sorrow and causing the body to

waste as if i t were burned the re ( D a ha ) producing ,

inrmity and decay and the stomachic re ( P d sag a )

, ,

that consumes the food partaken o f F inally hu man .

,

beings have ve g reat masters or ty ran t s ( M a n ) i n thei r

animal cons t i t ution (K a n da M a n ) in their subj ection to ,

t he opera t ions of the fou r causes ( ac t ions mi nd season , , ,

and food A hi thi ng dy a M a n ) in passion ( K i l ethd M a n ) , ,

in death ( M i ssu M a n ) and i n the c h ief of the evil spirits

,

( D ewa u tta the A

p l
, a n N at
) .

I n closer p r oximity and en t erin g mo r e tho r oughly i nto

,

the daily life of t he Burm a n a r e the good and the evil ,

spiri t s ( N a t) tha t abide in almos t i nnumerabl e places .

T he N a t ( from t he S anskrit N a tto meaning lo r d o r ,

15 6
 T H E LA N D O F S P I R IT S

mas t e r a r e i n cl ud e d i n t h e t erm indicating ra t ional

.

human beings (L u ) ; bu t in common usag e L u means

a man or woman only while S pirits o f various kinds a r e

,

g rouped t ogethe r u nde r t h e t erm N a t A g ood man may .

i n a futu re s ta te o f existence become a N a t ; and the

co r rect exp r ession fo r the dea t h of a king is t hat he has

ascended to t he count ry of the N a t The N a t is a being .

superio r to a m a n though inferio r to a B rahma in statu s

,

and i n process of evolu t ion The land of spi r i t s ( N a t

.

P y e) is loca t ed only i n t he lowe r po rt ions o f t he celestial

regions though to many of them is given dominion ove r
,

di ffe r en t pa rt s of the ocean ea rth and sk y o r o f special

, , ,

t rees r ocks elements e t c A N a t is i n fac t a human

, , , .
, ,

being who once was a man bu t is now afte r havin g , ,

passed through the ordeal of life with a credit balance i n

favou r o f his personal accou n t advanced o ne fur t her s t ep ,

t owa r ds annihilation ( N ei hha n ) F or specially meri .

t or i o u s actions a bei ng o f an infe r ior ki nd may even b e

advanced to the s t atus of a N a t withou t rst becoming

a man as i n t he case of t he horse K antika which
, ,

leaped over t he A na wma r iver with Ga n dama o n i ts

back and then expi r ed from the effor t T here are t wo .

distinc t classes o f N a t M os t probably t he main body

.

i nhabiting spirit land was originally identical with the

D e wa o f I ndian myth ology whils t the excrescence o f ,

d ryads and spi rits abiding i n variou s animate and inani

mate objec t s gradually became g rafted o n Buddhism
through the inu ence o f the Karens and o t he r spirit
worshipping wild t ribes with which the Bu rmans succes
s i v e l y came i n con tac t The belief i n good and evil
.

spirits is o n e t ha t woul d easily t ake r m r oot in the mind s

o f s o c r edulous and supers t i t iou s a r ace .

The S piri t land forming t he lower celes t ial r egions

consis t s of six divisions I n the r s t of these o ne day
.

is equal to fty o f the yea r s of men and t h e year con ,

sists of t welve months of t hirty su ch days S pirits live .

5 0 0 o f these years , and conse q uen t ly at t ain an age o f

nine m illions o f ou r yea rs I n the second re g ion t h ey
.

l ive for yea r s each o f w hich is e q ual to 1 0 0 of the

,

yea r s of men hence their age ru ns to thirty six m ill io n -

years as measu r ed by ou r s t anda rd I n the r emain .

I S7
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
ing fou r d ivisions the a ges at t ained a re respecti vely
1 44 5 76
, ,
and millions of t he years o f men .

T he most prom inent a n d mos t po w erful o f a l l the

spirits is t he Thag ya M i n the chief o f the thir t y three ,
-

spirits loca t ed in t he second division ( Tawa dei n tha ) o f

t he lower celestial re g ions This ch ief spiri t was o n .

Visi t ing te r ms w ith the K in g o f B urma To fa cilita t e .

in t ercou rse a hole ( Thagy d ha u h; M i n hon ha uh) was made

,

i n t he ceiling o f the palace o n t he north S ide to admit

the Thagy a M i n I n his abode in the lo w er cel es t ial
.

region the Thag y a M i n s its upon a t hrone ( B a nd u ha n )

forming ordinarily a cool soft and pleasant resting place , , ,

bu t which becomes ho t hard and u ncomfortable when , ,

anything requiring his assis t ance t akes place he r e below

i n t his world o f men or when anything is occurring t o
,

threaten danger to his exalted ofce F or example .

,

when a good man is stru gg ling with adversity the fact

is t hus commu nicated t o the ruler i n sp iri t land .

I t is neithe r custom a ry n o r s a fe for people to speak

about the spirits lest they may be offended H ence it is
, .

usu a l to refer to them as m a s t er o r great lord

shi n A shi n
( A

,
gy )
i But apparently
.

as a body the spirits , ,

are ki t tle cattle ; for however euphem istically a n d ,

circumspectly they may be referred to t hey cannot be ,

depended o n i n any strait A n example of t his c kl e .

ness o n their part is exhibited in the B urmese equ ivalent

to out of the fryin g p a n i n t o the re as expressed in ,

the r hymin g couplet

Kya c h auk 16 S h i n gyi k 6 ,

S h i n gyi kya tet 5 6

, , .

F eari n g g h y trusted
the ti er, t e the N a t,
B ut soon fou n d th i s a lly m uc h worse t h an th at .

From p r udential motives reference t o spirits is omi tt ed

from t he list of the fou r things t hat cannot be trusted a
t hief the boug h o f a tree a r ule r and a woman I n
, , , .

some par ts o f Upper B urma ti g ers a r e euphemistically

referred to as the i ncarnatio n o f a body ( Ag a u ng

P a l a u ng ) i n case they may happen to be spirits and to

,

be displeased at being called tigers M ore particularly .

is this the case wi t h reference to man ea t ing ti g e r s -

,

15 8
 T U T E LA R Y S P I R I T S
whic h are also often thus politely mentioned in L ower
B urma .

The tu t elary saint of she r men is however a spirit , ,

( S h i n
gy )
i I
. n inland sheries a portion o f the lake or

pon d is usually s e t apart and S pecially reserved for the

bene t and the propiti a tion o f the A shi n Pl a ys are .

often g iven in honour o f the spi r its and a r e performed ,

in sheds ( N a thana ) erected S pecially fo r the purpose .

L arge bu ildin g s ( N a tha n ) a re someti mes built and dedi

c a te d either to individual spirits o r to the chief N a t ,

while smalle r constructions ( N a tsi n ) are frequently to

be seen nea r villa g es o n the banks o f s t reams where
sheries are fo r med S uch miniature spiri t houses a r e
.

s t ill to be seen o n al l t he principal bu ildings withi n t he

palace e n cl os u re i n Mand a l a y
'

Food and water are

.

sometimes laid down in propitious places as an offerin g

to t he S pirits by B urmans and habitually by K arens ;
,

whilst p rovisional offerings a r e also made with the

in t en t ion of being supplemented by more substan t ial
dedications a t some futu re da t e .

The S piri t s are not necessarily malevolent They .

furnish t he wild rice ( N a t S a ha) yieldin g a sca nty meal,

in t ime o f fami ne B ut t he majority o f them a re evil

.

spiri t s (N a tso) a n d in any case it seems t o t he B urman

a good thing to try and keep o n favou rable terms with
them both individu a lly and as a body I n most villages
, .

can be found persons possessed by a spirit causin g loss ,

o f reason or some other deplorable physical defect .

H ere and t he r e too men can be me t with who have

, ,

s poken wi t h t h e voices o f children ever since the N a t

stole away t heir o wn prope r voices .

T he chief o f the good spirits ( Wa thon da r e) is the

guardian N a t of th e earth H e is ever o n the alert to

.

r ecord and t o bea r w itness to the religious merit and t he

good deeds of t he devout worshipper I t is to this .

g uardian spirit that the Bu rman appeals as a witness

when dedica t in g any religious offering I n case Wa thdn .

d a r e may perchance be o t herwise en g aged at t he

moment i t is with a view to c a lling h is particular atten
,

tion to one s own special devotion tha t the pious Bu rman
invariably gives a sou ndin g blow wi t h the crown end o f
I 59
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
a deer s antle r t o the l ip of o ne o r o t he r o f t he la rge

heavy bells ( Ka u ng l a u ng ) hung in convenient places

r ound the platfo r m of eve r y pagoda C e r tainly it would .

neve r be consisten t with the idea o f t he debit and c r edi t

account system formin g t he basis o f the B uddhistic rel i
,

g ion if the pious Bu rman we r e to coun t h is beads and

,

worship i n devou t r eve r ence withou t rs t making su r e

that he h ad secu red the at t ention of t he gu ardian spi r it ,

who ac t s as t he r ecording angel I t seems eminently .

desi rable to the Bu rman t o call the attention o f the

highe r powers to the fact o f the fullment of religious
O bservances and i n this respect to be mo r e of t he
,

Pha r isee than o f the P ublican on such devout occasions .

The r e are also many spiri t s who a r e something l ike

t u t ela r y deities to certai n t owns and families S ome are .

t he genii of par t icular local ities o th ers r eside i n t he ai r

or in clouds ; and o th e r s again a r e d r yads inhabi t ing

t rees rocks pools e t c T h ey take cognizance of t he

, , , .

actions o f men some t imes sympa thizing with those who

,

act rightly and a t ot h e r t imes p r eventing the ac q uire

,

ment o f meri t by men who may su pplant t hem i n the

possession of the v a r iou s amenities and powers they
have attained in spirit land E ven if o ne only slips and
-
.

falls to the g rou nd i t is well to make an offerin g t o the

,

g uardian S pirit of the earth at t he spo t w h ere o n e has

received the fall ; for w ho knows whethe r t he N a t may
be offended or not
Guardian spi r its are not all so well i nclined o r so
easily deal t with as Wa thond a r e O n t he found ing of a
.

new city by any K ing o f Burma i t was customa ry t o

perform S a de by bu rying larg e jars o f o i l at each of the
1

four corne rs o f t he ci t y whilst wi t h much ce r emony men

,

were also eit h e r killed and bu ried or else bu r ied al ive in ,

order tha t t hey might become the permanent gua r dians o f

the ci t y A round the ou t e r walls o f M andalay a t the fou r
.
,

corne r s and close t o the principal entra nce g ates may be ,

seen seve ral small whitewashed stupas forming the abodes

o f these gua r di a n spiri t s o f the royal city M
( y osa un
g
N a tsei n ) E ven so la t e as 1 8 7 8 in L ower B urma a fter
.
,

1
A som ewh at si m i l ar te m S di i s u ed to d en ote any em ony
r , a , s c er

r eg ard e d as a c h ar m to vert o em ov e e vi l ( see p age 6

a r r 1

1 60
 EV I L S P I R I T S
twenty v e ye a rs of British rule the belief amon g the
-
,

cou nt ry people regarding the necessity of such a ceremony

w a s s o stron g that w hen Government i nau g ura ted the
successful comple t ion o f a large engineerin g work by
giving an open air dra matic performance at Myitkyo a t
-
,

the eastern end o f the Pegu and S ittang Canal n o men ,

attended o n the rst eveni ng a n d only comparatively ,

fe w came a rmed with heavy bills ( D a ) o n the second

evenin g This too w a s afte r solemn assu rances had
.
, ,

been given by the E nglish magistrates and en g ineers

that S a de was neve r practised by the B ritish A gu a rdian .

of a different sort ( U tta sa u ng ) is the spirit of a deceased

person guarding over property ; for Burmans believe
t hat the spirits o f those who have durin g their l ifetime
i nordinately h a nkered after riches become after death the
custodians o f the property they m a nag ed to acquire .

O fferin g s m a de to the g uardian spiri t o f a town or

village are called P a l i na tsa ; but it is somewha t s ugge s
tive that this term is also applied to o fcial underlin g s
who wheedle money ou t o f liti g an t s u nder the pretence
tha t they are able to inuence their superiors i n deciding
cases in the law courts .

A t r oublesome spirit i n home life is the D ei n da l ei n ,

supposed to cause a deceived husband t o be i nfa tuated

with his wife or vice versa I n other cases when the
, .

w eaker vessel is taken possession o f by a spirit s he

becomes a N a t s consort ( N a tg a daw ) and as such is

endowed w ith the power o f prophecy o r of revealing

h idden secrets They are frequently resorted to for
.

ob taining information abou t s t olen property and as they , ,

are gossiping busybodies who make a point o f hea ring

and inquiring a bout eve ry thing g oing o n around them ,

they often can sugg est i n whose hands stolen p r ope rt y

will possibly be fou nd .

T here are many diffe r ent kinds of evil spiri t s (N a tso)

requ irin g propiti a tion T hus the cryin g o f infa nts is

.

c a used by the M a da r e N a t The Up ag a is another .

kind abiding often gregariously in trees and S imilar

, ,

obj ects which is said to be sometimes visible for many

,

have borne witness that after a child had lost its mother
, ,

they had seen an Up ag a rockin g a cradle in the jungle

V OL . 11 . 1 61 M
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
and personifying the mother A more a gg ressive and .

dan g erous kind of evil spirit is a demon g obl in o r , ,

ghoul ( Ky a t) capable o f assu ming different forms and o f

,

actu a lly devouring h um a n bein g s A nother o f a similar .

k ind ( Thay e) hau nts bu rial g rou nds forests and lonely , ,

loc a lities enters and possesses men and changes them

, ,

i nto crea tu res of g houl l ike habits -

.

The term for possession by an evil spirit ( P ay a wg a )

may curiously enou g h mean either encou ragement i n a
good sense as to works o f merit and s o forth or else the
, ,

very opposite insti g ation to evil B ut like many words .

,

in o u r own langu a g e prej ud ice for example ) the com ,

mon meanin g of the term indicates a bad inu ence .

A s evil spirits are stron g er than men it is necessary to

propitiate them and this may be done in many ways
,
.

One way is fo r ch ildren to carry a small basket (K a w

hwet) in w hich offerings o f d ifferent kinds o f rice o w ers , ,

etc h a ve been placed to the outskirts o f the village

.
, , ,

and there deposit it while they chant a rambling chorus .

For person a l protection ch a rmed medicine may be tat

t oo e d into the esh o f one s body i n order to w ard o ff

the po w er of witches and warlocks The proper kind of .

cu p fo r the holding o f such charmed medicine is made

from the joints o f the bamboo pole ( Ta z uwa ) used as a
poker at the cremation o f a dead body .

A lthou g h the Burman ha s a sep a rate name fo r g hos t s

( T a se) which
, hau nt g iven houses and localities to the
terror of residents o r w a yfarers after d a rk yet he seems ,

u nabl e to make a ny distinction between g hosts and evil

spirits The former a re ho w ever respectfully treated in
.
, ,

s imilar manner to the genuine evil S pirits by propiti a tory

offerings enclosed in K a whwet I mmu nity from seeing .

g hosts ca n be O bt a ined by we a rin g o n the sm a lles t

nger o f the left hand a rin g made of a hai r from an

elephant s t a il S uch r i n g s costing abou t a penny a re
.
, ,

often worn by women and more particularly when they

,

a r e i n an interestin g condition .

A special form o f prayer ( P a r e i h) is also u sed for

preserva tion from evil more particul a rly in times o f
,

s ickness and when takin g up one s abode i n a newly

,

built house I n ne a rly every house there is a vase

.

1 62
 B ELI EF I N CHA RM S
a r ei h g
( ) for holdin charmed owers charmed

P o a n d ,

thread ( P a r ei hche) is worn round the arm o r le g S uch .

thread also forms the cord ( L etpd hy o) used i n tyin g

togethe r the thumbs o f the dead Further ch a rmed o r .
,

holy water ( P a r ei hy e from p a r ei h a m u n tra or pra yer

, ,

for preservation from evil ) is either drunk or else

sprinkled over the person and on the ground around the
houses ; a n d it is also t hrown against the fou r corne r
posts w hich are bespri nkled both from the outside and
,

the inside I n building a house a larg e square piece of

.

white co t ton is put on the top of each post s o that the ,

four ends hang down fro m it i n order that they may ,

form pleasant res t i n g places fo r t he guardian spirit o f the

house .

The belief of the Burman in charms is childl ike in its

simpl icity and i n i ts whole heartedness I t is so a b so
-
.

l u te l y boundless a n d u nlimited that it mi g ht almost be

said to form his strongest ar t icle o f fai t h Thou g h the .

charms may time after time fail to work ye t his bel ief ,

i n their e fcacy remains j ust as rm and u nshake n as at

rst
. I f the spirits a re u npropitious or the elements
averse is no t t heir strength even mi g htier than the power
,

o f the charm A nd if malign i n uences of a more po w er

ful natu re p r event the charm working is that the fault o f ,

the ch a rm ?
I f you were to speak irreverently or dis
p a ra i n l
g g y concerning a ny charm in the presence o f a

B urman he would certainly t hink y ou a pe r son much to

,

be pitied and indeed rather to be avoided as perh a ps

, ,

exercising an evil inuence ove r some charm that he

mi g ht at the moment be employin g for the attainment o f
any end which seemed desirable in his eyes .

The u se o f charms enters larg ely into the everyd a y l ife

o f a B urman They range in scope and nature from any
.

ceremony ( S a di ) for removing or averting evil throu g h ,

the processes o f securing i nvulnerability o r the love o f

some fair but coy maid down to such pra ctical affa irs o f
,

d a ily l ife a s insuring a prot o n the sale o f goods o r

acquiring sound sleep at ni g h t Widely as the ch a rms .

vary i n their uses so also do they diffe r in their natu r e

,

o r fo r m .

One of the commone st kinds o f charm is the amulet

1 63
 B U R M A U N D E R B R IT I S H R U LE
worn either fo r preventing evil or for obtainin g
good The same term is also applied to the present
.

m a de by the parents and friends o f a bride and bride

groom on the occ a sion o f thei r marriage S ometimes its .

special objec t is to a vert evil o r calamity and to preserve

fr om danger o r harm ( B eha ) while at other times its
use is more particularly to protect the wearer from the
power o f o ne o f hi s enemies ( Yi nha ) I n recent d a ys the
.

latter term has also been much u sed i n applications for a

l icense to carry arms ; and curiously enough the only
, ,

word in Burmese for a gu n o r rie ( Then a t) means the

spirit of death Aga in when some denite but concealed
.
,

an d u nproclaimed evil deed is a bout to be committed a ,

special charm is employed ( A hwea ha ) .

F o r the securing o f favou r there are three kinds o f

med icines o r charms ( S ho) w hich have i n uence with
,

kin g s ( d a sho) with w omen (P iy a sho) o r else have a

, ,

sort of g eneral efcacy ( Tha ha sho) .

When a n y o n e ha s been bitten by a dog o r has received ,

a cu t o r when a sore ha s made its appearance o r when

, ,

the hoofs of a pony are a bnormally larg e a very simple ,

ceremony ( S a d i ) is observe d w hich consists in merely

,

inscribin g a circle round the wou nd sore o r hoof by , ,

mea ns of a piece o f teakwood charcoal whereby pecul iar ,

vi s o r power ( S et ) is conveyed to the portion o f the limb

operated o n .

Many o f the charms in common use are fo r the ga ining

o f the affections o f some loved o n e o f the opposite s e x ,

the attainmen t of wh ich by other means seems di fcul t

o r doubtful .The most potent o f these are the philtre or

love potion o f softenin g medicine ( A n use) a n d an
-

,

amulet ( H n ohng dn ) to ensu re love being reciprocated

.

The latte r is kept i n his mouth when a youth g oes cou rt

ing A decoction o f various mysterious herbs and other
.

vege table substances collected with grea t secrecy is used

for a similar pu rpose ( M i n ha u ng ) and it ha s also the
,

wonderful property o f makin g o ne i nvul nerable C o m .

pared with these ma rvellous and poten t charms that for ,

ensuring a pro t on the rate o f g oods ( Konseta i h) i s a

ve ry minor sort of aid to business .

But i n this world o f imperfectio n su r rounded as i t is ,

1 64
 TH E P O W E R OF CH ARM S
by mali g nant i nuences e a ch more o r less powerful i n
its o wn degree the efcacy o f charms is affected by
,

the deteriorati ng in uence ( Ta n a ) of i nappropri a te a cts .

Thus the virtue o f any charm suffers deteriora t ion when

the wearer passes below a brid g e ove r which any one is
crossin g or enters any house where a conneme n t is
,

taking place A n indignity o f this kind is said t o have

.

been offered to o ne of the B ritish missions sent to

Mand a lay the embassy being de g raded in the eyes o f
,

the Bur mese throu g h being conducted t o the r oyal pre

sence by means of a path passin g u nde r an archway
upon which people were stand in g The emb a ssy sent .

to A m arapura i n 1 7 9 5 was i nsulted in the grossest deg ree

by bein g conducted to the p a l a ce through the western
ga te o f the city ( S ymes B m ha ssy to A va 1 80 0 pag e

, ,

t he route by w hich m a lefa ctors were led forth to their

death and which when traversed by a king w a s the ou t
, , ,

ward S i g n o f his abdic a tion o f the throne .

Closely a llied to charms o f the above nature a r e the

various means taken for becomin g proof a gainst bullets
and w ou nds or fo r yin g throu g h the air a nd performing
,

similar fea ts beyond the u n a ided powers o f ordin a ry

human beings Ch a rms o f the above c a tegory are o f
.

course highly valu ed by soldiers and robbers On e o f .

the commonest and most potent o f these charms accord ,

in g to the received O pinion is any kind of calculus ( A m a d e)

,

formed in the body o f an an im a l o r plant T hus the .

calcul i formed in doves p a rtridges snakes o r tu rtles o r

, , , ,

in the jasmine have the special power o f renderin g the

,

wearer of such a ch a rm p r oof a gainst any wou nd inic t ed

with a sword o r knife and a like immu nity w as afforded
,

by a preparation from the bark o f the A n a nb o tree

r p te r on i a p a n i cu l a ta
( y
C ) A S imilar
. ch a rm a g ainst mis

fortu ne a n d evil generally ( Ya u ng ha n ) was bound up and

worn in their hair by Burmese soldiers The professors .

o f invul nerability K a a th ei d di S a ci ) often mix antimony

( y y
alon g with other stran g e in g redients like calculi amber etc , , .

The powe r o f att a ining the state of m ind (Z a n a ) w hich

enables its possessor to y through the air o r to go ,

throu g h t he eart h o r t o traverse other worlds than ou rs

, ,

is attained only throu g h excellence in the r eli g ious g ifts o f

1 65
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
meditation contemplation ment a l abs t raction and ecstati c
, , ,

trance The priest desirous o f a ttainin g th is state mus t

.

withd ra w to some secluded spot and shut himself o u t

from t he world . H ere S itting cross le gged he must
,
-
,

so con centrate his mind u pon one sin g le thought that

his soul becomes lled w ith supernatural ecstasy a nd

serenity w hile hi s mi nd exalted and puried rises
, , ,

a bove all e m otions o f ple a su re o r o f pain and enables

him to traverse S p a ce at w ill E xalta tion into this state .

o f b e a t i c religious tra nce is beyond the att a inment of

ordinary mort a ls ; but if any extra ordinary person

u su n h
( L a un
g) be the l ucky possessor o f a particular
kind of precious stone ( Z a wd a ) he ca n by inserting it , ,

in his mou th acquire the power O f yin g t hrou g h th e

,

ai r o r o f d ivin g below water T his term is a lso appl ied .

to those who have esc a ped from prison by marvellous

l e a ps or by renderin g themselves invisible and so o n
,
.

Bu t in the great maj ority o f cases the word is employed

in a bad sense and its most frequent use is perhaps
,

with reference to hol d determ ined thieves and men o f

notoriously b a d character .

A mong so superstitious a race i t is o f course inevit a bl e

that magic ( H m a w) must pl a y a g reat part The Bu r .

mese h a ve their warlocks ( S u n ) and witches ( S u n ma ) ,

fo r combatin g the po w er of whose spells the aid o f the

sorcerer w izard o r wise man ( Wez a ) is invoked S ome
, ,

.

o f the spells a re o f the most fatal character such as s u b ,

stances m a g ically inserted into the stomach o r other part

o f the body for the purpose o f producin g death
( p )
A i n .

The Burmese magic is more p a rticularly that in uence

by means of which various orders o f beings are co n
trolled ; hence the necromancer ( H ma ww i n ) possessed of
it is the most important o f all those practisin g this branch
o f occult science But d ifferences exis t even i n cases o f
.

possession o r o f inj ury in icted throu g h w itchcra ft fo r ,

where a s be w itchmen t by means o f a wizard o r a w itch is

a spell th a t caused by some such superhu m a n
( y
P u sa
) ,

a g ency as g hosts o r by the spirit o f any deceased person

who has met with a violen t and u nnatura l dea th is looked

o n as a

seizu re (P a n sa ) Old a g e u g liness and can
.
, ,

t a nk e r o u s n e ss are apt to cause a woman to be branded

1 66
 W I T C H ES A ND W I Z A R D S
as a witch ; w hile to be the mo t her of seven sons o r seven
dau g hters withou t h a ving borne any intermediate child
,

o f the opposite se x is a sure indication o f possession o f

,

certain supernatu ra l powers The wise men whose aid .

is summoned to cou n teract the i n uence o f w itches and

warlocks are su pposed to be endo w ed with the three
mi raculous powers o f takin g a ret r ospective V iew of
deeds and actions that occurred duri n g past ages o f
existence o f kno w i n g the inuence of a good o r evil
,

deed w hich causes an immediate resul t i n the presen t

state o f existence an d o f possessing the kind of wisdom
,

attained by the extinction o f evil desire There are fou r .

kinds o f wise men ( Wez a ) o f w hom the most hi g hly ,

es t eemed pra ctise thei r art by means o f calcul a tions o n

tables divided into columns o r squ a res o r other compart , ,

ments (I n wez a ) E ven i n necromancy it i s well to be

.

accura te A re not g u res almost as indispu t a ble as facts ?

.

The former power and in uence o f t he Wez a are already

o n the wane I t is n o t u ncommo n to hea r a person w ho

.

does anythi ng particularly well o r who has had a recen t ,

stroke O f good luck j ocularly called a Wez w ithou t

,

i ncu rrin g the fear or the d ispleasure of those within ear

shot o f s o i p p a n t and irreveren t a remark Formerly .

this would no t have been the case .

O f cou rse there a re also men skilled i n the transmuta

tion of silver and the baser metals in t o g old There .

are various methods i n which this and other varieties of

the conde n ce trick a re played upon i g norant men and
women b ut few o f these s w indlers are eve r brough t
,

withi n the reach o f the courts of j ust ice .

A mid surrou ndin g s of spiritual beings the m ajority of ,

whom are more o r less evil disposed the personal -

,

equ a tion o f any g iven ind ividu a l receives i ts due share

o f attention and brin g s its meed o f we a l o r woe
,
This .

is the personal luck ( K a n ) which m a y either be good o r ,

bad The primary meanin g o f K a n i n the ancient

.

Pal i is simply a deed o r action ; a n d the meaning

now evolved denotes the secret in uence o f any action

o n one s futu re destiny When a m a n dies his luck is

. ,

at a n end from the mere fa ct o f his having completed

t he present sta te o f existence T o have good l u ck .

1 67
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
( K a nh a u ng the
) is therefore to be subj ect t o the inuence
o f a g ood action ; w hereas to have bad luck ( K a nso the )

is to eat the fruit o f a bad action L u ck has c o ns e .

quently some w hat o f a semi reli g ious character in the -

eyes o f the Burm a n Whether he has t he good luck to

.

re a p a rich harvest o r to p a ss near a venomous snake

w ithout being bitten or the bad l uck to lose his cattle o r
,

t o m a ke no prot o n any o f his mercantile transactions ,

depends cwter i s p a r i hus m a inly o n the i nuence of the

, ,

good or bad actions committed by him with the e x ce p

tion o f course o f cases i n which t he t rend o f a ffairs is
, ,

inuenced by ch a rms spirits witches o r wiz a rds T he, , , .

K a n is also the cause of presentiments which from time

to time impel the Burman to adopt some peculiar mode o f
action The best method o f being pl a ced advant a g e
.

o u sly w ith re gard to K a n is the d u e and c a reful

performance o f all the great and l ittle deeds or

d uties incumbent upon the layman as well as o n t h e

monk A different term ( L a t) is also much u sed by
.

fortune tellers t raders shermen and sportsmen in the

-
, , ,

sense o f lu ck i ts meanin g being literally

,

a nythi n g

obtained by gift and correspond in g more to the idea

conveyed in such a phrase a s by pu re chance The
.

term eating a chance g ift is very commonly used

colloquially as a euphemism fo r bribe ry .

Unmistak a ble thou g h the in uence o f K a n be yet it ,

is not a ll powerful I t is bu t o ne o f the s t rands woven

.

into the thread of fa t e The marks O f destiny on the .

forehead ( N a husa ) are still more poten t as indica tions

of one s fate o r fortune They regulate by inevi table .

converg ence o f fate the intimate co ns or tm e n t of persons

in this l ife who have durin g a past state of existence been
more or less closely associated When appl ied to a .

m a rried couple the expression N a husa ha conveys the

,

idea that the destinies o f the man and the woman are s o

bou nd up together that they are l iterally consorts
.

A n unhappy wife may sometimes sa y in condence to a

friend that she d id not m arry he r h usband because s he
loved him bu t only because her destiny being bou nd up
, ,

w ith his s he was compelled to live with him

, A ga in .
,

the time and circumstances o f one s birth ( Z a da ) ar e

1 68
 A U S P I C E S A N D O M EN S
pregnant with fate ; for o n e may be born to be a
ruler o r born to be a thief O n matters of this sort
, .

l i g ht can be thrown by the horoscope ( Z a dap dn ) cast

for astrolo g ical pu rposes A record of the time and
.

circu mst a nces of one s bi rth ( N eswe) is therefore care

fully kept .

P a lmistry is no t very much practised amon g the

Bu rmans althou g h t here are B rahmins ( L etha n ap a t
,

P u n n a ) who predic t a person s futu re by examinin g the

.

lines and marks o n t he hand and occasionally also o n the ,

soles o f the feet A colony of such P u n na who origin a lly

.
,

came from Manipur l ived a l ittle t o the wes t of M anda

,

lay city .

Omens and auspices natu rally receive thei r full and

proper sh a re o f a ttention a n d few affairs of anything
,

but a trivi a l and commonplace nature are embarked upon

withou t ascertai nin g whether o r not the day be lucky for
the enterprise Unless a propitiou s d a y can be selected
.

for an undertaking the l a tter is deferred , F o r the .

determina t ion o f knotty points i n critical cases the aid of

the indicator o f evil ( B ed i n S ay a) is employed a man

,

ski lled in a strolo g y and in the interpretation of the horo

scope But there are v a rious broad generalizations wh ich
.

presag e good o r ill w ithout elaborate calculations bei ng

a t all necess a ry Thus it is u nlucky fo r a ny o n e to cu t
.

h is o r her nger nails or to e nails i n the house as this is -

,

supposed to cause the poverty of the owner ; hence it is

necessary t o go outside a n d perform such toilet opera tions .

E ach month is said to have t w o u nlucky days whereas ,

there is always o ne d a y ( Yety a z a) which is the most lucky

of a l l . I n the tenth month of the yea r correspondin g to ,

D ecember o r J a nu a ry it is considered u nlucky to throw

,

a w a y the ashes of res hence it is called the month for

storing up ashes ( P y a tho) Again if a wa ter lizard .

,

( P u t comes up into a house it is considered very unlucky

) , ,

its a rrival bein g a sure S ign o f poverty and misery .

T he crowing l iza r d Ta uhte) is commonly supposed by

A n glo B urmans to be a lucky anim a l to h a ve i n the

-

house ; but the Burmese look upon its bite as fa tal and
only t o be cured by putting e a rth o i l o n the tongue or by -

smearing it with a powde r made from the fruit of the

1 69
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H RU LE
corypha palm H orses o f a dark bro w n colou r
a re considered to brin g bad luck to their o w ner while a ,

bl ind horse w ill cause the destruction of a village and a ,

blind elephant the devast a tion o f a city A person w ho .

squ ints is o n e n o t to be offended as he o r S he prob a bly ,

has the power o f overlooking t he person who is

d isrespectful or d isobli g ing I n one of the teak

.

pl a nt a tions u nder my charg e where I had sometimes ,

fou nd it hard to procu re sufcient labou r a t a fair r ate of

wa ges no practica l difculty o f this sort was encou ntered
,

after a s w ivel eyed forest ranger had been tra nsferred

-

to its charg e ; for his physical defect produced a g reat

and a w e inspirin g impression o n the nei g hbou ring
-

vill a g ers
. I t is deemed a lucky thin g to possess a
bullock h a vi n g the left horn bent do w n while the right ,

horn stands upri g ht ; but the possession of o ne having

the left horn upri g ht and the ri g ht horn bent down must
inevit a bly result i n u tter poverty The circular e x u re s.

( B w e
) in the h a ir o f animals are held t o g ive u n m i s t a k

able si g ns as to good or b a d l uck This is more

particul a rly the case w ith regard to ponies in whose ,

coats thirty eight of these l ucky or u nlucky e x u re s may

-

be d istin g u ished and examined T he owner of an .

animal h a vin g a rough e x u r e ( B wegy a n ) is apt t o be

g enera lly unlucky and fallin g i nto troubl e ; hence the

expression B wegy a n the L u to denote a J onah bring

,

ing b a d luck upon every one with w hom he is associated

i n business or other w ise I n sim ilar m a nner boats may
.

be u nl ucky o w in g to their having w hat is considered a

bad knot i n o n e o r other o f the pl a nks ; and so o n w ith
regard to ho uses etc B ut b a d luck may even come
, .

through c a relessness in conversation ; and if a ny one

h a ppens to spea k about eleph a nts o r ponies in the vicinity
o f the R uby M ines this is supposed to cause the rubies
,

to d is appe a r . I t therefore seems unfortu nate for the

shareholders in this specul a tion th a t all the tra velling
arran gements of their o w n employees and of all E n g lish
ofcers i n that d istrict necessitate the use of eleph a nts
and ponies but these mines are now payin g despite that , .

Under the B urmese rulers it was considered omino u s

fo r a n y o n e to cross in front of the v a n of the army ;
1 7o
 A U S P I C E S A N D O M EN S
such an unfortunate person wa s genera lly put to death ,

often by having his breast cloven a su nder .

O n the other hand the o wers or the lea ves o f the

Tha h
y e tree

E
( gu en i a
) were auspicious and were con
sequently worn by B u rmese soldiers o n the m a rch a s

o w ers o f victory i n the t op knots o f their h a ir o r in -

the l a rg e holes pierced in the lobes o f their ears I n .

addition to selecting a prop itious day fo r the u nderta king ,

a spri g o f these tender leaves is still often w orn by

ordin a ry persons when about to emb a rk i n di fcult or
dangerous enterprises Tender lovers also make pro
.

testations o f u nswervin g delity i n the followin g time

honoured couplet
Tha h y ha n ta ht Li k p y f Th hy
e a s ra o a ,

M a thwda n ta thet M y l v wi ll l t f y
o e as or a e .

The Burmese m a ke no d istinction whatever in the

w a y o f expressin g our idea o f omen i n contrast to

auspice . Their only word ( N em ei h) simply means a

sign or token a n d it is also the only correct term that
,

can be applied t o the mark or bou nd a ry o f any ind ividual

property i n land o r o f n a tional territory I n the s a cred .

w ritin g s the fou r g reat si g ns ( N em e i h l e ha which induced

) - -

S e i d d a tta ( S iddharth a ) to renou nce the world previous

to his becoming G a u d a m a the last of the B uddh a s were
, ,

respectively an o ld man a S ick and inrm person a

, ,

corpse and recluse
, The S i g n is ei t her g ood and
.

auspicious or else bad and ominous ; but when o n e
,

B urman rem a rks t o another that words j ust spoken have

n o si g n icance i t is i ntended to imply that they are of
,

bad omen I n the readin g o f omens as well a s in the

.
,

interpretation o f dreams the P u n n a o r Brahmins a r e s u p

,

posed to have special g ifts A nd a s the opinion is held

.

that the rst interpretation o f a dream is the true o n e it is ,

considered a piece of impertinence to be resented if any

person u nsolicited and g ra t uitousl y g ives an u nfa vourable
i nterpretation to a dream .

M any pra ctical examples mi g ht be g iven to S how ho w

the due observance o f cert a in a c t s o r the refraining from
other acts is held in daily life to be auspicious but it ,

may perhaps be su fcient t o note t he followin g on

1 7 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
account of i ts peculiarity A mon g the i nsects destructive
.

to plants is o ne called P y a w hich is more particularl y ,

inclined to attack leg u minou s crops H ence in the dry .

,

zone o f Upper B urma w here pea crops are larg ely,

cultivated and form the staple food of the country side ,

p r eg n a nt women a re not supposed to gather veg eta bles

o f any kind as it is believed by their doing so the P y a
,

is specially attracted t o the plants touched .

For the i nterpretation o f ord inary omens a nd dreams

there is a speci a l book ( D ei ttu n ) whilst for the u nravel ,

l in g o f u nusu a lly intric a te o r apparentl y contra dictory

cases the soothsayer ( D ei ttu n S ay a) c a n be consulted .

A ccordin g to the book o f omens the three evil periods

o f famine pestilence and sla u ghter m a y respectivel y be
, ,

foretold by fo w ls leaving their roosts even before da w n

in an irre g ul a r man ner a n d searchin g for food a t this
u nusual hour by dogs howling at night at an u nseason
,

able time a n d by crows yi ng a bout excitedly and

,

screech ing and cawing in a terried man ner .

Often when entering some little j un gle villag e o r

hamlet o ne sees o n the outskirts a little t emporary
p agoda bu ilt o f s a nd and carefully topped by an u mbrella
,

( )T i o f woven bamboos with paper owers o r pieces o f

tinsel and gilt paper S omethin g about its g eneral

.

appe a rance tells o n e that su ch a sand p a g oda ( The -

S ed i ) is more than the work of children at play Thou g h .

natu rally given to makin g mud pies and revellin g i n dirt

generally Burmese children w ould not be allowed to
,

amuse themselves i n any way d isrespectful to the B ud

d hi s t i c religion I f o ne a sked what this tempo rary pagoda
.

m e a nt the answer would be evasive

,
T he actual fa ct .
,

however would be that it was built bec a use such sand

,

pag odas are bel ieved to be of assistance in wardin g o ff

p estilence through the religious meri t ( K atho) acqu ired
,

in erectin g them O n closer in qu iry o n e would probably

.

nd that smallpox had broken o u t i n o ne o r other o f

the neighbouring hamlets a nd t h at the simple B urman,

was pinning his fa ith on the efcacy o f good works w ith ,

absolute ind ifference to the most elementary principles

o f s a nitation I t i s believed that durin g great and serious
.

epidemics the waters i n the delta o f the I rra wa d d y

172
 B U R M E S E M ED I C I NE M EN

assu me a dirty gr eenish t inge i n pl a ce of the usu a l mud

b r o w n hu e arising from the enormous load of silt c o n
t i nu ou s l y bei n g carried seaw a rds .

L ike all eastern races the Burmese have an in t ense

,

d re a d o f cholera ( Ka l a Yo wg a ) though the same term is

,

applied to any other epidemic for which no denite cause

can be a ssigned in their l ist o f the n inety six diseases -
.

I n the l a rger towns cholera is alw a ys present t o a g re a ter

o r less extent durin g the hot months from March to

J u ne and more especially in M ay towa rd the end of the

,

ho t weather and the beginning of the rains when the ,

m ango fru it ripens . I n R angoon for example cholera , ,

is probably never rea lly absent at any time o f the yea r

bu t the in t ensely hot spring time is natu ra lly the season
-

whe n it is most apt to break o u t in epidemic form among

the poorer population . Aga inst the ravages o f this
deadly disease both t he d ietists ( D a t S ay a) and the
dru gg ists ( B ei nd a w S ay et) who form the two classes o f
,

medicine men stand po werless

-
, T hey simply declare
.

that the visitation is caused by evil spirits a g ainst whom

their m u ntra s simples and dru g s are inoperative H ence
, , .

special mea su res are taken to expel the evil spirits from
the town l imits or the v illa g e preci ncts by an operation

called drivin g into the jungle

Ta wtu h) This c o n .

sists i n a ll the inhabitants o f a v illag e or o f a sec t ion o f a

town simultaneously belabou rin g the roofs oors and , ,

sides o f houses with bamboo poles be a ting ol d kerosine ,

tins o r emp t y pots with sticks and g enerally endeavou r

,

ing w ith very fair success t o raise an u nearthly d in They .

cert a inly make a very unpleasan t noise even althou g h ,

they may not succeed in laying the evil spirit The .

u su a l time fo r such demonstrations takin g pl a ce is to

w a rds sunset ; but it m a y often a lso be heard i n the morn
in g a n d in the early po r tion o f the afternoon U nder any .

circu mstances t he deafening din is an u nwelcome sound i f

at all close at hand ; while even if softened by d istance
, ,

it always conveys unpleasing information This cere .

mony is also performed o n a minor scale fo r d rivin g

a w ay evil spirits from persons w h o h a ve been bitten by

snakes or wounded by w ild a n imals o r other w ise o r

, , ,

w ho have sustained inj uries by falling from trees .

I 7S
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
When atta cked by cholera the Burman resi g ns h imself
,

to fate whereas the n a tive o f I ndia vows to dedic a te

,

some offering to his g ods if they a i d him in recovering .

S hortly a fter my rst arrival i n Bu rm a o n e o f my I nd ian

servants w a s attacked w ith cholera Throughout the .

whole time I was dosin g him with brandy and chloro

dyne he kept vo w in g that if his l ife w ere sp a red he
would offer up a kid a s a s a c r ice to one of his gods A .

d a y o r two a fter he had recovered he duly c a me and

asked for an advance o f pay i n order to buy a kid for ,

the purpose o f fulllin g the v o w he had m a de whilst

stricken w ith the bl a ck disease H e g o t the money he .

bought the kid ; a n d he faithfully performed his v o w .

But as he after wa rds prep a red a s a voury ste w w ith the

sacrice and ate it with the ass ist a nce o f a few friends
, ,

the tra nsaction was after a ll no dead loss o r pu re waste o f

money With the B urman i t is d ifferent because he is
.
,

a fatal ist in such matters .

A nother superstitious custo m resembl ing Ta wtu h in

s o far that it is taken part i n by a larg e nu mber of
people simul ta neously and preconcertedly i s the pulling

of t he rope o r r ope festival ( L on swe L onpwe)

,

.

I t is indul ged i n at any t ime between M a y and

October whenever it seems desirable to procu re a fall of
,

ra i n fo r a g ricultura l purposes I t is nothing else than a

.

huge tu g o f war by me a ns of which u nique demon

- -
,

s t ra t i o n in their honou r it is hoped the spirits having

control over rain ( P y i ts u n N a t) will be ind uced to g ran t ,

the speci a l favour sou g ht A t such festivals the country

.

people often assemble in l a rge nu mbers and decked i n

their best a ttire when there is a v a st amou nt of ta lkin g
,

and S houtin g accomp a nied by beatin g of d rums and

,

blowing o f fe s and the din of other musical i ns tr u

,

ments .

M inor superstitions exist abou t rainfall such a s are ,

implied in the blossoming o f the crocodile creeper

( D e r r i s sca n de n s
) whose we a lth o f w hite o w ers is s a id
,

to pres ag e hea vy rainfall and i n the saying that the

,

P a d a uk tree ( P ter oca rp u s l n d i cu s ) must ower thrice

before the rains se t i n a bout the beginnin g o f May .

E ven the m aj ority o f A n g lo Bu rmans believe i n this -

1 74
 F U R T H E R S U P E R ST I T I O N S
illogical circu mstance althou g h they should know tha t
,

the owering is merely the natu ral effect of physiolo g ical

causes and has nothing to do with foretellin g the future
, .

F o r warding off evil o f different kinds other super

s t i t i ou s customs exist besides those previously men
t i o ne d
. Thus the idea is curren t that the possess i on o f
stakes o r peg s which have been driven into any piece of
grou nd th a t is a bout to be bu ilt o n is ca pable of wardin g ,

o ff danger ; and when the g round i n question h a ppens to

have been consecra t ed through h a vin g at one time been

,

the site o f some work o f reli g ious merit there is often ,

quite a scramble for such lucky bits of wood I f s u s .

pended from the roof O f a house such a prize brings ,

immunity from bugs while i t is also o f use i n avertin g

,

danger from re S uch s t akes likewise belon g to the

.

B u rmese pharmacop oeia for the drugg ist cl a ss o f

medicine men ( B ei n da w S ay d ) scrape them into a p o w
-

der which forms o ne o f the ingredients in the preparation

,

o f remedies against the power of evil spirits .

There i s no c a ste at all amon g the Burmese and they ,

are an exceedin g ly hospitable ra ce I t very frequently .

h appens that E n g l ish o fcers i n the perform a nce o f ,

their o r dinary distric t duties i n the various dep a rtments

o f Government go to places w here there are no Govern
,

ment bu ngalows no rest houses ( Z ay ci t) and no pro

,
-
,

t e c t i o n a ga inst s u n rain dew etc

, A s a rule only forest
, , .
,

and survey o fcers have tents for their camp work but
no t infrequently these o fcers prefer to lodge as the ,

men in other civil departments are forced to do i n ,

vill a ge houses o r monasteries rather th a n i n tents more ,

particularly in the ho t we a ther when being under canvas ,

is sometimes extremely tryin g Through wan t o f know .

led g e ra ther than through inadvertence the youn g o fcer ,

may O ften perform simple acts such a s trimmin g his ,

n g er nails inside t he house which must if he were only , ,

a ware of the fa ct cause u neasiness to his Burmese host

,

by threatenin g to bring down ill luck u pon the house -

.

The hos t will be too polite to a sk him to desist from so

ominous a proceeding But let the g uest attempt to
.

wake a sleepin g person and an inmate o f the house will

,

at once raise a h a nd o r m a ke some other g estu re to

I 75
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE

check s o d a ngerous an a c t ; fo r the buttery spi rit

ei h d
( py ) the psyche that i nh a bits the body as a

L ,

soul takes advantag e o f its o w ner being a sleep to depart

,

temporarily an d wander fa r aeld in search o f its afnity .

T he sep a ration o f two spirits having afnity is al ways

the cause o f g rief and lament a tion as i n the case o f a n ,

infant child and its dead mother in whom the L ei hpy a ,

are supposed to be united When the spiri t happens to

.

be frigh t ened i n any way ( L ei hpy a [an the) a dera nge ,

ment i n the nervous system t a kes pl a ce and illness

r esults I f a sleeper be suddenly awa kened whilst the
.

L ei h py d is moment a rily fa r absent from the body there ,

is great dan g er that i t may not be able to effect its r e

entrance hence any sleeping person su ddenly awakened
runs the risk o f becomin g deran g ed and weak i n i n
te ll e c t
. Composu re o r tra n q u illity o f mind is supposed
t o be due to strength o n the p a rt o f the L ei h py a whils t ,

d iscomposure is due to want o f energ y o n its part I f a .

Burman looks S heepish and put out when statin g a

ma n ifest falsehood this discomposure is solely due to
,

the L ei hpy ci feeling uttered fo r the m oment .

T he Burmese have qu ite a well stocked mytholo g ical -

menagerie o f fa bulous a n imals o f all sorts and kinds the ,

representations o f w hich form prominent features in

w ood carvin g silver work and the ornamentation i n o r
, ,

arou nd pa g odas monasteries and other sacred bu ildin gs

, , .

One of the chief o f these is a kind o f s e a dra gon ( N ag d ) ,

belon g in g to a r a ce o f anim a ls i nh a bitin g the rst o f the

lower celesti a l r eg ions located u nder the rocks ( Tr i hu ta )
by which the sacred mou ntain ( My i n m o) is supported ,

and the w aters su rrou ndin g the world o f men Thou g h .

i n form l ike a deadly spectacled and hooded snake yet , ,

so fa r as many of their actions are concerned they ,

appear to be more o r less human They can assume .

the form o f human bei ngs thou g h o n e condition o f their

,

doing s o is that they m ust u nder certain circumstances

,

reveal their identity T he ve conditions u nder which

.

the N ag d cannot hide thei r identity are when they are

in connement when they are changing thei r skin when
, ,

they are asleep when they are livin g by themselves and

, ,

when they are i n sexual intercourse They are there .

1 76
 FA B U L O U S A N I M A L S
fore more than spirits ( N a t) bein g possessed O f some ,

wha t demi godl ike powers

-
They a r e represented as .

bein g usually favourable to Buddha and hi s adherents ,

thoug h they become tra nsformed into dan g erous enemies

when once thei r w rath is aroused The i nterestin g mud .

volcanoes occurrin g in the petroleu m d istric ts o f M inbu

in Upper Burma and o n the island of R amri o ff the coast
o f A rakan are du e to the scratching and r olling about o f

N ag d while the M ilky Way is o n e o f the paths along

,

which they proceed across the starry rm a m e nt when

travellin g to distant regions O n the cofns of deceased .

priests a murex shell in the shape o f an ornamental

representation of a dra g on s head is placed by way o f

v i a t 1c u m .

A nother important monster is a red eyed lon g toothed -

,
-

ghoul ( B i l u ) which devours hu man esh and is p os

,

sessed o f v a rious kinds o f mag ical power such as assum ,

i n g any form it likes I t haunts the burial g rounds and

.

crematory pl a ces and watches for i t s prey i n the lonely

,

recesses of the ju n gle S ometimes when o ne is asleep

.
, ,

a B i l u comes and s its o n one s chest ; and this is the true

cause of nightm a re .

Of the Burmese lion ( Chi n th) there are four varieties .

O ne ( Ten a ) resembles a S peckled co w i n appearance ,

and eats g rass and herbag e ; a second ( K a l a ) resembles

a bl a ck cow and is more o r less carn ivorous ; a third
,

( P a nd u
) is in colour like a faded leaf and is purely ,

c a rnivorous ; while the fou rth the kin g of wild animals ,

,

( K e t ha raz a
) is a lso c a rnivorous The mouth and the .

tip of the tail o f t he latter are red and from its head ,

three tawny lines extend do w n i t s back I ts mane and .

the bristles coverin g i ts body a re said to be worth a

lakh o f rupees The Chi n the is the emble m of fe a rless
.

ness a n d intrepidity For an army to retreat like a

.

Chi n the , sho w in g a bold front to the enemy is an ,

exploit rankin g nex t to a victory This l e og r yp h i s the .

emblem o n Burmese gol d coins ; and representa tions o f

it are to be found arou nd most pagodas more especially ,

at the entrances Wherever you nd a ight o f steps

.

leadin g to any sacred edi ce you will be almost certain

to nd Chi n the seated as g r i f ns keepin g watch and
V OL . 1L I 77 N
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H RU LE
ward o n either side o f the st a irc a se some w hat faintly ,

suggestive o f the u nimpressionable S phinx These .

l e og r y phs are usually hi g hly colou red a bout the fa ce ,

with lines picked o u t i n red yello w g reen and blue

, , , ,

w h ile quaintness o f effect is heightened by their not

infrequently having larg e balls o f coloured gl a ss standin g
o u t prominently as their eyeballs .

A nother fa bulous monster is the sh N g ay i n four o f ,

w hich susta in the earth o n thei r sho u lders E a rth .

qu akes result w henever o n e o r other of these fou r

h a ppens to change its position .

There are several ki nds o f mythica l elephants O ne .

o f the most fa mous o f these is the three headed eleph a nt -

( E r a wu n
) upon w hich the chief of the evil spirits
( M an N at
) is a ccustomed to ride A nothe r is
. the
stron g est and most excellent o f elephants ( S a ddd n S i n ) ,

whose stre ng th is s a id to be equ a l to that o f a thousand

mill ions o f men This a nimal gures very frequently i n
.

pictures illustrative of the sacred writings ( Z a t) relatin g

to the li fe o f G a u d a m a the Buddh A Buddh is a
, .

m a tch for ten o f such eleph a nts hence his ghting po w e r

,

is someth ing very formidable D uring a previous sta g e

.

of existence Gan dama then a B od i sa t appeared in

, , ,

the form o f a S a ddan elephant One o f the titles of .

the K ing of B urma was lord o f the white elephant

S a dd d n , thereby implying that the sl i g htly albino
elephant maintained by his Maj esty was a true S uddeth .

A nother fabulous anim a l (K ei n n a r a ) ha s the body of a

bird and the fa ce o f a human bein g I t inhabits the .

innermost recesses of the H imal a yan mount a ins B oth .

male and fem a le are said to be found the l a tter ,

( ei n n a r i
) being as nearly as possible a harpy .

I nstead of the man i n the moon the B urmans s ee a

hare o n e o f t he sacred a nimals o f Buddhism ; while the
,

pea cock their n a tional emblem is to be fou nd i n the

, ,

su n
. O ne mode o f assertin g u ndyin g affection between
lovers is to swear to be fa ithful a n d fond so long as the
ba r e is to be seen in the moon .

F o r the protection o f large boats an ima g e o f a

merm a id is placed at the pro w as a gu re he a d not fo r ,

mere orn a ment a tion bu t for the speci a l purpose o f

,

1 78
 B U R M E SE O A T H S
protection against the attack of any ki nd o f monster .

There a r e t wo o f these protecti ve kinds o f mermaids ,

one h avin g hair hanging do wn her back ( Yethu ) a nd the ,

other ( Chu ) without such append a g e The l a tter .

a ffo r ds the better protection Before ca sting o ff from

.

the moorin g s propiti a tory offerin g s a re made to the g reat

spirit ( S hi ngy i N a t) i n order th a t he may be favoura bly
inclined to the enterprise embarked u pon A bunch o f .

plant a ins or a wisp of le a ves is also O ften tied to the

front par t o f a boat o r a c a rt with the same i ntention .

Before a you n g lad sets ou t o n any j ou rney he be g s

pardon of his parents who wish him g ood luck by ,

s a yin g M ay you not come in c onta ct w ith stumblin g

blocks or be ca u g ht by thorns a response w hich is ,
-

i ntelligi b le enough to those w ho have travelled over the

rou g h j un g le tracks i n most parts o f Burma F o r the .

warding o ff of evil from his kin g dom there was a reg ular ,

ritual O f certain superstitious ceremonies prescribed fo r

the u se of the K in g of Bu r m a .

Besides resulting from bein g overlooked by some

witch or ill wisher curses may t a ke effect through h a vin g
-

com mitted perj ury or havi n g trans g ressed a ga inst

,

parents in some u n w orthy m a nner or h a vin g sho w n ,

in g ratitude to teachers or m a rked disrespec t to elders .

But to corrobora te his words the Burman is not at all

backward i n calling do w n imprecations upon his o wn
head if what he st a tes be untrue O ne o f the dires t of .

these is Le t me be carried off by cholera if what I s a y

,

is not tru e when o n e wishes to remove all doubt as to
,

veracity A nother fo r m o f obtainin g a g uarantee i s to

.

ask , Would you dare to dive i nto the water on this

statement ? TO clinch some arg ument impulsively
a not u ncommon expression is I f w hat I s a y be n o t ,

true may my head be split by li g htnin g into ei g ht

,

pieces o r else May I burn awa y like a cheroot The
, ,
.

most common formula for b a cking up one s statement i s

ho wever the simple imprecation Ma y I be s t r uck by

, ,

li g htning if I am not tellin g the truth I f you hea r a .

st a teme n t you do not quite b elieve and you recei ve such

conrmation of its correctness y o u m a y in the g re a t ,

maj ority of cases believe the stat ement ; fo r the B urman ,

I 79
 B U R M A U ND E R B R I TI S H R U LE
thoug h he has no particular prej u dice in favou r of truth ,

is not yet such an accompl ished and hereditary li a r

as many o f the natives o f I nd ia among whom the ,

Chitta g onian Bengal i is perhaps the archliar A S imil a r .

test of veraci t y is that implied i n the q uery Will y o u ,

ven t ure t o undergo o ne of the fou r ordeals to prove the

truth of what you sa y ? these fou r orde a ls consistin g i n
the ra t e o f t he burnin g of a candle the che w in g and ,

swallowing o f a given quantity o f rice i n a g iven time ,

the diving u nder wa t er and the thrusting o f a nger

,

i nto molten le a d as previously described

, 1

The worst imprecation o f all is I f I should act

,

fa lsely may all the Buddhs who are nu mberless as the

, ,

g rains of sand i n the Ganges be u nable to r eleas e

,

me from the miseries o f successive s tages of existence .

The devou t Buddhist must be very sure o f himself

before he ventu res to back u p any statement by the
utterance of tha t awful imprec a tion : for the B uddhis t
hell ( N g ay e) consis t s of eight infernal reg ions concern in g ,

all the torments and m iseries o f w hich Buddha declared

th a t it would take more th a n a hu ndred thousand years
to g ive a full description O n the walls o f some of the
.

build ings i n the vicinity of the celebrated A rakan

pagoda ( M a ha my a tm u n i ) S ituated at the southern end o f
M and a l a y there is a blood curdling collection of paintin g s
,
-

illustra tive of some o f the torments o f the d a mned m a ny ,

o f which it would be impossible to w rite about .

The in fernal re g ions consist o f ei g ht sta g es o r stories ,

each of which is encompassed by s ixteen inner hells .

E scape from any of these hells is impossible as they are ,

all situ a ted deep down i n the bo wels of the earth .

1 80
 C h ap t e r VI I
NAT I O NA L HA B I TS AN D CU S T O MS
N the B urmese language the term fo r a human bein g
( )
L u comprises not only all men women and , ,

children bu t also the spirits ( N a t) inhabiting the s i x

,

lower cel es t ial re g ions and the B r a hma o f the twenty

hi g her celestial abodes I n every d ay parlance how
.
-
,

ever the te r m is re garded as applicable only to the

,

l a yman an d d ivisible specically i nto male ( Ya u hy a )

,

and female ( M ei m ma ) D espite the fa cts th a t Bu rmese

.

B uddhism makes no provision for the elementary edu

cation O f g irls and that w henever any woman recites
, ,

her pious formul ae at any pag oda or othe r sacred S hrine ,

S he i nvariably prays s he may be born a gai n as a male

du ring the next s ta t e o f existence i n order to have this ,

essential qualication for att a ining a hi g her future stat u s

in the ladde r o f l ife yet there is far more equal ity b e
,

tween the sexes than among other eastern r aces except ,

perhaps the closely related S iamese and the J apanese .

I ndeed i n many respects the women o f B urma enjoy a

,

freedom and i ndepen den ce far ahead o f what as yet pre

vails among western nations .

I n mino r m a tters the wife wisely gives way When .

g oing from vill a ge t o village for exampl e she follo ws , ,

at a pace or two behind her lord and master A t open .

air the a tric a l entertainments she sits behind hi m and ,

eve n during the family meal she sees that the men have
been attended to before she disposes herself to be g in

eating . But to call a woman the weaker vessel

would be ind eed a misnomer S he rules the household . ,

often with a ro d of iron The w i t and the general i n

.

t e l l ig e nce o f Bu rmese women are decidedly above the

1 81
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
avera g e o f those o f men Thei r cap a city fo r petty trade
.
,

and even fo r concerns O f g reater magnitude is s o well ,

recognized that the B u rman would perh a ps just about

as soon think o f committin g himself to any u ndertakin g
w ithout duly consulting the soothsayer as to the p ro
i t i o u s n e ss o f a n y given day a s o f embarkin g upon the
p
enterprise withou t the knowledge and consent o f h is
better half S O much is this the c a se that i n 1 89 1 the
.
,

L ocal Government o f Bu rma had to institute inqu iries a s

t o the extent to w hich the w ives o f Burmese o fcials used
o r abused their position for pu rposes o f tra de .

E ven ofci a lly the w ife w ill act fo r her husband d uring
his absence in case of emerg ency Thus in 1 88 5 when .
, ,

troublous times se t i n throughout L o w er B urm a a s w ell ,

as in the conquered bu t n o t yet annexed kin gdom o f

A va the w ife of a subordinate magistra te ordered ou t the
,

pol ice and ga ve all necessary instructions for the routin g

o f dacoits w h o h a d suddenly a ppeared i n a nei g hbourin g

loca lity w hilst he r husband w as pu rsuin g them in a

different d irection . A nd many such ex a mples o f the
c a pacity o f women for a ction mi g ht e a sily be given .

N ot w ithstanding her talent fo r bu siness and her a d

m in istrative ability however it must still be recollected
, ,

that a woman is o ne o f the fou r t hings which c a nnot be

trusted the other three bein g a thief the bough of a
, ,

tree a n d a ruler U nder the L aws of M a nu power is

, .
,

g iven to the husband to correct the w ife by chastise

ment a procedu re seldom adopted I ndeed it is ve ry

, .
,

O ften the other way the hen pecked husband bein g a s

,
-
,

B u rmese and Germa n s a l ike term the status u nder the ,

slipper o f the exacti ng wife T o be food for the s a n
.

d a l ( P a n atsa ) is a n o t i nfre q uent term of repro a ch used

by women towa rds men .

S ome years ag o ( 1 8 89) a case of w ife be a tin g came

o n for tri a l before a Burmese subdivisional m a gistrate

i n the Toun g oo district who recorded in his j u d gment

,

that the a ccused was g u ilty o f too g reat presumption on

his le gal prero gative i n be a tin g his wife with a thick
stick an d that though it was laid down i n the laws of
,

Manu that chastisement mi g ht be g i ven yet i t S hou ld ,

be conned to correction with a t hin cane for ex a mple , .

1 82
 RE P R O A C H E S A M O N G W O M E N
I t must have su rprised this worthy expou nder o f the l aw
to nd th a t the J udicial Commissioner had come a cross
the case and had w ritten a memorandu m on it in which ,

it was pointed o u t for fu t ure gu idance that ( a u tr e temps

, , ,

a u tr es m oeu r s under B ritish rule not even correction with

)
a small stick or cane was permissible .

A mon g B u r mese women b a rrenness is a reproach and ,

the term barren woman ( A my i i n m a ) is o ne o f d i s re

spect and derision To have but o n e child seems only

.

little bet t er fo r the o n e egg woman ( U ta l on m a ) is
,
- -

also held in scant esteem To be prol ic i s to be

?

honou red Those remaining u nmarried after attaining

.

marria g e a ble age are a lso disrespectfully called H a i ng ,

which l iterally me a ns a full g rown male elephant with -

only o ne small tusk .

Bu r mese women bel ieve and a ssert th a t they c a n , ,

foretell the sex of the child which m a y be i n their womb .

I f manipulation shows that the foetus is harder and

heavier on t he ri g ht side than o n the left the infa nt ,

will be a boy ; but if these indic a tions a r e fou nd stron g er

o n the left S ide it w ill be a g irl E ven if such predic
, .

t ions do n o t always come true no matter : the above is ,

still held to be the g eneral rule .

I f a woman at a ll a dvanced i n pregnancy d ies t he ,

foetus is cut o u t from the w omb and buried secretly s o ,

as to be o u t of the re a ch of m ag ic men w ho would ,

exhu me it a n d work it up into charmed medicine .

O ther w ise the belief is that i n a futu re state o f existence

the destinies of the husband and the wife would a ga in
brin g them t ogether w ith the s a me consequence to the
w om a n a n d to the child s he has conceived When a .

child is produced stillborn a piece o f iron is pl a ced o n

,

the body before it i s wrapped in the sw a thin g bands

formin g its shroud a nd the formul a is repe a ted
,
T ill ,

t h is iron becomes soft as cotton enter n o t a gain into thy ,

mother s w omb

I f both mother and infant die during
.

childbirth they are each buried separately S hould the

, .

child remain a l ive however a w ise w oman the wife ( o r

, , ,

t he daughter ) of a N a t (N a tg a dci w o r N a ttha m i ) is

called in with a view to winnin g back to the babe its

,

soul psyche o r butter y ( L ei hpy a) w hich is s u p
, ,

,

1 83
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H RU LE
posed to h ave gone off i n company w ith that o f the dead
mo t her U nless this be ch a rmed back the babe must
. ,

either d ie or else grow u p in idiocy The wise woman .

,

having placed a morsel o f cotton gossamer o n a tiny

piece o f looking g lass laid near the corpse holds a spot
-
,

less bi t o f cloth below the m irror and then with weird ,

words entreats the dead mother not to take a w ay w ith

her the soul of her child but to restore it to the ea rthly
,

clay When a t l en g th w a fted by any ch a nce breath

.
,

o f wind , the gossamer fa lls into the outstretched cloth

belo w it is carried g ently and l a id o n the infant s breast
,

accompanied by soft soothing words and tender phrases

, .

The Bu rmese birth customs are sava g e and b a rb a rou s

i n the ex t reme N owhere in the w orld ca n maternity
.

have greater penalties to pay than in Bu rma E ven the .

very n ame fo r a mid w ife she who pulls the womb ,

( W u n sw e o r more politely
) , she w ho presses with the
,

hand is g ruesomely sug g estive o f heroic and
dra stic methods o f treatment On the birth of the child .

the mother is at once smeared all over with po w dered

turmeric ( N a n wi n ) in order to correct the humou rs of
,

the body and to cou ntera ct those of malign inu ence .

This correction o f the humours by means of turmeric

lasts fo r seven days durin g the whole o f which period
,

the miserable y oung mother u ndergoes a process o f

roastin g . A ll ventilation o f the chamber is stopped ,

and the a i r is maintained at a sti in g temperatu re by

means o f wood res in which bricks a re also mad e
incandescent . The kinds of wood specially favou red
for this pa rticular pu rpose are th a t o f a creeper c a lled B ei n ,

and also that o f P a l a n ( B a u hi n i a r a cem osa ) a n d M u ngy i

r oh a n th
( S t i l es
a cci d
if ol i u s
) B ut in addition.to exposu re
to the high temperature caused by this re the poo r ,

patient is heaped over with thick clothes an d w arm

coverin g s of every possible sort while from time to ,

time she is m a de to inhale the smoke o f a burn ing

branch o f black aniseed ( S a m on n et : N igel l a sa ti va )

and to take drau g hts o f a medicinal infusion ( S ci n se)

often even mixed with a rdent spirits O n the third .

day a chan g e o f blood i s su pposed to take place and

, ,

perfect quiet is enjoined w ithin the house ; but the

1 84
 B I R T H C U ST O M S
roast in g process the pit o f re (M i d w i n ) lasts fo r
,

,

seve n days A fter this r e b a th follows the festival

.

( K nh
) durin g which the i nfant a n d the h a nds o f

i on ta t

the g uests are w ashed in a decoction of the pods of the

so a p ac a cia ( K i n hon : M odecca tr i l oha ta )

O n the .

seven t h day after the birth of the child the midwife

boils the fru it o f this creeper and mixes it with seven
kinds o f Tay a w ( a species o f G r ew i a ) with which infusion ,

the body and more particularly the head o f the infant

, ,

is w ashed and the h a nds of the a ssembled r el a tives o r

,

g uests are rinsed When this ceremony has been pe r

.

formed the midwife takes up the child in a white cloth

and presents i t to the mother w hilst all join in wish ing ,

good luck t o the babe .

O n the same seventh d a y the period of the roasting ,

o f the young mother is a t a n end and S he i s then g iven ,

a steam bath by bei ng mad e to s i t for an hou r over a

pot o f boil in g water i nto which leaves o f tamari nd ,

tha nap ( C or d i a my x a ) and grass have been thrown an d ,

which is enclosed by m a ts covered with bl a nkets .

I mmed ia t ely upon this follo w s a cold bath and the ,

bi rt h ceremonies are concluded The mother again .

t akes to her bed and th e newly washed infan t is pu t

,

t o the breast I n order to stimul a te the powers of

.

lactation a decoction o f
, bitter curry ( H en ha ) is

m a de of the lea ves o f Ky a n ha n ( S a ccha r u m o i ci n a r u m ) ,

D a n tha l dn ( M or i ng a p te ryg osp er m a ) pepper salt and , , ,

po w dered s h A fter these seven days ceremon ies

.

the mother is allo w ed to g o about the ordinary house

hold avoca t ions so soon as she has regained sufcient
,

s t ren g th.

When o ne considers the b a rbarity of this horrible

t reatment it really seems m a rvellous th a t the B urmese
,

are physically such a ne race as they undoubtedly

are E a ch birth ceremony must t ake years o ff the l ife
.
,

o r at least off the reproductive a g e o f women and that

this is so is borne o u t by the fact th a t the census o f
,

1 8 9 1 shows the la t ter to vary amon g women bet ween

fteen to thirty nine years of a g e

-
.

N o benet that the British have bestowed upon

Burma can possibly be g rea ter than t hat brought to
1 85
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
bear o n the race by the L a dy D ufferi n H ospita ls where ,

the science o f western civiliz a tion is underminin g the

pernicious inuence o f the cra ssly i g norant and extre mel y

su perstitious w omb pullin g mid w ives The a m el i o ra
-
.

tion o f the birth customs w ill indeed be o n e of the , ,

g reatest blessin gs which Britain ha s con ferred on Burma .

I t is impossibl e without knowing these birth customs to

, ,

estimate the true value O f the facts th a t in 1 898 t welve

B u rmese w omen o r g irls qualied i n mid w ifery a n d
sick nursi n g w hile other ei g hteen w ere u ndergoing a
-
,

course o f study a t the hospita l N o r without this .

,

kno wled g e c a n o n e comprehend the si g n icance o f the

,

ve good bodily qualities i n a woman hair like the

feathers o f the peacock s tail l ips o f bright red hue

, ,

t eeth o f even g rowth and d a zzlin g whiteness skin o f ,

r egular u nblemished colour a n d tha t thoug h a wom a n , ,

shou l d hea r hi ld r en she m ay n eve r l ooh ol d n or

twen ty c ,

ha ve a si n l e
g g yra ha i r th ou h l i vi n
g g to,1 00
y f
ea r s o ag e .

The n a vel strin g is buried ; and the correct id iom for

inquirin g where a ny person s birthplace may happen to

have been is to ask Where was your navel string ,

bu ried ? The c a ul o f a n infant is supposed to brin g
good luck i n the w a y of obtain ing for its possessor t he
fa vou r o f those s e t in authority over him .

A bout seven or eight d a ys a fter the ceremony o f

w a shin g the child its name is chosen ,
Th is ceremony .

is called Gy othi n N a n thi n hm i w hich l itera lly means ,

to name a ccording to the planet ( Gy o) a n d to the d a y

of the week o n w hich o n e i s born Great
import a nce is a tt a ched to e a ch o f those deta ils and in ,

B urmese time the d a y o f the w eek upon which any

wit n ess happened to h a ve been born w a s usually
recorded i n revenue proceedin g s The eight planet a ry .

o r erratic celesti a l orbs are Ta n i ng a n w e o r N e the s u n

, ,

( S )
u nd a y ; Ta n i n l d o r L a the moon
( Monday )
, I n
g a o r

M a rs ( Tu esd a y ) ; B u d da hu o r M ercury ( Wednesd a y ) ;

Ky a tha ha de o r J upiter ( Thursd a y ) Tha n hh

y d o r V enus

( Friday ) ; S a n e o r S aturn

( S aturd ay ;
) a nd R a h u the ,

d a rk a n d malignant planet w hich is only visible w hen ,

p a ssin g over the discs o f the s u n or the moon thus ,

ca usin g eclipses A s there a r e only seven d a ys in the

.

1 86
 TH E H O R O S C O PE
w eek R a hu is attached as a second planet to W e d n e s
,

day a nd it is supposed to rule only from midda y to

,

m idnight T hese eight planets form the ei g ht comp a rt

.

m ents o f t h e astrological house ( Z a da hwi n ) necess a ry

for casting the horoscope ( Z a d ap on ) consulted in the

selection o f the fortun a te day and hou r for all the

im po rta nt occasions in life The latter is thus formed .

by the horoscope caster -

R a hu I

refs
7
4
:4 e
7

s
ue

e
M i dd y t M ni gh t
a
ne s

o
a

id
y :

.
F n d ay . S nd y
u a

Ry a tha ha de

Ta m
'

( J u pi ter) ( M oon )
Th u r sd a y . M nd y
o a .

( M erc ury )
1"
W d ne d y
e s

M i d n i gh t t M i d d y
o
a

a .
1
T 335?Y
S W .

T he fou r planets at the card in a l points V enus M er , ,

cury J upiter and the M oon exert a benign inuence

, ,

over one s des t iny whilst the others and more especially

, ,

the dark R a hu are malign ,

.

T he manner in w hich the horoscope is consulted in

later l ife is extremely simple The as t rolo g er versed .

i n the ( Brahminic a l ) V ed a ( B ed i n S ay a) having a s c e r
t a i n e d the a g e o f his client a n d the name o f the day
u pon w hich he w a s born d ivides the former by ei g ht ,
.

S hould the n u mber be a multipl e o f ei g ht so th a t no ,

rem a inder is left the pl a net presidin g ove r the day o f

,

birth g ives the requ isite si g n ( N em ei h) auspicious o r ,

ominous as t he case may be S hould howeve r th e .

, ,

age not be a multiple of eight but leave a rem a inder , ,

then the astrologer cou n t s rou nd the fa ce o f the horo

scope beginnin g at the day o f birth i n the dir ection
, ,

1 87
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
o f movement of the hands o f a w atch and the plane t ,

u nde r which the last numera l brings him is that which

will exert i ts in uence o n the enterprise .

A s grea t importance is attached to the horoscope the ,

r ecord o f the time a nd circumstances o f one s birth

ez we is carefully taken for astrolo g ical pu rposes even

( N ) ,

although the horoscope itself may perh a ps not be dra w n

up for three o r four o r more years after the child is
, ,

born .

The circu mstances at t end a n t o n birth are o f cou rse , ,

o f importance Thus the four most foolish ki nds o f

.
,

persons consist of those born a t midnight those born o n ,

the last day o f the lunar month those born w hilst the ,

sk
y is overcast with heavy rain clouds and those born ,

in a dense forest D arkness in th e a tmosphere at the

.

time of one s birth is therefore a ccording to Burmese

notions very closely connected w ith dullness o f intellect

, .

The ceremony o f selectin g a nam e for the child ( Gy o

thi n N a n thi n hm i ) when i t is about a fort n i g ht O ld is
made the occasion of a festival as g lorious and imposi n g
as the me a ns o f the parents will allow R elatives .
,

friends nei g hbours and the elders o f the vill a ge o r

, ,

qu a rter of the t o w n are all i nvited t o assemble near the

house H ere they s i t do w n d escribing a gaily dressed
.
,

circle whose centre is formed by the mother and her child

, .

The father is seated near by occupying of course a , , ,

somewhat less prominent position and no doubt feelin g ,

rathe r u ncomfortable A fter a short time spen t by

.

all in g eneral conversation and as if in meditation ,

concernin g the most s uitable name for the child one o f ,

the elders o f the p a rty nally m a kes a suggestion a s if i t

had just occurred to him as a very happy thought th a t
the infant should be a r this that o r the other name Th e , , .

matter i s then discussed more or less thorou g hly by all

the assembled g uests with the result th a t t he su ggestion
,

is a dopte d But there is about a s little chance i n th e

.

matter as at baptisms i n the churches o f the west The .

choice o f the name is virtu a lly m a de by the parents and ,

communicated to the elder who brin gs it o ut as a bri g ht ,

suggestion E ven in the selection o f a name by the

.

p a rents however there i s less o f free choice than ob tai ns

, ,

1 88
 T H E N A M I N G O F C H I LD RE N
amon g w estern n a tions for the Gy othi n N a n thi n hm i ,

virtually prescribes that the n a me shall so be selected

that o ne of the letters proper to the day o f the week
shall form the initi a l letter o f the you n g child s name

The letters proper to each d a y represent the n a tural

g rouping of the consonants i n the B urmese alphabet and ,

a re as follows

F or S nd y
u a a
( c h i e f v owel ) F or Wed n d y y es a : ,
r, l, w l( i q ui d s
)
M nd y
o a : h, h, g , g

,
ng
( gut Th d ay p p urs ,

,
h, h, m

l( b i
a
tu ra l s ) a ls
)
T u esd y a : s, s

, z, z

,
ny
( p l a a F ri d a y : th, h ( si bil an ts)
ta l s)
n l s) F or S a t urd a y t, t

,
d, d

n
( d e ta
Thus boys might respec t ively be called Maun g A n ,

Ma ti ng G a uk Maun g S aun g M aun g L a uk Maung

, ,
'

Bau k Maun g M e i k M aun g Than o r Maung Taik and

, , , ,

girls Ma A t M a Gyi M a S h w e M i M a Yit M a Bwa

, , , , ,

M a Thet and M a Ta w according a s they happened to

, ,

be born on o n e o r other o f the days o f the week I f .

e tymologically ex a mined the n a mes themselves have ,

often the most curious mean ings Thus M aung Gauk .

,

is M r C rooked M aun g L a uk means M r M aggot
.
,

.
,

a n d Maung Than is M r I ron ; W hile Ma A t corre .

s p o n d s to M iss N eedle Ma Gyi to M iss B ig M a

,

,

Bwa to M iss Grandmother and M a Thet to M iss

,

L ife . But o f cou rse these are no more curious than
, ,

such contrasts as are found amon g o u rselves i n names

like L ong and S hort S word and Gu nn White and , ,

Black Good and Best H ead and Foote or B lood and

, , ,

S l a u g hter .

The a bo ve rule is however not absolutely ri g id N o t , , .

at a ll infrequently B u rmese children are not now named

i n this conventional manner ; but the rule is i nviol a ble so
far as re ga rds the names accorded to a l l noviciates for
the priesthood when they disc a rd their worldly name ,

and a tt a in the B we or honora ry title w hich is to distin

g u ish them throughout their life i n the monastery .

Thus the novice born o n S und a y m a y become Ay ei n

d a m a the child o f Monday C u n a m a he w ho entered
, ,

this world o f transitoriness misery and u nsubstantiality , ,

o n a Thurs d ay Ra n d i or o n a S aturday 1V a ha and s o , ,

1 89
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
o n the names being Pali and mostly taken from person
, ,

ag es mentioned i n the ancient sacred writin g s The .

choice o f such rel igious name rests with the abbot i nto
whose mon a stery the probationer is admitted I f the .

novice continue steadfast in his renunciation o f the

world he receives the honori c U before his priestly
name w hen the nu mber of his lents j usties this d i sti nc
tion A s a matter o f courtesy every monk is thus
.

addressed by a laym a n S hould the latte r not know the

.

former s name ho w ever then the correct phrase is to

, ,

ask , B y w h a t B we or ho no r i c name is you r reverence

known
I t i s not customary for children to be called by the
name the father be a rs o r ha s once borne The Bu rmese .

believe and perhaps they mi g ht be suppo r ted in this

,

belief by the experience of western nations that more ,

love is naturally bestowed by the parent on the child

th a n is borne by the child towa rds the parent ; hence the
apothe g m
L n M e sa n se,

Le t vill g n a m es b e h n d
a e a ed d ow n ,

Ywa M i su n s n o t a f th e

. B ut a to r s a son .

I n accordance with this rhymin g couplet when villa gers ,

migra te to distant tracts and fou nd new hamlets there ,

these often bea r the name o f the vill a g e whence the colony
w a s planted ; but p a rents do not attempt to create family
names I n order to x the identity of any individu a l it
.

is therefore necessary to describe him or her in all leg al

proceedin gs a nd such l ike as for example M aun g Ka
, , , ,

or M a C ho ) the son ( o r daughter o f M au n g L u g a l e

( )
which w ould literally mean M r B itter ( o r M iss S weet ) . ,

the s o n ( o r daughter ) o f M r S mall Man ( or B oy ) . .

The names thus given during infancy do not meces

sa r i l y clin g to the individual throu g hou t the whole of his

o r her lifetime They may be changed as often as seems

.

desirable before the a g e of puberty and no rega r d need ,

be paid o n such subsequent occ a sions to the Gy othi n or

N a n thi n of the planets and the natal circumstances
, .

The ceremony observed o n such occasions is simplicity

itself A red l a c q u ered pag oda like ceremoni a l dish
.
-
,
-

0
( ) h similar
, to that used in making gifts o f food etc to ,
.
,

1 90
 C H A N G E O F NA M E
priests is sent rou nd to all friends a n d rel a tives with
,

sm a ll p a ckets of pickled tea ( L etpet) a n d w ith the intima ,

tion th a t Maun g S a w k a o r M r I mpudence desires in .

futu re to be known as M a u n g By a u n g or M r H onest o r .

,

that Ma N yo M iss Bro w n w ishes henceforth to be c a lled

, ,

M a Pyu or M iss White There a re thus no afd a vits to .

be s worn and no le g al expenses to be borne I t mi g ht

,
.

e ven i n fa ct someti m es beco m e a sou rce o f prot for

, , ,

the presenta tion of small packages o f pickled tea ( L etp et

h) which a ccomp a ny invitations to entertainments and

to ,

ceremonials of all descriptions has g radu a lly become the ,

equ ivalent o f a polite request for a S li g ht moneta r y

contribution towa rds the expenses of any feast to which
the i nvitation refers The chan g e o f name however .
, ,

does not rank a s any su ita ble occasion fo r fe a sting o r

entertainment I t is merely o n e of those minor details
.

of l ife which are o f too trivial a n d commonpl a ce a

n atu re to be marked o u t for any special celebration .

O ne result o f this very common change is th a t the n a me

borne o n any Z a da o r horoscope usu a lly differs from that
by which the boy o r g irl is known a fter a bout t welve o r
thirteen years o f a g e .

The Burmese girl o n chan g ing her state and enterin g

,

into the bonds o f matrimony still reta ins her m a iden ,

n a me a n d rem a ins as before M a Pyaw M iss o r M istress

, ,

Pleasant the w ife l itera lly the w oman ( M ei m m a )

,

o f Mau n g S h w e Thet M r Golden L ife , . .

When the youn g b a be has acquired his rst n a me o r

rst and last as the case m a y b e he is fully lau nched
u pon life s troublous s e a H e ( o r she ) is made a grea t

.

deal of and remains far lon g er as a sucklin g th a n is

,

perh a ps the case w ith reg ard to the young o f a ny other

nationality I t is n o t at a l l an infrequent S i g ht in a
.

vill a ge to see a child being p a ssed from o ne m a tron to

a nother to be nursed simply as a m a tter o f ordin a rily

pol ite a ttention N o doubt the comparative lateness o f

.

w eanin g w hich may be xed at abou t two to two and a

,

h a lf yea rs o n the avera g e helps to a ccount for the ,

B urmese bel ief that the mother s milk only becomes

completely a bsorbed in the system at forty years o f a g e

a curious idea fo r w hich no reason seems a pparent .
,

1 91
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
As a matter o f fact one child practically appears to be
suckled so long as lactation continues o r u ntil d ispl a ced ,

by ano t her or till it sho ws loathin g for the mother s milk :

,

L on g before the ch ild ce a ses to be a sucklin g he o r s he

h as been introduced to the soothin g inuence O f a
cheroot I t is also by no means an uncommon si g ht to s e e
.

a mother place he r la rg e li g hted cheroot consisting more

o f leaves dried w ood and molasses than o f tobacco
, ,

into the mouth o f the chil d o f a bout a year or fteen

months o f age immediately o n it being removed from
,

the breast ; and the sucklin g appears to derive equ a l

enj oymen t from the cheroot as from i ts previous o ccu
patio u A t any rate it performs its n e w function with
.

the indi fference common to all very sm a ll children when

engaged in any occupation that happily keeps them
u I e t.
q
The Burmese cradle ( R a het ) deserves a word o f men
tion I t consists of a small oblon g crate o r open box
.

swung side ways by lon g ropes from one o f the roof

beams o r att a ched to the j oists of the ooring of the
upper room I t has been asserted that this lon g pendu
.
,

lum like motion is apt to affect the eyesight o f the child ;

-

but as a ma t ter o f fact cross eyed ness does no t appe a r

, ,
-

to be more common i n Burma than elsewhere O n the .

contra ry the supposed in uence o f the evil eye would

,

o ther w ise be less deeply impressed upon the superstitious .

Ophth a lmia is ho w ever as i n most ho t countries some

, , ,

what prevalen t The birth customs coupled with the

.
,

extreme ignorance o f the m id w ives no doubt have a ,

good deal to do w ith the contra ction o f conta g ious con

u n c t i v i s by children a t the time o f birth
j .

U ntil about seven years of age o r more the littl e boys

and g irls pass the time in o ne continuous rou nd o f play ,

S ometimes dressed very much l ike g ro w n u p people and -

sometimes in a state o f either partial o r complete nudity ,

save o n festivals and ceremonial occasions when they are ,

d ecked out w ith such g ay raiments as their p a rents can

afford Then they form the exact counterp a rts in minia
.

ture of grown u p men and w omen and conscious o f

-
, ,

their n e ry depor t themselves with qu a int gravity very

,

amusi ng in its st a idness and self consciousness D uring -

.

1 92
 E LE M EN T A R Y ED U C A TI O N
t he long period o f t he rainy season lasting from M ay t ill ,

Oc tober a mo r e or less a mphibious life i s led and it is

, ,

S imply a marvel t o t he E uropean how t he l ittle naked

u rchins continually wading abou t in t he wa t e r manage to
escape mala r ious feve r and dysen t e r y or to be eve r free ,

fr om coughs and colds .

At about eigh t or n ine years of age this happy time o f

u nrestric t ed nud ity and amusement comes to an end when ,

the b oy goes to t he monas t e ry in order to s truggle wi t h

the d i f culties of the Burmese e qu ivalen t s t o pothooks and
hange r s Bu t even here while ac q u iring the elements
.
,

o f reading w r i t ing and elemen t ary ari t hme t ic i t is by

, , ,

no means all work and n o play and t he lit tle s on o f a ,

monas t e r y ( Ky a ung Thag a l e) or disciple ( Ta h

y )i

has an u ncommo nly joyous and merry time o f it H e .

can r evel i n all sor t s of games and indulge his rog u ish ,

l ittle p ropensi t ies fo r m ild ha r mless p rac t ical j okin g upon ,

his fellow pupils bu t n ever upon t hose wea r ing t he yellow

,

r obe
.

Wha t is the r e tau g h t and t h e me t hod o f ins tr uctio n

are e q ually simpl e O n en t e r ing t he monas t e ry t he boy
.

is g iven a P a r a ha i h or coa rse papie r m ach slate like ,

-
,
-
,

black w r iting pad t hough black wooden boa rds ( Thi n oon )
,
'

are n ow also largely used as sla t es about a couple of ,

feet long and seven or eigh t inches b road upon which ,

he draws wit h s t ea t i t e or soaps t one ( K i ng usa n ) t he

charac t ers rep r esenting t he thi rty o ne consonants and -

the ten vowels of which t he Bu r mese alphabe t consis ts .

T hese consonants a r e i n a way ve ry much mo r e interes t

ing t h an t he bald A B C of th e L ati n and T eu t onic
langu ages for nea rly every o ne o f t hem has a descriptive
,

denition Thus th e rs t le t ter big K is differen t iated

.

, ,

fr om the sec o nd cu rved K t he rou nd S fr om t h e

, ,

rolled up S the po t bellied T from the elephant
,
-

fe t ter T the deep P from t he capped P and bo t h
,

,

o f these fr om the h ump backed B and so o n The
- .
,

acqu isitio n of t he alphabe t is the r efore not so u nqu e s

t i o nab l y a mere effor t of memo r y as in r egard t o many
other languages .

Group by group the va r ious letters are d rawn and

commit ted to memory t he whole class of boys repeating ,

V OL . II . 1 93 o
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
them for half an hou r very early eve ry morning and then ,

agai n from abou t an hou r t o an hou r and a half du r in g

the cou r se o f every afternoon A fter the alphabe t has .

been thoroughly mastered an advance is made to th e,

most simple combina t ions of a vowel and a consonant ,

and t hen by well considered g radations to words of

complex st ru cture This whole sys t em an excellent
.
,

method of a ttaining i t s pu rpose is brie y comprised i n ,

the grea t basket o f learn ing ( Thi n hdngy z) When

.

the Thi n hongy i has been assimilated a gradual course

of i ns tr uction is g iven i n the religiou s precepts and in

the simpler ins t ructions rel a ting t o the tenets o f B uddhism .

These are rst of all r eci t ed by the P ongy i and repeated

many times in chorus by t he small bo y s who then write ,

them down phrase by ph rase o n t he P a r a ha i h and con

, , ,

t i nu e r epeating them i n as loud a tone as t hey feel i n

cl i n e d t o
. When each lesson is ended t he P a r a ha i h ,

are a ll S imply sponged over and scrubbed i n orde r t o

remove t he soapstone charac te r s and t hen hu ng out to ,

dry u ntil required for the nex t lesson T hey are blackened .

by being occasionally rubbed with grou nd charcoal and

rice wa t er Of.

the t h ree R s arithmetic is tha t

which is deal t wit h i n t he mos t elementary and p e rfu n c

tory manner as the mul t iplicat ion t able ( Kogy a u ng o r
, ,

n ine combina t ions ) only a scends to n ine times n ine .

I n exalted lan g uag e the latte r is referred to as the

M a u ng ma S a de i h or
concubine s gu res because it

, ,

is supposed t o have been i ntroduced i n t o t he palace of

o n e o f t he kings by an inferior queen .

N oise is the u navoidable accompaniment of inst r uction

imparted in this manner B u t the din and clatter of
.

ton g ues become intensied should any E uropean visitor

venture into a monastery whilst lessons a re going o n .

T h e clamour becomes deafenin g the urchins all raising ,

their voices either t o displ a y t h ei r zeal i n t he ac q uisition

,

o f learning o r else from pure love o f mischief I t some .

times happens that when travellin g i n the j ungle the

, ,

E u ropean ofcer has to reside i n a monastery o r in

some res t house imme d iately adjoining a monas t ery
-
.

Woe be t id e him i n the early morning ! E ven if he sleep

t hrough the sou nd of the K a l a det o r call to mo r nin g ,

1 94
 A C O L YT E TH E
n
noon and afternoon le sso s a gong made of a piece o f t

, ,

wood hollowed out and with a nar row lon g i t udinal slit
1
alon g the t op ye t the Babel of shrill youn g voices very
,

soon arouses him from his slumbe r s A bout fou r or half .

past fou r o clock the lit t le d isciples begin t hei r lessons by

the dim light of li t tle o il cruses ; and o n suc h occa sions -

t he tasks always seem t o be begun earlier t o be con ,

ducted in a h igher more ea r piercing t one of voice an d ,

-
,

to last much lon g er than u nde r o r dinary ci r cums t ances .

A fte r h aving spent about a yea r and a half to t wo

years in the monas t e ry t he small boy re t u r ns aga in to ,

his pa r ents u n t il a t abou t t welve years o f a g e he tem

, , ,

ra r i ly assu mes t he yellow robe o f an acolyte h

p o
( S i n ,

K oy i n ) acco r ding t o the ceremony al r eady described

,

( page Previous t o this his ea r s are bored t he ,

p r ocedure being simila r to that adop t ed in the case o f

girls with whom it constitu t es a great ceremonial a
, ,

description o f which will be fou nd o n page 2 0 1 .

The S hi npy u or ce r emony of becoming an acoly t e is, , ,

next t o bi rt h and dea t h by far the mos t important even t ,

i n any Bu r man s l ife I n comparison wi t h this suc h an

.
,

event as marriage is a me r e inciden t of much less s i g n i

cance U ntil he has wo r n even bu t for the sho rt space o f
.
,

seven days t he yellow r obe o f t he S hi n h as in assuming

, , ,

the garb o f hu mility entered upon a l ife of mendicant ,

poverty and has in r enou ncing the pomps and vani t ies of
, ,

this world turned his back upon its snares and d elusions
, ,

the male Bu rmese ranks as bu t l i t tle if any t hin g better , ,

than a mere bru t e beas t I ndeed in some r espects he .

,

is worse off than the lower animals ; for he can incu r

r eligiou s demeri t (A hutha l a ) with ou t having a r rived at a
condi t ion in which i t is possible fo r him to gain meri t
( K a th o
) whe r ewi t h t o augmen t the c r edi t s ide o f this

l ife s account the sup r eme end and aim o f the cold

callous selsh r el igious philosophy of Buddhism S h ould

,
.

a boy die before the S hi npy u ceremony has been pe r

formed i t is held by many of the s t ric t er Buddhists that
,

suc h s t a t e of exis t ence cannot be reckoned as human i n

1
A v y i mi ler s ar sort of g on g was form erly used i n the H arz M ou n tain s
ll to the c h arcoal b urn ers on th e i r m eal of K hl er supp e b eI ng

as a c a -

r ea d y .

I 95
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U L E
the transmig ra t ions which must be made by h is soul .

H ence in becoming a S hi n the lad r eceives a t o ne and

, ,

the same time his religious baptism and his con rma t ion
i n t he t rue religion of the venerable Buddha .

T he r e is no correspond ing all impo r tant ceremony i n -

t he l ife o f a woman S he poo r t hin g wi t h a debit

.
, ,

balance on the closing o f l ife s account may become a

ca t o r a viper u nless he r sins are sufcient to condem n

,

he r to punishments of a mo r e e r y and hor r ible natu r e

but s he must soone r or late r be born again as a m a n
before attaining by any possibility the sta t us of a N a t
, ,

o r superio r bein g inhabiting o n e o f the s i x lowe r celes

tial regions H ence the fe rvency with which kneelin g

.
,

r eve r en t ially befo r e some pagoda o r shrine with her feet ,

tucked below he r ou t o f sigh t and holding a owe r i n ,

her clasped hands women of all ages inva r iably along

, ,

wi t h the usual piou s fo r mul ae express th e special wish ,

tha t they may be bo r n as male child r en during t he nex t

s ta t e o f existence . F or them this means promo t ion t o a
h ighe r rung in t he ladde r o f exis t ence .

A ft e r a r rival a t the monas t e r y and r eceip t of t h e eigh t

requ isi t es fo r th e new life o f pover t y and self denial the -
,

S hi n o r K oy i n continues h is s t udies i n th e B uddhistic

sacred wri t ings and makes wha t eve r advance i n le t ters
,

the du ration of hi s associa t ion with t he learned R a ha n

the r e may pe r m i t of .

The educa t ion t h us ob t ainabl e fr om abou t seven o r

eigh t to fou rt een or fteen years of age is certainly
narrow and ci r cumscribed Bu t i t h as t his advantag e
.
,

tha t t h e p roportion of l i t e ra t es to illite ra t es is as 4 8 7

t o 5 1 3 acco r din g to the censu s o f 1 89 1 which bears
, ,

ve ry favou rable compa r ison wi t h the othe r national ities

forming ou r I ndian Empi r e Tha t only ve women o ut
.

o f eve r y thousand o r o n e half pe r cen t

,
-
can be classed as .
,

lite r a t e is a ma tt er for r eg r e t t hough the ratio i s likely

,

to i mp r ove soon .

The r e can be no doub t tha t the inuence o f the pries t

hood is on the decrease and t ha t this must conse q uently
,

l ead t o a falling off in the numbe r O f boys sen t to the

monasteries for elementa ry instruction B ut this does .

n o t necessa r ily imply r e t rogression as the n umber o f lay ,

1 96
 TATT O O I N G
schools and t h e a tt end a nce at them are rapidly i nc re as
ing R ecognizing t he inevitable march of events in this
.

di r ection some o f the h eads o f monasteries i n U pper

,

B urma shortly a fter the annexation sen t ou t proba

, ,

t i o n e rs t o the ou t er worl d as laymen i n order to qualify

in the normal schools o f Gove r nmen t and then after , ,

obtaining a t eacher s certicate r etu r n to resume t he

yello w robe and become re admi tt ed into the Thi ng a as a -

R a ha n E ven as long as over twenty years ago a P ongy i

.

o f K yaikto in the S hwe g yin dis t rict o f Tenasserim had

, ,

himself t au g ht surveying by t he A ssis t ant Commissioner

then stationed there in order that he might t rain u p ,

some of the clevere r among his pupils to acqu ire a s u f

cien t grasp o f su rveying to t them for obtaining employ
ment u nder Governmen t as headmen o f revenu e circles l
.

A t any time from the age o f about ten to fteen years

the boy may according t o his desire subject himself to
, ,

the p r ocess of tattooin g The r e is no xed t ime o r a g e for .

this event I t m a y t ake place before the lad becomes a

.

S hi n o r aft er he has left the monastery and r e t urned to

the world as a layman A s it causes severe pai n it is .
,

sometimes no t carried o u t at all : but i n this case the , ,

boy has to endu re very much the same sort o f unenvi a ble

reputation as a softy that an E nglish schoolboy would
incu r if he shunned c r icket football and other games , , .

The name given to the opera tion is itself su ggestive of

pain ; for it is called Tog wi n togy i n from to to shoot

,

as pain K wi n ( g wi n ) a eld ( o r u nit of the
,

and to t o th r ust or pierce

O n the whole however .

, ,

tattooing is no t now nearly s o almost u n iversal as it wa s

p r evious to the Bri t ish occupa t ion o f B urma ; and this
is merely o ne o f t he many minor signs showing how the
national customs and charac t er are g radually changing
u nder o u r rule .

When a boy has become desi rous of u nder g oing the

ope r ation and his paren t s think o r have ascertained
, ,

1
The P n m I h av e fo gotten th ough I u ed to kn ow hi m

ongy i s

a e r ,
s .

I m y p e h p b all o wed h owe v e to m e n ti on L i eu te n n t ( n ow C ol on e l )

a r a s e , r, a

Th om M ri s J enk i n
as or s the A si st n t C o mm i
s, i on e who a s a ss r

th u s u e fu lly mpl oy ed hi s l e i su e ti m e i n
s e l o n ely m l l town wh ere he
r a s a ,

was the only E u o p ean r .

I 97
 B U R M A U N D ER B R I T I S H R U LE
from t he horoscope that the time is auspicious fo r the
,

even t t he t attooe r Tog wi n S ay d ) also more politely

, ,

te r med t he artis t in ink ( H m i ngy a u ng S ay a) is called

i n to ope ra t e When complete the whole eld o f
.

,

t at tooing opera t ions extends fr om the wais t o n a level ,

with the navel down t o below t he knees Within these

, .

limits all the skin is cove r ed with g ures o f strange and

wonderful shapes A s the S ki n coveri ng the lowe r a b
.

domen and the inte r io r o f t he thighs is no t by any means

the toughest po rtion o f the h uman hide an idea can ,

easily be formed o f the pain which m u s t be caused t o

the b oy when the con t inuous pricking action of t he s tyle
o r needle succeeds in tho r oughl y irritatin g the ski n and

more acu t e i rr itation begins to be fel t by t he introduc t ion

o f th e t a t tooing ink into t h e blood S o g r eat is the pai n .

p roduced tha t even although t he b oy may p r eviously

,

have been drugged with opium he some t imes yells an d ,

sc r eams as if he were being me r cilessly t hrashed I .

recollec t once when r iding t hrough t he t own o f Paungd e

, ,

hearing such fea rful yells that I felt compelled to dis ,

moun t from my pony a nd proceed t o t he place of dis

t u rb a n ce in o r de r as I t hough t t o perhaps succeed in
, , ,

p r eventing mu rde r B ut the scene t ha t me t my gaze

.

was a circle of q uie t and peacefu l onlooke rs wa t ching

wi t h b r eathless in t eres t the H mi ngy a u ng S ay ci s ope ra

tions upon t h e h ips of a boy of abou t n ine or t en yea r s

o f age , who with head bent l o w o n the S pl it bamboo
,
-

oo r and ste r n reared hi gh lay bello wing while his body ,

was becoming embellished with the national ado r nmen ts

of manl y beauty A nd t here is no doubt that when a
.

B urman girds up h is loins for conven ience a t any kind of

bodily exercise or during laborious occupa t ion whic h
h e does by raising his K a l a n a n or narrowe r waist clo t h ,

t han t he o r dinary P aso up to his loins b r inging the

, ,

fron t end t h rough between his t highs pullin g i t as tight ,

as conven ien t and then t ucki ng i n the end beh ind in t o

,

t h e top of the portion fastened rou nd the loins ( Kada u ng

ch aih the) the effec t o f t he deep blue t a tt ooing agai n s t
the dark ol ive b rown ski n is d istinc t ly o r namental Thus
-
.

tattooed h is skin suggests bu t l i tt le of nakedness A nd

, .

m o r e especially i s this the case wit h t he S hans who ,

1 98
 TATT O O I N G
ta t too themselves completely from above the waist down
to belo w the ankles A ll the g reat mas t ers of the art o f
.

t a ttooi ng are S hans who surpass the Bu rmese both i n

,

lightness of touch and in t he beau t y and clearness of the

d esi g ns drawn .

The artis t in ink begins ope r a t ions by rs t o f a ll

drawin g in the various K wi n or independent portions of ,

the design with a camel s hair pencil before proceeding to

,

render it indelible by the use of th e ta t tooing ins t rument

( S ut
) a ,s t yle made o f brass I t consists rs t of a thin . ,

solid lowe r portion com ing t o a ne pencil poin t d ivided

, ,

into fou r or eight t iny prickers which fo r m th e business ,

end of the instrument four of the slits being prolonged ,

abou t three inches up s o as to hold t he ink as in a d raw

pen then o f a hollow j oin t from which t he manipulation
, ,

takes place a nd also o f a he a vie r solid portion above

,

this often weighted i n o r der to enable the sk in to be

,

lightly punc t ured B i t by bit t he design previously

.

drawn is executed t he style being g u ided between the

,

forenge r and thumb o f the left hand whilst the i n stru ,

ment is r apidly raised up and down wi t h a li g ht dex

trous play of t he t humb and forenge r of the right hand .

The ink used is lampblack ob tained from the smoke of

s e ss a m u m O i l and d ilu t ed with wa t e r O n being in tr o .

d u ce d below the skin it t urns the same blue colou r as

gunpowder when simila r ly u sed among soldiers sailors , ,

and schoolboys .

With an eig ht p r onged ta tt ooing i nstrumen t work p r o

-
,

c ee d s s o r apidly that a person s whole body might be

cove r ed wi t h elaborate designs i n a s ingle day Owing .

t o the pain produced however the usual O pe ration fr om , ,

the waist to the knees is only done in patches ; some

t imes i t is completed in t hree o r fou r consecutive days ,

and sometimes a t one sitting of about four ho u rs : bu t

such details vary i n accordance with many ci rcums tances ,

being along with various o t he r individual i tems mo r e

, ,

o r less dependent o n t he degree of elabo r a t eness of t he

designs A fter the ope ration has been concluded i n

.

a mm a ti on se t s in the thigh swells and the muscles

, ,

become S O rigid t ha t lameness r esults A Bu r mese lad . ,

whose t highs I h ave j ust examined t ells me t ha t i n hi s ,

I 99
 B U R M A U N D E R B R IT I S H R U LE
case t he ope ration was performed when he was fteen
yea rs o f age tha t i t was done o n three consecutive days
, ,

and that he was a cripple for abou t twenty days after

that : bu t then the integral pa r ts o f the design all round
the thi g hs consist of ti gers a n d fabulous ying animals
l ike winged l ions which are much simpler and less painful
,

than more elabora t e designs such as demons dragons , , ,

and the complete s e t of the signs of the zodiac H e has .

o n e or two peacocks and s h above his hip join t s and ,

o ne o r t wo demons and quails rou nd his knees ; bu t the

various elds all roun d hi s thi g hs an d elsewhere o n

the t ender skin are lled in with ca t s a n d yin g animals .

The ar t ist s charge fo r operating upon him was two

rupees w hich does n o t seem an exorbitant price to

,

pay fo r an indestru ctible pai r of skin tight b r eeches of -

be a utiful gu r ing and indelible colouring .

I n addition to this regulation adornment o f t he male

person many o t he r ta t too marks are often to be seen on
,

the chest back arms and elsewhere These a re all

, , , .

charms of o ne sor t o r anothe r love cha rms invulne rable ,

charms and the l ike and they are usually t a ttooed i n

,

verm ilion I n the kingdom of A va a black spot used to

.

be ta t tooed o n t he s ide of men who belon g ed to the K in g ,

this palace mark ( N a n z a) being the B urmese e qu i va

-
"

lent o f o u r broad a rrow .

Burmese girls are not t atooed though among the ,

Chin hill tribes it was cus tomary to tattoo with nar row
lines the whole of the faces o f you ng girls s o as to
r ende r t hem less at tractive to raiders and to m ake them ,

r ecognizable amo ng the reprisals made during successful

pu nitive incursions into the raiders te r ritory Where

eve r the Chins have n ow settled away from the

frontier dis t ric t s as in Tha y etmyo and P r ome this
, ,

practice is fast falling into disuse .

D u ring t hei r earl iest y ears girls have ha r dly as good

a time a s boys fo r t hey are no t allowed to t ake part
,

u nrestric t edly i n all the games the paddling in t he water , ,

and the other amusements into which their small brothers

enter with such keen relish A nd then for t hem too .
, ,

education does not mean shoutin g ou t easy lessons in

the monastery o r accompanying the priest o n his daily
,

200
 EA R B O R I N G -

round for r ice and other light tasks s w eetened by t he

,

games and mild p ractical jokes indul g ed i n with in the

mo naste r y g rounds I n place o f bein g introduced to the
.

good things contai ned in the great basket o f learnin g

,

girls gradually g et initiated into the mys t eries of spin

ning weaving sewing sweeping up the house husking
, , , ,

and winnowing the rice prep a ring the meals fo r the ,

household and perform ing all t he many duties and

,

drud g eries tha t fall t o her lo t in l ife .

A fter receivin g he r name when about a for t nigh t ol d ,

the rst great and real even t i n the life o f a g irl i s the
ceremony of ear boring (N a d w i n M i ng a l a) some t imes
-
,

performed as early as six or seven years o f a g e but ,

mo r e commonly coinciding with the attainment of

pube rt y when s he is abou t twelve o r thirteen years o l d
, .

T his M i ng a l apy u is the B urmese equivalent of the

d ehn t U ntil this ceremony has been celebrated it is

.

improper for the you ng g irl to wear jewels o f any kind ,

o r g old ornaments of high intrinsic value M i ng a l d is a .

Pali word meaning whatever is propitious g ives happi

,

ness or averts evil which has come to be appl ied to a ny
, ,

reli g ious ceremony H ence the term M i ng a l asa u ng

.

may be applied t o any solemn ceremony though it is ,

mainly applied to the marri a g e customs The d e p r e c i .

ation w hich ha s taken place i n this word during the

course o f time can very well be illustra t ed in the fact
that the royal elephan t was called M i ng a l asi d a w S i n

or the elephant ridden by t he blessed o ne .
"

A s a matter o f cou rse an occasion of this importance ,

necessitates a r eference to the horoscope to ascertai n ,

when the most propi t ious moment arrives for puncturing

the lobes of the ears The needles used for this purpose
.

are like very larg e sha rp pointed F rench nails and are -
,

i nvariably o f silve r among even the very poorest

classes thou g h always of gold and often adorned with
, ,

j ewels in the houses o f paren t s i n better circumstances

,
.

When the auspicious day and hour have been xed a ,

feast is prepared to which all r elatives and friends are

invited in the usual manner by means o f sending rou nd ,

small packets of t ea a nd music O f one sort or another ,

is a r ranged fo r Conversa t ion an d music while away

.

20 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
the t ime the E nglish proverb time is money wo uld

not be i n t elligible i n B urma till the as t rologe r inti mates

tha t the most auspicious momen t has arrived when th e ,

t wo huge needles a r e forced th r ough t he soft lobes o f

the ear by a professional ear bo re r D urin g this oper
-
.

ation the girl w h ose nerves have by this t ime been

,

excited to a state o f hi g h t ension re q u ires to be held ,

very forcibl y by her female rela t ives i n o r der to main tain

he r in prope r position wh ilst her sh r ieks and sc r eams
,

du ring the painful operation are more o r less drowned b y

the deafening music provided U ntil the edges of the
.

wounds thus made heal up and cicatrise the needles a r e ,

moved once o r twice a day When the wounds are

.

su fcien t ly healed t he needles are withdra wn and the

, ,

h oles are lled up with smooth rou nd thin s t alks of the

N agy e gr ass o r of the inne r stem of t he elephan t grass
a cch
( S a r um s on ta n e u m
p ) after
,
which the process of

enlargemen t takes place This is gradual and occupies

.

a lon g t ime which may be easily unders tood when it is

,

known t hat t he o r dina r y ea r cylinde r ( N a dctu ng ) is

usu a lly about an inch to an inch and a q ua r ter long and ,

fr om half to three quarters o f an inch in diameter I t is

-
.

somewha t large r at the ends than i n the m iddle H ollow .

ea r t ubes o f this so rt made of coloured glass can be seen

i n t housands i n t he bazaa rs bu t t he orthodox kinds a r e
solid cyl inde rs made o f amber o r some othe r less valu
able ma t erial n o t o f t oo heavy a natu r e Of late y ea rs .

the cus t om has become prevalent among the richer

classes of having gorgeous ea r ornamen t s ( N ag at) o f
diamonds and rubies s e t i n gold and j oined with a sc r ew
,

xed fr om behind j ust in fa c t l ike any enormous stud

, ,

o r sleeve link in t wo pieces w h ic h might requ ire screw

i ng toge t her in place of being othe rw ise inse rt ed into

posi t ion Bu t this i s probably an innovation and not
.
,

an ol d na t ional ornament .

When once the needles have been wi thd rawn and t he

o r iginal aper t u r e has been lled up wi th small smooth
s talks of g rass o ne s talk more is added the r e t o d a y by
,

day u n t il t he openin g in the lobe is la rge enough to

admi t the full s ized ea r cyl inder
-
.

N eithe r men nor women have any pockets in t he l ight

2 02
 EA R H O LE S
co tt on o r silk clothin g t hey wea r hence the hole i n the
lobe o f the ear ( N a ha u h N a d wi n ) is very useful when
, ,

no t othe r wise occupied as a place for holding anythin g

,

like a half smoked c heroo t I n goin g alon g a country

-
.

cart track or pa t h a m a n or woman will often be seen

-

t hus carr yi ng t he stump o f a che r oot t hat is too g ood to

be t h rown away ye t I n fac t the ea r holes a r e m uch
. ,
-

mo r e used for such a purpose than fo r opportu ni t ies 0 1

adornment ; and as might be expected the holes are
, ,

t herefore larg es t I n t he case o f men belonging t o the

wo r king classes like boa t men shermen a nd such
, , ,

others a s labour with t hei r short wais t cloth tucked up

be t ween t heir t highs When the perforations are s o
.

large as to be unsightly t hey a r e called N ap et bu t i t i s

,

very seldom tha t o ne sees the lobes actually to r n .

F r om such a man I once pu rchased in Bhamo a large

ear cyl inde r consis t ing o f a w r i t ten cha r m r olled up i n
,

leaves and encased i n t he t hin cu t icle of a bamboo

spa t he measu ring about two i nches i n len g th and s o
, ,

large in diameter as to be only with di fculty spanned

be t ween t he th umb and foren g er I t is very much .

mo r e o f a curiosity t han of an ornament and it is ,

desirable to wash one s hands afte r admiring it A s it

.

is the bigges t ear cylinder I have eve r seen i n use I ,

was as much pleased a t ge tt ing it as its possesso r was

amused a t my wishing to have it A nd afte r all o ne .
, ,

canno t expect very much i n t he way o f even a second

hand ear ornament for two annas ( twopence ) especially ,

wi t h t he laten t possibili t ies of a po t ent charm thrown

into the bargain .

U ntil abou t t hi rt een years of age youn g gi r ls wea r

t he hair o f t he head t ied s t iff l ike a bu nch o f qu ills ,

which gives t he name ( Ky etta u ng si ) to this ineleg an t

fashion . T ill th en he r education has been conned
mainly to household du t ies and to r epartee and gossiping
,

w ith o t he r y oung girls w hen t hey go i n t he late afternoon

to t he v ill a ge w ell to ba t he there and also bring ,

back wa t e r for t he household r e q ui r emen t s When .

t owards sundown o ne mee t s a troupe of young g i rls

and women com ing back in I ndian le from t h e well
o r t he village s tr eam each ca rr yi n g a cha tt y or round
,

2 03
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
e a r th e r n jar o f water poised o n he r h ead and can , ,

u nno t iced hea r thei r merry unconcerned laugh and

,

talk o ne canno t help thinking tha t t hey must be as

,

happy as the day is long L e t t h em catch si ght o f the

.

s t ranger however and more often than no t they assume

, ,

a g rave and preoccupied ai r as if t he ca res of life h ad

already be g un to s i t heavily o n them .

I n j u n g le villages and remote hamle t s th e B urmese

girl simply g rows up ge t s courted and en t ers through
, ,

the gates o f ma t rimony i nto womanhood But i n all the .

larg er villages and i n t he t owns there is a d istinct and

, ,

denite sort of nishin g course given to the ed ucation

sh e has hithe r to been allowed to gr ope her way into .

This completion of her education t a kes place i n the

bazaar o r market hall o f he r native pl a ce H ere to .
,

wards the age of seventeen or ei g hteen she goes and ,

for at least about a year keeps a stall Z e y a u ng the ,

S he sells bazaar i n whatever portion of the ma r ket

hall he r parents can afford to s e t her up Those who .

are best endowed are n a turally to be found in the silk

baz a ar ; but in w hichever dep a rtment s he opera tes the ex
, ,

e ri e n ce acqu ired very soon sharpens her na t urally keen

p
mercan t ile instincts and business capacity and makes ,

her men t ally a mu ch readie r reckoner than her brothers

who have been tau g ht in the monastery to write down and
repeat the mul t iplication table u p to ni ne times nine A .

B urmese girl of nineteen o r twenty is consequently much

smarter at busi ness than a lad o f the same age ; and sh e
u ndoubtedly main t ains all through life the advantage thu s
won H ence s he naturally rules the roost and g ives the
.
,

advice which i s usu a lly accepted i n business t ransactions ,

though often clever enough ( and wise enough ) n o t to

make this too apparent .

I t is in the bazaa r t h at t he E uropean will have by

far the bes t opportu nity o f form ing his opinion of th e
B urmese gi r l ; and a high opinion it is bou nd to be .

S he has a gra ce and freedom o f manner entirely devoid

of anything like forwardness or bad form which canno t ,

fail t o charm thoug h he r face be no t fai r o r j u dged by

, ,

weste r n standards possessed of even the slightest claims

,

t o beauty Though not wit ty yet she has a keen sense

. ,

2 04
 F A C E E N A M E LL I N G
-

o f humou r ; she can take a j oke and g ive a

g id p r o gu o
u

without being in any way offended or offensive F o r .

example in once taking my wife then still a youn g bride

, , ,

throu g h the silk bazaa r i n T oungoo some years ago we ,

stopped and talked with a girl at o ne of the stalls ; and in

the course of conversation I happened un wittingly t o make
some remark which caused a sli ght lau g h at the lat t er s

expense S he said nothing but smiled took t wo or three

.
, ,

lon g whiffs at her big green che r oo t and then pointin g , ,

w ith her chin t o my wife a habi t t he B u rmese have in

place o f indicating wi t h t he nge r which is conside r ed
,

ext r emely u n r e ne d q u ietly asked Who is th at you

,

have with y ou ? I t s you r dau g h t er I suppose ? I ,

migh t have promptly r eplied Oh no ! m y g rand
, ,

daug ht e r ; bu t s he had sco r ed t he point befo r e I had
though t of t his re t o rt .

Bu rmese girls may pe r haps be no vaine r than the fair

dau ghte r s o f wes t e r n an d mo r e civilized nations .

Whethe r this be so o r n ot however t hey cer t ainly take

, ,

fewer pains to conceal thei r vani t y and thei r love o f

m aking t h emselves as a ttractive as possible A s one .

walks t hr ough the sil k bazaar w h ere the p r et t ies t and

,

the bes t dressed girls will almos t a lways be seen these ,

damsels will be fou nd i n t he in t ervals of cus t om s itting

in fr on t o f a small t il t ed up mi rr o r and engaged in
be au t ifying t hemselves by r ubbing i n Tha nd tha a c os ,

me t ic fo r med of t he nely grou nd bark and r oot of

the Tha nat t r ee ( M u r r ay a ex oti ca ) This is rubbed .

down into a ne impalpable powde r wi t h wa t e r o n a

close g rained sands t one pla tt e r w i t h a groove r unning
-

all r ou nd like t ha t o n a soli t aire boa r d This cosmetic .

can be ob ta ined i n ano t he r pa rt o f t he bazaa r ready

m ade i n the fo r m of small pellets r e q u iring only to be
dissolved i n wa t e r to be ready fo r use but a hel l e p r efers
t o prepa r e the cosmetic fo r he r self When su fcient .

Tha n atha has been rubbed up i t is smea r ed over the

whole o f the face from ea r to ea r and from t he r oots of

t he hair on the fo r ehead down to the th r oat t hen allowed ,

t o d r y and remain t h us for abou t an hour D u r ing this .

time the damsel is en desha hi l l e and her face is no t a

,

pleasin g objec t to t he eye as t he daubing makes he r look

,

2 05
 B U R M A U N D E R B R IT I S H R U LE
exactly as if he r ol ive skin h ad been coa rsely and badly
washed over wi t h t hin yellowish s t raw o r c r eam colou r ed -

d is t emper for lightness o f colour is considered a special

,

kind o f beau t y amon g t he ol ive brown Bu r mese I n -

.

Uppe r Bu rma whe r e the people a r e gene rally somewhat

,

darker skinned than in L owe r Bu rma a w h ite r cosmetic ,

called L wi nhm u n is made from rice bu t i t s use is not ,

ve r y extensive .

Whilst t he Tha nd tha is being allowed to d ry in t he ,

fai r maid will proceed to do he r hai r A s smoking is .

inconven ient du r ing this opera t ion she may perhaps rs t

o f all pull ove r her K u n i t o r lac q uered betel b ox with i t s ,

del ica t e designs in y ello w b rown red g r een a n d black

, , , , ,

and carefully prepare a q u id Fi rs t of all she clips off .

a piece of areca nu t wi t h cu tt ing shea r s ; t hen selec ts a

leaf o f the betel vine pu t s a touch o f whi t e lime o r o f
,

red or o f both o n i t adds a sprig of tobacco folds up all

, , ,

wi thin the leaf and inser t s the q u id in its comple t e state

K u nha n K u n ta a into her mouth
( , y ) When this p r el im .

i na ry has been arranged s he proceeds t o business

,
.

Taking up her big semicircular comb ( B i ) made of the ,

wood of t he tr ee from which t he Tha n d tha is ground she ,

lets down t he long coils of he r hai r and combs i t o u t

freely Whils t doing th is she lays down qu ite O penly
.

the switch ( S a z u ) used to supplemen t her own locks when

t hese a r e not sufcien t t o fo r m an imposing top kno t -

( S a d un
). F o r this purpose girls may ei t he r treasure up

their o wn hair as it comes o u t or they may annex and ,

utilize the long hai r shorn from t hei r brother s head when

he en t ers t he monastery as an acoly t e o r they may wear ,

false hair ob tained fr om some on e else B oth males and .

females have long coa rse je t black hair which is in each -

,

case t ied up in a t op kno t bu t t he coils o f which are

-
,

differen t ly a rranged I t s length may be j udged of by

.

t he fac t tha t the measuremen t of i t is made in cubi ts and ,

spans and nge r breadths Whils t thus engaged the

, .

damsel from time to time inte r rupts he r occupa t ion to

eject the red s tained sal iva d r awn in t o he r mou t h by the
-

mas t ication of t he be t el q u id This is by no means what.

on e would class amon g celestial manners though it is ,

mentioned as being eminently cha rac t eris t ic fo r as you

2 06
 SMOKING
slowly app r oach t he s t all o f t he hel l o en d esha hi l l e th e

chances are rat h er i n favour o f than against her going

t h rough t his obj ec t ionable ce r emony in order t o S ho w
how u nconce r ned S he is and ho w oblivious o f your
approach H er lon g black hair glossy and lustrou s with
.
,

cocoa nu t o i l having been duly combed coiled and

-
, , ,

secured with a long sk e we rl i ke hai rpin she now thinks ,

about the nex t portion of he r toile t t he enamellin g or ,

pol ishing of her face after a su fcien t t ime has passed t o

allow the cosmetic to dry t ho r ou g hly .

Before beg inn ing this s he will p r ob a bly open some

la rger be t el b ox o r a d rawe r from which s he will select
,

a cheroo t to enjoy n ow t hat t he qu id o f betel has been

qui t e disposed of H ere s he has a choice of eithe r o f
.

t wo kinds of cheroo t o r rolled tobacco ( S el ei h) I f

.

in the ordinary form and made entirely o f tobacco le a f i t ,

is distinc t ively called a roll o f stron g ( pure) t obacco

( S epy i n l ei h) ; while if i t is o ne of the larg e va r ie t y face

,

t i ou sl y called Burmese cigare tt es by A nglo B u r mans -

,

i t i s a roll of ligh t tobacco ( S ep a wl ei h) The la t te r

.

are abou t seven to ei g ht inches long and vary from say , , ,

half an i nch i n diame t er at the small end t o about an inch

and a q uart er a t t he large end This class o f B urmese
.

cheroo t is made u p o f chopped t ob a cco leaves pieces o f -

,

t he stem of t he tobacco plan t and pieces o f chopped wood

, ,

t hat of t he Okhn e ( S tr ehl u s a sper ) being most frequen t ly

used These ing r edien t s after being sprinkled wi t h a
.
,

solution of j aggery o r wi t h t amarind syrup are rolled up ,

i n a wrappe r which varies in na t u r e in differen t pa rts of

the cou ntry M os t commonly t his ou t e r casing consis t s
.

o f t he g reen leaves o f bambwe ( Ca r ey a a r hor ea ) and

thanat ( Cor di a my x a ) or else of the soft whi t e sheaths
,

o f th e P n h r
y a u g u o maize ( Z ea m ay )
s .

H avin g l ighted her che root and se t tled herself com

for ta b l y the g irl proceeds t o a rr an g e her mi r ror in front
,

o f her and begins t o enamel o r burnish her face w ith the

m iddle nger of the right hand This polishin g ( P u tgy i n )

.

is a very much more del icate and l en g thy operation than

t he mere smearing or laying o n o f the cosmetic in the
rs t ins tance F o r a t least an hour one is almost
.

t emp t ed to say for hou rs S he sits working in t he

2 07
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
Tha natha enamel evenly delica t ely and smoothly t ill the
, ,

S ki n assumes a pale soft pl ian t and by no means u np le a s

, ,

ing appearance Whils t t his long opera t ion is being

.

slowly developed t he girl pauses from t ime to time and

examines hersel f critically i n he r m irr o r to s e e if the
enamel is being worked i n uniformly and satisfac t orily
i nto the skin ; and no beau t y t hrou g hout E u rope o r
A merica can well enj oy more gra t i ca t ion from beholding
her face g ure and d ress i n t he la rgest and cos t liest o f
, ,

pie r glasses than the Burmese hel l e probably de r ives fr om

-

her l ittle looking glass o f abou t twelve o r fteen inches

by eigh t or ten inches and often much less A t any
, .

r ate such is t he conclusion tha t the o rdina r y male creature

mus t a rr ive at j udging from the fre q uency of the critical
,

examinations of t he fai r face and t he l eng t h o f time

devoted to admiring he rself .

When t his enamelling p rocess has been sa t isfac t o r ily

concluded t he eyebrows a r e ca r efully pencilled and made
,

t o s t and o u t sha rply from t he b ea u ti e d skin and then ,

the toile t is completed by ar ranging co q uettis h ly some

seasonable owe r a rose for choice i n the dark l us
,

trous hair N o headd r ess is worn merely a natu ral o r

.
,

ar t i cial owe r being i nse rt ed into the raven black mass -

o f hair . When walking ab r oad howeve r a kerchief , ,

( P a w d) l ike a man s
silk t urban is h eld i n th e hand o r

thrown ligh tly across one shoulder to give a sor t of ,

nish to the costume A bu nch of keys is often t ied to

.

o ne co r ner o f t his kerchief and a very mild fo r m o f vani ty

,

is perhaps excusable in paradin g more keys i n t his way

t han t he fai r damsel has d rawers or boxes to lock up .

H avi ng t hus comple t ed one of the serious duties o f life

fo r an elabora t e toile t of t his so r t can only be made once
every t wo o r t h r ee days leaving all special occas ions o u t
,

of considera t ion she is able t o ligh t ano th e r cheroo t

and conve r se wi t h t he neighbou ring stal l ke e p e rs o r with ,

s t rollers passin g t h rough the bazaar w h ilst s he s its o r ,

l ies down awai t ing t h e receip t of cus t om I f a passe r by .

-

hal t fo r a momen t and speak to he r he will be su re o f ,

civil and cou rteous r eception I f he tells her she is a.

p retty girl she will probably make a contemp t uous ges

,

t u r e like turning up her nose N ay if he pay her the

,
.
,

2 08
 TH E
B AZ A A R
g rea t es t of compl iments and sa y Y ou are ve ry beau

,

tiful and y ou walk like an elephant she will most l ikel y
, ,

only r eply H eh i n a con t emp t uou s fashion although ,

the complimen t may be q ui t e in accordance with her o wn

es t ima t e o f h erself S trange t hat th e ac t ion of an ele
.

phan t should be the t ype of graceful mo t ion ! Bu t i t is

di fcul t to walk i n o r even to keep o n t he fee t loose san
, ,

dals fas t ened only wi t h th ongs fr om th e top to t he sides ,

passing i n be tween t he big toe an d t ha t adjoinin g it :

and if one walks behind elephan t s as I have done i n ,

Bu r ma for many h u nd r eds o f wea r y miles one cannot ,

fail to pe r ceive a r egula r i t y and imposing solidi t y abou t

t he mo t ion of t h ei r hind legs though i t does not exac t ly ,

amoun t to ou r ideal of graceful movemen t .

I f o ne have su fcien t assu rance to inform t he Burmese

bel l e tha t s he is possessed of all the ve good bodily
qualities ( P y i n sa K a l i d n a ; soft ness o f esh goodness of ,

bones smoo t hness of skin beau t iful hai r and you th ful
, , ,

ness) and t ha t he r eyes are brigh t as diamonds he r l ip s

, ,

red as rubies and he r t eet h whi t e as pearls she would

, ,

p r obably snee r ou t t he same con t emp t uous monosyllable ,

althou g h pe r haps possessed of vani t y enoug h to be co n

scious o f fully meriting the compliments Bu t compli .

ments of this effusive na t u r e paid cor a mp u bl i co a r e apt to

, ,

be se r iously misin t e rpreted and to s e t ton g ues wagging, .

The bazaa r is t he home of gossip and the r e a r e eve r ,

busybodies ap tly t e r med bell clappers ( Ka l a uhsa n )

,
-

,

who r evel i n scandal N o young B urman w ho is fond

.

o f a gi r l keeping a stall i n the bazaa r would g o and

pay he r marked a tt ention of t his so rt in b r oad dayligh t .

A ll love a ffai r s are conduc t ed i n stric t acco rdance with

ancien t u sage and cus t om The wooe r pays cou r t to his
.

inamora t a i n t he evening a t the t ime when youths ,

u b oh h a ch
g o cou rtin g ( L y l et e e i n
) which bein g inte r , ,

p re t e d means
,
f r om abou t eigh t t o ten o clock at ni g h t

.

I t t ermina t es wi t h t he r etu r n of t he young lads ( N a li n
by a n ) cor r espondin g t o about ten p m I t is only then .

tha t it is conside r ed correct for t he sw a in to add ress the

damsel i n t he language of cou r tship ( L u by o sag a)

.

I n every small village and in each qu a rter o f t he

,

la rge r villag es or t he t owns th e young S ingl e m e n

,

V OL . II. 209 p
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
( y )
L ub a band t hemselves

u nde r t he leade r ship o f a
head bachelo r ( L u by og a u ng ) who exerts an authori t y
,

ove r t hem v ery much resembling that possessed by the

cap t ains of t h e bands of appren t ices i n the days of old
L ondon cen t uries a g o
,
I ndeed t he r e a r e many o t he r
.
,

thin g s no t iceable i n t he t owns o f Bu r ma that also

r emind one somewha t o f t he condi t ion o f old E ngl ish
b
t owns i n days long since gone y as fo r example t h e , , ,

way i n which the houses o f t hose following differen t

occupations a re all g rouped together i n separa t e streets
o r quarters o f the town Thus you will nd a black
.

smiths ro w a dye r s row or a carpenters r o w

,

,

and so fo rt h all branchin g o ff from the L a n m a dd w o r

,

main road and lead ing to t he mino r tho rou g hfares where
those follo w ing o ne and t he same t rade or occupation
are to be found congrega t ed t oge t he r .

I n the evening afte r the shor t tropical t wiligh t has

,

quite faded away and t he t ime when meeting t wo
, , ,

bro t hers can ba r ely r ecognize eac h o t he r has deepened

into the darkness i n which o ne can sca r cely s e e the i n

t e rs t i c e s between his n g e r s if t he hand be held u p
,

before t he eyes t h e time of cou r ting comes round
, .

Before t hen the lads u nde r each L u by og a u ng have

a r rived at the mee t ing place previously xed o n and the
-
,

mode o f spending the evenin g is d iscussed .

A s they go the round of the village or q uarte r o f the

town the lads drop off either singly o r i n t wos o r threes
, ,

and the lover makes some sort o f sign before venturing up

into the house whe r e h is beloved resides I n some parts .

o f t he no r th of Upper B urma and amon g the Karens

, ,

the cor r ec t e t i q ue t te for young men in appro a chin g thei r

sweethearts is to slap wi t h the right hand upon the muscles
between the shoulde r and the elbow of the left arm the ,

hand and forearm of t he la tt er being placed across the

body a t ri g ht a ngles to t he shoulder bone which also
forms t he challenge g iven a t boxing ma t ches Bu t it mo r e .

usually co n sists merely of a prelimin a ry cough or two ,

and such inqu iry as H eh M a Pyu ; are y o u at home

,

O n r eceiving the r eply afrmative he t hen asks M ay I

, ,

come up ? and permission having been given ascends
, ,

the stairs to nd the girl duly at t i r ed according t o her

210
 L OV E M A K I N G -

class and s ta t ion so a s tl y to receive the at t en t ions o f a

lover P robably t he r st thin g she will do will be t o
.
,

pick o u t a good che r oo t and ligh t i t then h a nd i t to him ,

to smoke This is merely an o rdina ry pol i t e a t tention

. .

S hould the paren t s happen to be p r esent when the lad

en t ers t he main uppe r r o om they r emai n for a shor t ,

time and t hen o ne o r other of the aged co uple will say

, ,


I m tired ; I think I ll go to bed ; the othe r r espond

in g S o am I ; I ll go t oo
, The r eupon t hey with d raw

.

to their chamber bu t not to sleep , .

L eft t hus t o t hemselves the young couple indulge in ,

lovers t alk and t ell each o t her t he ol d sweet s tory as
, ,

ete r nal as time as variable b ut enduring as human na t ure

,

i t self and coming t o each human being but once like t he

, ,

springtime o f the year N ominally the lovers are left .

q u i t e to t hemselves u nder four eyes as the Germans
, ,

sa y ; but practically a considerable amou nt o f chape r on

a g e i s exerted by the parents seeing that the pa rt ition ,

separatin g them fr om the young couple consis t s only of

thin split bamboo mattin g or of half inch planking at mos t -
.

Besides that there is u su ally a small apertu re in the wall

,

in g arra nged for the purpose of noticing unobse r ved

, ,

what g oes on F r om beh ind t his coi g n o f van tag e the

.

mother chaperons he r dau ghter though the daughter is ,

q uite well able t o take care o f hersel f H ere the old .

people talk over whateve r concerns them a t the moment ,

and ve r y often criticise t he wooer I f he be not happily .

,

for him all eyes and ears for his swee t heart he will
, ,

cer tainly be rather d isconcer t ed a t the free c r iticism b e

stowed upon him by the parents H is personal appea r .

ance is freely d iscussed and if his mouth be too larg e , ,

his nose too short and broad o r hi s eyes too an g ular he , ,

will have a very fair chance o f becomin g acquainted with

all such shortcomin g s O r if he comes n icely d r essed .
, ,

i n a bright ne w waistcloth and a g org eous headdress o f

silken kerchief bound rou nd hi s r aven black hair he may -
,

hear himself referred to as a bi t of a coxcomb a B a uh ,

ba n the gorg eous but scentl ess and useless yellowish

, ,

red ower o f the B u tea f r on d osa H is a ppea rance and .

manners his parents relatives and friends his p r esent

, , , ,

and fu t ure pos i t ion and prospects and all matters co n ,

211
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
nec te d wi th him may al l be discussed sotto voce qui t e
, , ,

loudly enough fo r him t o hea r eve ry word tha t is said .

Perhaps his ea r s may tingle so much t ha t h e does not

stay ve ry lon g bu t if he is apt t o be u tt e rly dis regardful
of t ime his companions outside o f the house will remind
,

him i n due cou rse by coughs and calls t hat th ey t oo have

young lady friends t o pay a t ten t ion to and t ha t his visi t ,

is beg inn ing t o exhaus t thei r patience .

A mo r e public form of cou r tin g is t he a tt en t ion w h ich

may q uite correctly be paid to girls keeping s ta lls a t a
night bazaar held i n the open ai r whe r e a r ticles of food
, ,

o f various descriptions a r e exposed fo r sale There by .

,

the ickering ame of t he o i l lamp t he L u by o may laugh ,

and c h a t and smoke with his pa rt icula r friend withou t

comprom ising eithe r h imself o r her Bu t the gi rls a t tend .

ing the nigh t bazaa r a r e no t q u i t e of t he same social s t atus

as those to be found keeping stalls in t he be t te r po rt ion
o f t he big day bazaa r .

At such love rs interviews t h ere is no kissing no

sni fng or smelling as the t erm N a n the lite rally

,

means ; for they are rather an undemonst ra t ive r ace i n

suc h ma t te rs O n t he whole there is likewise ve ry li ttl e
.
,

improp r ie t y t houg h t he Bu rmese can ha r dly be c alled

,

very r igid mo ral ists When cour t ing time is a t an end

.
,

and the hou r o f the r etu r n of t he you ng men has arrived ,

the L u by a meet again i n t wos and t hrees an d r e t u r n to

their head q uar t e rs Unless t he at t en t ions o f all t he lads
.

are conned to girls livi ng in the same q ua rt e r there is , ,

and mus t be dan g e r of fr iction between the L u by o of

,

the q ua r ter and the poac h ers Bu t in some places an d .

,

especially i n R angoon the gangs of lads a r e headed by ,

notoriously bad characte rs w ho are a t err or and a scou rge ,

to t he residen t s and a cause of anxiety t o the pol ice .

I n theory a t least and acco r ding to the ancien t

, ,

rulin g s o f t he L aws o f Manu a girl or woman is merely ,

one item in a m an s possessions and p r imar ily no t the

p r incipal item I n this o ne plainly sees tr aces of the

.

Brah min ism against whic h B uddhism was a p r o t es t and ,

upon whic h it was an imp rovemen t \

A cco rding to .

M anu t h e lawgiver the most seriou s offences we r e

, ,

th ose r elating to the bou nda r y ma rks of land next came ,

212
 M AR R IAGE
those dealing wi t h t he life and l imbs of th e pe rson of a
man and t hi r dly those affec t ing o t her property F i rst
, , .

i n the la tt e r class came offences con nected with a wife ,

w ho t hus me r ely occupied t he rank o f t he most hi g hly

val ued o f a l l t he articles of movable p r oper t y A ccord .

ing to t he D a mma that the mar r iage t ie can legally be

formed eithe r by the p ar ents giving t he b r ide and bride

groom to each othe r or by obtaining t he consent of the
,

respective paren ts by means of a g o be t ween or ma t ch -

make r called the ove r come r of d i fculties ( A u ng the) o r
,

,

else by mu t ual consent E ven in the latter case the taci t

.

consen t o f the parents is implied The rst mentioned .

was mos t probably the usual mode of procedure adop t ed

with regard to you t hs and young maids the second was
perhaps customa r y when t he con t ractin g parties had
arrived nearer yea r s of d iscretion ; and the th ird may
have been framed for the purpose of preventin g scand a l
when lovers mee t ing with opposition took mat t e r s in t o
, ,

t heir o wn hands B u t elopemen t and ma t e r nity did no t

.

preclude the par en t s and mo r e particularly t he fa ther

, ,

from exe r cising t hei r right as to t h e disposal of a

daugh t er in ma rr iage though fail ure to exe r cise t h is
,

authori t y legalized irreg ula r ma rr iages of this so r t if t h e ,

paren t s were cognizan t of the abode of the ru naway

couple A s a matte r O f fact howeve r such p r imitive
.
, ,

leg al res t rictions have long since been demol ished and ,

the B u r mese girl is practicall y j us t as free t o exe r cise

he r choice i n t he selection of a h usband as is he r S is t e r
among t he th e wes t e r n na t ions When a love match
.

turns ou t u nfo r tu na t e i t is believed to have been

occasioned eit h e r through t he des t inies of t he man a nd
woman being bound up toge t he r ( N a bzi sa ba ) o r through ,

thei r having been c o offerers o f r el igious gifts in a past

-

sta g e o f existence ( Yesetba ) .

Whilst a young girl had no legal ri g h t t o exercise in

the matter of taking a husband t he ac t ion o f a wido w o r
,

a d ivo r c e was uncontrollable The wording o f t he law

.

is very clea r o n this poin t L e t t he woman who has

had a husband take th e man o f he r choice ; bu t a woman
who has never had a husband may not take o n e wi t hou t

th e consen t o f he r paren ts or guardians .

21 3
 B U R M A U N D ER B R I TI S H R U LE
Thro ughou t Burma early ma r riage is the rule but ,

t h ere is no t hing co rrespondin g t o the c h ild mar r iages so

common i n I nd ia U su al ly a B u r mese la d marries before
.

he is twenty o r t wen t y o ne yea r s o f age though formerl y

-
,

the ce r emony was more commonly delayed till about the

twenty fou rth or t wenty fth year When he had made
- -
.

his choice o f a sweethear t he info r med his parents who , ,

p r oceeded accompan ied by one o r two of the elde r s o f

,

the village o r quarter o f the town to the house o f the ,

g irl s paren t s H ere afte r receiving the conten t s o f the

.
,

t rayful of pickled tea or sweetmeats and fru its borne by

the mothe r o n he r head ceremonial visits are never
made empty handed and t a lking abou t anything except
wha t wa s the objec t of the visit the propos a l was suggested ,

tha t the young man s h ould be made fr ee o f the house .

I f acqu iesced in t he bet r othal fo r such i t amoun t ed t o

, , ,

t hough no direct mention was made o f marriage las t ed ,

fo r three years du r ing which time the young couple had

,

full opportu nities of fu r the r falling i n t o or al t oge t he r o u t ,

o f love with each o t her

, .

A t t he end of t his period if t he match w a s still o n a

, ,

simila r ce r emonious visit was again paid by the parents

of t he lad and t he village elders when t he hand of the ,

g irl was formal ly as ked in mar r iage I n d iscussing the .

question o f dowry a subs t antial m oney present was

usually made t o the pa r en t s o f the girl wh ich seems to ,

point to t he i ndeni t e t r aditiona ry main t enance o f the

p r imi t ive idea as to a woman bein g a mere chattel
according to the law A ny dow ry t he girl had remained
.
,

he r o wn and if the ma rr iage was subse q uen t ly dissolved ,

that remained he r own t ogether with all p rope r ty ac q u ired

by he r through tradin g or inhe r itance .

When all t he preliminaries had been d iscussed and

de te rm ined t he horoscopes of the young man and the
,

woman were consulted by t he as t rologers wi t h a view to

xin g an auspicious day for t he happy event ; and this
was by no means an easy ma tt e r A ft er all such dif .

c u l ti e s were ove r come a bridal chambe r was p r epa r ed i n

,

the hou se of t he girl s par ents and a fea st h eld the r e by

the paren t s of the bridegroom H ere t he M i ng a l a .

sa u n
g o r main ce r emony consis t ed in joining t oget h er t he
214
 M A R R I A GE C U STO M S
hands pal m t o palm ( L etset or L etta t) at the moment
predicted as auspicious i n eating o u t of the same dish , ,

and in placin g morsels of food in each other s m onths i n

t oken of thei r v ow t o love and to cheris h each other .

H e r e also the presen t s we r e made by t he bridegroom s '

pa r ents as previously s t ipula t ed in xing the t erms of

,

the ma r ria g e contrac t These consis t ed i n old days of .

slaves elephants ca t tle o r ar t icles such as j ewels o r na

, , , ,

ments silk e t c acco rding t o t he social s t a t us of the

, , .
,

cont ractin g pa rties A s t he name for these ( L etp we)

.

co r responds with t ha t for an amule t either for prevent ,

ing evil o r brin g ing luck these presen t s we r e apparently ,

supers t itious o ffe i i ngs as well as ceremonial g ifts

'

While the festival was being kept up in the evening

t he youn g couple re t ired t o t he bridal chamber amid
showe rs o f saffron dyed rice and r emained there i n seclu
-
,

sion for seven days during which t ime they were cut off
,

from all intercou r se with t he ou t e r wo r ld thei r food ,

being sen t in to t hem F or some y e a rs t he you t h ful coupl e

.

s t ayed wi t h t h e paren t s befo r e set t ing u p house for

t h emselves W h en the you ng wife was an onl y dau gh t e r
.
,

or the last daugh t er t o be espoused the married pai r ,

con t inu ed t o r eside inden i t ely with t he pa r ents du ring

thei r life time -
Thu s in place of losing a dau g hte r
.
, ,

the ol d folks gained a s o n i n law a h add itional rela - -

,

tive sometimes lit tle app r ecia t ed by weal t hy parents i n

E u rope .

The O ld cus t oms have i n cou rse o f t ime become some

what altered and the period o f betrothal h as been ve ry
,

much sho r tened L ads and lasses fastidiou s and exacting

.

in the c h oice of a wife or husband are respectively termed

M ay dsa ny we and L i nsa ny we ( from S a n
a t est and ,

to Bu t in the vas t majority o f c ases

y w e ,

when t he preliminary courtin g has been r ecognized by

the lad gettin g the ru n of the house the marriag e sub se ,

q uently takes place The fo r mali t ies are still observed. ,

bu t t he ast rological calcula t ions have been much

S impl ied or ne glected and t he long pe r iod o f be t rothal ,

cu r tailed D u r ing t he celebration of the ma r riage th e

.

M i ng a l a Ky eda u ng or demand for larg esse i s made
by t he L u by og a u ng on behalf o f t he bachelors o f the
215
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
local i t y I f no t freely and l ibe rally given t hey pel t the
.

house wi th b r ick bats and stones The custom o f the

-
.

young man residing w ith his paren ts i n law fo r two o r - -

three years is now less frequently obse r ved ; bu t when

s t ill acted o n between t h e wife and t he mo t he r i n law he
,
- -

ge t s fairly well broken in to t he conj ugal yoke which is ,

n o t afte r all a g all ing chai n i n Burma

, , I n ru ral dis .

t r i c ts the adven t o f a you ng able bodied man i n t he -

family circle is a distinct ga in t o the agricultu r ist while ,

i n the t owns t he son i n law is seldom in a posi t ion to s e t

- -

u house fo r himself u ntil after the age at which t he

p
national usage sanc t ions o r demands t he taking o f a wife
u n t o himself .

A s has al ready been desc r ibed ( vol i page . .

,

m arriage being a pu r ely civil con t rac t there i s vast l iberty

o f d ivorce which woul d almos t degenera t e into l icens e
,

were not t he exe r cise o f righ t s i n t his respect res trained

by rathe r i ntrica t e laws rega r ding t he division o f proper t y .

S ometimes husband and wife sepa rate t empo rarily from

motives o f expediency owing to t he m align inuence of
the planets o n t hei r union and this is often made a
,

pretext for nal separation The social danger thus

.

exis t ing th rou g h t he laxity of t he marr iage laws is to a

great extent obviated by the affec t ionate natu r e and the
buoyant disposition of both sexes Bu t popula r opin ion
.

also exe rts powerful sway ; for a wom a n withou t a half

ah
( )
zi l a t o r a man who is a lay recluse

T ( T a w tw et) ,

the term s appl ied to such as have been once or oftene r

d i vorced is looked upon wi t h bu t l ittle respect
,
.

The r e a r e t h r ee recognized ways of earning a l iveli

hood b y relying o n the favo u r o f another by r elying o n ,

fo rtu ne or des t iny and by relying o n one s own indus t ry

,

.

E ach o f these incli nations m akes i tself more s trongly

appa r ent in di fferent cl a sses o f society t h ough o n the ,

whole t h e na t ional idea of ge tt ing th rou g h life wi t h the

m inimum of discomfo rt is a compound of all three
methods A n d any t hing tha t will minim ize having to de
.

pend on one s o wn indus tr y seems t o t he male B u r mese

especially wor th spending a great deal o f t ime over

,
.

N o race of m en t h r oughout t he w h ole world would take

more kindly t o absolute idleness and lo t us eatin g than -

21 6
 B U R I A L C U STO M S
the Bu r mese whose womenfolk are the grea t workers
,

and taskmas te rs .

H ither t o th e r ichness of t h e soil t he favourable na t ure ,

of the clima t e for agriculture and t he absence o f compe ,

tition have made l ife easy for t he Bu r man N ow ho w .

,

ever ci r cums tances have begu n to change and men will

, ,

have to work harde r t han i n the pas t o r else g o u nder .

While the d ea t h o f any membe r o f t he family is of

cou rse a cause o f so rr o w given ven t to i n lou d lamen ,

ta ti o n t h e following obse q u ies culminating i n the funeral

, ,

or

unpleasan t ce r emony ( M a thci ) are like all t hei r

,

o t her religious r i t es somewhat o f the nature of a fes t i

,

val T his is mo r e pa rt icularly t he case with regard to the

.

fu nerals o f pries t s which will be elsewhere desc r ibed

, .

A s soon as convenien t afte r death the corpse is placed

i n t he O pen fron t portion o f the i nner raised part o f the
house abut t ing on the ve randah and is there washed and ,

laid ou t before being swathed from the ches t downwards

i n co tt on clo t h of spo t less white and then robed i n gay
g armen t s The t hu mbs and the big toes are nex t tied
.

toge t he r wi t h a ligature consisting eithe r o f a cord made

with the hai r of a son o r a dau g hte r o r else o f twisted
whi t e co tt on Often too a small silve r coin is placed i n
.
, ,

the mouth for payment of t he ferry toll (K ud oa ha)

i n to t he land o f spiri t s The straightening o u t of the

.

body and preparing i t for the cof n are performed by men

called S a nda l a a nd i n the vicin ity of Mand a lay the
,

P u n n a o r M u n i p u r B r ahmins l iving to t he west o f the

city had a practical monopoly of th is class o f work .

Burial grounds an d c r ema tory places a r e almos t i n va r i

ably situa t ed to t he wes t o f any villag e o r town that ,

bein g always the omi nou s and accu rsed direction while ,

the eas t is eve r bright an d auspicious B ut the north i s .

the most glorious o f all t he fo u r cardinal points from

the fact o f G a u d a ma while o n his deathbed havin g
, ,

directed his disciples to bear him forth and place him

u nder the shadow o f a S al tree with his head directed
t owards the nor t h .

O n hea r ing news of any dea t h t he rel a t ives and friends

ock to t he home and assis t in t he preparations for the
fune ral ceremony w h ile dirg e music is played almost
,

21 7
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
withou t in termission by a band ou tside on the road way ,

and busy hands are preparing t he cof n ( Ta l d ) enshrined ,

i n a loft y py ramidal bie r o r spi r e of many t iers co n

structed o f wood bamboo and pape r all g a ily coloured
, , ,

and ornamented with g old and silve r paper and other

tinsel The cofn itself is almost always made o f lig h t
.

le tpan wood ( B ombax M a l a ba r i cu m) and is coa r se and ,

imsy i n construction S pecial offerings o f food ( Tha bei h

.
c

tha t) are also made at the monasteries o n behalf o f the

deceased and may even be repeated o n the a nniversa r y
,

o f the death .

B y the t ime the corpse has been n a iled down in to t he

cof n the pries t and some o f the monks o f th e neigh

b ou r i ng monastery attend an d r ender a ssis t ance
h n yo h
( T i g aw
) by r eci t ing ex tr ac t s fr om the sac r ed
writings relative to t he t ransitoriness of ex is t ence its ,

mise r y and the immaterial i t y o f all things the sa d wail

, ,

o f the Buddhist rel igious philosophy and its c r eed o f

l ife A nei ssa D dhha A na tta

,

,

impe r manence mise ry
, , , ,

u nreality .F o r obvious reasons i n s o hot a climate the ,

fune ra l ri tes are proceeded with as rapidly as possible .

The bodies of poor people are disposed o f o n t he follow

in g day a t la t es t ; but the r icher t he deceased t he g r ea t e r ,

is the delay i n completing the obsequ ies and the more

imposingly spec tacula r is the d isplay connected with the
preparations and t he fune r al ceremonies L est t he .

solemnities partake t oo muc h of a fes t ive charac t e r

p rofessional mou rne r s or weepers ( G nog y i n the) are

sometimes employed thou g h this prac t ice is now con ned

,

to Uppe r Burma W omen were fo rmerly employed

.

for t his pu r pose bu t men have now a monopoly o f this

,

s tran g e mode of livel i h ood .

When the t ime comes fo r t he fu ne ral p r ocession to s e t

o u t westwards towards t he bu rial grou nd the cor te e is
jg ,

usually headed by one or two p r ies t s behind whom ,

follow the band of music th e co fn enshrined i n i t s spire

, ,

l ike decoration o f wood paper and tinsel and bo r ne , , ,

eithe r by friends or else by hired mu tes and t he l ine of ,

mourners and fr iends of the deceased O n arriving a t .

the place ( Thi ngy a i ng ) w h ere t he nal fu ne r al rites a r e

performed t h e d irge music a t leng t h ceases and t he ,

218
 C R E M A T O R Y R IT E S
p r iests ente r o ne o f t he open r est houses -
always ,

p r ovided for such purposes while the co f n is placed

, ,

together with offerings to the p r iests o n the northern ,

side i n fr ont of the building .

A ft e r reciting extracts from the sacred wri t ings the

priests reti r e with thei r followers and t he offerings made
to the m on behalf o f the deceased The co fn is then .

borne to the spot whe r e the grave has been du g by

g ravediggers ( S a nda l d ; but also called Thu ba Ya z a ,

fr om the Pali Thu ba pleasant and Ya z a a

,

o n e o f t he fou r i nfamous ou t cas t classes A fte r bein g .

swu ng backwards and forwa r ds fo r a few times as if

bidding farewell to t he co rpse it is lowe r ed in t o the
,

ground E arth being spri nkled over the shell by the

.

nea r es t r elatives t h e grave is lled up by t he g rave

,

dig g ers When this has been completed the oldest

.
,

male relative presen t opens a ke r chief and holdin g it o u t , , ,

calls aloud Come come away with us s o t ha t the

, , ,

psyche or but t ery ( L ei hpy d ) o f the deceased may no t

r emain behind as an evil spirit hau ntin g the burial grou nd .

C losing the kerchief suddenly i t is taken back to the

,

home o f t he deceased and placed between two of t he

hou se p osts o n the left side of the house for seven days .

O n the seventh day after th e burial a so r t o f purication

feast ( Yetl esu n ) is given t o the p r ies t s and guests who

a tt ended the funeral and t he kerchief in which t he

,

buttery of the dead man has meanwhile fou nd
res t can be removed as the danger o f the psyche b e
,

coming an evil spi r i t is then at an en d The clothes of .

t he deceased a r e usually sewn t ogethe r to fo r m curtains

( K a l g )
a ct to screen o ff diffe r en t portions of the house
when desired .

C remation or re ri t es ( M i Thi ngy o) are however

, ,

much mo r e common than burial o r ea rth covering -

rites ( My ewu t Thi ngy o) among all t he well t o do

classes I n the fo r mer case the body is conveyed as

.

before to the bu rial grou nd and laid upon four logs o f

wood placed t wo upon two so as to form a sor t of hollow
s q ua r e whic h is lled with pieces o f fragr ant inammable
wood A fter the pyre has been li g hted and the cofn
.

and body a r e consu med t he r e is allowed t o bu rn i t self

,

2 19
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
o ut
. When the ashes have cooled su f ciently t he ,

t hree nea r est r ela t ives o f the deceased search fo r such

bones as they can nd wash t hem ca r efully i n cocoanu t
,

j uice or scented wa t e r and place t hem wrapped up in

, ,

white co tt on i n a new earthenware p ot T his is t a ken

, .

back t o the home o f the deceased till seven days later , ,

the pu r ica t ion feas t is celebrated when t he po t co n

,

taining these last e a r t hly r emains is ca r ried t o t he Vicinity

o f some pagoda o r othe r sacred S hrine and t he r e in t erred .

Wooden posts o r brick monu ments can be e r ected ove r

s uch last restin g places though t hey may not be made
,

i n th e s h ape of a pagoda over t he bones o f any bu t

p r ies t s and those o f r oyal blood S ometimes the bones
.

are pulverized mixed wi t h lac and sawdus t and fo r med

, ,

in t o images of G au d a m a whi c ha r e ei t he r placed i n a sacred

,

e dice o r else retained i n the house B u t such images

.

a r e neve r wo r shipped in any way there being n o t r ace

,

o f ances tr al worship among the B urmese no r of idolat r , y

in any fo rm as part of t he Buddhis t religion .

I n the case o f t he obsequ ies o f children the r e is of

c ou r se
, as with u s,
m uch less ceremonial and display .

I nfan t s are u sually bu r ied in thei r cradles a nd sm a ll ,

c hildren in plain cofns u no r namented with any decora

tive S pi r e and tinsel work ; and i n eithe r case the burial

takes place as soon as possible after dea t h .

220
 Ch a p te r VI I I
T RA I TS O F B U R M ESE C H ARA C TER

T has fre q uen t ly been said that t he Bu r mese a re t he

I ris h o f the E as t But t his vague epigram m a t ic
.

desc r ip t ion ra t he r lacks denition besides being al t o ,

gethe r w r ong in many importan t respec t s T here a r e it .

,

is tr ue va r ious outstanding traits o f cha racte r in common

, ,

such as pride o f race love o f lau g hter j okin g and amuse

, , ,

men t ligh t hear t edness wan t o f p rovidence o r of any

,
-
,

Mar t ha like conce r n for the pe tt y things o f life and t he

-

cares of t he mor r ow occasional ou t bu rsts o f brutality

, ,

absence of self con tr ol and en t i r e want of any t hing l ike

-
,

swee t r easonableness ei t he r individually o r as a race .

On the o t her hand however poin t s of diffe r ence mi ght

, ,

be sco red to an even grea t e r ex t en t t han t h e t ale of

characteristics common to the two races .

Pr ou d of t hei r nationali ty t he B urmese conside r t he ,

C hinese S iamese and S hans as o f the same s t ock (A my o)

, ,

as t h emselves though t he C hinaman r ega r ds himself as

much superior to the B u r man The hill tr ibes consis t . ,

ing o f the K a r en K achin and Chin d welling within t h e

, ,

fo r es t s on t he hills be t ween the main valleys the B u rmese ,

class indiffe r ently as wild men ( L uy a i ng ) while all othe r

nationali t ies are conside r ed ra t her contemp t uously as

fo r ei g ne r s ( K a l d ) a wo rd howeve r only applied to

, , ,

pe rsons O f no n M on g olian race bu t o t herwise used ve ry

-
,

much i n the same way as the ancien t Greeks originally

appl ied the term d B p s T his word is neve r used as
a o .

a designa t ion for any of the S han S iamese o r Chinese , ,

races inhabiting any po r tion o f F u rt he r I ndia and C hina .

K a l a is supposed to be a co r ruption o f the Pal i word

C a wl a ori g inally meaning a B uddhis t immi g rant from
,

22 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
I ndia. The S iamese apply this same term t o the
Bu r mese .

The Bu r mese are o n the w h ole decidedly tru t hful ,

thou gh i t would hardly be correct to describe them as

truth loving They have no particula r p r ej udice i n favou r
-
.

o f tru th o r d islike to falsehood

, p e r se A man or a woman
.

would j us t abou t as soon tell a lie as the t r uth and o ut

o f a feelin g of inborn pol iteness he o r she woul d na t urally

prefer to make w i t h comple t e i ndiffe r ence whateve r

, ,

statement m ight be considered t he more accep t able to

the person addressed T hus t hey will often say Yes
.

when they r eally mean N o simply from disincl ination
,

to offend B u t they a r e n ot habitu a l l iars by cen t uries

.

o f heredi t y l ike thei r near nei g hbours the B en gal is of,

C hitt a gon g I f t hey t ell a l ie with some personal obj ec t

.

and the falsehood is detec t ed t hey merely lau g h and t ry

,

to t urn i t o ff They feel ashamed ( S hetthe) ; but i t is
.

at being found o u t and having no luck for there is no ,

ac t ual shame fel t abou t the falsehood itsel f When a .

B urman does l ie which is n o t i nfrequently t he case he

, ,

lies somewha t more boldly and comprehensively than

j udiciously and d iscreetly ; hence detec t ion is compa ra
t i ve l y easy A ccord in g to their code of honour the u se
.

of falsehood is qu ite u st i ab l e in escaping from t he snares

o f t he deceitful I f there is ill blood be t ween t wo villa g ers

.

and o ne trumps u p a false charg e o f having len t money

before witnesses whom he p r oduces t he opponent will not ,

attemp t the di fcul t task of trying to prove a negative

he will brin g witnesses in equal o r larger numbers to prove
tha t he pa i d the m on ey ba ch ag a i n A nd the friends of
.

each party who come as false witnesses will n ot s ee any

t hing p a rticularly wrong abou t thei r friendly procedu re .

From the a bove i t will be seen that sincerity is n ot a

leading characteristic This w a nt o f conscientious scruple
.

not infrequently gives rise t o very peculia r cases i n cou rt .

I t has previously been noted that notwi t hs t andin g t h e

freedom of i n t ercourse between young lads and lasses
there is comparatively little immoral ity Cases do how .

ever occur and if fou nd i n ag r a n ti d el i cto the girl will

,

often sacrice he r lover by brin g ing a charg e o f rape

a gainst him S o much so is this the case that rap e
.

222
 LEA D I N G C H A R A C T ER I S TI C S
charges i n general tax t o t he utmost the discriminative
powers of the magistracy O ne o r two exceedin g ly .

amusing tales m ight be told i n connexion w ith c a ses o f

this so rt if only t he subj ect we r e l es s unsui table for these
page s
T he B urmese a r e credulous and superstitious to a
degree O ne is almost t emp t ed to say t hat i t fo r ms one o f
.

thei r most constant and u n varyi ng charac t e r istics Thei r .

credulity with r egard to persons claiming to be i nv ul ner

able to be endowed w l th supe r natural powe r s o r to be
, ,

a membe r of the r oyal family o f A laung Paya amoun t s

t o some t hing t ha t is d if cult for t he wes t e r n mind t o
u nderstand A lon g with this t h ey a r e arro g an t and
.

boastful althou g h t hey a r e by no means courag eous indi

,

vidually ; n or were they b r ave as an independent nation .

T hey know no happy mean but exhibit the u tmost ,

ext r emes o f fea r o r timidity an d o f u nbou nded ar r ogance

or boastfulness E ither a man is powerful and therefore
.

t o be feared o r else he is weak and conse q uently may be

,

despised A s migh t therefo r e be expected they are

.
,

t imid and obsequ ious i n the presence o f those havin g

authority over t hem .

Though sometimes performin g acts o f g reat daring and

fearlessness yet the B urm a n has l ittle or none of the active
,

cou rage founded on self discipline j ust as he has no self -

,

control and no thrift W ith pass ive cou rage however

.
, ,

in submi t ting cheerfully to the inevi table o r in enduring ,

a dversi t y which has befallen t hem o r is about t o happen

the B urmese are well endowed and the high bearing
they then often maintain is no doubt the d irect outcome
of thei r r eligiou s philosophy and their bel ief in destiny
being con t rolled by t he i n uence of past deeds A n .

other cha racteristic arising mainly from their religion i s

their marked tolerance I n matters o f reli g ion this even
.

g oes to an extreme as all their mos t sacred shrines such

, ,

as the S hwe D ag On pagoda i n R angoon are s w ept and ,

scaven g ed by low caste natives of I ndia not professin g

B uddhism A nd i n other matters tolera nce and non
.

i nterference are also observed for the Buddh ist is not his ,

b r o t her s keeper T heir religious superstition ca n easily

.

be worked u pon even commercially Thus the owner o f

, . ,

223
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
a small local t wo foot gauge rail way ru nning from Tha ton
-

to D uyinzeik nea r Moulmein wan t ing a village se t tlement

,

a t t he latter terminus on the D Om d a m i river inves t ed ,

i n an image o f Ga ndama t o wh ic h h e appl ied a coat o f

luminous phospho r escen t paint Planting i t w h e r e he .

wished the new colony t o sp r ing up th e fame of t he ,

miraculous image soon sp r ead a pagoda was e r ected ,

enshrinin g it and t he settlemen t of a village q u ickly

,

followed as a matter o f cou rse .

Though not exactly what o ne would cal l witty fo r ,

thei r jests a r e too often cha racterized by coarseness ra th e r

than by any ne r q ual ity ye t t hey are g ifted wit h a ve ry
,

keen sense of hu mour and a g reat love O f laughter and

bante r They lau g h merr ily at any j oke o r misfortune
.

having a comical side bu t as is u sual with t he p ractical

j oke r t hey look ve r y shame faced when the laugh tu r ns
against themselves .

While the men are easy g oing and fond o f idleness

-
,

t he women a r e energe t ic and rathe r inclined to be greedy

an d g r asping in mone ta ry mat t ers A pa rt from money .

spen t o n works of r eligious meri t specially u ndertaken ,

for the salva t ion of the soul of t he benefactor and from

th ese sel sh mo t ives only gene r osity is wanting M any
, .

yea r s ago Govern ment wished t o found a small hospi tal a t

K yaik t o a li t tle town o n th e S i tt ang plain and t he A ssis t
, ,

ant C omm issione r was inst r ucted to i nvi t e t he headmen

and elders to a meeting in order to explain t he object
and intention of Governmen t to them and to see if t hey
would contribu t e i n any way A fte r much explanation .

o f t he benets and many in q u iries as t o whe t he r cont r i

,

bu t ions would have t o be made monthly annu ally or once , ,

fo r all the l is t was opened by o ne of t he most inuential

,

men present saying he woul d give sixpence ( fou r annas)

N or is gra t i t ude a common feature in t he Bu r mese char
ac t e r it is jus t as rare as gene rosi t y N o t one o f t he h ig h .

ofcials o f t he Cou rt o f A va was willing to accompany

t hei r royal maste r in t o exile i n 1 885 and it was even
with difcul t y tha t Burmese a t tendan t s could be O btained
to accompany t he K ing and Q ueen as personal se r vants
to the place o f banishment the fortress o f R a t nagi r i o n
,

the Bombay coast .

224
 NA TI O NA L C H A R A C T E R I S TI C S
Thou g h n a tu rally lazy the B urman qu ite understands
,

the value of diligence I ndeed his reli g ious philosophy

.
,

te a ches him that when the inuence ( K a n ) o f his past

deeds is not su fcient to ensure him success i n m a tters
l ike agriculture a nd trade this can only be at t ained by ,

working hard .

A s a race the Bu rmese have no mechanica l ability o r

i nventive talent and alto gethe r they are lacking in
,

i nitiative Consequently a dminstration wa s usually

.

we a k throughout the cou ntry at any ra te du ring recent ,

historical times .

I mpulsive and illogical they are fairly law a bidin g ,

-
,

no t withstanding the ease with which bravos claiming

superna t ural powers and invulne rabili t y can usually g et
together a band of dacoits that is to say a robber gan g ,

consistin g o f ve men or more when the ha rvest brin g s

money into the hands o f the vill a gers .

S ubmissive in tri ing thin g s the women are frequently ,

violent i n t emper ; a n d then they display remarkable

command of a copious and forcible l a n g u age of a buse .

N o t directly cruel they are y e t callous beyond me a sure

,

to the sufferings o f either human bein gs o r the lower

an imals Yet in their disposition they often S ho w kindly
.

traits They are very hospitable and most houses have

.
,

a room known whe t her otherwise used o r not as the

, ,

guest chamber ( E the ha n ) -

.

They a r e not demonstrative of joy or pleasu re thou g h ,

apt to lose control d uring anger o r g reat grief when they ,

become ve r y excitable and frenzied .

A s it is considered impolite to express surprise or

astonishment t he Burmese often appea r to forei g ners
,

apathetic an d indifferent thou g h this is in re a lity far ,

from being the case On t he occasion o f an embassy

.

p a ssing t hrough R an g oon about 1 883 o n its way to

Calcutta the members were shown all the wonders o n
,

boa rd a man o f war then lying i n t he ha rbou r ; but no

- -

word of surprise fell from them and they even went so ,

far as t o draw upon thei r imag ination to the extent o f

sayin g t ha t the q u i ck ri ng g u ns a nd la t est novelties o f
a rmament were just like what they had in M and a lay .

T he Bu rman never goes s t raight fo r any point he

V OL . 11 . 225 !
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H RU LE
wishes to a t tain The gis t o f what i s wanted only comes
.

o u t a t t he last momen t o f an in t ervie w j ust as if it we r e ,

a happy thought s t rikin g him fo r the rs t time .

I d iot children a re exceedingly rare i n Bu rma ; but

adul t idio t s and luna t ics are regarded with much awe as
being inspi r ed They a r e allowed t o roam a bou t the
.

villages and i t is considered very unfo rt unate when such

,

cases nd their way into t he Governmen t lu natic asylum .

T hose af ic t ed with bl indness also receive grea t con

s ide ra t ion and care .

T he B u r mese a r e like mos t E as t e r n nations keen

, ,

j udges o f character They epitomize such opinions by .

havin g nicknames for all the civil o fcers in the different

dis t ric ts as well as fo r no t a few o f the me r chants a t the
seaport s M any of t hese names hit o ff personal appear
.

a nc e s,
while o t hers touch o n peculiarities o f mind or
manne r S ome are complimentary and o t hers q ui t e
.
,

the reve rse Thu nder a nd lig ht ning was known for
.

p r omp t itude and decision while N ex t Time was the ,

name applied t o an ofcer who very fre q uently in

sen t encing a p r isone r told him he would ge t a heavier
pu nishmen t if brough t up a gain .

Golden Face was killed i n the war bu t Po t belly ,
-

s t ill from o ne o f the high seats o f administration throws

, ,

a shadow far mo r e ample th a n it was when he rs t

received this sou br i quet more th a n t wo decades ago While

the good natured A ssistan t Commissioner yet r etains
-

the golden opinions o f the people and is perhaps the ,

most popular o f all O fcers with Burmese and E u ropeans .

S ome of these nickn a mes are distinctly g raphic and at ,

times very appropriate S quare bottle is decidedly .

sugges t ive of t he weary dis t rict o fcer whose agg ing ,

appe t ite needed an t e pas t al l li p s o f hollands and -

bitte r s .

Though t he B urmese affect t o despise deceit to be ,

known as an honest man is e q u ivalen t to bein g con
s i d e r e d a fool much i n t he same way as being considered
,

good na t ured is ap t t o mean tha t o ne pe rm i t s oneself to

-

be easily imposed on .

A ffec t ionate in family life t hey have a happy buoyancy ,

o f S pirits such as usually accompanies the spend th rift

,

226
 M O D E S TY A N D M O RA L I T Y
disposi t io n There is however a lack o f demons t rative
.
, ,

ness surprisin g in a race s o impulsive K issin g is .

unknown the nearest approach t o it bein g a sort o f sniff

,

or smell ( N a n the) and even this is seldom g iven

, .

A ft e r lon g absence on business I have known a husband

re t urn to his wife when the rs t g reetin g and conversa
,

tion were simply as follows : A re y o u well ?
Yes ,

I m well

.A re y o u hungry ?
Yes hung r y A nd , .

for t hwith t he wife placed the rice po t on the cooking

place t o prepare food fo r the husband A s h or t in q uiry .

after health is the u sual form of s a lu tation I n I ndia it .

is necessa r y t o in form a visitor that he has perm ission

to leave ; but i n Bu rma the visi t or o r the person meeting ,

a n acq u aintance casually himself t erminates the inter ,

vie w by sayin g I a m g oing to which the o t her then

, ,

r e plies G O or A ll right
, , .

I n pe r sonal behaviour they are sin g ularly modest .

Though t he open skirt ( Ta me i n ) i s di fcult to manag e

i n windy weather and shows up to above the knee at ,

each step yet the B u rmese woman exhibi t s marked

,

modes t y in all her movemen t s I n ordinary everyday .

intercou rse the behaviou r of Bu rm a ns towards their

womenfolk is habitu a lly courteous and entirely free from
anything like coarse familiarity .

J udged without bias the B urmese are distinctly a ,

moral ra ce ; bu t in arrivin g at this judgment it must

, ,

be taken into considera tion that their ideas concerning

morali t y are based o n vie ws obtained from a very
different sta n dpoint from the highest level o f western
ethics and that makes all the apparent difference A llow .

in g fo r parallax in traversin g this a spect o f character ,

the Burmese must be considered a moral nation which ,

shows comparatively fewer lapses belo w the norm of

their o w n stand a rd than is probably the case in more
civilized countries .

Many o f the traits of Bu r mese character can well

be j ud g ed by data furnished by themselves Gentle .

affection kindly regard benevolence and freedom from

, , ,

all kinds o f desire are considered the four cardinal

virtues Three kinds o f maturity a re recognized as to
.

size a ge a n d virtue throu g hout the three states o f

, , ,

227
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
existence pas t present and future S i x senses are
, , .

accorded t o human bein g s in t he shape of t he facul ties ,

o f seein g hearing smellin g t asting feeling and think

, , , , ,

ing . The fou r i n d e l i ti es are due to selsh desire ,

ill will ignorance and fear ; while the ve greate s t sins

-
, ,

tha t bring immed ia t e re t ribution are killin g a father ,

killin g a mother killing a monk raising a blis t e r o n a , ,

Buddh ( whose life canno t possibly be taken ) and making ,

a schism amon g th e disciples o f a B ud d h The ve .

thin g s d ifcult o f attainment are bein g a Buddh hearin g ,

the L a w becoming a priest bein g a ri ghteous man and

, , ,

becoming a human bein g T he fou r things that cannot .

be tr usted are a t h ief the bou g h o f a t r ee a rule r and , , ,

a woman The ve masters or t yrants are animal co n

.

s t i tu t i o n subj ection to the O pe r a t ions o f the fou r ca u ses

,

( in uence o f pas t deeds mind season a nd nourishment

) , , , ,

passion dea t h and the chief o f the evil spirits ( M hu N a t)

, ,
.

Wa t er re r ulers thieves and evil wishers cons t itute

, , , ,
-

t he ve kinds o f enem ies that can best be overcome by ,

the exercise o f t ruth p rinciple indus t ry and the g iving , , ,

o f alms T he fou r most foolish persons are those born

.

a t midnight those bo r n o n the last day o f the lunar

,

mon t h those born when the sky is dark wit h clouds

, ,

and those bo r n in a dense forest T h e t h r ee ways o f .

earn ing a living a re by relyin g on the favour of another ,

o n fo r tu ne o r o n one s o w n indus tr y

.
,

M uch can also be learned concern ing na t ional char

ac t er from the proverbs the crystallized condensed ,

wisdom o f past generations current a mong the people , .

The r e is a book o f proverbs ( N i m i ) divided into th r ee ,

sections containing proverbs relating to rel i g ion ( D a mma

N i m i ) to everyday life ( L a wha N i m i ) a nd to g overnme n t
, ,

( Y d aa N i m i
) and m any o f them are in the form o f
,

rhyming couplets A gene ral idea o f the sense may .

perhaps be ob tained from the followi ng selections but , ,

as human natu r e i s very much the same all the world

over t he general drift of meaning corresponds with that
,

i nco rpora t ed in o u r o wn p rove r bs

The K in g s waist .

cloth is pu r e silk I n a fo r es t of soft woods the .
,

casto r oil plan t is kin g
-

The highe r t he maste r .
,

t he lower the se r van t D esire for has t e brin g s de .

2 28
 B U R M ES E P R O V E R B S

la y Only something substantial can ca st a shadow


. .

R ou g h speech comes fr om r ough people D on t
.

break the branches of the tree that shelters y o u When .

the fron t part o f t he house is hot the back part w ill ,

not be cool Who is fond of be t el nu t should g o to
.

Toungoo ( a dis t rict celeb rated for its areca palms ) .

Whe n t wo buffaloes want to g ht the grass can t ,

prevent them Breaking one leg o f a centipede won t
.

stop its prog ress I t isn t the cock crowing t h at
.

-

brings the dawn
O ne doesn t se e one s own want
.

o f beauty when l a u g hin g a t the u g liness o f anothe r .

When clearin g reeds don t let the r oots remain ,

.

I t is bad t o help a man o r t o salve a n o f c i al s boat ,

.

A spark from a rubbish heap ca n burn down a tower .

The worth of a fowl can be estima t ed from i t s bones ,

tha t of a man from his kith and kin Opposite .

natu res don t mate in the same house
H o t ashes

.

won t scare a man who comes fr om the lowest hell .

When her nei g hbours are good a girl can easily nd ,

a g ood husband Gold won t buy a good cha rac t er
. .

U nwise acqu isi t ion becomes theft When a m a d .

d og g hts with a healthy one i t is al wa ys the healthy ,

do g t hat ge ts its ear to r n
When a ea hops on a .

dog i t raises no d us t A dog s bark won t make an .

ant hill ru n away
-
E ven a small elephant is still as
.

big as a buffalo A lthough a he n may cackle all
.

day s he will only la y o n e e gg

, R emainin g silen t .

i s worth a t h ousand pieces o f g old H a re l ipped .
-

people mustn t blo w t he re
The cattle come before .

the plou g h
E ven a ne river is spoiled by shoals
. .

O ne bird is as beau t iful as ano t he r N o o n e heeds .

a dog tha t is al ways b a rkin g
Unused i ron soon .

rus ts . When once the elephant s t usk p rotrudes it

O n e may give a sniff ( kiss )

is not withd r awn a g ain .

withou t bein g in love and c a n draw one s b reath with ,

out actually giving a sniff B urning t he granary b e .

cause one d isl ikes a ra t I f you don t know the market .

rate go by the village price ; if yo u can t knot your

,

hair follow the village custom

, L ive near a thief .

,

y o u may become a thief live near a sherman you may ,

become a sherman
I f y o u want g ood pickled tea
. ,

229
 B U R M A U N D ER B R I T I S H R U LE

don t hurry t he hill m e n A wasteful eater soon .

g r ows poor S nakes bite snak es
.

S ho w the king .

o f the crocodiles w hat to do in water One knows
.

bes t w h en one s o wn belly pains

L ike moonli g h t in .

t he hollow of a bamboo
I t can t be darker than a t .

midnight . B irds d ie even thou g h o ne ca n shoo t with

t he crossbow S pirits c a n d o what men can t
.

T h e Burman has a s tron g pe rsonal feel ing t hat it is

impoli t ic an d useless to s t rive a gains t t hose s e t in author
ity over him I n t his respect he seems to have been
.

so thorou g hly disciplined u nde r Bu rmese rule tha t the

lesson has become he reditarily en g rained in him .

A good many years a go while I was o n t ou r in the ,

S hwegyin district i n company with the D eputy Com

missioner ou r g u ide towards the next camping ground
,

was a man who was g radu a lly by means o f many ,

ques t ions d r awn o u t t o speak o f himself a nd his affairs

,
.

A pparently these had fo r merly been bu t were no t now , ,

fairly p rospe r ous H e had saved a little money which

.
, ,

i n an evil momen t fo r himself he had lent t o the head ,

man o f the villag e ; and now he was not able to g et

it back a ga in O n t he D eputy Commissione r asking
.

him why he d id not le a suit in the court agains t the

headman the reply was promptly g iven that it was of
,

no u se because t he latte r was a powerful m a n and could

m ake it very u ncomfortable in the village fo r o u r g uide
if h e dared to brin g a lawsuit .

The idea however seemed to brin g a ray o f hope to

, ,

t he poor man L ater i n the even in g after the assembly

.
,

o f notables and i n u i s i ti v e s o f the place had left ou r

q
c a mpin g g round a n d returned i nto the villag e a fe w ,

forced coughs were he a rd and o u r g u ide o f the mornin g ,

became dimly v isible i n the us u al attitude o f obeisance .

H e h ad come t o spe a k a bou t the money that w a s o w in g

to him by the hea dm a n and the g ist o f wh a t h e said was ,

t his Y o u s ee s i r if I bring a c a se a gainst him I

, , ,

won t ge t t he money ; an d he ll m a ke it s o nasty for

me here tha t I shall no t be able to stay i n the villag e .

B u t y o u are fa r more powerful t han he i s and you w ould ,

be su re to get i t back fo r me S o as I daren t bring .

,

the case if y o u do I l l g i ve y ou ha lf the money
, ,

H ere .
,

230
 I NN AT E P O L I TE NE S S
in a nu t shell are very typical examples o f the nation a l
,

traits i n fearin g a ruler and in relyin g on the favou r o f

those i n hi g h places .

Poli t eness a n d innate g ood breedin g are marked

fea t ures o f Bu r mese beh a viour A lthou g h they m a y .

feel ne r vous and ill at ease bo t h Bu rmese men an d ,

women possess a great de a l o f na t u ral sa voi r f a i r e and

comport themselves i n a mos t becoming manner in the
presence of those supe r ior i n position to themselves .

R espect is very fully shown in their demeanour as

prescribed by t heir code of eti q ue tt e ; and althou g h i t
may strike t he s t ran ge r unaccustomed to E astern fo r
m a l i t i e s tha t in this m a t t er they leave deference behind
and appea r cr i ng i n g y e t t h ere is none o f the grovell ing
,

obsequiousness common to many o f the I ndian races .

This innate politeness in addi t ion t o sugg es t in g to

,

them replies intended to please rathe r t han crudely

t r ue answers to questions pu t oft en exhibits i tself i n ,

g iving non offensive names to O bjectionable t hings

-
.

Thus O piu m is ve r y frequently spoken of euphemistically

as black medicine al t hou g h they have a ho rror of
,

any o n e who falls u nder the t oxic inuence of either

this dru g o r of alcohol for o f cou rse t he national want , ,

o f con t rol makes narco t ics a nd stimulan t s exceedin g ly

dan g erous t o t he Burmese H ence t he stringent .

/

measu r es adop t ed by Gove r nment to t ry a nd conne

the u se O f dru gs a n d drink to n o n Burmans More -
.

over the use o f in t oxican t s i s also with wise prevision

, , ,

s t ring en t ly fo rbidden by the B uddhis t reli g ion .

I n A rakan however par tly no doub t from its p rox i

, ,

mity t o Chi t ta g on g and partly a lso perhaps from the

,

no t o r iously malarious nature of i t s clima t e the use and ,

consequently the abuse o f O pium have been spreadin g

within the last t w enty o r thirty years A bout ei g hteen .

years a go I was once t a lking on this subj ect with a n

o ld A ra kanese a vill ag e headman in the Kya ukpy u
,

dis t ric t and he was deplo r in g t he resul ts o f the use o f

,

opium F i n a lly he summed up the position by r e

.
,

m a rkin g w ith a lau gh F irs t of all the Ben galis come

,

,

down from C hit t a g ong and work fo r us a s coolies in t he

elds ; and then from one s t ep to ano t her t hey go o n
23 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
till they end by becoming the fathers o f o u r children ,

and that is all because of the O piu m Te het the it is ,

very annoyi ng .

N o accou nt of Bu rmese ch a racter would be complete

w ithout reference to thei r g ambling propensities which ,

they have i n common with their Chinese relatives B ut .

they have less control over themselves than t h e latter ,

and are not infrequently reduced to utter poverty throu g h

this vice This ho w ever is n ot like opium and liquor
.
, , ,

to a cer tain extent due to the advent o f western

,

civiliza t ion and British a dministr a tion ; for under their

o w n rulers gamblin g was unchecked I t wa s even e nc ou r
.

ag ed i n the shape o f lotteries at Mandal a y while o n e ,

could legally reduce oneself to g e t he r wi t h one s wife and

children to the sta t us o f slaves by inability t o wit h s tand

the temptation o f g ambling .

These traits o f the national charac t e r and mo r e e sp e ci ,

ally t hose o f the male Burmese are h a rdly such as ca n

,

reason a bly be expected to m a intai n t he ra ce i n the

competition no w commencin g a nd soon l ikely to assume
,

vast proportions bet w een them and C hinamen S hans

, , ,

and natives o f I ndia ; and the consequence must be that ,

even although B urmese may remain the languag e o f

t he country the population wh ich will be found throu g h
,

o u t the province a century hence will most likely be

of an exceed in g ly mixed ch a ra cte r The Burmese hold.

the cou n t ry at present bu t their vi s i ner tice strengthened

, ,

by the heredity o f g eneration after generation i s s o ,

grea t that it seems improbable they can continu e to

main t ain this advant age .

Though they are often very agg ravating by their

passive resistance w hen i t i s desired to get work o u t
o f t hem , it i s impossible t o help likin g this j ovial ,

laughter lovin g indolent race ; and B urm a will be a

-
,

much less desira ble place to l ive i n than it hitherto ha s

been w hen once the present happy c a reless casual i n
, , ,

carna t ion o f lotus eaters has given pl a ce to a m ore

i ndus t rious a more thrifty and a more calculatin g ra ce

, ,

o f people .

232
 Ch ap te r IX
T HE S O C I A L S Y S T E M
H E N the youn g H indu kno w n in early l ife a s
S e i d d a t ta the s o n o f S u dd a wd a na R ajah o f
, ,

Ka pp i la w u t and R uler of M ag ha d a ( N ip al o r B eh a r ) ,

broke loose from the tyranny of the B rahmins o r priestly

caste and subsequently a s G a u d a m a the recluse founded
, , ,

the reli g ious philosophy o f Buddhism he sn a pped asunder

, ,

once and for ever fo r his religious followers the fetters

,

of cas t e w ith w hich those professin g the H indu reli g ion

are to this day enthra lled B uddhism reco g nizes no
.

caste and the Burmese have perhaps fewer soci a l d i s

,

t i n c t i o n s o f this nature than any other n a tion I n no .

other country could mere claims o f birth be less rega rded

than in Burm a The true extent to which t his national
.

freedom from either reli g ious o r social caste differences

g oes could ho w ever only be fully seen in Upper B urma
, ,

while it still ret a ined its independence as the K in g dom of

A v a ; bec a use ch a n g es have long been g radually t a kin g
place i n this a s i n many other respects u nder the bure a u
cratic o f ci a l d om o f British rule a n d throu g h the de
v e l op m e n t o f commerce and o f the material prosperity

t hereby fostered .

While still a n independent nationality the r e were

seven classes O f society distinguishable These consisted .

o f the R oy a l family the priesthood o fcials tra ders o r

, , ,

merchants cultiva tors a n d handicra ftsmen sl a ves and

, , ,

ou tcasts Priests and monks h a ve alw a ys enjoyed special

.

consideration o n reli g iou s grounds w hile O fcials formed

,

the most powerful section o f society under the Burmese

rule rs S hort of royalty and the throne any individual
.
,

23 3
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
belongin g to o ne o f the cl a sses other than the slaves and
ou tcas t s could rise to the hi g hes t posi t ion in the land .

Bu t slaves and crimin a l outcas t s were entirely debarred

from the ri g hts o f freemen A mong the soci a l ou t casts
.

we r e included the four infamous classes ( S a nda l a l e so)
- -
,

gravediggers beggars pros t i t u t es and lepers

, , ; while ,

pagoda slaves were regarded with hardly less r e p ug

nance as they were mostly pardoned convic t s or persons
,

condemned to this servitude on account o f crimes E ven .

when released from slavery o n the B r itish occupation ,

they continu ed to be re garded as lo w a nd de g ra ded .

The L a ma i ng o r predial slaves who tilled the royal ,

lands a roun d Mandalay were mostly the descendants of

,

captives taken in t he wars wi t h M anipu r a nd A ssam .

Though ou t casts they were not so low as pagoda slaves

,

o r any o f the fou r infamou s classes Thus considerable.

,

adminis t ra t ive difcul t y o n a small scale was once crea t ed

with re ga r d t o the services o f a t ownship o fce r i n
L ower Burma who by abili t y and good se rvice had
,

risen to t h e highes t rank in t he subordina t e j udicial

se rvice bu t who had the m isfo rt une to be t he so n of
,

a p a goda slave .

When a n y o n e rose t o hi g h r ank by royal favou r t here

was no fa lse shame or tacit disown in g o f humble rela
t i ve s
. The la tt e r paid due deference to the exalted
destiny of him w ho had thus been promo t ed throu g h the
merit o f past deeds : but it was seldom that such pro
mo t ion led to arrogance and to contemp t uou s neglect of
poor relations .

The nat ural veneration for r oyal blood was ext r eme ,

and amou nted i n fa c t to a superstition To pretend to

, , .

royal blood obtained for any plausible rog ue as credulous

support a s claims to speci a l sanctity or supernatural
powers A nd yet the royal family t he house o f A laun g
.
,

Pay a ( A l o mp ra ) thus superstitiously venerated with

,

servile devotion was i t self a mere mushroom g rowt h

,

datin g only from the middle o f the ei g hteen t h cen t ury .

A l a un g Pay as career resembles N a poleon s as bein g a n

example o f a man o f comparatively humble ori g in risin g

thro ug h sheer ability force o f character in trepidi t y a n d
, , ,

absence of anything like conscientious scruples to the ,

234
 A LA U N G P A Y AS C AR EE R

hi g hest nation a l power by the time he had at tained the

age o f t hirty nine ye a rs
-
.

A laun g Paya or the incarnation o f a Buddh the

,

n ame c h osen by t his a dventurer when he usu rped the

t hrone and founded the l a st Burmese dynasty in 1 7 5 5 ,

was born i n o r abou t 1 7 1 4 a t M Oks obo n o w called ,

S hwebo . A s M ohsobo the hu n t er s cookin g place

,

may also mean the leader o f a band of hu ntsmen this ,

has g iven rise to the erroneou s ide a a mong E uropea ns

t h a t A laung Pay a was ori g inally a hun t er A s ho w ever .
, ,

a hun t sm a n a man del ibera t ely and personally destroyin g

,

l ife a s a means o f l ivel ihood is almost a s bad as o n e o f,

t he four infamous cl a sses the fa c t of his followin g such

,

an occupa t ion would have effectu a lly debarred him from

att a inin g royal honou rs .

Originally his name was M a un g A un g Z eya o r v i c ,

t or i o u s conqueror and he w a s t hough dist a ntly co n
, ,

n e c t e d wi t h the B urmese royal family the kin g dom o f ,

Av a being then u nder the subjugation o f the M On kin g

dom of Pe g u merely a revenu e subordinate ( Ky eg a i ng )
,

of a village headm a n before bein g promoted and m a de

My o Thugy i o r headman of the town o f M Oks ob o On .

the conquest o f A va by the M On o r Peg uans A u ng ,

Z eya was conrmed in his hea d m a n shi p but at once ,

began to plan a r evol t E arly i n 1 7 5 4 he collected

.

abou t a hu ndred followers a n d massacred the small

ga rrison o f Pe gu ans qu a rtered o n the t own .

R eportin g the m atter a s a furious outbreak o f the

t o w nspeople w hom he a s headm a n ha d been u nable to
, ,

control the Peguan g overnor o f A va sent only a small

,

body of troops to reve nge this ou t rag e and bri ng i n the

headman These bein g v a nqu ished a n d pursue d A un g
.
,

Z eya pointed o u t t o h is fellow townsmen that the hand -

,

havin g thus been pu t to the plou g h the revolt must ,

continue ; and tradin g o n the bou ndless credulity a nd

,

superstition o f the Burmese ch a ra cter he c a used i m a ,

g i na r
y prophecies to be noised a broad th a t he w a s to free
his cou ntrymen from t he yoke o f the Pegu a ns M en .

ockin g quickly to his stand a rd he marched o n A va , ,

where the Burmese rose a n d massacred the Peguan

soldiery Placin g his second s o n in charge o f A v a
.
,

235
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
he returned t o MOkso bo and busied himself with the
recru itment and disciplinin g o f troops .

B y the time the Peguans reached A va A u n g Z eya ,

had collected a sufcient numbe r of men to ove r throw

t he army sent to crush him and this defeat so enrag ed
,

the K ing of Peg u that he put t o the sword all the

B urmese captives then i n hi s hands I nfu ria t ed at this .
,

the B urmese rose and slaughtered the Pegu a n troops

whereve r these had been q uartered o n thei r t owns .

Collectin g an army the K ing o f Pegu proceeded u p the

,

I rrawaddy but was defeated at Prome by A un g Z ey a

, ,

who speedily descended the river and took Bassein .

Possessed t hus o f the chief seaport of the delta and ,

havin g his t wo sons in c h arge of A va and M Okso b o ,

and being subse q uently successful i n r outin g t he main

Pegu a n army near whe r e R a ngoon now stands A lau n g ,

Paya i n 1 7 5 5 declared himself K ing o f B urma and Pegu .

Following the usual cus t om o f the K in g o f Bu r ma i n

assuming a new name by which he was henceforth to be
known as a monarch he bestowed upon himself t he
,

apo t heosis i ndicated in the ti tle A lau ng P a ya
He .

also at the same time created his elder s o n Prince of

S ag aing while the younge r was made Pri nce o f M yedu
, .

A laun g P a y a wreaked a fearful vengeance agains t

the Pe g uans a nd changed thei r name from M on

i nto Ta l a i ng literally meaning down t rodden a differ
,

,

ence which is still rigidly distin g u ished even to the

presen t time a lthou g h the term has lon g S ince lost its
,

original meaning Thus if asked what race they belong

.
,

to the g r eat majo r i t y of the prosperous peasantry

,

throughou t the delta of t he I r rawaddy will at once reply ,

D own tr odden Bu r mese i n con t rad istinction to the

Burmese no t o f Peg uan ori g in .

While the r e a r e no cas t e distinctions there is also no ,

landed a ris toc racy ; but there is a nobility To be .

appoin t ed an ofcial was i n itself practically of the

nature o f conferring nobili t y while me r chan ts and large
,

traders who ac q u i red p r oper ty were re g is t ered by royal

edic t as rich men ( T

This incl u ded all such as
farmed the royal monopolies who were thus formally ,

placed unde r the p rotection o f the C ourt .

236
 T H E N O B I L ITY
I n the olden times this class is t raditionally supposed
to have contained nobles ( A m d t) but the tenure ,

of nobility o r o fcial rank depended a bsolutely and

entirely on the royal will and pleasure T he K in g could .

raise up any man o r woman from the lowest deg ree to

the hi g hest and he could cast t hem down a gain There
, .

was no security i n prosperity as all ofces were b e ,

stowed and retained solely by the royal favou r A t the .

Cou rt the badge o f nob ility was a chai n ( S a l we) o f gold

suspended across t he chest from t he left shoulder to the
ri g ht hip I t consisted o f several strin g s o r strands
.
,

fastened a t each end and a t the centre by bosses The .

lowest degree o f S a l we had three plain strings while

that with three twisted s t rands ranked nex t a bove it .

H igher degrees o f nobility were represented by six and

n ine s t rings whilst chains with t w elve strings were worn
,

by Princes and the four M ingyi o r S ecretaries o f S tate .

The highes t order o f all the S a l we o f twenty fou r s t rin g s

,

-
,

was worn by the K ing himsel f .

The umbrellas borne over the nobility were also indi

c a tive of rank A white u mbrell a could only be carried
.

over the K in g and his chief Queen Re d umbrell a s .

with stra i g ht handles could be borne over t he heads o f

all offi cials but onl y those o f hi g h rank were entitled to
,

have them borne aloft with deeply cur ved handles .

The B we o r rank of nobility accorded by the K ing was

a personal title and not necessarily an adj unc t o f O fce .

I t was considered a grave brea ch o f eti q uette to call a ny

ofcial even of lo w rank by his name H e was alwa ys
, , .

addressed by his ofcial title followed by the B we o r ,

personal d is t inction .

With rega rd to pu nctiliousness a s t o t itular distinctions

and forms of address t he B urmese a r e if this be possible , ,

e ven worse than the Germ a ns I n speaking of o r to .

inferiors the prex N g a is used and for equals M a u ng ,

or brother while the prex K o o r elder brother ex

,

presses respect and U or u ncle implies the deference
,

to be shown to men considerably olde r than the speaker .

I n Upper Burma the word B ag y i meaning a father s ,

elder brother is frequently u sed in this sense in place
,

of
p re x i n
g U to the name o f the person addressed I n .

237
 B U R M A U ND E R B R I TI S H R U LE
speaking to an equ a l the w ord M i n is used for you
,

while the fo r m M a u ng m i n is somewhat imperious a nd

disrespec t ful and K ada w o r royal self i ndicates great
,

respect The word perh a ps most frequently used in this

.

way t h roughou t the whole coun t ry however is K i n by a , ,

or

friend corrup t ed from Tha hi n P ay d
,

lord and ,

m a s t er . The use o f N i n thou is as disrespec t ful as

, ,

the German D u and is seldom used save i n ange r

,
.

S hi n ,

mas t e r is the term o f compellation used by
,

women only to men o r women somewhat a bove t hem i n

,

ra nk I f however works o f special religious meri t o r

.
, ,

public benevolence have been u ndertaken the persons in ,

ques t ion are invariably a ddressed o r referred t o as P ay d

tag ci
, Ky a u ng tag ci Z ay d ttag d o r A hl u tag d accordin g
, , ,

as they may have respectively built a pag oda a ,

monastery o r a public rest house o r have made larg e

,
-
,

g ifts t o pries t s When once lads have returned t o the

.

laity after bein g acoly t es ( M a u ng S hi n ) at t he monas

t e ry t hey a r e oft en add r essed as M a u ng S hi n by t heir
,

pa r en t s .

Young g irls o r women socially inferio r t o t he speaker

are addressed as M e o r daughter though the use o f

,

t his word t o adults is dis t inctly i mpolite The p r e x .

i ndicative of equality is M a or s ister while M e o r

,

mothe r expresses respec t a nd deference t o seniori ty .

A mother or an elder siste r is often addressed as M d ma

Again one may speak o f one s o wn

or madam

.
,

M ay a or wife
but if referring to the wife of another , ,

it is mo r e polite to use the wo rd M ei n ma o r woman

while t he wife of a n y o fcial is addressed and spoken of

by adding Ga da w meaning lady or consort t o the

,

,

o f cial designation of her husband The wife o f a town .

magis tr ate is thus the My obh Ga da w j ust as i n Germany

,

she would be the
F rau B il rg e rm e i s te r i n When .

wri t ing to his wife a husb a nd usually calls her H n i tma ,

or

you nger sis t er I n the eyes o f the criminal law .

all p r isone r s a t t he ba r and all convicts i n jail are M e

and N g a as represen t ing a low grade o f society
, .

Pries t s and monks are i nvariably addressed a s P ay d

o r K od a w

lord or master and are referred to by
, ,

placin g U before t hei r monastic name ; while nu ns are

238
 F O R M S O F P O L I T ENES S

addressed as S ay a learned o r B wa thzl a prod ucers , , ,

o f religious merit When monks converse amon g them
.

selves t he senior calls the j u nior A wa tha w while the

, ,

latter add resses the former as B a nd e .

Eq ually s t ric t rega r d is also p a id to the use of the rst

pe rsonal pronou n and i ts e q u ivalent i n addressin g others .

N g a t he equivalent of ou r
, I wri t very larg e is only , ,

used i n t he sense of g r ea t superiori t y a s arro g a t ed to ,

oneself du r ing bickerin g and quarr els The general term .

used even in addressin g pe rsons lower in the social scale

is Ky u n oh you r servan t o r l i t erally t he slave ruled

, , ,

over . O the r wise i n addressi ng superiors humble and
, ,

dep r ecia t ory terms are employed such as Ky un da w , ,

y our honou r s slave or P ay d hy un d a w you r lord

,
-
,

ship s slave while any hi g h ofcial would be addressed

i n equally servile lan g uag e as K odaw a shi n o r you r

,
-

royal self my mas t er which is alon g with the term
, , ,

P ay a addressed to o fcials and priests t he ne a rest ,

e q u i valen t fo r s i r

.

When abou t t o men t ion any t hin g before parents ,

elde rs or pries t s which is l ikely to offend against good

, ,

t aste u nless previously apologised fo r thus for ex a mple , ,

in speakin g o f the feet an d othe r pa rts o f the body con

s id e r e d i nferio r a n d O bj ec t ionable the speaker prefaces

his remarks by begging pardon with head and hair

.

I t is considered a mark o f disrespect to crack the

knuckles of the ngers in the presence o f a superior ,

although th is amusemen t o r ne r vous habit o f bre a king

the nge r s ( L etcho) is common among t he B u r mese .

When no t in the presence o f a superior the Burmese ,

sit o n the o or fo r the use of chairs is j ust beg innin g

i n t he c h ief t owns and there only a mong such as a p e ,

wes t ern h a bits i n a cross legged position with the heel -

o f eac h foo t drawn i n towards the thi g h o f t he other le g ,

so t ha t the knees are bent so as to be level with the

hip ( Ti nba py i n t he pos t ure in which mos t im a g es
-

o f G a u da m a are cast or sculptured The respectful .

a tt i t ude howeve r is t o kneel down and draw the legs

, ,

closely t oge t her the head being t hree t imes i n succes

, ,

sion ben t down till i t al mos t t ouches the g round so t hat

, ,

the forehead res t s o n the thumbs of the hands clasped

23 9
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
to g ether palm to palm i n token o f veneration The
, , .

crown o f the head thus fa ci ng the object of veneration ,

hardly any part o f the l e g s c a n be seen w hile the feet , ,

considered i n more th a n a literal sense the most inferior

part o f the body are entirely hidde n from the person
,

t o whom homage is thus paid This na t ional form of .

obeisance before all religious shrines princes rulers and , , ,

those in authority is properly t ermed a b a sing the tu ft

of hair on the crown of one s head ( Usu nshet) though

,

it is more commonly known a s S he/eo o r simpl y homage
,

which a lso implies the a c t o f kneelin g down and s ittin g

o n one s feet

But as the l a tter i t formed the stumbl in g
.
, ,

block to the maintenance o f diplomatic relations with the

Court o f A va during the las t t en years o f Burmese rul e ,

as has elsewhere been described ( vol i p ag e In .

,

order that the top knot and the crown o f the head should
-

be duly exposed in makin g obeisance t h e wearin g o f a

le t ( B a wl on ) of muslin bound rou nd the head above

the temples i n place of the ordinary tu rban l ike ke r chief -

( G a u n
g ba u n
g ) o f colou red silk was compulsory on all ,

who entered the pal a ce a t Mand a lay .

Polyg amy is permitted by l a w and in the olden time ,

the laws o f M a rni recognized a head wife ( M ay agy i ) a ,

lesse r wife ( M ay a ng e) a nd six kinds o f concubines

,

u t it was only t he king who followed the

( py
A a un
g) . B
doubtful example o f S olomon s wisdom in respect o f

having many wives and maintaining a larg e harem .

Polygamy is indeed now rar e as may be gathe r ed from ,

the fact that the census o f 1 89 1 showed re t urns o f

husbands to wives The c ustom .

does howeve r exis t ; and it is au thorized by law

, , .

S ome t imes the monogamy i s even broken at the requ est

o f the r s t wife as the followin g example may S ho w
, .

The l ittle town of S hwegu abou t thir ty miles below ,

Bh a mo is the head q uarters o f a good many elephan t

,

owners who are now becomin g Government con t ractors

,

fo r the extra c t ion o f teak timbe r for delive ry to the

Fores t D epar t men t T he most in uential of these is a
.

comparatively young man the you nger s o n of a la t e ,

Burmese m ag istrate o f R an g oon who rose to the highes t ,

rank he could attain u nder British a d m i n i s tra tIo n Before .

2 40
 P O L YG A M Y
se ttling a t S hwegu this so n was married to a l a dy fo r
merly belonging to the Cour t w ho held l a nd i n her o wn
,

righ t bringing i n a bou t 5 4 a yea r When her husb a nd .

obtained the timbe r contract from Government s he ,

fou nd he rself u nable owing t o weak health to accompany

, ,

hi m to a place s o damp u ncivilized and malarious a s

, ,

S hwegu is in comparison with M andalay B ut she .

advised her husband to take a j unio r wife to make him

comfor table there and even a ssis t ed him in the selection
,

o f an exceedin g ly pret t y you n g helpma t e j ud g ed even ,

by wes te r n s ta ndard s of beau t y The chief wife goes .

and visits t he lesser duri ng the cold season of t he year ,

and returns t o her own home in Mandalay during the

rainy mon t hs .

S ometimes it even happens that both wives reside

u nder t he same roof thou g h this is exceedin g ly ra r e and
,

i n fact no twithstandin g legal right mono ga my has now

, ,

become cus t omary while polyg amy is no longe r co n

,

s i d e r e d q u ite s o respec t able as it once was The main .

t e n a nc e of concubines i n addition to the great and the

,

minor wives has now almost absolu t ely an d alto g e t he r

,

ceased excep t perhaps among the S han chiefs I n the

, .

olden days two classes of concubines were recognized ,

the Apy a u ng M ay a who were not bough t with money

, ,

e i n M a a who were

a nd the A th taken possession O f

y ,

after payment A female debtor slave could also be

.

used as a concubine if the amount O f he r deb t was over

t w en t y ve rupees ( g 1 1 3 s
-
but if she bore a male
.

child this cancelled the debt ; a nd in any c a se con

, , ,

c u b i na e itself a t once cancelled debt fo r a less s u m

g .

The V illag e Community sys t em having already been ,

fully described i n chapter vi o f v ol i ( pages 1 6 2 1 6 5 )

. .

need not again be referred t o i n detail S ubj ect to .

the payment O f the r oyal demand in the shape o f

a house t ax levied on eac h t own and village to t h e
-

extent o f about t en rupees ( 1 3 s 4 d ) pe r house these . .

,

communities were left ve r y much to themselves to be

a dministered by the h eadman
( Th u
gy )
i and the elders
( gy )
L u i of t h e people A fter .the an nexation of the
kin g dom o f A va t his simple and effective system o f
adm i nistration well sui t ed t o the cou ntry and the people
, ,

V OL . 11 24 1 R
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
w a s retained under the Uppe r B urma V illage Re g ulation
( 1 88 7
) and subsequently the L ower Burma V illa g e A ct
was passed i n order t o re introduce s o far as possible -
, ,

into the southern portion o f the province the ol d V illag e

Commu nity system w hich had fallen i nto disuse a n d
been to a grea t ex ten t supplan ted by othe r me t hods
owing to t h e l ines o f administration followed a fter the
annexation o f Pegu a n d M ar taban i n 1 85 2 .

Under this A ct the authority o f the village headman

wa s extended and his responsibility inc r eased
, while in
the t owns the chief o f the elders o f the people were a s ,

honorary magistrates g iven a l a rger share in th e c o n ,

duc t o f affairs and the maintenance of law a nd order .

The weigh t of their inuence i n th is respec t no doubt , ,

con t ribu t ed to imp rove t he s t a t e o f towns at a t ime when

a decided t endency to lawlessness was manifes t before ,

the p rovince had r ecovered fr om t he s ta t e o f ferment

in t o which it was temporarily th rown afte r t h e t hird
Bu r mese war T h us t he honora ry magis tra t es o f
.
,

R angoon i n 1 888 made the following resolutions rela t ing

t o keeping the peace e t c in the suburbs o f t h e city , .
,

1 . P erso n s g oi n g o ut a ter f te n o

c ocl k at n i gh t m u st ca rr y a l n te n
a r

wi t h th em
I n the sub u b s wh ere p alm l eav es and spl i t b amb oos are used fo r
.

2. r ,

roo n g re h ook s e ex ti n g u i sh ers a n d p o ts of wa t r sh a ll b e k ep t at

, ,
r , e

eac h h ouse .

3 .I n su c h su b u rb s the cook i n g pl ac e o f e a ch h ouse S h all b e m ad e

by d i ggi n g a h ol e i n the g oun d a nd c are fully wall i n g i t i n
r , .

4 P atrol sh all e a c h ni gh t he k e p t by fo ur o r ve p erso n s in comp a ny

.

wi th the p ol i c e .

5 .E n d e a v ou rs s h all b e m ad e to arre st b ad c h arac ters l urk i n g a b ou t

the su b u rb s .

6 E v ery resi d e n t m ust re n d er assi stan c e i n c a se of e b re ak i n g ou t

. r

i n any q uarter o f a su b u b r .

The r e ca n be no doub t t h at i n consequence o f British

a dmin istration brin g ing increased prosperity secu rity o f ,

possession and freedom from O ppression by those

,

administering the laws and collec t in g t h e r evenues the ,

o l d simple social system is gradually u ndergoing con

s i d e ra bl e changes ; and t hese a r e of course greatest a n d

most noticeable in the immediate vicin ity o f the seaport

towns and especially of the p r ovincial metropolis
, .

2 42
 D E G E N E RA T E Y O U T H
There is a growi n g wan t o f respect a nd deference such
a s w a s fo r merl paid by youn g men t o their seniors ;
y
and t he old venera tion for the reli g ious precepts and
those devotin g t hemselves to a religious life is gradually
disappearing without a nything equally good taking its
place . The pious lial duty ( M i ba w u t) owed by

children to t heir paren t s is no lon g er so r i g idly observed

a s formerly .

H ow sadly the youn g B urm a n has already chan g ed

may be gau g ed from the follo wing ex t ract from the
L ieu t Governor s resolution on the report on crime in

-
.
,

Burma durin g I 898 99

Wi th th new g en ti n of B u man s the
e e ra i g e f l a p k ni v
o r , c a rr a o c s -
e s,

l o d ed ti k s o th e d n g u we p n h b e m e
a s c ,
r o r a o mm o n
e ro s a o s as co a c

p ti c e i n om e d i st i t
rac s d th e d wi th t h i t ti n t P we
r c s, a n ese ar u se ou es a o a

( th t i
ea r c al o th e e mbl
r o i e ) n d d i nk i n g
r assb ou ts T h O ffe n d
s a r . e e r s ar e

o fte n y un g m e n in g o d
o i um t n e o v e wh o m th i r p
o c rc nt s a c s, r e a re s a re

s ai d to b e u n bl e to e x e i e ny uth o i ty
a rc s a a r .

I n the class o f house in h abi t ed the re is l ittle to mark

the social condition of the owner excep t i n t he case o f ,

o fcials The residences of the lat t er were generally

.

su rr ounded by a hig h fence w oven o f split b a mboos and ,

had a crossbar painted red across the t op o f the ga t e wa y .

The houses themselves were also usu a lly characterized

by being built O f teak wood posts a n d planks in place of -

less v a luable j ungle woods o r bamboos H ouses built o f .

brick were and a r e still uncommon save i n the chief ,

towns ; and t he r e for the most par t they a re owned by

foreigners .

O win g to the heavy a n d constan t rainfall throughout

most parts o f the cou ntry d uring the south west monsoon -

period the ordinary B urmese ho uses a re oblong a nd are

, ,

inva riably built o n posts planted in b a ys o f ei g ht o r nine

feet ap a rt They mostly consis t o f two distinct por t ions
.

bu ilt s o as to run with their lon g side parallel to the

roadway o r path formin g the street The open front c o n .

sists of a verand a h o r place for han g in g the cattle bells ,

K
( a l a u hswe) raised a bout t wo to three feet above the
,

grou nd and occupyin g the whole of the three or fou r

,

bays between the rs t two lines of posts with perhaps , , ,

t he cookin g pl a ce at one end in the sh ape o f a larg e

2 43
 B U R M A U N D E R B R IT I S H R U LE
shallo w box lled with e a rth for use during the rainy
season From this verandah a ladde r leads U p t o the
.

dwelling rooms raised about seven o r eig h t feet above

-

the ground H ere the accommodation consists o f two

.

o r mo r e sleeping apartmen t s h he Ah of
(
E i t an
) o ne ,

which is u sually desi g nated the gues t chambe r ( E the
K a n) behind which a pla t form often extends con t aining
,

the cookin g place a n d t he s t orehouse fo r odds and ends of

-

all sorts N ot infrequently one end of t he uppe r oor is

.

left open with the cooking place free a t the corner ; and -

i n this case the family collect here at meal t imes arou nd

the tray con tainin g the boiled rice and con d iments .

Othe r wise t he verand a h generally fulls all the requ ire

men t s o f d in ing room parlou r s t ore shed and reception
-
, , ,

room H e r e too in many ins t ances the good wo m an

.
, ,

o f the house exposes wares fo r sale if s h e trades but

does no t keep a stall a t the local bazaar D uring the .

dry season the cooking is mos t ly done ou t o f doors or

below the house a s the Burmese de t es t the smell of frying
,

i n o i l The open spa ce below between t he posts a lso

.
, ,

se r ves a s the storage place o f all ar t icles and implements

requiring protec t ion fr om the s u n o r rain I t is there .
,

to o t hat t he handloom o f t he house nds its place

,

unless it occupy o ne end o f t he verandah M ore than .

this the vacant space u nder the hig h er po r tion of the

,

house fo r ms the place into wh ich all the dir t and refuse
from above is swept throu g h the ch inks in t h e ooring ,

to be cleared by the pariah do g s the scavengers th a t ,

swarm in all towns and villag es I n every B urmese .

house from the palace to the poorest hovel there are

, ,

either chinks between t he bamboos and boards or else ,

holes ac t ually pie rced as spi t ting holes for use during -

be t el chewing .

W h en t he dwellin g r ooms occupy more t han three-

bays i n depth the house usually has a double roof

,

consis t ing o f t wo p a rallel ridges with a gu t ter betwee n ,

thou g h this is o f cou rse only necessary in the larger

houses T he roofs end in gables bu ilt like t he w a lling
.
, ,

o f planks o r bamboo m a t ting Tha tch made o f The kke

.

g rass ( I mper a ta cy l i n d r i ca ) fo r ms the general material

for roong and affords the coolest shelter but S plit
, ,

2 44
 E FF E C T S O F C I V I L I Z A TI O N
bamboo and pal m leaves are also used for this purpose .

R oofs of such inammable ma t erials are dangerous even

i n small villag es ; hence po t s of water extinguishing ,

clappe r s and re ho oks are kep t outside each house to

,

deade n spa r ks and tea r down bu r ning t ha t ch in case

o f re .

I n all t he towns and of cou rse mo r e pa rt icularly n ea r t he

,

cen tres of E u ropean civiliza t ion t he ma t erials wi t h w hich

,

the houses are buil t a re becomin g more costly a s the valu e

of land r ises H ere the roofs are often formed o f small
.

a t tiles or t eak wood shingles or even o f co rr u gated

-
,

iron I n certain portions o f the chief towns consideration

.

for the general wellbein g necessitates rest r ictions being

placed on t he indiscriminate use o f dangerously i n a m
mable ma t erials i n house building I n a ll the bette r .

classes of houses the oorin g consists o f plankin g and

wooden bea ms and joists but in the humbler abodes it
,

is formed merely by l a shing small b a mboos closely to

ge t her over jois t s o f larger bamboos .

Under British admini stra t ion the general inc r ease i n

prosperity throughou t mos t d istricts w ith ample rainfall ,

and e s p e c i a l ly a l o n g the s e a b oa rd tog e the r with the greate r

,

security fr om illegal oppression a nd the feel in g th a t it is

no lon g er necessary to refrain ri g idly from a ny of the
outw a rd si g ns of being prosperous have led to many ,

advances bein g m a de with re gard to ho usehold a cco m

m o d a ti o n W here t wenty to twenty v e years ago poor
.
-
,

miserable lookin g hamlets nestled on the banks o f tid a l

-

creeks larg e well laid o u t p rosperous villages with

, , ,

substantially built houses are now t o be seen A nd this .

prog ress is g eneral i n all loc a l ities having d irect cont a ct

with the centres of commerce .

This tendency t oward s improvemen t in househol d

su rroundings is a lso exhibiting itself i n the desire often ,

marked to abandon the previous national simpl icity

,

with regard to household articles The national custom .

w a s a nd is to sleep on the oor as well a s to sit and

, , ,

eat there and the use o f a l o w pl a nk cot w a s r eserved

,

for those of hi g h deg ree ; b ut n o w cots t a bles and , ,

chairs have for ye a rs pas t been gra dually nding their

way into the houses o f dwellers in the towns ; and
2 45
 B U R M A U N D ER B R I T I S H R U LE
naturally t hey bring co a rse g l a ss ware l a mps and the like
i n thei r tra in Throughout the vastly greater portion o f
.

the coun t ry however the Bu rmese still l ive in thei r

, ,

former s t ate o f simplicity and are certainly as happy ,

under it as they could possibly be with a multiplicity of

household r equ irements less easily sa t ised .

E xcep t at the Court of A va the r e were not and there , ,

are no t now any marked o r recog nized differences in t he

,

dress o f men o r women indicative o f soci a l rank Of .

cou rse there is a natura l tendency for the rich to array

themselves i n more cos tly garmen t s than can be afforded
by those who are n ot so well off but o n festival d ays ,

when every o ne puts o n his o r her best apparel it would ,

often be impossible t o determine t he soci al rank simply

from ou tside appe a rances ; and as the work a day dress - -

consis t s me r ely of old gay garmen t s o r of co tt on cloth ,

ins t ead o f silk attire the r e is then the same difculty

,

i n dis t in g u ishin g high from low me r ely fr om their

attire The everyday clothes o f cultivators are woven
.

by their wives and dau g hters from home grown cotton -

d yed with local fo r est produce while holiday clothes ,

are as a rule bou g ht i n the bazaar whe t her made in

, , ,

Burma o r imported A s regards food there is either

.

lit t le o r n o difference between the rich a n d the poo r for ,

the primitive simpl ici t y still O btains throughout the

cou ntry at large I t is only i n the chief towns that a
.

higher standard o f l iving is forcin g itself o n the youn g er

g eneration N o l i q u id is drunk while eatin g bu t the
.
,

food p a rtaken o f is o n the meal bein g concluded washed

, ,

down with a draught o f wa t er l a dled o u t of the earthen

ware pot with a water dipper made o f coco a nu t shell o r
t he l id o f a be t el b o x A smoke o r a chew of betel nut
.

is t hen taken to promote digestion o r increase the feeling

o f after dinner satisfa ction
-
.

I n the richness o f the j ew ellery worn by the women ,

however a more direct i ndication o f prosperity can be

,

obtained althou g h this would be j ust a s mislead ing with

,

regard t o any a t tempt to x social sta t us as it would be

in E uropean cosmopolitan gatherings E ven amon g .

the ordinary a g ricultura l peasants a family must be poo r

indeed which cannot muster gold ornaments for women
2 46
 NA TI O NA L C O S T U M E
a nd children o n g reat occasions B u t ear cylinders .
,

necklaces an d rin g s studded with diamonds and rubies

,

can of course only be acqu ired and re tained by those

fairly well endowed with the world s goods .

T h e national dress is simple though g o rgeous i n ,

colouring The men s waistclo t h ( P a so) is originally

.

made ei g h t een yards long and t wen t y t wo and a half -

inches wide The ends bein g folded back it is sti t ched

.
,

toge t her form ing a plaid nine yards long an d o ne and

,

a quar te r broad which is fastened r ou nd the wais t either

,

by tying o r hitchin g i n t he end the rem a inder formin g a ,

bag l ike kil t i n fr ont or else bein g th ro w n jau ntily over

-

t he left shoulder A whi t e cot t on o r silk jacket is worn

.

down to the waist or longe r i n U pper Burma while the

, ,

to p kno t and hai r are either bou n d up i n a gay silk

-

kerchief or else a l et o f muslin is tied rou nd t he head

with the ends pointing u p behind The la tt er is really .

the na t ional headdress compulsory at cou rt wh ich i s , ,

usually worn by all old men and such as have a ttained ,

high position The female skirt ( Ta mei n ) consis t s O f

.

an u ppe r par t of common stuff a broad centre o f rich ,

desi g n and a border also o f ne work all o f which a re

, ,

sewn together len g thways to form a garment l ike a

small t able cover a bou t fou r and a hal f feet wide and a
-

little more i n depth The upper part is fold ed across .

t he breasts and fa s t ened by a hitch i n the cloth wh ile ,

the lower portion rem a ins O pen with the end t ouching
the g rou nd T hus at each step the leg with which a
.

pace is being made is exposed u p to a bove th e knee .

A j a cket of white co t ton o r silk or o f coloured velvet is , ,

worn above this and a kerchief is loosely th rown over

,

the shoulde r Only t he men wear this silk scarf as a

.

headdress .

T he villag es a re usually pre t tily ornamented with

frui t trees such as man g o jack tamarind cocoanut
, , , , ,

to d d y p a l m and many others plan t ed along the road

,

wa y while here and there o t her large t rees l ike pipul

, ,

and padauk also offer a cool and shady restin g place for
,
-

wayfa rers and serve as the meetin g pl a ce o f the elders

,
-

when v illage a ffairs requ ire d iscussion O ne often nds .

a round sacred g t rees or larg e spreading tamarind trees, ,

2 47
 B U R M A U N D E R B R IT I S H R U LE
a platfo r m o f boards erected o n a parape t o f brickwork
fo rming some t hin g l ike a local f or u m ; and this cus t om
extends right a cross t he hills from Upper Bu rma ,

through t he S han S ta tes and Yu nnan i nto S zechuan , .

E ach house has its l ittle plo t o f land ex t ending at any

rate to t he back o f t he house and fenced i n with spl it ,

b a mboos S ometimes a few fru it trees are g rown in this

.

small compou nd but t he r e is seldom any a tt emp t a t

,

garden ing .

There is as yet l ittle or no sani tation i n t he majo r i t y

, ,

o f villa g es E ven in t he smaller towns the simple

.

measures taken in this respect a re hardly what ca n be

considered very effective The l a rg e nu mbers o f pariah
.

dog s w hich are a llowed to breed a nd rear their l itters

,

u nchecked by the people are the chief scavengers and

, ,

d irt y lookin g pigs often assist t hem i n this work

- S ome .

times t he administration has t o t ake measures for

reducing the nu mber o f pariah dog s which are often ,

allowed t o increase in d a ngerous nu mbers M ore .

humane methods are now employed ; bu t m any y ears

a o this n ecessary work had in t he town o f S hwe g yin
g
to be done by natives o f I ndia fo r the Bu rmese would ,

no t deliberately take l ife i n th is manner ; and the

cool ies employed clubbed the male dogs only s o as ,

no t to spoil their t rade in future .

The o ld order o f thin g s is changing an d is g ivin g ,

place t o a new social system u nder which wealth is

beginni ng to be held i n estimation in a way th a t w ould
not have been possible i n former days Then to be .
,

known o r reputed wealthy was to render a m a n l iable

to O ppression from which a wa y o f escape could only be
,

conveniently found in works of reli g ious merit and publ ic

benevolence B ut now along with the ol d social system
.
, ,

the Bu rmese race itself is g ra dually disappearin g ; and

a century hence there will prob a bly remain little o r
nothin g more than tradi t ions of the former and but ,

mere remnants o f the l a tter .

H itherto this has not been the case i n any very

marked degree a n d the Burmese have perhaps i n this
,

respect shown an a lmost Celtic like power O f assimilating -

t he lesser tribes and the immi g rants of othe r national ities .

2 48
 T H E FU S I ON OF RACES
Thus in 1 8 7 2 t he propo r t ion of B urmese to the r es t of
,

the population th rou g hou t L o wer Bu rm a was as 2 3 6 t o

1 0 0 ; while i n 1 89 1 no t wi t hs t anding bette r enumeration
,

o f the K a r ens and other h ill tribes and a then weak

inux o f fo r eign i mmig ran t s it had only decreased to ,

1 88 to 1 0 0 B ut the fo r ces tha t a r e no w a t work in

.

the shape o f British adminis tra t ion and imp r oved com
m u n i ca ti o ns by railway r iver and sea are all of such a
, , ,

na t ure and magnitude as have neve r p r eviously been

encou n te r ed ; and they are such moreove r as will soon , ,

produce an eno r mous inux o f population from I ndia and

Chin a which is fa r more likely t o impress its various
,

and differen t leading fea t u r es upon the futu re inhabitants

of B urma t han to be absorbed by the exis t ing Bu r mese
nat i on .

This fusion o f ra ces will be rende r ed all the more

ra pid and complete by t he compara t ive ease and alacrity
with which the Bu rmese woman mates wi t h men of other
than her ow n na t ionality To the Chinaman he r fellow
.
,

M ongolian she b r ings an industry well su i t ed to this his

,

o w n gre a t charac t eristic ; while i n g rasping greed and

love o f money she is thorou g hly q ual ied to be the mate

o f the rapacious H i ndu o r the M ohammedan from any

p a rt o f I ndia B ut s he still to a conside rable extent

.
, ,

looks down u pon the K a l a o r non M o ngolian native -

o f I ndia as belon g in g to an inferior r ace to mate with

, ,

whom i nvolves a certain a mount of deg ra da t ion a n d loss

of social s t a t us unless he h a ppen to be rich
, .

To be married to a Chinaman is fo r a Bu r mese girl

rather like d rawing a prize in the matrimonial lottery .

The Chinese consider themselves and are considered as , ,

belonging t o a race superior to the B urmese and they

are frugal industrious and affectionate The fruits o f
, ,
.

such mixed m a rria g es result as might be expected i n a, ,

ner breed o f children than the issue o f u nions bet w een

Bu rmese women and men o f no n M ongol ian ra ce O f - .

the former known a mo n g the B urmese as B a ba or

,

B a wa ( a corrup t ion o f the Mal a y word Wa wa me a ning ,

h a lf breed ) a nd among the Chinese a s S hipy i ttem

-

,

the boys a r e brou ght u p dressed and taught to j ealously

, ,

conside r t hemselves as Ch inamen while the gi rls are ,

249
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
usually made to a dop t the dress l a nguage customs and
, , ,

religion o f their Bu rmese mothers .

M ore nearl y a llied ethnogra phically the u nion o f ,

Bu rmese and S h a ns results i n a mixed race d iffering but

l ittle from either o f the parent stocks I t is only .

th roughout t he northern portion of the province ho w ,

ever where the S han tribesmen we r e broken and

,

sca t tered after having centuries ago invaded A va

, ,

crossed the I rrawaddy and fou nded the S han dynasty

, ,

o f w hich S a g aing was the c a pital that the strain o f

,

B urmese a n d S han half breeds has mai ntai ned itsel f

-

among those who now c a ll themselves K a d zi a nd have

a dopted a r aci a l lan g uage a n d cus t oms o f their o wn .

The offsprin g o f B urmese women by n atives of I ndia ,

whether H indu o r Mohammedan and curiously enough , ,

when o ne speaks of a native in a n y o f the towns o f

B urma this i nvariably means a native o f I ndia and not

,

o n e o f the race indi g eno u s to the province are called

Z a i r bo dd i by the I ndians althou g h they are simply i h

,

cluded among the general ru n o f d y a or half breeds -

by the B urmese A s children they a re O ften o f remark

.

a ble beauty with lovely eyes but as they g row up they

, ,

are apt to d evelop tra its o f chara cter of a very u npleasing

nature .

The c hildren o f u nions usu a lly onl y temporary b e

, ,

tween E uropeans and B urmese women are o n the w hole

an u ns a tisfa ctory cross breed N o g ood pu rpose would
-
.

be served by here discussin g the morality o r immorality

o f such a lli a nces S o far a s the Burmese g irl is concerned
.
,

the u nion is not deg radin g to her F rom her poin t o f.

view s he is married to the E u ropean ; and s he knows

quite well that i n perhaps more than n ineteen cases o u t
o f every t w enty the time must come w hen there will be

a sep a ration that is to s ay a divorce desired b y the

,

husb a nd I n becomin g the Ga dd w o r lady o f any
.

E urope a n she is not qu ite o n the footi ng O f a woman

married formally u nder the national custom o f e a ting to
g ether from the same d ish ; but a t the s a me time she
thus raises hersel f to a position w here she receives many
marks of ou twa rd a ttention a n d hom age and S he not ,

infrequ ently utilizes this position to her o w n a dvantag e

25 o
 C O N F I D EN TI A L C I R C U LA R S
i n respect o f the supposed i nuence s he ha s w ith him

whom she addresses as S hi n lord and m a ster

As , .

p r eviously r emarked this t erm of compellation is only

,

used by women : and it sou nds curious when in a d

ve r te ntl y used by men as fo r example o n one occasion
, , , ,

when a you ng ofcer undergoing examin a tion i n the

Burmese lan g uage addressed us his stern examiners , ,

with this soft insinuating term o f respectful endearment .

There have been various circulars issued condentially

by Gove r nmen t concerning u n ions of this na t ure between
youn g civil o fcers and Bu rmese women The r st .
,

issued about 1 8 7 2 is s a id to have resulted in a match

, ,

at a R angoon ra ce meetin g bet w een two ponies n a med , ,

ro h C hief Commissioner s on
( C

p dc vi ce ,

d ential Circular) and Physiolog ical N ecessity
T he .

latter won and t he t hrea t s o f the circul a r were thu s

,

smothered in ridicul e .

I n 1 8 7 8 another condential circular was issued

,
.

This took the much more sensibl e line o f deprecating

the prac t ice owin g to the imputation to which i t laid the ,

reputations o f the ofcers concerned open that the ,

people at larg e might bel ieve inuence wa s thus brou g h t

to bea r o n ofcial ma t ters res t in g within the j urisdiction
of t he former .

S ince then other t wo condential ci r culars have been

,

issued o n the subject The last o f these hu rled at the

.
,

m a lpractice in 1 894 and threa t ening stoppage o f pro

,

motion of offenders immedi a tely resulted in several

,

marri ag es bond de u nions reg istered u nder E nglish law

, ,

between members of t he I ndian Civil S ervice a n d youn g

Bu rmese women already l iving with t hem This u ne x .

p ecte d resul t caused Government practically to retract

the circular fo r it has since remained a dead le t ter O ne
,
.

you n g civilian stationed in a lonely township where he

,

was c u t o ff from the district headquarters save by

s t eamer communication abou t once a fortnight i n the dry
season and once a month in the south wes t monsoon -

months even wen t the length a s ofcial registrar of

, , ,

marrying himself to his B urmese g irl in order to l e g i ti ,

mize the child abou t to be born o f the u nion ; and the

t rustees o f t he Be ngal C ivil F und refused to recognize
25 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
the act as legal o r a s entitling the woman and her child
to be thu s brought o n the Fund a s possible a nnu itants .

This is not a very savou ry topic fo r d iscussion Bu t .

the great majority o f those who may perhaps feel them

selves called upon to preach o n t his subj ect canno t know
wha t t hey a re talking about u nless t hey have personally
experienced the depressin g effects o f t he climate and the
dismal soul dea dening sol itude of residence i n a s mall
,
-

ou t sta t ion where fo r weeks and weeks often fo r months

-
, , ,

the young E uropean either enjoys no companionship a t

a l l w ith his o wn fellow countrymen or at best only occa

s i o na l l
y sees one or t w o w ho are fo r the
,
grea t er p art

of their time occupied i n touring about i n the j ungle .

Taking into due consideration t he severa l inuences of

climate environment human na t ure and the facts o f
, , ,

medical science o ne ca n q uite u nderst a nd the position

,

taken with regard to this matter by those and there

a r e many su ch who think the lapse from virtue in

respect o f such conn ubi a l relation with a dau g hter o f the
l a nd is perh aps the le a st pernicious of all the vices in its
immed i a te and its ultimate effects o n that noblest of
t emples the human body which enshri nes the soul the
, ,

im a g e of G o d .

S ometimes the E urasian children resulting from tem

p o ra r
y u nions o f this kind are brou g ht up as Burmese ,

a n d sometimes as E uropeans I f they dress and class

.

themselves as Burmese it is re a lly best in m a ny w a ys

, .

The absence o f caste prejudice the tolerance o f Bud ,

d hi s m and the presti g e o f their admixture o f E u rope a n

,

blood are a l l more fa vou ra ble fo r the g ro wth o f self

,

respect among such half breeds ; w hereas the social -

,

religious and political position o f those w ho a re brought

,

up to consider themselves and to be considered as o f

degraded E uropean origin is full of sadness and misery .

The children o f E uropea ns a n d Burmese women not

formally marri ed a n d reg istered under E n glish law h a ve
n o claim o n property left by the fa ther i n B rit a in B ut .

it is a point perhaps capable o f arg ument and o ne which ,

the H igh Cou rt o f Burma recently establ ished i n 1 90 0

w ill probably one day have to decide w hether o r not the ,

property in Burma o f a m a n dyin g intest a te cannot be

25 2
 M I S S I O NA R Y W O R K
claimed by the Burmese widow and t he children be gotten
of her before he ente r ed into marit a l rela t ions bindin g
u nder E n g lish law For the Burmese M i n Ga daw the
.
,

t emporary wife of a E u rope a n is i n he r o w n eyes and

, ,

in t he eyes o f her fellow coun t rymen truly and honour

,

ably un ited to her husband p r o tempor e The relation .

ship thus created is no t a de g radin g one for her ; and

afte r its dissolution s he frequently marries well w ithout a ,

t aint of immorality besmirching her r epu ta t ion o n accou nt

of such previous union .

I n addition to t he causes already no t ed as gradually

alterin g the social sys t em a mon g the B urmese the r e i s ,

o ne other w hose effect is likely in course of t ime to

become all the mo r e marked i n proportion as the
reli g ious philosophy propounded by G a u d a m a gradu a lly
relaxes its hold on the B urmese na t ion This r emain .

ing cause i s to be fou nd i n the work of Christian

m issionaries belon g ing to v a rious d enominations ; bu t
i ts results a re a s yet notice a ble only o n a compar a tively
small scale and rather as regards the spirit worshipping -

Ka r en tribesmen w i t h whom it is almost becoming t he

,

national religion than with respect to Burman and

,

Talaing Buddhis t s .

At the time o f the census o f 1 89 1 t here were 1

Christians in L ower Burma or about twenty fou r per -

wh ile in Upper Burma t here were less th a n

o r only t hree pe r B u t these gures convey no
idea o f the inuence which m ission work has alre a dy
begu n t o exe rt o n the national character while th e blow ,

which was struck to t he prestige o f Buddhism by the

downfall o f the kingdom o f A va a nd the presen t absence
of any A rchbishop ( Thatha n d ba i ng ) formally r ecognized
by Government are con t ributing towards the decay of
the B urmese na t ional r eligion M ost likely the census
.

o f t he present yea r will show a marked increase in the

nu mber o f Chris t ians and each decenni a l return will

,

probably record a further rise in the proportion of t h ose

professing t he religion tau gh t by t he E u ropeans .

N eedless to s ay t h e rst workers in this vineya r d were

,

t he R oman Ca t hol ic missionaries ; and a t a very early

date when Philip de Bri to y N ico t e t he Portuguese
, ,

25 3
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
Governor o f S yriam was impaled i n 1 6 1 3 his colony
, ,

was t ransported to A va and settled in villag es on the

banks o f the M u river w here tra ces of t hem are t o this
,

day to be found i n people with h a ir a nd eyes li g h t er than

is usual among the Bu rmese When A laung Pay a took .

S yriam i n 1 7 5 6 the number o f these Chris t ian settlers

,

was increased ; and o n A y6d ya then capital of S iam being , ,

captured by the army o f K ing S i np yu y i n i n 1 7 6 7 they ,

received still furt h er a dditions in the shape o f the V icar

A pos tol ic and part o f h is ock W ith the c h aracteris t ic .

tolerance o f B uddhism these penal colon ists were allo w ed

,

to retai n their o wn r eli g ion .

I n I 7 1 9 the rst priest o f t h e Barnabite mission arrived

in Burma O n his death in 1 7 2 7 he was succeeded by
.
,

Fat h e r G a ll i z i a who re t u r n ing i n 1 7 4 3 as rst co u se

, ,

cra t ed B ishop o f E l i s m a i n p a r ti bus w as sl a in a t the ,

cap t u re o f S y r iam H is successo r B ishop Perco t o fol

.
, ,

lowed his ock to Ava where he died i n 1 7 7 6 B u t , .

the best known o f t hese Barnabite Fathers is S a n

Ge rmano who lived in Bu rma from 1 7 8 3 t o 1 80 6 The
, .

F rench R evolution war in E urope and loss of m is

, ,

s i o n a r i e s through the u nhealthiness o f the climate led

to the mission being g iven up by t he Barnabites to t he

Priests o f the P r opaganda by w hom it was in 1 84 0 ,

t ransferred t o the S ociety o f the Oblats of Turin Owing .

to pol itical troubles in I tal y it was nally made over to

the S eminary o f Forei g n M issions in Paris i n 1 8 5 6 when ,

Father B i ga nd e t the le a rned author of the L if e or

,

L eg en d of G a n d a ma w a s consecra ted Bishop o f R a m a tha

,

and fo r for t y years controlled the duties o f the Pegu a nd

A v a missions . B y this time the annexation of Pegu by
the B ri t ish had en a bled the missionaries to w ork u nder
much more favourable c ircumstances th a n du rin g the
B urmese rule .

The A merican B aptist mission has also a long record

o f g ood work chiey a mong the K arens I n 1 80 7
, .

M essrs M arsden an d Chater o f the S era mpu r M ission

.
, ,

came to R a ngoon and were soon followed by t h e Careys

, ,

father and son ; but it was no t till 1 8 1 3 that the special

Burma M ission was founded by M essrs J udson a nd R ice . .

Troublous t imes we r e passed throu g h till the conclusion

25 4
 M I S S I O NA R Y W O R K
o f the rs t Bu rmese war when M essrs J udson a n d R ice
,
.
,

w ho had been thrown into prison a t A v a w ere employed ,

as intermediaries i n negotiatin g the Treaty o f Y a n d a b tI

in 1 82 6 A branch mission was then started i n Ten a s

.

serim and at t ention turned to the K arens w ho proved ,

w illin g to become converts .

Bein g reg a rded as E nglishmen the position o f the ,

A merican m ission a ries bec a me u ntenable i n Pegu a n d ,

they had to withdraw to Ten a sserim a n d A rakan where ,

the malarious clima t e of the la t ter soon killed the m o ff

one afte r the other I n 1 8 5 2 the annexation o f Pegu
.

once more en a bled missions to be r e established i n the -

I rr a waddy valley ; and R angoon Bassein and Toungoo , ,

were made the cen t res o f miss ion work special success ,

bein g achieved by D r M ason among the Karens at

.

this las t place S ubse q uently w ork has been under t aken
.

a mon g the Karenni to the north e a st o f Tou n g oo by D r -

.

Bunker and among the S hans by D r Cushing

, . .

Chu rch o f E n g land missionary work was not en t ered

o n till 1 8 5 9 w hen D r Parish
, chaplain to t h e t roops at
.
,

Moulmein induced the S ociety for t he Propaga t ion of

,

the Gospel to commence work i n Tenasserim The .

missionaries of this S ocie t y a r e now to be fou nd i n

many other parts o f Bu rma and particularly i n the ,

central portio n .

T he youngest of the m issions is the M ethodis t E p i sco

pal C hurch which commenced work at R angoon i n 1 8 7 9
,

and numbe r s about thirty teachers and ca t echists .

T h e mos t valuable work that has yet been acco m

l i she d by t he E uropean and A merican m ission a ries has
p
been in the eld o f education H ere their success ha s .

been large and well deser ved U nder the energ etic .

gu idance of the R e v D r M a rks S t J ohn s College in

. .
, .

R angoon founded i n 1 86 9 is doing splendid work both

, ,

amon g B urmese boys and amon g the E urasians chiey ,

the offspring of tempo rary alliances be t ween E urope a ns

and Burmese women F or the girls o f both cl a sses
.

e q ually b e ne ce n t work is a lso undertaken by the R oman

Ca t holics while the A meric a n Baptist S chools are mainly
,

employed in the education o f K a ren children Bu t all .

the missions are doin g excellent educational work which ,

25 5
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
must exert a very marked a nd import a n t inuence on the
coming g enera t ions in B urm a .

I t is i mpossible t o forec a st what resul ts w ill arise in

t he futu r e from the ene rgy displayed a t so many points
by mission a ries o f various denominations B ut the fact
.

is clear that missionary enterp r ise is already makin g

itself felt i n the t o wns which form the centres of missio n
w ork ; and year by year t his inuence is grad u ally along
,

with other causes producing vast changes in the whole

,

social system of the coun t ry A good B u ddhist is a

.

much better man or wom a n than a bad Christian ; a nd

those may perhaps be excused who a re doubtful about
nothing but adva n tag es being brough t to the nation as
a whole if such as S ho w ths mse lve s lax i n the religiou s
O bservances o f B uddhism become easy conve r ts i n pro
fessing Christianity The missiona r y movemen t is how
.
,

ever a powerful inuence by whic h the presen t social

,

sys t em is bound soone r or later to be affected in one

di r ec t ion o r another This new subve rsive fo r ce is the
.

di r ec t antithesis o f B uddhism ; for whereas the lat t e r

teaches tha t everything w h ich happens is the result of
Ka n

,

t he inuence o f past acts the forme r aims at
,

inuencing fu t ure even t s themselves by fo r ming t h e

charac t er i n a noble r mould during the present .

25 6
 C hapte r X
NA T I O NA L F ES T I V A L S AN D A M U SE M EN T S
I T H t h eir buoyant careless happy g o lucky , ,
- -
,

lau g h t er lovin g disposi t ion the B urmese spend

-
,

an inordin a t e amou nt o f time in festivals a n d amuse

men t s . Curiously enough all their fe a sts and their ,

amusemen t s except games a n d racing w ith boats or

,

ponies are o r a t a ny ra te h a ve ori g inally been d irectly

, , ,

connected w ith the national religion A ll their publ ic .

festivals no m a tte r of wh a t description bear the n a me

, ,

o f F we o r Th a bi n both meanin g assemblies They are

.
,

i nvariably accompan ied by music and they o f course are ,

always considered g reat holidays when the ga yest o f ,

clothin g and the richest j ewellery are worn Those who .

do not possess necklaces a n d bra celets of g old hire t hem

for the occasion u nless t oo poor to do even this
, .

The two g re a t nation a l festivals are those connected

w ith t he N e w Yea r and with the conclusion of the period
o f stricter O bse r vance o f religious duties du rin g the three

summer months which fo r wan t o f a more appropriate ,

term is c a lled the Burmese L en t B ut there are many

, .

other public festivals varyi n g from an a l m ost national

do w n to a more o r less local ch a racter such as the a nnu a l ,

assembl ies a t t he g reat pag odas which are mostly ,

held i n spring The chief o f these are a t the S hwe

.

D a g on i n R a ngoon the Kya i kta y o pa g oda near S ittang

, ,

the S even P a godas ne a r Toun go o and the g reat K yu n ,

d a w festival ne a r S hweg u ( Bhamo ) all o f w hich are ,

celebrated during the month o f Tab a ung ( February ,

M arch ) and the A rakan p a g oda festival i n M andalay at

,

the end o f L en t B ut nearly every pagoda has its own

.

local fes t ival a t which the villag e people r ej oice and

,

V OL . II . 25 7 s
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
make merry A s a t ypical example o f a g reat B urmese
.

national fete the Ky u nda w P ay d P we o r festival o f the

pag oda o n the sacred island is i n m a ny respects the ,

most inte r esting .

These a ssembla ges are all characterized by the same

fe a tures V as t cro wds o f people o f all sorts collect from
.

far and wide residing for the two o r three days o f the
,

festival i n hu t s m a de o f bamboos o r g rass and sometimes ,

s o numerou s as to form a temporary t own o f fair d i m e n

sions reg ul a rly l a id o u t i n rectan g ul a r streets and denite

quarters a ccording to the orders o f the responsible
,

magistra t e The whole assemblag e partakes as distinctly

.

o f the n a ture o f a fair as o f a religious g atherin g A ll .

alon g t he temporary s t ree t s g oods are offe r ed for sale in

booths while music resou nds throughou t the day and
,

theatrical performances g o o n nearly all day and

night A long w ith g old leaf c a ndles streamers owers
. , , , ,

and such m a nner o f articles for votive offerings a t the

pagodas and s a cred shrines marionettes and toys o f ,

stra nge and wonderful description are exposed for sale ;

while the people rega le t hemselves with food a t C hinese
booths E ven brightly coloured ice creams are vended
.
-

from stalls where also sweet m ineral waters can be

,

obtained in almost any colour of the ra inbow On the .

evening of the last day of the festival th e vast crowds

d issolve with marvellous rapidity By ni g htfall the .

spaces bet w een t he l ines of booths s o lately thronged

are a ll but empty o f people and almost the only S i g ns
,

o f life are the pari a h do g s feedin g on the stale boiled

rice w hich has been thrown aside and scaven g ing accord
in g t o thei r wont N ext day the removal o f the hu t s
.

t akes place a nd the scene becomes again deserted u ntil

,

the festival o f the following yea r .

The obsequ ies o f a royal person a g e o r o f the head

o f a monastery are a lso made the occasion o f g reat
public assemblies i n which the reli g ious chara cter o f the
,

ceremony is more or less disgu ised by the distractions

provided But even family affairs a fford pretexts for
.

freq uent assemblies o f friends and nei g hbours ; and as

P we o f eve r y sort are fr ee to all w h o care to come each ,

gathering i s su r e t o be n umerously at t ended Thus .

25 8

T H E N E W Y EA R S F ES T I V A L
t he naming o f a child the boring o f a girl s ears the,

entry o f a boy into his a col yte ho od at a monastery and ,

the funeral rites following on the death o f any m a n o r

wom a n all form occasions which even the poorest o f the
,

poo r try to celebrate as well as they can by some sor t o f

entertainment .

The N e w Year s festival the Thi ngy a n known amon g

, ,

E uropeans as the Water Festival is the only o n e

,

actually observed e verywhe r e throughou t Bu rma The .

commencement o f the new y ear falls within the m onth

O f Tag i Z ( March A pril ) bu t the precise day and date
, ,

are xed by the P u n n a or Brahmin astrolog ers i n

M andal a y I t i s always some t ime be t ween the l o th
.

and 1 4 t h A pril E ven before t he advent o f British

.

rule into Uppe r Burma the festiva l had come to be ,

usually celebrated o n t he 1 1 th A pril and this date is ,

n o w likely to become perm a nently xed .

I t is supposed however t o synchron ize with the

, ,

p r ecise momen t u pon which the Thagy ci M i n or K ing

o f S pi r itland
( I ndra ) descends from the
, abode o f the
N a t and spends three days upon this ear t h The story .

runs th a t long ago the Thagy a [Wi n and a B r a hm a

c a lled At hi o ne o f the beings i nhabitin g the hi g her
,

celes t i a l abodes dispu t ed about a ma t hematical calcula

,

tion a nd each wag ered his head as t o bein g in the right .

The Thagy d M i n was found to be corr ect a nd forth w ith

chopped o ff the B r a hma s head Then he wa s con

fronted wit h a di fculty about disposin g of it A fra id .

eithe r to t hrow i t down upon t his earth or to c a st it

into the se a he gave it into the keeping of the seven
,

daugh t ers of the N a t Once a yea r the g ruesome head

.

changes hands among these seven sisters and at this ,

particular season the Thagy a M i n nds it convenient

to visit the scenes o f men T he precise moment o f his .

a rrival forms the commencement o f the new year bu t ,

the 1 2 t h of A pril must always be incl uded i n t he three

d a ys o f his stay o n earth A s t he a st r olo g ers cl a im
.

to be able to fo r etell how he will come whether bea r in g ,

a waterpot a s t aff a torch or a spea r they can predict

, , , ,

a year o f abundant rainfall o r of g reat heat and drou g ht ,

of plenty or of scarcity and of peaceful progress o r else

,

25 9
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
of dis t urbance and unrest A t the precise moment
.

of the commencemen t o f the new year three g u ns

were red in the pal a ce s o tha t the people might ,

know the Thagy a M i n had descended .

D urin g the three d a y s o f this festival and more ,

par t icularly o n th e rst d a y o f t he new y ear the y o ung ,

men and women nd much amusement in d r enchi n g

with water every one w ho comes i n their wa y and the
more frivolous even invade the houses o f ofci a ls with
waterpots and big squ irts to g ive the occupan t s a good
sousi ng A ll a r e fair game for the merry makers A ll
.
-
.

a re liable to receive a wet t in g save any woman w h o

reques t s n o t t o be touched T his is a t once regarded .

as conveying intimation of he r being in an interestin g

cond ition excludi ng he r from participation i n the fun
, .

T h e more s tately a nd staid manner i n w hich superiors ,

such as O fcials o f hi g h rank are visited o n this occ a sion,

and a n oblation o f water pou red ou t before them by

the visitor w it h thrice r epeated obeisance and exclama
,
-

tion O f K a daw bet o r beg pardon seems distinctly to
,

,

point to this festiva l bein g a remnant o f the reli g ious

ceremony ( M i ng a l a) o f pourin g o u t wa t er as a t the
A bei hthei hceremony the equ ivalen t o f the
, a nointing

o f a kin g when he ascended the throne o f Burm a A .

simil a r ceremony i s pe r formed in M arch at sacred S hrines

by l a ds dressed i n white when pots o f ltered w a ter
, ,

protected from dust by pieces o f white musl i n sprea d

over the mouths of the w a ter pots are solemnly pou red -
,

over the imag es of Ga ndama ( P ay dy el a u ng ) This .

sacred ceremony nowhe re receives more p a rticular atten

tion than at the S hwesa nd a w p a god a in Prome .

Offerin g s o f l t ered wa t er are also placed o n the

shrines and a re made t o t he priests and monks in the
mon a steries .

The Td wa dei ng tha fes t iva l the second in n a t ion a l ,

impor tance held a t the end o f the Bu r mese L ent is

, ,

not celeb ra t ed everywhere th r oughou t B urma I t is .

mo r e the fes t ival of t he t owns and the richer centres

than o f poorer tracts .

Q ui t e a va r ie t y o f fes t ivals occu rs a t t he full m oon

o f Th

a d i n y ut o r end o f L ent when th e monks are
g ,

2 60
 T H E EN D O F LEN T
freed from the austerities and laymen from the stric t er
observance o f rel i g iou s duties prescribed durin g the
previous three months or fou r i n every third year
, .

The chief of these is the Tawa dei ng tha festival com

memorative of G a ud a ma s ascen t up My i mmo ( Mou nt

M eru ) into the land o f spiri t s t o expou nd the E ternal

L a w to his mother Maya who was then a queen amon g
, ,

the N a t I t lasts for three days the third day bein g

.
,

tha t o f the full moon of Tha di ngy ut .

A lofty platform surmo u nted with a go rgeous pape r

,

and tinsel P y a tha t l ike the spi re o f a monas t ery is ,

erected with a long inclined plane on eithe r side lead

ing up t o i t from eas t and west O n t he rs t day of .

the festival an ima g e o f G a u d a m a pl a ced on a kind o f ,

trolly is made t o ascend from a shrine a t the eastern

,

end to abou t half way up the inclined plane leading t o

th e apex of the platform The poin t thus r eached is
.

supposed to be the Ug a nda w hill where he rested before ,

a r r iving at M i m m o The next day it ascends t o the

y .

top o f the platform r ep r esen t ing Tawa dei ng tha the

second o f the N a t countries in which hi s mother then

dwelt H ere the ima g e of Ga ndama rests for the second
.

n ight in the a ttitude o f enunciating the law t o nu merous

sm a ller images pl a ced rou nd abou t him o n a lowe r level .

O n the t hird day the image o f G au d a ma is made to

descend t he western inclined pl a ne and t o ente r into
a bu ildin g representing the N eikban monas t ery in wh ich

he resided .

Throughou t all the th r ee days passag es from the

s a cred books are read t o the assemble d crowd When .

the descent of the im age has been completed offerin gs ,

to the priests a nd monks of all the neighbouring mon a

s te r i e s are borne throu g h the town i n procession ,

accompanied o f course by music on three branchin g , ,

conical tree like sta nds before being deposited at t he

,
-

feet o f the reli g ious These branchin g st a nds represent

.

the miraculous P a dttha t ree which grows o n the north

,

island a nd produces w hate ver any appl ic a nt m a y desire

to have Often comprisin g articles o f considera ble val ue
.
,

these g ift trees are hun g with very miscell a neou s articles
-

rangin g from eg g s a n d c a ndles to w a shhand basins ,

261
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
lookin g glasses and thick yellow annel coverle t s for
-
,

the comin g cold season .

I mmediately a fter the Td wa dei ng tha festival the

pag odas and the whole town i n fact are illuminated
, ,

for three n i g hts by the simple method very effective ,

from a distance o f lling tiny shallo w earthenware

, ,

s a ucers with cocoanu t o i l i n w hich a w ick is placed a n d

li g hted . A ll alo ng the streets and in front o f the
houses these little lamps a r e protec t ed from any chance
breeze by lms o f p a le rose blue yello w and g reen , , ,

tissue paper p a sted to thin pieces o f bamboo ben t so as

to form a lotus lea f This is i n fact the national
-
. , ,

method o f illumination and it is very beautiful in its

,

soft blending o f delica t e colou rs F ire balloons o f paper .

-

are also set off to moun t skywards till the su ppl y o f o i l

becomes exhausted in the cup formin g the cradle A t .

the same time li g hts a re tied o n oats and allowed to

drift down the river o r stream This festival of the .

re rafts was probably originally to propi t iate the river

-

spirits B ut it is now said to be commemora tive o f o ne

.

S hi n Up ag a a novice in a monastery havin g durin g

, , ,

a previous sta t e of existence in j est ca r ried o ff the ,

clothes o f a bather since which time the S hi n has been

,

expiating h is offence by rem a inin g naked i n the w a ter

till the arrival o f t he next B uddh a when he is to be ,

released from his awkward position and will become a

R a ha nd a o r priest o f saintly life endowed with a puried ,

a n d exalted na t ure I t has been ordained that this

.

sixth Buddh A r i m a ta ya will att a i n omn iscience while

, ,

reclinin g u nder a G angaw tree ( M esu a f er r ea ) ; so i n

many monasteries Gan ga w trees a r e pl a nted and c a re
fully tended to provide the necessary shelter S ho u ld any
o f the monks wit h i n the monastery happen to be the

Buddh i n embryo .

S imult a neously w ith t h e re festival grea t offerings

,

o f food
( S u nd a w i
gy ) are often made at the monasteries
t o celebrate the conclusion o f L ent and the relaxation
o f the monastic austerities while a t the same time the
,

people amuse themselves w ith theatricals a n d merry

mak in g .The Wi ng a ba o r labyrinth forms part o f

,

the festival on the full moon o f Tha d i ngy ut when vast ,

2 62
 T H EA T R I C A L P E R F O R M A N C E S
crowds th r on g the mazes of the bamboo trellis l a byrinth -
.

I t ha s its ori g in in t he banishment o f W tha n d a ya to

the Wi ng a mountains w hen his father K in g T he i ns i , ,

foun d himself forced t o exile the prince i n order to

p a cify his subjects enraged a t W tha nd a ya s g ift of

the white elephant to B rahmins as an ac t of merit .

A mon g national amusements the theatricals easily t ake

rst pl a ce followed at a lon g d istance by pony races
, ,

boat racing buffalo ghting boxing ma t ches and g ames

, , ,

o f v a rious sorts .

The t hea t rical performances were originally en t irely ,

and still are to a very g reat exten t illustrative o f the ,

Z a t or bir t h s t ories o f Ga n dama
-
I n this r espect t hey
.

bea r s t rong resemblance to the early E nglish M ysteries

and t he continen t al Passion Plays dealin g with even ts i n
the l ife of Christ .

The performances a re either ac t ed by men and women

( Z a tp we P
, y az a t
) o r else are g iven by the manipulations
,

of marionettes ( Ydhthep we) I n both cases the per

.

for ma nc e is given in the open air B u t i n the former

.

th e stage consis t s merely o f a clea r ed circle i n the

centre o f which stands a o we r t ree ( P a n bi n ) con
sistin g of a pl a ntain stem o r g reen branch stuck i n the
g round a nd surrou nded with ma t s ; while in the latter
it consists o f a bamboo platform raised fou r or ve feet
from the ground an d backed wi t h mattin g behind which ,

the s t rings moving t he v a riou s limbs o f the l it tle pu ppets

a r e manipulated to accompany the recitative I n many .

villages and towns such P we are often g iven by local

compan ies but there are regular t roupes which stroll

,

from place to place giving performances o n p a yment

of xed scales The boats in which they travel by river
.

a r e usually gaily bedecked w ith s t reamers to indic a te

them while the bi g drums are e a sily d istinguish a ble

,

marks when proceedin g overl a nd by cart S ometimes .

the prices these strollin g players command run to a

considerable sum for a company o f repute especially ,

if it should have come from M a ndalay E ven i n Bu rma .

the art o f starrin g i n the provinces is fully u nderstood .

I n former times th e most famous actors came from

Kyaukyit a l a rg e vill a g e in the S again g district
,

2 63
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
near the conuence o f the Chindwi n river with the
I rrawaddy Whenever a P we i s given any one who
.

pleases may come and look o n But t hose w hom the .

g iver of the entertainment wishes to specially i nvite

receive a su mmons i n the sh a pe o f a little packet o f
pickled t ea On such occasions it is customary to
.

respond to the invitation by send ing back some sli g ht

monetary contribution towards the expense o f the enter
t a i n m e nt ; and guileless Burmans o f au t hority and
i nuence h a ve sometimes fou nd this t o be an occasional
source of prot .

The perfor mances are usu a lly held at ni g ht and some ,

o f them last for several ni g hts i n succession S oon .

after su ndown a l a rge crowd o f townspeople o r vill a g ers

ocks to the scene o f the performance which is often
i n front o f the house of the donor where his chief g uests
a r e received and feted bearing with them mats for

sitting upon The whole family g oes father mother

.
, ,

a n d children even sucklin gs bein g carried there ; and

,

when the performance ceases for the time bein g in the

early hours o f the nex t d a y many o f them sleep o n their
sitting mats i n place o f at once g oing home
-
.

The performance i s accompan ied by the unceasing

music the b a nd being seated near t he stage
,
The .

ear piercin g cl a rinet the clash o f the cymbals and the

-
, ,

const a nt boomin g of the g on g drums sou nd rather dis

-

cordant to any u nfortunate E uropean who happens to

be encamped near where a P we is being g iven ; a nd
there is l ittle chance o f S leep for him till the early
mornin g .

A s soon as the folks collect fo r the performance a ,

ni ght baza a r S prin g s u p o n both s ides o f the path

le a ding t o the stage ; and here women and g irls sell
such wares as sweetmeats and o t her edibles cigars and , ,

so o n .

The interes t of such performances is n o t o f a very

endurin g n a ture for the E u ropean A fter some few .

times o f lookin g o n he w ill seldom be i nduced to g o

ne a r o ne u nless merely o u t o f compliment to the donor
who m a y have sent him a special invitation Perhaps .

o n e o f the things that strikes the western stranger most

2 64
 T H E M O NA S T E R I E S
i s th e calm way i n which the ac t ors will s t op a n d
replenish the footlights w ith earth o i l o r w ill w a lk u p -

t o the P a n bi n in the cen t re and r e li g ht a cheroot -

which may have g one o u t .

The prettiest performance O f all however is the , ,

Ye i ngp w e or


posture d a nce perfo r med by g irls and
young children accompanied by choruses and adapt a
,

tions from one or other of the Z a t T he mos t celeb ra t ed .

o f these companies are o f cou rse in Mandalay bu t at ,

many villag es the children are trained for local per

fo r m a n c e s A s everywhe r e in the E as t the dances
.
,

a r e pu r ely pos t urin g and are no t par t icula rly graceful

,

fro m a E uropean po i nt of view This is cle a rly indi .

c a t e d i n t he name as Ye i n

g,
means to lean to be ,

i ncl ined . T here is no quick movemen t of the l imbs ,

bu t rathe r a series o f slo w contor t ions o f the tru nk ,

l imbs hands and feet not p a rticularly suggestive of

, , ,

g race o r bea u ty to the western mind .

A s bra w ls and riotous behaviour are only too apt to

occur at ni g ht plays permission to hold a P we has t o
,

be obtained from the magistrate and performances are ,

usually limi t ed to ni g hts upon which there is a s u f

c i e nc
y o f moonli g h t to assist pol ice supe r vision i n case

o f a ccidents .

E ven the holy days occurri n g with each change of the

moon a re regarded as hol id a ys s o far as the don ning of
ne a t tire is concerned Those dedicating the day to .

w orship retire t o the rest houses near the monas t e r ies -

,

a n d hea r the law read by the priest .

The monaste r ies ( Ky a u ng ) are usually t o be found in

what are o r once have been the suburbs of t owns and
, ,

o n the ed g e of vill a g es so as to be as near as possible

,

to the forest They are almost always su rrou nded by

.

enclosu re (P a r a w u n ) H ere u nde r the sh a de o f frui t

.
,

trees o r amon g the posts below the oorin g o f the

,

mon a stery itself the l ittle schoolboys loll idly o r ll i n

,

their a bundant leisure time with pl a y while pari a h do g s ,

swa rm a rou nd the bu ildin g Usu a lly there a re o n e o r .

more p a god a s ne a r the monastery Tall ag p os ts too . , ,

surmounted by an ef g y o f the sacred B rahminical duck

e n th be a r lon g c i rc u l a r se r e n t i n e streamers g )

( H a
) , , p ,
T a on

2 65
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
o r praye r ags w h ich sway t o and fro w ith eve r y brea t h
,

o f air.

The ooring o f a monastery is neve r o n o r near the

ground l evel there bein g al ways a space O f at least s i x
,

to nine feet bet ween them I n all the larger mon a steries
.

this pla t form is ga ined by a ight o f brickwork steps o n ,

ei t her S ide o f w h ich a fantastic l e og ryph ( Chi n the ) or

a gro t es q ue demon like monster ( B i l u ) is placed as if

-

keepin g watch and w a rd .

Of cou rse monasteries vary considerably as t o details

but as a rule each consis t s o f t wo o r o f three wooden
, ,

pavilions mostly connected and all stand ing o n the s a me

, ,

level on a platform raised well above the ground A t .

the t op o f the steps there is a broad O pen verandah O ften ,

r u nning all round the ed g e of the platform on whic h t h e

g roup o f buildin g s stands The main pavilion consis t s .

o f a hall in which the boys are taught and where visi t ors ,

a re received The end at w hich the pries t and the

.

monks s i t is raised slig htl y above the rest o f the ooring

where the visito r s squat i n a ttitudes of obeisance A t .

the back portion o f this dais stand o ne o r more imag es

o f G a u d a m a richly ca r ved and g ilded boxes for holding
,

manuscripts and O fferin g s o f all sorts

, .

The dormitories and the refectory are usually included

i n a separate bu ild in g ; w hile at the other end of the
pla t form mostly o n the e a stern side stands a smaller
, ,

hall con tainin g a larg e im age o f G a u d a ma Wherever .

the great enthroned im ag es of G a u d a m a may be placed ,

either i n the centra l hall o r i n a separate chambe r it is ,

there tha t the spire ( P y a tha t) rises when there is o n e , .

The graduated roofs o f the spire vary in number from

three to nine t hou g h even the larg est only a ppear to
,

have seven until the fa lse roofs making the sacred nine
a r e discovered .

S ometimes the cen t ral hall looks as if it consis t ed of

two or three sto r eys B u t the interior i nvari a bly extends
.

righ t up to the roof as it would be a reli g ious offence if

,

any one even the head o f the monas t ery were to walk
, ,

above any chamber i n which monks are .

When any much r evered priest d ies the performance ,

o f his obsequ ies fo r ms a festival in which the whole

2 66
 C R E M A T I O N O F A P R I ES T
country side j oins T he corpse is rst O f al l embalmed
-
.
,

swa thed in linen bands pu t into a cofn hollowed o u t o f ,

a single piece o f w ood enshrined i n a g ilded shell a n d , ,

then placed in state in a t emporary building ( N ei hba n

Ky a u ng ) within the monas t ery g rou nds H ere it re .

mains surmoun t ed by a murex shell in the sh a pe o f a n

,

ornamental dra gon s head t ill sufcient funds have been

collected to celebrate the cremation o n an ade q uate scale .

This great eve n t called the B ongy i By a n o r re t u r n o f

,

the g re a t glo ry usu a lly takes place in Feb r uary or
,

M arch after the rice c rops have been reaped and sold ,

when money is circulating freely .

When the day xed for the cremation has arrived the ,

country people from all direc tions ock in crowds to the

scene o f the ce r emony dressed i n their g ayest ga rments
, ,

and in t ent o n plea su re makin g The fu neral pyre a n d .

the lofty taperin g seven roofed bier g org eously adorned

, ,
-
,

with pictures gold leaf tinsel and coloured paper a re

,
-
, , ,

usually erected ei t he r o n the knoll of a hill o r else on

some clear space in the open elds The lower p a rt o f .

the structure is lled with combustibles and chips o f

frag rant woods while the receptacle for the cof n occu
,

pies o n e o f the upper tiers of the seven roofed spire -

.

The g olden c a se enshrin i n g the cofn and corpse is

brought from the N ei hba n Ky a u ng to the place o f
cremation o n a four wheeled c a r richly decora ted -
.

R opes are attached to e a ch end o f the c a r and w hen it ,

reaches the pyre a gre a t tu g ofwar ensues before the -

s a cred casket is placed in position The pulling from .

side to side takes place withou t any prescribed method .

Men take sides as they please ; and as o n e side needs

strengthen in g people rush forward to lend it their assist
,

ance The origin and t he si g nication of this procedu re

.

are n o w obscu re .

When sufcien t am usemen t has been derived i n this

manner t he cofn is ra ised into its proper position o n
,

the py r e and the priests and monks w ho have until now

, ,

been r eciting portions o f the sacred writings i n tem

p o ra r
y rest houses return
-
to their monasteries
, with m a ny

g i ft s .

The i g nition of the py r e is effected by large rockets

2 67
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
K
( y

d rope tubes consisting f pieces of bamboo

o un or o ,

lled with g unpowder ) a tta ched with rin gs to gu ide

ropes red from o ne o r other and often from all fou r
, ,

si d es of the car A s the B urmese are n ot g ood

.

mechanicians these rockets sometimes get disengag ed

and shot into the dense throng o f people The fall O f .

each badly aimed missile affords much amusement to t h e

crowd bu t a g reat shout a r ises when a t las t o n e reaches
,

its g oal and smoke is seen to issue from t he pyre The .

cremation is then soon effec ted The ashes left are .

afterwards examined and any bones fou nd are in terred

,

near some sac r ed shrine o r have a small pagoda built

over them Particularly throu g hout the northern d i s
.

t r i c ts o f Bu rma these las t restin g places of the parti a l -

remains of monks are marked by t eak wood memori a l -

posts ( A y o o H m a tta i ng ) abou t s i x o r seven feet high

-

r ichly carved and surmou nted with lotus leaf or na m e n -

t a t i on . I t is only over the ashes o f pries t s o r o f princes ,

and n o t over mere l a ymen that p a g odas may be erecte d , .

The obsequ ies o f ru l in g princes are celebrated with a

s imil a r a mou nt o f gay and almost the a trical ceremony .

I n J uly 1 89 7 I was present i n T a un ggyi at the funera l

, ,

rites o f t he late S a wbwa of the S han S ta t e o f N yau ng

y w , e which was a very gor g eous spectacle But an eve n .

g ayer scene was that which I had the g ood fortune to

s e e at Tou n g oo in A pril 1 8 8 8 when a bishop G a i n
( ,g Oh ) ,

and four heads o f m onasteries ( P dngy i ) were crem a ted

simultaneously durin g o n e a fternoon .

A part from festivities o f the a bove different kinds

having a more o r less distinct connexion with religion ,

the chief a musements o f the Burmese consist mostly o f

boa t racing and pony races But they are keen s up .

porters o f other forms o f amusement which se rve a s a

means o f indul g in g their favouri t e vice o f gambl in g ,

which is in fact the g re a t n a tional vice .

Boat ra ces ( H l e P we) are generally hel d at the full

moon o f Tha d i ngy u t j ust a fter the festival o f Td wa

,

d e i ng tha B y that time the gr eat oods o n the main

.

rivers are over but there is still a large volume of wate r

,
.

Formerly every district w a s proud to strive after attain

in g the headship o f the ri ver i n this respect E ach .

2 68
 B OAT R A C I NG
to w n a n d bi g vill a g e ha d i ts o wn racin g c a noe ( L a u ng )
a n d i t s crew well tra ined to t h e use o f the short paddles

w ith w hich they are propelled The boat races w ere .

formerly re g ular annual festivals but n o w they are only ,

held here and there wherever the loca l ofci a ls c a re to

,

cou n t e nance and encoura g e them .

The racin g canoes are keelless skiffs o f thirt y t o fty

feet lon g a nd t w o to three feet in breadth hollowed o u t ,

o f a log of t e a k o r o f the ligh t er w ood of the Yaman e

tree ( G mel i n a a r bor ea ) and pai nted jet bl a ck with a coa t

ing o f Thitsi v arnish ( M el a n or r hoea u si ta ta ) A lon g .

both sides of the du g o u t a little water boardin g rises to

-

a few inches in hei g ht a n d is kept well c a ulked t o pre

,

ven t shipment o f water The p a ddlers numberin g u p .

,

to a couple of dozen o r more S it in a lon g line p a ddling ,

o n a lternate sides except in the larg er canoes where

, ,

the centre seats are broad enou g h t o S e a t two men A ll .

the g re a t canoes h a ve their names such as S an hawk , ,

,

A u ng ba n, t he ower of victory and s o forth by , ,

w hich they a n d their crews are known far and near .

T he position o f h onou r is th a t o f steersm a n the head ,

m a n o f the bo a t who sits at the end o n very nearly t he
,

same level a s the p a ddlers and guides the canoe with a ,

larg e sweep worked now o n one side and a gain on the

,

o t her as the s t eerin g may require F o r racin g the .

,

p a ddlers tuck u p their waistclo t hs ti g htly between their

thi g hs ( K a da u ng chei hthe) and d isc a rd their headdresses .

T hen th ey tie a n ol d handke rchief tightly rou nd their

chests so as to come j ust below the scapul ae and the
breas t muscles Concernin g the obj ect of this I h a ve
.

never been a ble to g et a clear expl a nation from any

B urman ; bu t i t is probably done with the idea of bra cin g
u p the upper muscles o f t he tru nk chiey used when
paddling with a very short quick stroke , .

A s usual in all Burmese ga t herings a boa t ra ce forms ,

a grand spectacle o f colour A ll t he people collect from

.

fa r and near decked in their gayes t attire a nd intent o n

,

enjoyin g themselves to t he utmost The B urmese bein g .

invetera te gamblers boat racin g affords them g rand

,

oppo r tunities fo r indulgence in this vice I n this respec t .

it be a t s cock ghtin g and even pony racing the ot h e r ,

2 69
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
two grea t forms of sport in which money c h an g es hands
freely .

The races are rowed in heats the canoes chan g in g ,

places after each heat O nly t wo boats contend a t o ne .

t ime I t is no t considered a true victory unless o ne boa t

.

wins t wo consecutive hea ts o ne bein g ob tained o n each ,

side o f t he s tr eam Otherwise the a dva ntage may be .

mainly owin g t o luck in having a s tr onge r current o n the

side where the rst and the third heats were gained ; for
the races a l ways t a ke place down stre a m for a distance
o f about o n e half to t hree quarters o f a mile With a
-
.

current runnin g a t about fou r o r four and a half miles a n

hour u p stream paddling would be d i fcult a nd very
,
-

slow . D uring a g ala day o f boa t racin g held at

Toungoo i n 1 889 one of the items was an eight paddle
,
-

competi t ion over a short cou r se between the clerks in

the various Government ofces When they had re ached .

the winnin g post and tried to paddle back neither o f t he

-
,

crews could make any headway against the curr ent s o ,

both had i g nominiously to row down stream to where

they could conveniently effec t a landing whence they
might retu rn to r eceive the cong ra t ulations an d the chaff , ,

o f thei r friends .

A s the c a noes are paddled up to the s tarting place ,

offeri ngs o f fruit and owers fo r the propi t i a tion o f th e ,

spirits of the rive r are to be seen on the prows of the

,

contendin g boats Wheneve r a start has been effec ted

. ,

the previous ceaseless cha t ter a n d noise are s t illed and ,

the whole o f t he dense crowd becomes intent on the

struggle g oin g o n A s the boa t s at length app roach at
.

the rate o f about ten o r t w elve miles a n hou r loude r ,

and loude r are heard the shouts of the steersmen a nd

the crews Ya uhya ba tha L u l a Ry a l a P H l a w l a i h
'

, ,

he K a t l a i h he ; Ya u h a ba th H ike a

,
y a ; o i ,

man (lit man s .

Man o r tiger ? Ro w

,

paddle l ike men ; R aise t he paddle dip the paddle
, ,
.

Gradually the people are roused to in t ense excitemen t .

The w inn in g pos t consis t s of a small canoe moored in the

-

middle of the stream a nd allowed to swing with the cur

rent s o as to poin t strai g ht up and down stream A t the .

p r ow a hollow bamboo is placed horizon t ally on suppor t s ,

27o
 P O NY R A C I N G
and is xed so as to p r oj ect an equal dis tance on each
side from the cen tral point I n th e t ube rests a piece .

o f thin rat t an proj ec t ing a few inches on ei t her side and

the drawin g o u t o f this r at ta n constitu t es victory in the

hea t Formerly a o w er of victory w a s att a ched to
.

each end of the ra ttan w hence the name of P a n d a n o r

,

ower rod for the winn in g post -
.

A s the boats near t his go a l the man a t the bow ships

his paddle and sea t s himself i n the prow leaning forwa r d ,

i n close contes ts so as t o t ry and gain the advanta g e of

a few inches in seizing t he rattan S ometimes t he .

nishes a r e very close and exci t ing I n the autumn o f .

1 877 a la t e Commissioner of Peg u ( then A ssis tant

Commissioner Kyaikto) and I had the felicity o f sittin g
,

in the canoe formin g the winn in g post at the S itta n g -

re g att a The V ery rst heat rowed ha d a most excitin g

.

nish The prow man of each canoe seized hold of the

.

projec t ing end of the ra t tan and a short sharp struggle , ,

for its possession took place du ring which we two o cc u ,

pan t s O f the sea t s o f honour had to clin g t o both sides

of the canoe to prevent ourselves being over t urned in t o
the rive r The rest of the races we sa w fr om a safer
.

position o n t he bank .

A s soon as the actual r esult of t wo o r more hea ts is

known the j ub ilation o f t hose who h a ve won money o n
t h e event is a lmost u nbounded A free rein is fo r the .

momen t g iven to the excitable national t emperament .

M en and women cal m and comparatively unemotional

,

un der ordinary circumstances beh a ve as if possessed and , ,

make t hemselves g u res O f fun O n gainin g possession .

o f the ower rod o f vic t ory the men formin g t he

,

winning crew vocife r ate a nd gesticulate with g reat vigou r .

They stand up shoutin g ourishing t heir paddles a n d

, , ,

performin g antics which oft en end in upse t ting the canoe .

Pony racing ( My i npy a i ng F we) is another fa vou rite

a musement and means o f gambling H ere ag ain the .
, ,

races are all matches be t ween two ponies and are run ,

i n heat s i n which the ponies ch a nge sides The Bur

,
.

mese pony varying from abou t eleven and a half to

,

t w elve and a half and rarely thir teen hands o r more in

hei g h t seems na t u rally to take very keenl y to racing
,
.

27 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
S eldom u nder a n y ci r cumstances tender mouthed when -
,

once it has been ra ced i t soon acqu i res iron ja w s and a

stron g tendency to bol t o n the least provocation Most .

o f t he ponies are n o w more o r less o f the S h a n breed ,

and but few are to be found o f a ny t hin g l ike pure

blood o f the renowned old Peg u strain Usually a lean .
,

sinewy mischievous looking hi g h withered e we necked

,
-
,
-
,
-

little animal the true Pe g u pony wa s e e te r o f foot

, ,

more iron j a wed and h a rdier th a n t he bigge r sleeker

-
, , ,

a nd handsomer S han pony from the hills with its thick , ,

well a rched neck a n d its g entle eye

-
The Burmese .

hog their ponies manes but never cl ip their t a ils W ith

, .

them a pony loses g reatly in value if its tail is c u t w hile ,

mares command a much less price th a n horses o r

g eldings N o en t ire ponies are b r ough t down by the
.

S hans .

The cou rse run is u sually about half a mile and i n a ,

stra ight l ine I t is marked o u t by a central line formed

.

w ith reeds s tr aw o r twigs any crossing o f w hich co n

, , ,

s t i t u te s a foul Umpires are selec t ed to se e that every

.

thin g is fai r and t o decide questions as to fouls w hich

,

either owner may choose to brin g t o no t ice The riders .

are usually small boys ca t ch wei g hts bein g the true ,

Burmese method T hese feather weights ride on the

.
-

ordinary Bu r mese saddle a straw pad c ased in red fel t

cloth with short stirrups i n which only the bi g toes ,

r est The g irth is o f narro w cotton beltin g S ea t ed on

. .

this small embroidered p a d res tin g o n the pony s back

t he j ockey s knees a re turned quite out wa rds while hi s

heels touch t he sides o f his steed Crouch in g down . ,

very much like a monkey he leans for wa rd some w h a t ,

i n carica t ure o f Tod S loan s me th od gr a spin g the thick

rou nd tasselled reins o f twis t ed cot t on fas t ened to the

,

simple snaf e and ourishes a t hi n cane qu ickly from side

,

t o side horizon tally above the pony s head shouting a t the

same t ime F r om st a r t to nish the ponies race l ike mad

.

at top speed There is no spurring o r ogging and no

. ,

riding fo r a nish A ll t he jockey does is to ourish h is

.

t hin wand and yell H is seat is pure b a lance ; and if he

.

were t o move or t he pony were to swe r ve he would be ,

thrown heavily o n the ground .

272
 R A C I NG A ND G A M B LI NG
N e a r R angoon pony races take place earl y every
S u nday morning o n the P r ome road between the fourth
, ,

and fth milestones That the hard mettled roadway .

is apt to knock the ponies hoofs to pieces is o f li ttle

consequence to the Burm an The road is stra i g ht .

,

which is the main thing Partly arising from sportin g .

instincts t hese inform a l matches are to a great extent

,

utilized m a inly as a means o f ga mblin g I n addition to .

umpires and referees arrangemen t s are also made for ,

havin g a st a keholde r ( D o i ng ) who keeps the prize money ,

till the hea ts have been ru n and the match eventually

decided S ometimes the D a i ng levants but that is not
.
,

common I n any case it is a position o f prot a s he

.
,

usually receives a pe r cen tag e for his trouble T his much .

resembles brokerage an d of course it is in the interests o f

,

inuential D a i ng to encou rage pony matches as much

as possible B ut the gambling spirit is stron g enough
.

to requ ire very lit t le encouragement for its manifesta

t i on
.

Cock ghting ( Ky etta i h P we ) is general in all j un g le

villages and a good gamecock is worth money S ome

,
.

times ne gamecocks are speckled over with white

spots These called dewdrops ( H n i n thi ) are pro
.

, ,

d u ce d by blood s t ains w hich have n o t been wiped o ff

after a g ht .

E ven small miniature skiffs with feather s a ils are , ,

made to speed across ti ny ponds carryin g the wagers o f

their owners Perhaps the most common form o f g a m
.

bling however is the Chinese rafe known as the thirty

, , ,

six animal game ( Ti ) The name o f o ne o f thirty s i x .

-

animals is written o n a piece o f paper rolled up a n d , ,

placed in a bag Money being staked w hoever has

. ,

correctly divined the win nin g animal ( P a u hg a u ng ) re

ce i ve s thirty v e times his stake The odds are o f .
,

course alwa ys i n favour of the banker and the Chin a

, ,

man can e a sily increase his adv a ntag e surreptitiously .

Chinese dice ( A n K a sa) and cards ( P e K a sai ) a re also

used as means o f gambl in g which has certainly hitherto ,

formed the greatest national vice .

C a rt racing ( f i l epy a i ng P we) is chiey conned to the

lower plains o f the S it t an g and the S alween where the ,

V OL . 11 . 273 T
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H RU LE
breed o f clean l imbed sleek coated cattle sometimes fu r
-
,
-

nishes anim als remarkably s w ift o f foot The racin g carts .

are very l i g ht and are richly decorated with carvin g

, .

The cattle sometimes become very excited breaking ,

a w ay from the t rack and smashing the c a rts to pieces .

Further south in Ten a sserim from M oulmein to M erg u i , ,

buffalo g hts ( Ky weta i h P we) are not uncommon The

mos t celebra ted are those w hich take place o n the plains
near the t own o f Tavoy The beasts a r e tra ined fo r the .

fray in all t he vill ages a round When the day of con .

test arrives the riva l a nimals ma t ched a gainst e a ch other

,

are ridden by active you ng men w ho urge o n the brutes ,

to a t tack e a ch other E ach g uides his mou nt with a .

rope fastened to a cord piercin g its nostrils and o n either

, ,

side o f t he an imal s head men stand by with ags s o as

to keep it facin g its opponent S ometimes the anim a ls .

g ht viciously bu t mo r e often t hey either keep thei r

,

heads locked together o r else o ne g ets fri g htened and

bolts o u t o f the a rena When a real g ht does take .

place it is a repulsive spectacle ; but the victorious

,

buffalo is wreathed wi t h garlands and led a bou t with ,

music and r ej oicing .

The boxin g o r wrestling m a tches ( L et P we) are very

poor a ffairs The challen g er naked except a s to his

. ,

tucked u p waist cloth strides about the ring with left s t

- -
,

clenched and left arm folded across his chest while he ,

sl a ps the muscle o f the upper portion o f the arm with his

open right hand S houtin g o u t in deance H e s Ya u hy a
, ,

ba tha

Come o n like a man

,

S ometimes when his
, .
,

ch a llenge is a ccepted he will bolt o u t o f the rin g in abj ect

,

fear a proceedin g quite i n keepin g with the nation a l

,

character i f the acceptor is the bi gg er man ; fo r

,

e q uality i n height is considered o ne of the essentials in

a m a tch .

When two men are actually fou nd who stand up to each

other there is a g ood deal o f this arm sl a ppin g and
,
-

vociferation w hile the combatan t s walk round the ring

w atching fo r an opportu nity to take each othe r unawares .

S udden l y there may be a rush forwar d then a few kicks , ,

strokes with the knee and swinging o f the hands fol , ,

lowed by a g rip a nd a w r estle A s soon as there i s a .

274
 B U R M E SE F O O TB A L L
fa ir fall shoulders touchin g the g rou nd the m a tch is
, ,

over F a iling this however victory rests with the o n e

.
, ,

w ho happens to d raw rst blood from the other If .

eithe r o f the competitors complains o f bein g hurt the ,

match is a lso stopped ; but some t imes the referees ( N a

ba n D a i ng ) have to interfere and separa te the wrestlers

w hen they begin to g et warmed up to t hei r work and

S ho w si g ns o f becoming viciously pugnacious .

The chief amon g Bu rmese games is a kind of foo t ba ll ,

played w ith a Chi n l on o r round bask e t a very l i g ht

'

ball formed by plaitin g thi n strips o f rat tan loosely to

,

gether T he players with waistclo t hs tucked up to g ive

.
,

thei r legs free play stand about a couple of yards apart ,

a n d forming a circle T he ball having been tossed up .

into the air o n its descen t i t is kicked up with th e i nstep

, ,

knees or sole o f the foo t K icking with the toes is a

, .

mean form o f the game The masterstroke consists i n .

turnin g rou nd as the ball descends an d making it r e

mou nt with a stroke del ive r ed backwards wi t h the sole
o f the foot S ometimes it is played with tipped lightly
.
,

u p and cau g h t i n the hollo w o f the elbow o r o n the

,

shoulder before being q u ietly dropped for anothe r kick

,

u p into the air I t may be struck by any part o f the

.

body excep t t he hand When it comes in any one s .

direction he endeavours to keep possession o f it till

,

some upwa r d kick sends it within reach o f o n e o f the

othe r players There is never sc r ambling for t he ball
. .

E ach ge t s i t only as i t comes i n his direction and the ,

skill consists in a ny individual keeping it i n play for

some len g th of time This is the g reat national game .

among lads and you ng men ; a nd I have seen even grey

haired ol d magis t ra t es t h e chief ofcials i n lar g e sub ,

divisions of dis t ric t s enjoyin g themselves amon g the ,

you n g men at this pastime i n the evenin g .

E qually u niversal throughou t all the districts of Burma is

the game somethin g like ninepins called Gon ny i n to pl a yed
, ,

with the seeds of the Gon ny i n creeper ( E n ta da p u r sa etha )

.

This woody climbe r festoons lofty fores t trees and pro

duces hu g e pods often more than a yard in length and ,

con t aining larg e at glossy t amarind brown seeds about

, , ,
-

an i nch and a half t o two inches in diame t er U p to .

275
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
ten o r twelve o f these a re placed on ed g e in a strai g h t
l ine at ri g ht an g les to the line o f play while the player ,

spins another seed from the thumb and foren g e r o f

each hand at a distance o f about s i x o r se v en yards o r ,

more I t requ i r es a considerable a mount o f knack and

.

o f prac t ice t o be able to knock down all the seeds Th is .

is the favou rite game o f children in nearly every vill a g e

but it is also much played for st akes by g rown u p men , ,
-
,

both y oun g a nd old .

L ess used fo r gambling purposes and essenti a lly a ,

game o f skill like o u r o w n form o f it is Burmese chess , ,

called S i td uy i n mimic warfa re o r S i tp ay i n
,

the , ,

Commander i n Chief -
The pieces o n e a ch side consist
-
.

o f eight N e or pa w ns two Ya tta o r chariots t wo


, ,

S i n or
eleph a nts two My i n o r ho r ses o ne S i t
,

,

or

o f cer and o n e M i ngy i o r m in ister of state
,

.

The ch a riot corresponds to o u r cas tle the horse

,

t o a kni gh t and the minister o f state t o the king
,

.

The eleph a nt ca n move only o ne square at a time ,

either d i a gonally o r else strai g h t o n w hen advancin g but ,

diag on a lly onl y w hen retrea tin g ; while t he ofcer only
m oves diagon a lly o n e squ a re at a time whether a d va nc ,

i ng o r retreatin g I n Upper B urm a the minister o f

.

state was called the kin g an d the ofcer the
,

commander while the game itself differed in certain
,

respects from the form general in L ower Bu r ma The .

pawns move and ta ke as in ou r g ame but i n the opening ,

move they can only adva nce o n e square O n a pawn .

reaching the opponent s base line only the ofcer can

be recovered and no other piece I f all pieces have

, .

been captured except the minister o f state which c a n ,

n o t be t a ken but only placed in check and the opponent ,

has his m inister
ofcer and a
,
chariot left , ,

C heckmate must be effected in sixteen moves otherwise ,

it is a dra wn game I f minis t er
ofcer and o n e
.
,

,

elephant are to a ccomplish the task for ty four ,
-

moves are allowed while si x ty fou r are permissible for

,
-

checkmatin g wi t h minister ofcer a nd one

, ,

horse . When openin g the game as played in Upper ,

Burma the disposition of the pieces o n the board is as

,

follows
276
 B U R M ES E C H ES S

N u m b er . N a me Of P i e ce . y
S mb o l . P os i ti on o n sq ua r es for

B l ac k . W hi te .

2 Ch a i otsr C 1 ,
8 5 7 , 64
2 El e p h an ts E 1 0, 1 9 4 6, 5 5
2 H or ses H 1 2, 1 8 4 7, 5 3
1 Min i ster of St ate M 1 1 54
1 Of ce r 0 20 45
8 P wn s
a P 21 2 8
37 44

A sor t backg ammon ( P a si t) o r cow r y game
of

K
( y w eha sa
) is

played w ith S ix co w ry shells i n pl a ce of

dice .T he shells a re cast li g htly into the a i r and

a llowed to fa ll into a sm a ll bo w l ; then the moves take

place accordin g to the m a nner i n w hich the shells rest ,

m outh o r back up wa rds L ess dependent o n skill than

.

chess it lends itself better t o gambling and is c o n

, ,

s equen tly a game much l iked by men D ominoes are .

277
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
also played but more by Chinamen than B urmese
, Both .

this and the M etti K a sa a sort o f r oug e et n oi r w ith d ice

, ,

are almost a l wa ys pl a yed fo r stakes and not as a mere

p a st i me
.

The l ittle boys h a ve ple nty o f amusements E nglish .

marbles have found their way into most jungle villag es ,

and a game has evolved itself qu ite d ifferent from a n y

kno w n here K ite y i ng i s common and even gro w n
.
-
,

up men sometimes amuse themselves this w a y ; for the

B urman never outgrows his i nn a te desire fo r idle amuse
ment When the rice crops have been reaped the small
.
,

boys h a ve g reat fu n in the elds in shootin g at cloves and

other small birds w ith crossbows and clay pellets o r w ith
feather d a rts puffed through lon g b a mboo tubes Bu t .

these latter a re too silent occupations and therefore less ,

beloved than the noisy G on ny i n to when a t each sho t o ne

,

K

ca n c r
y

ali K a,l aw or

D i D i, and u s e other , ,

quaint expressions S mall B urmese boys are perhaps the

.

h a ppiest creatures in all the world ; and fortunately for ,

them they retain their love o f the li g hter aspects o f

,

life and their po w er of enjoyin g t hese even u ntil death .

I t ha s O ften been said that dacoity o r gan g robbery ,

by ve men o r more forms o ne of the nation a l a muse

,

ments o f you ng men in B urma ; but these opinions are

based o n pure misconception D acoity has always been .

prevalent under Burmese rule or rather u nder native ,

-
,

misrule and in the absence o f the strong hand of a secu re

,

g overnment just as it still is i n parts o f C h ina and S iam

, .

Considering the Bu rmese chara cter it is easily intelligible ,

how young men could be cajoled or frightened in t o j oin

in g the band o f a dacoit leader ; and once committed to ,

an outlaw s life by participation i n crime it would have

requ ired more moral and physical cou rage than the
ave rage Burman possesses to have returned to one s

village and run the risks o f arrest and of pu nishment ,

probably of a savage and ferocious nature E ven in the .

ho t blood of youth the Burmese are extremely averse to

,

runn in g personal r isks ; they are well endowed with the

instinc t of self preservation I t is rare even to nd a
- .

sportsman among them Fo r choice the Burman pre .

,

fers shooting doves among the stubble o n the elds t o

278
 D A CO ITY
a l m os t a n other sort f j u ngl e g a me furred o r feathered
'

y o , .

M en o f this stamp a r e hardly those w ho would t a ke

natura lly as a youthful form o f n a tional a musement to
, ,

d a coity with its h a rsh stern discipline its hard life in the
,

j ungles and the m a in chance o f ultimate capture w ith a

,

short shrift and a bloody end The prevalence o f dacoity

.

i n the past was mainly due t o defective administra tion .

Th a t fault is now r emedied thou g h occasional outbreaks

,

o f g ang robbery mus t be expected as the inherit a nce o f

centuries of weak gove r nment and as the outcome o f the

,

physical conditions of a coun t ry thickly forested a n d

thinly populated Org anized d a coity by long st a ndi n g
.
-

bands of outlaws is n o w however already a th in g o f

, ,

t he past ; and it can never occu r a g a in u nder B ritish

administration as it habitu a lly d id durin g the l a ter years
,

of Bu r mese misrule which a mounted in some districts

a lmos t to an a rchy S imilar conditions a lso existed and
.
,

s t ill exist i n the French possessions o f Tonqu in H ence

, .

the suppression o f th is b a rbarous state o f affairs m ay

well form a work o f friendly rivalry between o u r French
nei g hbours i n I ndo C hin a and ourselves for the promo
-
,

tion o f civilization and the g eneral prosperity o f the

n a tions respectively under t heir and o ur protection .

279
 C h ap t e r X I
S CI ENC E A N D AR T AM O N G T HE B U R M ESE
F o ne w erefo r ced to del iver a terse cate g orical O pinion ,

o n the subj ect it might w ell be s a id that the Bu r

,

mese h a ve no S cience w hile their A rt is crude B ut

, .

the substitutes which t a ke the place o f the form e r and ,

the latter itself fo r its o w n sake are well w orthy o f more

, ,

th a n mere passing rem a rk because the n a tional ide a s o f art

,

a r e vi g oro u s and ori g in a l Possessin g neither c o n s tr u c

.

tive t a lent nor any desire fo r kno w led g e o f the laws of

nature a nd receivin g no educ a tion save o f the m ost ele
,

m en tary kind ( and that too chiey con ned to the i n cu l

, ,

cation of the lead in g principles o f the B uddhist reli g ious

philosophy ) the B urmese have n either science n or any
,

word which is equ ivalen t to the term a s understood in

western civilization The nea rest approach to t his i n
.

their lan g u a g e i s the word P i ny a meanin g wisdom ,

,

but also a pplied in recent years to educ a tion a nd general

knowled g e The only othe r word o f this k in d A tci t the
.
, ,

nearest equivalent to o u r term a r t mea ns a bility to ,

do or acquainta nce with anythin g I n all eighteen

.
,

A td t are recogn ize d which include wh a t are sciences and

,

a rts with us Whoever has the sli g htest smatterin g o f

.
,

o r even makes pretension to special kno wled g e o f any ,

art o r science is distin g u ished by the term S ay d or ,

doctor i n the academic sense O f the most vital o f .

the sc iences for the well bei ng o f a nation medicine the

-
, ,

B urmese have the crudest notions possible The sava g e .

and barbarous birth customs which make B u rmese ,

w omen age p r ema t urely and soon des t roy their repro
d ucti ve power have already been described ( pag e I 84 )
,
.

2 80
 TW O C LA S SE S O F D O C T O R S
There are two classes of doctors fo r bodily a ilments ,

o n e o f w hich prescribes drugs

( B e i n da w S a ci
y ) w hile the
other ( D a t S ay d ) prescribes d ietin g only The former .

is by far the larg er class but the methods o f both are the
,

sheerest qu a ckery E a ch has its book o f r ules ( Ky a n )

.
,

and each system professes to be based upon the funda

mental principle that the hum a n body is composed of

the four elements ( D a t) eart h a i r re and water

, , , , .

They d iffer essentially ho w eve r in the methods o f treat

, ,

ment t he o ne class prescribing a d iet intended to supply

,

the elemen t whose deciency a ppears to be the cause o f

the dise a se while the other the larg er school consis t s
, , ,

o f med icine men .

The main causes o f sickness and dise a se are looked

fo r in the four fold inuence o f previous actions ( K a n )
-
,

o f the mind
( S ei h o f the se a son o f the year
) , ( U d u
) a nd ,

o f t he food e a ten A h a lso in the m a nner i n and

( a ra
) ,

de g ree to which these may be affected by dis t urbance o f

the fou r elements w hose normal bal a nce constitutes a
healthy condition I f the inuence o f past actions be
.

considered the chief cause o f disturb a nce special t rea t ,

men t is temporarily refrained from in order t o allo w the

vi s m ed i ca tr i x n a tu r a e to have a fa ir chance rs t o f all .

I n othe r cases a die t is t o r a druggist is called in whose ,

prescriptions are followed M ass ag e o r shampooin g

.

H nei h e
( p ) is almost al w a y s a pplied a part from any ,

special prescriptions .

The rs t step taken by ei ther class o f doctor is to

consult the patient s ho r oscope in o r der to asce r tain

what plane t s are exertin g a baleful in uence o n the ele

ments of t he body and are disturbin g thei r normal state
o f equilibrium . The p a rticular tempera ment and h a bits
o f the individual are i g nored N o attempt whatever is
.

made to di a g nose the dise a se S ometimes the ton g ue is .

looked at in imitation o f the procedure known to be fo l

,

lowed by qual ied medical pr a ctitioners ; but no ex a mina

t ion o f faeces o r other secretions eve r t a kes pl a ce o r would ,

convey t he sl i g htest g leam o f i nform a tion if u ndertaken .

The ra te o f circulation of the blood conveys l ittle o r no

information t o su ch doctors N or do they unde rstand .

measurement o f the temperature o f the body by any

281
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
other m ethod than rou g hly estimating the presence o r
amou n t o f local in ammation with the palm o f the hand .

F o r accidents smearing with powdered barks and

,

oin t ments forms the limit o f treatment N either dietists .

nor d rugg ists h a ve a ny knowledge o f a natomy and the ,

dra w in g o f blood is horrible i n the eyes o f the Burm a n .

H ence there is no surg ery and the use o f surg ical i ns tru
,

ments is a bhorred Abscesses and tumours a re a llowed

.

to b u rst ; no attem pt is made to correct co ng enital o r

a cqu ired deformities and amput a tions have never been
performed save as a criminal punishment i n the time o f
Burmese rule .

A ll the ills that esh is heir to are comprised i n the

n i ne t y S ix diseases ( S a n a wu dd i o r K osecha uh Yo wg a )
-

a t erm applied to sickness i n general When a n y o n e is .

very much o u t of so r ts he o r s he i s spoken o f as af icted

with all the ninety six d iseases not differen tiatin g o ne
-
,

or mo r e o f them i n particular .

The mortal i ty o f the p r ovince varies from about

t wenty to twenty v e while the birth r a te ra nges from
-
,
-

abou t tw e nty ve t o thirty per t housand By fa r the

.
, .

most p r evalen t diseases are malarial feve r dysentery , ,

and diar r h oea whic h are accou ntable for abou t three
,

fou r ths of the annual death roll S m a ll pox w a s formerly

-
.
-

o n e of the great scourges o f t he cou n t ry but much has ,

been done by vaccination t o check its ra vages Cholera .

is endemic the slums o f R an g oon being probably never

,

enti rely free from it t hou g h it seldom occurs epidemicall y

,

o n any extensive sc a le Ophth a lmia is frequent in Upper

.

Bu rma a nd t h e S han S tates L eprosy i s not yet stamped

.

o ut by se g re g ation and venereal disease is much more

,

common than i t would be if a Con tagious D iseases A c t

were enforced .

When afic t ed with any complaint the B urmese ,

innitely prefers his o wn native doctors rather th a n

u ndergo trea t ment a t t he hands o f the med ical men i n
town hospitals established by Government E ven .

a mon g the be t ter educated goin g to hospital is looked

o n with d r ead . S ome years a g o o n e o f the clerks in my

O fce i n R angoon was continually absenting himself
throu g h fever A s he was more often absent th a n at
.

2 82

TH E M ED I C I N E M A N
work I ha d at last to request he would go to hospital and
,

remain there u nde r treatmen t I n reply a petition came .

,

from the clerk askin g fo r a fe w days leave and statin g

,

that the excellent R an goon hospi t al was a verit a ble

hell upon t he earth where he w ould soon die of the

n inety S ix diseases
-
E ven the t hought o f g oing there
.

had such an effect upon the S ick man tha t he was soon
able to resume reg ul a r attendance a t o fce .

A s mi g h t be expec ted from s o supe rstitious an d

c redulous a race quaint rea sons a re adduced for the
,

causes o f specic afic t ions V a rious m a larious i n u .

e nc e s a r e believed to be occasioned by malevolen t spi r i t s

in the shape o f birds a nd sn a kes w hile p a ra lytic strokes ,

and nervous disorders are i nduced by unlucky currents i n

the ai r A stye in the eye is the result o f bein g deceived
.

by some o ne thus formin g a curious p a rallel to ou r

,

vul gar phrase o f bein g done in the eye
.

The pharmac op oeia o f the B ei n d a w S ay et o r medicine

man is va stly comprehensive stra n g e and wonderful as , ,

to m a teria medica never thou g ht o f else where M ost o f .

the drugs are merely raw veg etable products such a s ,

barks roo t s leaves seeds gums and simple minerals ;

, , , ,
1
,

bu t they are usu a lly compounded with sedatives o r

stimulants O ft en poisons o f a very dan g erous n a ture
,
.

The common term for medicine ( S e) includes not only

all kinds of d r ugs bu t also tobacco unguen ts and pi g
, , ,

ments of every sort Many years ago I saw a man digg in g.

o n the M yitkyo emb a nkment o f the Pegu and S ittan g

c a nal a snake i nfested earthwork with a lo t o f dead

,
-
,

sn a kes beside him ; and a s it was u nusu a l t o se e a Bur

man del iberately takin g the l ife o f any animal as seemed ,

here t o be the case I asked him what he was doing ,

.

D i g gin g for cobras he replied ; and he then told ,

me he dried t he heads and sold t hem to doc tors fo r

po unding up and mixing with other drugs E ven per .

spir a t ion from a horse is used thou g h only for outward ,

application t his being the specic for curin g a dark

, ,

1
The v om i a t e ( K b ng S t y ch o n vomi ) i s v e y
n ux c r e a au : r n s ux ca r

comm on al l o v B u m in th fo sts up to
er r a f e e t e l e v t i on I f
e re a .

the u l i n g p i e in Eu o p e m ak es i t worth wh i l e e n o m ous q uan ti ti es a e

r r c r ,
r r

v ery h eaply ob tai n bl e i n B u ma

c a r .

2 83
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
blo t c h y skin disease called Ti n dei h L ike other orientals
-
.
,

the Burmese a ppreci a te medicine mos t when i t is dis

a gr eeable t o t he t aste and drastic in its action M ed i .

cines a r e therefo re often r ubbed o n the t ongue so that

none of t h e avour g e t s lost .

Magic w a ters and ch a rmed m edicine are often g iven

-

fo r suc h pu r poses as p rocuring sleep cu r ing the bite o f ,

a mad dog and res t orin g to thei r proper senses those

,

who have been overlooked or are possessed by an

evil spirit O ne o f the medicines given as a preservative

.

a gainst evil spiri t s consists of a powder made o f scrap

in g s from a wooden stake driven in t o g round upon
which a house o r s t ill be tt er a monastery is about to
, ,

be buil t .

While u nde rgoin g a course o f medicine t he pa t ien t is

not allowed to bask in t he mornin g s u n an occupation ,

w hich the heal t hy male adult i nnitely prefers t o work .

When the patien t is sick nigh u nto de a th the doctor

ceases t a kin g care o f him which is the B urmese ,

equivalent for g ivin g up hope o f a recovery T he fee .

fo r a doc tor s visit is usu a lly only about fourpence o r

sixpence and seldom exceeds a rupee ( 1 s

, I f he .

nds the case beyond his skill the B urmese S ay d usually ,

con t en t s himself w ith decl a ring t hat t he patient is pos

sessed by a n evil S piri t .

When d ietists and druggists fail and O ften w ithou t ,

even givin g t hem a chance t he witch doc tor ( Wez a ) is,

-

c a lled in A consecra t ed cord ( Ta m i ) woven with

.
,

seven threads and tied in seven knots being cast over ,

the neck o f th e pa t ien t s o as t o prevent the esc a pe o f

,

the witch the wise man recites inca ntations and asks
,

whence the witch ha s come why s he ha s possessed the ,

p a tien t and what s he wants before she w ill leave his

,

body aga in W hateve r the patient may then s ay is

.

re garded as the witch s repl y I f any particular obj ect

.

be asked for it i s put o n the g round i n front of the house

,

and left t h ere during the n i g h t I f nothin g is s a id this . ,

con t umacity on t he witch s part necessitates the p a tient

being soundly cuffed o r beaten with a s t ick S ometimes .

the hea ti ng is done wi t h a short thick conj uring rod

( Y w ) about nine r t en inches long covered w ith

eta n o ,

2 84
 A STR O L O GE R S
cab a l is t ic gures O nce alarmed the witch unable to
.
, ,

escape beyond the charmed cord must at len g th y ield ,

a nswers by the mouth of the patient When the w itch .

remains very stubborn the p a tien t is a t times beaten to

death i n t he effort to arouse the forme r to make some
utterance When he sees that his treatment is n o t likely
.

to prove effective the w i tc h doctor informs the relatives

,

that the patient is possessed by a malevolen t evil spirit ,

powerful enou g h to resist the potency o f his charms .

Cases of manslaughte r by dietis t s druggists and witch , ,

doct ors indiscrimin a tely are still no t at a l l infrequent

,

even i n the u rban centres w here the people are brought

closely i n contact with everyday evidences of civilization .

A t M eiktil a a small town formin g the headquarters o f

,

the M eiktil a division o f Upper B urm a notwiths ta nding ,

its complement o f civil o fcers from Commissioner down

wards its garrison o f E uropean and n a tive troops its
, ,

hospital its irrig a tion works and its ra ilway line a

, , ,

typical case o f this sort occurred s o recently as the sprin g

of 1 89 7 when cholera had broken out to a sl i g ht exte n t
, .

A n o l d B urman whose life s race was all but run ou t

,

from natura l causes being stricken with the fell dise a se

, ,

a S ay a or doctor was called in w ho prescribed that thirty

pots full o f wate r should be poured ove r the poor o ld man
at a late hou r o f the ni g ht This was done By the . .

time the last pot was emptied only a corpse remained ,

the spirit o f life itself havin g been d riven from its earthly
tenement A nd such cases are very common indeed in
.

the r u ral districts and the forest tracts .

T he c r edulity o f the B u rmese as t o charla t anism o f

t his sort can perh a ps best be shewn by the fact that ,

including a bou t s i x hundred astrolo g ers g enealo g is t s , ,

a n d horoscope casters there a r e somethin g l ike twenty

,

thou sand S ay d about half of whom are to be found i n

,

L ower Bu rm a .M ore than the o n e hu ndred and ftieth

p a rt o f the tot a l popul a tion o f the province i s thus s up
ported by the he a ling profession .

The astrologer s O r B ed i n S ay a those skilled i n the

V ed a o r fou r Brahminical books who can by a study ,

o f the horoscope o f a n y person foretell auspicious and

ominous days for en t erprises of all sorts for the reg ula ,

2 85
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
tion o f health the wardin g o ff and the cu re o f d iseases
, ,

are ju st about as much entitled as the dietists and med i

cine men to rank as scientists O f this class the P u n n a
.
,

o r members of a sm a ll Brahmin colony from M anipur

which lo ng a g o settled near the royal capital a re ,

regarded with most a w e thei r services bein g also much

,

i n dem a nd fo r interpretin g d reams and perfo r ming cere

monial rites in connection with marriage and death .

R eta ining the hereditary greed and graspin g charac

te r i s t i c o f their caste the phrase of asking l ike a
,

F u nn a is proverbial for extortionate persistence and
I mportun i ty .

The manner i n which astrolog ers u t ilise the horoscope

o r ast r ological house ( Z a d ap on ) h a s a l ready been in d i

(
c a te d p a ge Bu t it is not t oo much to s a
y t hat h a rdly

any enterprise is ente r ed o n withou t t he assis t ance of the

as t rolo g er i n de t ermining the lucky days an d specifying ,

those threa t en ing misfortu ne The auspicious day for .

commencin g ploughing opera t ions each year the best ,

moment fo r se t tin g ou t o n any journey the most opp o r ,

tune time fo r building o r repairin g a house and all ,

m a tters o f this sort are decided only afte r t he horoscope

,

has been submit t ed to the astrologer H is procedure .

is purely i g noran t mechanical rote and rule of t humb ,

withou t scientic basis o f any ration a l description .

There is o f course a recognized astrological scheme

( y
P e t K a d ei n
) based o n the ei g ht plane t ary celes t ial orbs ,

and this formed t he g rou ndwork for s i d e r i al calculations

tha t were mad e by the cou rt astronomers when fo r e
c a sting the almanac ( Thi ngy a n sa ) This was made early .

i n each A p r il by the r oyal B ra hmins at Mandalay some ,

times assisted by the M inisters and i t purported to fo r e ,

shadow t he grea t even ts of the coming year 1

.

1
The foll owi n g
Thi ngy a nsa for the ear 1 884 y
85 m ay ser e a s an v
x mpl
e a f
e o f the sor t o f or e c a st i e gv n
y F y
ll
The ol d ear ( 1 2 4 5 ) wi e n d on f
r i d a , the rst da
y a ter the u f ll
m noo f h h mn
of Tag u, a t ou r n yf
ours, fty t ree-
i u tes, and twe t o ur sec o d s -
n
f n n
a ter oo .y ll mm n
The n ew e ar ( 1 2 4 6 ) wi gh h co e ce at ei t ours, t f y
mn lv n m n ng S n y
i u te s, a nd twe e s ec o d s on the h
or i of u d a , the t i rd d a y

n ng m n
o f the wa i ooh n o f Tag zi , w e ng
the Thagy a M i n , the Ki o f the
n y ll n i ng m b ll h l g
N a t c ou tr , wi d e sc e d r d i on a ta e u , o d in an ax e i n on e
h n p kl
a d an d a rea er s si c

h ll h n g
e i n the o t er, a nd wi c a e hi s resi d e c e n
2 86
 C H R O N O L O GY
I ncludin g the r eligious epoch dating from G a u d a ma s

attainment o f N eikban ( 6 4 3 there have been ve

eras in Burmese chronology ; bu t that no w u nivers a lly
obtaining w a s established by P u p a sa w i n 6 3 9 A D when . .
,

he u su rped the throne o f o l d P a gan near Ta gaun g o n , ,

the I rrawaddy abou t one hundred miles t o the north of,

M andal a y H ence the present year o f grace 1 90 1 A D

.
, . .
,

a ppears substractin g 6 3 8 as the year 1 2 6 3 in all

, ,

B urmese petitions and vern a cular documents comin g

before courts and o fcials I n all o fces almanacs are .
,

therefore requ ired for collating w ith the E nglish st a ndard

such dates as the twelfth day o f the wan ing moon o f the
month o f Ta bod we i n the year 1 2 5 9

The a nnual period commencing s a y with the rst day , , ,

o f the waxing moon of Ta u in M arch or A pril is divided

g ( )
into twelve lunar months consistin g altern a tely o f t w enty
n ine and o f thirty days T o maint a in somethin g l ike .

a pproximate x i t in the time at which T a i Z begins a

y g ,

thirteenth month i s every third year in t e r calated between

the fourth month ( Wa so o r beginning o f L ent ) and the

fth mon t h ( Wag a u ng ) i n the form of a second

thus prolongin g the L enten period ( Wa ) From t he rs t .

to the fteenth o f each month the d a ys are reckoned

with the waxing moon ( L az a n ) w hilst from the sixteenth ,

to the e nd they a re desi g n a t ed a s such and such a day

of t he waning moon ( L aby igy a w) The full moon .

( L d y )
b i is excep t as re g a rds the commencement o f each
,

from the P i s es ( M ei n Y thz) to A ri es ( M i sha ) I n th i s y ear e v i l wi ll

c a .

b e f ll all p e son s b o n on S un d ay Th ere wi ll be cy c l on es and h eavy

a r r a .

wi n d s R ai n f ll wi ll b e l i gh t a t the o mm en c em e n t of the m on soon

. a c ,

g ood ab ou t the m i dd l e and pl e n ti ful toward s the e nd T he el d s w l l

, . r

p ov e ferti l e a nd th ough the g ain m ay l ook p oo yet i t will b e sweet

r r r,

to the taste P e opl e will enj oy p rosp eri ty h pp i n ess and c om fo t so

.
,
a ,
r

t h ey wi ll b e a bl e to m ak e l rg e o ffe ri n g s a n d g i fts The P ebi n p al m

a .

( i e Coryp h u mbr acul f e ) will re i gn as k i n g a nd stars wi ll est on p lm

. . a z ra ,
r a

t e es
r A ll k i n d s of wh i te su b stan c es wi ll b e ex c eed i n g ly d ear
. R ain .

wi ll fall on the si x th d y o f the wax i n g m oon of T g u and wi ll c on ti n ue

a a ,

th rough out the water festi v al fall i n g h ea v i ly on the fou teen th d ay of ,

r

T g u T he south west m on soon wi ll c omm e n c e f om the e i gh th d ay

a .
-
r

o f t he wax i n g m oo n of K s n a n d th e c ere m o n i a l pl o u g h in g in the

a o ,

oy a l e l d s ( L t n M i n ga l d m ust tak e pl ac e b e fore t e n o c l oc k o n the

r
) u

fo e n oo n of S un d ay the el e v e n th d ay o fth e wax i n g m oo n of Ta w tha l i n

r ,
.

An d so on .

2 87
 B U R M A U N D ER B R ITI S H R U LE
new year the se a son at which all reli g ious festivals take
,

place whereas the time o f total obscurity ( L dg we ) is o f

,

comparatively little more signicance th a n the ordin a ry

duty days ( U bohsa u ng N e ) occurring w ith ea ch o f the

four chan g es o f the moon Three seasons of the ye a r .

,

o f a bout four months e a ch are informally recog nized , .

T he cold season ( S a u ng Ud u ) commences o n the rst

day a fter the full moon o f Ta sa u ng mon ( in October o r

N ovember) the ho t weather ( N we Ud u ) o n that a fter

,

the full moon o f Ta ba u ng ( i n February o r M arch ) and the ,

rains ( M o Ud u ) o n th a t of Wa so ( i n J uly o r A ugust )

I n addition to th is the minor i g ht o f time is a lso ,

m a rked by weeks consisting as with u s O f seven d a ys , ,

each The d a ys bear t he names o f seven ou t o f the

.

ei g ht planets ( vi de p a g e but leave o u t O f accou nt

the dark and mysterious R a hu visible only when ,

occasionin g an ecl ipse by crossin g i n front of the s u n

or the moon E ach day wa s unde r Bu rmese rule
.
1

divided into sixty hou rs ( N ay i ) and sub d ivided i nto ei g ht ,

-

watches each o f a bout three o f ou r hours which varied

, ,

in length at different se a sons o f the year accordin g as the

days and ni g hts were relatively longer o r shorter The .

N ay i o r time measu r er was a copper cup havin g a

tiny perforation at the base which being inserted in , ,

water sank to a particular mark within a given tim e

,
.

The N ay i had various subdivisions from ten w inks o f

K

a n eye a n d up w a rds but these te r ms were seldom used
( ) ,

except in astrolo g ic a l works A s each N ay i w a s thus .

m easured off a gon g was bea ten and at every third hou r ,

the great d ru m sh a ped gon g w a s sounded from the-

P a hoz i n or timekeeper s to wer withi n the inner precincts

'

o f the roy a l pal a ce a t the eastern g ate O ne be a t of the .

drum denoted nine o clock i n the morning o r evenin g

,

two beats twelve o clock three beats three o clock and

, ,

fou r beats s i x o clock From th e P a ho the beats were

.

repea t ed o n large bells by all the guards throughout

the p a l a ce T O ensure attention to this matter in the
.

1
Ra hi i i s a so l an A thzi r a , a sort of T i ta n o fall e n spi
r r i t, the g ea test
r

o f a l l the N o t i n Sp
l n
i ri t a d . H e i s ai d to b e
s ml i es I n h e i gh t ,

an d to e a t the m n n
oo o ce i n e v ery si m on th s
x .

2 88
 M EA S U R I N G T I M E A N D D I S TA N C E
olden days the timekeeper could be carried O ff and sold
,

in the public market if he were neg ligent i n the dis

ch a rg e o f his duties bein g then forced to p a y a ne in ,

the sh a pe of ransom N o w u nder British rule w here .

, ,

ever there are jails police stations treasury g uards and , , ,

s o forth the hours are marked o ff by beat of gong

, .

H ence in t owns the wo r d N ay i has now come to mean

, ,

both the hou r measured by the E u ropean method and

, ,

the clock or watch by w hich it is measured I n the .

ru ral trac t s and j ungles however there is still no such , ,

advanced o r p r ecise standa rd I f asked wha t N ay i i t .

may be a t any particular time of the day or ni g ht a ,

peasant would probably g ive some such r eply as before

the bri g htening of da w n about the second time o f cock ,

crowin g about breakfast time
, when the su n is begin ,

nin g to descend the time fo r the evenin g me a l or
,

,

sleepin g time A nd i n the same way there are rou g h

.

and re a dy me a surements of d is t ance such as within ,

hail , as fa r as the lowing o f a bullock can be hea r d a ,

qu id of betel ( ten minutes ) as far as a cheroo t las t s

,

( half an hou r ) as far as o n e can g o before eating f ood

, ,

o r even n e edin g to sleep two nights o n the way there .

T he st a nd a rd o f measuremen t o f distance w a s the Ta

o f seven cubits o n e thousand o f which fo r med t he Ta i ng
,

o r B urmese m ile ( equal to about t wo E nglish miles ) ten ,

o f which make a Tha u ng T he Yuz a na o r u nit of dis .

,

tance always men t ioned in sacred books and mythological

,

narratives consisted o f ,
Ta ; but it is never used
colloqui a lly in this manner F o r smalle r measurements .

the span ( Twa ) of nine inches and the cubit ( Ta u ng ) ,

of about ei g hteen inches are the most common terms i n

use .

I t can hardly be said tha t l iter a t u r e is a l ivin g art i n

Burma Close upon th r ee thousand males were t hus
.

classied durin g the census of 1 89 1 but these were almost ,

entirely copyists in mona st e r ies employed merely in ,

t ra nscribin g the sacred writings on pal m leaves with an

iron style ( K a ny utd a n ) M os t monas t eries possess a .

small l ibrary ( B i d ag a t Ta i h) bu t with the inc r easing , ,

use o f the printing p r ess t he copyist s a r t has al ready ,

begun to fa l l into desue t ude and will soon be a thin g of

V OL . 11 . 2 89 U
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
the past S itting round the c a mp re o r d uring j ou rneys
.
,

by land o r wat e r there is g enerally some w ag o f the

,

party who c a n improvise sn a tches o f song ; but the

national body is not a t the present moment endowed
w ith the l iving spirit o f l itera ry creation The interest .

in g l iter a t ure o f the past mostl y o f a purely reli g ious

,

character w ill be dealt with in another ch a pter

,
.

I t is a s a d bu t an u ndeniable fa ct that cont a ct w ith

western civilization has soon led to the corruption a n d
decay o f Burmese art I t has rapidly become deb a s e d
.
,

and the bastard izin g a nd deteriora tin g process is still i n

pro g ress A nd w hat is more nothing ca n prevent this
.
, , .

N o where is th is d ec l ine more n oticeable th a n i n the

wood carvi ng and the silver work for which B urma was
justly famed N one w ho kn ew the platform o f the g reat
.

S hwe D ag On p a goda in R an g oon about twenty v e -

y ears a g o can have revisi t ed i t within recent years w ith

o ut a pan g o f re g re t at the innu merable signs o f the

decadence of wood carving M ore th a n twenty years .

a o the crude but bold and artis tic te a k w ood carvi n g s

g , ,

o f pure Burmese desi g n w ith w hich the shrines and

praye r poles were adorned had begu n to g ive pl a ce to
more elabora te work degraded by cont a ct with I t a l i a n
and E ngl ish i nuences ; an d t his loss o f artistic sense
soon degenera ted to such an ex t ent that within a few
yea rs bu ildi ngs w ith galvanized i ron pillars corrugated ,

roofs and abomin a tions from a Glas g ow found ry in the

, ,

s hape o f cast iron imitatio n s o f Burmese c a rvin g were

-

a l lowed to be put up as ornament a l eaves board in g a nd -

n i als . I t wa s nothing short o f desecra tion almost ,

amountin g to sacrileg e to perm it such hideous m on

,

s t ro s i t i e s to be placed S ide by side with the pu rer works

o f meri t already collected u nder the shadow of the g reat

g olden pagoda .

Till the downfa ll o f the ki ngdo m o f A va in 1 88 5 ,

M andalay w a s the g r eat ce n tre o f Bu rmese a r t B ut .

even there it did n o t escape the effects o f cont a min a tion

w ith I talian hand icraftsmen Fo u nded in 1 85 7 and
.

occupied a s a new capital i n 1 86 0 by a monarch o f

a dv a nced tastes and commercial i nstincts the roy a l ,

bu ildings were for the rst time roofed with corru gated
2 90
 C R I TI ! U E O F B U R M ES E A R T
i r on M a ny of the stone edices were ornamented in
.

s t ucco with hybrid designs showing I talian i n uence .

Bal ustrades were made o f green glass in place o f being

t urned in t eak wood and glass ornamen t ation was a featu r e
,

o f some o f the recep t ion r ooms The palace bu ildings

.
,

taken as a w hole howeve r were essentially Burmese in

, ,

general desi g n and ar t istic fea t ures ; while most of the

monasteries a rou nd the city built o f teakwood richly ,

carved a nd g ilded were beau t ifu l specimens o f pure

,

Burmese art The dest r uc t ion o f many o f these du r in g

.

the incendiary res of A pril 1 89 2 was an irreparable , ,

loss though some o f the nes t and pures t specimens are

,

for t u nately still sp a r ed .

T he le a ding charac teris t ics o f B urmese ar t are bold

ness and freedom o f design I t lacks nish ; but then
.

any very hi g h de g ree of n ish would be artistically

i nconsistent with the whole genius o f the more or less
he r edita ry na t ional designs This want o f n i ck i ng
.

nish is no more a drawback to the artistic value o f

B urmese wood ca rvin g and S ilver work than t he want of
minu t e de t ail in works by t he impressionis t school o f
painters . R ougher and more impressionis t t he teak ,

carvings and the silve r work o f Burma when of pure ,

uncontamina t ed Bu r mese design s tand o n a much higher ,

artistic level than t he blackwood carvings and the Cu tch

silver work of somewhat simila r design produced on t he
, ,

Bombay side o f I ndia because t h ey have a boldness and

,

a freedom which are essentially st rong and virile F o r

, .

very n e nish the royal t eakwood would i n any case

have been u nsu itable fr om its coarse grain There is .

a nat ional i ndividuali t y about B urmese c a rving which ,

dis t in g u ishes i t en t irely fr om C h inese art and raises it ,

above the more closely allied S iamese designs .

Unfor t una t ely howeve r i t is now ex t remely di fcul t t o

, ,

ob t ain recen t work o f pu r e Bu r mese desi g n o r to ensure ,

that orders g iven shall resul t in wo r k of this class E ven .

the carvers and s ilve r smiths t hemselves see m to be

rapidly losin g all t race of hereditary ins t inc t with rega r d
to w h a t o r namenta t ions are t ruly B u r mese and wha t a r e
innovations o f wes t e r n origin .

A bout 1 883 Gove r nment began t o in t e r fere ac t ively

2 91
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE

with a schem e f or the en cou r ag e men t of a r t i n d u str i es

,

and established a n a r t workshop in R a n g oon wh ich did ,

much to hasten the process o f de g radation o f art i n

L ower Burma U nder this to q uote from an O fcial
.
,

record ,

The i mp ov em en t of a t wo k r fte B u m ese m od l s h b een r r a r r e as

se d u l ou sly fo te ed Wo k m e n e p ov i d d wi th p h tog p h i c m od el s
s r . r ar r e o ra

o f g od wo k o e v i l e i mi t ti o n o f n o n B
r ,
s r m an wo k i s d i co g ed a -
ur r s ura ,

a nd e ff o t i m d e to se u e the d e v el opm n t of a th o ough ly n ati on l

r s a c r e r a

s h ool o f
c t Al l the b e t wo km e n n ow d e v ote th ei e n g i
ar . p in i s r r er es r c

p ally to the p od u ti n of w k wh i c h i B m ese i n h a te and

r c o or s ur c ar c r,

th ei p od u c ti n s d u i g the y e
r r o ( 885 86) h v wi th few ex ep ti on
r n ar 1 -
a e, c s,

b n B u m e e i S h p e d e i g h c te i sti s nd d et i l s
ee r s n a , T he s n, c a ra r c , a a .

sc h m e fo the en ou g e m en t of a t i n d u t i es d v n e d n th e t p
e r c ra r s r a a c a o r s e

i n the d i e ti on of el f r c pp o t At the l o e of the y e ( 8868 7 )

s - su r . c s ar 1

ve o f th l e d i n g a ti sts i n R ng oo n s o i at d th e m e lv e tog eth e

e a r a a s c e s s r

a n d fo m e d n i nf
r m al ompany Th ey h v e b tai n ed the e v i es of
a or c . a o s r c

a t two th y l e k who wi ll a t
ru s r c e e t y an d
r cco un ta n t an d wi ll
, c as s cr ar a

the I n d i n p p e
,

see t ad v e ti si n g i
o r to the p op e n eg i st ti on of a a rs, r r r ra

o der to th ei r e x c uti o n i n d u e o t ti on
r s, n d to th ei d
e p atch r a , a r es .

The obj e t of G ov e nm n t i s sl owly to wi th d w i ts supp o t f om th

c r e ra r r e

ar ti ts an d to k e p a k ee n l ook ou t th at th h n d i
s e ft f B m a e ot e a cra s o ur a r n

d e b sed i n t m an u f c tu es wh e e h u n d e d s of a ti l e
a o af e x tly i m i l a
r r r r c s o ac s r

d e i g n a e p od u e d i n a sl ov e nly and i n ti ti c m nn e
s r r c Th e e ha ar s a r. r s

b een a st ad y d em an d fo the ilv e w k of Th y etmy o and R ng o n

e r s r or a a o

d u i n g the y e
r T he wood c a v i n g i n ti tu te ha d on e w ll and h
ar . r s s e as

m o e th n p i d i ts way n otwi th t n d i n g h e vy ch g e fo stabl i h

r a a s a a a ar r e s

m en t G ov e nm e n t onn e ti o n wi th th i s in ti tuti on c ea ed wi th the

. r c c s s

c l ose of the y ea The p i c e s of a t ware h av e r em ain ed stead y

r. r r

th ough out the y e

r ar .

With such a fos t e r m o t her ho w could poo r B urmese ar t -

,

thrive ? I t natu rally sickened and declined ; bu t from ,

the combined in uen ce o f va r iou s causes this was bound ,

to happen as th e necessa r y result o f the various politic a l ,

social a n d material changes which have been taking

,

place t hroughou t the valley o f the I rrawaddy durin g the

last half centu r y - .

S ometimes G overn men t have permit t ed ac t s o f sheer

vandal ism to be perpe t ra t ed by their Publ ic Works
D epartment w hich a r e almos t incredible ,
Thus there .
,

were n ine golden thrones i n the royal buildings at M an

dalay thou g h only fou r of t h ese now exis t ; t he res t
,

were disman t l ed F o r years the pieces lay about the .

passages i n the palace bu ildin g s but n ow t hey h ave long ,

since van ished having p r obably been broken up as re ,

2 92
 W O O D C ARV I N G
wood by natives of I ndia employed withi n the p alace pre
c i nc ts . S ome o f these were certainly deservin g o f being
sen t t o S outh K ensing ton as objec t s o f u niqu e i nterest .

A gain i n N ovember 1 89 1 immedi a tely before the

, , ,

Comm a nder i n Chief ( S i r Frederick R oberts ) revisited

- -

Mandalay on tour many of the rooms of the palace in , ,

which t he military ofces we r e located were whitewashed ,

with l ime over the rich gold g ilding t hat covered the
whole o f the ceiling and the walls Of this there is .

no doub t fo r I sa w the whi t e washing bein g done

, .

The carvin g s in and around monasteries are often

illustra t i ve of legends o r of episodes i n the life of ,

G a u d a m a as described in the Z a t or birth stories In -
.

the exterio r carvin g s there is usually a careful bal a nce .

A cen t ral piece ( D a md n ) richly carved with gures , ,

terminates i n a long ornament a l pole c a pped w ith a

miniature umbrella ( T w hils t o n either side o f this
carved wings (Apy d uh) ex t end symmetrically either i n
o n e piece o r else i n wave like sections The outer -
.

wi ng s in all important p ieces o f carving as on the royal

thrones over the entrances to monasteries or formin g
, ,

the ga ble ends o f roofs havin g ornament a l eaves board

- -

ing and ni al s invariably point inwards towards the

centra l portion and thus form a characteristic fea t u r e i n
,

B urmese design A round the eaves the carving is in

.
,

wave l ike sections the highest being at the corners a n d

-
,

i n t he middle o f the bu ildin g They consist o f separate .

p ieces rep r esenting G a u d a m a monks men makin g o b e i , ,

sance or birds o r else they may be mere indenite

, ,

ornamen ta t ion each item being larger than that next

,

below i t I t has been su gges t ed th a t these pieces r e p re

.

sen t t ongues of re shootin g upwa rds but this seems ,

rather a fant a stic and far fetched notion ; fo r on the -

Bu rmese throne around the principal monasteries and

, ,

in all the more hi ghly nished c a r vin g s to be seen a t

M andalay these upw a rd pointin g pieces a r e elaborated
with g ures I t is only in the coarser work a nd o n com
.
,

moner bu ildings like rest houses th a t the designs become -

,

less denite ; and even then they far more closely r e

semble the upper por t ion o f a bird than ton g ues o f
r e M o r eover ton g ues of re have no connec t ion with
.
,

2 93
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
B uddhism u nless t h ey might be taken to rep r esent the
bur n ing ames O f lust and passion referred to i n Gau
d a m a s celebrated S ermon o n the M ount in which he rs t

enu nci a ted the mystery o f the law to his d isciples These .

pieces very frequently when exhibitin g a fair amoun t

,

o f n ish u n mistakably
, r epresent the b reas t n eck an d , ,

he a d o f the peacock the r oyal bird o f Burma ; hence it

,

seems no t imp robable t hat the small graded u prigh ts

i n each Apy au h o r S ec t ion of carving are more likely
a bortive represen t a t ions o f peacock s heads rather than

to ngues o f ame E ven the carvers t he m selves ho w

.
,

eve r can give no sa t isfac tory account o f wh a t they

,

me a n A cco rding t o t hem they a re merely hl a bo

.
,

L e og ryp hs d emons

for the sake o f o r namen t ation .

, ,

dragons mythological birds and gures and ru nni ng

, ,

le a f scrolls are freely sc a ttered throu g hou t most o f t he

-

more ambitious d esigns while they form the most i m

,

portant fea t u r es i n a ll m inor pieces o f carving .

A s teakwood is somewhat li g ht in colou r the e ffe c ,

t i ve n es s o f la rge pieces o f Burmese carvin g is much

heigh t ened by the dark coating of earth o il g iven to -

prese r ve them agai ns t the r a vages O f cl ima t e Many o f .

the carvings ex t erior as well a s in t erior in the royal a nd

, ,

the sacred buildings at Mandalay were richly g ilded and

often ornamented with mos a ic work in colou red lookin g
gl a ss M any were also picked ou t i n colou rs with red
.
,

blue y ellow a nd green paint The results are some

, , .

what crude and barba r ous t hou g h u ndoub t edly effective ;

,

for the stro n g sunshine and the whole environmen t seem

to permit glarin g combinations of colour that would be
displeasi ng u nder other circumstances N o w th a t the .

thick g ilding has been washed O ff to a gre a t extent by

the rains o f the las t fteen to twen t y years m a ny o f the ,

monas t eries around Mandal a y convey only a faded and

i mperfec t impression o f wh a t they once were while the ,

i ncendia r y res o f 1 89 2 caused much irreparable loss .

The palace at Mandal a y contains m a ny examples of

coloured lookin g glass work but some o f the nest
-
,

specimens o f t his and of the appl ication o f colours

,

to wood carvin g as distinct fea t ures i n B urmese decora

,

t ive art a r e t o be fou nd i n lonely j ungle shri nes far o ff

2 94
 S I LV E R W O R K
t h e beaten tra ck One o f the nest specimens o f this
.

particul a r k ind of ornamenta tion is to be found at

B a w y e tha t in the S outhern S h a n S ta te o f N y a u ng y w
, ,

about ten or twelve miles north of Fort S tedman w here ,

t he carvin g is o f a hi g h order while the lookin g g lass ,

-

mosaics a nd the vivid colouring with paints combine

to form a sin g ul a rly complete example of pure B urmese
art of this description T his pickin g ou t o f carved
.

w ork with g a udy and O ften s ta rtlingly u nharmonious

colours and trickin g i t up w ith coloured lookin g glass
,
-
,

are certainly crude and somewh a t barbaric methods but ,

if no t exami ned too closely the work is very effec t ive and , ,

i n front o f it o n e feels face to face w ith wha t is u ndoubt

e dly ar t though it follows l ines diverg in g widely from
,

those along w hich Western ideas run I t is perhaps i n .

such o u t o f the way places that the gems o f B urmese

- - -

wood carving a re most often to be fou nd .

I vory carving of g re a t delic acy is execu t ed by ar t ists

in M oulmein w ho have a practical monopoly o f this
,

kind o f work The desi g ns are very much t he same

.

a s i n wood carving with of course a higher deg ree o f

,

nish .

N ext to wood carvin g silver w ork occupies the chief ,

place amon g the a rts o f Burm a T he ornaments .

att a ched t o the court dresses o f hi g h O fcials consisted

o f richly ch a sed m a sses o f s ilver but the gre a t bulk of the ,

work execu ted by silversmiths was i n the for m o f bo wls

o f different s izes in sh a pe somewh a t like the lower half
,

o f a barrel only more convex o f be t el boxes cups and , , ,

small boxes fo r lime Teapots vases ra cing cups and .

, ,

such like are all of them E uropean innovations A lthou g h .

the designs o n t h e se m a y be B u rmese i n form such pro ,

d u c ti o ns can never be considered speci m ens o f pure

Burmese art w ork in silver O n many o f the lar g e r .

bowls leg ends and ep isodes from t he life o f Ga nd a ma

were often represented a s i n the more ambitio us wood ,

carvin g s w hile the smaller an d more solid articles were

,

chiey adorned with desi g ns of animals and chasing o f

scroll tracery varying i n dep t h The elepha n t gures .

frequently among the desi g ns in silver whereas i t is much ,

less commo n i n wood c a rvin g O n e o f the m os t .

2 95
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
t ypical standard desi g ns o n silver cups ( P a /d ) consists
o f the twelve signs o f the zodi a c each embossed within ,

on e of a series o f shields o r divisions o f equal size .

When orders for any w ork are given to a silversmith ,

rupees to the requ ired wei g ht are handed to hi m fo r

meltin g down and an a dva nce ha s at the same time
,

to be made : for it is seldom that any Burmese h a nd i

craftsman commences work o f any sort without receivin g
a cash advance i n accord a nce with custom The sil ver .

is rst o f all cast in the form of a plain bo wl o r cup .

Then it is lled with melted lac ; and when this h ardens ,

r epousse work o f g ures animals and scroll tracery is

, ,

blocked ou t before the ner chasin g is done w ith very

simple g raving t ools A lmost i nvariably a line o f chased
.

ornament runn ing rou nd the top or the bo ttom represents

the leaves o f the sacred lotus or water l ily .

B oldness bre a dth freedom of design a nd a g eneral

, , ,

wan t o f careful nish are the leading characteristics o f

,

B urmese silver work ; ye t some of the chasing and

en g ravin g o n small solid boxes mo r e especially o n those
,

m a de by S han silversmiths S how that some o f their

,

artists were capable o f impar t ing a very hi g h degree

of nish to their work .

Old silver ca n often be O btained in the bazaars for

a me r e trie in excess of the weight of the articles in
coined rupees M any a pleasant half hour can thus
.
-

be spent i n the M a ndalay Z egy o o r chief market place

by those a cquainted with the lan g uag e and desirous o f
collecting the o l d specime ns o f B urmese silver work
which sometimes nd their way there i n the shape o f
u nredeemed pledges .To estimate the quality of the
silve r a n e grained smooth black water worn test
-
, , ,

stone ( H m a t Ky a uh) is handed to the would b e -

pu rchaser who rubs the ed g e o f the bowl or box o n

,

this stone i n order to compare it wi t h the colou r o f the

rubbing from a rupee A ccordin g to t he amoun t o f
.

coppe r th a t has been used as alloy the rubbin g shows ,

a y e l l o wi s h red divergence from t he clear wh ite o f pu r e

silver.

N iello work ( M ei n l a ) is occasion a lly execu t ed thou g h ,

to no larg e ex t ent a n d chie y by S h a ns The g reatest .

2 96
 G O L D J E W E LLE R Y
recent artist in this b ranch was a leper who used t o live
in the t own of S hwe g yin and who d ied there a bou t ,

t wenty years ago S ome o f his productions were very

.

superior ; bu t as a rule most of the specimens o f this

, ,

class of work a r e u nfortun a t ely to be found worked into

inferio r silve r .

S ilver ornaments a r e despised by the B urmese excep t ,

perhaps as ch a rms to be worn by children ; and often

they constitu t e the whole clothing that is g iven to
these
. Gold j ewellery alone is worn by the women ,

in the shape of solid ban gles ear cylinders rin gs a n d , , ,

necklaces The spi t toons and betel boxes used by the

.

king a nd the S han chiefs were o f solid gold and small ,

imag es o f G a u da m a i n pure gold are known to h a ve

exis t ed ; bu t otherwise g old was and is used entirely , ,

for ornamental purposes A good se t o f g old ornaments

.

is a safe form o f regular i nvestment a s money ca n ,

alw a ys be ra ised upon them wheneve r necess a ry The , .

rings and the fr ont end of the ear cylinders are often
s e t with diamonds rubies spinels and sapphires I n
, , , .

A r a kan the necklaces are mostly i n the sh a pe O f larg e

hollow beads but in C en t ral B urma the favourite form
,

is the D a l i z a n consistin g o f rows of peacocks heads

,

o r other ornaments connected with each oth e r by small

chains and diminishing in n umbe r from the upper r o w

downw a rds N ecklaces are usually stained t o a dark
.

reddish colou r by being boiled in a decoction of tama r inds

and many othe r s t range in g red ients .

A form o f a r t which has now all bu t d isappeared i n

B u r ma is g ol d lacque r work Formerly the interiors .

of monas t eries were often decora t ed i n this manner the ,

whole o f t he walls being co vered with le gendary desi g ns

i n black and g old ; bu t n ow almos t t he sole remaining
traces o f the art are t he small boxes pla t ters and tables , ,

these la tt e r pu rely E u ropean in design w hich are

made i n P r ome Twenty ve yea rs a g o a splendid

.
-

specimen of this art da t ing from before t he second

,

Burmese war was to be fou nd i n an o l d abandoned

, ,

monastery at the southern end o f Myanaun g o n the

I r rawaddy ; bu t neglec t ed and left t o the ravages of
,

a ho t damp clima t e fo r years back not even traces o f

, ,

2 97
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
the handsome w ork h a ve there remained any longer
i n existence The whole surface havi ng bee n g ild e d
.
,

d esi g ns were dra w n in bl a ck var n ish ( Thi tsi ) a n d the

interven i ng portions w ere coat e d w ith g oldsize ; when d ry
the w hole wa s g e n tly wa s hed w ith warm w a ter whe n the ,

gures and orn a m e nts stood o ut i n black from the back

ground O f g old a n d the whole wa s xed with a co a t ing
,

o f transparent varni s h Covers and tra y s ( By a t a n d Oh)

.

for carrying offerin gs to priests presents o f pickled te a , ,

and s o fo rth a re also m a de o f l a cquered w are thou g h in

, ,

Ma n dal a y these used to be richly g ilded and studded with

I m i ta t i on precious stones .

L a cquerware i n colours i s man u factured i n several

pa r ts o f the country as all the drinking cups and most
,

of the be t el boxes are mad e o f it T his indus t ry is .

followed at Prome i n L ower B urma but the g reat

, ,

centre is Pagan in Upper B urma w here the workman

, ,

ship often rises to a re a lly artistic level The b a sis of .

the box platter o r c up i s formed of very ne bamboo

, ,

w ickerwork to ensure g re a t exibility The i n t erstices .

bein g lled up with a coatin g o f co wd u ng a nd bla ck

varnish the rough shell is dried for four d a ys at a
,

temperature o f a bout I t is a gain co a ted over a n d

dried before being put o n a rough lathe and polished
,

w ith silicio u s bamboo o r a pumice o f sand and lac .

W hen smoo th a co a tin g o f bone charcoal and black

,

v a rn ish is appl ied w hich when dried and h a rdened fo r ms

, , ,

the g ro u ndwork o f the desi g ns c u t o u t with an iron s tyle .

E xcept w here gures and ornaments are t o stand o u t in

black th is grou ndwork is cu t a way for some depth a n d
,

a coatin g o f body colour is g iven Whe n this has .

thoroughly h a rdened in abou t a fortni ght s time t he

a rticle is again pol ished till the black design shows

u p completely The style is a gain used to cut a way
.

all parts n o t i ntended to sho w u p in this rst co a t o f

colour and a co a tin g of a different colour is then applied
,
.

S imil a r operations are repe a ted as often as necess a ry ,

only so much o f the last appl ied coating of colour bein g

l eft u nremoved by the style a s forms part o f the
intended desi g n O nly three body colours are thus
.

used besides the bl a ck varnish o f the g roundwork

2 98
 U E R W O R K O F P A G AN
LA C !
Chinese vermilion fo r red and orpiment fo r y ello w ,

( impor ted largely from Yu nnan fo r t his pu rpose) w hile ,

green i s formed by adding indigo to the orpiment E a ch .

o f these mai n colou r s o r whatever shade o f them be

,

desired is slightly mixed with black varn ish t o en able

,

i t to s e t and harden qu ickly When these three o r .

mo r e successive coa t ings of pain t have been applied

and polished the gu res and main designs appe a r in
,

rich bl a ck w ith a n edging sa y of r ed wh ich may ra nk

, , , ,

n ext in importance in the scheme o f colou r B eyond the .

red appears the y ellow throu g hout the desi g n : and last
o f all comes the g reen r el ieved by dots and lines of the

ori g inal black The w hole is like a geolo g ical map o f

.

regul a r design the black bei ng the elementa ry rocks

, ,

and the red yellow a nd g reen form ing successive strata

, ,

al wa ys occu rrin g i n re gular se qu ence A fter the last .

pu micing by w h ich the colours a r e softened into sli g ht

,

blending a nal polish i s g iven with a lit tle o i l and

,

paddy husk S ome o f the Z a t K u nei h o r mo r e elabo r

-
.
,

ately ornamen t ed betel boxes o f Pa gan are qu a int a n d ,

interestin g obj ects o f Burmese workm a n s hip .

M ost o f the designs o n these are demons a n d my rb o

logical animals very much like those which form the
,

stock desi g ns of the artist i n ink w hen tattooing
-

boys thi g hs as previously described ( pag e

The arts w hich have as yet remained almost absolutely

u ntouched by contact with Western ideas a re sculpture i n
alabaster and the found i ng of brazen imag es of G a u d a m a
, ,

o f all sizes The g reat centre of these art handicrafts i n

.
-

the pu rsuance of wh ich however there is little opp o r , ,

t u n i ty for individual talent as the i m a g es follow precisely

,

the l ines o f hereditary conven t ional types consists o f

l ittle vill a g es S ituated immediately t o the south of Man
d a lay below the g r ea t A rakan pa g oda
, A lab a ster is .

qu a rried largely for this purpose at the S ag yin hill a bou t ,

t welve miles to the n orth o f Mandalay and also in the ,

S a g ain g hills on the w estern side o f the I rr a waddy .

The most colossal imag es are those made o f al ab a ster

and represen t ing the Buddha in a recumbent position ;
bu t t hose made in b rass and marble in la rgest numbers
rep r esen t G a ud a ma sea t ed cross legged in an attit ude ,
-
,

2 99
 BU R M A U N D ER B R ITI S H R U LE
o f deep contempl a tion his left hand resting across his
,

knees while hi s right h a nd h a ng s downwards i n fron t of

,

him. U pri g ht g u res are more frequentl y made o f

priests th a n of the B uddh a himself .

The most fa mous of the brazen i mag es is t ha t i n the

M a ha m y a t m u n i

the g reat saint s or A ra kan p ag oda
,

at Mandal a y w hich was brou g ht across the A rak a n

,

Yoma by the Padaung pass nea r Prome i n 1 7 84 as a ,

trophy o f the conquest of A ra kan by K in g Bod a w Pay a

in 1 7 8 3 Peculiar s a nctity is attached to this imag e a s
.
,

i t is s a id to have been made during t he life o f G a u d a m a

and to have been mira culousl y fou nded after several u n
successful efforts I t is abou t t welve feet i n hei g ht an d
.
,

represents the B uddh a i n the u sual sitting postu re ,

abstracted in profou nd medita t ion P opular repor t says .

this colossal imag e was b rou g h t ove r from A ra k a n intact ,

but it really was conveyed in pieces Fo r the service of .

the temple enshrining this sacred image 1 2 0 families of

th e defenders o f A rakan were condemned to slavery ,

and an endowment o f o ne P e acres ) of land pe r

head wa s m a de for their subsistence .

I n fou nding b razen images t he desi g n i s rst fas h ioned

,

i n clay and then coated over with w a x to the thickness

o f abou t half a n inch over which another coatin g of cl a y
- -
,

and chopped stra w is packed and allowed to dry for some

days A pertures are made in t his for the subsequent
.

pourin g in o f the met a l and air holes are p r ovided w i t h

,
-

pieces o f stra w The whole is then placed i n a furnace

.

and the molten wax a llowed to ru n o ff throu g h a hol e

at the base left for this pu rpose This being plugg ed up .

after a ll the wax has been removed the n ow hollow ,

mould i s ready to receive the molten bra ss A t this st a ge .

there is often failure and only one o u t o f every three o r

,

fou r moulds pro ves s uccessful When t he outer casing .

o f clay has been removed the work o f ling and burnish ,

ing the met a l occupies a considerable t ime .

Besides fou nding images o f Ga n dama t he chief u s e to ,

which brass is put is fo r making gon gs and pag oda bells .

I n the S han cou ntry and K arenn i the na t ional fo r m of

gon g ( Ky ez i n ) is i n the S hape of a drum open a t o ne ,

e nd but the true Burmese g on g ( M a ung ) consists of a

3 00
 T H E C A S T I N G O F B ELLS
r oughly t rian g ular disc of bra ss w ith turned up corner s ,

some w hat concavely hollo w ed at the centre but th icken

ing t owards the outer ed g e These are suspended by a
.

string or rope and are struck with a wooden m a llet o n

,

the corner t o make them revolve while emittin g their

note A s the yellow robed pries t s make their mendicant
.
-

round every mornin g o n e o f the small attendants keeps

,

beatin g such a go ng s o that those l ivi n g a lon g the line O f

pro g ress m a y be rea dy with their dole of rice The tone .

o f each gong depends on its size o n the thickness o f the,

met a l and the concavity of the central p a rt ; but the

,

richness and mello w ness o f the note is i ncreased when

silver has been added a s is sometimes done
,
.

When bells ( K a u ng l a u ng ) are bein g cast which usu a lly ,

forms the occasion o f a g reat local festival silver g old

, , ,

and j ewellery a re frequ entl y thrown in larg e qu a n tities

in t o the c a uldrons containin g the me tal to be pou red into
the earthen moulds The pieces of gold and silver a re
.

often plainly noticeable i n the bell through incomplete

fusion w ith the rest o f the metal T he c astin g takes .

place much in the s a me wa y a s with the brazen images .

The bells are th ick and m a ssive bein g supported by a ,

rin g at the to p s o th a t t hey ca n be slun g to a crossb a r

su p ported by two u pri g hts There is no c la pper the
. ,

note being struck by hitti ng the l ip o f the bell w ith a

wooden pestle or with the rosette end o f a st a g s horn

On a l l p a goda pl a tforms and near sacred shrines larg e

, ,

bells a r e to be fou nd with w ooden pestles and deers
antlers fo r sou nd in g them fo r the Burman is careful to
c a ll i n this manner the a ttention o f the g ood spirits co n
cerned to the fa ct of his bein g abou t to e a rn reli g ious
merit for himself by repeatin g the reli g ious formulae .

There i s no hidi n g o f such li g ht u nder a bushel .

There is a sm a ller k ind o f tiny bell ( S wel w) often

a ttached to the umbrell a o r iron framework surmo u nt

in g pa god a s Th is is provided with a cl a pper in the shape

.

o f a thin piece o f tin o r iron cu t i n the form o f t he l e a f

,

o f t he sacred F i cu s r el i gi osa a n d gener a lly g ild e d w hich ,

is suspended by a thin chain from the roof o f the bell .

W ith e a ch brea th o f a i r these g l e a e ts are borne -

agains t the sides of the be lls w hich thus tin k le day and
,

301
nigh t while the air is i n li g ht motion S ometimes t hese .

pagoda bells make a s wee t melody durin g t he stillness

-

o f the ni g ht thou g h often they seem rather to jangle

,

u nmusically when to o close a t hand .

The larges t bell i n B urma is tha t a t M ingu n o n t h e ,

western bank o f the I rrawaddy a l ittle above M andalay , .

H ere the foundations o f an enormous pagoda having a

square base of 1 5 0 yards i n leng th we r e laid i n 1 7 7 1
by K ing M i nta yagyi which had i t been completed
, , ,

would have formed the larg es t pile o f brickwork i n the

world But it was des t royed by an e a rt h q uake i n 1 83 9
.
,

when it had risen t o a hei g ht o f 1 6 5 fee t or a li t tle unde r ,

o n e third O f the to t al 5 0 0 fee t i n hei g h t which t he original

-

desi g n con t empl a ted Close t o t hese massive ru ins is

.

the la rge M in g u n bell p robably only out r ivalled in

,

dimensions by t he gr ea t bell of M oscow Popula r r epor t .

credits it with wei g hing viss or 90 5 t ons bu t , ,

the Burmese royal chronicle assigns t o i t a weigh t o f

5 viss o r abou t 90 t ons while more recent estima t es ,

based o n measu remen t s and rou g h calcula t ions s h ow th a t ,

it must wei g h abou t 80 tons I t is twelve feet i n height

.
,

and ten feet in external diame t e r at the lip w hile it varies ,

in t h ickness from about s i x to t welve i nches Fo r many .

yea rs it remained res t ing on t he g rou nd having fallen ,

from its supports ; bu t in 1 896 it was raised agai n o n

substanti a l iron uprights and crossbeam and has since ,

been enshrined i n a rich h ousin g o f carved teak .

I n some respects the most interesti n g bell in Bu r ma ,

howeve r is the fa mous Ma hag a n d a a great bell weig h in g

, .
,

abou t twenty two t ons enshrined in the north eastern

-
,
-

side o f t he pla t fo r m o f the S hwe D a g on pagoda in

R angoon P r esen t ed to the pagoda by K ing S i n pyu y i n
.

i n 1 7 74 w h en h e visi t ed R an goon in order t o gain rel i

,

gio n s me r it by repairin g the brickwork o f the pa god a by ,

reg ilding it from pinnacle to base and by replacin g t h e ,

ol d Talain g Ti ( or metal umbrella surmou nting the

top ) by a new o ne covered with gold and profusely s t udded

with j ewels which he had constructed i n A va for t he
,

pu rpose o n wh ich occasion he also slaughtered the aged

,

B y a hm a i ng d i his prisoner
,
the las t K ing of P e g u
, ,

t og ether with many of the Talaing chiefs t his bell was ,

3 02
 B U R MESE M U SI C
r emoved by the British prize a g ents in A pril 1 8 2 5 for , ,

shipment to Calcutta as a trophy Whilst it w as bei n g .

conveyed o n a raft to the ship S u l i ma ny it heeled over ,

a n d s a n k not fa r fro m t he river bank I n J a nuary 1 8 2 6 .

, ,

it was raised by the British from the mud o f the river

bed by moori ng it with two cables t o a bri g a t l o w water ,

a lon g with which it rose o n the re t u rn o f the i n ow i n g

tide and the B urmese were t hen permi t ted to haul i t o n

shore and remove it once more t o its place o n the pagoda
,

pl a tform This was done m or e B u r ma n i co with ex

.
, ,

t ra v a g a n c e o f deli g ht and publ ic festi val The bell wa s .

garl a nded with owers and preceded by music a n d

,

dancing D u rin g the last seven t y years this has o f

.

course developed into the leg end that the bell wa s ra ised
easily by the Bu rmese after all attempts o n the p a rt o f
,

the British to recover it ha d resul t ed in fa ilure .

A nother l a rg e bell o f a bout n ine tons wei g ht hu n g in

, ,

the south east corner o f the same pl a t form was fou nded
-
,

and pl aced there early in 1 84 3 by K ing Tharra wa d d i to

replace one which ha d been presen t ed abou t 1 4 6 0 by
D a m m a z e d i Ki n g of Pegu but which had been lost in
, ,

the Pazund a ung creek about 1 6 0 0 when the Portuguese ,

Governor of S y r i a m t he notorious Philip de Brito y N i co te

, ,

also known as Maun g Z in g u was carrying it off , .

A s in t h e other a rts s o also with rega rd to m usic

,

there seems to be a n entire lack of inventiveness and

creative po wer A ll the existing tu nes h a ving app a rently
.

been handed down by e a r from g enera t ion to g eneration , ,

music a l no t ation being qu i t e unknown to the B urmese .

I n spea kin g of music they v a g uely reco g nize only ve

kinds o f musical i ns t rumen t s ( Tu r iy a o r Ti hm oh Ta z d

instruments to be bea t en o r blo w n but in real ity they

employ a larger nu mber in making the dreadful noises
which ca n often only be recognized as in t ended for music
when a ssisted by the enchantment o f bein g heard from a
considerable distance The t a ste for Burmese music
.

close at hand does no t grow o n o n e F o r t wo years I .

l ived in S hwe g yin i n i mmedi a te pro x imity to the place ,

near the northern gate of the mai n bazaar where all the ,

fu ner a l processions halted on their wa y to the crem a torium

and burial g rou nd ; yet the shrill piercin g notes o f the ,

3 03
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
horn a nd the loud booming of the frame drums o n the s e -

al m ost daily festive occas ions seemed u nmusical t o the

end I t is l ittle shor t o f agony to be encamped too
.

near to any P we o r t hea t rical performance o n accou nt o f

the loud discordant accompanimen t t o the play

, .

The princip a l wind instrument is a clarine t ( K ay a ,

widening l ike a n oboe towards the lower end and ,

with a short spreading bell shaped brass termination like

, ,
-

the base o f a bu g le ; and there is also a pipe o r ute

A variety of drums exists as noise is o ne of ,

the most strikin g characteristics o f the national music ;

bu t the ch ief o f these is the S a i ng consistin g o f a circular ,

framework with thin ornamental wooden balustrades i n

,

which a pe a l of small dru ms o f diffe r ent sizes a nd tones

is xed in re gular g r adation These a r e played o n by .

h a nd by a man sitting in the cen t re T o accommodate this .

S a i ng i n processions t he musicians a r e usually seated in

,

o n e o r more carts F or making these dru ms t he wood

.

o f the B On m ez a tree ( A l bi z z i a s tip u l a ta ) is invariably

used A smaller i ns t rumen t of s imila r shape is the Ky i
.

wa i ng or circle o f gongs which are s t ruck with a stick , .

T he chief s tr in g ed instrumen t s are t he S a u ng a harp o r ,

lute o f n ine t o th irt een silken strings made o f P a d a uk ,

wood ( P ter oca rp u s [nd i cu s) wi t h a soundin g board o f -

does k in and the M igy a u ng o r crocodile s o called from

, ,

its sh a pe a gu ita r of three strings strung len g thwise

,

above a cavity hollowed out O f teakwood There is .

also a kind of viol in ( Tay a w) with three strings forming , ,

o n e o f the minor instruments Of those played by p e rcu s .

sion the brass cymbals ( L i ng wi n ) e a sily take rst pl a ce ,

bu t the P a tta l a o r harmonicon constructed with some

t wenty or more pieces o f bamboo about an inch and a ,

half wide bu t graduated as t o len g th hung alon g t wo ,

s t rings i n a sou nding box made of t eakwood deeply

hollowed ou t is more sweetly t oned T o add to the
, .

volume of sou nd bamboo clappers o r castanets ( PV a l et

h H y p) are also beaten to g e t he r sometimes with the

g o ,
n a ,

hands sometimes with the feet ; but these can hardly be

,

considered musical i nstrumen t s t h ough nearly always ,

to be fou nd i n a band .

The hi g h pitched shrill pie r cing cla r ion no tes of the

-
, ,

304
 B U R M ES E M U S I C A L S C A L E
K ay a procl a i m the dominant t heme and variations o f the
tune ; and accompanied by the lou d harsh cl ash o f the
,

brass cymbals they make themselves heard above every

,

thing else i n Burmese music The man who keeps con .

t i n u a l l y movin g a bout beating the d r ums hung wi thin the

frame work o f the S a i ng has on t h e whole the h a rdest work ,

for he who plays the K ay a usually has support in the

shape o f a man (c alled the N a u hta i ng ) s i t ting behind
h im b a ck to back a gains t whom he ca n lean when he
, ,

begins to feel tired .

The use of music a l instru men t s is conned almos t

en t irely to men Girls sometim es though very r arely
.
, ,

play t he bamboo harmonicon but no t any of the other ,

I nstruments .

The Bu r mese musical scale consis ts o f an oc t ave

havi n g nearly the same notes as the E u ropean diaton ic
scale ; but t he interval between E and F is n o t a semi
t one as in our oc t ave The Burmese F is sharper than F .

natural and yet is not t he t rue F sh a rp ; while B is also

,

sharpe r t han the E uropean B natu ral L it t le atten t ion .

is paid to pitch and the i nstruments are for the most

,

part such a s require hardly a ny tuning V ery fe w of .

the stock tu nes have been writte n down by E u rope a ns ,

though t he g rea t na t ional air the K ay a Tha n o r S ound ,

o f the Clarion has been se t both fo r piano a nd for a
,

military band F reed from the element of noise pro

.

d uc e d by an u nmean ing use o f drums and cymbals it is ,

a quain t and distinctly musical air i n parts sparkli ng , ,

b r igh t and gay and in others plaintive a nd s a d

,
.

I n Burmese tu nes the rst notes in bars are usually

emphasized the following ones being played more and
,

more softly then often almost dying aw a y a lto g ether

,
.

S ome of thei r shor t lyrics a l most a l ways sun g to sa d ,

and plain t ive tu nes are very impressive if heard i n the

,

soft stillness of the mild tropic a l evening when the mind ,

is best attu ned fo r r eceiving impressions o f this sort .

The echoes of o ne such heard in the gloaming more ,

tha n t wenty years ago amid the j ungles frin g in g the b a nks
o f the S ittan g river will ever linger in my m ind asso
,

c i a te d with the scene around me at the time I had been .

o u t a ll day in t he dense elephant g rass j ungle direc t in g -

V OL I I
. .
3 05 x
 B U R M A U N D ER B R I TI S H R U LE
opera t ions for c a pturing two female b agga g e elephants
which had been lured away by the males o f a wild herd ,

and I was sit t ing by the bank o f a small stream m e d i ta t

ing on t he contra riness o f thin g s in general a nd the
perverseness o f female eleph a nts in particular The .

evening s ky was weird shot with most o f the colours in

,

t he rainbow and lled with the faint p a le lemon hued

, ,
-

lights which seem t o i nduce sa d feelin gs so r ead ily a nd

u ndesiredly Following each o t her in quick succession
.

i g hts of various kinds o f birds homing wes t wards to ,

thei r nesting places in the forests o f the Pegu Yoma ,

had passed far overhe a d and the daylight was fast ,

be g inning t o fail A ll around was the d a rk brown mud

.
,

laden water owing towards the mai n river ; bec a use it

was the month o f A ugust w h en the highest oods were ,

ou t and the vast inu ndations covered many scores o f

square m iles o f l ow lying l a nds throu g hou t the S it ta n g
-

valley J ust as i t wa s about t ime to w end my way back

.

t o the h aml et where I was encamped in a monastery fo r ,

t he higher land is then usually s warmin g with cobras a n d

other sn a kes d riven u p by the waters and a cer tain ,

amou nt of daylight is essential for wary walkin g the

sound of a pl a intive song w ell su ng came faintly t h r ough
, ,

the j ungle g rowing gradually stron g er and louder as i t

,

came nearer S uddenly the prow of a canoe shot ou t

.

from behind a thick clu mp o f t a ll elephant g ra ss and -

,

a merry sin g er burst forth with a new verse commencing

M a u ng S hwe M a u ng N aught s a ve the rst

.

few notes and the rst nasal vari a tion ha d been t r olled
forth when the lad seated paddlin g at the stern o f hi s
,

canoe cau g h t sigh t o f me o n the bank and the love so ng ,

-

was stilled A v ertin g his head shame fa ce d ly a s he

.
-

paddled by he soon made t he small canoe shoot past

,

qu ickly and was los t to View behind othe r j un gle That

, .

i s long long ago now bu t whenever I have since h eard

,

i t s a id and t ha t n o t infrequen t ly tha t the Bu r mese have

, ,

neithe r poe t ry nor music in their composition then the ,

memo ry o f the plaintive notes o f that song and the u n told

t ale of Maung S hwe M au n g rise u p within me i n silent
protes t agains t the critic w ho ha s never felt a nd u nder
,

stood the deep pa th os of the simple folkson g s that some

3 06
 I C T O RI A L A R T
P
times break the still ness and silence o f the lonely recesse s
i n these O ften very depressing tropic a l j un g les .

I n p a inting the artistic feelin g is much less apparent

,

than in carvin g and silver work althou g h the mura l ,

decorations i n the Ku pyau kg y i K u zeik and other older , ,

shrines i n Pag an d isclose e v i d e n c e s o f an art now lost to t he

Burmese The subj ects chosen are usually either le g en
.

d a ry o r i n t ended to represent celebrated pag odas and

shrines The colouri ng i s crude i n the ex t reme and the
.
,

technique grotesque while there is a to tal disrega rd o f

,

even the mos t elementary axioms o f perspective A t .

some of the rel i g ious edices the various to rments i n

i c te d i n the m any d ifferen t kinds of hells are most
g raphically represented One o f the most complete a nd
.

gruesome of these collections is at the A rak a n p ag oda

a t the southern end o f M a ndal a y Torments are there .

depicted w ith much detail such as t he most ultra Cal

,
-

v i n i s t i c o f S cottish divines could ha r dly have fou nd him

self able to conceive and describe so blood cu rdling and ,

-

r ealistic are they Whenever E nglishmen form the

.

subj ect o f B urmese pic t ures they are g enerally r e p re

,

sented i n absurd situations and with a number o f beer

bo t tles around them mostly empty ,
.

A nother form of minor decorative art consis t s in em

broidered curtains ( K a l ag d ) or a pp l i qu e work of red cloth
with gures sewn o n that have been cut o ut o f black an d
coloured cloths spangles bein g often a dded to hei g hten
,

the effect This i s t he only approach the B urmese have

.

to anything i n t he way of tapestry S ome of t he legend .

ary desi g ns t hus trea t ed are effec t ive pieces o f colour ,

though rather crude and me r etricious from the artistic

point of View .

A t B a ssein S againg and S hwebo a somewha t coarse

, ,

sort o f art po t tery is manufa ctured t o a sli g ht ex t ent i n

t he form o f terra cott a adorned with rough models o f
elephants monsters of various sor t s gures o f men a n d
, , ,

ora l tracery a l l highly gl a zed The ordinary bro w n

, .

glaze is produced by coatin g the a rticles while still u n ,

red with a wash o f galena ( Cha w B wet) and rice w ater

, , ,

while sulphate o f copper is added if a g reen tinge is

desi r ed. U nder K in g M ind on efforts were made to
3 07
 IL

i n troduce glass blowing i nto M andalay ; bu t thi s never

-

at tained much success althou g h the title Ch ief o f the

,

Glass Boilers ( P a ng yet Wu n da u/e) was borne by o n e o f the

most i n uential amon g the youn g e r ofcials at court durin g

both M i nd On and T hi ba w s reigns I t was this W u n d a u h
.

who wa s sent in 1 885 as A mbass a dor Plenipotentiary to

reside permanen t ly i n Paris ( se e v o l i pa g e . .
,

E ven i n m a ny suc h m inor matters as the em broidery

of felt saddles or leathe r harness e tc there i s a s t rong
, , .
,

heredi t ary a rtistic feel ing among Burmese handicrafts

men ; and it is mat t er fo r re g ret that this i s inevitably
being t h r ust aside and g radually oblitera ted in co nse
u e n c e of contact with E u r opean t rad e and civil iza t ion
q .

D ecay in all the v a rious branches of national ar t i s how ,

ever merely one o f the i nevita ble items i n t he total price

,

that B urma is paying for the loss of its separate national

exis t ence a nd for its r apid m a terial progress u nder the
,

present more civilized administration which has fo r its ,

chief aims the pro t ection of life and p roperty the ,

advancemen t o f education and sani t ation and the e x p a n ,

sion o f trade a n d commerce .

I n refe r ring to the treatmen t of diseases nothing has

been s a id above abou t veterinary work thou g h this is o f ,

g r e a t importance in an agricultural cou ntry w here serious

epidemics often cause a heavy bill o f mortal i ty among
cattle ( se e v ol i pag es 3 0 9. .Governmen t have
, ,

done much to try a nd remed y this by su itable i ns tr u c

tion ; but a s mi g h t be expected the Burmese methods
, ,

which ob ta in are very primitive and b a rbarous entirely ,

empirica l and altogether devoid o f scientic knowled g e

,

or o f h umane feelin g for the sufferin g s o f the brute

creation . T hus inj ections o f curious m ixtures are
,

fre q uently made into the eyes o f ponies and ca t tle when ,

they a r e o u t o f condition through over work o r ove r -

exposu re to the s u n One such r ecipe consists of a

.

mix tu re o f betel l eaf cl oves toba cco and sa l t These are

-
, , , .

all pounded tog e t her mixed with wa t e r and applied , ,

w hile fresh This

. eye opene r often ( it is said ) -

stimulates energy fo r t he time being ; but it must be

horribly painful to the poor du mb a nimal already su ffer ,

ing from illness I t m ust certainly a c t powerfully a s a

.

counte r irritant
-
.

00 8
 Ch ap t e r X I I
L AN G U AGE AN D L I T ER AT U RE
H E Bu rmese language with its half dozen local ,
-

g roups o r d ialects belon gs tog ethe r wi t h the

, ,

various C hin and K a chi n tribal languag es t o t he ,

T hi b e to B urman family o f w hat may perhaps be t ermed

-

the polyton ic lan g u a ges of I ndo China The other fami -

.

l ies occurring o r spoken at a l l in Burma include the

, ,

C hinese the M On or M On A nnam the S han or Tai and

,
-
, ,

the K a ren languages .

The M on o r Pe g u an langua g e more commonly known ,

as T a lain g s ince the downfall o f the Peguan kingdom i n

1 75 7
, is still spoken and t au g ht in monasteries in the
villages between M oulmei n and A mhe rst t hough nothin g ,

is done fo r its special encouragemen t I t has a li t eratu re .

of its o w n and numbers o f inscriptions are recorded i n it

, .

The only known offshoots from the ancient M On are the

Pal a u ng hill t ribes chie y t o be found i n t he R uby M ines
d istrict and the Khamu tribes nea r the M ekon g river
, .

T a i c S han i ncludes all the l a n g ua g es spoken by the S han

and Chinese S h a n tribes the L aos and the S iamese
-
, .

The K a r en lan g u a g e includes the three g roups S gaw , ,

P wo ( inclusive o f Taun g thu ) a n d B w e o r t ,

ai .

The classication of the A ryan S emitic and D ravidian , ,

families o f l a n g uages as monotonic i n contrast to t hese ,

polytonic fa milies is o f cou rse somewh a t arbitrary and

,

artici a l ; bu t tonal varia t ions are in the l a tter c a se so

essentially ch a racteristic of the spoken l a n g uag e as
perhaps to j ustify the distinction thus made The S han .

languag e for example cont a ins v e tones when spoken

, ,

and in some of the syllables there a r e three series o f

these givin g fteen possible d ifferent p ronunci a t ions o f
,

3 09
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
a sin gle syllable For tunately however these t onal
.
, ,

possibili t ies are n ot fully utilized i n conversation I n .

B urmese there are t hree to nes s o tha t a n y given syllable ,

may have three entirely d iffer e nt me a nin g s o n ly d is

t i ng u i s ha bl e by the i n to n ation w hen spoken or b y a ccents ,

o r d iacritic a l m a rks w hen w ritten .

I

The Bu rmese a l p ha bet howeve r is borrowed from the , ,

A ryan S an scrit t hr o u g h the Pal i o f Upper I ndi a This

,
.

was the l a ngua g e spoken by G au d a ma du ring the six t h

centu ry B C and it was i n P a l i th a t A so k a s inscription s
. .

dati ng from about 2 4 1 B C w ere recorded . .

, .

A lthou g h the la ng u a ges themselves differ g reatly all ,

the alphabe t s i n u se thro ug hout F urther I ndia have been

derived from th e O ld D ev a n a ga ri o r Pal i characters .

The oldest inscriptions as yet fou nd in Burma are S anscrit

records in the Gupta ch a ra cter o f S a m vat 1 0 8 o r 4 1 6 ,

A D
. . while the n ation a l lan g uag e seems to have come from
Ceylon a n d S outhern I ndia alo ng w ith the B uddhism
w hich became the n a tional reli g ion N early a l l the older .

stone inscriptions fou nd in various p a rts o f Burma a re

recorded in square Pal i characters bu t a s all the manu
scripts w ere m a de by g ravi ng w ith a style on leaves o f
the Talipot palm ( B or a ssu s a bel l ifor m i s ) t he let t ers ,

gradually acqu ired their present rou nded forms .

A s a m a tter of fact the Burmese possess two lan

g u a ges the ancie n t classical Pal i and the more modern
, ,

v er n acul a r Burmese Their g enius is d ifferent ; for Pal i

.

is a pol y s y llabic l a n g u a g e w hile Bu rmese is monosyllabic

, .

A ll Burmese words a r e monosyll a bic excep t those de r ived ,

from the Pali yet even t hese are usu a lly p r onou nced as
if each s y llable formed a separa te w ord The pu rely .

monosyllabic natu re of Burmese i s ho w ever very fr e , ,

quently m asked by t he common habit o f combinin g

w ords o f synony m ous similar su pplementary or modify , ,

i ng character to convey o n e complete idea or else by the ,

necessity fo r combinin g t wo ra dicals either nou ns o r ,

verbs to convey the ide a expressed by one w ord in ou r

,

lan g uag e Thus Ky a u hl a n the

. to be afra id i s co m ,

,

posed o f the monos y ll a bic wor d s Ky a u h to fear and ,

,

L an , to be startled w hile Ya npy i tthe to quarrel

, ,

,

i s made up o f Y o n

strife and P y i t to throw I n
, , ,
.

310
 P A L I A N D B U R M ES E
Bu r mese it very fre q uently h a ppens th a t t wo mono
s y llabic words a r e re q u ired t o express an idea which
may be represen t ed and conveyed by o ne wo r d of
E n gl ish .

A ll classical r eligious legal as trological pseudo

, , , ,

s c i e n t i c and technical te r ms a r e as a rule Pal i ; and , ,

grea t nu mbe rs of Pali words of t wo o r more syllables a r e

e a sily detected among t he pure B u rmese monosyllabic
radicals of the cu rren t ve r nacular langua g e e g K a na , . .
,

a moment Ya z a royal ,

, .

Occasionally hybrid polysyllabic words a re t o be found

consistin g of Pal i combined with a Burmese radical a s ,

i n the word Ya n da r a set w here Ya nda r a means a ,

machine , and S et joined together The whol e .

P ublic Works D epar t ment i n Burma is nai vely c o m

p r ehended i n this mongrel word fo r wheels within

wheels .

C onnec t ed wi t h t hese t wo classical and ve r nacular lan

guages t here were also t wo alphabe ts having r espectively ,

squa r e and circular le tt ers though these have long since

,

become combined i n the B u r mese a lphabet t aught at the

monasteries T he whole alph a be t was o f course origi n
.
, ,

ally derived from Pali ; bu t so many chan ges bo t h as t o the ,

shape and the phone t ic value of many le tte r s took place ,

i n accommodating t he cha rac t e rs of an ancien t A ryan

polysyllabic monotonic lan g uage to the essential r equ ire
,

ments of a modern poly t onic monosyllabic languag e that , ,

the resu lting a lphabet really embodied two classes o f

le t ters o ne being ancien t and t he other mode r n
, .

Of the thirty one consonan t s i n t he B urmese alp h abet

-
,

S ix are never fou nd elsewhere than i n words o f Pali

o r igin ; and a t leas t fou r more are much more common
i n cl assical than i n vernacula r wo r ds The main co n .

sonants are arran g ed i n ve g roups tha t o f forming ,

t he g utturals o f S the pala tals o f Pal i T the cereb rals

, , ,

o f B urmese T the dentals and of P t he labials E ach

,
.

of these ve g roups consists o f ve le tt ers the rs t bein g ,

the simple consonant the second its aspira t ed form the

, ,

th ird the r ou g h o r hardened fo r m o f t he rst the fourth the ,

aspira t ed fo r m of the thi rd and the fth the nasal belong

,

ing t o t he series Thus giving t he a vowel inhe r en t in

.
,

31 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
each l et t er when no other vo wel is i ndicated o r w hen
t his i nherent vowel is n o t annulled by a tha t o r killin g

mark the guttural series is ha ha g a g a ng a ; while
, ,

, ,

t he labi a ls are p a p a ba b a m a Besides t hese ve

,

, ,

, .

series of ve letters each there are s i x nondescript , ,

u nclassed consonan ts of a soft l i qu id aspi ra t e or o t he r , ,

n a tu re ( y a r a l a wa tha and ha ) T here is neithe r an

, , , , , .

f nor a v i n the alphabe t I n fo r eign or Pal i words i n .

which these occu r they are rep resented by p and w :

thus M r V icto r F r aser would appea r as Wei hta w
.

P a r tsa Tha hi n when t ranslated i nto Bu r mese .

I ncludin g the i n herent vowel there are ten vowe l s i n ,

B u r mese w hich may be tra nsl iterated as a d i i u 22

, , , , , , ,

e e a w aw pronou nced much as i n Germ a n o r I tal ian

.
, , , ,

Combinations o f these have the value of the sou nds

ei , a i , a n .

The language is w r itten from left to right i n wha t

appears an u nbroken line B ut the r e is no di fculty o r .

confusio n thus caused to t h ose who u nderstand the

lan g uage E ach syll a ble o r word i s denitely intell i g ibl e
.

by its inherent or specic vowel o r by the ton a l d iacritical ,

marks attached to it ; w hil e the end o f clauses o r sen

t e nc e s is marked by verbal a fxes and at times even by ,

a full s t op i n the form o f a sin g le o r double upri g ht b a r

( I o r II) E rasures
. are not made i n manuscripts bu t ,

cancellation is effected by pl a cing a heavy dot in the

centre of each rou nded part o f the letter or letters to be
passed over The manuscripts are a ll o n palm leaves
.

cu t t o the size o f about two and a half inches broad and

a foot and a half o r so in len g th They are preserved .

by bein g rubbed from time to time w ith earth o i l ; and -

this also by d irtying the graven letters m a kes these

, ,

st a nd o u t fo r easier reading V olumes are formed by a .

bamboo peg nea r each end impaling the leaves placed

o n e on the t o p of the other ; a n d the whole manuscrip t

is enclosed within wooden boa rds o n the top an d bottom ,

and ti ghtly rolled in cloth o r p a per and tied The .

monosyllabic roots o r radicals forming the b a sis of the

lan g uag e are either nou ns o r verbs O u t o f t hese the .

language is bu ilt u p wi t h the ai d of vowel prexes o r

afxes of various sor ts By the add i t ion of these t he .

312
 G E N D E R S A ND G E NE R I C A FF I X E S
verbal roots ca n be turned into nou ns a djectives o r , ,

adverbs T hey g ive the tenses t o verbs ; and they form

.
,

alone o r i n combination the prepositions conj u nctions , , ,

i nterj ections adverbs e t c of the l a n g u a g e The m ascu

, , .
, .

l ine ( Ap b) and femin ine g enders are recognized ,

bu t the nou n radicals h a ve no g ender whatever F o r .

example an el ephan t is S i n a word havi n g no gende r o f

, ,

i t s own and g ivin g no indication o f the g ender o f the

,

a nimal spoken o f A male e l e p ha n t i s S i n di and a femal e

.
,

S i n m a ; K y etbo is a cock a n d Ky etm a a hen Two , .

eleph a n t s are S i n hn i tsi or eleph a nt two beasts o f

,

bu rden . These g eneric afxes to subst a ntives a r e a
peculiar featu r e of the langu a ge and are often extremely ,

useful Many mis t akes occur a bou t a boat ( H l e) o r a

.

cart bu t H l eta z i n
boat o n e long thing

, , ,

canno t e a sily be confounded with H l eta z i

cart o n e

, ,

t hing fo r carryin g Again a cheroo t S eta l ei h
.
, , ,

t obacco one rolled thing is easily d istin g u ishable from
, ,

a pill S eta l on med icine o ne rou nd thing
,

, , .

The sequence of w ords a nd phrases in Bu rm ese

sen t ences is such t ha t o ne can very O ften and is some ,

ti mes even obliged t o be g in translati n g from the end of

,

a sen t ence and workin g back This peculiar arrange .

men t of words i n sentences their reversal o f their n a tural ,

o rder j ud g ed by ou r s t and a rd is common to the other ,

two branches ( t he Chin L u shai and the K achin ) o f th e -

T hi b e to Bu r man fa mily i n which respect it differs fr om

-
,

the ot h er three fa milies ( MOn A nn a m S han and Karen ) -

, ,

of the polyton ic class .

There can be no doub t that B u r mese is a very poetic

language I t is o ne of the most fascinatin g la ng uages
.

that an etymologist c a n con ceive Of course a s mi g ht .

,

be expected o n e nds many word s and ide a s cle a rly

,

derived from I nd i a as for example Gy u n ,
w he a t
, , , ,

L el a n ,
an auction Z a t

race birth story S a d i
, , , , ,

birthpl a ce B i l a t a western coun t ry cle a rly identic a l

, , ,

w ith the I ndi a n words G i hon L el a n f a t S a d i a n d , , , ,

Wa l ay a t The strong desire to have obsequies performed

.

by sons or da u gh t ers is l ikewise a re mnant o f Upper

I ndian cus t om .

A vast nu mber o f words and phrases in o rd i nary

313
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE

everyday use a r e full o f beauty or o f sugges t ion O ne s ,
.

bi rthplace ( Chetmy oh) is the place where t he navel cord

-

is bu ried You th ( L u /i n pronou nced N a l i n ) is the
.
,

dawn of manhood A gu n ( Then a t) is the spiri t o f

.

death w h ile a percu ssion cap ( N g ay em i ) is hell re
,
-

.

A mischie f maker ( Ka l a uhsa n ) is a bell clapper A
.

pensioned ofcial (A ny ei nsa ) ea t s r epose and o n e
,

who lives at ease without requ irin g t o work for a l ivel i

hood ( Ta i ng sa ) is said to s i t and eat
To make a .

men t al estimate o f any one s character (A heha tthe) is

to assess the alloy T o ru in a man is to b r eak h is

.

rice pot To be an noyed by h earing u npleasant ne w s
.

is to feel i t bitter i n one s e a r while pleasan t news are

swee t in the ear The solois t or leade r o f a chorus

.

( h )

g ( g

T a n son a a i ng is he
who ives the warp in weavin

a
) so ng while , the chorus furnishes the woof and plies
the shuttles A lenien t magistrate wri t es with a soft
.

q uill pen while t he seve r e j ud g e uses a ha r d qu ill
,

.

The late twilight when t wo b r o t he r s mee t ing can scarce

,

recognize each other is succeeded by t he time when ,

o n e cannot see the in t erstices be t ween one s ngers

;

and this is followed by t he u tt e r d arkness F rom
.

8 to 1 0 p m is
bachelors cou rt ing time ; abou t 9 p m
.

.

is when foo ts t eps are noiseless ; and aft e r t ha t is when

youths re t urn from cou rt ing D eath is me r ely depa r .

tu r e and a fu ne ral (M a tha) is nei t he r mo r e no r less than

,

an unpleasan t ceremony

.

Place names offer almos t e q ual a tt raction t o t he e tym o

-

l og i s t The vast majority of towns Villa g es and hamlets

.
, ,

are named eithe r after physical fea t u res of the count r y or

othe r na t ura l objec t s and especially afte r t rees Then , .

follow names a r ising ou t o f speci a l occurrences which

have happened locally Thus S again g a corru p t ion o f .
,

S itkain g is s o called fr om the r aft o f the two princes who

,

fou nded the city having the r e been cau g ht i n the branch

z z i a p r ocer a

o f a S i t t ree ( A l bi ) according to the legend ,
.

V illa g es abou nd with names l ike Tantabin

o n e toddy ,

palm N y au ngle b i n fou r F i cu s t rees Z i b i nhla be a u
,

, ,

,

tiful j uj ube tree Ky u ngOn t eak knoll o r L etpa ng on

,

, ,

,

co tton tree knoll Mag we and Myitkyo both mean the

-
.

bend of the river while M yi tkyina is near the gr eat

,

314
 B U R M ES E ET YM O L O GY

river . Chau ngz a uk is the s t eep bank o f a stream and ,

K a nbyo stands where the r iver bank ha s fallen in

.

M a g y i l a ha is the tamarind plain and Kya t pyin the

,

nar row plain Toun g oo is Taungn g u the spu r o f the.
,

hill while S hwegyin is the g old siftin g t own Myohl a
,

.

is the fair city Kyauks e the stone weir M Oks ob o

,

,

the hu nter s cookin g p o t a n d H n g etthaik the bird s

nest .

Taungnyo is the brown hill Ky au k ta lOn the ,

one rock villag e and S inthe where the elephant died , .

A t Yedashe traces can still be seen o f the lon g emb a n k

men t to which the town owes its n ame ; A kya b the ,

chief t own o f A ra kan is only known to the Bu rmese as ,

S i t twe m y o the city o n the b a ttleeld ; a nd its
,

northern suburb S a tyog y a corrup ted by the E nglish into ,

C he e r og i a is


where the s t ag shed its antlers
, The .

t own o f Z a l On has some connexion w ith a lar g e bowl ;
while t he town of Bhamo is a corruption o f B a m aw the
,

vill a g e o f the ear t henw a re wa ter pot derived from two ,

S han words B a n
a villa g e and M a w a chat t y or
, , ,

,

,

earthen wa t e r pot I n addition t o i t s in t eres t ing a nd
.

important g eographical position Bhamo has t he u nique ,

peculiarity of being practically a C hinese t own though ,

bearing a S han name and located i n Bu rmese terri tory ,

.

I n conve rsa t ion and everyday l a ngua g e the u se o f

rhyming incremen t s having no r eally denite meaning is
frequent Thus a t a ra ilway s t ation one s servan t s may
.
, ,

be heard spe a kin g o f Wu n sag a /e p ag a l e w here Wu n ,

means bagga ge and the r hymin g inc r emen t is n ot only

added by way o f euphon ic e ffect but also to convey an idea ,

o f somethi n g like odds and ends o f baggage
.

From this it may a t once be antici p ated th a t the

Bu rmese are prone to o no m otO poei a ; and this is the case ,

t hough their ide a s of imit a tive sounds sometimes differ

from ours Thus L el e is used in ca llin g pi g s Ti d i in sum
.
,

monin g fo w ls and V a wya w for collecting cattle and pon ies ;

,

bu t for c a ts M i u m i u and N y a u ng ny a u ng are u nmistak a ble .

A s ca n easily be u nderstood from what has above been

remarked a bou t the l an g uag e B urma possesses two kinds ,

o f l iterature Pal i and Burmese , .

The P a l i literatu re is o f cou rse by fa r t he mos t ancien t ,

includin g as i t does the Buddhist scriptures that ori g in

, .

3 5 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
a lly fou nd thei r way to Bu rma fr om C eylon and S ou t hern

I nd ia
. Comprised i n the B i dag a t thbn bon o r three -

bas k ets these scriptu res consis t ed o f th e three d ivisions
, ,

Thu tta n o r i nstruc t ions t o laymen Wi n i o r discipline ,

of religiou s men an d A bi da mma o r metaphysics

,

appl ic a ble to d wellers in spirit land and i n the celestial -

reg ions They are metrical and consist o f eighty fou r

.
,
-

thousand sections o r verses A ll o f t hese are ascribed .

to the Buddha himself except t wo thousand added by ,

his disciples S u pposed to have been prese r ved for

.

a bou t fou r cen t uries by oral tradition they were only ,

reduced to w ritin g a bout 80 B C when the l iterary period . .

,

o f U pper I ndia be g an A n abridgmen t of the Wi n i is

.

t o be fou nd i n the P a ti ma u h or su preme beatitude th e

,

manual of Buddhis t monks The whole of the Pal i lite ra .

t u re concerns itself exclusively with religious subj ects .

The Burmese l iteratu r e is also for t he most pa rt

metrical and consis t s of religious romances chronological
, ,

histo r ies and songs , .

The rel i g ious roman ces a r e o f t wo ki nds Z a t and ,

Wu ttu The Z a t o r Z a ttag d t he f a ta ha o f I ndia are

.
, ,

birth s t ories
-
supposed to have been related by
,

G a u d a m a himself while the Wu tti Z a r e r eligious

rom a nces o r narra t ives ex t rac t ed from t he Bu ddhist
scriptu res .

There are i n all no less than ve hundred and fty

Z a t cont a ined i n the B urmese sacred wri t ings a l l referrin g ,

to differen t existences o f a B uddh and p a rticularly of

G a u d a m a the last B uddh and all o f them a re expressly
,

intended to inculcate some special mora l lesso n T en o f .

these s tand ou t as g rea t works i n r espect o f le n g th ,

i nterest reputa t ion and l iterary value namely the Temi

, , , , ,

Z a n e kk a T hu w u nn a sha n N emi M ahaw B u r id a t S anda

, , , , ,

Gumm a N arada W i d u ra a n d W tha nd a ra Both i n

, , ,
.

popular estimation and as a l iterary work the last named ,

is the most impor tant o f all these t en g reat Z a t I t is .

the masterpiece o f B u rmese l ite rature and a s such a , ,

r s u me o f it is g iven i n the chap t er followin g this The

remainin g ve hu ndred and forty a r e comparatively minor

productions often merely simple fables many o f which
, ,

have a close resemblance to those current i n Western

316
 T H E R O Y A L C H R O N I C LE
lands . A ll of t his early Bu r mese l iteratu re bears
u nmis t akable evidences o f I ndian ori g in and inuence .

The Wu ttzZa re works of considerable interest and merit ,

the bes t of which were wri tten by a native o f M Oksob o

( S hwebo ) who only
,
died within the las t hund r ed years .

S evera l kinds o f these narratives are dis t in g uished as

A b i d a mm a Z a t D a mm a p a d a M a n i k u nta l a M i l e i n d a
, , , , ,

Y a d a n aga ra T hu k awa ha and H i tawp a d tha Wu tti i

, .

The M a ha Ya z a wi n o r R oyal Chronicle forms the

g reat historical work o f B u r ma H istories o f this sort .

are a charac t eristic o f I ndo China as all the v a rious king

-
,

doms t h roughou t Fu rt her I ndia main tained t heir own

ch ronicles .

The Burmese ch r onicl e may be r oughly divided in t o

a purely my th ical o r fa bulous a legendary o r q u a si ,

historic and a more o r less actually historic portion

, .

E ven the latter can hardly be truly termed history ho w ,

ever as i t neve r r ecords any t hing bu t the t riumphs of

,

the Bu rmese kin g s and t he vic tories and conques t s

,

a chieved by t he B u r mese arms When an army was .

forced to reti re t he K in g had simply been gra ciously

,

pleased t o forbear from pu nishing his enemies to a ny

excessive exten t W hen A rakan and Ten a s serim w ere
.

ceded to t he Bri t ish in 1 8 2 6 the K ing merely permitted ,

the British t o reside the r e A fter t he second Burmese.

wa r no record was eve r made i n t he Ya aa wi n t hat Pegu

had been torn away from Burm a I t w a s cert a inly an .

a uthorized his t ory bu t one in whic h everythin g u n a tte r

,

in g to t he Bu r mese mona rchs has been rigidly s u p

pressed .

The legendary portion of the chronicle carries back

the fou ndation of t he ki ngdom o f B urm a t o early in the
tenth centu ry B C o r some s i x hundred ye a rs before
. .
,

A lexander the Great i nvaded N o r thern I ndia E ven .

before Mah a T ha mb a wa established a dynasty at Thare

Khe ttara ( Prome ) in 4 8 3 B C a lon g lis t o f mythical . .
,

kin gs is g iven who are supposed t o have come from

,

I nd ia and to have ruled a t T agau ng A nd a t best the .

chronicle ca n onl y be considered as le gendary o r quas i

h istoric t ill the rei g n o f A n a wra ta z a w durin g the eleventh
century A fter t hat the roya l records rest on a more
.

317
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
substanti a l basis o f fa cts bu t the s e reduce themselves to
,

a comparatively sm a ll co m p a ss S till the M aha Ya z a wi n

.

is ins t ruc t ive as a S p e cimen o f B urmese l it e rature and ,

as a p ractical illustra tion o f the n ational character : fo r

o f this it is very ch a r a cteri s t ic indeed .

The R oy a l Chro n icle con tains interestin g a necdo t es

illustra t ive o f leg al d e cisions remind in g o n e stro ng ly o f
,

the j ud g ments o f S ol o mon A nd altog ether in many

. ,

respects an intere sti n g p a rallel mi g ht well be dra w n

,

betw e en it and the O l d Tes t amen t formi ng the M a ha

Ya s a w i n of the J e w s .

Three versions o f the chron icle are k now n which ,

differ from each other both in their renderi n g o f the

leg ends and i n the d a tes a ssi g ned to the e vents R ecent .

discoveries o f lithic inscriptions are however o f use i n , ,

helpin g to x dates and fu ture discoveries w ill probabl y

,

also be o f g re a t a ssista nce in this d irection .

The M a ha Ya z a w i n is it shou ld be recollected purely

, ,

a mo nkish work I t w a s w rit t en either by monks o r

.
,

by those who had become lay men ag a in after a long

period o f mo na stic life I t was put into its presen t form
.

by a body o f learne d monks and o f laymen who had ,

been monks in 1 8 2 4 at the time of the rst B urmese war .

The fac t o f th is monkish ori g in explai ns the constant

praise o f g ifts to monks continu a lly met with both i n the
R oyal Chronicle and in the Z a t formin g the chief po r
tions o f the nation a l literatu re .

F rom the Z a t has sprung the modern B urmese d rama

o r P y a z a t ( from P y a rst o f all in the

,to
form o f reli g io u s perform a nces l ike the e a rly E ngl ish ,

M ysteries o r P a ssion Pl a ys and subsequently in a less

,

rel i g ious but more popular form E ven these later .

play actor Z a t are a ll however taken from a ncien t

-
, ,

s tories referrin g either t o even t s i n the v a rious exist

e n c e s of G a u d a m a o r i n the lives o f princes supposed

t o have ruled near w here Buddhism ha d its ori g in .

The chief le gal works i n Bu rmese are the D a m

m a thd t o r D i g ests o f Buddhis t L a w The ori g inal dig est .

is supposed to have been drawn up durin g the rei g n o f

t he le g endary K in g M aha T ha m ba wa in the fth cen t ury
B C
. . by M a n ti who fro m bei ng a cowherd when a child
'

318
 C LA S S I C W O R K S
rose t o the r ank o f a g rea t law givin g j udge or minister -
.

F rom time to t ime t his legendary code seems to have

been revised to su i t chang ing requ irements fo r the ,

s t atute la w ( D a m ma thd t) was occasionally modied by

fresh enac t ments of Government ( Ya z a thd t) .

The st a ndard edition known a s th e L a ws o f M an ti

a lready referred to in detail

( v o l i page 1 7 )
9 was dra w.n ,

up in the B u r mese language the ancient laws having

been i n Pali about the yea r 1 7 7 5 A D Bu t a new
. .

D i g es t o f B uddhis t L a w t h e A tta sa n hhep a V a n n a n a

D a m ma that rs t published in Upper Burma in 1 8 8 2

, ,

has recently been r evised and printed in 1 899 by the ex

Ki nw u n M ingyi o r la t e Prime M in is t er of the kin g dom
of A va T his mon u mental work consisting o f a di g es t
.
,

o f all t he laws obtai ning in Upper Burma durin g the

reigns o f M i nd On and Thiba w is the las t a nd the most ,

autho r i t a t ive word o n modern Burmese B uddhist law

t ex t s ( se e vol i pages 1 90 and
. .
,

A s a classic S pecimen o f Burmese litera t u r e howeve r , ,

t he Thu da mma sa r i P y a tdon or D ecisions o f the

Princess T hud a m m asa ri thoug h brief and fragmentary
, ,

can hardly be overlooked They s t rongly resemble por

.

tions O f the R oyal Ch r onicle and of the L aws o f Ma n tt

'

i n rela t ing legal decisions i n the fo r m of S hort stories ,

somewhat in t he manner i n which moral truths are

exempl ied in t he fab les o f 1 13 5 0 13 and Phaedrus
2
.

O t her cha rac t eris t ic forms o f national literature are

the works o n a s t rology a nd magic the books of die t ist ,

and druggist medici ne men those relating to the inter

-
,

r e ta t i o n o f signs and d r eams the book o f proverbs

p ,

and s o forth to which speci c reference has been made

,

in th e c h apte r relating t o S cience and A r t Thou g h .

n o w w r itten i n Bu rmese they are thickly s t rewn with

Pali phraseology and were doubtless derived d irectly
,

fr om I ndi a n sources .

A lon g w ith the mo r e recen t o f the P y a z a t modern ,

Burmese l iterature is chiey made up o f L i ng a o r lyric

poetry The songs are often sun g separately besides
. ,

bei ng incorporated in the thea tric a l performances M any .

of the d ram a tic artists ( Z a ttha ma ) have a g ood gift of

improvisation t o which they g ive free r ei n while acti n g
,
.

319
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
M ost o f the l ines cont a in from four to seven syllables ,

and they even frequently rhyme i n all four syllables

when the shorter metre is adopted With a free use of .

rhyming i ncrements and a fxes this is an easy enough

ma t ter I t would be impossible t o reproduce such
.

monosyllabic L i ng a w i t h any t hin g l ike a pproximate

accuracy in E n g lish ; but the following is something like
o n e o f the most popular o f the songs o f recent yea r s i n

Ra ngoon thou g h I have only tried to give the g eneral

,

drift and feel in g o f the la y without attempting the i m p os ,

sible t a sk o f r eproducin g the ori g inal fo r m o f t he

poem
M A KI N
S L ME A NT : A B ESE L E S
URM OV ON G .

I lie my b ed d wee p ;
on o ane o d f my l i fe C m b k 0L ac , r o ,

I f et nd I nn t sl ep
r , a ca A n d e nd t h i we i som e t i fe
o e ,
s ar s r ,

W h i l e wi th o th e g i l y u st y Th t t tu es b th h e t n d b i n
r r s o ra a or r o ar a ra ,

F i th l ess nd k l M aun g P
,

a a D i vi n g p oo M Ki n in n e
c e . r r a sa .

E v e n my s n d l wood b ed a aLi k e a to en t fed by i n rr ra

I we t wi th the te
s I v sh e d Fl ow th t s I an t e t i n
ars

e e ear c

r s ra

N k ed I l i e ol d S hi v i ng Wi th b u n i n g h ea t l l the d y

a ,
c , r r r a a

I l on g b ut fo th ee M u n g P e
,

Wi th g i e f my h ea t al l q ui v i ng


r r r . r ,
a .

I b eg b esee h a d impl o e ,
c ,
n r

C om e b ack to m e st ay n o m o e : r r .

Ti only l ose to thy b e st

s c r a

P oo M a Ki n an feel t e t r c a r s .

The cens us o f 1 89 1 showed some men cl a ssed

a s ea r ning their l ivelihood from litera ture But these .

a re almost entirely scribes en g aged as copyists i n mon

a s te r i e s H ere o n pal m lea ves they tra nscribe with
.
, ,

an iron s t yle (K a ny u tda n o r aspara g us stalk ) th e

sacred writings for the monastic libraries Owing how . ,

eve r t o the extensive u se now made o f the printing

,

p r ess for reproducing both reli g ious and secula r litera

ture t hese scribes belon g to what will probably soon
,

become almost an extinct profession .

3 20
 Ch ap te r X I II

WETH AN D AYA : O N E O F TH E TE N G RE AT
1
BI R T H ST R ES-
O I
F T E R G au d a ma ttained omniscience h e j ourneyed
a

forth in to t he cou n tr y of B ara na thi ( Benares ) whe r e ,

he gave knowledge of the tr u t h to ve he rmi ts and ove r

a thousand othe r recl uses Thence he wen t with his .

converts t o Ra z ag yo i n acco r dance wi t h a p r omise

,

made befo r e he became B uddha and spen t th e wi n t e r i n ,

t he W e l u wun monas t e r y H ere t wo he r e t ic p r ies t s be

.
,

comin g conver t ed at t ained a hig h s t a t e o f knowled g e

, ,

and t he numbe r o f holy men o f h igh deg r ee waxed

g rea t ly rising t o t en thousand
, ,

L earnin g that his son was in R a z ag y o K ing S u dd a w ,

dana t en times sen t an invitatio n to him by a nobleman

wi t h a r etinu e o f a thousand a ttend a n t s ; bu t all t hese
became conver t s and remained wi th G a u d a m a A t las t
, .
,

however h e yielded t o the paternal wis h and s e t ou t for

,

Ka p p i la wu t ma r chin g twelve miles each day and spend

, ,

ing two mon t hs on th e journey .

A rriving i n company with his monks like ,

a glorio u s moon su r rounded by innumerable s tars he ,

took up his a bode in a monastery specially built fo r his

reception H is haughty ki ndred pro ud of thei r royal
. ,

li ne a g e wished t ha t only the membe r s younge r t han

,

Gan dama should make obeisance to h im while they ,

themselves should rs t receive a greeting from him .

D ivining t heir thou g hts G a u d a m a r ose miraculously i n

,

t h e air so that all the princes from K in g S u d da wd a na

, ,

downwards made hu mble obeisance before him The

,
.

haughty pride of h is r ela t ives being thus broken a nd

humiliated G au d a ma descended a gain to the e a rth and
,

V OL . 11 .
32 1 Y
 B U R M A U N D ER B R ITI S H R U LE
took t he sea t prepared fo r him A S he did s o a t hunder .

s t orm r ent t he air a nd rudd y brown raindrops fell t o the

,

g r ou n d l ike r a in fa lling g entl y among the t i g er lilies

-
.
,

But it wetted only those who wished to be wet wh ile ,

those who wished to remai n dry fel t no ra in .

A fte r performin g this miracle G a u d a m a medita t ed fo r

some t ime and then rel a t ed the Wetha nday a Z a t in a n
,

u nbroken ow o f words w hic h welled forth l ike water ,

fr om a pi t cher ; and th is i s wha t h e s a id ,

P A RT I P R I N C E WETH AN D AV A T H E P AV ALA U N G
.
,

.
l

A ges ago a king n a med Thiwa r ei g ned ove r S ed u t

,

taya i n the land o f T hi wa

, H e had a s o n named .

T ha i ns i who t ook un t o himself as chief Q ueen P o t ha d i

, ,

daughter o f ano t her K ing c a lled M add a P othad i was .

then sixteen y ears of age and su rpassed all other ,

maidens in loveliness and beau t y H er ma rr iage w ith .

K ing T hai ns i t ook place with splendid ceremonies t he ,

sou t hern palace bei n g appoin t ed as he r residence and ,

her maids o f honou r and femal e a tt endan t s numberi n g

Bu t this g r eat d is t inc t ion was not me r ely
fortu itous .

Many cycles of yea rs before th e presen t e ra o f

existence when W i p a thi B uddha was l iving in th e
,

M i ga d a wu n grove the K ing o f B a nd u ma di received

,

g ifts o f costly sand a lwood and a necklace of gold .

Givin g them t o his t wo dau g h t ers for their own use ,

these bestowed them o n the B uddha I n presenting the .

perfu med sandalwood the elder d a u g h t er desired that she

mi g ht in future t ime become the mother of a Buddha ,

while the youn g e r more modes tly asked tha t till such ,

time as she migh t a tt ain N e i kba n ( N irvana ) her body in ,

e a ch term of exis t ence should bear imp r inted on i t a

se mblance o f the necklace .

I n cou rse o f t ime t he princesses died and we r e trans ,

l a ted after t he manner o f kin g s a nd q ueens to t he

, ,

abode of t h e N a t ( spirits ) F or n inety o ne cycles o f

.
-

years the elder princess passed t o and from the land of

men and t he home o f the spirits wi t hou t once fa lling i n t o
demerit and a t th e end of this period she became the
,

P y d /a g m ean s the I n carn ati o n of a B ud d h

1
a un .

3 22
 P OT H AD I
blessed May a t he mother o f Ga n dam a B uddha The
, .

youn g er siste r likewise passed through m a ny s t a t es o f

existence before s he became one o f the ei g ht d a u g hters
o f K ing K iki w hen she attained N eikban
, O ne o f her .

sisters T hu d a m ma by virtue of the many chari t able deeds

, ,

sh e performed after p a ssin g several exis t ences bet ween

,

the a bodes o f men a n d of spirits was eventually bo r n as ,

the d a u g hte r of K ing M adda by his chief q ueen and ,

wa s given t he name of P o tha d i because s he was born

all fra grant as though her body had been washed wi th
wa t er perfumed with sandal wood .

J ust before en t ering upon this las t existence P o thad i

was t h e wife o f the Th a g ya M in ( I ndra ) or c h ief o f the ,

spirits ( D eva ) K nowing from ve different signs that

.

the l ife of his consort was about to end the Thag y a ,

bore he r accompanied by her a ttendants to the N anda

, ,

w u n ga r den H ere placing he r on a richly j ewelled

.
,

couch and seating himself beside he r he sang her praises ,

i n a thousand stanzas and promised because of the love , ,

he bore to her to g rant he r any ten favou r s s he migh t

,

ask .

U nwi t ting o f he r impending change of exis tence ,

P o t ha d i u nderstood no t hing save t h at s he felt ill i n body

a n d u neasy i n mind Then the Thagy a made known t o
.

her th a t s he was soon abou t to pass over i n t o another

state of exis t ence and besou g ht he r by his affec t ion
, ,

for her to accept t he ten favou r s o ffered

, .

N o w perceiving the situation and kno wi ng t hat the ,

law o f transmi g ra t ion canno t be obviated P o tha di ,

looked rou nd t o se e whe r e a ne w existence could best be

commenced and then made the ten requests
,
These .

we r e t hat she migh t be t he chief Q ueen i n the p a l a ce of

K ing T ha i ns i t ha t he r eyes might be b r o wn like those
o f a fawn that her eyeb r ows mi g ht also be b rown th a t
her name mi g ht be P o tha di as w h ilst consort of the ,

Thagya d u ring this present exis t ence ; that she mi g ht

have a s o n wo r thy o n accoun t of h is merits to receive
, ,

homag e fro m kin g s and re a dy to bestow upon suppli a nts

,

all they m i g ht a s k for even we r e it his head his eyes

, , ,

his heart hi s r oyal w hite u mb r ella his children or his

, , ,

wife ; that t he natural beau ty o f her body mig ht rem a i n

3 23
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
u nimpaired even thou g h s he were abou t t o become a
,

mother : t ha t t hough she migh t bea r several children ye t

sh e should n o t become aged i n appearance but have a ,

swelling bosom as i n the owe r of her you th ; t hat her

hair might no t whiten wi t h age bu t re t ai n i ts colour as
,

durin g he r prime ; t ha t he r bodily beau ty should be p r e

served u nblemished pure and clear ; and t ha t s he mig ht
,

be gifted with inuence t o save from dea t h t hos e w ho

mi g ht fall u nder the K in g s displeasure .

These t en requests being g ran t ed P o tha d i passed ,

for t h from the N a t cou ntry and became r einca r na t e in

the womb of K in g M a dda s c h ief queen t o reappear ,

among men as Princess P o thad i .

O n her marriage wi t h K ing T ha i nsi th e Thagy a ,

looked down from t he land of sp i r its t o s ee how i t now

fa red w ith his late consor t i n her n e w sta t e of exis t ence ,

and then se t abou t fullling her desire as to a s on .

S earching fo r a being wo rt hy of such a mo th er he found ,

in the abode o f spi r its the futu re G a u d a ma whose ,

existence among t he N a t was abou t t o end o n his b e

comin g a P a y la ung ( or emb r yo B uddh ) H e th ere .

fore a r ranged t h at t h e P a yalau ng should become incarnate

o f P o tha d i o n passing ove r t o t he wo r ld o f men To .

provide suitable companions o n such an auspicious

occasion he also u rged
,
N a t whose periods for
,

transmig ration we r e also approaching to become l ike ,

w ise incarnate i n the nobl e fam il ies o f Thiwa .

F rom the time o f he r concep t ion P otha d i delighted in

m aking r eligious offerings and begged K in g T ha i ns i
,

to have s i x rest houses bu ilt a t each of the four main

-

ga t es o f the city and at the four palace gates s o tha t ,

offe r in g s migh t daily be made in chari t y .

A mazed at such a r e q uest T ha i n si asked the as t rologers

,

fo r an explanation and was informed t ha t his p r incess had

,

conceived a son whose deligh t would be i n ac ts of c h arity

and whose desire o f making religious offe r ings would
p r ove u nlimi t ed R ej oici n g therea t T ha i nsi fullled
.
,

his conso rt s request ; and from tha t day Tha i nsi s

revenues inc r eased g r eatly while gifts from other u m

,

b r ella bea r in g sove r ei g ns pou red in upon him

-
.

When abou t to become a mo t her P o tha d i des ired to

,

3 24
 W ET H A N D A Y A
g o forth and see the city ; s o T ha i n s i ordered it to be
decked fo r a royal procession and accompanied he r in ,

state Before the pe rambula t ion o f t he city was com

.

p l e te d , t he time o f ma t e r ni t y a rr ived fo r P o t ha d i and ,

she bo r e a so n open eyed and free from all blemish i n a

,
-
,

building has t ily e r ected by the way A s this was i n the .

trading q uar t e r o f the city the child was a t once named ,

W tha nd a y a ( derived fr om we to buy and tha n t o

S tretching forth his ti ny hands the new born

child said Mothe r I would make an offering H ave
, , .

y o u any money Placi ng a packe t of a t housand pieces

nea r his hand she bade him do as he wished .

A s a birth presen t a you ng elephant white as silver

-
,

and perfect i n shape was borne through the ai r to him,

from the H i ma wu n ta forest ( H imal a ya ) I ts name was .

P i ssa ya because it was destined t o be of assistance in

,

bringi ng future greatness and prosperity to W tha nd aya .

F o r t he nu r sin g and tending o f the you ng prince t wo

hu ndred and fo rt y nu rses we r e selected free from any ,

physical blem is h o r taint and every twenty fou r minu t es

,
-

throu g hou t t he day and ni g ht four of these took charg e

o f him .By o ne he was bathed or washed the second ,

dressed him while the t h ird fanned him and the fourth
, ,

carried an d nu r sed him .

R eceivi n g a necklace worth o ne hundred thousand

pieces from his fathe r a t the ag e of abou t fou r years he ,

gave i t to his nu rses Fearin g to refuse it yet still more

.
,

fearing the K ing if they accepted it they rst received it ,

and then tried to get the prince t o t ake it b a ck a ga in ;

bu t he would not Then they told the K ing of the
.

ma t ter who bade them keep the child s gift N ine times
,

.

were su ch costly ornaments presented t o W tha nd a ya ,

and each time he at once gave them to his nu rses .

A t the a g e o f eigh t years he one day while reclinin g ,

o n a g olden cou ch withi n the palace meditated o n the ,

g reater j oy which would thrill his hear t if he could ma k e

g ifts o f an inner personal subj ective nature rather than
, ,

of a merely external impersonal and objective description

, ,
.

Were any one to ask fo r my heart s esh he thought

, ,

I would cleave open my breas t and give it o r were my

eyes soug h t t hem too would I give ; o r if the esh of my
,

3 25
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
body w ere aske d I would cu t it o ff wit h a knife ; o r if I
,

were demanded as a slave I would g ive my body up t o ,

slave r y .
1

A s he formed this vir t uous resolu t ion t he wo rld

trembled w ith a noise l ike the roar o f a wild elepha nt ,

and the M y i n m o M oun t ( M eru ) bowed its head like a

green cane roasted before a re The heavens r esounded .

with the noise o f th e earthquake ashes of l igh t nin g ,

broke from the clouds and rain fell heavily t houg h i t , ,

wa s no t the rainy season The ocean b r oke i t s bou nds

.
,

the Thagy a clapped his a r ms in joy the array o f B rahma ,

i n the celestial abodes applauded and the sound o f a ,

g r ea t noise was heard throu g hout all t he u niverse .

A t sixteen years of age the P a yal au ng was mas t e r o f

the ei gh teen branches o f knowled g e and his fa t her took ,

counsel with his chief Q ueen P o tha d i with reg ard to , ,

givin g him a palace an d an u mb r ella a n d t hus establish ,

in g him in l ife A suitable consort for him was foun d i n

.

M a di d au g hter of the Q ueen s b r other Madda Pre

,

, .

l i m i na r i e s having been arranged M adi was brough t with ,

much rej oicing and married to W tha nd ay a who was ,

made P rince o f t he province of S a d u ttaya M ad i wa s .

appointed his chief P r incess and given a r e t inue of sixteen ,

t housand a tt endants F rom the day o f h is nomination

.

as Prince W tha nd a y a each day gave away si x hu nd red

,

thousand pieces of money as offeri ngs S i x times in each .

month mounted o n t he wh ite elephant P i ssa y a h e

, , ,

visited t he s i x sh r ines at which t hese chari t abl e gifts

were offered .

M adi i n due time bo r e a s on who was called Z al i a n d , ,

a daughter to whom the name o f G ahna z a i ng was given .

P A RT I I T H E D E GR E E
. OF B AN I S H M E N T .

A bou t this time a severe fa mine was rag ing i n t h e

nei g hbouring kingdom o f Kal a i ng ka owing to a lon g ,

drou g ht S o great was the scarcity tha t the peopl e

.

devou red each othe r and the whole count r y became a ,

scene o f rapine Calling upon t hei r K ing i n thei r dis

.

Sl v s fo m ed ne of the fo d eg ad ed cl ses am on g the B u m

1
a e r o ur r as r ese ,

( ee p ag
s e
n
 THE
W H IT E E LE P H A N T
t ress he qu ieted them by sayi ng t ha t rain would soon
,

fall ; and he fasted for seve n days prayin g fo r rain Bu t .

no rai n came s o he assembled his nobles and sooth

,

sayers who t old him that W tha nd aya owned a white

,

elephant and a dvised t he K ing t o ask i t for a g ift as

,

Wtha n d ay a delighted s o much i n making chari t able

offerings that he would give no t only h is p r iceless white
elephant his w hite umbrella his palace and his wealth
, , , ,

but also his eyes or h is hear t t o any one w ho asked for

the m .

S elec t ing ei g h t cleve r B r ahmins the K ing provided ,

them with plentiful supplies and sent them for t h to ob tain

the whi t e elephan t from W tha nd a y a .

T hei r a r rival fell upon t he day o f the full moon .

E arly i n the mornin g W tha nd a y a ha d ridden forth upon

P i ssa ya h a ving left the palace by t he eastern g ate
,

accompan ied by a large re t inue A s the throng o f nobles .

and people was great t h e Brahmins saw they had l i t tle

,

chance of ob t ain ing speech o f the Prince s o they hastened ,

to the so uthe r n ga t e and stood upon a mound awai t ing

his a r ri val .

O n his coming afte r having vis i t ed the shrines o f offe r

,

ing nea r t h e easte r n ga t e they stretched for t h their

,

hands and cried a loud

H ail Pri nce victory be with
, , ,

thee ! Perceivin g from t heir words of praise that they

sough t alms Wtha nd a y a asked wha t it was they desired
, .

H ereupon the Brahmins related how the land of

Ka l a i ng ka was famishing for wan t of rain and ove r ru n
by robbers and they asked for a gift of the sacred whi t e
elephant in orde r t o put a s t op t o t his dis tr ess .

M edi ta t ing upon hi s r esolution t o give even his head

o r his eyes if necessary he a t once gave his peerless
,

elephant to t he B r ahmins saying

I give you this
, ,

elephan t withou t any r eluc ta nce though no o ne upon ,

earth is wo r thy t o ride it bu t myself and t hou g h it is ,

mine only throu g h my excellence D ismou nting he .
,

examined the animal and i ts caparison ; then placin g ,

the end o f its t runk i n t he hands o f the Brahmins and

pouring perfumed wa t e r upon i t from a golden vase he ,

made over the p r ecious gift to t heir keepin g togethe r ,

wi th a larg e nu mber of attendan t s to m iniste r to its

2
3 7
 B U R M A U N D ER B R I T I S H R U LE
wants Then aga in as once be fore th e earth n o w trem
.
, ,

bled greatl y and made a mi g h ty noise s o t hat the ,

whole cou ntry was as tonishe d and the people raised a

,

g r ea t shou t .

S eeing t he B rahmins rid i ng on the sac r ed white

elephant and taking it away towards the land o f
Ka la i ng ka the c rowd which gathered rou nd abou t them
,

to hinder their progress reviled them and asked by ,

whose au t hori t y they rode the peerless P i ssa ya S corn .

in g such O pposition the Brahmins repl ied t h a t the Pay a

lau ng had bestowed it upon them as a g ift and they
forthwith pushed onwards along the road leadin g b a ck to
Ka la i ngka ,

R estrained by the i n uence o f the N a t abiding i n t he

land of spiri t s the people allowed t he Brahm ins to t a ke
,

a way the sac r ed elephan t ; but t hey wen t t o t he palace of

K in g T ha i ns i and cl a moured before h im askin g why ,

his so n W tha nd ay a had bestowed i n alms upon mendi

cant Brahmins from a fa r country the peerless white
elephant u nmatched for beauty streng t h or courage
, , .

While not demanding o f the K ing the imprisonment ,

hea ti ng o r execution o f his son the popul a ce insisted t hat

, ,

W tha nd ay a ha d a cted fool ishly and w rongly in g ivin g

away the sacred white elephant w hich had brou g ht
highest repute to the K ing a nd v a st prosperity and
secu rity to t he cou ntry ; a nd they d emanded that
W tha nd ay a should be deposed from his princedom a n d
banished t o the Win ga hills ( the S i wal i k s and the Terai ) .

D eser t ed by all save P o t ha d i his Q ueen the K in g

, ,

fou nd himself unable t o r esis t the dema nds o f t he people ,

a nd begged tha t at any rate W e tha nd a ya might be

allowed to remain i n his palace fo r o n e n i g ht longer ; for

he hoped t ha t the savage mood o f the peopl e might
perhaps change before t he mo r ning dawned But at the .

same time K ing T ha i ns i sent a trusty noble t o his son s

palace to inform him that the whole nation ha d arisen

in an g er a gainst him clamou ring fo r his banishment and
, ,

that when the next day d a wned they would assemble and
drive him forth from the land .

M ean while W tha nd a ya had come back o n foot to his

palace after bestowin g his noble gift upon the B rahmins
,

3 28
 T H E G R EA T O F F E R I N G
from Kala i ng ka and was seated u nder the royal wh i t e
,

u mbrella surrou nded by his sixty thous a nd nobles .

H ere t he messenger o f evil sent by the K in g broke

down o n arriva l at the sight o f the Prince s bea titude
, ,

.

Tears w elled to hi s eyes as kneeling in obeis a nce he , ,

pra yed fo r pity and asked th a t h is life might be spared

though the news he brought w e r e full o f evil and fore
bodin g .

H eari ng of the fury and the clamou r of the people

because he had g iven away the white elephant W tha n ,

d ay a exclaimed S eein g th a t I am willin g to give even

,

my head my arm my eye o r my heart why S hould

, , , ,

I hesitate to make offerings of such articles as silver gold , ,

j ewels horses elephan t s l a nd o r men ? A bout n o

, , , ,

offerin g do I hesitate and my he a rt deli g hteth in givin g

, .

I f I am to be exiled for havin g m a de a n offerin g let ,

the people o f Thiwa banish me ; if they w ish to kill me ,

o r if they would hack me i n pieces let them do s o bu t ,

fr om offering g i fts I w ill n o t refrain .

Then the messenger o f his father spoke saying th a t ,

t he people demanded his b a nishment to th e A r i nsa ra hill ,

near the Ku n ti m ara river the place to which exiled ,

Princes were usually sent W tha n d a y a replied that .

Princes were onl y sent the r e w hen they had broken the
law whereas he was innocent o f any crime nevertheless
,

he would g o there if t he people wished this .

Bu t befo r e he went he desired to make the g reat offe r

,

ing o f the seven hundreds and therefore bade his ro yal

,

fa ther s messenger beg from the people t he del a y o f o n e

d a y fo r t his pu rpose .

PA RT III .
T H E G R E AT O F F E R I NG .

S ummoning one o f h is nobles W tha nd ay a o r dered ,

the necess ary p reparations t o be made fo r the g reat offer

ing on the following mornin g S even hu ndred elephants .
,

seven hu ndred horses seve n hundred c a rriages seven , ,

hu ndred fa ir maidens seven hundred milch cows seven , ,

hundred male slaves and seven hundred fem a le slaves

,

we r e orde r ed t o be collec t ed together with all sorts o f ,

mea t s ; and e ven in t oxic a t in g drinks were to be provided

3 29
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
too in case any s h ould ask for such fo r t he P rince fea r ed
, ,

les t anythin g asked for mi g h t no t be obtainable o n t he

solemn occasion o f this his l a st g reat princely offering ,
.

Then t he P a yala u ng wended his way to the pa l a ce of

the Princess M a d i to break to he r the ne ws of his banish
ment a nd to advise her to conceal the riches which
,

K ing M adda her fathe r had bestowed u pon her

, , .

H aving throughou t i nnu me rable past exis t ences been

closel y a ssociated with many P a y ala u ng and holy men
o f saintly l ives from the time of the B uddh D i i n k a ra
, p
downwards the Princess M a di was i ncapable of feeling
,

greed or avarice Marvelling g rea t ly at his warning he r

.

to conceal he r t r easu r es she asked he r husband where ,

sh e should place them for secu ri t y I n reply he s a id .

that thou gh s he hid t hem i n a t reasure house or i n the -

earth w here the ve enemies coul d no t ha r m them y e t

1
,

treasure could only be safely guarded fo r ever i n the

great s t orehouse o f religious merit and o f charity u ntainted
by avarice S o she acted o n her husband s advice
.

.

Continu ing the P a yala u ng exhorted his wife to love

,

and cherish their two child r en even more i n the fu t u re

than in the pas t and to respec t his paren t s H e a lso
, .

t old her they must now pa r t and conj ured her to be as , ,

sh e had ever been to him a fai t hful consort t o any other ,

Prince who m i g h t demand her i n marriage s o t ha t s he ,

migh t not be d is t ressed o r feel s h e had no one t o p r o

t e e t her .

S u rprised a t heari ng such words M ad i asked t hei r

mean ing and was informed of t he banishmen t impend ing
,

over her husband At once she decla r ed her inten t ion.

o f accompanyin g hi m along with thei r children to the

H i ma wu n ta fores t Thou g h s he had neve r been there

. ,

yet s he described i n glowing langu age the deli g hts and

the beau t iful scene r y and owers they woul d enj oy i n the
fo r ests trying thus to comfort him
,
.

J us t then P o tha d i the Prince s mother having heard ,

of the conspiracy came t o the palace and b roke o u t into

,

pitiful lamentation L oud were her praises of he r s o n .

,

and he a rt rending her lamen t ations ove r hi s fa t e R e t u r n .

ing to her own palace she upbraided K ing T ha i ns i and

Fi e wate ul ers th i ev es and i l l wi sh ers ( see p age
1
r ,
r, r , ,
- 1

330

O FF E R I N G T H E S E V E N H U ND R ED S
exhorted him no t to acqu iesce i n the dem a nds of the
populace by sanctioning Wtha nd a y a s banishment
.

L ouder still g rew the lamentations o f poo r Q ueen

P o tha d i ove r the fa t e o f her s o n and s he declared that ,

if he were banished s he would soon die of grief A ll her .

handm a idens joined i n setting up a g reat waili n g to ,

w hich Mad i s

at t endants added their voices while ,

a ll the other inmates of both the palaces joined in t he

chorus o f lamen tation A nd t hus passed the n i g ht

. .

When day dawned Wtha n d a y a after bathin g and ,

robing h imself wen t t o the place o f offering accompanied

,

by noble at t endants A ll day lon g the g reat

.

offerin g of the seven hu ndreds wen t o n clothes food

, ,

and drink being given to all those who asked fo r them .

A ll the B rahmin mendican t s rolling in the dus t cried , ,

alou d th a t if the Prince were banished they would n o

longer have any refu g e o r protector A ll his relations .
,

nobles and friends also lamen t ed sayin g how unj ust it

, ,

was t hat the Prince should be banished for g ivin g away

what was his ow n p r operty .

A s r egarded the seven hundred fai r maidens the spirits ,

b e ne ce n tl y sent the rule r s throughout Z a m p u d e i k to

'

ask for them i n marria g e 5 0 tha t each received o ne to

,

wife togethe r with eight handmaidens g i ven as at t en

dan t s
.

When making this great offering W tha n d a y a lifted

up his hands and formed the pious w ish that he might
attain t he universal knowled g e the B uddhahood by , ,

means thereo f A nd as he did this for the t hird time

.
,

the ear t h quaked with a m i ghty noise and turned round

i

like a pot t e r s wheel while the g reat M oun t M y i nm o

a gain ben t down i t s head towa r ds S a d u tta y a .

A ll day long the Prince r emained at t he place of offer

ing ; but a t sundown accompanied by M a di he went to
, ,

h is fa t her s palace t o have a las t in t erview with his parents

.

They bade him an affectionate farewell and expressed the

wish t hat his pious desires mi g h t be fullled by his be com
ing a monk though they endeavoured to dissu a de M ad i
,

from accompanying him as a wife would interfere wi t h

,

prog r ess towa rds sain t ship But Wtha n d aya said he
.

had no longer any aut h o r ity o ver any one s o Madi must ,

33 I
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
decide fo r herself abou t g oing with him o r s t aying behind .

S he wen t having no desire for happiness o r comfo r t

,

apar t from he r husband an d no t being t e rr ied by the

,

d a n g ers of the fores t .

U nable t o oppose her resolu t ion t he K ing asked tha t ,

his t wo g randchild ren migh t be left with him but was t old ,

i n reply that they were dear as life t o their mo t he r and

would be he r consolation and comfort in t rials I n vain he .

ple a ded t hroughou t the n i ght fo r thei r retention i n com

fort a n d luxury When day dawned the Prince s chariot
.

appeared at the gate drawn by fou r swift ho rses Taking .

leave o f the K in g and Queen and of her a ttendants and ,

friends Mad i sea t ed herself and her two children in the

,

chariot L in g ering bu t a moment to make obeisance to

.

his parents the Prince s t epped in beside he r and d rove

,

towards t he Winga hills accompanied by his

noble companions while t he people thronged t he stree t s
to w itness his depa rt ure and receive h is farewell blessings ,

i n which he wished the m health prosperity happiness , , ,

and freedom fr om dan g er t o gether with power of making ,

offerin gs an d of practising virtue M eetin g mendican t s .

o n the road he made ei g h t een gifts of t he j ewels he

,

wore .

Being seized with t he desi r e t o s ee his home once

agai n a fter he had left i t some distance behind t he g rea t ,

earth paid tribute t o his merit by becoming cleft where

the ch a riot stood and t urning round like a pot t er s wheel

so that the city and the p a lace o f hi s parents were brough t

before his eyes Then fo r the fourth time the earth
.

quaked with a loud noise and t he gr eat M oun t M y i nm o

,

bent its head like a d r oopin g ower H ere weepin g .

, ,

the Prince bade farewell to his companions and ,

resumed his on ward j ou rney accompanied only by his ,

wife a nd children .

N o t lon g after this fou r mendican t Brahmins who had ,

missed bein g present at the offering o f the seven hu n

dreds were seen pu rsuin g the Prince who halted his
, ,

ch a riot and waited for them T hey begged for the four .

horses t h at drew the chariot and at once received one ,

each with which they dep a r t ed Bu t this act o f merit

, .

pro ved no b a r to the Prince s p rogress as four spiri t s

332
 J O U R N E Y I N T O EX I LE
i mmediately t ook the form of wild bulls submitted their ,

necks to the yoke and drew t h e ch a riot S oon how

, .
,

ever anoth er mendican t came alon g who a sked for the

,

chariot and received it Then the four bulls van ished .

,

and th e travellers had t o proceed o n foot the Prince ,

carr ying Z ali an d Madi bearin g the younger child G a h ,

na z ai n
g A s they
. walked along t he road fruit t rees bent ,

down thei r branches so that t he ripe fru it might be plucked ,

al t hough no breeze was blowing while the spiri t s S hor t

ened the road lest the children should be over fatigued -
.

T h us a t t he end of the rst day t hey reached Madda

, ,

t he chief city of t he Z eta cou n t ry ruled over by the ,

Prince s u ncle having tra velled thi rt y Yuz a nci ( 3 6 0 miles )

in o n e day I nstead o f enterin g the city the Prince

.

stayed like any ordinary traveller at a res t house at one

, ,
-

o f the g a tes A ft er having l ike a dutiful wife wiped

.
, ,

t he dus t from h is feet and massaged them M ad i went ,

ou t side t h e rest house i n or d e r t ha t she might be seen

-
'

o f t he people passing i n and o u t o f t he ga t e R e c og ni z .

in g her they wen t strai g htway to the K in g and told him

,

th at their Princess hi s daughter who had always been

, ,

borne i n a g olden l itter had now to tre a d the ground ,

with naked feet S ixty t housand o f her relatives came

.

forth to meet he r weeping bitterly beatin g their breas t s

, , ,

and bursting in t o a torrent o f questions .

The Prince related to t hem t he de t ails of his gift o f

the priceless sac r ed wh ite eleph a n t and o f his banishment ,

and asked the way to the W inga hills The Z ta princes .

j us t i ed him in his blameless conduc t b ut begg ed him to ,

reside among them while they endeavoured to ob tain his

recall i n t o hi s own cou ntry with becomin g state Poin t .

i ng o u t to them t he uselessness o f such ende a vou r he ,

consen t ed t o stay one night amon g them Then t hey tried .

to persu a de h im to remain among them and become thei r

kin g bu t i n vain D espi t e en tr eaties he proceeded on
, .
,

his journey next mornin g afte r performing his a blutions

and pa r takin g of food being accompanied by hi s ,

relatives t o t he ed g e of t he g rea t forest lying a t the foot

o f the migh t y H i ma w u n ta a dis t ance o f ft een Yuz a n d
,

( 1 80 miles ) from Madda H ere weepi ng they .took , ,

leave of h im afte r de tailing the landmarks showi ng the

333
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
way t o the Winga hills s t ill distant o t her fteen Yuz a na
, ,

a n d telling h im where he could bes t r eside and erect a

hut nea r a pleasant lake sur rou nded by fr uit t rees S o .

t h e Pri nce and his lo ved ones j ou r neyed fo r ward u nde r t he

g uidance of a man skilled i n woodcraft Two days la t e r .

he bade his g u ide retu rn after bes t owing upon h im the ,

g ift o f a golden hairpi n Following the wi ndin g s o f the .

gorges and precipices a nd feeding t hemselves with wild ,

fru its a nd buds a n d lily sprouts they travelled onwards

, , ,

through t he dark dense forest followi ng the courses o f

, ,

the strea m s till at length they reached the end o f their

,

weary pilgrimage a pond covered wi t h w a t e r l ilies

,
-
.

L ookin g earthw a rds a t t his time and seein g W tha n

daya enter ing the H i m awu nta the Tha g ya sent do w n a ,

youn g spirit to const r uct a su i t able dwelli ng for the g ood

Prince T o the north east of that small lake two hu t s
.
-

were prepared and each wa s p r ovided wit h the necessaries

fo r a recluse while owers and fr uit t r ees were raised
,

rou nd abou t them and all demons evil spirits and , , ,

birds or beas ts of prey were d r iven away fr om t he

V ic m tty .

Following a t ort uous path from t he north eas t co r ner -

o f the l ittle lake the P a yalau ng came upon these t wo

,

herm itages and knew t hey must have been prepared fo r

r ecluses L eavin g his wife and child r en at t he entrance
.

o f one he entered and found an insc r ip t ion set t ing forth

,

th a t it had been prepared for him by t he Thag ya .

Ch a n g in g hi s g arments for a mo n a stic robe placed r eady

for h im and graspin g a bamboo sta ff he became suffused
, ,

with great jo y and burst forth into a song o f praise a t

t he j oy and happiness o f b e co m i ng a recluse S o uplifted .

d id he become and s o changed in appearance that M adi

, ,

failed to recognize him at rst Then she bu rs t i nto t ears .

a nd pros tr ated herself at his fee t Going i n t o the hu t .

p r epared for her s he soon r e appeared also in t he d r ess

,
-

of a recl u se and the two children were made to follow

,

their paren ts example I mploring P a yala u ng to allow

her to collec t the fruits o f the fo r est for food M a ya ,

was informed that a s they had now bo t h become celibate

recluses it was ne cessary t o bea r t his fact constantly in
m ind in o r der to gua r d a ga inst anything i ncompatible
334
 L I F E I N EX I LE
with their new position A cceptin g this hard condition .
,

they en t ered upon their ne w life i n the forest .

F o r a d istance o f ve F az a n a ( S ixty m iles ) aroun d

thei r hermitage all the wild creatu res of the forest l ived
in peace and happiness s o g rea t was the P a yal au ng s ,

virtuous inuence E ach day at dawn M adi brou g ht

.

water placed in readiness the t ooth stick and the water

,
-

fo r the P a y ala u ng s ablu t ions swept ou t his hut a nd

, ,

then leavin g the child r en with him went forth in t o the

, ,

fo r est t o collec t the roots and fru its for the evening meal .

I n t he cool of t he evening after t he children had been ,

bathed the fou r partook o f their simple repast Then

, .

t hey re t ired t o res t t he P a yala u ng going to his hut and

,

M ad i and the two child r en t o thei r separate a bode .

T hus they dwel t i n t he peaceful solitude o f the Win ga

hills throu ghout a period of seve n years the lovin g hus ,

band and wife le a ding celibate l ives though happy in ,

their d aily inte r course i n t h e society of their children

, ,

a nd i n t he prac t ice o f vir t ue .

P ART lV . A F TE R S E V E N Y E AR S OF E X I LE IN TH E

F O RE S T .

A fte r a bou t seven yea rs had thus passed a mendicant

Brahmin named Z u z aga wa s living in the vill age of
, ,

D On n i wi ta in Ka la i ng k a Though he ha d amassed .

o n e hu ndred pieces of silver by be gg ing yet hi s avarice ,

was not yet satised H anding ove r t h is hoard to

.

ano t her Brahmin for sa fe keeping he se t forth on a ,

beggin g expedition bu t o n r etu r ning fou nd hi s friend

,

had mean while spen t all the money S o the latte r gave .

Z u z ag a his dau g hter A m e i tta to wife Thou g h thus

, , .

given in marriag e w ithou t affection A me i tta pro ved so ,

d utiful a wife that a l l the other B rahmins q uoted her as

an ex a mple to their own w ives This roused d islike to .

poor dutiful A m e i tta whose l ife the Village women

, ,

now t ried to make a burden to her .

O ne day when S he had g one t o dra w wa t e r at the

,

r iver a tor r ent o f abuse and reproach wa s poured on her

,

for havin g ma t ed with a man so much older than herself .

R e t u r ning h ome i n tears sayin g she could neve r again ,

335
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
g o to the riverside fo r w a ter Z u z ag a t ried to console ,

her a nd said he would henceforth draw the wa ter and do

a ll the outdoo r work himself To t his s he obj ected as .

i mproper and threa t ened to leave him unless he should

,

get some slave to do work o f this kind Poor and .

u nable to work he a sked ho w he could possibly afford to

,

buy a slave and at once received the reply tha t i f he

,

wen t to W thand a ya living in the Winga hills and , ,

asked for a slave he w ould be su re to get o n e

,
Z uzag a .

then reasoned with hi s wife and said his going t o the ,

Wi n g a hills was o u t o f the q uestion for i t wa s a fa r jo u rne y , ,

and he was already O ld and in r m Then she u ng coarse .

t au n t s at him threaten in g to leave him and go to a

,

youn ge r husband S tung by he r t aun t s and insul ts

.
,

Z u z a g a thou g h s t ricken in years and ben t with i nrmity

, ,

toothless whi t e headed an d g rey bearded hollow

,
- -
,

cheeked and s ta ndin g near the threshold o f de a th

, ,

resolved to perform the jou r ney for love o f his you n g

wife S o while S he prep a red food fo r his long absence
.
, ,

he repaired the ooring a nd walls of his hut saw to the ,

fa stenings o f t he door and laid in suppl ies of fuel and o f

,

wa t er . Then h e pu t o n his mendican t garb and his

sand a ls slung t he bag o f provisions ove r his shoulder
, ,

g rasped his pil g rim s staff weepingly bade farewell to his

wife and s e t for t h on his tedious j ourney

, .

O n arrivin g at the prosperous country of S ad u tta ya h e

i nqu ired for Prince W tha n d a ya bu t w a s hooted and ,

pelted with stones by the people who a t tributed the loss ,

o f their P rince to the impor t u nities o f j ust such gr eedy

ol d B rahmin mendicants R u nnin g away in grea t fri gh t .

,

he was gu ided by t he spirits who watched over the

P a yal a u ng s attainment O f perfectio n and was thus led

i n the direction of the Win ga hills I n passin g through .

t he fores t at the foo t of the hills he came near the m a n

w ho had ac t ed as the P a y al a u ng s g uide a n d was pur

sued by t he pack o f savage dogs with which this fellow

wa s t hen ranging the woods in pursuit of game The .

old man ran fo r his l ife ; but seein g nei t her pa t h nor help , .

he soon had to t ake refu g e in a tr ee while the hounds ,

yelped a nd kept guard below .

H e r e he h ad time to meditate o n t he evil deeds co m ,

336

TH E BRA H M I N S DECEIT
m i tte d long since whose in uence had n ow b r ought
,

upon h im the ridicule o f his neighbou rs the taunts o f his ,

wife the u ndertakin g o f a jou rney u nsuitable to his time

,

of life the malt r eatment at S a d utta ya and the ight

, ,

from the fan g s of a savage hunti ng pack of do g s -

.

Be wailin g h is fa te he cried alou d askin g where W

,

thand a ya the refu g e o f mendic a n t Brah m ins and the

,

haven o f res t t o the wea ry t raveller mi g h t be found , .

The g uide h a ppen ing t o pass nea r by hea r d these

, ,

lamen t ations R eecting that t he B rahmin s visit prob

.

ably mean t no good to the P a yala u ng as th e Prince ,

would g ive a w ay anything even his wife and children if , ,

such a g ift were desired and would t hen be left qu ite ,

alone i n the forest he made up his mind t o k ill t he

,

B rahmin S t r in g ing his bow and xing a poisoned

.

arrow he reviled the mendican t se tt ing forth t ha t i t was

, ,

o wing to hi m an d his like tha t th e Prince was now an

exile Then he bade the Brah min prepare t o die as his
.
,

hea rt and l ive r would be to r n ou t and offe r ed t o t he

guardian spi r i t s of t he forest and o f r e as soon as his
breas t had been cleft by an arrow .

The w r e t ched ol d B rahmi n summoned courage for

making o ne effo r t t o save hi s l ife F i r s t he poin ted o u t .

that religious r ecluses and Brahmins should no t be pu t

t o dea t h and t ha t t he same pro t ec t ion should apply t o
,

ambassadors sen t by kings i n charge o f affai r s relatin g to

their coun t ries R eciting this as an ancient maxim he
.
,

forth w ith decla r ed he had been sen t by K ing T ha i ns i

to inform Wtha nd aya that the w ra t h of t he people o f
S ad u ttaya had passed away so t hat they we r e now ,

sorrowful abou t his exile and wished him t o re t urn to

t hem Therefo r e he wished t o know where t he Prince
.

could be fou nd .

Pleased t o hear suc h good news the simpl e hunte r

called o ff his dogs t ied them up made t he old man
, ,

descend from his pe r ch in t he tr ee and gave him a g ood ,

meal t o g ether wi t h gifts of honey and dried meat befo r e

, ,

pointin g ou t to him t he pa t h he mus t follow and giving

minute de t ails as t o t he t rees he would pass and the

birds he woul d see before arriving a t t he Prince s abode .

The Brahmin was also told that o n t he way he would

V OL 11 . .
337 z
 B U R M A U N D ER B R I TI S H R U LE
p a ss the cell o f a dust smea r ed hermit who could g ive -

hi m furt her inform a tion .

R esu min g his j ourney full o f hope Z u z ag a duly

arrived a t the he r mit s cell and asked if he were well

, ,

found plen t y o f roots and fr ui t s and were free from ,

t r ouble by ins e cts r eptiles and wild animals Being

, , .

r eplied t o in the afrma t ive wa t er wa s g iven him to ,

wash his feet and to drink and frui t s w ere offered hi m ,

to ea t Making homage t o t he he rm it Z u z aga re t urned

.

the fruit explained t ha t he had come to do obeisance

,

before t he ex iled Prince Wtha n d ay a and asked to be ,

d irected to the Prince s abode Guessi n g th a t the tru e .

obj ec t of hi s gues t was to beg the gift o f Princess M ad i

a nd her two children the hermit asked wha t advantage
,

there was to be gained by such a visi t a n d was tol d tha t ,

Z u z ag a had formerly been the P r ince s r eligious te a che r

and tha t he was now desi r ou s o f a gain seein g and co n

versin g with his beloved pupil Otherwise he added .
, ,

he had no objec t in view ; and he had no in t ention o f

a ski ng fo r any g ift Z u z aga s plausibility thus deceived
.

the hermit as it h ad p r eviously deceived the hunte r

, .

The recluse i n v ited him t o abide in t he hut for the night ,

and promised t o pu t him o n the proper t rack earl y next

morning and to tell him about t he bi rds and t rees t o be
,

me t w ith o n t he way .

S o Z u z a ga j o u rneyed o n arriving at his destination ,

to wards n i g htfall S aying to himself that women were

.

n aturally j ealous a nd suspicious a nd t hinki ng that ,

although the Prince might be ready t o grant the gift

he asked yet M adi migh t in t erfere and prevent him he ,

resolved t o wait t ill the next morni ng and the n while ,

M adi was absen t gatherin g w ild fruits for food approach ,

t he Prince to beg a gift of the t wo child r en and ca rry t hem

o ff before thei r mother s r e t u rn .

N o w Madi fel t vagu ely consciou s o f some i m pendin g

,

dan g e r J ust before day dawned s he d r eamed tha t a

.

dark ugly a r med man wea r ing a dyed r obe and h aving
, , ,

h is ears bedecked w ith red owe r s had fo r ced his way ,

into he r hu t caug ht hold of he r by t he hai r o f her head

, ,

thrown he r o n the ground t o r n ou t he r eyes cu t off he r , ,

hands and th en plucked ou t he r heart A waki ng i n

,
.

33 8
 Z U Z AG A S

ARRIV AL
t er r o r and knowing there was no one at hand excep t the
Prince who could interpret he r d r eam s he hastened to ,

his hu t and knocked a t the doo r R ebuking her fo r this .

seeming desi r e to break t hrough their celi ba te resolves ,

he was told the cause o f her trouble and kne w at once ,

th a t the dawn would bri n g to him a call for the exercise

O f his u nboun ded chari t y To save Madi trouble and
.

sadness however he kept this knowledge to himself and

, , ,

tried t o soo t he he r by saying that a g itated dreams w ere

not necessarily a foreshado w ing of misfortu ne H er .

fears bein g thus q uieted she returned to her couch When

, .

t he mornin g broke M adi performed her usual d uties

, ,

kissed her children and told them to be very careful of

themsel ves a s she had had a bad dream took t hem to ,

their father and asked him to watch over them du rin g

her a bsence and then went for t h w ith her spade and
,

b a ske t t o gather roots and fr u its as usual for the house

hold wants .

D escendin g from a nei g hbouring hill where he had ,

spen t the night Z u z aga wen t t o w h ere the P a yala u ng

,

was sittin g l ike a golden image i n front o f his b u t while

the children played near him S eein g the B rahmin at a .

dis tance ple a su re took possession o f the Prince s soul

who rej oiced once more after seven long y ears of ,

exile and o f a beyance o f cha r i ta ble gifts at bein g able to ,

make a n offering Callin g to h im h is so n Z ali he asked

.
,

if a B rahmi n mend ican t we r e no t a pproachin g The .

boy ran towards the stran g er and O ffered to carry his

burden for him bu t was h a rshly thrus t asid e Wonder
, .

ing at this rou g h discourtesy the boy looked carefully a t ,

the old Brahmin and at once noted i n him the t en

,

ch a racteris t ics o f a vile man .

D rawing near to the Prince Z uza g a gree t ed him wi th ,

the usual i nquiries a bou t his health the abund a nce of ,

his food and immunity from annoyance by i nsects and

,

other animals R eplying su itably to these cou rtesies and

.

saying that no o n e had visited him durin g these las t

seven years of exile he i nvited the ol d man to ente r his
,

hut wash his fee t and p a rt ake o f fru i t s and water

, , .

Then he asked him the reason O f h is visit and wa s told ,

t hat i ts object was t o a sk a g ift of the Prince s two

339
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
children B urstin g i nto j oyful son g the P a yala u ng
.
,

offered his son and dau g hter to the B rahmin to be hi s ,

slaves but entreated him to abide there that n i g ht and

,

no t to depart till the following morn in g as M adi the , ,

children s mother would not re t urn before nightfall with

the fru i t s she was then collecting in the forest Z uzaga .

artfully replied that women are full of artice and not t o

be relied on so he would rather depart with his gift
,

before M a di s re t u rn The Prince was w illing to permit

.

t h is if the B rahmin would p romise to take the two

children t o t heir gra ndfathe r K ing T ha i ns i who w ould , ,

be exceedingly gl a d and would bestow g reat g ifts o n the

mendican t B ut to this the cunning ol d man ra ised the
.

obj ections tha t t he K ing on seein g t he children W ithout

t hei r parents migh t pun ish him even w ith death or sel l , ,

him as a slave and that in any case he could no t be su re

,

o f gettin g a large gift ; while if he wen t back withou t

slaves he would certa inly have to bear the scorn and

abuse of his wife A m e i t ta The Pri nce assu red him that
,
.

K ing T ha i nsi must rej oice greatly a t seeing his grand

child r e n and g rant him rich gifts But Z uzaga repl ied
,
.

t hat he desired not wealth a nd only wished to take ,

away the t wo children s o t hat they m i g h t be slaves ,

to work for and wait upon his A m e i t ta .

H earing t hese harsh words the children were sore

afraid and went and hid themselves in a c l u mp o f bushes
,

behind t he hut U nable to feel safe even there they

.
,

ran abou t hither and thithe r and nally ed to the ,

wa t ers of t he pond imme r sing t hei r bodies i n this and,

keeping t heir heads h idden amo ng the leaves o f t he

wa t e r lilies T h en Z u z aga reviled the Prince accusing
-
. ,

him of having winked to the ch ild ren to run and hide

t hemselves and decla r ing him to be the greatest deceiver
,

i n t he w h ole world .

Pe rceiving tha t the child r en had ru n away and con

ce a l e d themselves t hrough fea r the Prince t raced t hem ,

t o the l ittle lake and bade Z ali come for th that his
father s gift of charity might be made complete and

might lead h im further onwards towards t h e at tainment

o f N e i kb a n ( N irvana ) for the rescu e of all the N a t i n ,

spiri t land as well as o f all mankind on ea r th

-
.

a4 o

T H E C H I LD R E N S R A N S O M
O n he a rin g his fa t her s words Z ali lled with lial

piety resolved t o bea r whateve r trea t ment the Bra hmin

,

chose to g ive him an d c a me up ou t of the pond fallin g

, ,

i n tears at his father s right foot A dd r essed in S imilar

.

manner G a hna z a i ng also came weeping and threw he r

,

self at her fa ther s left foo t M in g ling his tears w it h

.

those of his weeping child r en t he Prince bade them rise , ,

assurin g them that t hey would no t for long be the slaves

o f the vile Brahmin T hen the P a yala u ng told Z ali t ha t if
.

an
y one wished t o redeem him whils t he was the B r ah
min s slave hi s price should no t be less t h a n one thousand

pieces o f silver and that if any one wished to espouse

,

G a hn a z a i ng her r a nsom sho u ld not be less than o ne

,

hundred male S laves o ne hund r ed female slaves o ne , ,

hu ndred elephants one hundred horses o n e hu nd r e d , ,

bullocks and one hu ndred pieces o f silve r R eturning

, .

to his hut with the children t h e P r ince gave t h em to the ,

Brahmin a t t he same time pouring o u t wa t e r from

,

a water pot and repeating the pious wish tha t t his

-
,

chari table deed m i g h t p r omo t e his at tainmen t of

omniscience .

As the w a ter fell to t he g rou nd t he w h ole ea rth s h ook

violently and resou nded with a grea t noise while all ,

mankind was made to shive r The migh t y wa t e rs of .

t he ocean became white with waves and t he g r eat ,

Mount M y i n m o ben t towards the Winga hills l ike a ,

green cane roasted on one side by re The Th ag y et .

appl a uded slappin g h is arms while t he K ing o f the

, ,

Bra hmas and all the spirits j oined i n a cho r us o f praise ,

the sou nd of which ascended even t o the highes t heaven .

The he a vens resounded wi t h the noise o f t he quakin g

e a r th and heavy rain fell L ightning ashed from thick
, .

clouds while all t he gua rdian spiri t s o f the ea rth and t he

,

trees cried alou d and the wild beas ts of the forest roared
,

with a great noise T hus for the fth t i me the mighty

.
, ,

ea r th q u aked while t he P a yd la u ng gave h is child ren to

the Brahmin and sa t gazing on them as Z uzaga bou nd
them t oge t he r by the wrists with a tough c r eeping plan t -

and beating and goading them led them o ff bleeding

, ,

and t rembling in t o slavery .

Old and in r m t he B ra hmin t o tt e r ed and fell while

,

34 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
showering blows o n the u nfor t una t e and u n h appy
child ren U ndoin g their bonds they ran back to their
.
,

father and Z a li n a rrated how he had noted in Z uzaga

,

the various evil ch a ra cteristics w h ich S howed he must

surely be no human bein g bu t some wicked ogre w ho ,

meant t o eat them H e implored his father no t to a llo w

.

him and hi s s ister t o be taken away before Mad i their ,

mother had come b a ck from the forest o r a t a ny rate

, ,

only to send hi m a way and allow his tender li t tle sister

,

to remain behind H e pleaded touchin g ly that the

.

little girl mus t d ie o f grief if taken a way from her

mother and that each o f their p a rents but especi a lly
, ,

their mother must feel the heavy burden o f grief if

,

deprived of both their children .

J ust then the Brahmi n retu r ned and took possession of

the children a gain tying them with creepers and be a tin g
,

them as he dragged them o ff A s they were forced .

away Z al i told his fa ther no t to be u nhappy bu t t o sa y

, ,

to thei r mother they were quite well and to g ive he r

thei r to y eleph a nts horses a n d oxen to remind her of
, ,

them i n her sorrow T hen the P a yal a u ng was shaken

.

w ith d eep g rief a nd t rembled violently Tea rs welling .

t o h is eyes he en t ered his hut and g a ve way to great

,

l a mentation K nowin g th a t his t ender children would

.

suffer hunge r and hardships o n their lon g journey with

the pitiless cruel B rahmin he was o f a mind to follow
, ,

the dirty o l d mend ican t in o rde r to slay h im and brin g

them b a ck .

Then he commu ned with himself and sa w th a t per ,

fe e t knowledge could only be at tained by the performance

o f g r ea t sacrices as t o property hum a n ties o f all sorts , ,

and even life itsel f S hould he therefore now repent of

.

h is gift or strive onwards for the supreme att a inment ?

,

R esolvin g to overcome prudence by w isdom and anxiety ,

by steadfas t ness of pu rpose his m ind once more became ,

t ranqu il and he went forth from his hut .

A second time the ol d Brahmin slipped and fell and ,

the children u ntied thei r bonds and ran back to their

father ; but Z u z a ga followed them bou nd them to ,

g ether again a n d beat t hem severely

,
A s they were .

fo r the third time bein g dragged away u nde r blows ,

3 42
 M AD I S APPREHENSI ONS

G a hna z a i ng t urned and asked her fathe r how he could

remain u nmoved when he saw how shamelessly the old
ogre was abusin g them Then poign a nt g rief seized .

hold of the P a y ala u ng H is hear t g re w l ike red hot iron

.
-
,

h is b r eath came a nd went so tha t his nostrils see med too

sm all fo r its passag e and he wept t ears o f blood B ut
,
.

the thought still sustained h im tha t i t was his du t y t o

rise superior to mere human affection ; so he con trolled
his natura l feelings and h is m i nd became s u ffused with a
pious calm w hile in tears and sorro w h is child r en pu rsued
,

their wea r y wa y across the Winga hills .

When M a d i we nt forth into the forest she was haun t ed ,

by her evil dreams of the past n ight and made up he r

mind t o r eturn ho me lon g before sunset E ven as she .

t hou g ht t hus wi t hin herself s he became lled with vagu e ,

feelings o f dread her right eye t w itched violen t ly and

, ,

sh e became g iddy S o s he determined to return home a t

.

once fearing lest some mishap had befa llen he r child ren
, .

N o w the N a t i n spirit land who had heard the q uak

,
-
,

ing of t h e ear t h at t he Pri nce s las t great g ift as well as

the cries and lamen t ations of the two children fo r esaw ,

tha t if M ad i re t urned e a rly t o her b u t s he would learn

what had take n pl a ce would follo w her children and , ,

would be lost o r devoured by wild beasts i n the fo r es t .

S o three g ua rdian spi r its were di r ected to assume t he

forms o f a lion a ti g e r and a leopa r d and we r e made
, , ,

to g uard ce r tain tracks till after sundown .

A s M adi attempted to g e t b a ck to he r hu t she found

every path blocked by on e o f t hese wild animals Which .

e ve r way s he went a savage brute seemed to threa t en

,

her dest r uction Coax in gly she spoke making lowly

.
,

obeisance and offering a share o f the roo t s a nd fr u its s he

ha d collected but a l l fu r the r pro g ress was ba rr ed till t he
s u n had s unk behind the hill tops this being the day of
( -

the full moon ) when the t hree great beasts o f the fores t
-
,

stood aside and departed to their own home Then .

M adi continued her way A s s he came nea r t he hu t .

sh e wonde r ed why the child r en d id not come r unning to

mee t he r as was thei r wont A pp roach in g nea re r the

, . ,

ominous silence lled h er h ea r t wi t h awe ; and w h en s he

sa w t he P a y la u n sittin g alone and silen t he r so u l wa s
g ,

3 43
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
overcome wi t h grief I n vain she asked if t he children
.

had been killed by wild beas ts o r ca r ried o ff by eagles , ,

or if t hey had perhaps been sent t o their g randfather o r ,

were asleep within the Prince s hu t But s he received

.

no answer the P a yala u ng rem a ining silent n otwi thsta n d

,

in g all her grief a nd l a men tation .

A t last s he a ppealed t o him by the love which had ,

sustained them happy even in banishment and exile not ,

to add to t he pain o f losing her children t he still g rea t e r

sorrow o f he r husband not S peaking to he r To do t h is .
,

she said would be like beating a man w ho was dying

,

from t he bite of a serpent or t h rou g h falling from the t op

o f a lofty pal m tree or l ike irritatin g a deep wound with
-
,

a sharp t horn Tor t u r ed t hus s he added it would be

.
, ,

impossible fo r her to l ive through the com in g n i g h t .

Then the P a yala u ng broke silence S eekin g to divert .

he r though t s from her children he spoke harshly t o her , ,

as if piercing her he a r t with a needle upb raiding he r for ,

having remained o u t s o lon g i n the forest E ndeavou r .

ing t o j ustify herself against t hese c r uel insinua t ions s he ,

na r rated all tha t had befallen he r i n t he way of evil

dreams o f omens such as she had neve r before known
,

during their seven years exile i n t he fores t and of hin

drances delayin g her re t urn before dark and besough t ,

her husband not to be angry wi t h her A s he r emained .

silent S he then resu med her supplica t ions detaili ng all t hat
, ,

sh e had done to try and m a ke her husband and children

happy and endin g by asking him to give to Z al i a lot us

,

o wer she had brought from the pond and to G a hna z ai ng

a brown lily t o bedeck themselves with B ut still the
, .

P a yal au ng remained silent offerin g no word of explan a

,

tio n to his so rrowing wife R etiring to her o wn hut. ,

Madi beheld t he toy anim a ls wi t h which her children

used to play and broke i n t o grief so lou d tha t even the
,

be a s t s o f t he fo r est sl u nk away i n fea r and t h e birds e w

o ff trembling Weeping she has t ened from place to
.
,

place seekin g and callin g on the children ; bu t i n vain .

Then she retu rned t o the P a yala u ng and upbraided him ,

thou g h gently and lovingly B u t still he spoke no word

.
,

and s he withdrew t rembling A ll ni g h t long she wan .

dered thro ugh t h e forest seekin g her lost loved ones .

3 44

M AD I S G R I EF
When t he next d a y dawned i n sorro w she a gain sought
the P ayalau ng t ellin g him how s he had wandered to and
,

fro all th rough t he n i g h t withou t ndin g a n y trace o f her

children who mus t cer tainly be dead S ayin g this s he
, .
,

fell i n t o a deep faint Thinking s he was indeed dead

.
,

the Prince tr embled violently and lamen t ed t hat s he had

died in exile far away from all her own ki t h and kin .

Placing his hand upon her breast thus touching her for ,

the r st time during seven lon g ye a rs he became lled ,

with the hope that life was not yet extinc t : so he made
has t e t o bring a pi t che r of water and t o b a the her face ,

and head while chan g he r bosom i n tearful efforts t o

res tore he r t o consciousness S oon regaining her senses .
,

s he started up i n confusion made obeisance before t he

,

P a y la u ng and asked what ha d become of the children

, .

Then s he was t old how a Bra hmin ha d begged a gift o f

t hem and they had been given to h im Chidin g he r
, .

husband she asked how he could have been so cruel as

,

to allow he r to wande r about in sorrow all nigh t lon g

looking for the children I n reply the P ay alau ng said
.

that as even he a man fel t deeply grieved abou t t hei r

, ,

loss he fea r ed that Sh e a woman would break her heart

, , ,

on learnin g what had happened Then he tried to comfort .

her saying t ha t t hough i t was true he had g iven t he

,

children to be slaves to t h e ol d B ra hmin ye t when these ,

passed through the coun try o f S ad u tta ya t he glory o f the

g ift woul d become known and they would be recalled ,

from exile t heir child r en and all t hei r fo rmer possessions

,

and prospe r i t y being res t ored t o them .

Thus he encouraged he r and endeavoured to obtai n

he r ac q uiescence in the offerin g he had made T hen s he .

congratulated hi m at havin g q u i t e s e t hi s mind a t ease and

fr eed himself from wavering a n d hoped that he migh t ,

even make some s t ill greate r sacrice ye t while he related ,

to her t he wonderful s igns given by the e a r t h in t oken o f

approbation a t t he t ime of t he g r ea t offerin g bein g a ecom
p hshe d .

Whils t t hey we r e t hus conversing the Thagy a fr om , ,

his r ul ing sea t in spiri t land be t hought him how he migh t

-
,

preven t any vile pe rson demanding a gift of the peerless

M adi ; for if th is gift were demanded o f t he P a yala u ng it
3 45
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
would s u rely be made a nd then he would be left help
,

less and alone in the forest without anyone to minister to

hi s wants . S o t h e Tha gy a resol v ed to hi m self adop t the
fo r m of a mend icant B rahmin and be g the g ift of M a di ,

i n order that the P a yala u ng might th us have the o pp o r

t u n i ty o f ulti ma tely att a i n i ng sup re m e k no wledge ; and
when this attainment was a chieved Madi would be r e ,

stored to the Prince .

N ext day at dawn the T hagya as s umed the form o f a

mendicant B ra hmin and appe a red before the hu t o f the
P a y ala u ng makin g the usual i n quiries if he were well
, ,

i f his wants were e a sily suppl ied and if he were free o f ,

trouble from insects and other an imals ; and he was invited

to enter the hu t wash his feet and refresh himself with
, ,

sweet fru i t a n d cold w a ter Then the obj ect of th e .

visit was asked the Brahmin bein g informed tha t during

,

the las t seven years this was bu t the second time any
stra nger had come to their a bode The prete n ded .

B rahmin at once said that hearin g o f the inexhaustible ,

charity o f the Prince which resembled the never dying

source o f a g reat river he had come to beg t he g ift o f
,

Madi G ivin g no heed to t he thought t h a t this meant

.

loneliness and solitude i n the fores t t he P a yala u ng ,

became lled with the qu in t essence o f charity and

benevolence and led for ward M a di by t he hand w hile the ,

forest and the hills resou nded with a g reat n oise I n .

makin g the gift of the peerless Madi the P a yala u ng said ,

that his yesterday s g ift of his child r en and the g ift now

o f his beloved Princess had n o t been made because he

loved t hem little but solely in orde r t hat he mi g ht

,

t hereby attain the g reat omniscience P ouring forth an .

offering o f water he gave M ad i t o the Brahmin while the ,

ear t h shook an d for t h e sixth t ime showed won d rous

signs of approbation .

S ilen t M adi stood gazing at t h e P a ydl a u ng s fa ce

.
,

S he neither wep t no r cast an gr y looks at him

, K nowi ng .

herself to be bea utiful i n all respects and a true subj ect to

her husband s will s he felt assured that his giving her

away could only be to atta in some great obj ect ; s o i n

place of appea ring u nhappy she endeavoured to help him ,

to attain this supreme wis h R ecou ntin g how all th r ou g h

.
,

3 46
 E I G H T W I S H E S G RA NT ED
their ma rried life her o n e des i r e had been t o please him
, ,

sh e bade him do with her as he w ill a n d s a id s h e would ,

not be vexed whatever he did .

Perceivin g the excellent d isposi t ion o f the peerless

Madi the Brahmi n congratul a ted the P a yala u ng o n
,

having overcome the human desires for the luxuries and

comforts o f prosperity a nd told him tha t while the whole
,

earth resou nded w ith a dmiration at t he renuncia t ion of his

children and h is wife the fame of t hese g r ea t g ifts ha d
,

spread even to the realms o f spirit land H e further -

.

extolled the good d eeds performed by the body t he l ips , ,

and the mind i n obtain in g the merit o f charity the most ,

excellent conveyance a long the road to perfection and ,

declared th a t charity was now perfec ted fo r the Paya

laun g Then he restored Madi to her husband saying
.
,

th a t they were i n all respects worthy of each other their ,

m inds u nitin g indistin g uishably as the waters of the,

G a n g es and the J umna are indistin g u ishable below where

they join . Before depar t ing t o his throne in t he land o f
spirits the Th agya manifested h imself in his proper
,

form to the P a y alau ng his S pirit s body shinin g r e

,

splendent as the s u n O ffering to gran t eight boons

.
,

he asked the Prince t o n ame his w ishes The ei g ht .

thin g s desired were that his banishmen t should cease and

res t oration to his former princely sta t e take place ; th a t
he might never be disposed to order the execution of any
malefac to r ; that all people should look to him for h elp
and suppor t ; that he might never desire the love o f any
woman save his own wi fe t hat he and his wife and thei r , ,

children mi g ht be gran t ed heal th happiness and long , ,

life tha t all food and other necessaries o f l ife should be

provided eac h day a t dawn ; that he mi g ht have
abundant riches to bes t ow freely in alms and other
charitable g ifts and tha t nally afte r having passed from
,

th e present sta t e of exis t ence into t he fourth heaven o f

t he l a nd of spiri ts he migh t be bo r n aga in in this world
,

o f men and t hen obtain suprem e omniscience ( N e i h ba n :

N irvan a ) . H ereupon the Thagy a intimated that before
long K ing T ha i ns i would desi r e to s e e his son and ,

would recall him and res t o r e all his fo r me r dignities i n

S a d u tta ya while the other seven w ishes would also be
,

3 47
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H RU LE
d uly fullled i n course o f ti m e T hen disappearin g .
,

from View and r etu rning t o his real m i n T awa d e i ng tha ,

the Th a g yet left Wthan d a ya and Mad i happy i n each

other s company i n their lonely a bode i n the forest

P A R T V T H E RE C A LL F R O M E X I L E
. .

I n makin g t hei r long j ourney with Z uz a g a the t wo

poor children had much t o endure E ach evening at .

sundo w n the ol d B rahmin tied t hem up amon g t he

bushes while he himself climbed u p into the fork o f a
,

tree to be o u t o f the re a ch of w ild beasts But whenever .

he fell asleep two spirits would arrive i n the shape o f

their fathe r a n d mother who u nbou nd the cords o f t wi g s
,

with which the children s hands and feet w ere tied

washed and dressed them and gave t hem food Then ,

.
,

prep a rin g a soft couch they would wa t ch over the ,

sleepers till the morning d a wned J us t before vanishing .

,

they would tie up the t wo child r en a gain a s the old

Brahmin had done the ni g h t before T hus p ro t ec t ed .
,

Z a li and G a hna z a i ng got safely th r ough t heir lon g

j ou r ney .

A t the same time these t wo g u a rdian spirits misled

Z uz aga so that a t the end o f fteen days in place of
,

a rrivin g a t his o w n village o f D Onn i w i ta i n Ka l a i n ka

g ,

he reached S a d u t tay a N ow it happened t ha t on the

.
,

mornin g o f t heir arrival t here K i ng T ha i n s i had a ,

r emarkable dre a m H e dream t th a t while sea t ed o n

.
,

his throne in open cou r t he was app ro a ched by a dark ,

vis aged man who p r esented for hi s accep t ance t wo

blossoms of the lotus l ily Placing one o f these in each
-
.

ear as an ornament the s ta mens fel l from the owe rs on

,

to his breast A s soon as he awoke the K in g com

.
,

m a nd e d hi s soothsayers to in t erpret the dream and was ,

told it was o f happy augury meanin g that he should ,

soon se e beloved r el a tives from whom he had been lon g

separated R ej oicing a t this prospect the K ing arose
.
,

betimes and washed his head this being the day of the ,

month fo r performin g tha t ceremony Then he pro .

c e e d e d t o the H all o f J ustice and sea t ed himself o n the

throne surrounded by his nobles

,
.

J ust a t this time Z u z a ga led by the gua r dian spirits , ,

3 48
 T H E C H I LD RE N RA NS O M ED
passed alon g the road in front o f the O pen cou rt P e rc e i v .

ing the tw o children the K ing remarked their be a uty and

, ,

said they reminded him of his two de a r g randchildren ,

Z ali and G a hna z a i ng Command ing the Bra hmin an d.

the t wo children to be brou g ht before him the K ing ,

asked whence they had come and whither they were

going I mpelled by some stran g e po w er the Brahmin
.
, ,

i nstea d o f lying as was habitual t o him repl ied truth ,

fully th a t he had obtained a gift o f t hem a fortnight ago

from Prince W tha nd aya renowned fo r h is charity , .

But the K in g refused to believe s o incredible a story

as that any o ne could t hus give awa y his o w n children
i nto slavery A nd a ll the nobles l ike w ise mu rmu red
.

among themselves against this inhu man act o f W tha n

daya Then Z ali divining their evil thoughts related
.
, ,

how their father s heart had been ho t with sorrow w hen

be gave them a way to this ogre who failed to observe ,

the law as any t r ue B rahmin would ; but as he had

neither g old nor silver nor o t her possessions left to ,

bestow i n charity the Prince could only give wha t he

,

had his children

, .

Then the K ing s heart bu rned with g rief a t seeing his

gran dchildren bou nd as sl a ves o f the Brahmin A sking .

wha t valu e their father had pu t upon them when g ivin g

them away he commanded th a t all the g reat ra nsom
,

should be paid even as Z ali detailed w hat t he P a yala u ng

had said A ll the requisite moneys elephants horses
.
, , ,

bullocks and slaves havin g been paid over in redemption

,

of his two g ra ndchildren the K in g added fu rther g ifts to ,

the B rahmin and provided hi m with a palace surmounted

with a seven roofed spire Thus Z u z ag a became pos
-
.

sessed o f grea t e r wealth than he had ever seen or c o n

c e i ve d of and wa s lled with happiness H ere the
, .

gua rdian spiri t s n o w a bandoned him a nd he soon over ate ,

-

himself so much th a t he died o f indi g estion H is body .

was honourably cremated by order o f the K in g a nd it ,

was proclaimed by beat of gon g that his heirs might

obtain the possessions he had left behind But none .

came forward to make a n y claim s o a l l the ransom ,

came back again to the K in g a s ultima t e hei r .

H avin g regained his g randchildren K ing T ha i ns i made ,

3 49
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
servan ts was h th eir heads perfume their bodies and , ,

d r ess t hem in splendid clothes Then he took Z al i o n .

his knee while G a hna z a i ng sa t o n the lap o f her g ra nd

,

mothe r Q ueen P o thad i ; and thus he made inqu iries

,

about their paren t s a nd the l ife they led in the forest .

The K i n g s heart bled when he heard of the privations

they all had to s u ffer and especially the tender g ently

, ,

nu rtu red M adi w hose body and limbs were so thin waste d
, , ,

and dus t s t ained from the labour of nding food for a ll

-
,

that she had become fa ded l ike a b rown l ily w ithered by

the scorching rays of the sun H e r beautiful hair had .

been mostly torn ou t by the thorns o f the bushes amon g

which s he crept whil e he r only ga r men t was the ski n o f
,

a black leopard and he r onl y couch the bare g round

, .

O n ending this painful recital Z ali na i vely as ked why ,

his g randfa t he r had no t cared for his s on and dau g hter

i n law as other men care fo r t hei r children
-
T hen the .

K ing s hear t waxed exceedin g ly sorrowful withi n him and

there r ose up before him the grievous wrong he had

done i n consen t in g to the banishmen t o f the innocent
Prince w hich had brought great t rouble upon both o f
,

them S o h e bade Z ali r e t urn to the Winga fo r es t

.

and recall his fa t he r from exile ; bu t the boy r epl ied th a t

his father could no t be expected t o r e t urn u nless t he
K in g himself wen t to i nvi t e him and r eins t a t e h im in
powe r even as a faded drough t s t ricken tr ee is r es t o r ed
,
-

to vigou r by refreshing rainfall .

S u mmonin g his chief nobles an d telling them of h is ,

inten t ion to g o to the Win ga hills and rec a ll his s on

from exile K in g T ha i ns i ordered all his elephants horses
, , ,

a n d chariots and all his men a t arms and his B rahmins

,
- -

to be collected and the r oad to the hills to be pu t in

,

order fo r his grea t prog r ess Four t een t housand war .

elephants fou rteen thousand cavalry four t housand

, ,

chariots each bearing a ag o f victo ry and the sixty ,

thousand nobles formerly companions o f th e Prince and

,

born a t the s a me time as he accompanied t he K ing ,

i n h is march into t he W inga h ills A ll t he u neven places .

were levelled along the r oad and it was cleared of t r ees ,

a n d shrubs to a width of 4 0 0 ya r ds A ll along t he route .

to be t raversed royal lattice work screens were e r ec t ed-

35 0
 T H E R O Y A L P R O G R ES S
o n either side a n d ornamented with pla n t a i n s te m s a n d

w hite banners wh ile the r oadway was s t re w n w ith s w eet

,

scen t ed owers A t the gates of each to w n o r vill age

.

o n t he way stores o f food and o f t oddy p a lm w ine were -

placed and amusemen t s o f all kinds were provided for

,

those who took pa rt in t he procession which numbered ,

more t han any army that had ever existed o n t his earth .

The trumpeting of the elephants t he nei g hin g o f th e ,

horses and the sounds of the chariots and t he beasts o f

,

burden r e echoed everywhere while the s k y w a s obscured

-
,

by the clouds of dust which a rose from the earth Bu t .

the glory of t his immense procession was the g re at

white elephant P i ssa ya w hich had been returned to
,

S ad u tta y a by t he K in g o f Ka l a i ngk a afte r abundant rain

had fallen i n due season o n i ts arrival i n that cou ntry .

This marvellous sacred crea t ure rejoiced exceedin g ly o n

the march to the Wi n g a hills tr u mpeting like a crane ,

with deli g h t at the p r ospect o f soon agai n seeing its

beloved mas t e r .

S u rr ounded by h is t roops K ing T ha i nsi en t ered the

,

groves o f the H i m a wu nta forest and at last came near

the Win g a hills where the Prince s hu t was The whole
.

forest r eso u nded with the mighty clamou r arisin g from

the host and Wtha n day a heard t he noise from afar off ,

and wondered g reatly therea t Fearful o f impendi ng .

misfortu ne he called M ad i and they both ran to the top

,

o f a h ill From here they saw the assembled army and

.
,

the Prince s hea rt became lled with fear But M adi

.

comforted him reminding him o f the eight desires

,

granted t o him by the Thagya before his return to

spirit land I n particula r she reminded him th a t the
-
.

rst wish expresse d and gra nted was that they should
be recalled fr om exile ; and S he u t te r ed the hope that
this might be t he meaning of the gr eat t umult they now
s aw. O n hearin g t hese comfortin g words W tha nd aya
descended from the hill with Madi ; and they both s a t
peacefully a t t he doors o f t heir huts condent that no ,

o n e would moles t such simple h armless r ecluses a s they ,

we r e .

N ow K ing T ha i ns i feared t hat if a l l of t hem wen t

forwa rd a t once the Prince and P r incess mi g h t receive
,

S5 I
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
too g rea t a surprise S o he proposed that he S hould
.

a d va nc e rs t o f all and be g radually followed by Q ueen

_
,

P o tha d i then by Z a l i and last o f all by G a hn a z a i ng

, , .

R iding o n P i ssa y a the miraculou s white elephant and

, ,

accompanied by the Prince s sixty thousand noble co m

p a nions he approached the huts o f the exiles D i s

,
.

mou n t in g a nd g oin g nearer alone he was met by the ,

Prince a nd Princess who came forward making respectful

,

obeisance U nable to restrain his joy he cl a sped them

.

to his heart kissin g their foreheads and rubbin g thei r

,

shoulders with his smooth soft hands M a king the th r ee , .

customary inquiries as to their he a lth food suppl ies and ,

-
,

freedom fr om an noyance by insects and w ild animals he ,

bade t hem r ela t e w ha t had been their life i n the fores t .

T hus he learned tha t t hough j u n gle roo ts and fru its had
provided but scanty food and thou g h l ife i n t he fores t ,

had been hard and sorrowful ye t it was not till thei r ,

children had been parted fr om t hem t hat they had been

consumed with ever increasing grief which had wasted
-

their bodies and made t hem thin by pining R el a t ing .

how the two child r en had been given t o an old B rahmin ,

t he P a y ala u ng implored t h e K ing to say if he had heard

anything abou t them and was g reatly relieved o n learn
,

i ng of their ransom Then the Prince inqu i r ed after

.

his mothe r his friends the nobles an d the people o f

, ,

S a d u t ta ya and was pleased t o lea r n o f t hei r health and

,

prosperity .

While fathe r and son were t hus conve r sing Q ueen ,

P o tha d i c a me nea r walkin g barefoot and accompanied

,

only by her fem a le at t endants R isin g to welcome her .

,

and preparing a se a t for her W tha nd aya and Mad i ,

made obeisance reverently before her Whilst they we r e .

t hus employed Z ali appeared surrou nded by a g r eat ,

r etinue o f young nobles and G a hna z a i ng came at t ended

,

by a larg e train o f maidens and handmaids T hen M adi .

their mother trembling as she g azed upon he r loved

,

ones became lled with grea t fear and j oy combined

, ,

while both children ran towards he r like you ng calves

parted from their dam Overcome with the su ddenness .

o f their retu r n Madi fain t ed and fell to t he grou nd

, ,

w hile both children swooned and dropped senseless beside

35 2
 M I RA C U L O U S S I G N S
her S eeing his wife a n d children thus prostrate a n d
.

helpless the heart o f the P a yala u ng l ike w ise bec a me

,

melted a s water s o tha t he also swooned and fell to

,

the ground A nd the s a me h a ppened to K ing T ha i ns i

.
,

Q ueen P otha d i and all t he nobles maidens a nd h a n d

, , ,

maidens who accompanied t hem so that all fell to the ,

g round as a g rove o f young pole trees i s laid prone -

by the fu r y o f a strong wi nd Then once again the .

earth t urned round l ike a po t ter s wheel and was

violently shaken while the rocks resou nded the great

, ,

w aters o f the deep were m igh t ily a gitated M ount ,

M y i n mo aga in bent towards the Win g a hills and a ,

rush ing sound w a s heard throu ghou t the s i x realms of

spirit land Thus for the seventh time the e a r t h shook
-
.

i n payin g h omag e t o the excellence of Prince \N tha n

daya Then the Tha g ya beholding t he bodies a l l lying
.
,

senseless o n t he g rou nd s o th a t none could aris e a nd

sprinkle wa t er to restore the others caused a gentle rain ,

to descend w hich fell o n their faces like the p a ttering

,

o f r a ind r ops o n lotus leaves oatin g o n a pond ; bu t the

-

ra in fell only on t hose who did not obj ect to bein g w e t .

O n beholdin g this m a rvellous rain and o n hearing t he ,

quaking o f the earth the people w ho were aw akened

,

thereby marvelled greatly and clamoured pitifully to the

,

K in g t h at he should t a ke back the P rince an d Princess

to S a d u tta ya and restore t hem t o their former high posi
tion and prosperou s est a t e .

O n hearing the ou tcry o f t he people K ing T ha i n si ,

begged t he P a y alau ng to forgive the decree of banish

ment and to cas t aside h is recluse garb and return to
resume hi s former princely position as a ruler amo n g
his o wn people in the land o f Thiwa Then the P a y a .

laung inwardly lled with great j oy but deeming it

,

p r udent to refra in from exhibitin g delight forg a ve his ,

fa t her ackno wled g ed himself satised and promised to

, ,

retu rn ag a in to his o w n cou ntry Thereupon his sixty .

thousand noble companions be gged him to bathe a n d

wash the dust from his body R etirin g into his hu t . ,

he doffed the hermit s ga rb a nd put on a robe o f pure

white . Coming o u t thus a rrayed he walked three ,

t imes rou nd t he hu t in which he had so long pra ctised

V OL A A
. 11 .
35 3
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
the austere duties o f a celibate recluse and pros t rated ,

himself befo r e t he place where he had accomplished

the supreme cha r ity o f giving away h is beloved child r en
and his peerless w ife .

When he ha d bathed and his bea r d had been shaved

o ff he w a s a rr a yed in princely garmen t s and adorned
,

w ith rich j ewels so t hat in g lory he was like u nto the

,

Thagya h imself T hen he was invested with th e whi t e

.

u m brella and t he o t her si g ns o f roy a lty and wa t er o f ,

consecra t ion was pou red ove r him while t he nobles ,

ra ised a grea t shou t and wished glory and happiness

to t he ro y al family .

M adi also cast aside he r r ecl use dress a n d donned ,

queen l y robes after ba t hing When s he a ppeared i n

.

royal ra iment a g reat shout wen t u p and the people ,

cried wi t h o ne voice that she mi g h t be h a ppy i n the

love o f he r husband and children till the end o f her
life Thu s W tha n d ay a rej oiced tha t his trials of seven
.

ea r s duration had ended by h s r e g aining his p r incely

y i
s t ate ; while M adi thou g h also rejoicin g greatly a t this
, ,

had the additional h a ppiness o f enjoyin g the company

o f her beloved child r en and o f t ellin g them t ha t hence
,

fo r th their parents a ffection should p r o t ec t them as an

umbrella keeps off s u n and rain .

A t l a s t W tha nd a y a moun t ed his whi t e elephan t and ,

M a di rode beside him o n a smaller elephan t A nd as .

they went throu g h t he fores t all t he bi rds and t he beas t s

t hereof mourned their depar t ure sayin g th a t while the ,

P a y al a u ng h ad l ived a mong t hem they had known

nothi ng bu t peace and concord whereas now tha t he ,

was leaving t he grea t peaceful inuence would also

depa rt .

F o r a whole mon th fes t ivi t ies and g re a t rejoicings

were held in the fo r es t Then K i ng T ha i ns i c a used
.

the gon gs t o be bea t en for an assembly of all his soldiers

and followe rs Marchin g o ne F az a na ( 1 2 miles ) each
.

day the great cavalcade reached S a d u tta y a in two

,

months t ime ; and i n honou r o f the a uspicious re t urn

of his so n t he K ing ordered all prisoners to be released

from connement and g ene r al rejoicings and festivals
,

t o be held everywhere throughou t the land .

35 4
 A H A P PY I S S U E
N o soone r had the P a yala u ng retu r ned t o his former
abode than he bethough t himself o n the very evenin g ,

o f the day o f h i s arrival as to wha t gifts he should be

,

able to besto w upon a n y mendicants who mi g ht demand

al ms of him J ust then the t hrone o f t he Tha g y a in
.

spirit land became hard and u ncomfortable a s wa s

-
,

always the case when some t hing in the wo rld o f men

r equired his pe rsonal at t ention S o lookin g down earth .
,

wards he saw the P r ince s dilemma and caused the seven

,

p r ecious things to rain down so heavily at dawn next

morni ng t hat all the K in g s palace was waist deep with

j ewels w h ile they lay knee deep t hrou g hou t the whol e of
,
-

the other parts of the city The P a yala u ng allowed the .

ci t izens to collect for t hemselves whateve r ha d fallen

withi n the fences enclosing thei r houses but all t he rest
were ga the r ed together a n d stored in the royal tre a sury .

Thus the people o f S a d u ttay a w ere greatly enriched ,

while W e tha nd a ya was a ble to t he very end o f his l ife

to make grea t gifts daily at s i x places of offering withi n

and a r ou nd t he city A nd w hen at length his l ife ebbed
.

away he ascended to abide with the spirits in Tawa d e i ng

t ha t he dwe lling place of those who pe r fo r m acts o f
,
-

illus t rious virtue .

as X
>= X
2< at as

H aving thus concluded his na r ra t ive Ga ndama furt h e r ,

announced t o h is hearers t ha t he who had then been

Prince W tha nd a ya t he P a y al a u ng had n o w become
, ,

t he B uddh who h ad a tt ained intuitive knowled g e o f and

, ,

perfec t ac q uain t ance wi t h t he ve grea t laws a nd principles

,

o f l ife the summit o f omn iscience a tt ainable onl y by a

,

B uddh that he who was t hen his father K in g T ha i ns i , ,

ha d a gain become his father S u d d a w d a na ; that s he who ,

was then his mother Q ueen P o tha d i had l ikewise in

, , ,

a cco r dance with he r pr a yer made ninety one cycles of -

ye ars a g o a t the feet o f the B uddh W i pa thi a g ain ,

became his mo t her M aya ; that Madi who was then

, ,

h is consor t was n o w again his wife Y a sa wd a ra while

, , ,

Z al i was t heir s o n Prince R a hul o and G a hna z a i ng had ,

become t he dau g h t er of U p alawu n his mos t excellent ,

disciple .

35 5
 Ch ap te r X IV
F O L KL O R E
S m ight be expec ted among s o i n t ensely superstitious
and credulous a people there is a wealth of Folk
,

lo r e t hough no sys t ematic a t temp t has ye t been made to

,

collect i t fo r permanent record and arrangemen t In .

addi t ion t o i ts Tha ma i ng o r his t oric reco r d eve ry

, ,

pagoda o f any impo r tance has also o n e o r mo r e legends

attached to it A ll the lakes moun ta ins and s treams
.
, ,

have sto r ies of some sor t connec t ed with them ; while

loca l natu ral phenomena are similarly explained I t will .

be a ma t ter of extreme re g ret if these legendary t ales

fail to be soon incorpo rated in th e new l ite ra t ure tha t
has sprung up in B urma .

S ome o f the short mino r folk t ales t old i n explana t ion

-

o f physical p h enomen a are ex tr emely q uain t A typical .

specimen may be given in t he legen d of the I ndawgyi o r ,

great lake t o the sou t h wes t o f M ogaung in t he
,
-

M yi tkyina dis t ric t within the wild Kac h in cou n t ry

,

forming the nor t hern por t ion o f the province T here .

a r e numerou s oating isle t s on the lake w h ich drift about

accordin g to the sta t e of th e wind One bears a tiny .

pagoda Trees forme r ly grew o n some of them but

.
,

now they consis t only of w eeds and grasses l ike the ,

isle ts which appear from t ime t o t ime on D erwentwater ,

i n Cumberland .

The legend of the I ndawgyi rela t es that the g uardi a n

spirit o f the N a n te i n river which helps to feed the lake
, ,

every year renders obeis a nce to the spirit o f the l a ke

a n d makes a n o ffe fi n f timber and wood w h ile the
g o ,

l a tter recog nizes this act o f homa g e by sending a present

o f sh . A pre t ty l i t tle s t ory is thus woven o u t o f na tu ral
35 6
 T H E L E G EN D O F M O U L M E I N
circumstances The N a nte i n river runs into the I ndawgyi
.

r iver abou t ei ght m iles below the exit of the l a tter from
the north end of the lake A s it makes its entry into
.

the main st r eam at an obtuse angle and as the I nda wg yi ,

river is very sluggish and nearly level i t happens that ,

when the N a nte i n is i n ood its muddy w hitish waters ,

spread ove r the top o f the water i n the main S trea m and
o w up str ea m into the lake bearing on thei r s urface the
-
,

t ribute o f drift lo g s and j u n gle refuse The r e can be no .

doubt tha t this is so ; because the black waters of the

I ndawgyi river fresh fro m the lake o w below the
, ,

whitish waters of the N a n te i n and come u p t o the ,

surface again after the mouth o f the N a nte i n is passed .

But the limy waters o f the N a n te i n poison the sh i n

the lake ; and when the oods subside myriads o f de a d
sh oa t do wn past the mouth o f t he N a n te i n and a re ,

carried a w ay on to the M ogaung river Thus each time .

,

the N a n te i n o ffers its tribute of timbe r th e lake r esponds ,

with its present o f s h .

Of leg ends connec t ed with place names M oulmei n -

fu r nishes a good example T he modern Bu rmese name

.
,

M a w l a my a i ng is a corruption of the M On M ohmwa

- -
,

l u m meanin g o ne eye destroyed
,

The story goes that .

i n ancient time the kin g ruling the r e had a thi r d eye placed ,

in t he cen t re of h is fo rehea d which enabled h im to see

,

what was going o n in othe r coun t ries The K in g of .

S iam who was a t war with this kin g fou nd his plans
, ,

always thwarted so he suspected treachery in the camp ,

and called a cou ncil o f w a r I n the discussion which .

ensued the K in g o f S iam was told o f his enemy s super

hu man gift and was advised to g ive his dau g hte r i n

,

m a rria g e to his rival A cting on t his advice the K ing

.
,

o f S iam sen t his dau g hter who soon ga ined the co n

,

d e nc e of the M On K in g which s he ab u sed by destroy

,

in g the si g h t of the third eye in the forehead H ence .

the name of the city .

Of t he longer legends t he ve now abou t t o be g iven

may be taken as fairly typical samples The rst is .

abbrevia t ed from an A rakanese legend the second is ,

from the lo we r I rr awaddy and t he thi r d from the upper

,

I rrawaddy while t he fourth is the very popular myth

,

35 7
 B U R M A U N D ER B R I TI S H R U LE
relating to K ing Thado N a ga na i ng o ne of the leg endary ,

rulers o f Tagau ng i n the six t h o r seven t h centu ry B C . .

,

and the fth is the le g end connected w ith the spirit

festiva l annually hel d a t Tau ngby on a little to the north ,

o f Mandalay The second and third legends are both

.

incorpora t ed i n the R oy a l C hronicle .

T RE E S N A KE P R I N C E
THE -
.

A fter l iving a thou sand l ives in t he spiri t land o f -

Ta wa d e i ngtha a N a t called S a k aru ha d once more t o be

,

born as a man A s the omniscient Thagya M in K ing

.
,

o f spi r it land
-
kne w that S a ka r u was n o t ye t free from
,

the inuence o f pas t evil deeds he arr a n g ed with the , ,

a i d o f ano t her spirit that S a k a ru s hould for the period ,

o f three months become a guardian spirit dwelling in a

w ild g tree
-
N ear where S a ka r u was thus temporarily
.

incarnated as a tree s nake there d w elt a sherman and -

his wife who had two daughters called S hwe Kyin and
,

D w e Pyu .

One day the mother and her d aughters went to wash

clo t hes at the place w here t he wild g tree overhu n g a -

stream When her work was nished the mother lookin g

.
, ,

u p into the tree saw some ripe fru it and also the snake
,
.

J estingly she said Oh ! guardian spirit o f the tree ,

,

throw me down three o r fou r gs and I w ill g ive you

my dau g hter D we Pyu if you want he r ! H ereupon
the snake shook its t a il and about forty or fty ripe gs
fell to the g round .

Oho s a id the woman j ust see how pleased t he
, ,

snake i s a nd how fond he mus t be of D we Pyu I onl y

ask e d for fou r o r ve gs and he has knocked down ,

ten times th a t number A s the s u n is setting le t us .

,

pick up the gs and go home Then as they w ere .
,

a bou t to star t she mocked the spirit saying

, Well ,

,

M r S nake if you wan t D we Pyu y ou will j ust have to

.
,

follo w her home .

O n the way back they res t ed fo r a moment nea r a

broken tree stump standing where the path divided i n t o
-

two tra cks and D we Pyu said ,

M other it will be , ,

t errible if the snake really does follow us Then the .

m other also began to g et afra id and sai d to the stump , ,

35 8
 T H E T R EE S NA K E P R I N C E -

I f a bi g snake comes and asks w hich way w e have

gon please say you have not seen us H e r e s a g fo r

you.
e,
.

S oon after o n reachin g another fork of the path the

, ,

mothe r agai n gave a g and simila r instructions to an

ant hill standing close by
-
.

But the tree snake ha d a t once fallen in love wi t h

-

D we P y u the moment he saw he r D escending from .

the tree he followed the mother and her dau ghters

, .

On coming t o the stump he asked which pa th they had

taken bu t the stu mp said it did no t kno w Becomin g
, .

an g ry the snake h issed o u t I f you dare to l ie to me

,

while you hold my o wn g I ll split you in t o fou r So

t he stump showed t h e way D we Pyu had gone .

A nd when the snake came to the an t hill this also rs t -

denied all knowled ge but was soon fri ghtened into ,

pointing ou t the way tha t the mothe r and her daugh t e rs

had t aken .

I t was nigh t w h en the snake r eached the washe r man s
hou se s o S a kar u en t ered t h e po t in whic h t he cleaned
,

r ice was kept and cu rled himself u p in i t

, .

E arly next morning t he mother wen t t o get r ice for

the morni n g meal but as soon as she t h r ust he r hand
,

in t o the pot t h e s nake seized hold of i t r mly in i t s

coils .

A t rst the woman shrieked bu t he r hand r emained ,

held ti g htly as in a vice Then she kne w that it must .

be the tree snake and she said -

O gr ea t S nake I
, , ,

promise you D we Pyu if you will only l e t me g o So .

the coils were loosened from around her arm and s he ,

went and implored her dau g hter to l ive with the sn a ke

else the whole househol d would be killed .

B ut D we Pyu w ept and r efused to l ive with the brute ,

beast t ill he r mo t he r who was i n g rea t fear o f losin g

,

her life coaxed her to do so S o D we Pyu l ived with

, .

the tree snake -

.

S hortl y after this the Tha g y a M in hel d a cou ncil i n

spirit land A s S a ka r u s p resence was necessary at t his
-
.

council he sl ipped q u ietly out o f his skin and went to

,

Ta wa d e i ng tha leaving his s nake s skin beh ind But

.
,

35 9
 BU R MA U ND ER B R I TI SH RU LE
w hen day dawned the cou ncil was n o t yet ended so ,

S a k a r u could n o t retu rn and resume his sn a ke form -

a gain.

When D we Pyu awoke she fou nd nothing bu t the

empty skin th a t ha d been sloughed o ff Weepin g she .
,

told her mother and siste r that her husband was dead ,

a n d wanted to have proper obsequ ies performed over all

that rem a ined o f him From this however she was

.
, ,

d issuaded as the mother said it woul d be far better

,

s imply to bu rn the ski n quietl y and thus avoi d scandal ,

and ta lkin g amon g the nei g hbou rs S o D we Pyu a greed .

to this and they burned the skin

, .

When t he ski n was bei n g burned S a k a r u feel in g , ,

u nbeara ble heat appeared in person by the re N o t

, .

k nowin g h im D we Pyu asked who he was and on being

, ,

told ho w S aka ru felt in t ense he a t s he recogn ized her ,

h u sband and rejoiced g reatly B ut her sister S hwe .

,

K yin at once fell in love with him a n d became very

, ,

jealous o f her youn g er sister sayin g to herself But fo r , ,

D we Pyu I should be a ble to get h im fo r my husband .

A fter the darkness came o n they all went to bed At .

midni g h t the S a ma d e va spirit sent by the T hagya M in , ,

c a me to S ak a ru and said H ere is a m agic wand s o

, ,

powerful that on s t riking anything with it y ou will at

once obt a in w hatever y o u desire Then the S a m a d e v a .

went o n t o tell S a ka r u that D we Pyu was abou t to bear

a child to h im an d warned hi m that if he let a drop o f
,

snake s blood touch him after the birth o f this child he

would a gain t urn into a sn a ke as formerly Before dis .

appea r in g the S a m a d e va n a lly told him that n o w he

had received the magic wand he could only retu rn he r e
after w a nderin g in other countries .

E arly nex t mornin g S a ka r u tol d D we Pyu what the

S a m a d e va had said I n spite o f all s he could sa y
.
,

S a k a ru felt the T ha g y a M in s order strong upon him

S o he went and smote the se a wi th hi s magic wand At .

once a ship appeared fully ri gg ed and man ned Goin g

, .

on bo a rd this he ha d to leave D we Pyu behind she ,

being heavy with child and t herefore unable to cross

the s e a .

When S aka ru w a s gone S hwe Kyi n thought withi n ,

3 60
 T H E T R EE SN A K E P R I N C E -

herself that i f she coul d only ge t rid o f D we Pyu she

would obtain S a ka r u as her husband Co a xin g her .

down to the bank of a s t ream s he t old D we Pyu s he ,

mean t to push her in an d drown he r D we Pyu besou ght .

her not to do t his as this would des t roy the two l ives ,

now within her and said she would give up her husband
,

t o her S is t er o n his return But S hwe K yin knowin g .

,

S a ka r u would never be hers while D we Pyu l ived ,

pushed he r sister into the rive r and retu rned home .

A s D we Pyu oated on the top O f the strea m and was

borne seawa rds a sh eagle swooped down and carried
,
-

her o ff to its nest in a lofty t r ee When D we Pyu told .

th e bird all that had happened t o her it tended h er in ,

i t s nest and here she bo r e her s o n

, .

Whenever t h e child cried D we Pyu soothed it by ,

saying S ak a r u S a k ar u
, This made the eagle s o
, .

an g ry t h at it threa t ened to peck the child to death But .

when s he said Papa E agle to q uiet the boy it also

,

grew angry thinking this w a s meant a s mockery

, .

One d a y when D we Pyu and the eagle we r e q uarrel

ling ove r t his S ak a ru s ship passed near t he nesting
,

tree and he heard a voice like hi s wife s S o he called

,

.

ou t, I S that you D we Pyu to which she answered

, ,

Yes . Then he landed and cl imbed u p to the n est .

When S a kar u wan t ed t o take away his wife s h e said ,

D on t you t hink it will be bes t t o thank the eagle a n d

give him a prese n t and ask if I may leave ,

S o S a k a ru
s a i d O eagle you and I a r e b rothers I am very gra t e
, , .

ful to my elder brother and w ill pile u p sh fo r y o u from ,

the ground right up t o the hi g hest branch of this tree if

y o u will let me take away my wife and child A gr eein g .

to t h is S a k aru smote the sea w ith his wand and sh

, ,

came out o f the wate r a nd piled themselves up till the

heap reached the top of the t ree .

A s S a ka r u and D we Pyu w ere r e t u r n ing t o t hei r home

she told him what S hwe Kyin had said and done and ,

he repl ied I will pu t her to shame if y o u and the child

,

g et into this box and hide there fo r a little To this .

D we Pyu consented .

When S a ka ru s ship arrived S hwe K yin d ressed her

self n icely and went to him pretending she was her sister .

361
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
Bu t S a ka r u said D we Pyu y o u are not l ike what y o u
, ,

used to be : you a re so thin
A las ! d ea r husband .
,

she repl ied I a m worn with yearning after you and I

, ,

have had a miscarriag e i n consequence S o he gave .

her the box saying it contained be a utiful clothes ; and

,

they went home O n arriving the r e he handed he r the

.

key and told her to open the box and pu t on some of

,

the pretty things i t contained O n opening i t she saw .

D we P y u a n d he r child so was greatl y a shamed and , ,

r a n away to the back o f the house w hi le S a ka r u and ,

D we Pyu w ent and l ived h a ppily i n their o w n room .

N o w S hwe Kyin thought that as D we Pyu had been

very happy with a tree snake she too mi g ht also thu s be
-
,

made happy S o s h e asked her fa ther to ca t ch o n e for

.

her H e t old he r that the snake D we Pyu had lived

.

with w as a spirit snake the incarnation o f a human being

-
, ,

and an embryo man A n d he said that if he w ent and.

cau g ht a tree snake i t would onl y be a common one

-
,

w hich would kill her Bu t s he insisted o n havi n g a

.

snake husband S o her fa ther wen t and cau g ht a bi g

-
.

tree python measurin g tw o spans in ci r cumference a nd

-
,

brou g ht it t o S hwe Kyin who t ook i t t o bed and slept ,

beside i t .

E arly in the mornin g the snake feel in g hun g ry began , ,

to g orge itself with S hwe K y in B e g innin g with her .

feet he sucked he r down i nto his g ullet as fa r a s the

knees when she be gan to be greatly afraid A t rst
,
.

sh e merel y cried o u t but as her fea r g rew s h, e shrieked

fo r h elp .

H earin g her cries D we Pyu told S ak a ru he must g o

and help her but he said R emember that if o n e drop
, ,

o f snake s blood tou ch me I must become a snake a g a in

.

You r father can easily kill the snake A re y o u tired o f .

me that y o u S hould ask me to run this awful risk

But D we Pyu said You don t run any risk o f that n o w
,

,

and it is wron g to let my sister die l ike tha t S o S a karu .

smote the python with his s w ord and killed it B ut as .

he cut it in two a drop o f the blood spurted o u t upon

him and he became a snake a s before A nd having also
, .

only a snake s m ind he w ent o ff into the ju ngle no longer

, ,

carin g to l ive in a h ouse .

3 62
 '

TH E
T H R EE E Y ED K I N G -

Weeping D we Pyu slowly followed him askin g h im

, ,

to come back but in va in S ome t imes he could think

, .

l ike a man and would then speak to his wife and child
,

bu t wheneve r t he snake s mind came back he would hiss

at t hem and t r y to bite them T hen he told his w ife

, .

t h a t he would have t o live aw a y i n the j u n gle far from

human bein g s else he would bite a n d kill them when in
,

a snake s mood
.

D we Pyu t ook back her child a n d left it wit h her

paren t s but she followed her snake husban d into the
,
-

dep t hs of t he forest I II one o f his hu man momen t s he

.

t old her tha t he was not as before bu t could reco g nize ,

nobody w h en lled with his sn a ke s m ind and coul d

only strike a t them ; and he asked her to g o home and

take care o f thei r ch ild while he went and l ived in the ,

darkest j un g le D we P yu could only a s k him to retu rn

.

with he r saying s he would ca r e fo r and feed h im as s h e

, ,

could n ot live away from him S o she continued to .

follow h im .

Coming nea r an an t s h ill th e snake mind came in t o

,
-

him and he was abou t to bite her But restraini n g h im

, .

self h e ente r ed i nto t h e ant hill instead while D w e P yu -

,

r emai ned weeping an d calling sadly to her husband .

Thus th ings wen t o n for a lon g time Whenever

.
.

S ak a r u felt himself becoming possessed by a snake s

mind he had t o hide himself away i n trees o r i n holes

,

i n the gr ound ; and i t was only when his m ind became

hu man again th a t he could come t o where D we Pyu
wai t e d for him .

B u t a t las t the me r i t he thus earned en a bled him to

become once mo r e enti r ely human with the aid o f the ,

Thagya M in when he went back with his wife t o w h e r e

,

thei r child was A nd t hey all l ived happily t ogethe r

.
,

doin g wo r ks o f grea t m erit .

T H R E E E YE D K I N G
TH E -
.

D urin g t he fth y ea r o f his Buddhahood Ga ndama was

presented by two brothers M a ha p u n na and C hu la p u nn a , ,

with a sandal wood monastery at V a n ija g a m a in S u na

-

pa ran t a and accepted the g ift occupyin g it for seven

,
1
,

1
Legai n g i n the M i nb u d i st i t ti ll a f m ous pl e of p il g i m ag
,
r c s a ac r e.

3 63
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
days A t the end o f this time he retu rned walkin g
.
,

alon g the h ills to the west o f th e I rrawaddy A t the .

P a wud au ng hill near P r ome a mole paid him homage by

, ,

O fferin g some of i ts b u rro wi ng s whereupon G a ud a ma ,

smiled and said to his favourite disciple A nanda that , ,

after his at tainmen t o f N eikban and after his reli g ion had
ou rished fo r 1 0 1 years the se a woul d d ry up the king ,

d o m o f Thare Ke tta ra ( Prome ) would be founded and the ,

mole would be incarnated as D u tta bau ng founder of that ,

ki n g dom from the date o f whose r eign B uddhism would

,

ou rish i n Burma .

N ow the mole had been asked by i t s wife t o wake her

ti
p when G a u d a m a was approachi n g thei r nest so that ,

sh e migh t have some share in t h e merit of makin g an

offering to him Bu t as t he B uddha came very early i n the

.

morning t he mole t hough t it bes t not to distu rb his wife s

,

slu mbers When she awoke la t e r and fou nd t ha t Gau

.

dama had passed afte r r eceiving an offering of b u rrowi ngs ,

she was very ang r y Follo wing the Buddha s he e n

.

t reated him to s t op and receive an offerin g from he r .

H e did so and accep t ed the b u rro w i ngs s he made

, .

With the meri t acqu ired by this act of hom a ge she ,

desi red i n revenge o n her husband fo r his neglec t of her

,

spiritu a l welfare t hat after her next birth she migh t be

,

capable of in ic t ing some g r ea t inj ury on him i n his next

I nc a rnat i on .

I n due course o f time the mole was incarna t ed in t he

womb of B e d a y i the Queen of Maha T ha m bawa and b e
, ,

came K ing D ut ta b a u ng of Th a re Ke tta ra ( 4 4 2 3 7 2

while the s he mole a g ain became h is wife afte r being i n
-

c a r na t e d as the beau t iful and clever princess P e i k th a na w

in the neighbou rin g country o f Pandwa ( Taungdwin g yi ) .

D u t ta ba u ng was a wise and powerfu l r u ler w h ose ,

i n uence was felt far beyond the bou ndaries o f Bu r ma ,

and even i n spirit land where the Tha gy a M in lord o f

-
, ,

the thi r ty three g reat rulin g spiri ts in T a wad e i ng tha h ad

-
,

to assist him in the attainment of his desires When Thare .

Ke tta ra was fou nded both the Th agya M in and the

d ra g ons helped in building it ; and D uttaba u ng was led
t o the t hrone by t he Th a gy a M in w ho presented hi m ,

with two wonderful celestial we a pons O ne of these was .

3 64
 T H E T H R EE E Y ED K I N G -

a spea r which ca rr ied roy a l messages immedia t el y to the

,

kin g s t ribu t aries ; while the o t her was a drum the be a t ,

of which t elling tha t the t ime for payin g tribute ha d

,

come could be hea r d a t the ends of the empire

, .

The sec r et o f the kin g s wisdom and power lay i n the
fac t of his havi ng three eyes Two o f t hese w ere in the .

usual places while t he thi rd was be t ween t h e t wo but

, ,

higher up i n the fore h ead .

D u tta b a u ng ruled wisely and well being beloved by his ,

people and fea red by h is tribu ta r ies H e would have .

been perfectly h appy bu t for o ne t hing and this was th at ,

hi s wife had no affection whatever for him a lthough he wa s ,

ext r emely fond of her S he seemed t o delight in thwart .

ing him in every way and to veil intense hatred u nder ,

feigned obedience and respect B ut her malevolent .

designs were of no avail s o long as D ut tab a u ng observed

G a ud a m a s p r ecepts fed t he monks and supported the

, ,

Buddhist r eligion for t he N a t in spiri t lan d were g uard -

ing him .

One day however withou t maki ng prope r i nvestiga

, ,

t ion into all t he circumstances connected w ith t he case ,

K ing D u tta ba u ng g ave orders for the consca t ion o f

about an acre o f land which a widowed swee t mea t selle r -

had presented to a monk .

O w ing to this s i n aga i nst rel igion D uttab au ng s powe r ,

waned H is tributaries revolted and withheld tribute

.
,

while the miraculous spea r and d r um lost their wonderful

powe r .

N oting h er opportunity Q ueen P e iktha na w wove an ,

u nclean to w el o u t of a S kirt of hers which s he ha d rst ,

o f all worn and then washed a n d o u t o f some r a gs picked ,

up in a cemetery U nsuspecting D utta b au ng used this

.
,

unclean towel and bein g thus d e le d a t once lost the

, , ,

sight o f his middle eye W ith its loss all his super .

natural gifts were gone ; even the celestial spear and

drum disappeared .

U nable to believe tha t he had los t all his former

presti g e and power D u ttab a u ng set o u t o n a pro g ress
,

through his dominions in o r der to replace his authority

o n its former basis Bu t while ne a r Cape N egrais ( lit
. .

N ag a r i t d ragon coil ) he exci t ed the wrath o f the
,

3 65
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
d ragons ( N ag d ) by spi t tin g in t o the s e a so t hey d ra gged ,

him a nd his bo a t do w n into their abode within the earth .

Thus perished D ut ta b a u ng the powerful three eyed ,

-

K in g a ccordin g to the desire expressed by P e i k tha n a w

. ,

hi s Q u een while they were both i n a previous s t ate o f

,

exis tence a s moles .

THE Two B L I N D P R I N C E S .

When K in g Thado N aga na i ng ascended the th r one o f

T a gau n g in very ancient days he was w ithout issue S o
, .

he nominated a s lord o f the eastern house o r heir

,

apparent Prince L ab ad u ha b rother of his Q ueen Ken ari

, ,

dev i
O ne d a y news was brough t tha t a hu g e wild boa r ,

eighteen fee t high was laying was t e t he land and t he

, ,

heir a pp a ren t w a s sent to stop the r avage H e ma r ched

-
.

o u t at the head o f an armed fo r ce a n d the boar ed ,

so u th e a st into the S han country a t a place whic h is even

-

t o this day called VV e twi n ( lit boa r s entry a village
.

a bou t fty miles east o f M a ndalay

) .

R ou t in g it o u t o f i t s lair the p r ince con t i nued the

,

ch a se The bo a r crossed the I r rawaddy at We t masut

.

(

boar not bu t was killed a t W e ttO yu n
g ( boa r

thrus t near Prome I n a lake to t he sou t h of

.

this the pri nce cleansed his hu nting spear a t a place -

called W e t thwe s e I n ( boar s blood cleansing

now a part o f the town o f Prome and corrupted i nto

W e tc he I n boar s feet

A s the chase had las t ed long and brought him far from
home L ab a d u ha thou g ht t h a t if a s on had meanwhile
,

been born to K ing Thado N aga na i ng his retu r n t o ,

Ta gaung mi g ht be u ndesirable and m i g h t g i ve r i se t o ,

intrig u es and plo ts and bein g o l d he wished to end his

, ,

days in peace rather than in a prison S o he preferr ed .

to remain near P r ome and lead the aus t ere religious life
o f a hermit i n the j u n g le .

O ne d a y his meditations we r e dist urbed by the c r i es

o f a c h ild and on g oin g to s e e w hat ca u sed them h e was
,

astonished to nd a doe wh ich had j us t given birt h to a

female child Fri g htened the doe ran away ; so t he
.
,

3 66
 T H E LE G EN D O F SA G A I N G
hermit took the infant to his lonely hu t H ere he fed it .

with milk wh ich miraculously owed in abu ndance from

t he tips o f his t wo fore ng e rs The child gre w u p into .

a beautiful damsel and wa s named B e d ay i To keep

,
.

her a way from his hut where her presence might h a ve ,

in t errupted his religious duties the hermit sent B e d a y i ,

daily to fe t ch water ordering he r no t t o re t urn home till

,

after sunse t .

N o w it happened t ha t Q ueen Ke nar id e vi g ave birth

,

t o twi n boys w ho were born blind d urin g the year i n

, ,

which Prince L ab ad u ha went forth to chase the wild boar

th a t was laying was t e th e land .

A shamed o f havi n g t w o blind c h ildren K ing T hado ,

N a g a n a i ng ordered the m to be made a w ay with B ut .

the Q ueen hid them and saved their lives When they .

had grown up to be n ineteen years old however the , ,

K in g fou nd o u t t hat his order had n o t been obeyed and ,

i nsisted that it S hould now be put into effect D esirous .

o f appeari ng to obey him and ye t anxious to save her ,

children s lives the Q ueen had a ra ft made and stored

with food U pon t his he r two sons were se t a oa t o n

.

the wa t ers of the I rra waddy the good spiri t s bein g ,

i nvoked by he r to watch over and protect her O ffspring .

Floatin g down the I rrawaddy t he r a ft cau g h t i n the

branch of a S i t tree ( A l bi z z i a p r ocer a ) where the town of ,

S a gaing now stands ( i e S i tha i ng the branch of a S i t

. .
,

I n t his a g uardian spirit dwelt named S and a ,

m Okki . U nseen by the blind children S a n d a m Okk i d a il y ,

provided them w ith food t ill on e day they cau g ht hold ,

o f her and asked whose hand i t w a s they held .

J ust as they were about t o kill he r w i t h their s words ,

sh e s a id that if they spared he r life they should see ho w

g ra teful s he w ould be On being a sked how s he w ould

.

S ho w this s he replied t hat s he would u nder t ake to cure

,

their blindness S o he r life was spared and the r a ft

. , ,

loosened from the branc h o f t he S i t tree oa t ed down ,

the river .

S a n d a m Okk i was as good as he r word Where S agu .

( g r

lit
. be in cure ) now stands the cu e for bl indness was ,

begun and befo r e they had r eached P r ome complete

,

vision had been given to them O n r eceivin g sigh t their .

3 67
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
rs t wonder was to nd that the ea r th was su rrounded
by the sky and they exclaimed the sky above the
,

,

e arth below .

S till drifting down t he river the r aft was no t moored ,

till i t r eached the mou t h o f t h e Paga stream ( now silted

up ) below P r ome H ere t hey sa w B e d a y i drawing
.

w a t er . To keep he r employed all the day the hermi t ,

La b a d uha had only made a t iny hole i n t he j oin t of the

bamboo to le t in wa t e r S eeing t he delay this caused
.
,

the princes enla rg ed the aper t ure thu s enabli ng B e d a y i ,

to ll her bamboos qu ickly with wa t e r and r e t urn hom e

much earlier than u sual .

The hermit was angry and asked why s he had ,

retu rned so soon B e d a yi told h im a bout t he two

.

princes and b r ough t; them to him O n hearing t hei r

,
.

sto r y he knew t hey w ere h is nephe ws so he gave ,

B e d a y i in marriage to Maha T ha m b a w the elder of the ,

tw m s .

At t hat time the land in w h ich the hermi t dwelt was

ruled by a Queen from whom he ob t ained t he gran t of
,

as much land as a hide could stretch over Cu t tin g a .

l a rge hide in t o very thin strips the herm it encircled a

hu g e t ract upon which t he city o f Thare Ke ttara ( lit .

elds obtained by t h e h ide ) was afterw a rds bu ilt .

W hen M aha T ha m b a w a fou nded the kingdom o f

Thare Ke ttara ( 4 8 3 B C ) b e nominated his t win brothe r
. .

S ula T ha m b a wa as hei r a pp a rent and was succeeded by ,

him S ix y e a rs la t er ( 4 7 7 B S ula T ha m b a wa married

.

B e d a y i hi s brother s w idow and rei g ned for t hirty ve

-
, ,

yea rs when he died at the age o f sixty o n e

,
-
.

TH E D U LL B ov W H O B E C AM E A K I NG .

I n ancient days the sons of a l l the chief men in

S a mb a di pa w ere sent to T e tka tho ( i n N or t h Western -

I ndia ) fo r their educ a tion A mong them was a la d .

named M a ti ng P a uk K y a ing who never seemed to learn ,

much H e hated study bu t he w as strong and active :

. ,

s o his teachers thought h e would be better t t ed fo r a

rou g h outdoor life than for any indoor occupation .

Before sendin g h im away from school hi s teach e r ,

3 68
 TH E D U LL BOY
t augh t him the follo wing three maxims and b a de him ,

apply t hem wheneve r r e q uired :

Ke epgoin g on a nd you wi ll t a v el f r
,
r a .

Ask ab ou t th i n g nd you wi ll g ai n m u c h k n owl ed g e

s, a .

A watc hful w k eful man has a l on g l i fe

,
a .

A fte r r eaching home Maun g Pauk K yaing grew t ired

of having nothing much to do so he s e t ou t to another ,

cou n t ry to try and better thin g s for himself .

A pplying the rs t o f his maxims he wen t far through ,

strange cou n t ries ; and a pplyi ng the second he g a ined ,

much information by asking questions of the people he

met A nd so a t l a st he came to Tagau ng the capital of
.
,

the K ing of Burma where he soon found ou t all that

,

was goin g o n .

T he K ing having been dead fo r some time the ,

Q ueen much agains t the wish of the people had taken

, ,

unto herself a hu g e dr ag on as a s w eetheart H er .

min is t ers and subj ects wished a h u man bein g to rule

o ver t hem a nd the Q ueen ha d no objection to their
,

electin g o n e : bu t whenever any human bein g wa s thus

appointed he w a s killed by the dragon du rin g t he rst
,

night passed in the palace .

I n spite o f t hese rumou rs M a u ng Pauk K ya in g wen t

,

to the ministers and told them he wished to aspire

t o the hand of the Q ueen Being ushered into the .

palace he fou nd the Queen very silen t and depressed s o

, ,

he tried to be jovial and to cheer her .

When ni g ht came o n they wen t to bed B u t as .

M aun g Pauk Kyain g knew from the many questions he

had asked that former aspir a nts to the throne ha d
always been killed by t he dragon her s wee t heart he , ,

thought he would now a pply the third maxim he had

been tau g h t S o he only pretended to fall a sleep and
.
,

snored loudly .

When he found t hat the Q ueen had really fallen

asleep he go t o u t o f bed and put t he stem o f a p la i n ta i n
,

t ree where he had lain Coverin g t his up w i th his bl a nket

.
,

he hid behind a cur tain t o s e e what would happen .

Before he had been wai t i ng long a great dra g on came , ,

V OL . 1 1 .
3 69 B B
 B U R M A U N D E R B R IT I S H R U LE
breathi ng re and made a bite a t where the plan t ain
,

stem lay cove red .

Whil e t h e d ragon s teeth were xed i n this M a ti ng

P a uk Kyaing rushed o u t and cu t t he monster i n two

with a sword .

S oon after this Ma ti n g Pauk K yaing was c r owned

K ing amid the rejoicings o f the people But the Queen .

remained sullen a n d dej ected .

When his p a ren ts heard the news they were ful l of ,

j oy and went to s e e h im Before reaching T a gaun g .

they res t ed u nder a t ree a mong the branches o f which ,

two crows were sit t in g O ne bird said We shal l have .

,

a rare feast t o morro w fo r the K ing will be executed

-
, .

H ow is tha t ? asked the other

Oh said the rst .
, ,

the K i n g and the Q ueen have made a wag e r abou t a

certai n riddle I f he cannot read the riddle he is to
.
,

lose h is life ; and if he c a n explai n it the Q ueen is to ,

d ie. A nd w h a t is t he riddle
? asked the second

crow I t is this said t he rst :
.

,

A th ou n d were g i v en

sa

F o i t to b e i v en r r ,

W h i l e full h u n d ed m o e a r r

W e e th en sen t to the sewe r r :

A nd n ow the b on so d e ly l ov ed es ar

I n to r v e n bl ck l ock s e a -
a ar

Oho said the o t her tha t riddle is easily enough ,

to read I t a l l refers o f cou rse t o t h e Q ueen s sweet

.
, ,

heart the dra gon D i d t S he paid a tho u sand coins fo r

,
.

having its ski n t a ken o ff and another h und red for havin g ,

this se w n into pillo w s and cushions and aren t the hair

pins s he n ow wears a l l made o f the d rag on s bones

M aung P a uk Ky a i ng s pa r ents hastened o n as fas t as

possible and jus t arrived at Ta gau ng in t ime to save

,

their son s l ife by telling him how the riddle should be

read H e with the g enerosi t y becoming a K in g spa r ed

.
, ,

the Q ueen s l ife and assumed the title of Thado N a ga

n a in g the conquero r o f the dragon
,

T he Qu een .

became r econciled to he r second husband and th ey ,

reigned happily t ogether .

as as as a
s as

Ta u ng b yOn , eight miles north of M andalay has been ,

370
 T A U N G B Y ON N A TS
TH E
a place o f pilgrimage fo r ove r seven hundred years and
,

every year a gre a t festival is held t here durin g the month

o f July o r A ugust H ere stand t wo small pagodas called
.

S udaungbye and S u d a u ng b ya The rst o f these was .

buil t by K in g A na wra ta z a w in the eleventh century 1

,

in honour o f the twin brothers S hwepy i ngy i and S hwe

pyinnge whose spirits d w ell i n t wo small brazen images
,

housed i n a N a tna n o r spirits palace But as all

.
,

petitions offered at t his pagoda are said to be certain o f

fullment sooner o r later K in g M i nd On i n 1 8 74 buil t
,

the S u d au ngb ya pagoda specially for members o f the

royal family who were prohibited from attendance a t the
,

other les t they mi g ht aspire t o the throne and their evil

desires should come t o pass This annu a l N a tp w o r .

spirit festival is a strange pra ctical example of the
inte r weavi ng of B uddhism and o f animistic worship which
really forms a very noteworthy character i stic o f B urmese
B uddhism as has been elsewhere remarked ( vol i page
, . .
,

1 96 ; v ol ii pages 1 0 7
. .
, A nd this is the legend o f
,

TH E TWI N S P I R I TS ( N at
) OF TAU N GBY ON .

A bou t a thousand years a g o a monk while ba t hing ,

one day in the I r ra waddy river saw a lar g e wooden ,

t ray oating towards him with two little boys on it .

M oved by pity he rescued t hem and took them to hi s

,

abode . H ere they g rew up and went about with him

in the forest .

One day they fou nd t he dead body o f a man covered

with charms of the sort which render their possessor
invisible at will s o lon g as he lives The monk told the .

boys to t a ke the body to his hu t where he intended to ,

roast a n d eat it so as to become possessed of the power

given by the magic charms .

When he g ot back to his hut however he fou nd tha t , ,

the lads ha d themselves roasted and e a ten t he body thus ,

acqu irin g the supernatu ral powers he ha d w ished to a ttain .

O ut of reven g e the monk arranged fo r the l a ds to be

killed ; but this fa t e only overtook the elde r while the ,

Th i s was the v ery k i n g who m ad e w r ag ain st T hatOn and conv erted

1 a ,

P g an i n to the c en tre of the B udd h i st reli g i on th rough out B u m a

a r .

37 I
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
you nger escaped to P a gan a nd took service under K in g
A na wra ta z a w H ere hi s duty w a s to gather owers for
.

the royal household I n performance o f this task he

.

u sed daily to go u p to the t o o f the Pop a hill and back

p
to Pa gan though fo r any ord in a ry man this was a whole
,

week s journey

N o w o n the t op of Pop a there dwelt a g ian t ess who

,

had assumed t he form o f a youn g an d be a utiful girl .

Falling in love w ith each other s he a nd the o we r ,

gathe r er were secretly married ; and i n du e time twin

boys were born to them O n the day o f this h a ppy occu r
.

rence t he father was late i n return in g to the palace with

h is owe rs Wishing t o be rid o f a man possessed with
.

such superna t ural powers the K in g seized o n this pretext ,

and ordered him to be killed B efore death he told the .

K in g o f the twins and be gged him to adopt them tellin g ,

h im that they too w ould be possessed o f wonderful

magical po w ers w hich would be o f g reat service to him .

A ware o f w hat had come to pass the mother placed her ,

twi n children in two larg e j a rs a nd shoved these in t o t he

river s o that they oated down to Pag an H ere they .

were fou nd a n d taken charge o f by the K ing from whom ,

they received t he names of S hwe py i ng yi and S hwe

pyin nge ( o r bi g and l ittle S hwe p y i n) They grew

.

u p much beloved i n the palace and proved themselves ,

possessed of vast supern a tural a bilities .

L ater o n K ing A n a w r a ta z a w marched with a gr ea t

a rmy into China to obtain from t h e E mperor U d ib w a

the tooth of G a u d a m a A s the E mperor did not come

.

forth to meet the K in g the l a tter felt insulted and caused

,

a sou nd thrashin g to be g iven to the great image o f the

chi e f 1 Va t o r spirit worshipped by the Chinese .

When be a ten this spirit c a lled ou t loudly fo r help from

,

the M inisters O f S ta te a nd it was only then tha t the

,

E mperor of China knew of the coming o f the Burmese

K ing Charmed s w ords a n d spe a rs and magic water and
.
,

re were placed all round the city w a lls in defence o f the

Chinese capital Fou r men sent by the Burmese K ing
.
,

to call the E mpero r to accou nt succeeded in passing t he ,

barriers of swords and spea rs bu t failed t o c r oss t he ,

C h a rmed w a t er and re .

372
 T A U N G BY ON N A TS
TH E
Then the twin brothers S hwep y i n w ere sent Through .

t heir supernatu ral powers they were able to make their

way into the E mperor s chamber while he still slept
.

A fter m a rki n g h is face w ith lime and writing o n the

walls o f his ap a rtments they plucked three hairs from ,

his head and took them to K in g A n a wra ta z a w .

When t he E mperor awoke he was g reatly annoyed at ,

t he way he had been insulted But when he read w hat .

,

stood written on the walls of his ch a mber he hastened ,

to conciliate the K ing a n d t o give him the g reat sacred

rel ic the tooth of G a u d am a together with presents of
, ,
1

gol d and silver a nd se veral virg i n princesses t o add t o the

,

n umber o f hi s minor qu eens Thus peace and concord .

were establ ished bet ween the two countries ; and o n his
r e t urn to Burm a K ing A n a wra ta z a w bu ilt the S u d a u ng
,

bya pagoda at T a u ng b yOn to com m emora te t he happy

event .

I n consequence of their g reat services and a bil ities the

brothers S hwe p y i n had many enemies who soon found ,

me a ns of brin g ing them under the royal displeasure .

While the memorial pagoda was being bu ilt each

member o f the K ing s household had to contribute bricks

and labou r When the w ork seemed to be comple t e i t

.

was fou nd that two bricks were w a ntin g in part o f the

i nner w all ; and the enemies o f the t w ins made o u t that
this w as solely due to the intention a l neglect o f the two
b r others T he K in g at once in a n g er ordered thei r
.
, ,

execution but they bec a me invisible a nd only appea r ed ,

n o w and again at intervals .

Bein g loyal however t hey even t ually ga ve t hemselves

, ,

up trusting t o the roy a l clemency T hough he would

,
.

n o t forgive them the K in g could not entirely forget h is

former a ffection for them s o he ordered them to be ,

killed at a g reat dist a nce from his c a pita l .

A s they could n o t be killed by ordinary me a ns they

were taken fa r aw a y to the nor t h o f Pag an to a place ,

where stra ngling with a rope o f lea ther was t ried ( nea r
1 Th i s re li cn h i n d i n towe O pp i te t the b ell
wa s a lw ya s e s r e a r, os o

towe at the r, t g ate f th

eas p i t l f B m I t n o w o u p e th i s
o e ca a o ur a cc i s

p i ti o n in M n d l y i ty ( F t D ff i n ) n th H l td w
.

si mil ar os a a a c or u er e ar e u a

o G r t C o n i l H ll
rea u c a .

373
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE

whe r e the village of L dn da u ng o r rope hill now

st a nds ) bu t in vain Then they were t aken t o a d ifferent

.

place where anothe r vain a ttempt was made to kill them

with a mal e bamboo ( whence the name o f the villag e
Way i n ddh) F indin g that no t withstanding the failure
.
,

o f these two a ttempts the K ing wou ld no t fo rg ive them

,

bu t was bent o n t hei r des tr uction they at last told thei r ,

executioners they could only be killed if t aken to a

certa in place and made to u ndergo torture o n the rack
( K y )
u tn a t .S o this was done and the villa g e which ,

has sprung up the r e bears the n a me of K u ty wa to this

day .

S hortly a fter this as t he K ing was returnin g to Pag an

,

from a royal pro g ress up the rive r his raft w a s stopped ,

by so me unkno wn ag ency a t a place c a lled K yi I n O n .

being consulted the astrolo g ers said the stopp a ge was

,

caused by the twin brothers who had become trans

formed i nto spiri t s and i n tended to punish the K in g for
his ingra titude after the services they had rendered to
him in China .

T he K ing ordered the t wo N a t t o be summoned .

When they a ppe a red before him h e demanded to know

what they w a nted with him and with much grief they ,

upbra ided him for ca usin g their death E xpressi ng .

g reat regre t for h is conduct he asked pardon of them , ,

and requested them as a m a rk of forg iveness t o make

, ,

Ta u ng b y On their abode H e r e he bu ilt the spiri t

.

palace for them and he pl a ced there as ca r e t aker o n e
, , ,

o f the virgin princesses received fr om the E mperor of

Chi na .

374
 Ch ap t e r XV

A R C H ZE O L O GY

N various par t s o f Bu r ma t h ere is a we a lth of

an t iqu ities and o f associa t ions wi t h reli g ious and
his torical events upon which one ca n look back throu g h
a long vis t a o f many centuries B ut it is onl y i n the
.

d r y central zone o f the I r rawaddy valley that the ancient

monumen t s have had any fair chance of prese r vation .

E lsew h ere and especially i n t he mois t er por t ions of the

,

province near t he s e a board the ra vages commit ted by

-
,

the excessive rainfall and th e luxurian t vege tatio n prove

r apidly destructive .

Favou r ed by t he damp warm clima t e the seeds o f

,

epiphytic F i cus b r ough t by birds w hich perch on t he

,

pi nnacles of pagodas and othe r sacred edices soon ,

develop in t o trees whose roots i nsinua t ing t hemselves in t o

,

c r evices i n t h e plas t er work and be t ween the bricks c o m ,

p l e t e l y over g row small pa g odas or rend asu nder l a rge

masses of brick work . A nd with very few exceptions

all the ancient monu ments th r oughout B urma are bu ilt
o f brick ,exceedingly fe w being of stone The mon .

a s te r i es bein g bu ilt o f teakwood fall to pieces and to t ally

, ,

disappear w ithin a comparatively short sp a ce o f time .

The celebrated S hwethay a u ng is an example o f how

comple t ely some of the antiquarian treasures of the
p r ovince c a n very soon be hidden by j u n gle gro w th .

This coloss a l recumbent image o f G a ud a m a is 1 8 1 feet

long and 4 6 feet high A fter being so lon g h idden by
.

rub b ish and j u n g le as t o ha ve been forg otten even to

tradition t h rou g hou t the surrou ndin g district it w a s only
,

discovered by chance i n 1 88 1 by men search ing for

la t erite to be used as metal o n the n e w railway l ine then
,

375
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U L E
bein g l a id down close by S o entirely wa s a ll know
.

l edge o f it w iped ou t after the des t ruction o f Pe g u i n

1 7 5 7 that no history is att a ched t o i t although the new ,

town o f Pe g u founded abou t 1 7 7 7 stands within a mile s

, ,

dis tance I t ca n only be estimated to be abou t 4 00

.

years o l d .

D espite t h ese r ava g es o f time with t eeth sha r pened by

,

luxurious tropical vegeta t ion al mos t every pa rt of the

,

p r ovince offers a rich eld for the work o f the arch ae

olog ist ei t he r in connection wi t h t he gene ral religious
history o f the cou ntry or else more especially with the
,

roy a l dynas t ies which fo r merl y held sway i n t he d ifferent

k ingdoms before all became welded i nto o ne empire by
A lau ng Pay a ea r ly in t he second half of the eigh t eenth
centu ry .

I n A rakan the wes t ern por t ion o f th e province

,

borderin g o n the Bay o f Bengal M yohau ng o r M ya u k u , ,

t he ancien t capi tal of the kings fo r seve ral cen t uries ,

contains numerous pagodas exhibiting a curious min g l ing

of H indu and Bu r mese architecture and sculpture
enclosed i n an extensive ne t work of stone walls mo a ts , ,

and embankments still fairly well preserved Being .

si t uat ed fa r inland upon a tidal creek form in g one o f the

numerous branches of t he L emru rive r it l ies conside r ,

ably o u t o f the bea t en track B ut the S hi ttha u ng

. ,

D Ok athe i n and L emyethn a pagodas are s tr uc t ures

,

worthy of examination o n accou n t o f t hei r u nique

desi g n bein g partly temples and par tly fortications
,

formerly used as places of refug e i n time o f wa r A n .

intricate labyrinth o f p a ssages leads through the massive

stonework to spacious gal leries lled with marble im ages
o f t he B uddh a A ncient H indu t emples and othe r
.

structures s t ill exist there with an o l d M ohammedan

,

mos q ue among the ru ins Mos t o f the buildings a r e

.

o f massive stone blocks ornamented with designs o f

bo t h I ndian and B urmese origin in t o which coloured ,

table t s a r e s e t i n the shape o f banyan leaves o r lo t us

rose t tes R ough ancien t rock c u t sculptu r es are nume r ous
.
-

alon g the base of the hills to the west and n orth .

Of the m a ny shri nes in A rakan the most famou s is

the M a ham u n i p a g od a on the S i r i g u t ta hill near P a y ag yi , ,

376
 M O U L M E I N CA V E S
TH E
which u ndoub t edly exhibits I ndian C harac t eristics Prob .

ably i t is connec t ed wi t h the northe r n I ndian Buddhism

which exis t ed in t he uppe r portion o f B u rma befo r e t he
in t roduc t ion of t he sou thern B uddhis t teachings now
p r evailing th r ou g hou t the cou n t ry .

R a m a na d e sa t he ancien t M On or Talaing kin g dom

,

no w forming t he central po rt ion o f t he Tenasserim C o m

m i ss i o ne rs hi p and st r etching thence wes t wards across the
lowe r po rt ions o f t he S ittang and I rrawaddy valleys
to the A rakan mou n t ains is specially rich i n ancient
,

monuments .

M oulmei n i t self is qu i t e a modern to wn built after the,

B r i t ish annexation i n 1 8 2 6 on wha t is s a id to have been

t he site o f the ancien t Ra m a p u ra fou nded by H i ndu ,

colonis t s The immedia t e vicinity of the town has l ittl e

.

or no t hing o f antiqu arian i nterest to offer bu t numerous ,

caves formed naturally i n the limestone rocks and

,

si t ua t ed ( as noted below) within a ra dius o f fty miles

to th e north and eas t are objects of g reat i n t erest
, .

There a re larg e numbe rs o f these caves and a l l are ,

lled with sacred imag es and manuscripts The most .

celebrated a nd the best known of these are t he Farm
( P har u m ) o r K ay u n caves on the Atara n river ( ten

miles) the D a m ma tha caves on the Gyaing rive r ( ei g h

,

t een m iles ) the P a ga t caves on the S alween ( twenty

,

s ix miles ) the Kogu n caves on the K ogu n stream

,

( t w enty eight
- m iles ) and the Binj
, i caves on the D o m
dami rive r ( fty one m iles ) Their chief interest l ies
-
.
,

perhaps i n the images which have for centuries back

,

been deposi t ed by success ive g enera t ions o f p il g rims ,

fo r t h ey help t o explai n the forms o f many o f the

old and small images deposited a t pagodas and other
sac r ed shri nes throughou t the cou nt r y H ere for .
,

example a r e fr equently t o be fou nd images with sn a ke

,

c a nopies over t he head of t he B uddha and sn a kes coiled

round the pedestal such as are rarely t o be found i n
,

o t her pa rt s o f B u r ma .

These pecul ia r ities a r e supposed t o be o f C i ngha le s e

and D r avidian o r igin i n t he earl ies t times bu t inuenced ,

la t er by Cambodian and S iamese art when R a ma n ya

was u nde r Cambodian r ule from the s ix t h t o the tenth
377
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
cen t u ries and under S ia m ese domina t ion in the fourteen t h
century B u t i t seems improb a ble tha t i n thi s very
.

ra i n
y cou n try of R a ma ny a a s the K alyani inscrip t ions
,

at Peg u correctly describe it many o f the images or ,

ornamenta t ions can be any t hing like s o o ld as any o f

these dated .

Many o f the walls and roofs of the caves are

orn a mented w ith pain t ed plasterwork and terra cotta -

tablets embedded i n ce men t illustrative o f episodes in ,

the life o f G a u d a m a E ven the stalactites and stalag

.

mites i n some of the caves a nd especially in the larg e ,

D a m m a tha cave were and still a r e p a rtially ornamented

in this quaint manner t hough t h es e structures often
,

have stalactites formed over them .

A good many of these ancient l i mestone c a ves a r e

i n fested w ith bats and the removal o f the guano is
,

fa rmed o u t o n payment o f an annual revenue .

A bou t sixty miles to the north o f M oulmein lies

T ha tOn the most ancient city o f L ower B urma the
, ,

S u va r n a B hfi m i of the B uddhist books and the A u r ea ,

R eg i o o r Golden Chersonese o f P tolemy an d other write r s .

Talaing t raditions vary as to th e circums t ances connected

w ith its fou ndation One t radition would have i t fou nded
.

by S i ha raja a contemporary o f G a u d a m a who w as

, ,

advised to select the si t e of his cap ita l o n a spo t where

gold was found which would soon attract a large p op u
,

lation Close by the sands o f a small hill stre a m are

.
,
-

still w ashed fo r g old by those content thus to eke o u t a

scanty livelihood A nother tra di tion ascribes its fou n d a
.

tion to early I ndian colonists coming from the coast l ine -

near the mouths o f the Kr i s t na and G o d a ve ry rivers .

Thou g h n o w far removed from the s e a it was then no , ,

doubt on the s ea coa st ; fo r at the b a se o f the hills far

,

to the north west ( near t he vill ag e o f Ki ny u a) the

-

remains o f ancient moori n g pl a ces a r e still trace a ble -

dating from the time when these hills formed part of the
eastern s hore at the estuary of the S ittang river .

B e this as it may it wa s to T hatOn as is conjec t u r ed

, ,

on the evidence o f B uddhist wri t ings preserved i n

Ceylon that southe r n B u ddhis m was int r oduced long
,

befo r e i t made its wa y into Burma proper I t was to .

378
 A N T I O U IT I E S T H A T ON OF
Tha ton as capital o f the S u va rna B h umi or Ra ma nya
,

( R a m a na d e sa
) a s i t w a s ,subsequently called th a t the ,

t w o m issionaries Thawna and U ttar a were sent by the

third great synod held at P a ta l i p u tra ( P a tna ) about
2 4 1 B C to teach t he doc t rines of B uddhism t o the M on
. .

race .

I t was no t however u ntil abou t seven hu ndred years

, ,

later abou t the middle o f the fth century A D that the

, . .
,

Buddhist scriptures w ere supposed to have been brou g ht

by B u ddha C hosa the voice of B uddh a from Ce ylon
,

, .

Thenceforth fo r the next s i x centu ries T ha tOn rem a ined

, ,

the g re a t reli g iou s centre o f Burmese B uddhism the seat ,

o f reli g ious le a rni n g and the storehouse of sacred rel ics

and precious manuscripts till it was con q uered sacked , , ,

a n d destroyed by re in 1 0 5 8 A D by A n a wra taz a w the . .

,

B urmese K ing o f Pagan who carried off to hi s o wn ,

capital many elephant loads o f sacred w ritin g s a nd the

m ost learned o f the priesthood ( s ee page 1 1 2 )
A t T hat on t herefore it m ight be expected that some
, ,

o f the e a rliest arch aeolo g ical remains in Bu rm a should

be fou nd together w ith the remains of s a cred edices

,

form in g the prototypes o f those at Pagan Bu t the .

ra va g es o f the d a mp tropical clim a te and o f centuries

of entire neglect have obliterated a lmost every trace
of ancient buildin g s Bou nded o n the east by a l o w
.

range o f hills running north and south the land to the ,

west forms a vas t p a ddy pl a in covered deeply with ,

ood wa t er during t h e r a iny season

-
These conditions .
,

and the tropic heat with its wealth o f luxuri a nt v e geta

tion are a sufcient explanation for the total d i sap
,

p e a ra nce o f even the very foundations of ancient

structures .

Of all the early w orks only ve M On inscriptions have

been found a t T ha tOn the p a l aeog raphy of which i nd ica tes
,

a n a e of
g abou t four hundred ye a rs and some terra ,

cotta tablets exhibi t ing u ndoubtedly B rahminica l o r

H ind u cha rac t eristics su ch a s S iva with hi s trident
, ,

thou g h the features o f the persons represented are

distinctly M on g olian i n type .

Pegu lying to the west o f the S it tan g and situa t ed

, ,

on the Pegu river about forty miles north eas t o f -

379
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
Rangoon is a rch aeolo g ically perhaps now the most
,

interesting place i n L owe r Bu r ma The modern town .

is built u pon the site o f H a n tha wa dd i ( H a m sava ti ) said ,

by t radition t o have been fou nded in 5 7 3 A D by princes . .

from Tha tOn ; a nd i t wa s t he la t e r and the last capi tal of

t he M On k in gdom .

I n Peg u town i tself is t he golden S hwe ma wd a w

pa goda rankin g nex t i n sanctity to t h e S hwe D a gOn
,

i n R angoon I t i s said t o have been erec t ed originally

.

as a sm a ll pagoda having only about o ne four t h o f its ,

-

present hei g ht to enshrine t wo hairs o f Ga n d a ma ; but

,

successive kings of Pegu a nd o f B urma enl a rged it to

its ultima t e dimensions o f 2 88 feet i n heigh t and
fee t in basal circu mference .

T h e exten t o f the ancien t city may still be t raced by

t he ruins of t he wall an d t he moa t whic h su r r ou nded
it each side o f the q uadran g le measu r ing abou t a mile
,

and a half When A lau ng Pay a took Pegu i n 1 7 5 7 A D

. . .
,

he razed t o the ground every bu ilding sav e t he sacred

st r uctu res and dispersed o r carried into captivity all its
,

inhabi t ants i n order to root ou t every tra ce o f the M On

capi tal Of t he nume r ous pagodas only the S hwe ma wd a w
.

has been r everenced and kept i n repai r .

B u t the most interes t ing r emains a r e t hose to be fou nd

close by i n the Z ain gganain g quar te r t o the w est of the
,

town near where the colossal recumbent gure of

,

G a u d a m a the S hwethay a u ng already referred to was

, ,

discovered in 1 88 1 A nd of these the most important is .

the K alyani S ima or Thei n the ancient hall o f ordina

,

tion fou nded by D a m m a z e d i ( D a mm ac he t i ) K ing of
, ,

Peg u i n 1 4 7 6 A D Thither during the fteenth and s i x

,
. .
,

te e n th centuries ocked Buddhis t monks from all p a rts of

,

B u r ma and even from S iam and C eylon to receive thei r

, ,

Up a sa mp a da o r monastic o r dination I t r eceived its .

name from the fa ct of i ts having bee n consecrated by t wo

M On priests who had received afresh thei r Upasa mp a dd
ordination at the hands o f the M a havi hara fraternity the ,

spi r itual successors of M ahinda on the K alyani r ive r i n ,

Ceylon E ven a t the presen t d ay monks whose ordin

.

ation is of do ubtful validity often desi r e r e ord ina t ion i n -

this Thei n .

3 8o
 A NT I ! U I T I E S O F P E G U
A s the Buddhist reli g ion had originally no organized
ecclesiastic a l hierarchy it was ordained by G a u d a m a that ,

i n order t o pro v ide some check in the way o f discipline ,

harmony and mora l control Up a wsa tha meetin g s should

, ,

be held at each new moon a n d each full moon and also ,

a P a va r a n a or general a ssembly once a year a t the end

, ,

o f the r a iny se a son where the assembled priests should

,

be asked if they had commit t ed any o f the offences

enumerated in the P a ti ma uh or if they knew o f o r ,

suspected such offences i n other monks I t was the .

duty o f all priests t o attend these assemblies and the ,

place consecra t ed for the purpose o f such meetings was

a S i m a or Thei n in modern Burmese These P a va r a n a
, .

have now deg enera ted into t he modern P a wdy a nd o r

nomin a l confession of monks ( see page
When K ing D a m m a z e d i in 1 4 7 6 founded t he, ,

Kalyan i S ima he partly from religious impulse due

, ,

to t he fact of his havin g been a monk himself and ,

par tly in emulation of K ing A soka s crea t ion o f the

celeb ra t ed inscribed monol iths t hroughou t I ndia erec t ed ,

close by the Thei n t en s t one slabs bearin g i nscriptions

o n bo t h sides On the rst three stones t he inscriptions
.

are i n the Pal i langua g e while t hose o n the remainin g

,

seven stones are in M on and fo r m a t ranslation of the

Pali t ex t The main object in fou ndin g the K alyan i
.

S ima was doub t less t o provide for R a m a nad e sa a c on

s e c ra t e d place for t he due performance o f reli g ious cere

monies as presc r ibed i n the W i n i B ut indirectly it also .

secured some sort o f con t inuity in pries t ly succession

from Mahinda who in t roduced Buddhism into Ceylon b e
, ,

cause it was held tha t the direct succession from Thawna

and U tt a ra the rst teache r s of Buddhism i n S uva r na
,

B hfi m i ha d been in t errupted because o f the incursion

,

of the Burmese from Pagan in the eleventh cen t u ry and

of the S han invasion of Pagan then the centre o f ,

Bu r mese Buddhism durin g the thirteenth century The

,
.

erection o f the stones bearin g the Kalyani inscriptions

was the r efore probably fo r the express pu rpose of main
t a in ing the pu rity of Buddhism by thus indelibly record
ing the manner in w hich Thei n should be consecrated
in o r der to secu r e t heir validity .

381
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
I n addition t o t his the g reat value of the Kalyan i
,

i nscriptions l ies i n the detailed information t hey g ive

as t o rel igious intercourse between Pegu and Burma
with C eylon and S outhern I ndia durin g t he fteenth
century a nd as to t he Bu r mese V iew of t he apos tolic
,

succession of the B uddhis t pries t hood .

U ntil a few years ago these s t ones we r e lying scat t e r ed

and broken in fra gments They may have been smashed .

throu g h the vandalism o f t he notorious Philip de Brito y

N i co te o f S yriam who h eld Pegu fo r ten ye a rs at the
,

beg inning o f t he seventeenth cen t ury But in tha t case .

they would probably have been restored o r r eplaced by

some late r M On sove r eign I t is hardly l ikely that
.

sacred objects of t his na t u re would have been des t royed

by A laung P aya s troops ; fo r t he Bu r mese soldiery are

no t sacrilegious and t hese stones would be obj ects o f

,

extreme venera t ion among t hem I t t h e r efore seems

.

far more l ikely tha t the work of des tr uc t ion was ca r ried
out by British I ndian tr oops during th e second B u r mese
Wa r in 1 85 2 when th e r e was much s t ubborn ghting
,

i n and a rou nd Pegu S uc h iconoclasm is essentially

.

chara c t e r is t ic of Mohammedan soldiery .

The frag ments have now been r esto r ed and t h e s tones ,

are about 1 2 fee t hi g h 4 fee t 2 inches wide and 1 foot

, ,

3 inches thick . A lthou g h t he t ext is no t completely

legible tr anslations o f the inscrip t ions have been obtained
,

from well au t hen t ica t ed palm leaf manuscripts of th e -

Pali text .

These K alyani i nscriptions make no men t ion wha t eve r

o f t h e tradition abou t Buddha G h o sa havin g brough t a

complete s e t o f t h e Buddhist scrip t u r es from Ceylon to

T hatOn in t he fth cen t u ry A D I n View o f t he record
. .

o f rel i g ious inte r course bet ween Ceylon and Bu r ma which

these s tones detail a r ecord compiled by a king called

from a monas t e r y to t he th r one this looks almost as if
D a m m a z e d i considered t h a t t he S uva rna B hfi m i o f the
ancients must have been eithe r the Malay Peninsula o r
Cambodia rather than his own kingdom of Ra ma nad e sa ;
for gold is t o be found i n all the t h r ee coun t ries .

The chief of the other objec t s of in te r es t nea r

Z aingganai ng are the base of the M a ha s e d i o r
gre a t
3 82
 A NT I ! U I T I E S O F SY R I A M

pagoda bu ilt by H a ntha wa d i S i n p y uy i n abou t the
,

middle of the sixteenth century and the S hwe gu g ale ,

or

l ittle g olden c a ve p a g oda bu ilt by V a ra d ha m m a raja

,

i n I 5 88 A D as recorded o n t wenty t wo stone slabs

. .
,
-
.

The lat t er is i n a perfect state o f preservation There .

is also an immense brick tower locally called the ,

Ky a i p n but mentioned i n the K aly a n i insc r iptions

,

as the M a ha B uddha R up a in wh ich coloss a l stat u es of ,

the fou r Buddhas who have appeared during this cycle ,

each o f about n inety fee t in hei g ht fa ce the cardinal ,

points .

A few miles t o the south east o f R a ngoon lies the -

ancient t own o f T ha nl y i n corrup t ed by u s into S yriam ,

.

Follo w ing the old M On cus t om i t a lso has a Pal i name ,

Kho d a d i p p a O nce the chief port o f Pegu it was

.
,

ut t erly des t royed by t he conquering A lau n g Pay a in

1 75 6 A D . when he founded R a n goon Tradition da t es
.
,
.

the fou ndation of S y r iam back to the sixth cen t ury B C . .

bu t i t was not till the end o f the six t eenth centu ry t ha t

it became noted i n his tory when it was seized i n the name ,

of the Por t u g uese by the adventurer Philip de B rito y

N i c o te . R etaken by t he B urmese i n 1 6 1 3 i t becam e ,

t he centre o f E urope a n energy in Burma where D utch , ,

F rench and E ngl ish t raders we r e allowed to esta blish

,

t heir fac t ories until the nal downfa ll and destruction

o f the town B u t of these E u ropean settleme nts nothing
.

n o w remains except the ruins o f a chu rch some n a meless ,

t ombs and traces of walls T he K ya i kk a u k o r S y riam

,
.

pagoda is essentially modern i n type thou g h it is ,

probably ( like all the o t her l a rge pag od a s ) m erely a shell

bu ilt over a very ancient stupa or brick t r u n nu l us I t .

is said to have been l ike the S hwe m a wd a w at P e gu

, ,

built ove r sacred hair rel ics of G au d a m a -

.

R angoon fou nded by A l a u n g pa y a in 1 7 5 6 A D to

,
. .

r ecord for ever t he t ermination o f wa r ( Ya ng u n )

be t ween the Burmese and the M On na t ions wa s pre ,

v i ou s ly known i n M On his t o r y a s D a g On I t s name was .

taken from the g re a t S hwe D a gOn pagod a whose lofty ,

golden spire buil t o n the low S i ng u tta ra hill towers

, ,

g racefully upwar ds fa r above the s k y l ine to t he nor t h o f -

t he city .

3 83
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE

The Maha Y a z awi n o r g reat royal chronicle of ,

B urma makes mention o f a legendary town called

,

T i ku m b a N agara i n the coun t ry of A rra m a na o n the

, ,

si t e now occupied by R angoon I t fur t her my t hically .

narrates t hat i n 5 88 B C o r still duri ng t he l ife t ime o f . .

,

G a u d a ma the K e s ad hatu che t i ya o r T i k u m b a S edi t he

, ,

classical name o f what is now known as the S hwe D agOn

Pay a o r D agOn S andaws hin S edi was fou nded by two ,

merchan t s sons Ta p hu ssa and Bha ll i ka D urin g a visit

,
.

to I ndia they were said to have obtained from G a u d a m a

himself several o f the hairs o f his head and these t hey ,

enshrined with great ceremony u nder a small p a goda

t wenty seven feet in height
-
.

The popular M On name D ag bn is t hus a mere corrup

tion o f Ti hu mba and only came into gene ral u se abou t

,

the beginnin g o f t he six t een t h cen t u ry K u m ba mean .

,

in g the fr ontal bone of an elephant was g uratively ,

a pplied to small rounded knolls o r hill tops and Ti h u m ba ,

deno t ed three such knolls G r a dually this became cor .

r u te d into the three bowls food alms

p Ti son ba for , ,

and gave r ise to o n e o f the legends that G a u d a ma and

his two chief disciples had buried thei r priestly alms
bowls o n the spot where the pagoda now stands .

T he word Pa goda rende r ed i n Burmese by the t e r m ,

P ay d , lord master is supposed to be a corruption of

, ,

t he C i n ghal e se D ag a ba derived from t he S anscrit words ,

t tu a ,
relic a n d G a r bha a womb o r shrine

,

, .

T he Bu rmese t e r m P ay d is however much more c om , ,

p r ehensive th a n t he I ndian tope or s t upa for it i ncludes ,

no t only rel ic shri nes and solid erections raised over

sacred relics bu t also temples con t ainin g images of
,

G auda m a e g , the A rakan pagoda ( Ma ha m ya tm u ni

. .

Paya) in M andalay .

The popular modern bel ief among the B urmese is tha t

the S hwe D agOn pag oda the most reve r ed of all the ,

B uddhist shrines t hroughou t F u rther I ndia con tains relics ,

o f all the fou r Buddhas w ho have appeared on earth

du r ing the p r esent K a lpa o r cycle T hese include the .

wate r straine r of Ka u ka sa n the bathing robe of G a wn a

-
,

gun the s t aff of Ka thaba and eigh t hairs from the head
, ,

of G au d a ma .

3 84
 A N TI ! U ITI E S O F R A N G O O N
The r s t his t orically reliable stateme n ts concer n in g the
S hwe D a g On however are those relatin g to repairs and
, ,

additions by the M On Queen S hi ns a wb u o f Pegu between

1 4 5 9 and 1 6
4 9 A D when t he hei g ht o f the p a g oda was
. .
,

raised to 1 2 9 feet the hill upon w hich it stands w a s,

terraced a nd t he top terrace was paved with s t one ag s

, ,

while land a nd hereditary slaves were assi g ned i n p er

p o for t he maintenance o f the s a cred shrine
etu T hese .

fac t s are recorded o n three large slabs erected by K in g

D a m m a z e d i i n 1 4 85 A D in t he middle o f the s t one s t eps
. .

le a d in g up to the eastern fa ce of the pag oda and abou t ,

fty fee t belo w the present platform This w a s as usual .

, ,

the chief appro a c h bu t n o w the southern staircase lying

, ,

to wards R angoon has become the main entra nce The

, .

hideous travesty o f L owe r Burmese art occupyin g the

place of an entrance porch has only been erected w ithin
the las t t wen t y ve years -
.

L ater M On kin g s of Pegu made further addi t ions ,

while the earlies t Bu rmese kings o f the A laun g Pay a dyn

as t y increased the splendour and the size o f the p a goda
i n order th a t it mi g ht eclipse in every way the S h w e
m a wd a w at Pegu the g reat shrine venera t ed for centuries
,

by t he M On and in which centred all their recollections

,

o f na t ional independence I n 1 7 6 8 it reached its present .

heigh t o f 3 2 1 feet from the platform I n 1 7 7 4 K i ng .

S i npyu y i n second so n of A laun g Pay a replaced the M On

, ,

Ti o r
u mbrell a crowning the pinnacle o f its spire 1
, , ,

w hich had been thrown do w n by an earthquake in 1 7 6 9 ,

by a new Ti of B urmese shape and regilded the p a goda ,

from pinnacle t o base T he ceremony of placing this Ti .

w a s wit n essed by t he king in person The even t wa s .

intended t o symbolize the complete B u r m a ni z i ng o f the

M On cou ntry and to celebrate the successes w hich had
,

recen t ly attended the B urmese a rms in the w a rs against

S iam China and Manipur
, ,
To crush once fo r a l l .

attemp t s such a s had then recently been made in Marta

ban fo r the restoration o f a M On monarchy S i np y u y i n ,

ordered the execution of By i nya D ala the aged ,

1 Ev y p g
er a od a must b e sur ou ted m n by a Ti . The o nly ex cep ti on
k n own to me is re ferre d to on p a e 4 0 3 g .

V OL . 11 .
3 85 C c
 B U R M A U N D ER B R I T I S H R U LE
ex king of Pegu w ho had been kept in c a ptivity ever
-
,

since b e su rr endered to A lau ng Pay a .

But 1 7 6 9 was neithe r the rst n or the las t t ime tha t

earth quakes have damaged the lofty pagoda The Ti .

is said to have fallen i n 1 4 2 6 and it is known t o have ,

fallen in 1 5 0 8 ; while the p a goda itself was damaged i n

1 5 0 8 1 5 2 6 1 5 6 4 1 7 6 9 and 1 8 88 by earthquakes
, , , ,
.

The w hole of the S hwe D agOn was reg ilded a gain i n

1 87 1
, from funds subscribed by pil g rims a nd rents
accru in g from the toddy palms o n the t erraces and -

slopes o f the pa goda hill O n the completion of the

.

regil d in g K in g M i nd On was permitted to send down

from M a nd a lay a new Ti o f iron covered wi t h g old ,

platin g and thickly studded w i t h jewels which was pu t ,

in its place with great state and ceremo n y M easuring .

47 feet in h ei g ht a n d 1 3% fee t i n diameter at the b a se ,

and wei g hin g a to n a nd a quar ter t h is presen t Ti is ,

valued at over
The upper terrace formin g t he platform o f the pag oda ,

a t a hei g ht o f 1 6 5 feet above the road way at the b a se o f

the hill is about 3 0 0 y ards long a n d nearly 2 3 0 yards
,

wide The wes t ern stairc a se bein g closed for m ilitary

.

pu rposes the platform may be reached from any of the

,

other three card inal points The best approach i s from .

the eas t o r t he north thus avoiding the swarm o f be g

,

gars and loathsome lepers who con g regate o n the long

stairs leadi ng u p from the south side now formin g the ,

main entrance to the pagoda .

F r om t he pla t form the r ichly g ilt sol id brick pagoda

r ises i n gradually d imin ish ing spheroidal outline from an
, ,

octagonal base havin g a perimeter o f 4 4 5 y ards to a ,

height of 3 2 1 fee t exclusive of the conical Ti s o that

, ,

i t s total heigh t as seen from a distance is no less than

3 6 8 fee t .

I mme d ia tely a r ou nd t he base of th e pagoda a bro a d

cle a r space i s reserved for those who come t o m a ke
obeisance t o venerate the B uddha and to repeat t he
, ,

reli g ious formulae Bu t all round the outer ed g e o f the

.

paved cour t there are many small p a godas images and ,

sh r ines Ti r est houses m asts and prayer ag s ( Tag on

, ,
-
,

d a i ng ) e f g i e s o f spirits demons sacred bi rds etc as

, , , , .
,

3 86
 A NT I ! U I TI ES O F T O U N G O O
well as the t wo large bells which have al r eady been
referred to ( pages 3 0 2 ,

The only other ancient monumen t known t o exis t i n

Rangoon is that which forms t he co r e of the S u l
pag oda thou g h t he outer work is n ew as in t he case
, ,

of the S hwe D ag On I ts presen t name is merely a cor

.

ruption of Chu l a S edi o r small pagoda in c o ntra d i s
,

tinction to the M a ha S ed i o r great pagoda the S hwe

,

D ag On . Originally a small s t upa i t was enlarged and ,

encased by Q ueen S hi nsawb u and was fu rther inc r eased ,

to i t s presen t size and shape only about seventy v e -

years ago .

The upper portion of t he S i ttang vall ey was known in

la t er M on ti mes as the kingdom o f Toungoo t he capital ,

o f which ultimately bore the s a me name .

I n olden t imes t he Tou n g oo dis tr ict was called

J yy
e a v a d d a na d e s a o r land o f increasing victory
, The .

royal ci t y i t self was fou nded by K ing Maha S i rije yyasu ra ,

and was si t ua t ed ve miles to t he west o f t he presen t

town . I t successively bo r e the names o f Ke tu ma tta
N aga r a M ya wa d d i ( M ra v ati N ag a ra) and D wa y a wa d d i
, ,

varav a t i ) and now forms the M yo g yi or gr ea t city
(

D ,

suburb t races of which are still visible abou t three

,

miles t o the sou th wes t o f the t own But in 1 5 1 0 he

-
.

abandoned this new capi tal and fou nded t he presen t

t own of Toungoo Of the p agodas which marked t he
.

fou r corners o f the original ci t y and o f t he ve g ates and ,

t he ve image h ouses which were buil t a t reg ula r in t er

-

vals o n each side of the ci t y wall but few tr aces are now ,

left ; while no t hing save a h eap of bricks remains to

mark the site of t he once celeb ra t ed M ya z i g On pagoda ,

e r ected by K in g T hado T hi ngha thu in 1 5 3 8 o r o f the ,

N a nd a w pa g oda ( 1 5 84 ) t o t he eas t of the ol d palace .

The lake to t he wes t of the t own i s a t ank dug in 1 5 86 .

N ear Toungoo t he r e are fou r ancien t pagodas said t o ,

contain rel ics given t o t he Bu r mese r ulers by the I ndian

K ing A soka T hese are t he M ya tsa w S edi known as the
.
,


seven pagodas abou t s i x miles to the south east o f
,
-

the p r esent town of Tou ngoo fabled t o have been built ,

in 2 4 0 B C and s t ill held in g r eat repu t e as a place of

. .
,

pil g rim a g e the Kya uk sau k m ad aw four teen miles t o t he ,

3 87
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
south o f Tou ngoo ; the G a u d apal i n t o t he nor t h wes t ; -

and the S hwe l e thla to the nor t h o f t he town These .

are all buil t o f brick have been frequently repaired and

, ,

n o w form t err a ced conical spires of the usual mode r n

Burm ese shape .

A bove t h e M On cou n t ry in the I rrawaddy drainage

the rst o f the ancient Burmese t erritories entered i s t he
kingdom o f Pyi o r Pri the n a me o f the modern chie f ,

town o f w hich P y i m yo has been corrupted into P rom e

, ,

by the British I t is referred to in the B urmese ro y al

.

chron icles as S iri Khe t ra or Thare Khe tta ra the capital

-
,

o f a great country ; but this ancien t city seems to have

been situated ve o r s i x miles to t he eas t of the I rra

waddy where the modern R a the m yo or herm i t s town
,

has risen up from among i ts ru ins H ere t he remains of .

massive walls l a rge tanks and p agodas indicate tha t a

, ,

great city once ou ris h ed u ntil afte r t he middle o f t he

seven teenth cen t ury .

A ccording to the t radition reco rded in de tail in the

Burm ese royal chronicles G au da m a w a s presen ted in ,

the fth y ear o f h is Buddhahood w ith a monastery built ,

o f sandalwood at V a n ijaga m a i n S u na p a ra n ta n o w
the village o f L egain g in the M inbu d istrict A ccept .

in g t he g ift G a u d a m a occupied the mon a stery for seven

,

d ay s. D uri n g his v isit he left the i m pression o f his feet

at tw o pl a ces for the veneration of m e n a nd spirits One .

o f these holy spo t s is o n the left bank o f the Man

( N a m a n ta
) s t ream w hile the o,t he r is o n the summit o f

the P a w ud a u ng o r P a wattd au ng t he foo t print hill

,

,

abou t seven miles above Prome .

The P a wud a u ng is crowned with a m a ss ive boulder ,

called the H ermit s Cap a n d shaped like a priests

a l m s bowl wh ich i s su rmounted by a pagoda about 3 0

-
,

fe et hi gh but of modern appeara nce

,
.

O n returni n g from the P a w rId a u ng where he tu rned

the soles of his feet G a u d a m a saw a piece o f c owd u n g

,

o a tin g in the s e a w hich then stre t ched eas tw a rds from

,

the hills i m med iately t o the west of Prome across to the

Pe g u Yo m a A t the same time a mole offered him some
.

o f its b u rr ow i ngs a s an a c t o f homage H ereupon Gau .

d a m a prophesied that after his reli g ion had ou rished

,

3 88
 A N TI ! U ITI E S O F P R O M E
for one hu nd red a nd one yea r s the follo wing ve great ,

events would happen a great earthqu ake sho uld occur ;

a g re a t lake would appe a r a t the end of the footprint

hill a river called the S a mOnsa Myit would appear ; the
Pop a hill would a r ise fr om ou t of t he earth ; a nd the s e a
would recede fro m the land upon which Th a re K he tta ra
would late r on be buil t A nd as a re ward for its a c t o f
.

homage the mole was to become incarnated as D u t

,

ta baung K in g o f Thare Khe tta ra from whose reign

, ,

should da t e the establis h ment o f B uddhism i n the

coun tr y o f the My a mma or B a md t he Burmese , .

Two g rea t geological and g eog raphic a l fa cts a r e t hus

satisfactorily accou nted fo r namely the appearance of the
, ,

exti nct volcano Pop a i n the so uthern portion of the

, ,

great central plain lying to the north o f the Prome

district and the recedence o f the sea from the hills near
,

and below P r ome A bou t thirty miles to the sou t h o f

.

Prome where the hills t erminate abruptly o n t he ri gh t

,

bank o f the I r rawaddy and s t retch westwards to the

main chain o f t he A rakan Yoma there i s the A ka u k

taung or Cus toms hill which was no doubt a se a

port when the waves of the estuary o f t he I rrawaddy

surged at i ts base and the tidal waters stretched u n i nte r
r up te d l y across the mouth o f t h e S it t ang rive r to the

city o f T ha tOn i n Ra m a na d e sa .

The A kauktaung is n o w a place o f pil g rimage pro

fuse l y ornamented wi t h shrines pag odas rock sculptu r es
, ,
-
,

and othe r imag es of G a u d a ma A n d the prophecy o f .

G a ud a m a had the additional value a t tering t o Burmese ,

national vani t y o f furnishing a belief i n the direct i n

,

t ro d u c ti o n o f Buddhis m i n t o the cou ntry by its founder

i n place o f showing that t heir national reli g io n reached
t he m fr o m the g reat ri val M On cou ntry which it ce r ta inly ,

did as a m atter of fact .

I n 1 7 74 K ing S i npy uy i n placed th e old M on Ti o f

t he S hwe D a gOn pagoda here ( th r own down by the
ea rt h q u a ke of a n d se t up an i nsc r ibed s t one S lab

reco r din g this fact a n d narra t ing t he progress o f hi s

journey fr o m A va t o R angoo n and t he ce r emonies co n
n e c te d with t he e r ec t io n t he r eon of the n e w B urmese

3 89
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
I n t he eastern por t ion of the t own o f Prome stands
the chief pagoda S hwe sa nd aw Paya on a l o w hill
, ,

ove rlooking the rive r The pagoda is itself about 1 80 .

fee t hi g h and is solid throu g hou t and g ilded all ove r

, .

A legend o f cou rse exists tha t it was buil t by D ut t a

baung rst K in g of Tha r e Khe ttara ; bu t t hr ee larg e
,

slabs partly effaced lying at the foo t of the pagoda h ill

, ,

r ecord its erection by K ing M i n b i n between the years

1 5 3 5 and 1 5 3 9 A D . .

Two very much smalle r pagodas respectively only ,

8 5 and 4 0 feet hi g h situa t ed i n the t own itself are o f

,

far older date th a n the S hwesa nd a w These are t he .

S hwe p On ga n a circul a r brick pyramidal pa g oda built

, ,

by K in g Kya nsi ttha i n 1 0 7 8 and t he S hwe m Okd a w ,

pagoda erec t ed by K ing N a ra thi hap ate of Pagan in

1 2 4 0 A D accord ing t o the inscription o n a slab i n the
. .

cour t yard A s usual successive laye rs o f brickwork

.
,

have been superimposed above the original shrine s o as

to obli t era t e all traces o f its primitive shape .

A bou t four t een miles t o the south of Prome a co m

manding position is occupied by the S hwe na tta u ng
pagoda abou t 1 2 0 fee t in height I t is however o f no
, .
, ,

great antiqu i t y as an inscribed stone i n t he courtyard

,

records tha t i t was bu il t in 1 5 70 by Ta bi nz e d i K ing of ,

Toungoo t o commemora t e h is con q ues t o f P r ome

, .

A bout a h u ndred and fty miles to t he nor t h o f

Prome o n the left b a nk of the I rrawaddy and in t he
,

M yingyan dis t rict lie the ruins of Pa g an o r P ugam a

, ,

the once famous A r i m a dd a na p u ra which ourished as

t he Burmese capi t al from t he m iddle o f th e seven th to
near the close of the thirteenth cen t u r y .

Pag an is rich i n a rchmol og i cal remains There i s .

h a rdly any objec t of a rc hmol og i cal and religious historical

in t eres t which can no t be foun d in g rea t er variety a nd
perfec t ion in Pagan than a t a n y o t her place i n B urma .

I t i s commonly called the city of ten thousand

pag odas and the phrase in numbe r l ike the pagod a s

a t P a g an is curr ent to express any eno r mous numbe r .

The ruins t here ex t end over a n area abou t eight miles

in leng t h following t he rive r and abou t t wo miles in
, ,

breadth B u t the remains are all of a pu rely reli g ious

.

3 90
 A N T I ! U ITI ES O F P A G AN
character with the sole exception o f the palace o f
,

M a nuha the las t M on K ing of T hatOn who was led in t o

, ,

captivi t y by K i ng A n aw ra ta z a w in 1 0 5 7 A D This . .

palace and po r tions o f the B i d ag a t ta i k or libra ry
,

,

erected to contain the many elephan t loads o f palm le a f -

manuscripts brou g ht fro m T ha tOn and of t he Kya u kk u ,

Onhmin o r temple are the only b u ildings i n which stone

masonry with a g reenish sandstone i s to be fou nd A ll
, , .

the other buildings both o f earlie r and of l a t er date than

,

t hese are constructed enti r ely o f b r ickwork I t is s up

, .

posed that this oldest basal po r tion o f the Ky a ukk u

Onhmin was originally erected as a temple by t he I ndian
masons who built t he A nanda and other contempo raneous
shrines t he B i d ag a tta ik and the palace o f M a nu b a with
, ,

t he minu t e car vings upon which the s t one ca r vin g s in

t he Ky au kk u are quite in keepin g But mo r e recent .

research seems t o x the da t e of the uppe r portion of

t he Kya ukk u at any ra te as belonging to the rei g n o f
K ing Kya ws wa which t erminated i n 1 2 7 9 A D
, . .

Pa gan was long t he cen t re of the most powerful

B uddhist hierarchy t ha t has a nywhere existed since the
time o f K ing A soka in N or t hern I ndia I t r eceived .

hospitably t he fugitive Buddhists fr om all parts of I ndia ;

and from the middle o f the eleventh till near the close
of the th ir t eenth century it was the g re a t cen tr e o f
Buddhis t ic reli gion and learn in g in I ndo China Thither -
.

came priestly bodies from all the lands of southern

B uddhism from Ceylon Pegu S iam and t he S ha n
, , , ,

S ta t es while soj ourners c a me even fr om China and from

, ,

N i p l the home o f northe r n Buddhism ; and to each

,

fraterni t y o r nationali t y separa t e q uarters were se t apart

for thei r residence .

J udging from clues furn ished by the Kalyan i i nsc ri p

tions found nea r Pegu and from the B urmese histories it
, ,

w a s conjec t u r ed t ha t the most ancient remains o f Pag an

would probably be met wi t h i n t he hills t o the east of
the S hwe z i g On and A nanda pag odas built i n imitation ,

o f t he more ancient N a g a y On a n d L a wka na n d a shrines

th a t once s t ood in t he ancient town o f S a ra v ati ( Tharr a

waddy ) bu t later o n fo r med the southern portion of
,

A na wra ta z aw s capital

.

3 9I
 U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
BU R M A
The Pagan o f the hills as d is t ingu ished from the town ,

close to the left bank o f the I rrawaddy consists of ,

a number o f cu riously constructed S hrines built a g ainst

the steep sides o f ravines and o f an a lmost interminable ,

labyrinth o f articial caves once the abode o f Buddhist ,

monks perforati ng the low hills i n all directions and

,

even extendin g to the b a nks o f the river M any of .

these cont a in im a g es o f the Buddha inscriptions and , ,

m u ra l paintin g s T hese caves and cave temples are

.
-

older and i n many cases more in t eresting from an

,

a rchitectural point o f V ie w than the shrines erected by ,

A n a w ra ta z a w K ya n s i ttha
, , an d N a ra b a d i s i s i thu .

I n imitation of the ori g inal cave l a byrinths in the hills

to the eas t subterranean monasteries were made by
,

d i gg in g a hole i n the ground for ty to sixty fee t long and

thirty to forty feet deep The sides we r e walled with .

bricks and entrance was obtained through a hole o n the

,

level o f the grou nd From the botto m passag es led t o

.
,

intricate ga lleries and caves A t a later date square clumsy .

, ,

t o p heavy mon a steries were built above g r ou nd wit h a

-
,

central chamber for the P dngy i o r Prior which was ,

surrounded by a spacious gallery The monas t ery was .

usually o n e storied bu t passages ran o n e over the other

-
, , ,

throu g h th e thick exterio r walls wi t h perfo rated stone

slabs as windows .

What were considered t he most impo rtant inscrip t ions

o n stones w ere removed a bou t a cen t ury ago from Pag an

to A m ar a pura by K in g B od a w Pay a yet many o f grea t ,

value still remain A mon g the most interesting d iscoveries

.

are two red sandstone sl a bs with S anskrit inscriptions

lyin g in the courtyard o f the ancient K uzeik p a g oda The .

oldest d a ted 4 8 1 A D records the e r ection o f a temple

, . .
,

o f S u g ata by R u d ra se na K ing o f Ar i mad d a nap u ra ; ,

while the second dated 6 1 0 A D inscribed in the

, . .
,

characters o f the a lphabet of N orthern I ndia r eco rds the ,

presentation o f an im a ge o f S akyamuni by two S akya

mendicants from H a s t i na p u ra ( Taga ung) to the A soka
ram a at A ri m a d d a n a p u ra durin g the rei g n of K ing ,

A di ty a s e na This is supposed to afford somethin g like

.

substa nti a l proof t h at although That on received S outhern

,

B ud d hism from Ce y lon Upper B urma independently ,

3 92
 A NT I ! U ITI E S O F P A G AN
received N orthern Buddhism from the G a nges whilst
Buddhism ou rished in N orthern I ndia .

W ith the exception of s q uare stone pillars i n the

M y a s e ti p a g oda having o n o ne side a Pali inscription o n ,

another a Bu rmese o n the third a M on a nd on the , ,

fourth a legend in an u nrecorded alphabet a nd lan g u a g e ,

the vast majority o f the inscriptions at P a gan are in the

square Pali alph a bet and vary i n date from a bout ,

105 9 A D up to the close o f last century The stone

. . .

pillars standin g nea r the entrance to the S hwe z i g On

pagoda are no doubt older as they are said t o h a ve been ,

brought fro m ThatOn i n 1 0 5 7 H ere a lso were recently .

found a number of ancient clay table t s o r bricks be a ring

legends of unknown date recorded i n N agari M On , ,

Cambodian and Burmese characters I nscribed slabs .

abound i n large nu mbers offerin g a vast and most ,

interes t ing eld for careful epigraphical research .

The oldest bu ildin g s a t Pagan and consequently those ,

of greates t arch aeological i nterest are the follo w i ng ,

f m
'

D t
B l t by
gggt
a ro
N m a e. ui
u

N gayOn P yat
a a5 A D K
'

n g A n a w a t a aw 10 0 . . i r z .

A n n daa
57 1 0

M n ha P al c
a u

s 57 a e 10 n ,1

Kyaukku O n h m i n 57 T h e H i n d u w h o c on 10 s

st c ted th e l t tw ru as o

e d i es c .

S hi n bi nthay ung P ya 6 a Ki n g An w t
a w 10 0 a ra a z a .

Ku i k P y Ki n g Kya i ttha

ze a 69
a . 10 ns .

T hi ts w d i P ya
a a 84 a ! u e en P w s w 10 a a .

S hwe i gOn P y
z 9 4 a K i n g K y n si t th a 10 a .
1

T h tpy i nnyu o
a T h tpi ny r a a

P ya a 3 4 K i n g A l O n i th u 1 1 s .

D may angyi Pay a

a 68 Ki n g Na b ad i i i th 1 1 ra s s u .

S ul am n i P ayat
'

a 83 1 1

Kyi d wm u P y a
a 87 a 1 1

G wd w P l i n P ya
a a a 88 Kin g N nd
a g y 1 I a au n n a .
1

B wd i P l i n P y a
a a 8 Ki n g Z yath i ng
a 1 21 e e a.

1
An in n d in g i n the cou tya d of th pag od g i v e s
sc ri b ed sto ne sta r r e a

th ese d tes B t a c ord i n g to the oy l h oni c l e s Ki n g Ky n i tth

a . u c r a c r a s a

ceased to e i g n i n 85 A D wh i l e N a b ad i si si thu ei g n e d f om
r 10 67. .
, ra r r 1 1

4 ( vi d P hay e H i st y f B m 8 83 A p p n d ix p g

to 1 20 e r s or o ur a, 1 ,
e ,
a e

3 93
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
The S hi nb i ntha ya u ng Pay a is also said t o have been
built in 1 0 3 9 A D by K in g M a n u ha o f T ha tOn I t seems
. . .
,

howeve r wildly improbable tha t the M on K ing r uling in

,

the grea t centre o f southern Buddhism would bu ild a

p a goda i n a rival c a pital a bout ve hundred miles distan t .

A n d i t is e q ually improbable th a t a K in g who was

carried into captivi t y after h is c a pi tal w a s sacked and
despoiled o f all its sacred t reas u res would ever have
fu nds to l a vish i n this way I t is therefo re much more .

l ikely that this along with o t her pagodas was erected by

, ,

K ing A na wra ta z a w .

D eeply imbued with a reli g ious feel in g and detesting ,

the superstitiou s practices o f snake and S pirit worship then

largely prevailin g K ing A n a wra ta z a w appea r s to have
,

resolved to effect a reli g ious revival I t is prob a ble th a t .

he buil t t he N aga yOn Pay a before his war agai nst l

T ha tOn ; a nd the l a tter was most likely wa g ed for the

express purpose o f obtaining possession o f a l l the s a cred
works and rmly establishin g Pagan as the centre o f
B u ddhist light and le a rning The N a ga y On Pay a may .

therefore be regarded as not only the oldest of the

pagodas bu t the most ancient a mong t he bu ildings i n
,

P a g an ; while the Ky a uk ku O nhmin t he rock cave

,

temple or s t one temple o f H indu m a sons who bu ilt

M a nu ha s palace and the A n a nd a pagod a is the oldes t o f

the true temples and is i n certain respects o ne o f t he

,

most i nterestin g of all the a ncient bu ildings there .

The Kya u kk u temple a t the northe r n limit of historical ,

Pagan is in a ravi ne about a mile and a half to the

,

north ea st of the present town o f N y au ng tI I t consists

-
'
.

o f three s t oreys a n d l a teral terraces built a gainst the

southern si d e o f the gorg e The lowest s t orey is o f .

ne g reen sandstone while the upper storeys a r e o f ,

1
T he ym ol gy of B u m ese wo d
et o d n m es offe s a p e i l ously
r r s an a r r

se d uc ti v e f s i n ti o n The N g yOn P y at m y p ossi bly h av b ee n

a c a . a a a a e

b ui l t i n h on ou of the p o p e ti ve d v e n t b t 5 y e s h e n e of
r r s c a ,
a ou 2, 00 ar c ,

the fth d l t B d d h of the p

an as u en t K lp o ycl e A i m tey r es a a r c ,
r a a,

who i a t p ese n t p
s r i n g hi x i ten in the h p e of h e f
ass s e s ce s a a ar or

N g d m e n s a d g on o d e m i god
a a

ra nd Yo h e The B u m e
r -
,

a u a ar . r se

see i n th e m oon a h e a n d i n thear un pe k the oy al e mbl e m

,
s a acoc ,
r
f Bu m O th wi e N g yOn m y i n d i c t t i n the d g n

o r a . er s , t a a a a e r us ra o .

3 94
 A N TI ! U ITI ES O F P A G AN
brickwork a dded probably t owards the close of the
,

twelfth century I t is often mentioned in P a gan history

.
,

and it formed a place o f refuge for fu g itive priests kin gs , ,

a n d nobles until lon g after the conquest o f Pa g an by the

Chinese and S hans in the thirteenth century I t con .

t a ins a n in terestin g collection o f c a rved wooden images

rep r esentative o f the kings o f P a gan .

Opposi te t o i t is the Ky id aw m u Paya or royal view

pagoda buil t i n 1 1 8 7 A D by K in g N a ra ba d i s i s i thu fo r
, . .

the conven ience o f hi s Q ueen who might from this ,

behol d t he temples duri n g the K ing s visits to the shrine

a n d the priests there for the monas t ic r ules forbade her

a ccompanyin g him .

M ost of the ancient monu men t s in P a gan differ from

the bell shaped pagodas of L ower B u r m a in bein g of
-

square brickwork c a rried up i n diminishing terraces to

very near the top and then nishing O ff a bruptly in a
curvilinear spire They are distinctly I ndi a n in funda
.

mental desi g n The m ajority of these ancient shri nes and

.

pagodas are not solid at the base but consist o f a rched ,

domes or domed chambers cont a ining ima g es o f G a u d a m a .

T hese ch a mbers are called K u from the word ori g inally ,

meaning a cave .

The most remarkable o f all t hese hollow p a g odas o r

shrines a nd at the same time o n e o f the oldest is the
, ,

A n a nda Pay a built by I ndian workmen about 1 0 5 7 A D

,
. .

I t was probably in t ended to commemorate the victory

over the Pegu a ns a n d the tra nsfer of the sacred books
from T ha tOn I t is built in a square o f about 2 0 0 feet
. ,

bu t with proj ectin g porticoes o n all four faces s o th a t ,

it measures 2 80 feet each way in the shape o f a perfect ,

Greek cross .R isin g in ever diminishing terra ces it ,

ascends to a heigh t o f 1 83 feet I nternally the building .

is very m a ssive thou g h intersected w ith narr ow corridors ;

,

bu t behind each o f the fou r proj ectin g po rticoes is a n i che

or chapel containing a colossal g ure o f a Buddha a bo u t ,

forty feet hi g h E a ch o f the four imag es thickly co vered

. ,

w ith g old lea f represents o ne o f the fou r B uddhs who

,

have visited the earth du ring the present K a lp a or cycle .

O n t he eas t Kau k a sa n on the south G a wnag u n on

, ,

the west Ka tha b a and o n the north G a u d a ma they

,
,

3 95
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
are placed i n the proper order i n which they a re believed
to have appea r ed ( see pag e
I n the na rro w corridors w hich are left between the sol id
,

brickwork of the base m ent are about a thousand niches ,

containin g s mall stone sculptures represen t ing various

phases in the life o f Ga n dama and many o f these are ,

apparently o f I ndian workmanship .

The S hi nb i ntha ya u ng which so me regard as older,

t han the A nanda resembles i t both i n desi g n a n d

,

in plan .I t contains four ch a mbers three o f the m ,

havin g cross leg ged sitting imag es of G a u d a m a a nd the

-
,

fourth his recumbent gure a bou t n inety feet lon g ; w hile

i n front of the bu ildin g stands an enormous stone alms
bowl about n ine feet i n hei g ht .

The K uzeik Pay a erected in 1 0 6 9 A D contains a

, . .
,

central imag e C hamber about t wenty feet hi g h the walls ,

of w hich to g ethe r with those o f the antech a mber a nd

,

corridors are pain t ed with B uddhas scrolls animals

, , , ,

and episodes from t he birth stories of G au d a ma -

.

The T hi ts aw a d i P a ya bu ilt by Q ueen P wasa w in ,

1 0 84 A D . has fou r chambers in the basement connec t ed

.
,

by corridors and each con tains an imag e o f G au d a m a

,
.

O n the second o f the three storeys o f w hich the bu ilding

c o n s i sts t he r e are fou r coloss a l g ures o f the B uddha sittin g
,

back to back facing the cardinal points ; while a chambe r

,

o n the third s t orey is now empty F ive inscribed ston e .

sl a bs ne a r the pa g od a bear dates rangin g from 1 0 8 1 to

1 442 A D . The l a test of these records an i n teresting
.

list of works belon g in g to the B ud dhist canon which ,

were translated from t he S a nscrit and Pali i nto Burmese

by a learned monk named D a m m a p ala .

The Tha tpyi n ny u o r T hap i nya P a ya the omniscient ,

,

bu ilt in I 1 3 4 A D is somewha t similar to the A n a nda i n

. .
,

dimensions a nd g ene ral plan ; b ut it does n o t like the ,

latter form a symmetrical Greek cross as the eastern

, ,

o r main po r ch proj ects fro m the wal l considerably more

than the other three and it contains only o ne grea t colossal

,

image instead of four I t is the highest monument in .

Pagan bein g 2 0 1 fee t in hei g ht ; b u t the base o f t he

,

body o f the buildin g is only 1 80 feet s q ua r e o r 2 0 ,

feet less each way th a n the base of the A nanda Paya .

3 96
 A N T I ! U ITI E S O F PA G AN
I n t his and i n the later bu ildin g s the delicate details
, ,

of or namentation a n d architecture noticeable i n the

older structures have to a g rea t extent disappeared ,

while massiveness o f brick work seems to have been o n e

o f the m a in obj ects o f royal ambition .

The D a may a ng y i bu ilt in 1 1 6 8 A D is qu ite equ a l

, . .
,

to the A nanda i n d imensions but d iffers in plan a n d ,

design I t contains two central ch a mbers o r ch a pels o ne

.

a bove the other w hile each o f the fou r faces has a

,

smaller apartment ; and all t hese s i x chambers contain

ima g es of G a u d a m a .

The S ula ma n i or Chulaman i Pa y a d a tin g from ,

1 1 83 A D has likewise lofty parallel corri d ors o n e a ch

. .
,

storey and is profusely or n a mented with allegorical

,

p a i ntin g s .

T he G a wd a w P a lin P a y a built in 1 1 88 A D ha s three

, . .
,

chambers on the g rou nd oor and o n e centra l ch a mber

o n the u pper storey which are a l l s u rrounded by lofty
,

a r ched corridors .

The Bawd i Pali n Pay a erected in 1 2 1 8 A D is c o n

, . .
,

structed o n a similar plan to thou g h it i s sm a ller than , ,

the celebrated Bod i temple at Buddh a G a ya F o r more .

than a century previous to its erection there ha d been

considera ble intercourse bet ween Pagan a nd M a gada the ,

centre o f northern B uddhism ; bec a use a B urmese stone

inscrip t ion at B uddh a G a y a itself records th a t the temple
there supposed to have been erected about 5 0 0 A D
,
. .
,

w a s repaired abou t 1 1 0 0 A D at the inst a nce o f . .

Al On s i thu K in g of P ag an
, .

The S hwe z ig On Pa y a the oldest o f the p a g o das

,

proper dati ng fr om 1 0 94 i s in no w a y comp a ra ble to

, ,

the great pagodas at Rangoon o r Peg u bei ng o nly ,

1 5 0 feet in height B ut round the square b ase there

.

are g l a zed t erra cot ta panels or tiles illustrative o f t he

birth stories and bearing i n scriptions that m ay prove
-

o f considerable arch aeolo g ical value The pan theon o f .

the thirty seven N ats o f the pre Buddh istic period r e p t e

- -

sented o n the S hwe z i gOn pa goda is the o n ly thi ng o f

i ts kind to be fou nd in the w hol e co u n try .

L ike a ll the other hi g hly venerated p ag od a s i n B u r m a ,

the present form o f the S hwe z i g On Pa ya is essenti a lly

3 97
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
mode r n . The o r iginal pagoda was bu ilt over and
inc r eased i n dimensions i n 1 1 6 4 A D and numerous . .
,

successive incrus tations o r fresh l a yers o f brickwork

h a ve resul t ed i n its present form which mu st be en t irely
,

d ifferent from i t s original contour S ome o f the sm a ll

.

ol d brick pag odas i n immediate proximity to the

S hwe z i gOn Pay a a r e far more interesting than i t from
an arch aeologic a l and a r chitectural point o f view as they ,

exhibit in ori g inal purity the squa r e cap charac t eris t ic ,

of the most ancient Buddhist Cha i ty a i n I nd ia over the ,

solid dome o r the vaulted chamber fo rmin g t he main

portion o f the monu men t t he bell shaped i nverted
,
-
,

a l ms b o wl of the modern pagodas above which rises ,

t he spire eit h er in t he form o f the bulging S i hr a

, ,

characteristic o f all the O lde r H indu and J ain t emples

throughout H indos tan from Orissa to t he I ndus or else ,

tapering upwa rds to the pinnacle more o r less g r acefully

o r abruptly as in the manner of the C i ng h
, al e s e da g abas .

I n t heir modern shape the grea t pagodas of Bu rma

have enti r ely los t all prominent traces of this ancient
s q uare cap and have g radually evolved themselves i nto
,

slender conical piles havin g o n both sides an inwa r d

curva t u r e o f the contour This g ives t o t hem an exceed
.

i ngl y graceful appearance and a r ened cha r m t he ,

apprecia t ion o f which is ce r tainly in no way d iminished

by t he t hou g ht that this inward cu rvatu r e is not in
accord ance with the laws o f Greek architect ure o r with
the ordinarily accepted principles o f E u ropean aesthetics .

A rchitecturally they are ve ry weak ; aesthetically they

are very charming A nd most of all are they so when
.

seen standin g boldly o ut i n t he sunshine a gainst a

, ,

clear pure blue sky during a crisp cool morning in t he

, , ,

month o f D ecember o r J anuary .

P agan w ith its thousand pa g odas and t emples and i ts

, ,

l i t hic inscriptions formin g a vis t a down which one can

look back to a complete ch a in o f monumen ta l r ecords
dating from before the con q ues t of E n g land by t he
N ormans is perhaps the most su itable place at w h ich t he
,

characteristic types o f e a rly and l a ter B urmese religious

architecture may be considered ; fo r t he r eligious bu ild
ings have alone been thou g ht wor th y of r epai r s and
3 98
 RE M A R K S C O N C E R N I N G P A G O D A S
maintenance in a cl im a te where the tooth o f time sh a rper ,

or more venomous th a n elsewhere has destroyed ,

almost completely the w hole of the ancient secular

bu ildings A fe w of the princip a l temples and pa godas
.

at Pagan are still looked after by the people in their

nei g hbou rhood bu t m a ny hu ndreds o f them are c o m
,

p l e te l
y ne g lected a n d a r e all in a more o r less ruinous

State . N o priests are ever in att e ndance o n a pa g od a .

The people g enerally a n d the elders i n p a rticular a ssume

, ,

indenite charge o f them in a casual m anner ; a n d if

these do not interest themselves i n their m a intenance ,

the monuments g radually fall into d isrepair N o B urm an .

will voluntarily become a serva nt at a p a goda ; fo r u nder

Burmese rule meni a l duties of this sor t were d ischarged
either by hereditary p a goda slaves condemned fo r their ,

crimes or else by c a ptives o f war w ho formed o ne of the

, ,

lo west soci a l cl a sses .

A p a rt from the sacred caves the rock cave temples , ,

and the Thei n o r halls of ordination a l l the great sacred ,

bu ildings which are o f a rc hmol og i ca l in t erest are com

reh e n si vel
y classiable either as p a g odas or as temples
p .

B oth c a teg ories form places o f veneration of the Buddha ,

but neither a pagoda nor a temple is in any way connec t ed

wi t h a ctual w orship a s o f a divinity , .

The only difference which ca n be recognized between

these two classes of bu ildings and it i s a pu rely arbitrary ,

and ar t icial distinc t ion hardly reco g nized by the B u r ,

mese to whom all the a ncient and modern monuments

,

are alike S ed i or P ay d is th a t the pagoda is a sol id or

a t any rate a closed construc t ion of brick work w hile the ,
1

temples contain o n e or more ch a mbers in their basement .

I t is tr ue t hat in con t radistinc t ion t o the sol id pagoda

o f brick the B urmese dis t in g u ish t he P u d o o r hollo w

pag oda ; but t he use o f this te r m is compara t ively rare .

L ess r a r e however is the te r m S edi P u d o implying

-
, , ,

pagodas collectively .

1
The on e b ui l t p g d a kn own to m e in B u m i the f m ous
nly sto -
a o r a s a

m i n i tu e
a r b ui l t on a o ky i l n d t Thing d w b out i m i l es
on e r c s a a a a , a S x

b e l w M l e i n the th i d o l owest d e l e of the I aw d d y

o a ,
r r I t form s rr a .

the subj e t of m ny l ocal l eg en d

c a s.

3 99
 B U R M A U N D ER B R I T I S H R U LE
I n nearly every o ne o f the wilder portions o f the
coun tr y t here are still often to be found cairns o f small
stones to w h ich each passer b y adds a pebble I n the -
.

heart o f the fores t o ne also sometimes comes a cross grea t

numbers o f bamboos o r their r emains i n various s ta g es
,

o f decomposition piled agains t la rge t rees said to be the

, ,

a bode of a Y u h a so o r g uardian spirit and as each o f the

hill men passes he cuts a bamboo and adds it to the store

, .

There are N a tsi ng on or rude shri nes where votive offer

'

ings are made t o the local spirits ; a nd t here seems l ittle

doubt t hat when t he ori g in a l animistic worship began to
,

be ous t ed by B uddhism t hese stone cairns gra dually ,

became transformed into pagodas There is nothing .

improbable in t his : for t he vas t ma jori t y of Bu rmese

have a belief i n spirits t ha t is mo r e deeply seated than
their trust i n B uddhism alone .

A part from such as probably had t his animis t ic ori g in

the S ed i o r P ay d were and are still erec t ed primarily as
, ,

depositories of sacred relics Pagodas of t his sort are of .

fou r kinds namely D a tta w S edi cont a ining rel ics of a

, ,

B uddha or a monk of saintly life D a mma S ed i contain ,

ing sac r ed writin g s P a r i ba wg a S ed i containing the ei g h t

,

sacred u t ensils r equisite for a p r ies t and U de i hsa S ed i , ,

the depository o f th ings made i n the semblance o f sacred

obj ects l ike images o f t he Buddha etc These last a re
, , .

by far the most nume rous though t hey are g enerally ,

small and of no impor tance from any poin t of vie w

except t hat personal to t he P ay d tag a o r fou nder who ,

thus earns the highes t deg r ee of r eligiou s meri t a t tainable

by a mere layman .

Classifying fo r con ven ience all t he solid or closed

, ,

monuments only as pagodas t hose found in Burma form ,

a fairly complete continuation of the series o f B uddhist

topes a n d dag abas dating from abou t the t h i r d cen t ury
B C till the rise o f B uddhism i n I ndo C hina
. . They form - .

val ua ble links in the chain o f evolution of t he pagoda

throughou t the long pe r iod of over t wo t h ousand years .

The older forms are massi ve and simple in outline .

The la t er development co nsists o f a spire sol id throu g h ,

o u t risin g from a circul a r square o r oc t agonal bas e o r

, , ,

sole ( P a nat) in a succession of t ie rs belts or circles , ,

400
 P A G O D A S AN D T E M P LE S
( y )
L et i t each, upper st a ge of which is narrower than the
o n e immediately beneath it and the whole tapers o ff to
a pinnacle or point at a heigh t usually one a n d a half o r
t wo times the dia me t er of the base The pinnacle is sur .

moun t ed by a n iron crown or Ti generally richl y g ilded , ,

consistin g o f a nu mber o f concentric r in g s or bands

rising in d iminishing circles and ending i n a lon g i r on
rod usually capped by a vane ( S ei n bu ) in the shape of a
glass b a ll ( Ywel on) or an inverted soda wa t er bottle

-

intended to ac t as a non conduc t or of elec t ricity -

.

Between t he main bell sh a ped portion o f the body o f the

,
-

p a g oda ( Tha bei /ehm a uh o r inverted al m sb owl

a nd

the lowe r masonry t er r ace t here is frequently a high plinth

o f elabo r ate polygonal fo r m su gg es t ive o f t he ou t lines o f
,

H indu t emples S ome po rt ion of the main body o r t he

.

spi r e is usually o r namen t ed wi th a lotus leaf desi g n -

.

L a t e r al igh t s o f stairs ( S a u ng da n ) often ascend to the

bell po r tio n co rr esponding t o t he Ga r bha o f t he I ndian
stupas .

T he la rge s q ua r e brick t emples t ypical of Pa gan co n ,

s tr uc t ed as shrines for images of the Buddha as ,

exemplied in t he A nanda T hap i nya a nd G a wd a w Palin

, ,

P aya rise in gradually d iminishing terraces nished off

, ,

with a bul g ing spi r e exactly like th e S i r a o f H indu and

J ain temples in N o rt hern I ndia T h ough differing from .

each othe r both i n interior plan a n d i n outward de tail ,

t hese shri nes have but little to S how i n the wa y o f

evolu t ion Bo t h their s h ape and thei r dimensions pre
.

cluded th e possibility of their design bein g altered by

an superposition o f addi t ional brickwork They became
y .

more or less exactly reproduced at A v a a n d A m arapura ,

th e late r capi t als o f t he Burmese kings ; an d it wa s not

till I talian in uence became very m a rked a t t he t ime o f
the fou nd a tion of M andalay that any grea t dep a rture was
made fr om t he main fea t u r es of t he reli g ious architectu r e
o f the Pag an period .

The images e n shrined withi n t h ese temples a re usu a lly

o f G a u d a m a the fou r th and last Buddh a
, a n d they are

of three kinds They may rep r esent hi m seated

.

Ti n bi ngw ) with his left h and O pen on his lap and the
r ight hand partially restin g o n his knee and pointin g
V OL . I I. 40 1 D D
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
downwa rds o r s tanding i n erect posture ( Ya tda w ) with
,

ri g ht h a nd raised i n the attitude of enunci a tin g the l a w ,

)
o r else recumbent N a u ng d a w as when restin g u nder the
( y
shade of the sacred F i cu s tree when abou t to att a in
N eikban .The images i n the sittin g posture far o u t
number those that are erect o r recumbent .

The convention a l attitu de of t hese images never varies .

The facial expression is u nifo r mly calm and dignied ,

thou g h in modern images there i s often a n u nfortunate

tendency to a sort o f simpering smugness quite o u t of
keepin g w ith the serenity inculcated by the B uddhist
reli g ious philosophy .

T he imag es a t Pa gan are fo r the most part representa

tions o f the B uddha a lt h ough altars o f V ishnu a n d
,

S hiva are to be met with not only i n the I ndian rock

temple but also o n the B uddhist N aga yOn S hwe z ig On , ,

and the smaller shrines o f Kyaukpala Many curious .

signs are sculp t ured o n the ngers and palm of

G a u d a m a s hand in t h e ol d Peguan ima g es the i nte rp re

ta t i o n o f which must remain fo r some an t i q ua r y learned

in ancient I ndi a n chei r omancy .

O n t he r emoval by Thado M inbya in 1 3 6 4 A D of the , . .

,

Burme se capital to A v a (A wa a corruption o f I n wa -

,

t he en trance to the lake ) which remained the sea t of

gove r nmen t fo r about fou r centuries t he religious build ,

in g s o f Pagan were to a ce r tain ex t ent reproduced there ,

although o n no t hing like the same scale a s r egards eith e r

size or splendou r The cl a ssical n ame of Ava is
.

Y a d a na pu ra the ci t y of precious g ems
,

.

Traces of t he g reat council ch a mber and various por t ions

o f the royal pal a ce a r e s t ill v i s i b l e b u t otherwise the secular
,

buildi ng s are completely destroyed ; a nd most o f the

religious edices are also dilapida t ed Within the old .

palace g rounds the S hwe g ugy i o r great golden hollow

p agoda bu ilt i n 1 5 1 0 A D and also known a s t he
,
. .
,

T his sa ta i k i s s t ill reve r enced above any of t he o t hers ;

,

but this is perhaps because it w as there that t h e great

ofcers of S ta t e made thei r solemn vo ws o f a llegiance
o f whic h was punishable with t h e
( T h i ssa,) any breach
seve r es t t ortures The pago d a itself is in no way
.

distin g u ished arc h i t ec t u rally To the wes t o f the

.

4 02
 P AC O D A S A T SA G A I N G
ancien t city stands the L a wk a T ha ra p y u da ting from -
,

1 3 92 A D. containin g a marble im age o f G a u d a m a twenty

.
, ,

four feet hi g h which mus t have been i n t roduced into th e

,

imag e chamber before the buildin g was comple t ed .

Close by is a lofty brick monastery bu ilt i n 1 7 2 3 A D . .

,

which is remark a ble chiey o n accou nt o f bein g a ra re

exa mpl e o f the constru ctio n of a Ky a u ng i n more durable
m a terials than teak timber N e a r the L a wka T ha ra p y u.
-

is the S ak ya m i n shrine su r rou nded by twen t y t wo small

,
-

pagodas and ten stone inscriptions I n the nor t h west .

-

o f the old town beyond the city moat is the forei g n

, ,

burial grou nd contain in g many inscribed mon u ments of

i n t eres t The P e ns a m i li nd a p agoda is in t erestin g on
.

account of t h e t wen t y seven images of B uddhas enshrined

-

there .

A lmos t opposite to A va o n the western side of the ,

I rrawaddy lies S a gaing o r J e ya p ura the capital o f

, ,

N a nd a wg y i Pay a from 1 7 6 0 to 1 7 6 4 A D A bout the . .

end o f last century it became famous from the number o f

p a godas which crown its bare hillsides and from bein g ,

the chief place o f production o f the thousands of

a l a baster im ages distributed to all p a rts o f Burma .

M any of t he religious remains however date back fa r , ,

beyon d t his time .

The S i np y uy i n pagod a bu ilt in 1 3 5 9 A D is still in

, . .
,

g ood rep a ir But more i n t erestin g is the ruined

.

S hwe z i gOn pa g oda o f 1 3 6 6 A D consisting o f three

, . .
,

concentric terraces or processional p a ths surmounted by

a dome The lo w es t o f these contains a se r ies o f glazed
.

tablets illustra t ive o f the birth stories -

.

A bout ve miles to the north west o f S a g a in g stands -

the Ka u ng hm u d a w pagoda or work o f roy a l merit built ,

,

by K in g Thado D amma R aj a in 1 6 3 6 A D and said t o . .

,

contain in its image chamber a n ef g y o f the B uddh a in

pure gold equal in wei g h t to the royal meri t maker -
.

E rected on a n eminence it stands o u t like a fully ,

developed fem a le breast a conspicuous obj ect throu g h ,

o u t all the country rou nd abou t the conuence of the

C hindwin river with the I rra wa ddy S tandin g o n a b a se .

o f about feet i n circumference a tt a i n in g a hei g ht o f ,

abou t 3 0 0 feet and u nadorned by the us u a l Ti thi s massive

, ,

403
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
monumen t is the clumsiest and ugliest o f all the pagodas
i n Burma I t was however once so celebrated through
.
, ,

ou t the w h ole o f I ndo China that there is a my t h -

, ,

ascribing i t s m iraculous rise o u t of the earth despite ,

the inconsistency o f this legend w ith the inscribed slab

enshrined near i ts base E ven now i t enjoys a consider .

able deg ree O f reverence .

There a re numerous l it h ic inscriptions o f mo re o r less

his t orical interest in and around S ag a ing thou g h none of ,

them ca n be termed a ncien t .

A bou t ve miles to the north east o f A va a new -

capital A m ra p u ra w a s found e d by B od a w Pay a i n

, ,

1 7 82 A D D eserted in favou r o f A va by K in g B a g y i d a w
. .

in 1 8 2 3 i t again becam e the c a pital o n hi s d eposition by

,

K in g T ha ra wa d di i n 1 8 3 7 bu t was n a lly a bandoned i n ,

1 86 0 w hen K ing M i n d On occupied the last c a pital o f the

,

K ingdom o f A va a t M andalay abou t ve to s i x miles

further north .

A m ara pura was laid out much o n the same plan as

A va . The ruins of the ci t y wall no w overg rown with ,

j ungle S how it to have been a square with a side o f about

,

three quar t ers of a mile in len g th A t e a ch corner stood

-
.

a solid brick p a goda abou t 1 0 0 fee t high A lthou g h .

none o f them are ancient some o f the reli g ious bu ildin g s ,

a r e noteworthy as specimens of later Burmese design .

The p r incipal o f these a r e th e S hi nb i nk u gy i pa goda

bu ilt in 1 7 94 A D by the eldest o f B od a w P a y a s three
. .

sons and the P a ta w d a wgy i the l a rgest a n d handsomest

, ,

of all the m odern p a god a s in Burma erected by ,

K ing Bag y i d a w in 1 8 1 9 o n his accession to the

throne T o the south o f the Taun g thaman lake o n
.
,

t he northern bank o f which the city was built is a ,

coloss a l brick im age o f G a u d a m a i n sitting postu re ,

erected i n 1 84 9 by K in g P ag arn and known as the

Ma h a S akyamu ni .

A bout t hree miles nor t h o f A m arap u ra in wha t i s now ,

the southern sub u rb o f M a nd a lay stands the renowned ,

sh ri n e M y a tsa w N y e na u ng o r M a hamy a tm u n i P a y a
-
,

known a s the A rakan pago d a
I t contains the fa mous .

M ah m u n i b rass statue o f G a u d a ma t h e na t ional image ,

o f A r a ka n about twelve fe et hi g h w hich was c a rri e d o ff

, ,

404

TH E ARAKAN PA G O DA M A N D A LA Y ,

by B o d a w Pay a o n the conquest o f A ra kan i n 1 7 84 I t .

was brou g ht in three pieces across the b i lls by the

Ta u nggOp p a ss a ccompanied by the c a ptive K ing his
, ,

Q ueens a n d fa mily the roya l Punna or astrolog ers an d

,

soothsayers and nu m erous prisoners of various de g rees

,

w hile other spoils o f w a r i ncludin g the great g u n i n

,

M a ndalay me a surin g thi rty feet i n leng t h and two and a

, ,

half feet i n di a meter a t the m o n th were sen t rou nd ,

by s e a The imag e is s o thickly encrusted with gold

.

leaf th a t no tra ces o f the joints a re n o w visible .

The M aham y a tm u n i image is second only t o the S hwe

D ag On pag oda as a n obj ect o f veneration th roughou t
I ndo C hina
-
T he le g end connected with i t narrates
.

t hat it was cas t o n the S i ri g u tta hill ( where the Mah a

mun i pag oda st a nds ) by K in g C ha nd ra su r i ya of D hanya
w addi in northern A r a k a n and that i t was the ori g inal ,

resembl a nce o r excellent you n g er brother of G au d a m a

,

taken from l ife ( whence proba bly the name My a tswa

N y e n a u ng ) .

F o r centuries it w a s an obj ect of adora t ion to pilgrims

from all B uddhist lands and many wars were w a g ed ,

against A ra kan for the main purpose of securing posses

sion o f this sacred imag e F rom the e a rl iest times kin gs
.

of P a g an Prome and Pegu had tried to obtain it I n

, , .

the beg innin g of the eleventh cen t ury K ing A n a w ra ta z a w

o f Pag an invaded A rakan for this pu rpose and conquered

the country ; bu t fortunately becoming inspired with ,

religious vene r ation fo r wha t was considered the p r o

tector o f the kin g dom he re t ired withou t carrying i t
,

away .

T o the sou t h o f the A rakan pag oda are t he great

B o d a wg y i inscription and the larg e B od a wg y i bell e a ch ,

i n a separa te shrine t o g ether with a mos t valuable colle e

,

tion o f insc r iptions R unnin g i n seven rows from east

.

to west there are 4 6 8 stone slabs w ith inscriptions still

well preserved while another group of 1 0 9 inscribed
,

stones is to be found on the western s ide of the p agod a .

A ltog ether the lithic monu ments here nu mber a bout 7 5 0 .

D urin g the r ei g n of S i npyu y i n ( 1 7 6 3 1 7 7 5 ) stone i n s cr i p

-

tions w ere collected from all parts of t he kingdom and

deposited here This work o f merit in ado ration of th e
.

405
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
M a hamu n i image was largely continued by B od a w Pay a
( 1 78 1 and again during the r ei g n o f the M i n d On

M in ( 1 85 2 A s it now stands the collection is o f

grea t historical in t e r est for the inscrip t ions ran g e over a
,

period exceedin g a thousand years from 7 4 6 to 1 83 9 A D , . .

M os t o f them are i n B u rmese though many are in Pali , ,

and some in t he M on or Peguan language .

M a ndalay is entirely a mode r n ci t y I t was gene rally .

spoken o f in B urmese times as S hwemyo the golden ,

city bu t also bears the classic a l name o f Ya da n a bon or
,

cluster o f gems Founded i n 1 8 5 7 o n a part of the
.
,

p lain lyin g to the sou th w es t of Mandal a y hill i ndicated

-

to K in g M i n d On i n a dream it was occupied i n 1 86 0 as

,

his capi t al H ere as customary the city and the palace

.
, ,

bu ild ings were planned mo r e or l ess closely o n t he usu a l

l ines of a ro y al c a pit a l particularly with rega r d to the
,

r elative positions o f the various buildings and t heir rela

tion a s to t he cardinal poin t s o f the compass ( see plan i n
chapter viii o f v ol . .

With the excep t ion o f a few sol id brick pagodas i n th e

sou th wes t corne r of the palace enclosu re and others o n
-
,

M andal a y hill and on Y ank i nta u ng a h ill a few miles to ,

the east all the bu ildings whether sacred o r secular have

, , ,

been e r ected during t he l a st forty fou r years -

.

D u ring the rei g n of K in g M i n d On a monarc h deeply ,

imbued with Buddhist r eli g ious feelings his capital of ,

cou rse maintained the t raditions o f the C ou r t of B urma

as the centre of Buddhist li g ht and learn ing Bo t h .

within the capital and all arou nd i t t o the nort h east

, , ,

and south large m onasteries were erected o f t eak timbe r

,

and r ichly adorned with wood carvin gs These were .

pu rely Burmese in design and formed the nest specimens

,

o f modern Bu rmese art u ncontamina t ed by E uropean

in uences Those more particul a rly favou red by the

.

K in g and his Queens were thickly covered wi t h gol d

leaf outside and inside bu t t he plain teakwood ca rving ,

darkened w ith coati ngs o f crude earth O il for pro t ection -

a gainst su n a n d rain are u nqu estionably more artistic

, .

M a ny o f these now a bandoned are g radually fall ing into

, ,

d isrepair and ruin and some were des t royed comple t ely
,

durin g the incendiary res i n the spri ng o f 1 89 2 and of

406
 M O NA S T E R I ES N EA R M A ND A LA Y
1 893 . Bu t others still for t una t ely remain as t he las t exis t
in g specimens of art work carried ou t u nder B urmese rule .

Of these the H m a n Ky a ung or looking glass monas

,
-

te r y
, bu ilt to the east of t he A tuma shi by K in g Thibaw
in 1 88 2 and Q ueen S up a ya l a t s S hwe Ky a u ng or
,

g olden monastery ( My a d a u ng Ky a u ng ) bu ilt i n 1 883

,

i n what is n o w a road to the south west of the city are -

,

t he most beau t iful examples in Burma of profusely g ilded

carving The small monastery bu ilt for Prince T hi ba w s
.

pries t hood nea r the south east corner o f the H l utd a w i n

,
-

t he pal a ce enclosu r e is a gem o f looking glass mosaic

,
- .

A nd many of the royal monasteries to the east and south

o f the city wall are splend id specimens o f pure B urmese

carving in t eak wood .

Built with the mere idea o f impermanence these s t ill ,

remain t hou g h little o r nothing is done to keep them i n

,

proper repair and they have lost much o f thei r original

grandeu r ; while the A ti i ma shi Ky a u ng or monastery ,

withou t its like ( wrongly called in E nglish the I n co m

para ble bu ilt t o t he north east o f the city i n -

brickwork to secure for i t some t hin g like permanence ,

w a s destro y ed by r e in 1 89 2 O f t his mon u men t which .

,

took twenty years ( 1 85 7 1 8 7 7 ) to build and was at the ,

same time a monas t ery bu il t by M i nd On in memory of

his fa t her and a shrine containing the la tt er s chief

throne as well as a colossal b ronze image o f G a ud a m a ,

nothing now remains save t he r uins o f its basemen t .

A nd in the following spring was dest royed the S hwey d t

da w o r S ei n day a wgy i the great gilded wooden ima g e of
,

Gan dama about thirty ve fee t high which stood on

,
-
,

the sou t hern spu r o f Mandalay hill wit h the ri g ht arm

extended and the forenger pointing to the spot indi

c a t e d i n K ing M i n d On s d r eam as the auspicious site for

his ne w c a pital .

Close by this a l ittle to the no r th o f t he A ti i m a shi

, ,

is the K u thoda w o r g reat work of r oyal merit also

,

called the L a wha m ay a si n but be t ter known to the E n g lish

,

as the thousand and o ne p a godas

H ere around a .
,

central pagoda the ornamentation o f which wa s damaged

,

by the sacrile g ious hands of ou r M ohammedan soldiery

a fte r the thi r d Burmese wa r are grouped 7 3 3 upri g ht ,

407
 B U R M A U N D ER B R I T I S H RU LE
ma rble sl a bs E ach is enshrined within a m inia t u re
.

p a goda ; and upon these slabs is engra ved the Pali t ext
o f the Bid a at o r Buddhist scrip t u res written in Burmese
g ,

chara cters Within the in ne r enclosu re stand twenty

.

fou r stones with the texts o f the Be ikku P a ti m au k ,

B e i kk u B e i k k u N i p ac i tt i and the P a ra z i ga ( P araj i ka)

, , .

A lon g the outside o f the in ner wall are sixty eight stones -

u pon w hich are inscribed the remainin g three books of

the V i na ya p i ta k a m n amely the Ma ha va gg a C ula va gga

, , , ,

and P a r i var a p a tho The second o r middle enclosu re

.

ha s 1 0 0 stone sl a bs o n the inner side and 1 0 9 on the

outer w hich contai n the text o f the seven books of the
,

A b id a m m a B i d ag at ( A b hid ha m ma p i ta k a d y ) A lon g .

the third o r outermost w a ll 4 3 2 stones are arranged i n

three rows contai n ing inscriptions of the ve N ik aya o f
,

the T hu tta B i d agat ( S u tta p i ta ka d y) and the M ilinda

p a n ha . This m o n umental ve r sion o f the B urmese
B i d ag at therefore forms a complete copy o f the whole

T ripitaka o r three baske t s the S utta t he V inaya

, , ,

and th e A b hid a m ma p i ta ka The centra l o r chief pagoda.

,

within which is enshri ned the P ali commentary written

u pon leaves o f g old a n d silver was bu ilt by K in g ,

M i n d On while the smaller p a godas surrounding it and

co n t a ining the engraved slabs w ere erected by h is brother ,

the War Prince an d his M inisters of S tate between 1 8 5 7

,

and 1 86 4 .

O n the western S ide o f the I rra waddy dis tant about ,

six o r seven m iles from Mandalay stand the ru ins o f ,

the basement o f the M i ng u n pago d a o n e o f the larg est ,

m a sses o f brickwork known to exist Beg u n by B od a w .

P a y a i n 1 7 90 o r I 7 9 1 i t was a b a n d o n e d a fte r years o f work

, , ,

w hen it ha d been c a rried up to only about o n e thi r d of s

its intended hei g ht 5 0 0 fee t S o keen wa s the king o n

, .

erectin g this th a t he ha d a temporary palace bu ilt in

,

the vicinity from wh ich he person a lly supervised the

,

work N e a r i t stands the bell c a st at the same t ime

. .
1

B o d a w Pay a had a passion for great works o f reli g ious

merit fo r he apparently recognized th a t he had a fearful
,

debit bal a nce to h is life s account H e repaired the

.

embankment o f the A u ngp i nl e or pen t up s e a an

1
S p g e 3 wh e e i 7 7 sh oul d ead bo t
ee a 0 2, r

n 1 1 r a u

4 08
 TA G A U N G O R O L D P A G A N
ancien t tank with a s u p e r c i es o f about twenty square
miles to the sou t h west of M andalay where w a ter could
,
-
,

be sto red i n su fcien t quanti t y for the irriga t i o n o f several

t housand ac r es of rice lands H e also rep a ired the .

embankment of t he lake a t M eiktil a which must be o f ,

very ancient dat e as it is known to have been previously

,

r epaired by A l Ons i thu during the twelfth century .

B o da w Pay a went there with his whole Court and spent

three months superintending his royal work o f merit ,

carried ou t o f course by cor vee o r forced labou r

.

A bou t a hu ndred miles t o the north o f Mandalay lie

the remains o f the ancient city of Ta ga un g or ol d Pag an ,

also called H a s ti na p u ra i n Pali for centuries the seat o f

,

a lon g l ist o f legendary kings belon g in g to a dyn a sty

that came from I ndia I t is believed to be the oldest
.

I ndian settlement in Burm a The royal chronicles relate

.

that a bout the middle o f the sixth century B C a kin g . .

called D haja raja of the S a kya race settled at K ath e

, ,

( Manipur ) and conquered T a gaung o r o l d Pa g an I n .

1 89 1 te r ra cotta tablets were fou nd there be a ring S a n

sk r i t legends in Gupta characters and also a larg e stone ,

slab in similar charac t ers da t ing from early in the fth

cen t u r y A D Th is latte r bears o u t the leg endary s tate
. .

ments o f the chronicles t ha t successive waves o f immigra

tion from N orthe r n I ndia h ad brought letters and the
Buddhist religion to Upper B urm a long before A naw ra
t a z a w s con q uest o f Tha tOn in the eleventh century

.

The inscription records tha t Maharaj a D hi raja J aya

pala of H a sti nap u ra in B ra m a d e sa ( Burm a ) o n the
E rav a ti ( I r r aw addy ) granted an allotment o f land and
money to the A r ya sa mg ha o r community o f the faith
ful a t the g reat monastery o f M a haka s ya pa ( Ka tha ba )

fo r the feed in g o f mendicants and the mainten a nce o f

lamps at the pagoda near by D ense j un gle n ow covers .

the rui ns that rem a in o f this ancient capital and no doubt ,

h ides many an ancient record o f vast antiquarian i n

te re s t .

To the south east and west o f o l d Tag aung the

, ,

S hw e z i g On S hwe z e di and P a u n gd a w k ya p a g odas are

, ,

held i n much reve r ence and are probably very a ncient .

A laung Pay a the founder of the last o f the d y nasties

,

409
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U L E
th a t ruled in Burma repaired them as the marble slabs
, ,

near them record .

A t Bh a mo cl a ssical ly called C hi na rattha the only

, ,

bu ildi ng o f antiquari a n interest is the T he i n d a w g y i

pag oda which a n i nscribed stone there states to have
,

been built i n 1 3 87 A D . .

Celts of basalt or some schistose rock have been fou nd

i n N orthern Burma where they are believed to be stones
,

produced by thunderbolts ( M og y o) while coppe r celts have

,

n o t infrequently been fo u nd in the Tou n g oo dis t rict C om

.

p a ra t i v e l
y l ittl e is kno w,n ho w ever about, this minor
branch o f B urmese arch aeolog y . N o detailed a r chae o
logical survey o f t he p r ovince has ye t been u ndertaken .

But wha t is already known about the an t iqu ities shows

tha t it presen t s a ne el d for r esearch A nd the recen t
.

appointment of a very well qualied a rchmol og i st should

soon brin g to li g ht many of the h idden t reasu r es .

410
 Ch ap t e r X V I
THE H I L L T RIBES
H E Pe g uans and the Bu rmese now much inter ,

mixe d who form the grea t bulk of t he populatio n

, ,

occupy the valle y s and the upl a nds in the v a st riverine

tra cts which are anked in every direction save sea w ards , ,

by hills inhabited by j u n g le tribes and fo r the most part ,

d ensely wooded E xcept the g re a t S han race (so called

.

from the C hinese w ord S ha n mean in g ,

which pressed for ward from the east ri g ht to the edge o f

t he plateau w ithin about thirty miles o f A va A m arapu ra , ,

and Mandal a y a n d overran N orthern Bu rma and A ssam

, ,

formerly sep a rate S t a tes i n many places all of these ,

hillmen belon g to wild tribes These hill tribes the .

,

den izens of the thickly forested mountain ran g es w ere ,

probably partl y the aborigines o f the country a n d ,

partly the earl iest immi g rants both of whom were ,

g radually dri ven o u t of the lo w er tracts by the incu rsions

o f st r on g er races which asserted their sway alon g t he

m a i n r i vers
.

The distribu t ion o f t he popul a tion u nde r such ci rcu m

s tances r egulated itself mainly in accordance with physical
features and conditions To the w est the ancient kin g
.
,

dom of A ra k a n lyin g beyond the western w a tershed o f

,

the I rrawaddy river and its g reat a f u e nts was fou nded ,

by the A rakanese T hese occupying the fertile portions

.
,

o f the Kal a d an and L em r u rivers drove i nto the hills ,

the primitive races which no w exist as sep a rate tribes

called Chaun g tha K wemi or Kami Cha w S hindu M ro
, , , ,

and the l ike .

I n the central portion of the coun t ry the g reat

river I r rawaddy forms the main axis arou nd which
41 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
have ever re volved the wheels o f pol itical commercial ,

and soci a l activity D urin g the ood season lastin g fro m

.
,

J une till October it is a noble highway fed by the copious

,

rainfall deposited by the south w est monsoon air c u r -

rents ; but durin g the winter solstice it sinks to so l o w a

level th a t shallow draft a t bottomed ste a mers have to
-
,
-

crawl tor t uously through buoyed o u t pass a g es bet ween -

sandy shoals S ometimes they g rou nd s o heavily espe

.
,

ciall
y i n goi ng do w n stream as to become rmly xed i n ,

the sand H ere they have occasionally to remain till

.

the river begins to rise g radu a lly i n March a n d A pril ,

o w in g to the meltin g o f the snows in the far dista n t -

mou ntains w ithi n w hich the still unknown sou rces of this
,

mi g hty river a re cradled .

I n the lower por t ion of t he I rrawaddy valley the M On

o r Pe g uan r ace asserted their supremacy at a very e a rly

date and spread eas t ward s a cross the valleys of t he

S itt a n g a n d the S alween rivers making their c a pital at ,

T ha tOn then o n the eas t ern sho r e o f the Gulf o f Marta

,

ban The races displaced by the Peguans an d driven

.

into t he hills probably consis t ed chie y o f the Karen now

inhabitin g the central Pe g u Yoma ra nge formin g the ,

watershed bet w een the S it tang and the I r rawaddy the ,

Pau n glaung ran g e between the S ittang and the S alween

, ,

and the eastern slopes of the A rakan Yom a to the west

o f the I rra w a ddy delta This race also however i n . , , ,

cluded the wild l a wless Karenni o r red K aren l iving
,

in the hills be t ween the head wa t ers of the S ittang ri ver

and the S al ween and the Taungthu o r hill men the
,

,

rst kno w n occupants o f T ha tOn who o n being drive n ,

for t h by the M On spre a d over the hills to the south and

,

eas t and wandered north wards into the S han hills where
, ,

they founded the S tate of T ha tOn C onned to the .

islands o f the M erg u i A rchipel a g o at the extreme south ,

of Tenasserim are to be found the S al On ( o r S elun g)

, ,

a timid nomadic race consisting of several tribes who

, ,

subsist by shing They are perhaps o ne o f the most

.

primitive o f a l l the tribes i n Bu r m a having no rel i g ion ,

othe r than a nimistic superstition no holy men o r holy ,

days no conventio n a l rules a s to domestic habits a nd no

, ,

domestic animals except dog s .

41 2
 TH E VA R I O U S H I L L RA C E S
The whole of the trac t s u nder Peguan occupation were
those having a he a vy a n nu al ra i n fa ll v a ry i ng from about 1 0 0
to over 2 0 0 inches durin g the south west monsoon se a son -
.

H igher up the I rrawaddy valley where the gra du a lly ,

lessening rainfa ll ga ve rise t o the central dry zone the ,

true Burmese race settled a nd throve ultimately a c q u i r ,

ing supremacy over t he whole o f the cou ntry from A ss a m

to M erg u i and from Chittag on g to S iam a n d China
, .

Thou g h fa r from being the most fertile part o f B urma ,

this heart o f the country is the best portion to live in .

From M a rch till October the heat is g reater th a n fu r ther

sou t h or further north bu t t h e air is dry and the f eel i ng
,

o f heat consequently less ; while the cl im a te from N ovem

ber t o F ebru a ry is g enial and pleasant .

The original immi g rants from I ndi a from whom S pra n g ,

the Burmese race i n the upper por tion o f th e I rra waddy

valley g radually found their way do w n to the adv a ntage
,

o u s position for a capital offered by the vicin i t y o f the

con u ence of the Chindwin river with t he main waterway .

D urin g the course o f their advance they ous t ed older

settlers n o w represented by the v a rious Chin tribes on
,

the moun tains to the west o f the Chind w in river and ,

the K achin inhabiting a ll the hill s to the east north , ,

a n d wes t o f the upper I rrawaddy itself .

T o deal wi t h these hill races in anyth in g like de t ail would

requ ire a volu me fo r itself ; and a very i nteresting vol ume
it mi ght be made B ut within the l imits o f o n e chapter
.

the most that ca n be done is to make brief a llusion to the

four most important hill r a ces namely the S han K a ren
, , , ,

Chin and K ach in leavin g o u t of considera tion all the

, ,

minor hill races a nd the tribes partly of B urmese origin ,

l ike the Kadu a nd the Y a w in centra l Burma o r the ,

Y a b e i n a n outcast race livin g by s ilk culture i n L ower

, ,

Burm a The S h a n however a re really far more th a n

.
, ,

mere hill tribes They are virtually but o n e portion of a

.

nation once gre a t bu t no w scattered throu g hout Burma ,

S iam and Chin a the S i a mese being the only bra nch o f
, ,

this o ld stock which ha s reta ined i ts i ndependence .

These various h a r dy hill races w it h which the hills a nd

,

moun tains ankin g the pl a ins o f B urm a a re s parsel y

peopled have always been treated with the greatest
,

413
 B U R M A U N D E R B R IT I S H R U LE
harshness and oppression by the Bu rmese ; and in re
tali a tion they have a l ways been accustomed to raid do wn
upon the plains for the purpose o f st e al in g kidnapping , ,

a nd bu rn in g .

T he distribution o f these tribes throu g hout the last cen

tury can e a sily be briey noted O n the h ill ran g e form .

ing the watershed between the S itta n g river a nd the lower

I rra waddy and on the low hills to the east and west of
,

this were located the K aren who since coming u nder

, ,

B ritish r u le after the secon d B urmese w a r have become

a loya l and peaceful body o f subjects To the nor th east .
-

o f this o n the hills between the u pper S itt a n g and the

,

S al ween the red Karen were a standing terror both to

,

the S han S tates m a rchin g w ith them to the north and

east and to the Burmese livin g o n the plains of the
,

S itt a ng F urther to the north and east o n the lofty

.
,

plate a u a n d a mong the valleys extendin g far away to

Yunnan and S iam were the S ha ri forming many S tates
,

u nder chie fs of their own A bove the M a ndalay district .

the s a va ge K a chi n tribes domin a ted all th e hills north o f

the S h a n S tates from the Chinese frontier o n the east
, ,

across Bhamo and M og a un g and northwards to A ssam , .

B esides raid in g down on the plains fro m time to t i m e they ,

also i nva riably levied toll o n a l l tra fc passing throu g h

their wild j ungle tracts T o the w est o n the hills beyond
.
,

the Chind w in river the Chin s wept down from mou ntain
,

fas t nesses harrying a nd terrorizin g the v a lleys of the

,

M yittha and the M a nipu r rivers T he wild red K a ren .

were qu ieted once and for a l l by the British military ex

e d i t i o n u ndertaken agai nst them in 1 888 89 but various
p
-
,

expeditions ha d t o be m a de a ga inst the Kachin and the

Chin ; and the l a tter a re n o t yet s o pacic as to render
occ a sional m ilitary coercion unnecess a ry .

T he S han race or Ta i free men a s they call them
, ,

,

selves consists o f three m a in groups exhibitin g well

,

m a rked l in g u istic differences coincident w ith denite

pol itical divisions Ori g in a lly comin g from sout h western
.
-

Ch ina and most likely the race w hich pressed the older
,

Karens south wards to w a rds T ha tOn and the I rra wa ddy

delta their e a rliest migration southwa r ds is supposed
,

t o h a ve taken pl a ce a bou t a hundred years before the

414
 T H E S H A N O R ZA I
'

C hris t ian e ra The three pol itical divis ions in w h ich the
.

free men of the hills are n o w classiable consist of the

C hinese S han ( S ha n Ta r bh) in t he nor th the S i a mese ,

( S h an Y od ay d ) in the sou th our word

,
S i am bein g

only a corruption o f the F rench S ci a m i ntended a s ,

the translitera tion of S ha n and the central S ha ri S t a tes

,

which were tributa ry to the kin g dom of B urma and now

form part of the B ritish E mpire The Tai or S h a n ra ce
.

is thus the most widely spread o f any t hrou g hout the

I ndo Chinese peninsula
-
.

I n langu a g e and in physical characteristics the S h a ri

have stron g racial afnities with the C hinese T he .

M ongolian t ype of features is perhaps more marked

amon g t hem than among the L aos a n d S iamese the ,

complexion being li g ht and the eyes almond sh a ped -

.

The elabora t e tonal system o f the S han langua g e an d its

abu ndance o f homonyms are very simila r to the Ch inese ,

while t he gra mma t ical st r uct ure of sentences is m uch the

same in both lang uages .

Concerning t heir early history t radi t ions exist that i n

very ancient times the S han were closely connected w ith
th e Chinese before settlin g i n S zechuan a n d the coun t ry
lying south of the Yangtse river A fter Chi nese rule .

began a bou t 2 5 o B C t o extend itself to t his l a t ter reg ion

. . ,

many o f the tribal he a dmen were o fcially reco g nized by

the suzerain as tributary chiefs These hea ds o f clans .

have the Tai title o f Chow o r S ow which still forms the ,

title of the h eredit a ry princes o f t h e Burmese ( S a wbwa )

and the S i a mese S han S t a t es ( Cha wpy a ) .

F o r centuries portions o f Yunnan held o u t against

Chinese rule E ven down to the beginnin g of the
.

seven t h cen t ury A D the Tai S tate of N anchao ourished

. .

in western Yu nnan and maintained itself as the kin g dom

,

of Tali u ntil it wa s conqu ered by K ubl a i K han in the

thi r teenth century L on g previous to this about the
.
,

beginnin g of the C hristian era and ag ain abou t 2 4 0 A D . .

,

these S han Tarok were stron g enough to make m ilit a ry

incursions into B urma overru nnin g t h e whole o f the
,

upper I r rawaddy and overthrowin g the Burmese kin g dom

of Tagaun g . A ll that is known abou t t he early history
o f the Tai points to the fact th a t the r a ce wa s u nited and

41 5
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
essenti a lly homogeneous with po werful political organi
,

z a ti o ns which had gro w n out o f the necessity for resistin g

the pressu re o f the Chinese from the north .

I t seems prob a ble that the rst T a i immi g rations in t o

B urm a took place about years ago ; though their
traditions assi g n to these a date several centuries earl ier .

T he mai n mi g rations however probably occurred durin g

, ,

the sixth and t he four teenth centu ries consequent on

Chinese i nvasion and conques t o f the Tai tra cts .

A ccordin g to o ne o f their legends t wo brothers ,

descended from heaven about the middle o f th e sixth

century A D a n d found i n the v a lley of the S hwel i river
. .
,

which j oins the I rrawaddy not far from the ancient capital
o f Tag a ung a r a ce w h ich welcomed th em as their rulers
, .

This i s probabl y but a mythical wa y of r ecording the

historical fact that abou t this time a grea t wave of i m
mi g ra tion rolled down from the moun t ains of southe r n
Yunnan ooding the S h wel i v a lley and the sur r ou nd ing
,

t ra cts T he S h weli river was o f cou rse the natu ral ou t

.

let from Yunnan into the I rrawaddy valley N o doubt it .

had long before that formed the p a th followed by earlier

T a i colonists but they had never previously come in
,

sufcien t ly large nu mbers to attain pol itical importance .

N o w howeve r from the S hwel i valley t he immigrants

, ,

spread south east over t he fertile va lleys and the hills

-

forming the S han plateau northwa r ds in to the presen t

,

K h a mti region and A ssam and westwa rds a cross the,

I rrawaddy right o n as far a s the Chindwin rive r .

The Burmese S han appear to be as r e ga r ds pu r ity of ,

blood the main branch o f the Tai race T hey a r e the

, .

Ta i L ong o r
g reat free men ; while t he o t he r two
,

bra nches call t h emselves Ta i N oi or li ttle fr ee men

, .

Confusion may perh aps a rise o n this point from th e fact

th a t the S iamese call themselves H ta i Ta i ) N oi ; while
they refer to the L aos from whom t hey are di r ectly
,

descended a s H ta i N y a i the e q u ivalent o f Ta i L ong ;

, ,

but then the L aos call themselves Ta i N oi and refer to ,

the Bu rmese S hans a s Ta i L ong A ll o f these fa cts g o .

to S how that the immigrants into Bu rma formed the

main branch in which the ea rliest and strongest pol itical
organiz a tion centred .

416
 A N C I E NT S H A N P O W E R
D urin g the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries as the ,

result of K ublai Khan s conquest o f Western Chin a a n d

its subsequent effects the southern branch pressed south

,

w a rds do wn the valley of the M enam to i ts delta a n d

formed t he kin gdom of S i a m .

The g reat R oy a l Chronicles of Burma are stra ng ely

silent as to the po w erful S han kin g dom o f M on g M aw
w hich g re w u p conti g uous to it o n the north and had its ,

c a pi tal M on g Maw L ong on the S hwel i river although

, , ,

they are careful t o enu merate ninety nine S a w bwa as -

having been tribu tary to the K in g s of Burma F or four .

centuries the S han kin g dom maintained itself now pros ,

pero n s now stru gglin g under hard pressure u ntil i t was

, ,

reduced t o vassalag e by K ing A na wra ta z aw o f Pa gan i n

the eleventh cen t ury By t he thirteenth cen t ury it had
.

a gain a c q uired comple t e freedom and considera ble i n u

ence fo r the S han power wa s made t o be severely felt
,

eastwards to K en g hung southwards as fa r as M oulmein , ,

westwards t hroughou t A rakan and Manipur a n d north ,

w a rds t o A ssam The S han des tr oyed the capital of

.

Arakan and es t abl ished a dynasty in A ssam where

, ,

they were henceforth kno w n as A hom When the Bur .

mese monarchy at P a gan was over t hrown by a Chinese

army in 1 2 84 A D the S han power did n o t suffer though
. .
, ,

the almost simul taneous t ransfer of the capi t al to a new

M ong Maw near the p r esent town o f B hamo m a y per
, ,

haps h a ve had some connex ion w ith t his Mongol i ncu r

sion B u t in any case t he downfall of t he dyn a sty at
.
, ,

Pagan ga ve opportu nity to t he S hans who had a lready

acqu i r ed considerable po w er a t th e Burmese Cou rt fo r ,

t hey seized the government an d es t abl ished a S h a n

dyn a sty .

T he o ver expansion o f the M aw kin g dom proved its

-

ru in S oon a fter this a tt a ined i t s widest limits the period

.
,

o f decadence decentralization and d ismemberment s e t

, ,

in which proceeded throughou t the fourteenth fteenth

, , ,

and sixteenth centuries The L aos an d the S iamese

.

dependencies shook o ff their allegi a nce and formed them

selves into the independent kin g dom o f S iam W a rs .

with Burma were frequent and loss a fter loss wa s caused ,

by Mongol incursions m a de with the dete r mina t ion o f

V OL . II .
41 7 B E
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
asserti ng the right o f Chinese s u zerainty This constant .

w a rfare we a kened the central M aw power s o much that

the various chiefs ( S a wbw a ) g ained positions o f semi
independence The S han kin g dom in B urma ended i n
.

1 6 0 4 with the de a th o f S a n H um H a
p the last M aw ,

k in g
.
,
A fter that d a te the record o f the S h a n S tates in
Burm a i s merg ed in B urmese history althou g h the S t a te ,

o f M ogau n g ,
comprising w ild malarious tracts between
the I rra w addy and the C hindwin maintained a sort o f ,

semi independence till it wa s overru n and subjug a ted by

-

A laung P a ya s troops a century and a half later A lthou g h

.

a l w ays restive u nder B urmese rule and prone to revolt ,

ag a inst their suzerai n the S han S tates never succeeded

,

i n a gai n freein g themselves from the B urmese yoke .

A ny well organized attempt at this ought often to have

proved successful ; but they con t i nued to be s o habi t ually
en gaged i n internecine warfare that combin a tion for this
purpose never took place S o when K ing T hib aw s
.

dominions passed under British rule all the Burmese

S han S tates bec a me i ncorpora ted i n t he British E mpire .

They must have been pleased to nd that the British

did n o t insist u pon the a nnual p r esenta t ion of g old owers
( S h weba n set
) in O pen D urbar as had been
,
cus t omary
u nder Burmese rule .

Thus the S han no lon g er occupy t he position they once

.

held either as to extent o f t erritory population o r political

, , ,

power F rom many o f their possessions i n N orthern

.

Burm a they have been forced south e a st a nd southwa rds -

by the K achin h ill tribes w ho now people the hilly tra cts
between B urma proper and Chin a and who command all ,

the tra de routes into Yu nnan M a ny o f the once great

.

S tates spread o ver t he pla t eaux and valleys formin g the

S han country were reduced t o i ns i g n i ca n c e u nder
constant internecine warfare and Bu rmese oppression and
rapacity ; bu t no w under British administration they are
, ,

exhibitin g a marvellous recuperative power giving

promise of a great a n d prospe r ous futu re .

The S han are endowed with many o f the natural

qualities which are bound to make for success when
a llowed t o develop u nder st a ble g o vernment affording
protection a g a inst oppression and robbery and giving ,

418
 T H E S H A N STA TE S
encouragement to a g riculture trade and commerce They
, , .

h a ve a rtistic instincts a n d some of their S ilver w ork is

,

very ne As there w a s no coined money in the S tates

.

even w ithin the l a st twelve o r thirteen ye a rs S h a n

tra vellers used to brin g down nely wrou g ht and richly
chased silver bo w ls w hich they exchanged fo r their .

w ei g ht i n r upees in order to m a ke purch a ses i n t he

baz aars They are a thrifty peopl e and they have keen
.
,

commercial instincts S prun g from a race o f moun t aineers

.
,

and themsel ves occupyin g lofty t r acts they share the ,

natural inheritance o f qu a l ities characteristic o f the ra ces

which have to struggle with nature for the necessaries of
l ife The same natural causes w hich cre a ted d ifferences
.

o f th is sort be t ween those livin g north o f the H u mber

a n d the M ersey and those l ivin g in the more g enial

southern portion o f E n gland between N orth Germans
,

and S outh Ge r mans ; between N orwegians o r S wedes

a nd I t a lians or S paniards h a ve been in operation to
,

m a ke the S han o f the B u rmese S h a n pl a teau an entirely

-

differen t man from the B urmese of the I rraw a ddy valley

or the S i a mese of t he M en a m valley Consequentl y .

they h a ve g reater independence of character are be t ter ,

agricult urists are keener t raders and have a much better

, ,

kno w ledge o f the v a lue o f money th a n either the

B urmese o r the S iamese B u t t he political a nd social
.

s t rife a nd the constant i n te rn e c i n e wa r fa r e o f the last t wo

'

centuries have made them prone to intense je a lousy

and person a l disl ikes a nd have rendered them a p t to be
,

cruel and vindictive defects which m ay probably soon

,

become obl i t era t ed under peaceful good g overnmen t , .

The country formin g the S han S t a tes tribut a ry to

B urma presents a rem a rk able variety of features The .

S tates lyin g to the west o f the S alween river comprise

eleva t ed pl a t eaux broad deep valleys and g rassy rollin g
, ,

downs once covered with p ine forests n ow nearly all

cleared away except patches here a nd there o n rocky
land o r around monasteries like t he sacred D eodar ,

g roves around H imal a yan temples T he river courses .

and their watersheds run from north to south often in a ,

very direct line A s is g eneral throu g hout Yu nn a n s o t oo

.
,

i n some o f t h e S han S tates the clearance o f t he primeval

,

419
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
pine forest for pu rposes o f shiftin g temporary culti va t ion ,

and more especially the permit ting the res thus li g hted
to spre a d unchecked a s grea t co n a g ra t i o ns ha s de stroyed ,

t r ee g row t h o n m a ny o f t he hills O nce killed a nd .

preven t ed from bearing seed the pines h a ve no ,

reproductive power of t hrowing out shoots from the dead

s tools For t unately however many o f the hills are still
.
, ,

well wooded and capable o f wa t er storage for the bene t

,

o f ag ricultu re besides satisfying other importan t economic

re q u irements The pla t eaux ran g e from abou t

. to
fee t in eleva t io n w hile the peaks o f the hill ranges
,

rise to close upon feet I n the v a lleys the rivers

.

a r e s w ift in cu rr ent n o w rushi n g t hrou g h d a rk narrow

, ,

walled g orges cu t t hrough hi g h r ocky cliffs a n d a ga in ,

owin g t hrough alluvi a l lands ter ra ced for rice cultivation .

The houses forming the villages dot t ed abou t the valleys

and the h ill sides are mos tly hidden from View behind
cl umps o f da r k foliag ed t rees o r o f bamboos planted i n
and a rou nd the hamlet s T he r e are few fa irer landscapes
.

to be seen than present themselves t o View in the S h a n

cou ntry T he s ilvery g leam o f the rive r s the elds and
.
,

lands now bright i n summe r verdure o r yellow in winter

and early spring the villages and hamlets scattered over
,

the valleys and the uplands t he background o f l ofty hills

,

wi t h mo r e o r less o f forest covering all contribute t he ,

essen t ial re q u is i t es t oward s a picturesqueness o f landscape

t hat ca n more t han hold its o wn w ith the bes t scenery o f
mos t cou n t ries .

T o the east o f the S alween the cou ntry becomes more

ru g ged The d irection o f the mo u ntain ranges and the
.

trend o f the rive r va lle y s are less clear T he scene .

presen t ed to the eye is a l a byrint h o f forest clad hills -

i ntersected by narrow valleys with only p a tches o f level

,

land dotted here and there like oases in a rocky deser t .

The larg est o f these is the plain O f K en g tung beyond ,

which a gain the hills stre t ch t owerin g ran g e upon ran g e

, ,

i n tan gled confusion towards the M ekong F u rther .

eastwards beyond the M ekong the labyrinthine masses

, ,

o f hills o n nearer approach disclose here and there

be t ween them a t fertile valleys and uplands carefully
t e rr aced fo r cultivation I t is only when heavy fog s
.

42o
 T H E S A L W EEN R I V E R
h a ng over the valleys i n the e a rly morning th a t some
idea can be formed o f the tracery o f the river beds a n d
the ramic a tion o f their tribu tary streams .

N one o f the rivers in the S han S t a tes w hether dr a in ,

in g i nto the I rra waddy S a lween o r M ekon g are , , ,

n a vi g able fo r any considerabl e distance The S hwel i .

river the larg est o f the tributa ries o w in g i nto the

,

I rraw a ddy is blocked even for trafc i n small boats

, , ,

a bout ei g hty miles from its mou th at a villa g e beari n g

the su gg estive n a me o f M y i tsOn the end o f the river ,

while the Myitn g e o r l ittle ri ver drainin g T heinn i a n d
,

,

the rich S tate of Thibaw is also blocked to tra fc by

obstructions i n its lower cou rse .

N o r are any o f the a f u e n ts o f the S al ween navigable

throughou t the i r l e ng th rapids being o f common occu r

rence a nd waterfalls not infreque n t

,
T he b a nks o f .

the main river itself do not ho s pi ta bly invi t e to trade .

Tra nsit is effected by bo a ts at re gular ferries t he more ,

important o f w hich a re fa r a p a rt Of these the most .

northerly is the Ku n l On ferry i n the north east corner o f -

Theinni which has recently become s o well known in

,

connexion with ra il w ay extension fo r tappin g the trade

o f sout h western China A really more i mportant o n e
. ,

ho we ver is the T a k a w ferry at Ke ngkha m on the m a in

,

ro a d to K engtu n g o u r extreme e astern mil itary outpost

,
.

Bet w een the various ferries t he S a l we e n dark swift

, , ,

and broken by many ra pids ru ns bet ween precipitous ,

rocks and wooded hi lls i des with here a n d there a sand ,

bank while i n places narro w footpaths follow the banks

,

fo r short distances only I ts breadth between the

.
,

actual banks varies fro m abou t seve n ty yards i n rocky

,

gorg es to over a quarter o f a mile i n more O pen part s

w here the w idth o f w ate r i n the dry season avera g es
from 1 5 0 to 2 0 0 yards I n the ood se a son the water
.

level rises about fty feet .

I n i ts upper v a lley the M ekon g river possesses much

the same C hara cteristics a s the S a l w een but o n a some ,

what l a rg er scale L ofty w ooded h illsides slope steeply

.
,

down to the w a ter s ed g e and i n the river bed g reat

,
-

ma sses o f rock crop up round w hich the waters break

into eddies a n d strong cu rrents S wift rapids alternate .

42 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
w ith stretches o f sandbanks l iable to chan g e both their
shape and their position ; and alto g ether the M eko n g is
still less suitable than the S al ween to form a hi g hway
fo r internal commun ic a tion trade a nd commerce even
, , ,

although i t is navi gable fo r cou ntry boats from L uan g

Prab a n g to T a nga w I ts cur rent is stronge r than that
.

o f the S al ween and at mos t o f the ferries there is always

,

a danger o f losin g some o f the pack bullocks when -

s w immin g them across . A t the Ke ng k o ng ferry its

breadth between banks is a bout 7 0 0 yards w ith a dry ,

season width o f abou t a quarte r o f a mile ; while th e

ra iny season brings a rise o f from forty to fty feet i n
the water level A t the Ban L a w ferry the river bed is
.

narrower ; from bank to b a nk it is a bout a quarter o f a

mile with abou t 1 6 0 yards of wate r in the d ry season
, .

Further north the hills and gorg es become more t a n gled ,

a n d O ffer much g reater obstructions t o trade a n d trafc .

The reli g ion o f the S han is Buddhism I t was .

evidently received from B urma thou g h the actual d a te

,

o f its i ntroduction is uncer t a in I t may no doubt have

.
, ,

fou nd its wa y i nto the S han communities at a much

e a rlie r d a te bu t most probably a decided a dvance in a
,

religious direction was made when K in g A n awra ta z a w ,

the g reat reli g ious reformer of Pag a n overthrew the

M on g Maw kin gdom in the eleventh centu ry

'

But .
,

du rin g the next four centuries o f greates t nation a l g lory ,

Buddhism became inert a nd corrupt amon g the S han ,

and it was not till the second h a lf o f the sixteenth

centu ry tha t K in g Bayin N aung introduce d extensive
religious reforms into his northern conquests Wherever .

B u rmese in uence was strongest Buddhism had g reatest

,

hold o n t he S han ; and this n a tu rally explains the fact

that even till now the priests and monks t hrou g hou t
, ,

the S t a t es lying t o the east of t he S alween perform their

reli g ious duties with a laxity o f practice much a t variance
with the manne r in which these a r e performed i n the
wes t e r n S tates
.

M any o f the S han customs are curious A mon g .

som e o f the t ribes i n t he S outhern S tates it i s the fa shion

fo r g irls to have brass bands welded round their throats .

The nu mbe r of these rings is i ncreased periodically in

42 2
 T H E K A R EN T R I B ES
order t o p roduce a neck like that o f a ch a mp a g ne bottle ,

t his bein g considered an enh a ncement o f fem a le beauty .

T he K a ren race consis t ing o f t he t h r ee divisions

, ,

S ga w P wo a n d t
, ,
a i o r B w e i s supposed to be the ,

descendan ts of Chinese tribes driven southwards by

pressu re ( probably of the S han race ) before they were
a gain made to retire t o the hills by the expansion o f
M On powe r Their o wn tra ditions describe their origin a l
.

home as havin g been t o the west o f the s a ndy deser t o f

Gobi stretchin g bet ween Chin a a nd Thibet ; and this

l ifeless river o f sand was crossed o n their migration

south eastw a rds The derivation o f the name Karen is

-
.

u nknown Under M On a n d Burm e se oppression there

.

w a s a constant tendency to d isinte g ration ; but now ,

u nder British protection and administration this ha s ,

been replaced by a steady process o f a ssimilation among

the S g aw or Burmese and the P wo o r M On tribes
inhabitin g L ower B urma A lready the P wo K a ren are
.

commencing to disappear as a distinct tribe Many are .

becomin g merged in the S gaw and others a r e g radu a lly ,

becomin g B u rm a n i z e d H avin g no rel igion except

.
,

spirit worship bu t only ancient traditions strangely l ike

,

those o f the J ews as recorded i n t he Old Testame n t and ,

a legend tha t t heir los t sacred books would come t o t hem

a gain from the west the S g aw and P wo Karen have
,

become willing converts t o Christian i t y a nd are n ow i n ,

p a rt r a pidly settling do w n to permanent cultivation o n

the plains They are much looked down upon by the
.

Burmese and are always made to appear as g u res o f

,

fun in theatrical representations ; but n ow with the ,

formation of na t ional character under B ritish rule and

Christi a n teachin g the K a ren is in his turn commencin g
,

to look down upon the Burman .

The tribal divisions o f S ga w male and P wo , , ,


female are accou n t ed fo r by a le g end a ry qu a rrel
,

which led to the prohibition of soci a l i n t ercourse and

intermarriage ; while the t a i who probably never ,

penetrated further south t h a n their present mou nt a in

fa stnesses are s a id t o have arrived a t a much later d a te
,

th a n the other two bra nches o f the Karen stock E ach .

o f these three main d ivisions has its o w n sub tribes a n d -

42 3
 B U R M A U N D E R B R IT I S H R U LE
septs and their langua g e a part from t he mere dialectic
, ,

differences thus arisin g is a lso d ivisible into similar ,

g roups I t is clearly allied to Chinese resemblin g it i n

.
,

possessin g s i x t o n es besides the simple monosyllabic root .

The K a ren is o f a squarer build than the B urman ;

his ski n i s fa irer a n d he ha s more o f t he Mongolian
,

obliqu ity o f the eyes E xcep t a s regards the converts

.

t o Christi a nity their religion is spirit worship pure and

simple thou g h they h a ve trad itions o f a lost reli g ion and
,

a God Their superstitious bel ief in g ood and bad S pirits

.
,

auspices omens and the l ike i s unbounded T o pro

, , .

i t i a te the former a n d inuence the man ifestation o f the

p
latter s a crices o f pi g s do g s a nd fowls are m a de I t
, , , .

is in the bones o f a sac r icial fowl t h a t auspicious o r

ominous foreshadowings may best be obtained concern
in g important matters of a l l sor t s The method varies .

accordin g to the occasion but the thi g h bones a re those ,

a lways used i n ceremon ies o f this sort S ometimes the .

results are made to depend o n resemblances o r differences

xed o n beforehand and according as examination ,

shows the two bones to correspond or d iffer as pre ,

v i o u sl y a rranged so are the spirits favou ra bl e o r

,

u nfavoura ble to the enterprise u nder consideration .

T he p a rticular man ner in which this oracle is consulted

with reg ard to the selec t ion o f si t es fo r their shifting
cultivation in the forest has al ready been elsewhere
described ( vol i page . .Oracular consultations by
,

the trib a l elders are a lwa ys made the occ a sion o f

feastin g o n the sacrices offered to the spirits ( N a tsa )
and o f the consumption of larg e qu a ntities o f spi rituous
rice beer ( Ka u ng ) after once a small oblation ha s been
poured o u t .

Bet roth a l o f infants is common among the S ga w and

P wo but n o t amo ng the R e d K a ren
,
L a ter in l ife if a .
,

you n g man wishes to m a rry a g irl he chooses fo r himself , ,

asks her parents consent and then seeks a g O between

to arran g e matters The l a tter rst o f all consults the

.

oracle o f the chicken bones I f this be fa voura ble he .

,

proceeds with the business otherw ise i t is deferred o r ,

a bandoned as o f ill omen N ext a family feast i s held .

,

at which the youn g man s relatives a ssemble and here

424
 T H E K A R EN T R I B E S
a gain another s a crice is m a de to d isclose the auspices

o r omens of the matrimonial en t erprise U pon the r m .

ness o r a cc id i ty o f the g all o f the sacricial fowl depen ds

the happiness o r misery of the intended u nion a n d the ,

arran g ed m a t ch is often b roken o ff if this second ora cle

ominously contr a dicts the previously auspicious thigh
bone ora cle When an infa nt betrothal is not s u b se
.

quently follo w ed by marriag e the j ilted bride is entitled

to compensation o f o n e drum gon g fo r her head a nother -
,

for her body and a at g ong to hide her face from the
,

shame o f the indignity thrust upon her .

A few d ays after this feast the bride is escorted with

music to the house o f the bridegroom s parents and as

sh e ascends the bamboo l a dde rs leadin g to it she i s

drenched with water Two elders representing the .
,

contracting pa r ties a nd each holdin g some rice beer i n

,

a b a mboo cup respectively repe a t and acknowled g e the

,

duties incumbent o n husb a nd and wife and then exho r t , ,

ing obedience thereto on both sides pledge the faith o f ,

the young couple by exchan g in g drinks This ends the .

ceremony N o tribal s a nction is given to polygamy

.
,

though it is not infre q u ent where the Karens come i n

close contact with the Bu rmese .

Children receive all sorts o f promiscuous names such ,

as words meaning J o y H ope Bl a ck
B ro w n , ,

,

,

Tiger ,
Cricket e tc These are either retained later

, .

o n o r others denoting person a l characteristics a r e sub

,

stituted for them such a s F a ther o f Cu nni ng
, M other ,

o f Prudence I t is n o t u ncommon for a you ng couple to
.

chan g e their names when a child is born to them .

L ike all the wild h ill tribes throu g hou t the fores t s o f
B urma and throu g hout all I ndia i n fa ct they lead
, ,

u nsettled lives Their cultivation consists i n a nnually

.

clearin g fresh patches ( Ta u ngy a ) in the dense tree o r

b a mboo j un gle burnin g it w hen dry enou g h so win g
, ,

rice o n i t a n d the n moving else where to make fresh

,

clearances whenever the l a nd available for this wasteful

method o f cultiva tion has become temporarily exhau sted .

These annual clearances are usually only c ultiva ted fo r

o n e year a t a time as immedia t ely after the rice crop is
,

cle a red in autu mn they soon become overgrown with a

425
 '

B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
dense g rowth of weeds o f all sorts from about three t o
ve feet i n height which could only be cleared wi t h grea t
,

trouble H ence i t is simpler to make fresh clearances i n

.

t he tall fores t where accumulations o f g ood soil also yiel d

,

a be tter harvest than would be obt a inable from a rea s

already exposed for o ne season to torrential rains that
scou r aw a y the surface soil A s the different communities .

tacitly reco g nize tribal proprietorship over denite tra cts ,

each commu nity moves O ff to g reat dist a nces w hen once

the cultivable j un gle i n their vicinity becomes exhausted
for the time being .

Thei r villages are thus situated in the midst o f dense

woods remo t e from any fr equen t ed tra ck E ach villa g e
, .

is o ne larg e family for all are closely connected by blood

,

and marri age T he houses are o f rather a mean d e sc ri p

.

t i on
.

The larger vill a ges contain several houses bu t the ,

hamlets usually consis t o f only o ne long building about

seven t y to n inety o r a hu ndred feet i n len g th and twenty
o r thirty feet broad T his is subdivided i n t o compart
.

men t s fo r the differen t fa milies The girls sleep in on e .

large apartment while t he young men occupy another

, .

Below the house the pi g s are penned The whole is bu ilt .

enti rely of bamboo pos t s oorin g w a lls and roof ,

-
, , , ,

the vill a ge site being ch a nged every t wo o r three yea rs ,

and sometimes a nnu a lly to su i t thei r nomad h a bits and ,

their wasteful system o f shiftin g cultivation .

A mon g the K a ren a kind of brotherhood ( D o) exists ,

l ike the D u ta B r u der schaf t a mon g the Germans When

-
.

two K a ren wish to become brothers i n this manner a ,

fowl is killed and i t s beak chopped o ff With this the .

o n e smea r s blood o n the legs o f the other below the ,

knees and plasters this patch w ith small feathers The

,
.

thigh bone oracle being then consulted and fou nd

-

auspicious the same procedure is g one throu g h by the

,

other party and if the bones o f this second fowl l ikewise

,

S how favourable si g ns the t wo men are henceforth D o
to each other They address each othe r by this term
.
,

a n d n o t by their actual names ; and they are bound to

stick to each other throu g h thick a n d thin even to p ro ,

te etin g the D o against one s o w n kith and kin A some

.

42 6
 KA R E N C U STO M S
w hat similar cus t om has been introduced here and there
amon g the B urmese in their Thwetha u h o r blood

drinking . A sm a ll quantity of blood bein g let from the
arms of two friends each tastes a little o f it a nd the t wo
, ,

men are sworn t o stand by each o t her in future .

The national dress of the men consis t s of a sleeveless

white t u nic Thi nda i ng ) which soon gets g rey and dark
,

with dirt I t re a ches down below the knee a n d is j ust

.

like a l a rg e cotton sack worn end up with a hole c u t in ,

the top for lettin g the head through a n d holes at the top
corners fo r lettin g the arms through The hem at the .

base is ornamented with distinctive t ribal embroidery ,

this being in parallel stripes o f red amon g the S gaw but

varie ga t ed among the P wo The women wear similar .

thou g h much shorter t unics of d a rk blue cotton and a ,

small striped and embroidered skirt o r waistcloth open ,

i n front reaching from the loins to the knees Many of

, .

these short skirts a r e further adorned with designs

worked i n the l ustrous whi t e bea ds o f J ob s t ears millet
oi sc l a chr ma A s or n aments they we a r huge silver
( C y ) .

bracele t s and ba ngles of hollow silver work lled with

res i n
.

L ike the Chinese t he Ka r en venera t e the spiri t s o f

,

thei r ancestors . A t the crem a tion o f any deceased

rel a tive a bone picking festival ( Yoha u hp we) is held
-

when the charred bones a r e collected previous t o being

d eposited in the H ill of Bones ( Ay ota u ng ) formin g

the tribal place o f rest Once a ye a r a g rand tribal

.

festival is held when these last remains o f th ose who

,

have died during the pas t twelvemonth a re borne i n

solemn procession and with much secrecy to their nal
restin g place o n some distant hill .

When a general seeding o f the bamboo t akes place

in the Karen tracts ju n gle fowls and r ats at once
,

become a bnormally prolic by reason o f t he extra ordinary

food supplies thus provided fo r them This pla g ue o f
-
.

ra ts results in scarcity o f food fo r all the rice crops are ,

deva stated by them D isease consequ entl y results

.

amon g the K aren tribes and cholera o r sm a llpox breaks

,

o u t in epidemic form The las t g reat Karen scarcity o f

.

this sort occu rrin g o n a larg e scale was abou t 1 8 5 3 when ,

427
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U LE
t he Kya tha u ng wa ( B a m bu sa p oly m orpha ) owered ,

seeded and died a ll over the h ills between the S ittan g

,

and the lower I rrawa ddy .

E ven when minor infectious diseases break ou t in

anythin g like a n epidemic form as for instance attacks ,

of measles occasionally the K a rens ab a ndon their

,

hamlets leaving the sick behind to die o f starva tion

,

if u nable to help themselves .

S ome o f the K aren folklore is very i nterestin g and ,

p a rticularly such a s refers to their forg otten reli g ion a nd

the long lost s a cred writings E xcept i n tradition they .
,

had no written l a n g u a g e till chara cters were invented fo r

the m by the missionaries .

I n o n e o f these leg ends i t is related t hat there were

three brothers the sons o f God Ywd J e ho va h
, The
eldest of the s e wa s the Karen the second the Burman , ,

and the youn g est the K a l a o r non M ongol i a n forei g ner -

.

The Karen w a s the bi gg est and stron g est but very lazy , .

H e bullied his youn g er brethren a n d made them do a ll

the work The youn g er brothers stood this treatment
.

fo r some time bu t at last they ha d to g o a w a y each

, ,

departin g i n a different direction .

A nother leg end expl a ins that long ag o G o d gave to the

K a ren cer tain writi n g o n a piece o f le a ther to the Bu rmese ,

a writing on a p a lm leaf and to the K a l d other w ritin g

,

o n a piece o f cloth A fter wards Go d said to the K a l d

.
,

M y son yo u have tried best to do wh a t I wished s o I

, ,

have given y ou the writing upon cloth which y o u must ,

study and learn c a refully A nd the [f a /d d id as he w a s
.

comm a nded N o w the country i n which the Karen l ived

.
,

was fair and ple a sant and the K a ren had an e a sy life :
,

s o he soon multipl ied and became nu merous B u t the .

K aren race paid no attention to the writin g which God

had given them upon a piece of leather I t had merely .

been pu t o n a tree stump wh ile the Karen w ent o n ,

weeding the rice crop o n his h ill clearin g I t got soaked .

with wet w hen the ra i n came o n ; but he brou g ht it home

with hi m when he r eturned in the evenin g and hun g it ,

up over the re w ithin his house H ere it fell down .

w hile rice was bein g pounded for cooking ; and w hen

the fo wls ca me and scratched there the leathern sc r oll ,

428
 T H E R ED K AR E N
fell do w n between the bamboos of the oor into the
pi g s pen under the house A s the K aren atta ched no

v a lu e to the scroll he forg ot all abou t it and never ,

~

looked t o se e what ha d become o f i t H e t ho u g h t th a t .

it would only be a useless bother t o s t udy hard and le a rn

the writin g a s he could al ways ge t rice and chillies a n d
, , ,

rice bee r if he w orked while he would have t o work a l l

t he same for these even if he learned to write S o an .

o l d sow penned up u nder t he hut ate t he leathern scroll ,

a nd the Karen never again s a w the writing t hat G o d

had g iven him .

This t radition of the lost writin g and the legend that

le t ters would a gain be res t o r ed to them by the K a l a
h a ve been potent fac t ors i n t he conve r sion of the S gaw
a n d P wo Karen to Christianity .

T he t a i B we o r R e d K a ren who call the m selves

, , ,

K ay d or men are t he wildes t and most lawless o f t he

,

K are n tribes Broken up into many clans and septs

.

they are tru e moun tainee r s intensely j ealous of each ,

o t her and con t inuously at wa r

, .

The men are small and wizen bu t athletic and have , ,

b road reddish brown faces

, T heir dress consists o f a
-
.

short pair o f breeches usually o f a reddish colou r w ith , ,

black and whi t e s t ripes inter woven perpendicul a rly or

like a tarta n and a h a ndkerchief is tied roun d the head .

D u rin g the cold se a son when the mou n t ain air is damp ,

and raw a turban is worn while a coarse cotton sheet

, ,

serves as a mantle E very male belo ngin g to any sept .

or clan o f this tribe h a s the rising s u n

M t a t ooed

i n brigh t vermillion o n his back stre t chi ng from side to ,

s ide across the shoulde r s H ence the nam e R e d .

K aren .

T heir we a pons are crossbows a nd a r ro w s poisoned

with t he g um o f the H my d sei h or arrow poison tree
-

( A n ti a r i s tox i ca r i a the Upas tree o f J,

ava ) a n d other

ve g etable poisons spears javelins swords ma t chlocks

, , , , ,

and ol d muskets while shields and breastpl a t es m a de o f

hide form their weapons o f defence They never declare .

war bu t base operations upon su rprise a t tacks The

, .

ch ieftainship O f t he R e d K aren is g ene rally hereditary .

T hei r religion is spirit worship and they h ave t he same ,

429
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H RU LE
tra ditions as t he less s a v age S g a w and P wo Kare n but
as yet Christianity has made l ittle o r no impression o n
t he clans inhabitin g the semi i ndependen t territory o f -

Karenni .

Their cus toms a re much the s a me as those o f the S gaw

and P wo tribes Marriages however are only thought .
, ,

o f by youths and girls o f su itable age T he mu t ual co n .

sent o f the parents bein g obtained t he bride and her ,

friends are enterta ined at a feas t in the house o f the

bride g room and next d a y a similar feast i s held in the
,

house o f the bride ; and thereafter the youn g couple are

m a n and wife .

U nder the comprehensive name o f Chin ( K hy i n ) the

B urmese included the whol e o f t he wild tribes inhabiting
the hills forming the western watershed o f the I rraw a ddy
valley ; b ut the Chin hills proper a re those lyin g to the
west o f t he Chind w in river a n d between tha t and the ,

M yittha and Manipur rivers Of the Chin there a r e aga in .

many t ribes all talkin g various di a lec t s of the same

,

T hi b e to Burmese l a nguage
-
The chief o f these a re the .

T a shOn dwelling in the cou ntry drained by the M anipu r

river the Ka n ho w l iving i mmedi a tely to the south o f
,

M anipur the S iyi n and S agy i la i ng to the sou th and

,

south east o f the Ka n how tract and the Baungsh e situ

-
,

a ted to the south o f the Tash on country T he villages .

are usually loca t ed a t an elevation o f from to

feet bu t some o f t he hills reach a hei g h t o f over
,

feet.

The C hin a re well bu ilt s tr on g limbed men a bou t ,

-

ve feet s ix inches in height thou g h many o f them are ,

taller They are ex t remely dirty i n their persons and

.
,

s t upid i n appea ra nce Their bese t tin g s i n is drunken

.

ness . N O occasion o f j oy sorrow o r solemnity is , ,

allowed to pass withou t a n orgie at which large quanti

ties o f beer and stron g spirits both made from millet are , ,

consumed T he Chin beer ( Yu Z u ) is made by the fe rm e n

.
,

t at i o n o f crushed millet which i s placed a t the bottom O f

,

an earthen j ar When a brew is wanted the jar i s lled

.

with wa t er shaken up well and allo w ed to stand for

, ,

abou t half an hour when i t is sucked through lon g ,

straws .

43 0
 C H I N C U ST O M S
There is no g reat variety o f dress a mon g the Chin ,

a n d no particular t a rtan o r colou r distin g u ishes o n e tribe

from another A cloth is worn turban l ike round the

.
-

head a nd a short dark cloth round the loins w hile a

, ,

co a rse white black or dark blu e sheet edged with a

, ,

band o f different colou r is thrown over the shoulders .

The chiefs a ffec t bri g hte r colou rs a n d decorate their ,

he a ds with plumes o f feathers .

A mon g the southern Chin tribes t he w omen s fa ces

used to be tat t ooed in a continuous spiral commencin g

from the tip o f the nose This o l d custom (P ay eto) was
.

supposed to hide their beauty and make them less l ikely

to be carried off into slavery a n d concubina g e while it ,

also enabled them to be e a sily recog nized if recovered

after having been kidn a pped This habit is now grad .

u all dyin g o u t u nder the conditions o f g reater safety

y
guaranteed by B ritish rule .

A lmost every freem a n has a g u n A ll the g uns are .

o ld Tower st a mped i n tloc k s many o f them bearin g

-
,

makers names and dates abo u t 1 7 7 5 to 1 7 99 E ach

.

villag e makes its ow n gunpowder the saltpetre being ,

obtained from dung and the refu se collecti ng u nder thei r

houses The other weapons a re spe a rs bills ( D a ) and
.
, ,

bows and arrows ; while shields are carried for defence .

A mbushes and surprises a re t he principles o f Chin war

fa re bu t shou t in g and bea t in g drums from a distance
,

are used t o try and intimidate an enemy when g h t in g

i s not intended Prisoners captured in raids are well
.

treated and are considered a s addin g prestige to t he

,

tribe .

The villages a r e a s a rule bu ilt o n terraces cut o u t o f

the hillside a n d fenced with cheva ux d e f r i se o f bamboo
o r a t a n g led hed g e o f thorns and the a pproaches to it ,

are spiked with bamboos The houses a re buil t o f

.

planks made from the pine t rees ( F i n n s K ha sy i a ) cover

in g the lofty hills a n d are roofed with thatch They
, .

consis t o f three rooms the principal o f w hich i s a half

,

closed verandah adorned with skulls o f wild be a sts killed

i n the chase o r domestic anim a ls slaughtered as sacri ces .

Wa ter i s brou ght i nto the villages in conduits o f logs o r

bamboos fro m the source hi g her up the hill .

43 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
The Chin are spi r it w orshippers who t rus t in omens ,

and al ways consult the s t a rs before u nderta ki ng a nythin g

o f impor t ance .They believe in a form o f t ra nsmi g ra tion ,

bu t have no reg ular reli g ious tenets o r O bservances A t .

H ak a an importan t stronghold t o the south o f the

,

T a s hOn t ract there is a Tl a ng B we a sort o f hi g h priest

, ,

or g reat mag ician whose ofce is hereditary and who

, ,

o f c i a te s at all importan t sacrices bu t o t her wise the r e i s

no order of pri esthood or o f soo t hsayers among t h em .

I f a m a n dies i n his o wn house he is buried i n t he ,

gr ou nd within its fence A chief i s kept above g round

.

fo r n ine o r t en days bu t the ordinary Chin villager is

,

buried in a pl a nk cofn within t wo o r three d a ys o f his

decease I n either case a g reat feas t i s made A chie f
. .

is en t ombed in a si tt i ng pos t u re decked o u t in his best ,

array and wi t h a fea t her in his h a i r A ca rved memori a l .

post is then erected i n his honou r I f a man be killed .

outside t he village he is buried there and the heads of

, ,

c a ttle slain at his funeral are se t o n posts ove r his g r ave .

M arria ges are usually ar ranged by parents w ho select ,

a sturdy hardworkin g g irl B ut i n some t ribes the eldest

,
.

b r o t he r is the guardian of his sisters and with him the ,

ba rgai n a s to price must be settled When after pre .

,

l iminary orgies the dowry is nally se tt led th e contract

, ,

in g parties meet with t heir frie nds A cock is then .

p r oduced by t he g irl s parents and some liquor pou r ed

over its head I ts thro a t being cut brideg room and

.
,

bride are then declared to be husb a nd and wife if the

s igns shown by the liver a re auspicious Oaths a r e .

common on makin g a g reements o f all sorts The most .

common form is fo r each party to kill an a nimal and

pai n t t he other with its blood .

Th e houses a re all separated from o ne another E ach .

st a nds i n its o w n grou nd marked o ff by a fence from the

,

adj oinin g holdings T he fence i n front o f the houses o f

.

the leading villagers is made o f hi g h o a k pos ts or thick

planks rudely carved O nly the compara tively well to
.
-

do ca n afford this luxury as a feast has to be g iven t o ,

the whole village when any o n e erects such a palisade

before his dwelling The o ne storied hou ses are built
.
-

o f co a rse pine planking and thickly roofed with thatch

,

43 2
 THE CH I N TRI BES
g ra ss Well raised from the g rou nd to accommoda t e
.

the pi gs and cattle belo w them they are nearly t w enty ,

feet hi g h a n d vary from about fty to two hundred feet

i n len g th a ccordin g to the means a nd s tatus o f the o w ner .

The a ccommodation con sists o f a front verandah a sittin g ,

room a larg e and a small sleeping room and a back ver

,
-
,

a ndah There are no windo w s o r chimneys and the

.
,

smoke from the res has to nd its way ou t as best it

can throu g h the fron t and back doorways and the chinks
i n the th a tch roof Outside the house a ra ised platform
.

extends o n the downhill side from the house to the

, ,

outer fence D urin g t he dry season of th e year i t is

.

here and in t he open yard in front o f it that the men

, , ,

women a nd children spend most o f the daytime H ere

, .

the women do their weavin g their bodies formin g par t ,

o f the loom as also amon g the K achin tribes

, while the ,

men en g a g e in the d ol ce f a r n i en te that occupies them

sedulously throu ghou t mos t days o f the year A ll the .

work and the millet cultivation is performed by the

w omen for it is a n ada g e amon g each o f the tribes that
,

men shall hunt g ht and drink while women and

, , ,

slaves shall w ork This platform is railed alon g the
.

outer edge to prevent children falling do w n the hillside

i nto the next holdin g and to protect thei r elders durin g
,

drinking bouts O n a larg e screen placed i n the front

.

verand a h are hun g as trophies the skulls and horns o f

bi g game killed by the owner or by hi s father o r g ra nd ,

father as well as the heads o f G a y a l cattle ( M i thu n

, ,

Ga k s
f r on ta l i s
) sla u ghtered a t feasts These latter .

are O ften made t o orn a ment the g raves o f the house

owners who spent them in vill ag e fes t ivities A mon g .

some of the tribes and particul a rly further west in the

,

A rak a n hill ran g es a model of the house he lived in i s

,

erected over the g rave o f each man and offerings o f ,

food are placed in it from time to time .

C a ution is requ ired in approachin g villa g es even duri ng

the d a y time while any request for a dmittance a fter dark
_

may a s l ikely as not be answered with a bullet While .

ex a minin g the forests o f N orthern A r a kan du rin g 1 880 8 1

I ha d O ften to put u p in Kwemi or M ro hamlets o r else ,

c a mp i n the forest From the moment o f enterin g the

.

V OL . 11 .
43 3 F F
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I TI S H R U LE
stockade till leaving the vill a ge fo r g ood I was p ra c ti
cally a prisoner I n each h a mle t there seemed to be a
.

house specially reserved as a g uesthouse To this my .

party was invariably conduc t ed and t wo young men ,

were a t tached to me w ho were probably responsible

,

both fo r my ac t s a n d my safety Wherever I went .

i n t he hamle t o r i n the surrou ndin g forest these two ,

men accompanied m e till I had n a lly passed into the

j u ngles recognized as the land o f another t ribe The .

houses were bu ilt entirely of bamboos each pos t being ,

suppor t ed by three struts s o th a t t he oorin g o f the huts

,

seemed to rest on i nnu merable bamboo supports I n .

mos t houses there was an inner w a llin g o f bamboo mat

abou t three feet behind the ou t er wall forming no doubt ,

a pro t ection a g ainst both the raw fogs o f the cold se a son

and the heat o f spring bu t i t also formed t he receptacl e

,

fo r all forms o f implements and rubbish I n these hill .

tra cts the w hole world known to m a ny of the tr ibesmen

was ten o r t welve m iles u p the stream near which their
v illa g e was and a similar d ist a nce down st r eam
,
They .

ha d neither idea no r wish to kno w what l a y beyond the

h ills to the eas t o r wes t of them E xcept an occ a sional
.

raidin g track followin g t he crest of the hills a n d well

,

cle a red for bea t ing a hasty re t reat at ni g ht time there ,

w ere few paths th r ou g h the fores t The streams were .

the only hi g hways a lon g wh ich o ne marched now up t o

the ankles now up to the waist in wa t er When hill
, , .

r a n g es had t o be crossed some track was sought where

wild elephants had come to the bank t o drink ; a n d from
this starting poin t an opening large e n ou g h to allow a
man bearin g a basket load o n his back had to be cleared
-

throu gh the o t herwise impenetrably dense j un g le o f the

sin gle stemmed b a mboo ( Kayin W a M el oca nn a ba ccif er a )
-
, .

I t was weary wo rk for progress was usu a lly only at the rate
,

o f about half a mile an hou r and I used to think with env y

,

o f S tanley s comparative comfor t in marchin g Thr oug h

the D a r h Con ti n en t with a re g iment of armed followers
an d cool ies a nd a pparently with villa g es every few m iles
,
.

S hortly after my exploration o f the fores t s be g a n I ha d

to abandon my t wo baggag e elephants and the bulk o f
my camp equipmen t and conne everythi n g to a few
,

43 4
 TH E
K A C H I N T R I B ES
cooly loads F o r part of the time a l l that could be taken
-
.
,

in the way o f camp furniture into t he w ilder parts was a ,

foldin g lon g armch a ir m ade in the M oulmein j ail with

-
, ,

a small panel behind which could be det a ched and tted

in between the le g s to form a table D urin g these .

periods the onl y book I had with me was Ku r z s F or est

F l or a of B r i ti sh B u r m a in which the v a riou s en t ries,

are brief and exa ct The frequent appe a ls made to this

.

were full o f interest thou g h h a rdly of amusement But

, .

as the pa r ty consistin g o f myself an interpre t er se r vants , , ,

a n d coolies m a rched from da w n till la t e afternoon o r even

,

u ntil darkness overtook u s h a lting only for about an hour ,

to have a midday meal we h a rdly requ ired amusement ,

i n the even in g S leep was looked forward to ; a nd we

.

w ere very g l a d w hen we had the hospitable shelter o f a

K wemi o r M ro hamlet to save us from the necessity of
sleepi ng in the open u nder the cold shelter of t he forest
trees A nd very much the s a me sort o f rough work is bein g
.

done every year by ofcers o f different depar t ment s all

along the frontiers and amon g the forest tribes o f Burm a ,

thou g h usu a lly u nder more favourable conditions .

The number o f hill clearances fo r the rice cultivation

a mon g these A r a kan tribes o f Chin origin corresponds

with the nu mber o f wives of each man as every p a tch of ,

shifting h ill cultivation means one wife I n taking the

-
.

census o f 1 88 1 as I did in many o f the remote hamlets

, ,

it was only with the assis t ance o f their friends tha t the
men could cou nt t heir plots of Ta u ngy a on the different
hillsides in orde r t o x the number o f wives they had ;
and even wi t h the aid o f friends it was exceedin gly
d ifcult for them to tell t he number of their children .

I t would be almos t impossible t o ex a ggerate the d ifculty

they ha d to overcome in givin g this detailed inform a tion
o f a nature never previously demanded o f them .

The Kachi n (K a hhy i n ) inhabit the hills between 2 3 a n d

2 8 N latitude a n d 9 5

. to 99 E lon g itude The K a hu

. .

K a chi n o r Kachin o f the rive r sources a r e t he ori g inal
,

,

stock from which all the K a chin o r S in gpho tribes o f

Burma and A ssam have sprun g The n a me they a pply .

to themselves is S i ngpho or Chi ngp a w me a nin g man ,

.

They are shor t in s tatu r e averaging only a bo u t ve ,

43 5
 B U R M A U ND E R B R I T I S H R U LE
feet fou r inches while th e women are abou t t hree o r fou r
,

inches less Their ski n varies much in colour from light

.
,

brown a lmos t t o black They d iffer g r ea t ly i n type

. .

Oblique eyes and hi g h cheek bones prevail bu t the nose ,

varies from a quiline t o a broad weak bridged mean ,

-
,

feature Their trad itions as to an a ncient home poin t to

.

the sou t h o f the dese r t o f Gobi a nd there is much in ,

their appearance su gges t ive of Tartar ori g in .

There are many K a chi n t ribes the larg est being the ,

L apei M aran or Makan L a tau ng o r L a ta w and M arip

, , ,
.

The most wa rlike a nd t hose which have given most

trouble are the L apei L a ta u ng M a kan and I thi o r S z i
, , ,

tribes The L apei inhabit t he dense moist j u ngles to

.

the north and north east of M ogau ng i n w hich t he I ndia

-
,

rubber tree (F i cus el a sti ca ) is abu ndan t and whe r e the ,

j ade and amber mines are s ituated ; bu t they also spre a d

e a stwards across the I r rawaddy and dominate the hills
th r ou g h which the t rade routes into China and the N orthern
S han S tates pass They are the most warlike and lawless
.

o f the Kachin t ribes and it has probably been owi n g t o

,

these qualities rather than to other mo r e for t u itous circum

stances that they o r iginally seized and lon g held the l ines
o f commu n ication between B urma and China levying ,

blackmail on all traders The M akan tribe dwells in the

.

ju n g les around S inbo and the rs t dele o f the I rra

waddy The I thi tribe is located to the south a n d south
.

west O f M ogau ng o n the hills drained by the M ohnyin

,

and N a m y i n streams The L a ta u ng tribe l ives to the

.

west o f the I rrawaddy north o f the Makan S ome of the

, .

K a chin tribes have reco g nized S a wbwa or C h ieftains but ,

most O f t he villages are independent units u nder a P a w

m a i ng o r
father o f the villag e who at t a cks h is neigh ,

bours whenever he has a ny grievance or when he thinks

he ca n do s o with success .

Thei r houses are substantially built with t eak posts ,

bamboo mat w a lls and thatch roof Usu a lly they are
-
, .

from about 1 0 0 to 1 5 0 feet in leng t h and often contain ,

the twenty people or more forming three generations o f

the family The i n t erior arrangement is generally as
.

follows

43 6
 KA C H I N C U ST O M S
F or Gu et mi ly a
F mi l a mi l y
s s.
r oo m
. .

ene ral
ent ra n e
G e x 1 t a nd

t fa m l
c .

ene ral i tt i n ae o n l d ent ra n e

Ex i for i y u se
fo r
G g pl
o r G ar
an

er
s c . y, c

d an S r t
o f h N t e a t u
Lu m b ,

i pi i .

The roof a t the g enera l entra nce exten ds over an ope n

porch or enclosure i n which the pi gs a re penned a t ni g ht
, .

O n the teak w ood skirtin g boards o f the ooring fa cin g

this enclosure m a m ma are carved w ith a vie w to making
the pigs prol ic .

T he Kachin dress va ries gre a tly i n different localities .

S ome wear shor t dark blue drawers o r trousers and ,

o t hers a narrow dark blu e or g reen check waistcloth

reaching b a rely to the knees and often checked l ike a
t a rtan with various colours The h a ir is tied up in t o a .

knot o n the top of the h ead round which a narrow check ,

scarf o f thin materi a l in which reds a n d yellows p r e d o m i ,

nate is w ound seve ral times with a couple o f loops h a n g

,

in g lower down at the b a ck to keep the hair o ff the neck .

I nstead o f tying the hair in t o a kno t the yo u n g er men ,

sometimes let it g ro w down j ust cle a r o f their eyes a n d

t he nape o f the neck I n the hot sprin g season short .

coats o f coarse blue o r w h ite linen are worn which a re ,

replaced in the cold season by coats made o f be a r skin

o r leopard hide S lu ng ove r the left shoulder s o as to
.
,

han g u nder the a rm is a small bag o f d a rk blue or red ,

cloth embroidered with red green and yello w , , .

The women wear a skirt reaching t o t he calf o r ankle ,

a nd formed o f broad alte r nate b a nds o f d a rk blue a n d

red with narrow white stripes bet ween while the frin g e ,

o f the g a rment is prettily embroidered i n various colours .

T he hair i s tied in a knot behind a wooden comb is stuck ,

i n a n d a white o r colou red cloth i s wrapped over s o as

,

t o cover the hair except j us t above the forehe a d .

L a rg e ear cylinders are worn o f amber o r silver from

-
,

four to v e inches i n len gth .

The K achin are occasionally a r med with guns but the ,

tribal we a pons are c r ossbows a n d arrows also a t bladed ,

-

spea rs with black wooden handles si x to seven fee t long ,

437
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H R U LE
a n d often ornamented w ith a co a rse bristly velvet dyed

a deep red E ach man carries the tribal D a o r bill

.

( L i n /ei n
) squared o ff at the end where it is three to four ,

i nches broad thence narrowin g tow a rds the handle and

, ,

r estin g o n a at sheath upon which i t is kept in place by

rings o f cane I t is worn a t the left side suspended from
.
,

a cane rin g passin g from the right shoulder across the

chest a nd b a ck I t is a very formidable weapon which
.
,

can be a shed forth from its sheath in a moment .

Their vill a g es a re n o t a s a rule stockaded althou g h ,

some o f the l a rg er strongholds are thus defended The .

usual mode o f att a ck i s to surround a villag e at ni g ht ,

and thro w l ighted brands o n the thatch roofs then re ,

from the cover o f the surrou nding j un gle upon the i n

habitants as they issu e from the burn ing houses Thou g h .

hosp itable the Kachin a r e t reacherous and u nrel iable

, .

They hate th e Bu rmese and have a contemp t for them ,

and they a re o f an uncontrollably passion a te na t ure .

The K achin are ex t remely superstitious and their only ,

religion consists in the propitiation o f evil spirits They .

bel ieve in witchcra ft and the evil eye ; a nd w hole families

are some t imes butchered by the res t o f the villagers when
bad luck is supposed to h a ve been brough t upon the
villag e by t hem They have religiou s men called D u msa
.
,

w ho cl a im to speak the lan g u a g e of the N a t o r spirits ,

a n d to have supernatural powers O n ce a year the .

vill a g ers tu rn o u t fo r o n e whol e d a y a nd clear t he j u n g le for

the he a dman and whenever buffaloes o r goats are sacri
,

ce d o r a deer shot he g ets a h ind quarter as hi s sh a re .

Ch ildren a r e invari a bly n a med according to the order

i n which they are born the names for m a les bein g K a m , ,

N a wng L a Tu Ta n Ya w H ha e t c
, , , and fo r g irls
, , ,
.
,

K a w L u R oi H tu K a i K ha F r i etc preceded by
, , , ,
'

, , , .
,

the prex N o r M d for g irls a n d N M d o r L a fo r

,

,

boys A s re gards the children o f the chief these names

.

are displaced by others o f a ho no r i c nature but always ,

v a rying according to the order o f birth The above .

names are prexed like Christian n a mes amon g u s to the

, ,

family surnames common among the different tribes .

A man m ay n o t marry a woman havin g the same

surname as himself bu t as a g eneral rule he is expec t ed
,

43 8
 KA C H I N C U STO M S
'
to ma r ry o n e o f the dau g hters o f an uncle o n the mother s
side Marriag e o f a cousin borne by his father s sister is
.

prohibited as cons a n g uinity is supposed to be gre a ter in

,

this case F or a marri a g e the consent o f the p a rents o f

.

both parties is requ ired Withou t this the u nion i s n o t

.
,

valid even thou g h a youn g man an d a you n g wom a n

,

may live to gether for a lon g time and have a number of

children A woman with such a fa mily is much sought
.

a fter a s a wife if her paramou r m a rries someone else

,
fo r
her val ue is enhanced i n the eyes of an intendin g husband
by the number o f children w ho m a y soon be a ble to work
for his support A s m a y thus easily be understood
. ,

infa nticide is n o t pra ctised B ut larg e fa milies are ra re

. ,

o w in g to high infant mortality u nder sava g e surrou nd

i ngs Polyandry does not exist though polyg amy is
.
,

permissible I t i s rare fo r a man to have more than two

.

w ives ; but at times he cannot help himself a s bro t hers ,

are expected t o take u nto themselves in succession the

w idows of deceased elder brothers T o prevent this .

being t oo much of a burden the brother next in succes ,

s ion m a y arran g e if he c a n fo r a you nger brother o r

, ,

even a stran g er to take the w ido w o r widows O ff hi s

hand Other wise if a wido w return to her o wn original
.
,

household a debt to her fa mily becomes p a y a ble

,

in money o r in blood When the parents belon g to .

different tribes o r septs the children whether born i n ,

wedlock o r n o t t a ke the surname o f the fa ther s tribe

,

.

S lavery is prevalent a n d even refrac t ory children a re

,

sold into slavery B ut o f course most o f the slaves

.
, ,

w ere in p a st times obtained in raids made o n the pl a ins .

The marri a ge ceremony combines the idea of purchase

from the p a rents alon g with forcible abduction I n the .

case o f the chiefs the abduction o f the bride is only s o

formal as to be hardly reco g niz a ble but a mong the ,

common C l a nsmen it is more than half rea l I n the latter .

c a se w hen the D u msa o f the villag e in wh ich the intend

,

in g brideg room resides gives an auspicious opinion

regarding the proposed match communic a tions are entered ,

i nto w ith o n e o f the elders of the hamlet i n w hich the

bride elect lives This g o between is called the Cha ng
-
.
-

Tu ng The presents sent are displ a yed befo r e the latter

.
,

43 9
 B U R M A U N D E R B R ITI S H R U L E
and when they a re o n a scale acknowled g ed by him t o be
adequate to the social sta tus o f the g irl the plan o f action ,

is xed o n The damsel is decoyed after dark to the

.

house o f the Cha ng Tu ng a nd is seized a nd c a rried o ff ,

.

N ex t morning the Cha ng Tu ng breaks the news to the

g irl s p a rents a n d sho ws the presents received These

, .

are us u a lly accepted thou g h sometimes the parents not

, ,

bein g s a tis ed sta rt i n pursuit o f their daughter S hould

, .

they reach her be fore t he ritual ceremony has been per

formed they can t a ke her back with them but otherwise
, ,

the marriag e is bi nding and they have to g ive their

consent to i t .

A mong the chiefs and the more i nuential o f the

tribesmen a wooer sends t wo friends with beer a nd a
piece o f cloth to a Cha ng Tu ng o f the village where h is
beloved l ives These messengers are then taken to the
.

paren t s for discussion o f the amou nt to be paid fo r the g irl .

T his bein g xed i t is the equiva lent o f a betroth a l

, .

L ater o n the friends again appear before the Cha ng

Tu ng with the stipula t ed presents w hich a r e then taken to ,

the g irl s parents house H ere t he bride is dressed i n

.

ne attire and lo a ded with silve r ornaments while the ,

vill a g e D u m sa d ivines w hich t wo women are best su i t ed

t o accompany he r a s bridesmaids O n selec t ion bein g .

made each carries o n her back a b a sket contain in g

clothes spears bills ( D a ) and such things as a dowry o n
, , , ,

starting a separate household A ccompanied by her t wo .

bridesmaids bu t n o t by her parents the bride i s c o n

, ,

ducted by the bridegroom s friends to the house of o n e o f

the ori g inal messen g ers o f the bride g room ; a n d when

the D u msa indic a tes that an auspicious moment ha s
sh

a rrived, e is m a de to s i t ne a r the bridegroom s house .

H ere the household spirits are i nvoked and a lib a tion is ,

po u red into a bamboo c u p a n d placed before their shrine .

Fowls and pigs are then sacriced t heir blood bein g ,

sprinkled on the bride and o n the path trodden by her

and her bridesmaids These three only pass the thre s.

hold into the brideg room s house where they m a ke

offerin g s o f boiled e ggs ginger and dried s h to the , ,

tutela r y spiri t s This concludes the marriag e ri tual in

. ,

w hich the bridegroom t a kes no personal part H e does .

44 0
 K A C H I N C U ST O M S
not even speak to the bride S he is conducted to the .

room of her parents i n law till the time o f the eveni ng

- -

meal when s he is brou g ht o u t a gain and then s he a n d

, ,

the bride g room are m a de to feed each other w ith a few

mouthfuls of food before the assembled friends The .

m a rriage feas t then begins which a l ways ends i n a ,

drunken org y and often i n a free g ht

,
.

The tribal S a wbwa ( D u wa ) have all their several

reco g nized hill tracts within which each i s rega rded as
,

C hief
. The S a wbwa ship is hereditary and descends to
-
,

the youn g est son The elder sons can stay o n i n the
.

villa g e if they like thou g h they u sually prefer moving

,

O ff with a sm a ll personal following to fou nd a hamlet

and a chiefs hip o f their own U nless the S a wbwa has

.

a ready ton g ue and a shrewd wit he is often overruled

by the elders of t he vill a ge ( P a wma i ng S a l a ng ) o f , ,

w hom every S a wbwa is bou nd to a ppoint t w o o r three

t o form a council under his presidency E xcep t in the .

case of a S a wbwa o f g reat personal in uence the v irtual ,

a uthority i n the V ill a g e consequently rests w ith the

P a wm a i ng possessin g mos t po w er in the trib a l cou ncil .

They and not t he S a wbwa are u sually the jud g es in

, ,

village d isputes ; and they are oft en called upon to

arbitra t e conce r nin g the qua r rels in other h a mlets B u t .

when quarrels ag ainst o t her communities o r tribes have

to be settled by reprisals t he S a wbwa o f cou rse t a kes
,

the lead in ex a c t in g ven g eance H e also a cts a s the .

rep r esen tative of t he whole commu nity in offerin g sacri

he es at the a nnu a l fe a st of the e a rth spirit each
,

member assistin g him with a contribution to this g re a t

festival The spirit bein g propiti a t ed the rest o f the
.
,

ceremonies consist chiey o f d a ncin g and drunkenness .

A lthough the P a wma i ng are appe a led to a s j ud g es

and arbitrators each tribesman is ultimately the avenger
,

o f his own quarrel Compensation fo r inj uries is a llowed

.

o n a customary scale o f blood money The mu rder o f a

S a wbwa can only be condoned by cession o f h a lf the
villag e lands of the murderer to g ether with many slaves ,

a n d g u ns ; while for less in uential men it m a perhaps

y
amoun t to one slave ei g ht or ten bullocks and some
, ,

gongs and clo t hes the number varying according to the

,

44 1
 B U R M A U N D E R B R I T I S H RU LE
soci a l position o f t he victim l f a mple satisfactio n b e .

n o t thus g iven a debt is formed w hich is sure to

, ,

be wiped o u t i n violence l a ter o n .

Two cu rious instances o f thus p a ying o ff old debts o n

a larg e sc a le occu rred i n 1 890 when a p a rty o f peaceful ,

C hinese traders return ing from Bhamo t o Yu nnan was

suddenl y attacked a n d t wo o f them were killed by the
S a wbwa o f Ka sa nk On a v ill a g e to the east o f Bhamo
,
.

T w enty t wo years previously in 1 86 8 w hen the mission

-
, ,

u nder C a pt a i n ( a fterwa rds S i r E dward ) S l a den w ent to

M omein the fa ther o f the attackin g S a wbwa had been
,

o f u se to the party I n returnin g C a pt a in S l a den invited

.

him to acco m pany the m ission to Bhamo intending prob ,

a bly to make presents to him there U nfortunately the .

S a wbwa died there a pp a rently from some n a t ural cause

,
.

This loss was however e a rmarked as a debt a gainst

, ,

B h a mo thou g h it w a s n o t till 1 890 that i t occurred to

,

the then S a wbwa to wipe o ff the score A nd w hen the .

time o f desirin g reven g e c a me a n y o n e ( even a s i n this , ,

presen t insta nce only indi rectly ) in touch with Bhamo , ,

became l iable for payment o f the blood debt Ag ain .

,

a bout that sa m e time an i nter village skirm ish resulting

,
-
,

i n the bu rnin g o f t he hamlet of N aungmo and the shoot

i ng o f vill a g ers took place because a K achin w ho had
,

visited th a t village S i x years before had then lost a cook

i ng p o t which he ha d failed to recover .

S uch are the w ild Kachin tribes throu g h w hose

country pass the existin g trade routes from B hamo a n d
M yitkyina i n to Yu n n a n I t is easy to u nderst a nd ho w
.

exp a nsion o f trade from Bh a mo eastw a rds w a s thus

para lysed under the i m potence o f Burmese rule B u t .

now u nder B ritish administration g ood cara van tracks

, ,

have been cleared to the frontier and a r e controlled by

military police u nder E uropean O fcers w hile much ha s ,

been done to subdue and pacify the wild l a wless spirit ,

o f the several K achi n C l a nsmen .

442
 I n d ex
A A hb h p B d d h i t i 7 3 9 8
rc is o ,
u s ,
.
,

h 5 53 . 12 2

A n t D p tm
,

cc o u s e ar e n t, I 2 60 A t B
r m ii 8 9 ur es e , . 2 0, 2 0
A i t i S t m N vi g ti n C m p ny
.

A l y t ii
,

co es , . 1 95 s a c ea a a o o a ,

A c ts , i . 1 3 9, 140 i .
425
Ad mi i t tiv d ivi i n i
n s ra e s o s, 222 m i
Assa , 4, 1 4, 1 7 , 20
l i gi
.

Afg h n w i 4 5 5 5 3
.

a ar , . 1 Asse mb ly of r e ii
o u s, 1 1 6, 1 2 8 .

Ag i l t 1 3 3 A
, ,

r cu u re , . 0 n l i
ssess m e t o f a n d , 2 8 5 , 2 90 .

Ag i l t l D p t m n t i 8
r cu u ra e ar e . 2 1 A t l g ii 87 5 9
s ro o er s , . 1 2 2 85

H ld in g i f i 3 3 6
, , ,

o s, s z e o . A t hd w i
au 6 a . 1 1

St k i 3 5
, ,

A th S y i

oc ,
. 0 on 57 a e, . 1
A hm d wy i I 5 7

a a e,

. A ttasa n k he p a V a n n a n a, i . 1 90 ;
Ai t h i n S i C h l i 4 4
c so ,
r a r es , .
,
2 20 4 5 4 1i 3 1 9 .

ii 6 . 1 A tzm a shi , 96 407 i . ii .

A h hw au i 54 un , . 1 i
A tw i n w u n , 5 6, 1 5 9 .

Ah gh
a un i 89 un , . 1 A kl
uc d L d i an ,
or ,
. 20
Ak w un i 54 un , I A pi
us ii 6 9 c es , . 1

A t i ti l i gi
.

A hl th l
z ii 4 9 5
a a, 1 1 , 1 u s er es , r e o u s, ii . 1 34
Al n g P y a i 5 6 7 6
.

au a . 1 1 A va , 5 , 8 , 1 2 , 1 8, 2 o, 2 6 , 88
C
, , , ,

f ii
a r ee r o
35 . 2 n
A ti q u t es a t, ii ii .
40 2
All nmy i 3 6
,

a o, . A wey a u h,

I 57 i .

Al m po Al n g P ya
r a , s ee au a Ay d d a w , 165 i .

Al ph b t B m i 5 3 ii
a e ,
ur es e , . 2 ,
. 1 93 , Ay 6d y a, 7, 10 i .

31 1

A ma p ra u ra, i . l z ,
1 6, 20, 2 6 B
i ii
An t q u t e s a t, 11 4 0 4
B k g mm n B m ii 7 7
.

i
A m a t, ii 1 67 .2 37 . ac a o ,
ur ese , . 2

i
A m ei n d a wy e , 1 57

. B da M in i

tI n , I 1

B gy i d w kin g 1 7
,

m mn n i l
A u s e e ts , a t o n a , i i 25 7 a 4 a .
, 1 20

k g i
.
, , ,

A n a w r a ta z a w , in , 3 . ii . 1 1 2, B gk Ok i
an 66 ii 6 ,
. 10, . 2,

393 T d f ii 6
ra e o .

A n gl C h i C nv n ti n
,

o- n es e o e o ,
1 8 97 . B nd l i 5 7 9
a u a, . 1 ,
1 , 1
ii .
4 1 B nk f B m p j t d F n h
a o ur a, r o ec e re c

C nv n ti n
,

A n gl o F r en c h o e o ,
1 896 , 73 1 '

Ii . 1 5 B i 83
a r r e n n e ss , I . 1

An gl G m o-
9 er an Ag m nt r ee e , 1 00 9 B i i 6
as se n , 35 5 . 22, O
B yi N n g i 4 8
, ,

3 ii . 1 a n au .

A nn x ti n f A k
, ,

e ad T n o o ra an an e as B t
a z aa r d i 45 ii 4 ra e, . 0 . 20

im 8 6 i se r 1 2 20 B ed i n S a y d , 1 87 , 2 1 ii .

P g 85 i 4 4 9
.
, ,

e u, 1 2, . 2 1 B ei n d a w S a y d , 1 7 3 , 2 8 1 , 2 83 ii .

B li f
,

U pp B m 8 86 i er ur a, 1 101 p ii ii
e e s a n d s u er s t t o n s, I 5 5 .

in g ii
.
,

ii . 27 B ll
e s , c as t o f, 30 1 .

A pp l i q u e wo r k ii 307 Clb ii
e e r a te d , 30 2 , 4 0 5 , 4 0 8 .

Bn n Clnl i
.
,

k n i
Ar a a , 1, . 2 , 1 3 , 1 6 , 2 o,
3 5 3 7 e so o o e . 20

A k np g B n d S i Ch l i 7
, , ,

ra a a od a ,

a da a , 96 M n l y i . er ar ,
r a r es , . 8 3 , 9 8,
1,

1 0 8, 1 10, 1 1 2, 121, 1 26,

A bi t t
r f i l i
r a or s , o c a 176 2 20 ; 27
A h l gy ii 3 7 5
. .
,

rc aeo o
,
. B i bb y lin e o f s t ea ers , m i .
425

443
 I N D EX
Bi y D l i 5
n a a a, .
C
B i th
r m i 84
c u s to s, i . 1

B i th t i
r f G d m
-s ii 3 6
or es l S v y 1 8 87
o au a a, . 1 , C
a d as t r a ur e . 2 1, 2

C
,

3 21 m pb ll S i A h i b l d i 8 a e r rc a . 1

ni g C p t i i 7 C
, ,

B h m j; 9 4 9 6 9 7 9 99 7 3
a o, . . . . .
I an n a a n, . 1

C
,

3 5 Ii . t i 37 7
1 a r s, .

B l k mi th i 3 84
ac s s, t i g ii 7 3
. C ar r ac n . 2

C
,

Bo, i 73 . 1 t h i 4 3 9 ; ii 7 7 87 aou c ouc ,

B t in g ii 6 8
. .

C
,

oa -
r ac v n t i 447 i 3 8
. 2 ara a r o u es , . I .

C
,

B t i 37 9
oa s , . d in l in ii 3 ar a s s, . 1 1
B b b i gl
o a d i
a 75 n ani t ii 99 s, . 2 V r u es ,

B d w P ya i
.

o a 7 4 6 a7 t tl , d m g by i 3 7
. 1, ,
1 2, 1 ,
1 ,
1 ,
C a e, a a e , . 2

5 5 ; 39 4 4 4 8
1 Di f i 3 9 ~ 2. 0 .
0 s e as es o ,
. 0
B hm A twi w
o u i 88 T tm t f i 3 7
n un, . r ea en o 0
B mb y B m T di g C p C
.
,

o a ur f 89 i a 8 ; ii 8 ; ra n or o~ e n su s o 1 1, . 2 1 . 12
ti n i 7 6 7 9 ra o 9 i 4 3 4 ; ii 8
.
.
. .
1 01 . . 1 2

C n t f th U niv
,

ii 7 9 8 .
,
1 i 9 58 e re o e erse ,

. 1 1 ,
1
B h i Ch m y i

os u,59 . 1 66 a e, . 1

B Shw i
o e, 8 . C h nd K n t i 5
1 1 0, 1 2 a ra a a, 1
B xin g m t h ii 7 4
.

o a c C h n g f n m ii 9 es , . 2 a e o a e, 1 1
B n d i S i D i t i h ii 5
.

ra s, C h t t i t f ii
r e r c 0 a r ac er , ra s o 22 1
B im g ii 99
.

C h m b l i f in ii 6 3
.
, ,

r ass a e s, . 2 ar s, e e . 1

B wn C l l H C h t i 3 87
,

ro e, i 48 o on e or ace , . e r oo s, .

B i t i i n W t n C h in ii
r a n C h B m ii 7 6
es e r a, . 1 ess, ur es e , . 2

B i ti h n l p t ii
r s co C h i f C mmi i n
s u ar f B m or s, . 1 1 e o ss o ers o ur a,

B i ti h I n d i S t m N vi g ti n
r s ai ea a a o . 2 20

C m p ny i 4 4 o C h i ld n n min g f ii 89
a . 2 re a o . 1

Chi i 3 7 8 9
, , ,

B i ti h i d n y i
r s r es e c . 20 2 n a, . 10

in S th
, , , , ,

B i ti h i d n t w i th d w n i 4 8
r s r es B it i
e d F n ra ,
. r a n an ra ce ou

B k i 9 43
ro er s , . 2 W t n ii 2 es er , . 1

C h i H i ll d mini t ti f i 3
,

B dd h ii 9 3
u a, n s, a s ra on o . 2 2

C h in t m ii 4 3
.
,

B d d h K tt i i 5
u a e cus o s, . 1

C h in d w i iv 1 86 99
.
,

B dd h Y i
u a 36 4 a z a, . 1 10, 1 ,
1 2 n r er , .
,

B d d h i m B m ii 89
u s ,
C hi l ii 7 5
ur ese , . n on ,

. 2

I n t d ti n f ii
ro uc 3 7 9 C h i toh i 6 o 1 1 I, n e, . 1 1
C h in t i b i 3 5 3 8 4 4 8
.
,

B d d h i t b i h p ii 6
u s s o s, . 12 r es , . 1 ,
1 ,
1 2, 1 ,

N n ii u s, 9 . 121, 12 5 ii 4 3 21 . 0
P i th d ii 3
r es oo C h i tt g n g i 7 12 a o 1
S yn d ii 9 8
. .

C h ni l B m
, ,

o s, . 10 ,
yl i 3 1 1 ro c es , ur es e ro a ,
. I , ,

B i l t m ii 7 6 8
ur a cus o 9 s,6 ; ii 3 7 . 2 1 2 1 . 1

B m R i l w y C m p ny ii 9 4 5
, ,

ur a a Mo i 4 a s o a . 2 n, .

i l w y h m ii C h n l gy B m ii 87
, ,

B m Y nn
ur a- u an ra a sc e e, . ro o o ur es e , . 2

C ivi l i ti n ff t f ii 4 4 5
,

44 za o e ec s o . 2 2, 2

B m f t w l th ii 4 7 C l i 3 89
, ,

ur a s o r es ea . oa ,
.

B m h i ld n i 3 3 7
ur es e c C k ght i g ii re 73 . oc n . 2

C ll tt B i g d i G n l i 3 8
, ,

F l kl ii 3 5 6
o o re , . o e r a er - e er a . 1

L v n g ii 3 C mm
, ,

o e so d t d i 4 3
. 20 o e r ce a n ra e, . 1

O f i l i C mmi i n th B m i 7
,

5
c a s, . 1 2 o ss o e ur a, 22

W t i 8 C mmi i n f d ivi i n i 6
,

ar , 6rs . 1 20, 2 o ss o ers O s o s, . 22

S nd i 3 4 6 C n f i n m n g m nk ii 3
, ,

eco ,
. 2 ,
2 ,
2 o es s o a o o s, . 1 2,

Th i d i 8 8 5 4 9 r .
38 0, 2, 1 2 1 1

C C n d n ti l i l ii 5
, ,

f th i d i 7 6
a u se s o r ,
. o e a c r c u a r s, . 2 1

B ny Mj i
ur e C p d t t f 87 8 i 94
a or , 7. 20 ou

e a

o 1 . 1 2

C t m n ti n l ii 4 7
, , ,

and /1 1 5 a 57 59 . 1 1, 1 1 os u e, a o a . 2
C tt n 1 4 4
, , ,

O ff i l f th i
i c a s o 6 e, . 1 1 o o ,
. 1

4 44
 I N D EX
C t ivil d imin l i 7 9
o u r s, c E d n S i A hl y i an cr a 1 e r s e 2 20
C p t in H i m i 6
.
,
.
, ,

C ox a Ed
a ti n B m ra ytm f . 1 u ca o ur es e s s e o ,

C m t y i t ii 9 6 7
, , ,

re a or r i s ; iL 93
es , . 21 2 . 2 2 1
C im i 3 5
,

r es , . Ed 2 ti n D p tm n t i 5 u ca o e ar e 2 1

C imin l l
.
,

r i 37 a Ei Sh Mi
c asses , i 7 .
4 2 6 n- e n, .
, 1 2, 0 20

C th w i t S i C h l i
,

r os a E l ph n t i 3 7
e, r a r es, . 1 22, e a s, . 0

E l ph n t y l wh i t i 4 9 8 5 e a ,
ro a e, . 1 , 1 0,

C l tiv ti n t f i 3 4
,

u a o c os 3 o . 1 20
, ,

M th d f i 3 4 3 3
e o E li
s O M N y i 43 0 1 a s, r . e . 1

E l g in L d i
.
,

C n f K d dl t L d i 4
, ,

urz o o e 9 es o n , or 12 ,
or ,
. 22

C t m D p tm t i 5
.
,

us o s E mb e y t F n i 57
ar en 2 1 as s o ra ce , .

C t m n ti l h b i t d i 8 E tym l gy B m ii 3 3
.
,

us o s, a on a a s an i 1 1 o o ,
ur ese , . 1

C t h i 4 39
.
,

u c E n h i 5 u uc s, . 20

Ev g n f t ii 7 6
.

C t h b ili g i 37 4
,

u c o n . er r ee or es s, .
,

E vi d n l w f i 8 e ce , a o ,
. 1 1

D E vi l p i i t ii 6 s r s, . 1 1

E x mm i ti n ii 5
D a,v i kind f i 3 84
a r ou s
E xp t f i i s o , .
co u n ca o ,
. 1 1

D i ty i 99
ac o
5, 6
T.

im b i ,
4 3
102, 10 ,
1 1 0, 1 1 ,
or o r ce ,

2
. 1

6 1 20,
4 712 12
er , .

4
E xp t d i m p t i 4 3 5 4 36
3 44 , ,
I 1 , 1 ,
or s a n or s ,

.
,
79 . 2
D ga i
on

,
. 2
F
D lh i L d i
a ou s e , 3 3 5 36 or ,
. 22, 2 , ,

D md i gy i
a 67
z 1

D m m hd i 88 Fz,
b l .

nim l ii 7 6 a u ou s a a s, 1

g
.

a a n, 1
D m m th t i
F n m l l in
.

ii 5 a ce e a e . 20

g
,
a ,
a 77a 79 9 4 54 ; 1 1 1 0,
3 9
F mi l y v .

n m b in,
i 3 37
,
a a er a e u er

g
.
, ,
1

D mm
a d i kin g ii 3 8
az e
F ll in.

t im b i 3 67
0
e er , .

D by
a n tl
'

i 8 5 n,
F y .
M
,

1
J l ,
i 5 7
,
o 5 8 6
.

63 65 er r ,
. u es , .
, ,
2, , ,

D t S y d ii
a 73
a 8 75 1 2 1
F t iv l n t i n l ii
.

f t ii 7 7
, ,

D id
ec u ou s
F in n C
o r es s,
i l mmi i n
57
i .
es a s, a o a ,
. 2

D d i ti n f p p ty i 7
e ca o
F i p
o
t ti n f f
ro er
t ii 6 4
3 2 0
a c a o ss o er , . 22

D m i t li gi
.
,

e er ii 4 9 5 ,
Fre
i hb n C o u s,
mm n d i . I 1 ,
I
re r o ec o o ores s, .

D p ty mmi i n i 7
e u co
F i h i i ss o er s, 22
s ou r e, o a er , . 22

D i ff t t i n ii 6 9
.

4 3 5 4 3 6 s e r es , . 22 , , 0
sa or es a o

Di t i t d f nd i 6 3 F i h y t i 354
,
.

s er ac .

t in g f t im b
s r c an c ess u s, 2 ,

D iv i 8 8 5 89
o r ce ,
F l 1 1, 1
i 37 3 1
.

oa o er , .

F l k l B m ii
.
,
6
D t B m ii 8
oc or s , ur ese , 3 5 2 1
o or e , ur ese , .

D m d y B k B m
o es a i F d G n
oo
l H H i 8 5 8
.

9 95 ur e se , 12
oor ,
e er a . .
,
.
, ,

F t b ll B m ii , .

63 75 oo a ur ese , 2
1
g
.
,

D yl C p t in i 3 3
o e, a
F i n a
m p t i ti n i 4 4 4 4 5 or e co e o ,
.
,
1

D i 3 5 ; ii 4 7
r ess ,
F t
0
l 8
,

5 6 ii 2 5 53 or es r u es , 1 ,
. 0,

D yr n i 4 3 ; ii 7 5 7 7
zo
.

e,
A t 88
2
ii 6 6
.

7 c ,
1 1, .
,
0
l 8 6 5 ii 5 5
.

D ff in f t i 9
.
,

u er
d an r u es , 1 .

or 1 1 ,

D p tm nt i 7 7
.
, ,

L d i 7 9 96 4 6 4 6 5 e ar e . 1 2 2 0
5
P 101
or ,
10 , , ,

D n n C l nl i 3
u ca
,
.

l n
o o
t ti n
,
ii
e 5 8
, ,

1
a a o s, .

D b i 4 3 ii 8
,
R v n i 4 8
,

5 ;
.

ii 8 7 e e u e, 2 2 0

S
.
a r s, 1
.

ur 21 ,

l m n ii
.

ng i
.

D tti y M in K tt t 6 6 8 e e e s, 1,
a
.

u au 2

D y in g d d y t ff i 3 5
e an
F t ii 47
,
.

or e s s , .

t f f ll in g in ii 84
e s u s, 1

D yn t i l w Al g P y a i 8
as
I m p v m n .

ro e e o e s
c
P a
ti n f
aun
.
,
a s,

3 39 1 1
t
1
,
m ii 64
.

r o ec o ro re, .

R v d S t t i 4 9 ii 5 9
, ,
eser e or a e, . 2 .
,

7 s 84
E
Sy t m s e o f wor ki g ii n ,
. 81
ii
E a r b or i n g , . 20 1 T k ii
ea 82
l i i l ff i
.

kin g pl n ii
,

E cc es a st c a a a r s, i . 266 F or es t w or a s, .
72
445
 I ND EX
F t D ff i i 97
or u er n, . 1 G uard- h o u se s , vi ll g i a e, 1 1 8, 1 5 6i
St dm n i 34 3S 4 3
.

e a . 1 I I 1 68
F y th S i D g l i 3 3 6
, , ,

or s ,
r ou as, . 0,
F ox ,
i . 22
H
F n in F th I nd i ii
ra ce ur er a, 1

g i 7 ii 4
.

on th M k e e on 2 1

F n h gg i i 89 3 ii
re c a r e ss o n
,
.

n 1
.

. 2
H M n l f F n i 64 7
aas , .
,
co su o ra ce , .
,
0,

A nn x ti n in F th I n d i ii h
,
. 10
e a o s ur er a,

3 2,
.

H b i t d t m n ti n l 8
a s an cus o s, a o a ,
ii . 1 1

C l t M nd l y i 5 9 6 3 7
o n su a a a a o,
H ll f A di n i
a o u e ce , . 20 0
H th w dd i i 4 5 ii 3 8
.
, , ,
an a a , . 0

H tin g t n L d i 5
.
,

C l g n t i C h in ii 3
o n su a r a e s n a, 2
ar

H v y C l n l J J i 38
o ,
or ,
. 2

I d C h i ii 6
n o -
n a, .

H
ar

i i 3
e ,
o o e . .
,
. 1

i Yn n n ii 7
un a . 1
as t n a
p
H i pp n t i 7 4 6
u r a, .

P l i y i 8 8 3 d 88 5 i 5 6 6 3
,
e r a ar e . 1 2, 0 , 20
o c n 1 an 1 , ,

in I d C h in ii 9 n o a,
,
.
,
H ll B m i d f ii 3
e ,
ur ese ea o ,
. 1 1

R i l w y ii 8 6
-
.

H id d h n i 4 4
es a n or s, . 1
a

F i B m i 34 3
ts ,
a s, .
,
1
H i gh h h B m c 7urc ur e se , i i 1 1
H i gh
.
,
ru ur ese ,
t L w B m i 9
.

F y S i F d i i 8 ii 4 6
r er , r re er c , . 2 1 .

H ll t i b i 4 ; ii 4
co u r ,
o er ur a, . 22

F t p ni h m n t ii 3
u u re u s e ,
. 1 1
i r

H l e thi n A tw i n w u n ,
es ,

87
. 21 .

i
1 1

F in f
us o o ii 4 9 r ac es , 2
.

il i
Fy t h C l
H l u td a w or sta te co u n c ,
.

c e, l i 7 o on e ,
. 2 ,
2 20 7 7 , 90 ,
.

96 1 1 0 3 ) 1 0 7 ) 1 5 1 3 1 5 6) 1 7 6)

G H d g kin n
o
I

so
99
Mr . G g i eor e, . 1 08
,

G i g Ok ii 6
a n 12
H p
or os c o e, i i . 1 87 , 281

G l n i 3 97
a e a,
,
.

H t
o u se i ax ,
. 1 62, 2 88

G m bl in g ii 3
.

a ,
. 2 2

G d n i 34 3
ar e s, .

G i n f B m i 49 33
a r r so o ur a, . 1 ,
2
G d m
au ii 9 3 9 5
a a, . I mp t or s . i 4 3 5 ; 4 36. 4 4 3
.

E ly l i f i i in i f i 86
,

ar f ii 9 7 e o , . I mp p ro r e t es a w e, 1
l i g i ph i l ph y ii
.

G d m
au a a s re

ou s oso ,
. I mp v ro e m n t f ll in g in f t
e e s or es s , I I 84 .

1 00 I n nd i ce ar s i m t M nd l y i a a a a , 1 1 1
S m n th M n t ii 3
.

er o on e ou . 10 1 1 5
d g n i f x
,

G nd
e er s a n ii 3 3 e er c a es , . 1 I n id n c e ce of a d l n vn re e u e, i .
30 1
G ni l t y l i f ii 7 9 96
e o a r , re cs o ,
. 10 ,
1 I ,
1 I n mp co ar a bl p g de a o a,

i .
96 ii .

G m n m h n t in B m i 4 5
er a er c a s ur a, . 1 4 07
G m ny d S i m ii 6 8
er a an a I nd a i ng f
78 or es ts , 11

G i d l in g f t k
. .
, ,

r ii 5 7 5
o ea t r ees , . 2, I n i bb i
d a ru -
er , 4 39 I I 7 7 , 87
Pl n i n i
.

G i l d ti f i 5 9 ii 4
r s, e u ca on o 2 . 20 ii
a ta t o s o f, 44 1 87 .

gyi l g n ii
. .
,

Gl d t n
a s o bi t M i 5 5 3
e s ca

ne ,
r .
,
. 1 , ,
I n daw ,
e e d o f, 356 .

In b p n y i
d e te d n ess o f e a sa t r , 2 96
nf ni
.

G d w in G n l i 3
o e er a . 2 I nl n i
a d ( t r a s r o t e r ) t r ad e , 447 .

G Ok t ik g g i 3 6
, ,

e or e, i . II 39 .

G l d w k in ii 97
o or . 2 In i s t t u te s o f ur ese l a w , B m
1 90 , 4 5 4 i .

M inin g i 3 97
, ,

. In su r r e c t o i n i s, . 1 35, 17 1, 1 7 3, 2 1 4,

S i ftin g i 3 4 7 398
,

. 2 32

G n g ii 3
, ,

o s, . 00 I nt e r es t o n l n i oa s, . 2 95

Cb yi nn ii 7 5
n to, 2 I r r a wa dd y , i .
4 2 , 85
y Fl till C m p ny i
.

G d n S i B nj min i 9 4
or o ,
r e a , . 12 ,
1 0, I r r a w a dd o a o a , . 85 3
44 I ii 5 . 2

G v nm n t tim b d p Ot R n g n
o er e er e a oo Riv i 8 6 er , . 1 2

I i g ti i 4 5 I I 3 3
, , ,

rr a on , . 2 .

G nvill L d i 5 8
ra e, or ,
. 1 by w t wh l i 3 9 a er e e s, . 2

446
 I N D EX
J
L
J xp t i 4 4 3
ad e e
L q w k
ac u er 97 or ,
11 . 2

M inin g i 4 0
or ,
.

1
L k d w ll i 3 8
a e e er s , . 1

L m i g my i
.

66
,

J i l d m ni t ti n i 3 6
a a i s ra o ,
. 2
a a

L m b t C mm d
n

I
e, . 1

J il B m i 9
a s, ur ese , . 1 0
a

L nd g n t i 7
er ,
o o or e
2
22

J hn t n C l n l i 6
o s o e, o o e . 1
a

M tg g i 3 1
ra s, . 2 1

J d gm nt
,

u pt n f i 93
e ,
a c ce a ce o ,
. 1
or

Rvn i 3
a e, . 0

J d i l d mini t ti n B m
u ic a a s ra o ,
ur e se ,
e

S vy ytm i 8
e u e, . 22

i 9 1 2
ur

T n i 67 6 8
e s s e ,
. 2 1

C mmi i n i 9
.

e u re, 1 2

L ng g
.
,
o ss o er s , . 22

J n gl ii 6 3
u e r es ,
a ua

L n d wn L d I 8 9 9
3 9 e , 11 . 0

J nk C y l n i 4
.

a s o e, or ,
. 2 1 ,
21 ,
22
u e o 1

J y ti i
,
.

L hi i 9 4
as o, 37 2 1 Ii .

L t it f t II 7 8
.
,
n a, . 20
a er e ore s s, .

L d i 3 96
ea ,
.

Ld w i a 65 . 1

L g n d f I d w g yi 3 5 6
,

e e o n a 11
K
.
,

M l m i ii 3 5 7
ou e n, .

Kac h ar , i 8,
P p h i ll 3 7
o a 11 2

S g in g 3 6 6
.

1 0, . 1 7, 1 2O ,

Ka c h n c u s to
i m ii a a ,
11 .

s, 4 37
gb y On ii 3 7
.

T
H i ll p l i y in i
s, o c ,
. 2 16
L g l tiv
au n

n il i
,
. 1

R v lt i 7 3
e o ,
. 1
e is a

L n t II 5 7 6
e cou c ,
. 222

T i b i 66 3 5
r e s, .
,
1 ,
1 37 , 1 42, 1 4 8
e

L tp t i
,
. 2 ,
2 1

e e 7 5 4 46 ; 9 1 11 1 1
5 ; ii 4 3 5
. .
, )
21
L t g ye 2 i 58
K a d a w P w, 1 5 8, 2 0 6 i .

Lv
e sa u n

yl i 6
sa ,
. 1

K a hhy z n , 435 ii .
e ee s r o

Li t n n t G v n h i p f B m
a ,
. 20

Ka l a , 83 i .
eu e

i
a -
o er or s o ur a,

K a l a gd , 30 7 ii .

L i g h th i 4
. 22 1

Kal s ta t e , 2 1 4 i .

L i hi x ti n ii
o u ses , . 2 2

K a m m a wa , 2 0 6 ; I 3O, i . ii . 1 50
n e

L im b in p in i 3 4 7 5
3
ac o s, . 21, 2

Ka n , ii 93 , 1 67 .

Li g ii 3 9
r ce , . 1 ,
1

K aren t m ii 4 7 cu s o s, . 2
Li t t
n a,

ii 89 3 0 9 3 6 3
. 1

K arenni i 3 6 3 7 4 3 4 8 ii ,
.
,
1 ,
1 ,
I .
4 29
er a u r e ,

L ivin g t f i 3 4
. 2 ,
1 ,
20

K l i 3 3 , c os o . 0

S t nd d f i 3 3 9
,
ar e n or ac e , . 2

T i b ii 4 3
r es , . 2
a

L n d nt t i 95
ar o ,
.

K th i 3 9 oa s an i er e s . 2

L v m ki g I I 0 9
,
a a, . 1

K i y i 68 o e a n . 2

L w Ch
az n o, 1 ,

K mm n d in i 8
e e
.

e, 1
o h ii 7 urc ,
. 1 1

K ng h ng i
e c 7 ii 4
e 21
.

Ly L d i 57 58 6 7
o n s, or ,
.
, ,
2, 2

K n gt n g i
e 7u ii 5
,
.

21
.

Ly tt n L d i 5
o ,
or ,
. 2

L by n d w i
, . .

6
K hy i ii 4 3
n, . 0
u a a ,
. 1 1

Ki i 8 56 68
n, . 1 1 1 1
M
M i gyi i 4 4 7 9
, ,

Ki w n un n . 2, 0, 1 07 ,
M g g
, ,

ac re or a n d Co M .
, e ssr s , ii . 80
K n xGo or e , M a or j Gn l i e er a ,
.
4 5 , 46 M k i
ac en z e , S ir Al x n d e a er , i . 148
K ow Chow Ka c 335 h in i 21 8, 2 20
f y i
.

M l d C p t in i 0
, ,

Ku n l On er r , 147 36, 4 4 . ii a c eo a a . 2

S in g
.
, ,

Ku n a ,
S a wbw a o f aw, Th ib i . M ph n S i H b
ac e r so ,
r er er t, i . 1 1 5 ,

12 1 1 23
K utho 10 ; i . ii B i g di G n l i
Mc Mor i n e r a er - e er a . 1 8
M g w M in gyi i 4
,
.
, ,

K uthod a w o f M a d a l a n y ii, .
407 a e ,
. 2

Ky an k se, 14 1 i . M h B nd l i 5 7 8 9
a a a u a, . 1 ,
1 , 1 ,
1
Ky a u n g , 1 26 ii . M a ha ga n d i ,
ii . I 17
Ky i n s a , 1 5 1 ii . M a ri a Tha m b aw a , i . 2, 3 ii .
36 8
447
 I N D EX
Ma i k ha ,
i . 2 16 M nk o ,
r eq u s i it es o f a , ii . 1 37
Ma l i k ha i ,
. 2 16 Man i 3 5 6)
'
) ,

M anda a l y i , ,
2 6 , 2 8, 3 1 , 4 9 , 6 7 , 89 , M n p li
o o yl i 9 o es , r o a ,
. 2

1 1 1 1 1 9, 1 20 , M i Gn li 8
o r r so n , e er a . 1

C i ty
, ,

o f, i . 8 9, I 19 ii 4 6 ; . 0 M lm i i
ou 4 6 4 8 e n, . 22, 1 1

C v ii 3 7 7
,

a nd Ku n l On ra i l w y ii 3 a 1 a es, .

L g d f ii 3 5 7
.
,

O cc u pi ed , i
89 . e en o .

Pg
,

a od as a nd m o n as ter e s i a t, ii . M ni i p li t i i 6 3
u c a es, . 2

40 5 M i B m ii 3 0 3
us c, ur ese , .

M a nda t i . 20 0 M ye n i

na 9 5 8 00 . I 1 1 2

M ni f i g Thi b M yin g n p in i 4 3 5 6
, , , ,

a es to , K n a w s,

i . 83 u r ce, , , ,
6 6 , 9 8,
M ni p
a ur, i . 6 , 8, I o, 1 3, I 5, 1 7, 2o,
6o My i n g u n d a i n g p inr ce , i . 20 6

M arni ,
l a w s o f, i . 1 77 , 1 7 9, 1 90 , 2 6 8 M yin gy n i a ,
.
4 7 , 5 0 , 86 , 1 0 9, 1 31,
ii .
319 1 36
M ar r a i g i e, . 1 81 , 1 85 ; ii 21 3 M yi n in g p in i
za r ce , 1 10
C
. .

u s t om s , ii . 21 5 My i 5 3

o, . I

M ar ta b n i 5
a 4 ,
.
,
1 3, 2 2, 2 M y Oh i 5 4

o 8 ,
. 1 ,
22
M assac r es in M n d l y i 4 3 a a a ,
.
, 4 7 , 5 0, My d i 5 3 5 5

os ,
. 1 ,
I

My

i 54
os a
y e I
g i 3 83
.
,

Ma t w ea vin . M y Th gy i i 5 4

o u 1
M ng A ng Z y i
, .
,

au 6 ii 2 3 5 u e a, My w

o i 4 76 17 8
un, 2, 1

M ng i 7
. . .
,

My d i 96

au oz a 1
,
.
, ,
.

M wk m i 3 7 4 3
a e, . 1 ,
1

M m n t f d i t n ii 89
ea su r e e o s a ce , . 2 N
T im ii 89 e, . 2
N af r er , iv
17, 18 i
M d i in m n ii 7 3 8 3
e c e e I 2
.

M ik ti l i 3 3 6 4 ii 4 0 9
e a, 1
,

1, 1
.
,

1 1
N a hd u , 1 93 i .

Mi i 4
.
,
.

N a ha n d a w ,

i 1 54 .

ca ,

M ili t y f ar i B
.

m i 49 33
1 1

or c e s n ur a, 1 2
n B yin ki g i
Na da a ,
n , 5 .

O f i 73 c er s , 1
.
,
N a t, ii 92 , 1 5 6 .

P li i 4 9 3 4 4
o ce ,
.

1 1 12 1 2, 0,
i nl h i
N a t o a c a r a c ter s ti cs, 11 2 2 1 .

I 4 S,
.

I
,

4 9, 2
,

34
1 1 1,
H bi
a m
t s a n d c u st o s , I i 1 8 1 .

M in b i 36 1 2 8,
N a ts i n ,i 1 96

lb i g
.
u, . 1
N at u r a r d es , I I 3 6 , 3 7
M in d t p in i 4
a r ce , 0, 48
kin g i
.

Mi n d O ki g i 7
.

n, n 24, 2 6, 2 8, 3 3 ,
N au n g d a w gy i , , 7, 8 .

3 8. 4 0 .
,
.

1 50
,
v n
N ei hba n ( N i r a a) , I i 9 2 , 1 1 4 .

Mi n er a l r eso u r c es , 1 3 89
N g a cha u h, i 2 24 .

i 5
M i n ga l d tnn 20
.

N ga p i ,i 4 6, 2 24 , 36 1
g
.

M in g n b ll ii 3 4
u e
,
.

. 02, 08
iv i
N aw u n r e r , 35 .

N g bh, n 3 6 , 3 7
,

M i gy i i 5
n 56 1 2, 1
.

in y n i
.

I 36
,

M in hl i 5 86 9 N g a , 77, 1 1 0 1 1 5
0, 8 , , .

a, 10 12

M inin g l i 4 r u es ,
.
,

01
,
No bili y B m i
t , ur es e , 1 67 2 37 . ii .

Mi i t f t t i
n s er s o 5 s a e,
.

. I 1 ,
I 52
m n G n l F
N or a , e er a , B , 8 5 90 , . . i .

M i my i 66

n e, 1

M in T y fgy i i 5
.

N or t hb
k L d i 3 r oo or . 1, 36
y g Y ki g i 5
,
a z ,
. 1 2, 1 0 ,

Mi i n y w k i 2 67 ii N au n an, n .

P in i 4 4 4 3
ar ,
ss o or ,
. . 1 5 33
25
r ce . 0. 1. . 47 . 49 57;
3
.

M ix d f t ii 7 8
e or es s , .

p i i 1 , 1 06, 20 8
Ok
M d ty d m l i ty ii an
Ny g au n 4 r n ce , .

o es

M gOk i 4 7 4 0 4
o . 1
or a ,
. 227
Ny gg we i 3 3
au n ,
. 1

M n g Mi t i 3 7 4
, ,

o 1 1 2

M Ok Ob i 6 8 4 ii
S O,
,

.
.

, ,
,

2 2 35
O
M t i i 6
o n a s e r es ,65 i 12 2 Oa t s, h i 1 77 ; ii 1 79
M n ti l i f ii 3 9
.
, .

o as c e, . 1 k
O ra m a , i . 1 2 8, 1 32, 1 36 , 14 1

4 48
 I N D EX
Om n ii 6 9
e s, . 1 P ny in g ii 7
o r ac 2 1
p i m g l ti n i P p a h i ll i 7
.
,

O u re u a o s, . 22 5 , 448 o 12
L g n d f ii 3 7
.
,

Rvn i 4e e ue, . 22 e e o 2
P t l D p tm t i 6 5
.
,

O h d i 34 3
rc ar s, . os a e ar en 2
P tt y i 3 5
.
,

O d l i
r 77
ea s, . 1 o er . 2

P p t g t ii 5
,

O d in t i n f m nk ii
r a o o o s, . 1 50 r e ce s, ve r ea 1 I
P nd g t G n l S H
.
,

re er as e era ir ar r y
P
, ,

I n t ti n t G
s ruc l 18 o s o en era 1 84
P i th d B m ii 3
.
, ,

P a c i c a ti o n of U pp B m i er ur a, . 105 ,
r es oo ,
ur ese , . 12
I n n f ii 4 7
ue ce o . 1

P dd y in g S in f th ii 3
,

a r of 1 89 3 , 4 37 i . s o e, . 1 1

P gan i 3 4
a ,
.
, ,
2 o, 86 , 1 2 7 P im mi i t f A i 4 4 7
r e n s er o va , . 2, , 90 ,
An ti q i ti u es o f, ii .
3 90 1 56
M in i 7 . 2 1 24, 1 50 P inr hi f B m i 7
c es , c e ur e se , . 20

Pg P ivy n i l B m i 5 5 9
, , ,

a od a s a n d m pl ii 3 84 te es , .
3 99 r c ou c ur es e , 1 1 1
P m i 9
.
, , ,

P a hbz i n , i 99 ii 88
. 1 . 2 ro e, . 1 ,
1
P a k Ok k u , i 86 3 6 4 1 1 1 A n t i q i ti f ii 3 88
u es o .

P L g d f ii 3 6 8
.
, , ,

a l i ii 3 . 1 1 e en o .

P
, ,

a n d l i Th k i n i 1
a a . 2 P m m
ro d i 59
e or z .

P n gy t W d k i 7 3 P v b B m ii 8
, ,

a e an au ro er s, ur e se , 22
P vin i l v n
. .
,

P an jd h in i d n t i 6 5
e c e . ro c a d xp d t re e ue an e en i u re,

P f n i 4 4 3
,

ar a i 6 . 2 2

P S ttl m n t i 6
.
,

ar ti ti f p p ty i
on o ro er . 1 81 1 85 e e e . 2 1

P bl i W k D p tm n t i 3 8
, ,

P a a t m By a i 4 a n, . 1 ,
2 1 1 u c or s e ar e ,
. 2

P a ti m k ii
au 3 ,
. I 0 P we, ii . 2 57, 263

P a wdy d ii I 3
an ,
. 2 P w ez a , i . 2 9, 4 32
P a y d gy i
p a god a , i 96 ;
or G r ea t

. P y a td bn ,

i .
90
1

300 ) 4 04 ) 4 0 5 P ii
y a z a t, 2 6 3, 3 1 8

P yinm n i
.

Py i
a Ta k , 1 0, 1 3 . a a, . 1 1 0, 1 36
P l h i i
e ar s er es, 36 2 .

P 2, i
1 68
!
.

P egu 1 . 4 . 2 3. 2 4 . 3 5 . 1 00.

A n ti q i ti f ii 3 7 9 ! u een dowa g er c h i e f i 8 . 20

! u een s s t a t us of t h e v a r ious i
, ,
u es o .

P g in t y h 1 3 5 7
,
, ,
. 1 95
er e

P t l m w ll i 39
r a or s ,
.

! u een S p y g l u i 9 4 8 a a e, .
,
20

S p y agy i i 5
e r o eu e s, 2
8
.

2 10
P hay r e , S i r A r t u r , 24 , 26 , h i . 10 1 ,
u a

S u p ay l a t . i
,
. 0 , 20 ,

3 1 9. 2 5 4
4 2 , so , 90 . 9 2 , 94 .

Mr o er t ,
. Rb i
4 7 , 4 8, 4 9 , 86
Pi
.

c tor a a r t , i l
30 7ii
Pi g
.

ece oo d s , 44 3i .

i
P i n A tw i n w u n , 1 07
Pl n i n
.

k ii
a ta t o s , t e a , 58 R a ha n , 11 . 1 27

P l n in g i l i
.

a t r ce e d s, 319 Rai l wa ys i 3 9 4 7 . 1 ,
1 ,
24 2, 425
P l gh i g y l m i l i
.
,

ou n ,
ro a c er e on a ,
. 20 5 ii 4 . 2

Op i n i 3 6
er a t o s, 1 I n S ia m 9 11 1

F ren ch 6
.
,

Pl gh B m i 3 5
ou s, ur ese , 1 11 . 1

Pl mb g i 4
.
,

u a o, 1 1 Pr o p os e d e ten sio ns of x 11 .
32
Ra n goo n i
,

P t y ii 3 9
.

oe r 1 7 . 10, 1 2, 1 ,
1 8, 2 13 35,
P l i D p tm n t i 3 4
,
.
,

o ce e ar e . 2 4 20
P l i t n f m f ii 3 7
,

o e ess, or s o 2 Ant i q ui t i e s of 3 83 11 .

C h a m b er f co mmer c e i
,
.
,

I nn t ii 3 a e, . 2 1 o . 6 8, 7 1 ,

P l y g my ii 4
o a ,
. 2 1 4 50
a gy i , ii . 1 2 6 , 1 2 9, 1 35 P o rt tr us t ,
1 .
4 50
C C
V OL . II .
449
 I NDEX
R e b ell io n of Mi n d on

s so n s ,
1 86 6 , S a y d a wgy i ,i 56 57 .
,
1

i 4 o, 206 Sci en c e B u rmes e ii 8 . 2 0

e bo rne tr ad e i 4 3 5
.

e co rd er of a n g oo n i 2 2 9
, ,

R R S a .

g a te i 9 99
.
, ,

Re d

1 1 Secret a r ia t i . 22 1

han i
.
, , ,

Red K a ren ii 4 9 . 2 S 174 ; ii 4 4 5

. . 1 1 1

e g is tr a t io n of l a n d i 8 3
, , ,

R . 2 D yn ty i 4 as .

e g u l a t io n s U pper B u rm a i
, ,

R , ,
. 1 07 , Sh St t an i 5 8 33 a es , . 2, , ,
1 ,
1 4 3, 1 7 5 ;
1 301 1 321 1 441 27 5 32, 4 19
.

R el i g io n B u rmes e ii 89 . Act i . 1 39

a n d n a t io n a l c h a r ac ter ii 1 5 3
, , ,

. A d m i n is tr a t io n o f, i . 14 5, 2 1 6,
R el i g ious co mm u n i ty ii
,

27 ,
. 1 2 3 o, 2 32
Mer i t a n d d emer i t i 1 0 ; ii 13 ,
. . 1 ,
l i m a te a n d d esc r i pt io n of i 4 4 7
C ,
.

I 44 ii 4 9 . 1
R ent of l a n d i 2 7 9 ,
. R ai l wa y s i n ii 3 ,
. 2
R es erved fo res t s i ,
. 2 4 9, 2 7 4 ii .
5 9, R ev o lt i n 88 3 884 i 66 1 7 5 ; 1 -
1 ,
.
,

T c u lt i v a t io n i n i 4 4 6
ea .

Tr ad e wi t h i 4 4 7
,

R even u e s ettlement i 8 5 . 2 ii 3 . . 2

i ch a r ds A d m i r a l S i Fre d er i ck S h aw M R B i 4 8
, ,

R , r , ,
r . . .
,
.
,
2 10

i 84 . S k kd i 3
e , 3 . 0, 2
R ic e c r o p s i 2 88 3 3 1 S ki ii 7 4 7 9 5
n, . 12 1 1

S h oe q u es t io n i 8 3 0 3
.
, , , ,

E p o rt s i 4 3
x I

. 2 2

S h l d h m Br i g adi er Gener a l i
.
, , , ,

Tr ad e i 4 3 3 . u a 8 -
. 1

S h webo i 6
, , ,

Ri p o n Lo r d i 5 5
, ,
.
3 ,
.
,
1 1

R oads i 4 ii 4 . 2 0 0 Mi i 7 n, .

S h w e Da g on p a g oda i
.

R o b ert s S i F re d er ic k ( E a rl R o b ert s
,

,
r ,
0 ; ii 3 8 3 ,
. 1 .
,

i 8 09 0 7 . 2, 1 ,
1 1 ,
1 1 , 3 85
reasu ry) i 6
S b w ed a z k ( T

. 1 1

o ch e c h oua rt M i 3 8 ( B u rme e Do mesda y B oo k) i

,

R s . 1 63
S h w e dai k A tw i n w n i 0 7
. .
, , ,

Row l a n dso n C ol o nel i 96 . u . 1

u b y Mi nes i 7 4 7 4 4
, , ,

R S hw my d w i 96

,
. 2, I ,
0 e 9 o a ,
. I I ,
1

R u r a l cus t o m s i 3 3 0
An g l o F renc h C o mm issio n i n ii
.
,

P op u l a t io n i 3 4 . 0 -
.
4
Br i t is h assis t a n c e t o ii 7
, ,

Fren ch a nne a t io ns i n ii
,

S x . 2

F u rth er F ren c h a gg ression i n

,

Barbe
,

St .
,
i
Mr , 4 8 , 4 9 , 7 0 . . 11 .
3
S ac re d l aw i 1 88 . ai l wa ys i n ii 9
R . 1

r ad e wi t h i 4 4 9
, ,

S a dda n, i
9 8, 1 5 0 . T .

S i l k g oods i 4 4 3
,

S a d e, i
1 97
S i lt i n g of h i ll s tre a m s i 3 5 9
. .
,

S adi , ii163 . .

a g ai n g i
,

S 8 , 1 I , 1 2 , 6 7 , 8 8 , 89 ,
. 1 31 S i lver i 3 9 6 .

Wo r k ii 9 5
, ,

Ant i q ui t i es a t ii 4 0 3 . . 2

L e g en d of ii 3 6 6
, ,

. i 6 . 1 0

S a g ai n g Mi S i n b y u gy u n i 4 6
,

i 4 n, . 1 .

S ai g o n ii S i n g u Mi
,

. 2 i 7 n, . 1 0, I 1

ki n g i 7 8
, ,

S a l i n S py Pr i ncess i 4 3
u a, S i py y i
n u n, IO

S a l is b u ry Lo r d i 7 5
. .

dowa ger q u een

, , , ,

. S i py m hi
n u as n,
S a l is b u ry s C a b i net Lo r d i
, , ,

65, 78
S a lt b oi l i n g i 3 6 3 4 4 5
.
, ,

,
.
,
S z tk,

i . 1 54, 1 73
S l w ii
a , 37 . 2 S l ad en ,
C o l o nel S i r E dwa r d i ,
. 82 ,
S a l w een r i ver ii 4 21

m ok i n g ii 0 7
.
,

S a n da l s i 3 8 5 . S . 2

S ha n i 1
, ,

S wbw
a a, 2 30 2 1 S oc ia l s ys tem ii 3 3 2
oo t h sa yer s i 5 0
. .
, , ,

S wl p w i
a a
37
a . I S ii 1 87 . 2 1 1 . 2 85

S w Mau n g i
, , , ,

a
33 ,
. 1 S pe cia l c ou rt Low er B u rm a i , ,
. 2 3o
45 0
 I N D EX
S p i es r oy al i 1 6 1 Ten ass er i m i 35 20 ,
Terr a co tt a wo r k ii 3 7
. .

p i r i t h ous es i 96
, , ,

S ,
. 1 -
,
. 0
S p i r i ts a n d S p i r i t l a n d ii I 5 6 -
,
. Terr i t o r ia l q u es t io n s i ,
. 1 7 3 20 , 2 3,

S t a te l a n ds i 4 22

tea m s h i p co mp a n i es i 4 4 e t i le fa b r i cs i 3 5
.
,

S . 2 T x . 2
h ado Da mm a R ja i 3
, ,

S te a t i te i 4 1 1 T a .

Mi n by a i 4
.
, ,

S te d m a n Gener a l S i E dwa r d i
,
r ,
. I 33i ,
.

1 40 l gy d M i
a ii 5 9 86 n, . 2 ,
2

S te wa rt Gener a l
,
R C , i 1 44 . . . Th m d a i a a, . I

S treet ol o nel i
C 1 00 . Th m ok d i t i
a 3 ar . 2,

u ga r i
, , ,

S , 366, 4 4 5 . l d wg i
an i 58
a r n, . 1

S u l a ga n d z , ii
I I 7

Th d w an i 60
a z zn,
'

. 1

w dd i ki n g i 7
.

S u mpt ua ry l aws i 1 5 , I 1 9, 1 5 0 ,
04 . 2 Th ar r a a 0 . 2

h a n s t a te s Th a re K t t a i
, , , ,

S u per i nten d ents of S ,

ii 3 6 8
e ar ,
. 2 .

i 3 . 2 I T/ tl m d
za za i 6 c4

76 a ,
. 1 2, 22 ,
2 ,
2 88

S u per s t i t io n s ii 55 75 1 I i 7 3 98 ii . . 12 5,
R e g a r di n g el ds i 3 1
.
, , ,

. 2 2 53
h a tan i 4 ; ii
,

S u pplement a ry l a n d su rvey i 87 ,
. 2 T , 37 8 . . 1 1 2,

S p y ag l i 94
u a 08 a e, . 2 Ant i q ui t i es of ii 3 7 8 .

Th a yetmy o i 4 9 5
, ,

S p y gy i i 5
u a a 8 10 ,
. 0 , 20 ,
2 8 ,
.
,
o, 2, 1 1 2

S p y al t i 4
u a 5 0 90 9 9 4
a 7 . 2, 2. I 2. Th m ii e 5 38 . 1 0, 0
Th e i nn i i 9
, , . , ,

20 8, 209 .

B h um i i 4 ii 3 7 8 Th i b aw k i n g i 7 3
,

S u va r n a ,
. .
, 4 45 ,
.
.
2, 1 , , 5 3,
S ymes ol o nel i 6
C . 1
D ecl a re d h e i r a pp a rent
, ,

S ym o ns Gener al S i W Penn
,
r .
,
i ,
.
3 3,
i 1 4 o, 1 42
S u rren d er s h i m s el f i 9 94
.

S yr ia m a nt i q ui t i es of ii
, ,
.
3 83 ,
. 1 ,

U lt i m a t u m s ent t o i 7 8 .

Thi b w c h a r a cter i
,

T

a 7
s ,
. 1 2, 2 1 0

D p o rt a t io n i 94
e .

ab i n dai n g Pr i n c ess i
,

T 1 95 , 2 1 0 . M a n if es t o i 8 3 .

ab i n h we i
, , ,

T S Ti , 2, 5 . M assac res i 4 3 4 7 ,
.
, , 5 0 , 6 6, 6 7 ,
Ta gd m , i
9 1 , 1 99
'

. 209

T a g au n g i
, 3 ii
409 . . is r u le i 6 5
M ,
.

Ta z k Tk u g z ,
'

i 228
'

. P ol ic y i 3 9 5 5 .

ai n g da i n gy i i
, ,

T M 4 2 , 4 4 , 4 9, 6 6 , .
! u een s i 8 . 20

Th i b aw S w bw
, ,

i a a, . 121

Ta l a i n g , 6, 1 2 i ii . 2 36 S t a te i 9 4 7 ; ii 3 33 121 1 2,
a tt ooi n g
. .
, ,
.
,

T ii 1 97 . Thi g n ii 6 8 a, I 1 12
au n gb y n le g en d of ii
.
, ,

T o , Th d d wy i
'

37 . I z ss 58 a e, 1
au n gg wi n i n gy i i
.

Th o mp so n S i A R i ver s i
,

T ,
M ,
. 1 07 ,
r .
,
. 220

Ta u n gy a cu lt i v a t io n i . 2 4 9, 274, Tho g e pr i n c e i 5
n z . 0

Th ousa n d a n d o ne p a g odas ii 4 7
, ,

. 60 0
au n ggy i i
.

Th res h i n g r ic e i 3 5
,

T 24 1 32 . ii . . 2

Th r o nes i n p a l a ce i
, ,

T a voy i
,
1 , 1 3, 1 8 .
,
. 20 1

Ta w a d ez n g t/z a , 26 1
'

ii . l d mm d
u a d e cisio n s of pr i n
as r z,
'

Te a , 446 i c ess i 9 ; ii 3 9 1 0 1
e a k ores t s ii
. . .
,

T f ,
82 . l gy i i
u 63 68, 7 . 1 ,
1 ,
2 1
Pl a nt a t io n s ii 5 8, 8 3 . Th gy u my i
'

66
z sa e,

1
i m b er i
.
,

T , 3 69, 4 2 6 . ii .
47 Th P i ny a i
u 3 ,
. 2,
T r ad e i n ii 81 . T,i2 ; ii 3 8 5
10 .

Ti m b er ca rt s i 3 7
,
.

Tez n d ez n y a n lz m u ,
' '

161 i 0
ele g r a ph s i
. .
,

T 147 . Ti me of sca r ci ty i 93 2

Ti m i n i n g i 3 9 5
.
, ,

T emples ii 40 1 . n .

To b a c co i 4 4 5
, ,

T en a n ci es i
,
2 7 9 , 2 99 .
,
.

45 1
 I NDEX
To nq ui n i 6 3 65 , 7 3 2 ii Wrz a i 2 1 1 ii
ou n goo i
.

Wh i te Gener a l S i r Ge o r g e i
. .
, , ,

T .
1. 5 . 7 0. 74 . 1 1 2. , ,
8 5 , 90 ,
.

1 39 ; n 2 7 .
91 , 1 0 8, 1 1 1 ,
1 1 5 , 1 2 3,
A n ti q u i t1e s , i i 3 87 of
Wh i te eleph a nt
.

Tou rm a l i ne i 411 . i . 14, 9 8, 1 50, 20 3

Wi nn owi n g r i ce
, ,

Tr ad e a n d c o mmerce i 413 i .
32 5
i n e i gh teent h c ent u ry i Wi t ch doc to r ii 84
.
, ,

415 . 2

i n n neteent h c ent u ry i Wi t c h es a n d wi a r ds ii 6 7
.
, ,

i 4 17 z . 1

Wi ve s s even k i n ds f i 8
.
, ,

Tr ad e r ou te s i ,
ii
173 ; 1 2, 3 5, 40 . .
,
o ,
. 1 2

Tr ad er s q ua rter s i
'

34 7 I mpro pr i et i es i n i 86 . 1

Wol s eley Gener a l S i Ge o r g e i

.
, ,

Tr a n sf r o nt i er i nl a n d tr ad e i
( ) , 447 , .
,
r ,
. 1 37 ,
4 4 9 ; 11 3 9 . 1 4 2. 144
T r a n s v aal wa r i , 5 3, 54 . Woo dca rv i n g 1 1 2 9 3 ,
.

T re asu ry o cial s B u rmes e i

f 161 W ood 0 11 i 3 6 5 -

rea t i s b et w een Br i tai n a n d B u rm a

.
, , ,

T e Woodwa r d C a pt ai n R i 84
Wre s tl i n g m a t c h e s ii 2 7 4
. .
, , ,

i 2 0 . 2 6 . 2 8. 3 9 . 5 0 . 54 5 1 . ,
.

F r a n c o B u r m ese , o
i .
3 8, 5 6 , 5 8 , 6 3 , Wz m i 1 5 2 I 5 4
,
.
,

7 3. 81 Wu n d a u k i 5 6 1 5 2 1 5 6 .
,

wi t h o th er g re a t p ow er s i
, ,

64 , Wu n gy z i 1 5 2 1 5 6
'

W u nt h o g ol d el ds i 3 99
.
, , ,

65 7 3 .

.
aw b wa i 99
,

T re a ty of Ti e n tsm , 1 8 5 8, ii . 20 S ,
.
,
1 2 8, 1 4 1

S t a te i 4 ,
. 2 1

U Wu tt ii 3 7
u, . 1

Uboksa u n g N e, ii 1 5 1 .

U lt i m a t u m t o i n g h i b a i
K T w, 79
i
.

R eply t o i 80 Y a d a n a bn , . 1 96

m b rell as i Y a m et h i n i 3 6 4
.
,
1 1 1
U 2 0 4 , 3 86 ,
.
,

tre a ty of i
.

m b rell as o n p a g odas ii
,
22, 26,

U Y nd b
a a ii 2 0,
3 85
.
.
, ,
,

Up a s a m p a d a , ii 1 5 0 , 3 80

Y a n g t s e v alley
.

Up a z z n , ii

1 27
0 ,
11 . 1

i 68
.

U pper B u rm a re g u l a t io n s i 1 07 ,
V n Mi n B
a ,
o, .

m t k i
.
,
Y aza 6 a z a 1 1
30 . 5
.
I 1 32 . 144. 27 ,

U su ry i ,
. 2 97
Y wi
az a i ii 3 7 n, . I . 1 , 3 84
Y ez n gpw, 265
'

11 .

Yen a n g ya t i 3 93 .

Yen a n gy au n g i 3 9 3
,
V .
,

Mi n gy i i 4 2
V ic ere g a l v isi t a t io n s i
.
,

Y ktl p w ii
2 3, 1 0 3, 2 2 9
63

V ll a g e s t oc k ad es i 8
2
.
,
o ze ,
.

1 68
Y d w i
i I 1
200
.
,
,
n a
S y s tem i Y ou n g B u rm a n s
.
,
69 1
24 3
.
, 11
V iolent c r i me i 2 3 5
.
,

,
.
Y u nn a n i 8 ; ,
. 2 1 , 42
Yw L y g i
'

a 64 u z, . 1

W Tk gy i
'

9u z, . 22

Wa ii 5 . 1 2 Z
Waddi n g t o n M i 7 5
,

. .

ii
, ,

Was te l a n d r u les i 7 4 ,
. 2 Z a t, 2 6 3 , 3 1 6 , 3 1 8, 3 2 1
.

Wa ter f es t i v a l ii 5 9 . 2 Z a tpw,ii 263 .

We a v i n g i 3 4 8 i mm i ii
,

,
. Z e, 8, I 1 45 . .

W t/ e y d Z t ii 3 6
za n a a
'
a ,
. 1 , 32 1 2q war . 4 5 . 4 6 . 5 1 . 5 3. 5 4 i .

B utl er Ta nner, The S e l woo d P i i nt i ng \ m s, F r om e , an d L on d on .

45 2
 ni e r i
U v s ty o f C a fo a l i rn i
H
S O UT E RN REG O NA I L LI
B RARY FAC TY ILI
e e ri e
3 05 De N v D v r in
P a k g Lot 1 7 0 B o x 95 1 3 88
L LI I
LOS ANG E ES , C A FO RN A 90095 -1 3 88
Re t rn t hi m t e r i l t th l i b r ry fr m whi h i t w b rr we d
u s a a o e a o c as o o .

F or )