Food Research International 44 (2011) 840850

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Food Research International

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / f o o d r e s

Review

Aphrodisiacs from plant and animal sourcesA review of current scientic literature
John P. Melnyk, Massimo F. Marcone
Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The use of aphrodisiacs dates back thousands of years in Chinese, Indian, Egyptian, Roman, and Greek cultures.
Received 16 December 2010 Although the scientic basis of these substances was not understood, aphrodisiacs were valued for their
Accepted 27 February 2011 ability to enhance the sexual experience. Their use allowed for human procreation and the ability to obtain a
sexually fullling relationship. Aphrodisiacs used historically include ambrein, Bufo toad, Spanish y,
Keywords:
yohimbine, Tribulus terrestris, horny goat weed, muira puama, MACA root, Panax ginseng, nutmeg, saffron, and
Aphrodisiac
Sexual enhancement
cacao. Previous studies on these substances have shown potential aphrodisiac properties using animal models
Erection and in human clinical trials. Aphrodisiacs were shown to relax corpus cavernosum smooth muscle tissue in
Sildenal animals, improve erection quality in humans and animals, or increase sexual behavior and satisfaction in
Libido humans and animals. Although most studies showed positive effects of aphrodisiacs on sexual enhancement,
Corpus cavernosum smooth muscle more studies are needed to understand their mechanism of action. The need for clinical trials using larger
Traditional medicine populations is also evident to prove the effectiveness of aphrodisiacs for human use. This paper will review
recent scientic studies conducted on these commonly used aphrodisiacs, and determine whether the results
support or refute their use for human sexual enhancement.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
2. Aphrodisiacs with sexual enhancing properties supported with scientic studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
2.1. Ambrein. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
2.2. Bufo Toad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
2.3. Spanish y (Cantharides) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
2.4. Yohimbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
2.5. Tribulus terrestris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
2.6. Horny goat weed (Epimedium) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
2.7. Muira puama (potency wood) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
2.8. MACA root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
2.9. Panax ginseng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
2.10. Nutmeg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
2.11. Saffron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
2.12. Chocolate (cacao) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
3. Historical aphrodisiacs supported with limited scientic studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
3.1. Plant-based aphrodisiacs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
3.2. Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
3.3. Phallic symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
3.4. Alcohol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849

Abbreviations: ED, erectile dysfunction; CCSM, corpus cavernosum smooth muscle; TT, Tribulus terrestris; PTN, protodioscin; ICP, intracavernous pressure; NO, nitric oxide.
Corresponding author. Tel.: + 1 519 824 4120x58334; fax: + 1 519 824 6631.
E-mail address: mmarcone@uoguelph.ca (M.F. Marcone).

0963-9969/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2011.02.043
 J.P. Melnyk, M.F. Marcone / Food Research International 44 (2011) 840850
1. Introduction
The reliance on aphrodisiacs by society has been demonstrated for
thousands of years. In historic Chinese, Indian, Egyptian, Roman, and
Greek cultures, such substances were used in traditional remedies for
the purpose of enhancing the sexual experience (Elferink, 2000). The
scientic basis of these natural aphrodisiacs was not understood, but
the observed sexual enhancing properties popularized their use in
these cultures.
Procreation was the single most important goal in historic cultures,
and the inability to procreate drove efforts to discover natural sources
of sexually enhancing substances (Elferink, 2000; Yakubu, Akanji, &
Oladiji, 2007). Aphrodisiacs could be used to aid in a family's ability to
have children, but would also allow for sexual fulllment within a
marriage which was otherwise unsatisfactory (Yakubu et al., 2007). In
Aztec cultures, a large family was encouraged and was both respected
and admired within society (Elferink, 2000). A childless marriage was
considered to be a failure within the family. For these reasons,
aphrodisiacs were highly sought and valued.
The term aphrodisiac is derived from Greek mythology, where
Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty (Shamloul, 2010). The
Greek word aphrodisia means sexual pleasure (Krychman, Gubili,
Pereira, Holstein, & Cassileth, 2007). The modern denition of
aphrodisiac can vary, but is generally regarded as a substance that
increases sexual desire (i.e. libido) and/or sexual pleasure. The
denition has been extended to include those substances which
enhance sexual performance or aid in the proper functioning of the
male and female sex organs (Sandroni, 2001; Shamloul, 2010).
Substances include foods, beverages, vitamins, minerals, and other
natural and synthetic chemicals (Krychman et al., 2007).
Aphrodisiacs can be classied according to their effects when
consumed or administered. Aphrodisiacs can have psychological
effects, thereby increasing sexual desire and pleasure through
hallucinogenic properties or other mood stimulating properties.
Aphrodisiacs can also act physiologically, enhancing erection through
hormonal changes, increased blood ow, and smooth muscle-relaxing
properties (Sandroni, 2001).
Society is currently relying on synthetic products such as sildenal
(most commonly sold as Viagra) and tadalal (most commonly sold
as Cialis) to treat erectile dysfunction (ED). However, these
substances can produce negative side effects such as headache,
muscle pain, and blurred vision, and may have dangerous interactions
with other medications (Sandroni, 2001). These products also do not
increase libido (Shamloul, 2010). The ability of these synthetic
products to treat ED has heightened the search for natural substances
that can enhance the sexual experience without the negative side
effects. Interest has also increased in the area of nding libido
enhancing products to treat those with low sex drive (Shamloul,
2010). This review will present recent work conducted on natural
aphrodisiacs and assess their potential as sexual enhancers. The
substances focused on are those that have been scientically studied,
either in vitro, in vivo on animal models, or in human clinical trials, and
show potential as an aphrodisiac. Major outcomes of the studies are
summarized in Table 1. A brief section on less common aphrodisiacs
that lack scientic studies is also included in the review.
2. Aphrodisiacs with sexual enhancing properties supported with
scientic studies
2.1. Ambrein
The triterpene alcohol Ambrein is a major constituent of
Ambergris, formed in the intestinal tract of the sperm whale (Physeter
catodon) (Taha, Raza, & El-Khawad, 1998). Historically, its use ranged
from perfume preparations to the treatment of health conditions. In
traditional Middle Eastern medicine, Ambergris has been used to treat
841
headaches, rheumatism, common colds, and constipation due to its
alleged anti-inammatory and antinociceptive properties (Sandroni,
2001; Shamloul, 2010; Taha et al., 1998). It has also been used to
enhance sexual performance, with recent studies supporting its
validity as a natural aphrodisiac.
In a 1998 study, Taha and colleagues studied the ability of isolated
ambrein to reduce the effects of vasoconstricting hormones on various
animal smooth muscles (Taha et al., 1998). Ambrein was shown to
reduce spontaneous contractions of rabbit jejunum, rat uterus, and
guinea pig vas deferens in vitro at concentrations of 10250 g/mL. It
was also shown to reduce acetylcholine-, adrenaline-, prostaglandin-,
and oxytocin-induced contractions in various smooth muscles (Taha
et al., 1998). The ability of ambrein to reduce muscle contractions
shows the potential of the aphrodisiac to facilitate erection due to
increased blood ow.
A 1995 study by Taha's group showed that ambrein increased
sexual behavior in male rats. After being administered 100 and
300 mg/kg body weight of ambrein, the rats increased their number of
penile erections in the absence of females, as well as increased
intromissions and anogenital investigatory behavior in the presence
of females. Based on the results, the authors concluded that sexual
behavior in rats is modied by ambrein which supports its historical
use as an effective aphrodisiac (Taha, Islam, & Ageel, 1995).
2.2. Bufo Toad
The skin and gland secretions of Bufo Toad have traditionally been
used for medicinal and aphrodisiac purposes (Abdel-Rahman, Ahmed, &
Nabil, 2010). The ancient Chinese medication Chan su and Indian
aphrodisiac Love Stone are produced from these secretions and contain
the psychoactive ingredients bufotenine (Bick, Poindexter, Sweney, &
Dasgupta, 2002). Chan su has been used to treat heart conditions,
provide local anesthetic, and control bleeding, although the mecha-
nisms are unclear. However, its aphrodisiac properties may be explained
by the presence of bufotenine and its O-methylated derivative 5-
methoxy-M,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) contained in Bufo
Toad, which is a hallucinogenic that provides stimulatory effects
(Sandroni, 2001). Sexual enhancement due to topical application
providing anesthetic has also been suggested as a possible explanation
for its aphrodisiac properties. Studies have demonstrated the negative
effects of Chan su and Bufo Toad secretions on heart rate and
cardiomyocyte contractibility but have not related any ndings to
increased or decreased sexual performance (Abdel-Rahman et al., 2010;
Bick et al., 2002).
2.3. Spanish y (Cantharides)
The Spanish y (Lytta vesicatoria) is the most well known of a
collection of blister beetles traditionally used as aphrodisiacs. The
beetle secretes cantharidin, a toxin used as part of its defense
mechanism. At high doses cantharidin is toxic to humans, but despite
the risk, it has historically been used to enhance sexual function
(Karras, Farrell, Harrigan, Henretig, & Gealt, 1996; Tagwireyi, Ball,
Loga, & Moyo, 2000; Waddell, Jones, & Keith, 1981). Its use has been
dated back 2000 years in Chinese and African herbal remedies by
grinding the beetle to a powder before dissolution in a solvent for
ingestion (Tagwireyi et al., 2000). When ingested, urethral irritation
occurs which may cause priaprism in both males and females (Karras
et al., 1996; Waddell et al., 1981). This occurs by inhibition of
phosphodiesterase and protein phosphatase activity by cantharidin,
which stimulates -receptors, inducing vascular inammation of the
genitourinary tract (Karras et al., 1996; Sandroni, 2001).
In 1969, Leavitt tested the ability of cantharidin to enhance sexual
behavior in rats. Rats were administered 0.67 mg/kg cantharidin and
placed in a test chamber with females brought to estrous (Leavitt,
1969). No differences in sexual behavior (mounts, intromission, and
842 J.P. Melnyk, M.F. Marcone / Food Research International 44 (2011) 840850

Table 1
Major ndings of studies conducted on aphrodisiacs.

Aphrodisiac Preparation/bioactive In vitro/in vivo model, Observation Reference

constituent tested human, or animal subject

Ambrein Dissolved ambrein Rabbit jejunum, rat uterus, 10, 50, and 250 g/mL reduced spontaneous Taha et al.
solution and guinea pig vas deferens in contractions in smooth muscle (1995)
vitro

Ambrein Male rats in the presence and 100 and 300 mg/kg body wt. increased penile Taha et al.
absence of females erections, intromissions, and anogenital (1995)
investigatory behavior
Spanish Fly Cantharidin Long-Evans hooded rats 0.67 mg/kg showed no difference in mounts, Leavitt
intromissions, and ejaculations compared to (1969)
control group. 2 mg/kg resulted in 8 deaths
demonstrating toxicity

(Cantharidin)
Yohimbine Yohimbine capsules 48 males with psychogenic ED The 10 week placebo-controlled, double-blind Reid et al.
study increased erections in 46% of males after (1987)
receiving 18 mg/day

Yohimbine capsules 63 males with psychogenic ED 15 mg/day yohimbine combined with Montorsi
trazodone for 8 weeks in a randomized, et al. (1994)
placebo-controlled, double-blind trial
increased erectile function, ejaculation,
interest in sex, and sexual thoughts
Yohimbine capsules 31 males with psychogenic The double-blind, placebo-controlled study Mann et al.
and organic ED showed an improvement in erectile function (1996)
in the psychogenic group after 7 weeks of
consuming 15 mg/day yohimbine. No effect
was observed in organic group
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Table 1 (continued)
Aphrodisiac Preparation/bioactive In vitro/in vivo model, Observation Reference
constituent tested human, or animal subject

Yohimbine Yohimbine hydrochloride 86 males with ED 30 mg/day for 8 weeks improved sexual Vogt et al.
capsules (psychogenic and organic desire, sexual satisfaction, and penis rigidity in (1997)
undetermined) this double-blind, placebo-controlled study
Yohimbine capsules 100 males with organic ED 18 mg/day showed a non-signicant increase Morales et al.
in penile function in this randomized, (1987)
placebo-controlled study
Yohimbine hydrochloride 22 males with organic ED 100 mg/day showed a non-signicant Teloken et al.
capsules increase in penile rigidity in this 30 day (1998)
randomized, placebo-controlled study
Yohimbine 18 non-smoking males with 16.2 and 32.4 mg/day yohimbine for 4 weeks Guay et al.
organic ED increased sexual intercourse and penis (2002)
rigidity, but was observed in only subjects
with mild ED
Yohimbine In vitro, human corpus Pre-contracted CCSM was relaxed 94% with Filippi et al.
cavernosum from 7 impotent 100 M yohimbine (2002)
males
Yohimbine In vitro, human corpus Pre-contracted CCSM was relaxed 100% with Freitas et al.
cavernosum from 12 males 100 M yohimbine (2009)
Tribulus terrestris TT extract containing 40 castrated male Sprague 5 mg/kg TT for 8 weeks signicantly increased Gauthaman
protodioscin Dawley rats mount frequency and intromissions, and et al. (2002)
decreased mount latency, intromissions, and
ejaculations

(protodioscin)
TT extract containing 40 male SpragueDawley rats 5 and 10 mg/kg for 8 weeks increased mount Gauthaman
protodioscin and intromission frequency et al. (2002)
TT extract Primates, rabbits, and rats 2.5 to 10 mg/kg (rabbits and rats) or 7.5 to Gauthaman
30 mg/kg (primates) for 8 weeks increased and Ganesan
serum testosterone levels (2008)
TT extract 21 healthy young males The double-blind, placebo-controlled study Neychev and
showed no increase in serum testosterone, Mitev (2005)
androstenedione, or luteinizing hormone
levels after 4 weeks of consuming 10 or
20 mg/day TT
Horney goat weed Icariin In vitro isolated corpus Icariin relaxed smooth muscle pre-contracted Xin et al.
cavernosum from New with phenylephrine (2001)
Zealand white rabbits

(Icariin)

Icariin In vitro isolated corpus
cavernosum from New
Zealand white rabbits
Puried icariin extract 32 castrated male Wistar rats
Puried icariin extract 58 male SpragueDawley rats
(cavernous nerve-injured)
The aphrodisiac mechanism of icariin involves Jiang et al.
the No-cGMP signal and increases levels of (2006)
cGMP in smooth muscle
1 or 5 mg/kg for 4 weeks increased ICP Liu et al. (2005)
1, 5, and 10 mg/kg for 4 weeks increased ICP Shindel et al.
(2010)

(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued)
Aphrodisiac Preparation/bioactive In vitro/in vivo model, Observation Reference
constituent tested human, or animal subject

Horney goat weed Epimedii herba extract 50 male Wistar rats 300 and 750 mg/kg of a lipid-based feed Makarova et al.
containing icariin containing 3% and 20% icariin for 10 days (2007)
increased intromission and ejaculations, and
decreased ejaculation latency
Muira Puama Herbal vX containing HV- 202 healthy females 150 and 1050 mg/day HV-430 for 10 days Waynberg
430 and Ginkgo biloba resulted in a self-assessed increase in sexual and Brewer
satisfaction, intensity of sexual desire, (2000)
excitement of fantasies, ability to reach
orgasm, and intensity of orgasm

Alcoholic extract of New Zealand white rabbit 10 mg injections relaxed smooth muscle Antunes et al.
Ptychopetalum olacoides corpus cavernosum, in vitro (2001)
MACA root Ethanolic extract of MACA 45 male and 90 female mice, 40 mg/kg for 22 days signicantly increased Zheng et al.
90 male Wistar rats mating and 45, 180, and 1800 mg/kg for (2000)
20 days improved erectile function

Pulverized MACA root 120 male and female 15 and 75 ml/kg for 15 days decreased Cicero et al.
SpragueDawley rats mounting, intromission, and ejaculation (2001)
latency
Hexane, methanol, and 100 male and female 52 mg hexane, 870 mg methanol, 24 mg Cicero et al.
chloroform extracts of SpragueDawley rats chloroform extract for 5 days decreased (2002)
MACA root intromission latency and increased frequency
Gelatinized Maca capsules 57 healthy males In the 12 week double-blind, placebo- Gonzales et al.
controlled trial, 1500 and 3000 mg/day of (2002)
MACA increased sexual desire
MACA capsules 20 depressed males and 3000 mg/day of MACA for 12 weeks increased Dording et al.
females sexual desire (2008)
MACA capsules 8 athletic males 2000 mg/day for 2 weeks increased self- Stone et al.
assessed sexual desire (2009)
MACA capsules 50 males with ED 2400 mg/day for 12 weeks increased erectile Zenico et al.
function and sexual satisfaction (2009)
Powdered MACA 14 post-menopausal women The double-blind, placebo-controlled study Brooks et al.
showed that 3500 mg/day for 6 weeks (2008)
resulted in a reduction in sexual
dysfunction
Panax ginseng Korean red ginseng 60 males with mild to The double-blind, placebo-controlled study de Andrade
capsules moderate ED showed that 3000 mg/day for 12 weeks et al. (2007)
resulted in improved erection rigidity,
penetration, and maintenance

Korean red ginseng 64 males with organic and The placebo-controlled study showed an Choi et al.
capsules psychogenic ED improvement in libido, erection, sexual (1999)
satisfaction, and arousal after 12 weeks
Korean red ginseng 50 males with psychogenic ED The placebo-controlled study showed that Choi (2001)
capsules 1800 mg/day for 8 weeks resulted in
improved erection and sexual satisfaction
Korean red ginseng 45 males with ED The double-blind, placebo-controlled study Hong et al.
capsules showed that 2700 mg/day for 8 weeks (2002)
resulted in improved erection, penetration,
and maintenance
Crude extract of ginseng Smooth muscle of New 0.2 to 8 mg relaxed rabbit smooth muscle pre- Kim et al.
saponin Zealand white rabbit corpus contracted with phenylphrine (1998)
cavernosum, in vitro
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Table 1 (continued)
Aphrodisiac Preparation/bioactive In vitro/in vivo model, Observation Reference
constituent tested human, or animal subject

Panax ginseng Korean red ginseng 28 menopausal women The double-blind, placebo-controlled study Oh et al.
capsules showed that 3000 mg/day for 8 weeks (2010)
resulted in improved sexual arousal
Nutmeg Nutmeg ethanolic extract 24 male Swiss mice (2003), Single dose and 7 day feeding of 500 mg/kg Tajuddin et al.
(dissolved in water) 30 male albino increased mounting behavior, mating (2003),
Wistar rats (2005) performance, and sexual activity Tajuddin et al.
(2005)

Saffron Aqueous saffron extract, 66 male virgin Wistar rats Extract (80, 160, 320 mg/kg body wt.) and Hosseinzadeh
crocin, and safranal crocin (200, 400 mg/kg) increased mounting-, et al. (2008)
intromission-, and erection frequency.
Safranal had no effect.

(Crocin)
Aqueous saffron extract 20 males with ED 200 mg for 10 days improved tip and base Shamsa et al.
capsule containing crocin rigidity and tumescence. Self-reported (2009)
and safranal increases in erectile function, sexual desire,
and satisfaction were signicant
Saffron ethanolic extract 346 males with ED 30 mg/day for 12 weeks showed a decrease in Safarinejad
capsule intercourse and satisfaction compared to et al. (2010)
pre-treatment
Chocolate Reporting of chocolate 163 women Daily chocolate consumers had signicantly Salonia et al.
consumption habits higher sexual desire (no difference when (2006)
adjusted for age)

(cacao pod)

ejaculations) were observed between the control group and cantharidin-
fed group, suggesting that this substance has no positive effects on sexual
activity of rats.
The many cases of death reported due to Spanish y/cantharidin
ingestion suggest that it is unsafe as a sexual performance enhancer
(Karras et al., 1996; Tagwireyi et al., 2000). The study by Leavitt
discussed above reported the deaths of 8 rats at the high cantharidin
dose (2 mg/kg) supporting its toxicity and potential for death in
humans (Leavitt, 1969). Doses as low as 10 mg have been reported to
be deadly to humans (Tagwireyi et al., 2000).
2.4. Yohimbine
Yohimbine is an alkaloid extracted from the Yohimbe (Pausinystalia
yohimbe) trees of West Africa (Ernst & Pittler, 1998). Traditionally
yohimbine was consumed as a drink, after boiling Yohimbe bark in hot
water and sipping the extract. Modern yohimbine extraction and
purication for pill formation is achieved through ethanol or chloroform
solubilization. The yohimbe bark is ground and submerged in the
solvent, followed by ltration and evaporation of the solvent (Miller,
1985). Traditionally, the extract has been used to treat impotency and
increase libido. Today, the same bark is used as the raw material, with
yohimbine being packaged into pill form for oral administration. The
drug is legal in USA and Canada for sexual dysfunction treatment by
prescription, however is found in over-the-counter natural health
products. Yohimbine is an 2-adrenoreceptor blocker that has been
shown in vivo to have effects in three major sites: the central nervous
system, autonomic nervous system, and penile tissue and vascular
smooth muscle cells (Vogt et al., 1997). Studies on Yohimbine
investigated its effects on both psychogenic ED, caused by psychological
complications, and organic ED, the inability to achieve or sustain
erection due to physiological problems. The effect of Yohimbine on
treatment of psychogenic erectile dysfunction has been well studied in
randomized placebo-controlled trials, with results conrming its ability
to treat erectile dysfunction (Mann et al., 1996; Montorsi et al., 1994;
Reid et al., 1987; Vogt et al., 1997). Dosages of 15 mg30 mg/day
yohimbine were administered orally in the studies. Studies on organic
erectile dysfunction have disagreed on yohimbine's potential as a sexual
enhancer, with dosages ranging from 15 to 100 mg/day (Guay, Spark,
Jacobson, Murray, & Geisser, 2002; Mann et al., 1996; Morales et al.,
846 J.P. Melnyk, M.F. Marcone / Food Research International 44 (2011) 840850
1987; Teloken, Rhoden, Sogari, Dambros, & Souto, 1998). The studies on
psychogenic and organic erectile dysfunction used comparable treat-
ment periods ranging from 4 to 10 weeks. Results have shown limited
organic ED improvement and mainly on subjects with mild erectile
dysfunction. Table 1 summarizes the results.
Studies have also shown yohimbine to have relaxation effects of
almost 100% in human corpus cavernosum smooth muscle (CCSM)
which demonstrates the potential for yohimbine as an effective
aphrodisiac (Filippi et al., 2002; Freitas et al., 2009).
2.5. Tribulus terrestris
Tribulus terrestris (TT) is a owering herb found in temperate
climates all over the world (Shamloul, 2010). The plant and its
extracts have traditionally been used as medicines in Asia and India to
treat urinary, cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal disorders as well as
being used as a sexual stimulant (Gauthaman, Adaikan, & Prasad,
2002). The aphrodisiac properties are due to the steroidal saponin
protodioscin (PTN).
In a 2002 study by Gauthaman, aphrodisiac properties of TT extract
containing PTN were tested on normal and castrated rats fed either
water, testosterone (10 mg/kg), or PTN (castrated only) (5 mg/kg).
The castrated rats fed testosterone or PTN showed a signicant
increase in frequency of mounts and intromissions and a decrease in
latency of mounts, intromissions, and ejaculations compared to the
water-fed castrated rat (Gauthaman et al., 2002). The aphrodisiac
effects are thought to be due to increases in androgen levels in the
PTN-fed groups. The results of this study were conrmed by
Gauthaman's group in 2003 using non-castrated rats at various TT
concentrations (2.5, 5, 10 mg/kg) (Gauthaman, Ganesan, & Prasad,
2003). The study also conrmed an increase in intracavernous
pressure (ICP), which is a widely accepted index of penile erection.
The suggested increase in ICP is due to nitric oxide (NO) release from
endothelial or neural cells causing smooth muscle relaxation and
increased blood ow to the penis (Gauthaman et al., 2003). Further
studies observed increases in testosterone and dihydrotesosterone
indicating a T. terrestris-induced increase in male sex hormones
(Gauthaman & Ganesan, 2008).
T. terrestris aphrodisiac properties were tested on human subjects
in one study (Neychev & Mitev, 2005). The results determined that
after feeding healthy young males either 10 or 20 mg/kg body weight,
there was no signicant increase in testosterone, androstenedione, or
luteinizing hormone levels. No mechanisms were offered, and further
studies are needed to determine why clinical trial results differed
from the rat models previously discussed.
2.6. Horny goat weed (Epimedium)
Epimedium (Epimedii herba) is a genus of owering plants used in
traditional Chinese medicine to treat a range of medical conditions as
well as to improve sexual function (Shamloul, 2010). The effects are
attributed to its biologically active component icariin, a avanol
glycoside obtained from the aerial part of the plant (Shindel et al.,
2010). It has been attributed to improved cardiovascular function,
hormone regulation, immunological function, and anti-tumor activity
(Makarova et al., 2007).
A 2001 study by Xin and colleagues tested the effects of icariin on
enhancing penile erection due to its ability to relax cavernosal smooth
muscle (Xin, Kim, Tian, Lin, & Guo, 2001). Corpus cavernous tissue
from New Zealand white rabbits were tested in vitro with results
proving that icariin has relaxation effects on smooth muscle that has
been pre-contracted with phenylephrine. The action is believed to be
due to NO release such as was determined with T. terrestris (Jiang
et al., 2006; Xin et al., 2001). Icariin aphrodisiac effects were also
tested in vivo using Male Wistar rats (normal and castrated) fed either
water or icariin (1 or 5 mg/kg body weight). Results showed a
signicantly increased ICP in the icariin-fed group compared to
control group demonstrating the potential of Epimedium to improve
erectile function (Liu et al., 2005). In 2010, the results were conrmed
using cavernous nerve-injured rats fed 1, 5, and 10 mg/kg body
weight of icariin (Shindel et al., 2010).
The aphrodisiac properties of icariin were also demonstrated by
studying the sexual behavior of rats fed 300 or 750 mg/kg body
weight of a lipid-based feed containing 3% and 20% icariin,
respectively (Makarova et al., 2007). Results showed that the number
of complete intromission and ejaculations increased, while the latent
period of ejaculation decreased signicantly.
2.7. Muira puama (potency wood)
Muira puama (Ptychopetalum olacoides) is a genus of owering
plants found primarily in Brazil with historical use as a sexual
enhancer (Shamloul, 2010). A clinical study in 1994 showed that a
60% increase in libido was seen in men with initially low libido,
while a 50% increase in erection ability was observed in men with
erectile dysfunction (Waynberg, 1994). The libido enhancing
properties of the herbs bioactive extract, HV-430 mixed with Ginkgo
biloba were also demonstrated in women (Waynberg & Brewer,
2000). After administration of 60 tablets, either 2 or 6/day contain-
ing 175 mg HV-430 and 16 mg G. biloba per tablet, libido improved.
The women reported statistically greater frequency and intensity of
sexual desire and sexual intercourse, satisfaction with sex life,
excitement of fantasies, ability to reach orgasm, intensity of orgasm,
and frequency and excitement of sexual fantasies. It is important to
note that some of the positive effects may be due to the presence of
G. biloba and further research using random, placebo-controlled
trials must be conducted to conrm the role of muira puama on
sexual enhancement.
Muira puama was also shown to have corpus cavernosum smooth
muscle-relaxant effects in rabbits similar to that of T. terrestris and
Epimedium (Antunes et al., 2001). At 10 mg dosage, relaxation was
observed with rapid onset but short duration. The same study showed
similar results utilizing Catuama, a 4-component commercial drug
containing plant extracts of Paullinia cupana (guarana), Trichilia
catigua (catuaba), Zingiber ofcinalis (ginger), and Ptychopetalum
olacoides (muira puama).
2.8. MACA root
MACA (Lepidium meyenii) is a plant belonging to the mustard
family that is found growing almost exclusively in the Andes (Shin,
Lee, Yang, Lim, & Ernst, 2010). Historically, it has been used to
enhance fertility and increase sexual desire. Animal studies have
demonstrated its potential to increase sexual behavior (Cicero,
Bandieri, & Arletti, 2001; Cicero et al., 2002; Zheng et al., 2000). In
the study by Zheng, mice were fed ethanolic extract of MACA at a dose
of 40 mg/kg body weight and rats were fed 45, 180, or 1800 mg/kg
with results showing a signicant increase in mating and improved
erectile function compared to the control group (Zheng et al., 2000).
Behavioral results were conrmed using doses of 15 and 75 mg/kg
body weight MACA extract (Cicero et al., 2001) and 24, 52, and
870 mg/kg body weight of MACA chloroformic, hexanic, and metha-
nolic extract, respectively (Cicero et al., 2002).
The effect of MACA extract on sexual behavior in humans has also
been studied. In a double blind, placebo-controlled study, men who
consumed either 1500 or 3000 mg MACA reported signicantly
improved sexual desire compared to placebo (Gonzales et al., 2002).
Results were conrmed in similar studies of male or female subjects
using comparable dosages (Brooks et al., 2008; Dording et al., 2008;
Stone, Ibarra, Roller, Zangara, & Stevenson, 2009; Zenico, Cicero,
Valmorri, Mercuriali, & Bercovich, 2009).
 J.P. Melnyk, M.F. Marcone / Food Research International 44 (2011) 840850
2.9. Panax ginseng
Ginseng is a slow growing perennial plant native to Korea within
the Panax genus (Shamloul, 2010). Red ginseng, which has been
cultivated at six years of age or older, has the most reported
aphrodisiac effects which are due to its bioactive constituents
known as gensenodides. A recent placebo-controlled study looked
at the efcacy of Korean red ginseng to improve ED (de Andrade et al.,
2007). Sixty men with mild to moderate ED were fed 3000 mg ginseng
daily or placebo with results showing a signicant improvement in
erection, including rigidity, penetration, and maintenance in the
ginseng group. The results of this study conrmed those found in
other clinical studies (see Table 1), demonstrating red ginsengs
potential to treat ED (Choi, Choi, Adaikan, & Jiang, 1999; Choi & Choi,
2001; Hong, Ji, Hong, Nam, & Ahn, 2002; Jang, Lee, Shin, Lee, & Ernst,
2008). The 2001 study by Choi also tested ginseng's effect on sexual
desire and frequency of intercourse with no signicant differences
between the ginseng and placebo groups. Mechanisms suggested NO
release from endothelial or neural cells causing smooth muscle
relaxation and increased blood ow to the penis. Panax ginseng was
shown to relax smooth muscle in rabbits, in vitro strengthening the
argument for this proposed mechanism (Kim, Woo, Lee, & Kim, 1998).
In the most recent study on the aphrodisiac effects of ginseng,
sexual arousal was studied in menopausal women (Oh, Chae, Lee,
Hong, & Park, 2010). In the placebo-controlled randomized trial,
women received either 3000 mg ginseng or placebo per day with
results showing a signicant increase in sexual arousal compared to
the control group. Through questionnaire, the ginseng group reported
higher arousal frequency, arousal level, and sexual satisfaction. The
results of the studies discussed above demonstrate the potential of
ginseng to treat both physiological and psychological barriers to
sexual performance.
2.10. Nutmeg
Nutmeg is derived from the seeds from the fruit of the Myristica
fragrans tree, a bushy evergreen indigenous to India, Indonesia, and Sri
Lanka (Tajuddin, Ahmad, Latif, & Qasmi, 2003). Historically, nutmeg
was cultivated for use as an aphrodisiac and medicinal drug, with
treatment ranging from pain reduction to appetite enhancement and
nerve stimulation. Despite the well documented use of nutmeg as an
aphrodisiac, scientic studies are almost nonexistent and have only
recently been conducted using animals. Tajuddin has studied the
sexual behavior of rats fed nutmeg (Tajuddin et al., 2003; Tajuddin,
Ahmad, Latif, Qasmi, & Amin, 2005). Results showed that 500 mg/kg
body weight at a one time feeding increased mountings onto females
1 h after treatment (Tajuddin et al., 2003). It was then shown that
500 mg/kg feeding for 7 days was most effective in increasing
mounting frequency and intromission frequency, while reducing
mounting latency and intromission latency (Tajuddin et al., 2005).
Doses of 100 and 250 mg/kg were effective for some parameters, but
not any other dosages. The effect of nutmeg on increasing sexual
behavior may be attributed to its nerve stimulating properties.
2.11. Saffron
Saffron (Crocus sativus) is the dried elongated stigma and styles of
the blue-purple saffron ower native to the Middle East (Melnyk,
Wang, & Marcone, 2010). The ground spice has been used for
centuries as both a avoring and coloring agent, as well as medicinal
ingredient in food preparations. In 2008, the aphrodisiac properties of
the spice were tested in rats by observing their sexual behavior after
consuming an aqueous extract and the bioactive components crocin
and safranal (Hosseinzadeh, Ziaee, & Sadeghi, 2008). Results showed a
positive effect of saffron on sexual behavior after single dosage.
Aqueous extract (80, 160, 320 mg/kg body wt.) and crocin (200, and
847
400 mg/kg body wt.) signicantly increased mounting-, intromission-,
and erection frequency, while decreasing the latency period before
mounting, intromission and ejaculation compared to control. Safranal,
however, showed no effect on sexual activity.
More recently, saffron has been shown to ameliorate the problems of
ED in humans. In a 2009 study, 20 males with ED were fed 200 mg of
saffron/day in tablet form for 10 days. At the end of the study, subjects
showed a signicant increase in penis tip rigidity, tip tumescence, base
rigidity, and base tumescence (Shamsa, Hosseinzadeh, Molaei, Shakeri,
& Rajabi, 2009). Subjects also reported a signicantly higher score for
erectile function, sexual desire, intercourse satisfaction, and overall
satisfaction using the international index of erectile function (IIEF-15)
questionnaire. However, a 2010 study testing similar parameters found
no effect of saffron on sexual satisfaction (Safarinejad, Shaei, &
Safarinejad, 2010). This study fed 346 males with ED two 30 mg
capsules/day (15 mg saffron/capsule) for 12 weeks and then sildenal
for 12 weeks or vice versa, with a 2 week wash-out period between
treatments. Results showed lower scores in the saffron group compared
to sildenal group for orgasm function, sexual desire, intercourse
satisfaction, and overall satisfaction. Results also showed a decrease in
intercourse and satisfaction in the saffron group compared to
pretreatment. Differences in study design may help explain the
discrepancies between the 2009 and 2010 study. The 2009 study used
a higher dosage saffron extract (200 mg/day, versus 30 mg/day)
although the treatment period was shorter. The 2009 study also used
dried saffron stigma, whereas the 2010 study used ethanolic extract.
The 2010 study did not report on amounts of bioactive saffron
components present in their tablets. The 2009 study did not specify
type of ED (organic or psychogenic). Neither study utilized a placebo-
control. The differences in the two studies demonstrate the need for
more testing to determine the efcacy of saffron to improve sexual
desire.
2.12. Chocolate (cacao)
Chocolate is prepared using a variety of ingredients including
cocoa derived from the seeds of Theobroma cacao trees which are
native to tropical regions in South America and Africa (Afoakwa,
2008). Chocolate was generally regarded as an aphrodisiac in ancient
times, but there is little scientic evidence to support the claim
(Salonia et al., 2006). In a 2006 study, the sexual health of women was
compared to their self-reported chocolate consumption (Salonia et al.,
2006). The study showed that women who reported daily chocolate
intake had a signicantly higher sexual desire than the non-chocolate
consumers based on the female sexual function index (FSFI).
However, no differences were found between the groups regarding
sexual arousal, satisfaction, or distress. The sexual desire scores also
did not show signicant difference once results were adjusted for age.
The aphrodisiac effects of chocolate, although still debatable, are
thought to be attributed to its pharmacologically active substances
(Salonia et al., 2006). Phenylethylamine has been reported to induce
pleasurable sensations as well as affect serotonin and endorphin
levels in the brain, both of which improve mood and increases sexual
desire (Afoakwa, 2008). Phenylethylamine has also been reported to
raise blood pressure, increase heart rate, and heighten sensations
similar to the effects of dopamine and adrenaline (Afoakwa, 2008). N-
acylethanolamines contained in chocolate may also activate cannabi-
noid receptors or increase endocannabinoid levels which increases
sensitivity (Afoakwa, 2008).
3. Historical aphrodisiacs supported with limited scientic studies
3.1. Plant-based aphrodisiacs
Shamloul (2010) has reported on some plant-derived aphrodisiacs
with limited scientic studies making it difcult to validate their
848 J.P. Melnyk, M.F. Marcone / Food Research International 44 (2011) 840850
aphrodisiac properties (Shamloul, 2010). The list includes Camellia
sinensis, a Chinese tea which has been shown to increase sexual
behavior in rats by inhibiting anxiety and elevating serum testoster-
one levels (Ratnasooriya & Fernando, 2008). Aframomum melegueta
(Guinea pepper) is a spice from the ginger family obtained from the
seeds of the plant. It has been shown to increase rat sexual behavior
and improve penile erection (Kamtchouing et al., 2002). The dried
fruit of Piper guineense (West African Pepper) has also been shown to
have the same properties as determined in the same study by
Kamtchouing. Curculigo orchioides (Kali Musli) is claimed to enhance
sexual behavior and erection in male rats (Chauhan, Rao, & Dixit,
2007). The African tropical plant Microdesmis keayana has also shown
increased sexual arousal and erectile function in rats treated with its
alkaloid extracts (Zamble, Sahpaz, Brunet, & Bailleul, 2008; Zamble et
al., 2009). The tropical legume Mucuna pruriens (velvet bean), the
Indonesian owering plant Eurycoma longifolia Jack (Tongkat Ali), and
the Asian owering plant Ferula harmonis (Zallouh Root) have also
showed similar effects on male rats as the studies discussed above
(Ang & Sim, 1997; Suresh, Prithiviraj, & Prakash, 2009; Zanoli et al.,
2005). These plants have origins in India, Africa, or Asia and are
attributed to increased sexual activity and enhanced penile erection.
However, studies are limited to animal models with proposed
mechanisms that need further investigation.
Other plants with traditional uses as aphrodisiacs include
Terminalia catappa seeds (Indian almond), Garcina kola root (bitter
kola), Carpolobia alba bark, Euphorbia hirta plant, Musa paradisiaca
plantain, and Damiana tea (Turnera aphrodisiaca) (Krychman et al.,
2007; Yakubu et al., 2007). A scientic literature search shows animal
studies on T. catappa and T. aphrodisiaca (Damiana tea) only, with
unclear results regarding aphrodisiac activities of each (Helmrick &
Reiser, 2000; Ratnasooriya & Dharmasiri, 2000). Using rats, both
plants were shown to positively affect some sexual behavior in the
rats while having no effect or a decreasing effect on other behaviors.
More studies are needed to clarify these contradictory results.
3.2. Spices
A wide variety of spices have been used historically due to their
alleged aphrodisiac properties. Among them are cloves (Syzygium
aromatcum), sage (Salvia), ginger (Zingiber ofcinale), basil (Ocimum
basilicum), garlic (Allium sativum), anise (Pimpinella anisum), fennel
(Foeniculum vulgare), and coriander (Coriandrum sativum) (Krychman
et al., 2007; Sandroni, 2001; Yakubu et al., 2007). Of the spices, only
cloves and sage have been studied scientically with results showing
positive sexual behavior in male rats (Islam, Tariq, Ageel, Alsaid, &
Alyhya, 1991; Tajuddin et al., 2003). The anxiolytic properties of the
spices are thought to be responsible for their positive effects on rats.
3.3. Phallic symbols
Many foods historically used as aphrodisiacs have maintained
their reputation as effective sexual enhancers due to their phallic
appearance. Foods resembling the male or female genitals or those
traditionally consumed in romantic settings are popularized due to
their associations with sex. Documented aphrodisiacs include rhinoc-
eros horn, asparagus, carrots, celery, bananas, oysters, strawberries,
and trufes (Krychman et al., 2007; Yakubu et al., 2007).
Seafood is also thought to have aphrodisiac properties because
Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love, beauty, and sexuality is believed
to have been born from the sea. Seafoods include oyster, lobster,
mussels, and scallops (Krychman et al., 2007).
Other phallic symbols include animal genitals cooked and
consumed whole or in soup. Cow cod soup (Bull penis) in Jamaica,
deer penis in China, Ballut (fertilized duck egg) in Philippines, and
boiled goat or ram testicle are traditional examples still used today
(Shah, 2002; Yakubu et al., 2007).
3.4. Alcohol
Alcohol is widely believed to enhance sexual arousal and increase
desire for sexual activity. Traditionally, Mamajuana in Dominican
Republic and Mead in Ireland have been used as aphrodisiacs. Although
increased sexual arousal may be experienced by many who consume
alcohol, studies have concluded negative effects of alcohol on sexual
performance (Cheng, Ng, Chen, & Ko, 2007; Chew, 2009). Alcohol is a
nervous system depressant, which can slow normal brain function, act
as an anesthetic, and decrease blood circulation, thereby decreasing
sensation and inhibiting normal erectile function and vaginal secretions
(Peugh & Belenko, 2001). Chronic alcohol use further inhibits sexual
ability by increasing sexual dysfunction in males (O'Farrell, Kleinke, &
Cutter, 1998). The negative physiological effects of alcohol are evident,
however it has been more difcult to determine alcohol's psychological
effects and its ability to increase sexual arousal. Intoxication can cause
disinhibition, giving consumers liquid courage which increases desire
to engage in sexual activity and enjoy the experience (Shamloul, 2010).
However it is still unknown if alcohol affects sexual desire otherwise.
4. Conclusion
The results presented in this review demonstrate the potential of
many natural plant and animal products to be used as aphrodisiacs.
Ambrein, horny goat weed, muira puama, and P. ginseng have been
shown to relax corpus cavernous smooth muscle or other smooth
muscles in animal models, in vitro. Others, such as T. terrestris and
horny goat weed have been shown to increase erection quality in
animals by observing an increased ICP, while yohimbine, ginseng, and
saffron increased erection quality in humans. Ambrein, T. terrestris,
horny goat weed, MACA, nutmeg, and saffron have demonstrated the
ability to increase sexual behavior in animals. Self-reported sexual
enhancement and pleasurability have been observed in humans due
to yohimbine, muira puama, MACA, ginseng, saffron, and chocolate.
Although the data presented shows promise for the use of many of
the foods for sexual enhancement, more studies are needed to prove
their function. Studies investigating muscle-relaxant properties of
corpus cavernous smooth muscle were able to show a positive effect
in animal models, in vitro, however studies on human tissue are scarce.
This makes the need for more studies evident not only to determine the
effect of these substances on human smooth muscle tissue, but to
understand the mechanisms that aid in erection. Many of the substances
studied, such as ambrein and horny goat weed, showed positive
aphrodisiac properties in animals but were not studied in human clinical
trials. The need for human studies is evident before conclusions can be
made about the effectiveness of these substances for sexual enhance-
ment. Studies on human sexual behavior and the enhancement of the
sexual experience were often not controlled with placebo. Many of them
also did not offer any mechanisms of action. Further studies that
understand how these substances are affecting a person psychologically
(i.e. greater sexual desire, more intense fantasies etc.) are needed before
the effects can be attributed to these substances.
The continued interest in natural aphrodisiacs has resulted in an
increase in studies to better understand their effects on humans,
physiologically and psychologically. The discovery of effective treat-
ments can help strengthen relationships, increase self-esteem, and aid
in procreation. Currently, there is not enough evidence to support the
widespread use of these substances as effective aphrodisiacs, whether it
is to improve the sexual experience or treat males who have ED. The
limited number of studies, unclear mechanisms, and lack of knowledge
regarding potential side effects make the use of these products
potentially hazardous and without guaranteed benets. With sound
clinical studies, well-understood mechanisms, established lower and
upper limits, and known drug interactions, prescription and over-the-
counter use of these aphrodisiacs for treating sexual inadequacies can
become a reality.
 J.P. Melnyk, M.F. Marcone / Food Research International 44 (2011) 840850
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