Nuclear and Particle

Main points of lecture 5

Physics
V = Vc + VS + VT + VLS + ..
Nuclear force is complicated !

nucleon-nucleon P.E.
repulsive attractive

distance

Lecture 6
Pion exchange

Heavier meson
exchange equilibrium
position

Binding energy is a very

important quantity in
nuclear physics - Tells you
about:
1) Forces between nucleons
( 2) Stability of nuclei
3) Energy released (or
required) in nuclear decays
Dr Daniel Watts and reactions.

3rd Year Junior Honours Binding energy per

nucleon represents

Course Maximum
near to 56Fe
the average binding
felt by a nucleon in
the nucleus
Notes Notes
 The nucleus and its structure How to explain these properties?
LIQUID DROP MODEL
Presently no complete theory to fully describe structure and behaviour nucleus regarded as collection of neutrons and protons
of nuclei based solely on knowledge of force between nucleons forming a droplet of incompressible fluid
(Although tremendous progress in past few years for A<12 !)
Bethe and von Weizscker (1935):

use MODELS: Semi Empirical Mass Formula (SEMF)

Remember
simplifying assumptions
give reasonable account of observed properties Z2 (A 2Z)2
make predictions B(A, Z) = avA asA 2/3
aC 1 / 3 aa + (A,Z)
A A

> 0 for even N even Z

LIQUID-DROP MODEL pairing term < 0 for odd N odd Z
nucleus regarded as collection of neutrons and protons
= 0 for odd A
forming a droplet of incompressible fluid
Contributions from various terms
good description of overall trend of binding energy per nucleon
fails to account for magic numbers or give any prediction for J

SHELL MODEL
neutrons and protons arranged in stable quantum states
in common potential well
accounts for ground-state properties (e.g. J ) and magic numbers
does not predict many of the observed nuclear excited states

COLLECTIVE MODELS
neutrons and protons show collective motions
give rise to vibrational and rotational states av = 15.6 MeV
From fits to experimental binding energies: as = 17.2 MeV
accounts for properties of non-spherical nuclei
aa = 23.3 MeV
fails to reproduce other features
aC = 0.70 MeV
Notes Notes
 more on nuclear masses
Volume energy: Each nucleon only feels M(A,Z)c2 = aA + bZ + cZ2 (A,Z)
interaction of close neighbours due to
av A short range of nuclear force Gives a
positive binding energy which is roughly
the same for each nucleon quadratic function in Z PARABOLA

odd A = 0 one parabola only

Surface correction: Nucleons near even A two parabolae
surface of nucleus surrounded by
fewer nucleons and will therefore
as A 2 / 3 experience less attractive potential
energy than those inside the nucleus. odd A even A
Compensate with a reduction in
binding energy proportional to number
of nucleons in nuclear surface

Coulomb energy: Nucleus has total

Z2
aC 1 / 3 charge Ze confined to a sphere of
radius R. The resultant potential
A 3 ( Ze) 2
energy given by electrostatic theory =
5 4 0 R

Symmetry term:
( A 2Z ) 2
Stable light nuclei have
aa N~Z (i.e. A~2Z). If A Minimum stable isobar m =0
A deviates from 2Z then Z A=const.
binding energy is
reduced.

A
Pairing term: Most stable Zstable =
+ (A,Z) 1.972 + 0.015A2 / 3
nuclei have Z even and N
even and therefore A even closest integer number to Zstable gives atomic number
(even-even nuclei). for stable configuration at given A
Increases binding for even-
even nuclei and reduces for
odd-odd.
Notes Notes
 LIQUID DROP MODEL Fission and Fusion
Accounts for: Curve of binding energy per nucleon
Variations in
overall trend of binding energies binding energy per
correctly predicts masses of most nuclei nucleon have very
n Fission significant effects
sio
result in large energy
Fu releases in nuclear
reactions.

Underpins energy
generation in stars,
power from fission

Fission Process where a heavy nucleus splits into

lighter fragments

Energy is released when B/A for the initial nucleus

is smaller than for the final nuclei.

Lighter nuclei have smaller B/A because of their

smaller coulomb repulsion energy
Does not account for:
Example: Nucleus with A=200 fissions into 2 nuclei with A=100
extra binding at MAGIC NUMBERS A=200 B/A ~ 7.6 MeV/nucleon
Z, N = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, (126) A=1 00 B/A ~ 8.5 MeV/nucleon
abundance peaks at magic numbers B/A increases by 8.5-7.6 = 0.9 MeV
Total binding energy increases by ~200(0.9) = 180MeV !!
even-even nuclei more stable than odd-odd nuclei
A lot of energy is released in each fission
discontinuities in neutron binding energy vs. A reaction. Energy goes into the kinetic energies
ground state spin and parity properties of even A nuclei of fission fragments, neutrons
energies of low lying excited states (higher than expected)
Activation energy
Potential Energy

Activation decreases as
energy A increases
need for refined model to explain observational facts Gives upper limit
to size of nuclei
SHELL MODEL Distance
Notes Notes
 Fission
Neutrons likely to be released in fission as fewer
excess neutrons necessary to counteract the
coulomb repulsion in the lighter fragments
These neutrons can be used to set up a chain reaction
with the release of large amounts of energy.
Fusion
Fusion - combining nuclei to form heavier nucleus with higher B/A
B/A larger in the fused nucleus as a smaller fraction of nucleons
are near the surface of the nucleus - therefore the average strong
force felt by nucleons is larger (i.e. surface term in SEMF)
Fusion is the energy source of stars.
Gravitational potential energy converted into kinetic & radiation
energy of gas Temperature of gas rises & fusion ignites
Nuclear power keeps star interior hot enough to stop the collapse
(at least for a while! e.g ~9 billion years in the case of our Sun)

1
1p +11p 12D + e + e + + 0.42MeV First step is rare
(involves weak
2
D +11p 23He + + 5.49 MeV interaction)
1 Sets long timescales
2He+ 23He 24He+11p +11p + 12.9 MeV
3
For stellar life

Get energy release of 26.7MeV per 4He nucleus formed

Notes Notes
 Important quantities
B(A,Z)=Mc2 = [ZmH + Nmn]c2 - Ma(A,Z)c2
M(A,Z)= [ZmH + Nmn] - B(A,Z)/c2
Sn(A,Z) = [M(A-1,Z) M(A,Z) + Mn ]c2
Sp(A,Z) = [ M(A-1,Z-1) M(A,Z) + Mp ]c2
Proton (neutron) separation energies correspond to the
binding energy of the last proton (neutron)
Tutorial 3:
1) How much energy is necessary to split up an alpha particle into its
Binding energy constituent nucleons?
(Mn=1.008665u, MH=1.007825u, M(4He)=4.00260u).
Nuclear mass 2 How much energy is required to remove a proton from 56Fe(Z=26). Also
calculate the binding energy per nucleon for 56Fe and compare with the
proton separation energy. Can you explain any differences?
Neutron separation ( M(56Fe) = 55.934939u, M(55Mn) = 54.938047u)
energy
3) The atomic mass of a nucleus is predicted by the semi-empirical mass
Proton separation formula to be given by
energy
M(N,Z)c2 = ZMHc2 + NMn c2 - avA + asA2/3 + acZ2/A1/3 + asym(N-Z)2/A +
Where MH = 938.8 MeV/c2, Mn = 939.6 MeV/c2, av = 15.8 MeV, as= 18.0
MeV, ac = 0.7 MeV and asym = 25.3 MeV. Mirror nuclei are nuclei with the
same mass number A and interchanged values of N and Z. Which terms in
the above formula give rise to differences in atomic mass between a pair of
mirror nuclei? Calculate the predicted atomic mass difference between
11C(Z=6) and 11B(Z=5) in units of MeV/c2. From this information and any
general considerations, what can you deduce about the possible decay
modes for these two nuclei?
4) In the semi-empirical mass formula what experimental evidence does
the pairing term account for? For a given value of the mass number A,
nuclear masses can be expressed as a quadratic function in Z. Using the
minimum isobar formula (as derived in the lecture notes) determine
whether the 142Xe(Z=54) nucleus is + or - unstable.
5) Specify the spins and parities of nuclear energy levels to which a d-
wave neutron transition can take place from the following states
a) J=0+ b) 1-