Grounding

&
Bonding

Selecting Components, Installing and

Testing Them

1
 Agenda

Soil resistivity and measuring it

Ground electrode system components

Proper installation of ground electrode

systems.

Measure the effectiveness of the ground

electrode system by means of ground testing
2
 As Easy As

Step 1 Earth (Soil) Test

Step 2 Install System

Step 3 Test System

3
 What is a Ground?
A ground is a conducting connection by which an
electrical circuit or equipment is connected to the
earth or some conducting body.
Source: IEEE Standard 81

Low impedance conductor used to provide a safe path

for the dissipation of:
- fault currents
- lightning strikes
- static charges
- EMF/RFI signals
Simply put.

4
 Simply Put
The characteristic of a grounded system is that if you
use an ammeter you should see a steady flow of
current that is going to the path of least resistance

We do not want that path of

least resistance to ground
to be through someone

We want it to be through a
ground electrode system

5
 Ground Resistance vs. Earth/Soil
Resistivity
Ground Resistance: The resistance
(opposition to current flow) of an installed
electrode system
Measured in Ohms
Measured with a four-point, three-point or
clamp on tester
Earth Resistivity: The electrical properties of
the soil for conducting current
Measured in Ohm-cm (Ohm centimeters)
Measured with a four-point tester
6
 Resistivity

Earth Resistivity: The electrical

properties of the soil for conducting
current

7
 Why Test Resistivity?

Tells you how good (conductive) your soil is

Good indication on whether or not a generic

ground specification design will work

An indication of the degree of corrosion to be

expected on components of the ground
system

Helps reduce surprises at the end of the

installation
8
Resistivities of Different Soils*

9
 Soil Resistivity Ranges
100 - 15,000 Ohm cm
Standard Design OK
15,000- 25,000 Ohm cm -
Standard Design Maybe
25,000 - 50,000 Ohm cm -
Special Contact the carrier, owner or engineering
firm
50,000 + Ohm cm
Very Special - Perhaps not practical

10
 Measuring Earth Resistivity

Use a 4-terminal ground tester

Space the electrodes an equal distance

apart a in next slide

Insert the electrodes a distance of 1/20th

a into the ground

Measures the average soil resistivity to a

depth equal to the electrode separation

11
 Measuring Earth Resistivity

a a a

X
C1 P1 P2 C2
a a/20

12
Four-Point Resistivity Tester
Also Tests Resistance

13
 Actual Site Testing Procedures

Test at multiple locations across the site

14
 Why Measure Earth Resistivity Periodically?

To check that climatic conditions have not

affected the ground such that it no longer meets
the requirements

To check for seasonal variations

To check that changes to buildings, the lot, the
streets, etc. have not effected resistivity

15
 Ground Resistance

Ground Resistance: The resistance (opposition

to current flow) of an installed electrode
system

16
 Benefits of Proper Grounding
Lessens the chance of injury due to faulty
insulation
As little as 0.1 Amp for one second can be fatal
Dont want best path to ground to be through you
Reduces the likelihood of damage from lightning
strikes and induced voltages
Improves the performance of communication,
computer, and other sensitive equipment
Noise levels can exceed operating voltage
cont.

17
 Benefits of Proper Grounding cont.

Protects electric, communications and process

control circuits

Protects against static electricity from friction

Limits to definite values the voltage to ground

of the entire electrical system Maintains
some point in the circuit to ground potential

18
 Typical Permissible Ground Resistance
Values
Varies depending on the standard used:
- some call for 5 maximum
- some call for a fraction of an ohm
Typical values from an insurance company:
- Industrial plant: 5
- Chemical plant: 3
- Computer system: 3
Typical values for a power company:
- Generating station: 1 maximum
- Large sub-station: 1 maximum
- Small sub-station: 5 maximum
Water pipe ground should be less than 3 and
frequently less than 1 .

19
Ground Electrode System Components

Ground Electrodes
Ground Conductors
Ground Bars
Bonding Connectors
Mechanical
Compression
Exothermic

20
 Ground
Electrodes

21
 Ground Electrodes
Do Not Have To Be Rods
Ground Electrode Types -

Ground Rods:
Copper Clad Steel
Solid Copper
Galvanized
Stainless Steel
Ground Plates Enhanced

Copper Ground
Mesh

22
 Ground Electrodes Considerations
Soil Resistivity - Some soils, (such as sandy soils), have such high
resistivities that conventional ground rods or ground electrode systems
may be unable to attain the desired ground resistance requirement.
Enhanced ground electrodes or ground enhancement materials may
be required to meet the grounding specification.

Soil type - Some ground rod types work better in different soils.

Soil Ph - effects the rate of corrosion of metal ground components that

are in contact with the soil

Soil Characteristics - Some sites may have only a few inches of soil (or
none) sitting on top of bedrock. In this case, ground mesh is the
preferred electrode. (Never drill into bedrock).
cont.

23
 Ground Electrodes Considerations cont.
Ground Rod Diameter
Doubling diameter of ground rod reduces resistance
only 10%.
Using larger diameter ground rods is mainly a strength
issue. In rocky conditions, a larger diameter ground rod
might be advantageous.

Ground Rod Length - Doubling length theoretically

reduces resistance 40%. Actual reduction depends on soil
resistivities encountered in multi-layered soils.

Ground Rod Spacing - Approximately twice the length of

the rod (in good soil). Cont.

24
 Ground ElectrodesConsiderations cont.

Multiple Ground Rods Two well-spaced rods driven

into the earth provide parallel paths. They are, in effect, two
resistances in parallel.
The rule for two resistances in parallel does not apply
exactly. That is; the resultant resistance is not one-half the
individual rod resistances (assuming they are of the same
size and depth).
The reduction for equal resistance rods is about:
40 percent for 2 rods
60 percent for 3 rods
66 percent for 4 rods
Spaced apart twice the length cont.

25
 Ground Rod Driving Tip

Dont do this!
26
Ground Electrodes Considerations
cont.

Ufer Grounds - Concrete

encased electrode tying
into the tower footing or
building pad rebar

Ufer grounds should

never be used as the sole
ground electrode.

27
 Enhanced Grounding Material
Not a permanent
solution.
Consider:
Corrosive effects
EPA regulations
Should only be used
when multiple or
deep electrodes are
not practical.

28
 Enhanced Ground Rods

Contains electrolytic salts that lower ground resistivity over

time
29
 Applications

Vertical Application Horizontal Application

30
 Ground Electrodes
Types of Grounding Systems

Single Rod
Electrode

Multiple Pole Grounds

31
 Types of Grounding Systems cont.

Multiple Rod Electrode

Buried Plate Electrode Buried Mesh/Grid

Electrode

32
 Causes of Ground System Deterioration
Weather influences exert mechanical strain on
ground rods
Metallic corrosion over time
Catastrophic events like lightning strikes or large
fault currents can cause instant degradation that
may not be visable
Soil resistivity can change over time due to
environmental conditions
Electrical facility/plant expansion can create
different needs in the ground system
33
34
 Risks from Ground System Deterioration

Potentially deadly electrical shock situations

Plant-wide equipment damage

Disruption in the performance of sensitive

equipment with tight voltage parameters

Heat build-up on a single piece of electrical

equipment and, eventually, fire

35
Grounding
Conductors

36
 Grounding Conductors
Types -
Solid

Stranded

Flat Strap

Rope Lay

Tape

37
 Conductor Considerations
Electricity travels on the outside surface of a
conductor, the so called skin affect. Therefore,
the larger the surface area of a conductor, the
better path it makes.

Multiple parallel paths are very important. The

fewer paths there are, the larger the surface
area or diameter the conductor needs to have.

cont.

38
 Conductor Considerations cont.

Inductance - Flat strap conductors have less inductance than their

similarly sized round conductor counterparts.

Strength/Durability - Round conductors, whether solid or stranded, are

much stronger than a 24 or 26 gauge flat strap conductor. This should be
a consideration when backfilling trenches.

Connection Method - The preferred type of connection for

underground uses is exothermic (more later).

Cost Effectiveness - Although the inductance may be less for the flat
strap conductors, their cost is much higher. It may be more cost
effective to use multiple round conductors than a single flat strap
conductor to lower overall ground system impedance.

39
 Conductor Considerations cont.

General Rules of Thumb for Placement:

As far as possible from communications cable
12 minimum from another ground conductor
Reference NEC 800 for power lines
Lightning conductors must be 6 away from
power and communications cable
Reference NEC 800 & NEC 250
Cross in a perpendicular fashion if needed
40
Not Good.

Placement. 41
 A little Better.

Placement. 42
Placement.

Even Better. 43
 Conductor Considerations cont.

General Rules of Thumb for Routing:

Maintain downward sloping path to ground

(equipotential bonds are an exception as in
bonding conduits together)

Do not run conductors uphill (1/4 rise acceptable

to a point)

Maintain at least an 8 radius of bend

44
- Uphill path to
ground

- Radius of bend is
less than 8

- Bonding issue

45
 Good example.

Routing. 46
 Conductor Considerations cont.

Routing in conduit
Sometimes required by local codes

Might be beneficial if run in metallic conduit

If run in metallic conduit, it must be bonded

on both ends

47
 Not bonded to conduit.

48

Harger Lightning & Grounding 2006

- Conduit on left a
little better

- Needs to be
bonded as close to
the opening as
possible

- Two conduits on
right not bonded to
conduit on left

49
Ground
Bars

50
 Ground Bar
What is a Ground Bar?
Simply put - a connection point
What does it do?
Facilitates bonding connections
Issues
Theft
Tamper resistant
Galvanized
Bad idea, galvanic coupling

51
Ground Bar

52
 Bonding
Connectors

53
 Bonding Connectors

Three Types of Connections

Mechanical

Compression

Exothermic

54
Bonding Connectors
-Mechanical-

55
Mechanical Examples

56
More Mechanicals

57
 Mechanical Connectors

Advantages
Can be removed
Use common tools and hardware
Lower material cost

Disadvantages
Can be removed
Loosen over time
Require more maintenance

58
 Mechanical Connectors
Use Standard Tools &
Hardware

59
 Mechanical Connectors
Used when compression or exothermic
connections are not practical/feasible

Surface preparation essential

Use appropriate hardware

Tighten to proper torque rating

60
 Mechanicals with Dissimilar Metals

Use oxide-inhibiting joint

compound with, for example,
copper to aluminum

61
Galvanic Series
>0.3 volts difference in potential
can cause corrosion

Use stainless steel hardware

instead of zinc

(Passive stainless steel is the normal

state. It has a film of chromium
oxide. If this film is destroyed, the
stainless steel becomes active.
The film will repair itself.)

62
Surface Preparation

63
Surface Preparation

64
Proper Torque

65
 Proper Torque
Might Be Better Using a Torque Wrench
66
Bonding Connectors
-Compression-

67
 Compression Connectors

H-Taps
C-Taps

68
 Compression Connectors

Used when it is desirable to make an

irreversible electrical connection

Less maintenance than a mechanical

connection

Not a molecular bond and therefore not

recommended for underground use

69
 Compression Connectors
Advantages
Irreversible
UL listed
Low or no maintenance
Disadvantages
Expensive tooling
Sometimes hard to make (location)
Not a molecular bond

70
 Compression Connectors

Specialized tools/dies required

Generate 2, 6 and even 13 tons of
crimping force

71
 Compression Lugs

Long Barrel

Inspection Port

2-Holes

72
Connection Process

Trim insulation back so that

bared conductor is slightly
longer than barrel

73
Connection Process cont.

Insert conductor
so that it butts up
against end of
barrel.

View this through

inspection port.

74
Connection Process cont.

Make sure end

i m um of conductor
m in remains at end
i m p
2 cr of barrel
Make first crimp
Repeat crimping
process

75
Connection Process cont.

2 Crimp Minimum

76
Examples of Bad Connections
Poor Mechanical Connections
Poor Compression Connections

77
Bonding Connectors
-Exothermic-
(Welded)

78
 Exothermic Connectors

Provides a Molecular Bond

Ampacity exceeds that of conductors

Connections will not loosen

Connections never increase in resistance

Does not deteriorate with age

Maintenance free

79
 Compression vs. Exothermic

Point-to-Point Contact Molecular Bond

80
Tools
Required
Mold
Handle
Weld Metal
Flint Igniter
Disks

81
 Exothermic Inspection Criteria

General indicators:

Size - No conductor portion should be exposed

Color - bright gold to bronze

Surface Finish smooth, free of slag deposits

Porosity a few pinholes are acceptable

82
 Exothermic Inspection Criteria

Good connection

Bright, shiny & free

from porosity

83
 Exothermic Inspection Criteria

Unacceptable
connection

Slag > 20%

Leakage - Mold not

seated properly

84
 Exothermic Inspection Criteria

Unacceptable
connection

Not enough
weld metal

85
 Common Problems with Exothermic
Connectors
Connector not sticking to ground bar
Weld at the edge
Flames cause oxides. Remove them.
Connector not sticking to tower leg
Remove zinc
Burn-through on fence post
Pack with sand
Melt-through on cable to ground rod
Remove tension on cable

86
 Ground Electrode System Testing

Ok, so the system is designed and

installed.

Lets Test!

87
 Choose the Proper Instruments
Use a dedicated ground tester (designed to
make this measurement).
Dont use a generalized ohmmeter or multimeter
Low voltage DC can produce a resistance reading between
ground and an arbitrary second point (e.g. water pipe), but not
necessarily an accurate measurement
May not be sufficient spacing between the two points of contact
DC transients in the soil can influence the readings
Dont use an insulation resistance tester.
High voltage DC is designed to measure at the opposite end of
the resistance spectrum, with all the limitations discussed
above.

88
Three-Terminal Ground-Resistance Testing

89
 Three-Terminal Ground Tester
Current Supply

Ammeter (I)

Ground
Electrode Voltmeter (E)
Under Test Current
Probe
Potential
Probe P C

Earth Earth
X

90
 Theoretical Background
Current-Probe Sphere of Influence
Ground
Electrode
Under Auxiliary Auxiliary
Test (X) Potential Current
Probe (P) Probe (C)

91
 Ground Testing Methods

Fall of Potential Method*

Simplified Fall of Potential
61.8% Rule/Method *
Four Potential Method
Intersecting Curves Method
Slope Method
Dead Earth Method
Star-Delta Method
*Covered here

92
Theoretical Background - Fall of Potential
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P)
Under Positions Current
Test (X) Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

X Distance of Potential Probe from X C

Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position

93
 Theoretical Background
Resistance Curve
Resistance in Ohms

True Resistance

X C
Distance of Potential Probe from X
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
Position Position

94
 Rules of Thumb on C Probe Spacing
From Ground Electrode C

Single ground electrode - 50 feet

Small grid of 2 ground electrodes - 100-125 feet

Large electrode system (several rods or plates in

parallel) >200 feet

Complex electrode systems (large number of rods

or plates and other metallic structures bonded
together) - far greater distances are required

95
 Theoretical Background
Insufficient Probe Spacing
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P) Current
Under Probe (C)
Test (X)

Resistance in Ohms

Distance of Potential Probe from X

96
 Advantages/Disadvantages of
Fall of Potential Testing
Advantages:
Conforms to IEEE 81 - only approved method.
Operator has complete control of the test set-up.
Accurate:
With 4-wire configuration there are no additional loop
resistances included. This is significant for low
resistance (1-2) grounds
Disadvantage:
Extremely time consuming and labor intensive

97
 61.8% Rule/Method

Based on the theory behind the full Fall of

Potential method
Take measurement at only one point

Advantage Extremely quick and easy

Disadvantage Assumes that conditions are
perfect with respect to :
Adequate probe spacing
Soil homogeneity

98
Theoretical Background - 61.8% Rule
Ground
Electrode
Under Potential Current
Test (X) Probe (P) Probe (C)

Resistance in Ohms

Current Probe
Resistance

Ground Electrode
Resistance 61.8%

X Distance of Potential Probe from X C

99
Ground Testing on Asphalt
Lazy Spike

C1 P1 P2 C2
MEGGER DET5/4R

3 POLE 4 POLE

MEASURE

100
Stake-less or Clamp Ground Testing

101
 Considerations When Using
Stake-less/Clamp-On Method
Requires a good return path so it cannot be used
on isolated grounds (workaround is available)

Effective only in situations with multiple grounds in

parallel such as pole grounds

Cannot be used if an alternate, lower resistance,

return exists not involving the soil

cont.

102
 Considerations When Using
Stake-less/Clamp-On Method

Accuracy is reduced

Measurement must be made on the correct part of

the loop

Susceptible to noise from nearby substations and

transformers (no reading)

103
Stake-less or Clamp Ground Testing

104
SYSTEM
GROUND
ELECTRODE
UNDER TEST

TIV

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Me
105
Solution for Stake-less Testing
When There is No Return Path
NEWLY INSTALLED
ELECTRODE TO TEST

106
Make a Temporary Link to Another Ground

TEMPORARY NEWLY
LINK INSTALLED
ELECTRODE
TO TEST

er
TIV
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CA

gg
0 n6

107
Must Measure at the Correct Part of the Loop

er
TIV
Me 0V
CA

gg
0 n6
108
 What is Being Measured Here?
Only Connectivity Not Ground Resistance

er
TIV
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CA

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109
 Clamp-on Application

110

Motorola R56 2000

 Applications Power Supplies
AC Panel Board
Power Meter
120/240 V
Power Service

Ground
Resistance Cable or
Conduit

Ground Bonding Ground

Rod Integrity Only Wire

111
 Applications Pedestal
Pedestal

Ground
Bar

Shield
Connection

Ground
Rod

112
Quick Review

113
 Addressing Ground System Problems

Use longer ground rods

Use multiple ground rods

Chemically treat the soil

Place the system in lower resistivity soil if

possible

114
 Questions to Consider
Are you measuring the resistance of an already existing
ground system?
May be able to use any type ground tester (stakeless, 3-terminal, 4-
terminal) depending on conditions and system design.
Are you prospecting for the best location for a ground
system?
Must use a 4-terminal model (in order to measure soil resistivity).
Are you working in an active substation environment?
Consider top-of-the-line model for extra features that permit testing in
heavy interference that might cause other models to give unstable
readings and/or delays in completion of the test procedure.

115
 So, we tested our ground system and we
passed!

Do we ever need to test it again?

116
 Why Measure Ground Resistance Periodically?
(You have seen this before but)
To determine the effectiveness of ground rods, ground
grids and connections
Seasonal changes
Water table changes
Changes in the site and/or building
To check that standards set by statutory requirements/
codes of practice have been met
To check that specific design parameters have been met
To check that the grounding electrodes are still present
117
Questions

118