Power Capacitor

Handbook

T Langland CEng, MIEE, AMEME

T W Hunt PhD, BEng
W A Brecknell CEng, MIEE
General Editor: C A Worth

Butterworths
London Boston Durban Singapore Sydney Toronto Wellington
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first published 1984 In a sublime world, life could be quite a lot easier if everyone, including the
entrepreneur, architect, industrialist and engineer, and their assistants,
secretaries, mates and others, was not only concerned with his own particular
business problems but was also altruistically actuated to promote energy
conservation at all times, just for the good of the Country. Because the cost of
Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd, 1984
energy for industrial production is reflected in th'e cost of goods produced, it is
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data in the interest of all, particularly those engaged in any capacity in production,
to save as much as possible, not only of energy itself but also its cosL
Longland, T. There are many ways in which this can be brought about, and perhaps one
Power capacitor handbook
l. Capacitors of the most effective of these, from an industrial point of view, is the installation
I. Title II. Hunt, T. W. III. Brecknell, W. A. of power capacitors. It would be stating the obvious to say that nobody in
IV. Worth, C. A. industry really loves capacitors, and they might be completely ignored were it
621.31'5 TK2805
not for the enthusiasm of electricity boards and their imposition of maximum
ISBN 0-408-00292-1 demand tariffs, together with the determination of the designer and capacitor
sales engineer.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data However, for its own economic support industry needs the reduction in
consumption costs, or the increase in load-carrying capacity from existing
Langland, T. distribution equipment, which capacitors can provide. With that thought in
Power capacitor handbook
Includes index mind this book is directed not only towards the works electrical engineer, who
1. Capacitors-Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Hunt, T. W. has an innate vested interest in the output efficiency of his electrical system, but
II. Brecknell, W. A. III. Title also towards those responsible for financial management at high levels, such as
TK2805.L66 1984 621.31'5 84-1921
ISBN 0-408--{)0292-1 managing directors, general managers, company secretaries, production
. engineers and managers, as well as other supervisory staff employed in the
~ wide variety of productive industrial organisations in which the use of power-
BAE/ c.r:.. ,r:__
~ 1~
t~
..___..,. "' factor capacitors can lead to financial gain resulting from a more economical
... -- t. \ -~'
,._.-::~~;~~ - use of electrical power.
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c; I It is this fact, coupled with the wider aspect of the usefulness of this book to
students and graduate electrical engineers, that prompted Dr T W Hunt and
his associated authors to undertake the work of compiling this treatise, and
although due credits have been given under the Acknowledgements, I should
like to add my own personal thanks to the many friends on the electricity
boards and in the electrical industry in the UK, Europe, the Commonwealth
PRE ( ; : ,) , ... v ,.
1"-';.1f . -..<. '"..-.."'-{ and other countries, who, with the electrical and electronics institutions, have
DATA- o :11 r:: .V/ z/q.o\'
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CPD. _;,._...-- _. ---~'0'U,J
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filmset by Mid-County Press, London SW15 C A Worth
Printed in Great Britain by The Thetford Press Ltd, Thetford, Norfolk Editor
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Preface Acknowledgements

Without the valuable assistance received by the authors from the many
In the several years since this treatise on the manufacture and use of power
sources listed below, some parts of this book could not have been written, and
factor capacitors began to take form in the minds of the authors many
the collaborators acknowledge their indebtedness to their many friends in the
significant changes in construction techniques and considerable advances in
ckctrical manufas;turing industry and other organisations who have so kindly
their technology and design have been made. Many of these changes were
supplied information and advice, and they also record their gratitude for the
necessitated by the declaration that polychlorinated biphenyl, previously
data. illustrations and time so generously given.
thought to be an excellent non-flammable and safe dielectric impregnant,
was in reality a health and environmental hazard because of its non- ASEA-KABEL Ab, Stockholm, Sweden
biodegradeability. In consequence, its manufacturers in the UK and the USA BICC Bryce Capacitors Ltd
ceased production of this impregnant (which by that time had become known Bollore, Paris, France
simply as PCB) and Japan and Switzerland banned its use completely. British Standards Institution
Research for alternative techniques to overcome the embargo on PCB led to British Columbia Hydro Electricity Authority
the adoption of improvements in the design of capacitors which might not Central Electricity Generating Board, SE Region
otherwise have come about quite so expeditiously, but the search for a Dr J D Gilchrist, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne
substitute for oil as an impregnant had been in progress for many years prior Dubilier Components Ltd
to the introduction of PCB and a successful outcome has now been Electricite de France
established, although research still, of course, proceeds. Ferranti Ltd
Generally, it is modem practice to use unimpregnated (dry) metallised film Furth Paper & Pulp Ltd
as the dielectric for low-voltage capacitors, while for the higher voltages a non- IEC
chlorinated type of impregnant has been evolved. Institution of Electrical Engineers
Provided that the manufacturing economics are sound, the actual form of Johnson & Phillips (Capacitors) Ltd
the capacitor plays no part in its application to the electrical circuits used in J C Cowne Esq, Scandinavian Marketing Ltd
industry and elsewhere. The principal aspect is power-factor improvement in a Metar SA, Fribourg, Switzerland
number of fields such as motors, transformers and private generating plant. National Equipment Manufacturers
More specialised by environment is the use of capacitors in the marine and National Physical Laboratory, Teddington
mining industries, while capacitors in arc furnaces and induction furnaces South African Bureau of Standards
combine both environmental and electrical problems. Swedish State Power Board
Equipments such as series capacitors used in the transmission and The Electrical Review
distribution fields, and shunt capacitors in direct-current transmission UKAEA, Culham Laboratories
schemes, are dealt with in a separate section of this book, while energy-storage and the electrical standard authorities of:
capacitors, surge generators and the synthetic testing of switchgear form a Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Holland,
section on more specialised capacitor applications. India, Japan, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and W Germany
Every e!Tort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this
book was completely up-to-date at the time of going to press, with new TL
information and data being incorporated up to the last possible moment. It is TWH
hoped that this new Power Capacitor Hand book will prove useful not only to WA B
practising engineers but also to students and industrial users. CAW
Contents

Foreword v

Preface VI

Acknowledgements Vll

Fundamental principles and applications of capacitors

2 Types of capacitor and methods of construction 25

3 Power-factor correction -general 53

4 Power-factor improvement of induction motors,

transformers and privately-owned generating plant 80

5 Capacitors for marine, mining and welding

plant applications 105

6 Capacitors for electric-arc and induction furnaces 119

7 Capacitor location and installation 136

8 Control gear and protection for power capacitors 155

9 Application of power capacitors to high-voltage

transmission and distribution circuits 190

I0 Harmonics and harmonic filters 225

11 High-voltage capacitors -special applications 237

12 Low-voltage capacitors - special applications 269

 -
,,

Appendices
1 Fundamental principles and
A- Power-capacitor standards 285 applications of capacitors
B ~-Glossary of terms relating to power capacitors 292

C ~ ~ Useful formulae relating to power capacitors 296

D - Bibliography 299

Index 303
Note: As this book was due to go to press, it was announced that on 1 July 1984 the
capacitor interest of BICC would be merged with ASEA Kabel. The joint
company, known as ASEA-BlCC Capacitors Ltd, would operate from the BICC
Bryce factory at Helsby ~
When a voltage is applied to the space between two metallic surfaces,
ekctrostatic energy becomes stored in the system. The metallic surfaces are
known as electrodes and the space between them is called the dielectric. This
space can be air but normally it is filled by eithei an insulant or byers of
insulating material which, when used to store energy, is termed dielectric
material. When not used for energy storage the material is known simply as
insulation and its chief purpose is to prevent the flow of current.
The ability of the dielectric material to store electrostatic energy is known as
its permittiz;ity or dielectric constant, and this is a ratio of the stored energy
obtained with the dielectric chosen in comparison with that which would have
resulted if the dielectric had been air.
Thus, if the dielectric constant, or permittivity, of the material has a value of
6. then it will be able to store six times more energy than air, other factors being
equal.
Unlike cables, in which the dielectric is increased in thickness to accom-
modate higher voltages. capacitors are made from elements in which small
dielectric thicknesses are used. and operation at higher voltages is achieved by
connecting such elements in series.

RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY (cr), OR DIELECTRIC

CONSTANT

As already noted, relative permittivity may be defined as the capacitance of the

dielectric under consideration compared with that obtained when replaced by
air. Ti.Ihle 1.1 illustrates the multiplying factors, or permittivity. of various
materials and these are constant since they are the ratio of the materials'
permittivity to the permittivity of air which, by convention, is taken to be 1.
This is normally known by the symbol Er.

PERMITTIVITY OF FREE SPACE (c; 0 )

If the relative permittivity of air is taken to be 1, the relative permittivity of

other rna tcrials used as dielectrics can be expressed, but ultimately this must he
2 Fundamental princrples and applrcatior;s of capacrtors Electric flux. or electric charge (0) 3

Table 1.1 Average permittivity values of. materials used as the dielectric in may be applied to the dielectric, and its thickness. This stress has to take in to
capacitors
account the problem of surges which might occur on a system and so only
Material Dielectric constant or average values can be given for average duties. Variation in temperature,
relat;ve permittiviw susceptibility to lightning strikes, variations in frequencies, if not mains
Air 1.00 frequencies, etc., all have their pan to play in the ultimate dielectric stress
Barium titanate (ceramic) 3000.00 chosen for the particular application.
Cellulose (paper impregnated with PCB) 6.50 The terms electric field intensity, dielectric stress, and potential gradient are
Glass 7.00
IVIineral oil 2.13 all expressions for the same factor given by the ratio
IVIica 5.60
Polypropylene 2.20 . . Voltage across the dielectric
D1electnc stress=---~----------
Polyester 2.90 Thickness of the dielectric
and these are given in SI units as megavoltsjmetre, which is equivalent to volts/
micrometre (where one micrometre equals 10~ 6 metre). In the case of
referred back to free space, i.e. a vacuum, which has a value of
capacitors where the dielectric thicknesses are measured in tens of micro-
10-9 metres, the latter form is conventional.
---- = 8.854 x 10 -!2 farads/metre Tahlc 1.2 shows the dielectric strength of various materials used in
36n '
capacitors of one kind or another.
ABSOLUTE PERMITTIVJTY (c)
Table 1.2 Mean dielectric strength of materials compared with dielectric stress
This property of the dielectric is given by the ratio
Material Operating Dielectric
Electric flux density stress ( IVIV /m) strength ( IVIV /m)
8 = -----------
Electric field intensity r.m.s. d.c.

(The definitions of these terms follow later) Air 2-3 4-9

Barrurn titanate (ceramic) 0.35 9.4
It can also be shown that the relationship holds and Cellulose (paper impregnated with PCB) 16-18 200-220
IVIineral oil 16-18 76.50
e= 8 08,
Mica 80-100 150.00
Polypropylene (in mixed dielectric) 48-52 650.00
where 8 =absolute or overall permittivity Polyester Not usually
used for
8 0 =permittivity of free space a.c. duty 158.00
8, =relative permittivity.
Note: The figures quoted for operatmg stress depend upon the application and the temperature of the
This theory, while it is more applicable to physics, must be understood by environment

the engineer who has to apply these principles.

It should be understood that the approximate values, given in Table 1.2 as
the properties of the materials, vary considerably and depend on test
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY, DIELECTRIC STRESS, conditions, thickness of sample, and the shape oftest electrodes, and should be
POTENTIAL GRADIENT taken as indicative only.

As the voltage applied across an insulating material varies with the thickness
and type of the material itself, figures for the maximum dielectric stress are
necessary to the successful design of a capacitor. Normally, these figures are
quoted as the dielectric strength and indicate the point at which breakdown of
the material occurs.
The maximum dielectric stress is usually given as the maximum voltage that
ELECTRIC FLUX, OR ELECTRIC CHARGE (Q)
Both terms have the same value. The term electric charge is used to denote the
overall size of the electric field, and the unit of measurement is the coulomb (C).
If. to charge a capacitor, a current of I (amperes) flows for a time (r) seconds
4 Fur1darnental pnr1ciples and app!rcations of capacitors Capacrtors in series and in parallel 5

For a multiple-plate capacitor of N plates, the capacitance

then Q=It coulombs. Electric flux density (D) is given by the ratio of
Electric flux or electric charge Q t- 0 E,A eA
-------- -------------- ------- = - = D C= --- (N -1)=--- (N -1) farad.
Area of dielectric A d d

where Q =electric flux in coulombs (C)

WOUND CAPACITORS
and A =area of dielectric in square metres (m 2 ).

Capacitor clements are normally wound from long lengths of insulating

CAPACITANCE (C)
One factor determining the quantity of charge that a capacitor will store is its
inherent capacitance, as discussed in the fundamental principles earlier in this
Chapter. In practice it is found that the charge (Q) stored by a given capacitor
is proportional to the charging voltage (V).
Qcx:V
In British Standard 3763, the farad (F) (the unit of capacitance) is defined as
'the capacitance of a capacitor between the plates of which there appears a
difference of potential of one volt when it is charged by a quantity of electricity
equal to one coulomb'. We therefore obtain the relationship
C=Q
v to be used
(dielectric) material of either paper or thermoplastics or a combination of
both, while in the same operation the electrodes (continuous metallic ribbons,
normally of aluminium foil) are being wound. This permits both sides of the
.okctrodes to be 'active' and contribute to the capacitance, except for the first
and last turns because of the roll effect. The formula discussed previously_ can
therefore be modified to read
1\-A 1-:WI
C= - - = - -
d d
where IV= width of overlap of the electrodes
I= length of overlap, termed winding length
"=a constant which incorporates the absolute permittivity; a factor
involving the ratio of total length to first and last turns; the
contribution of both sides of the electrode to capacitance, and
takes into account the multiplying factors enabling practical units

where C =capacitance ~n farads . d =dielectric thickness separating the electrodes.

For instance: 1-; equals 3 for a dielectric of polypropylene/Kraft paper of a
Q =charge in coulombs
V =potential difference in volts. density of I in the ratio of 2: I, impregnated with PCB. When the length I is in
metres, the overlap w is in millimetrcs, the dielectric thickness d is in
For most practical purposes, however, the farad is much too large a unit. In micrometres and the capacitance in microfarads. The constant would vary
the electronics field the most commonly used unit is the picofarad (pF), 10- 12 between forms of winding and should be determined by application to the
farad. Microfarads (pF), 10- 6 farad, are used in power-capacitor calculations. particular form selected by trial. Once determined; it will be constant to that
(1 microfarad (1pF)= 10- 6 farad (10- 6 F)). particular form of winding.
The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is dependent upon
(1) The effective area of the electric field
(2) The distance between the plates
CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL
(3) The material used for the dielectric.
Capacitors in series obey the following reciprocal law
For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance
I I I
c0 ,A eA -- ---- --=---+- +---+
C = --- =-farads Resultant capacitance C1 C2 C3
d d
while the capacitance of a number of capacitors in parallel is the sum of their
where A= area of electric field in square metres (m 2 ) individual capacitances
d=distance between the plates, in metres (m)
~:=the absolute permittivity of the dielectric material.
Resultant capacitance=C 1 +C 2 +C 3 +
6 Fur1damental principles and applrcations of capacrtors Capacrtors on alternating-current supply 7

dA dB de, three sections in series shown in Figure 1.1 is

1.. I .. 1~
: I I I 1 1 I 1
- --- = - - + --- + --
+0 ~~::=~~~~ -0 CA C8 Cc
CTotal CA CB Cc
M t:---:::: -~ N HI--I and

~~g C4 C 8 Cc
cT"'"'=c-:.-C--+C-c+-C
48 Bt
c
CA

1-<-----V volts-----! 1-<C------ V volts - - - - - J

Figure 1.1 Parallel-plate capacitor with three different dielectrics STRESSES OF COMPOSITE DIELECTRIC CAPACITORS

It has been shown that the effect of using a composite dielectric of material
PARALLEL-PLATE CAPACITORS WITH COMPOSITE
having different permittivities is to il)crease the stress in the material with the
DIELECTRIC lower permittivity. This effect is very important in present-day capacitor
technology as most h.v. capacitors now have a composite dielectric. For
Consider Figure 1.1, which shows a capacitor comprising two electrodes, M
instance, polypropylene film, with a permittivity of 2.2 but of high dielcclric
and N, separated by three different dielectrics, marked A, B, and C. In practice
strength, is wound with paper of a relatively high density of 1.1 and
dielectric A might be polypropylene, B might be high-density Kraft paper and
permittivity 6.0 but of lower diluted strength and impregnated with oil of high
C the surrounding media or impregnant (air, mineral oil, PCB, etc.).
permittivity.
Let the thickness of each dielectric (measured in metres) be represented by
dA, d 13 and de respectively, as shown in Figure 1.1.
CAPACITORS ON ALTERNATING-CURRENT SUPPLY
If Q equals the charge in coulombs resulting from an applied voltage V, and
the area of each dielectric is A square metres (m 2), then Most of the capacitor applications mentioned in this work will be concerned
with units connected to an alternating voltage. It is therefore important that
Electric flux density D=g_ the reader should understand what takes place in such a capacitor.
A At the commencement of the cycle of the alternating waveform, the rate of
and if v~, V8 and Vc are the dielectric stresses in A, B and C, and the relative voltage increase is at a maximum, and so also is the rate of increase of the
permittivity in each is sA, 8 and cc then charge. The current flowing into the positive plate is therefore at maximum at
this instant. During the next quarter-cycle the rate of voltage increase
D Q continuously reduces until there is no change in the voltage. Current has,
VA=--=--
EA0 AeoA however, continued to flow into the positive plate until it contains its
D Q maximum charge.
Vs=--= ---- As the voltage decreases so the charge decreases, resulting in an apparent
880 8 8 s0 A
outflow of current from the positive plate and, as the voltage continues to
decrease at an ever-increasing rate, so the outflow of current from the positive
Vc = !!_ = ___(L
8 co Ec8 0A plate increases. This continues until the voltage has fallen to zero and the
capacitor is discharged.
Q The voltage now commences to rise in the opposite direction and the chain
V4eA = V8e 8 = VcEc = - .
e0 A of events is repeated in the next cycle. Thus, in a complete cycle the capacitor is
That is, for dielectrics having the same cross-sectional area of electrode, the twice charged and discharged, once in each direction. Power and energy
dielectric stresses are inversely proportional to their relative permittivities. curves for a capacitive circuit arc illustrated in Figure 1.2.
Since the potential drop in the dielectric is equal to the electric force When an alternating voltage of V volts is applied to an ideal capacitor, or to
multiplied by the thickness of the dielectric, the potential difference across each an ideal inductor (i.e. no loss in either, see Fiyure 1.3). the following
rclationshi ps exist:
section is V 4dA, v~d 8 and Vcdc respectively, and the total capacitance of the
 8 Fundamental principles and appl1catiorrs of capacitors Circuit conta~ning resistance and capacitance 9

~
_, ;;Current

/_
where !=supply frequency (Hz) w=2nf
L =inductance in henrys (H)
l L =current taken by the inductor

/ ,........--~Energy
'--'.,....
! 1 =f-=current (in amperes) lagging the applied voltage by 90'.
L

where the kvar taken by the inductor JS

~1 L x w- 3

kvar=flx XLx 10- 3

Figure 1.2 Power and energy curves for a capacitor circuit

1 .CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE AND CAPACITANCE

~,,
0 ,,

In order to force current through a circuit containing both resistance and

capacitance in series, a voltage capable of ovc!'(;oming both the ohmic
: TXc resistance of the resistor and the reactance of the capacitor must bt: applied.
The magnitude of the former component is I R volts while that of the latt-er is
lXc and lags behind the current by 90.
(a) (b)
The resultant voltage which has to be applied is the phasor sum of these

r
v

'""'"'t~
0
compont:nts and lags behind the current by some angle less than 90'.
From the phasor diagram given in Figure 1.4. it can be seen th:1t the
Lagging
resultant voltage is

v
IL
V=ftl+vl
Figure 1 .3 Voltage and current relationships in a. c. circuits. (a) Capacitive circuit,
(b) inductive circuit
= J(~;~-(-1-. I)2
we

w- 6
10 6
=IJRz+(w1cY
X c =reactance of the capacitor=--=~- ohms
2nje we and the impedance Z is given by
where e =capacitance in microfarads (~1F)
+ (-~-)
2

f =supply frequency (Hz) w = 2nf z = !".=

l
JR 2

we
I c =current taken by the capacitor (amperes)

I c =~-=current (in amperes) leading the applied voltage by 90.

Xc \
The reactive kvar taken by the capacitor is
I
VR I nR L

r
v
kvar= Vlcx 3
w- (a)
(b) "I v
=ll:xXcxl0- 3 vc lc
and for the inductor
Vc
X'-= reactance of the inductor= 2nfL = uJL ohms Frgure 1 .4 Circuit containing resistance and capacitance. (a) Circuit, (b) phasor diagram
 rl

10 Fundamental prrnciples and applicatrons of capacitors 11

CAPACITOR kvar
Formulae for
Power capacitors are most often rated in kvar which can be calculated from Type of connection calculating har
f)fayram
the formula
kvar=2n:JCV 2 X 10- 9
where C =capacitance in microfarads (pF)
v
lt'L Single phase
VI L
1000
f =supply frequency (Hz)
V =line voltage
Figure 1.5 gives the reactive outputs in kvar of different capacitor connections.
T
POWER RELATIONSHIPS IN ALTERNATING-CURRENT
fL
CIRCUITS

The active power in a.c. circuits is given by the product of the voltage and the
component in phase with the voltage. If a load is connected to a supply of E
volts, leading current results if the load is capacitive and resistive, but lagging
current results if the load is inductive and resistive. The phasor diagrams are
'] t-4~ v
_.,._JL
Two-phase four-wire
2Vh
1000

shown in Figure 1.6 and the complexor diagrams for power are given
lfL
'] L~~
immediately below them.
2Vh
For power factor of cos as shown, by definition. Two-phase three-wire
1000
Active power (k W) taken by the load= E I cos 10- 3
Reactive power (kvar) taken by the load= EI sin 10- 3 v
Apparent power (kVA) taken by the load=E/ 10- 3 x --------~---- ----------

'~
Active power (k W)
Power factor of load=----------------- =cos <P
Apparent power (k VA) Three-phase
J~l_Vh

0~
delta-connected
From these diagrams the following expression can be seen 1000

Active power (kW)=jkVA -kvar 2 =kVAcos

2
~\
---------------------- - - - - -
Reactive power (kvar)=jkVA 2 .::_kW 2 =kVAsin=kWtan

Apparent power (kVA)=JkW 2-+k~~~ 2 =kW v/l.h

cos Three-phase I')

!A\~'-'.~
y(J ~~JL
star-connected
1000

%/L
DIELECTRIC LOSS
1 = re~tcd 1oltage. J =line current (amps) under normal working conditions.
When the dielectric of a capacitor is a vacuum, no losses take place in it, and Figure 1 .5 Reactive outputs for different capacitor connections
the current taken by a capacitor leads the applied voltage by exactly 90, the
power being zero. With any other dielectric, however, there is a loss which is
12 Fundamental principles and applications of capacitors Charge and discharge of a capac1tor 1 3

:
I
(a)
polar material is subjected to an electric field, polarisation occurs due to the

} I cos E
rotation of the permanent molecular dipoles which attempt to realign
themselves with the field. This varies with frequency, temperature, viscosity,
and stress on the dielectric. In addition, free ions in the dielectric field may
migrate and accumulate at barriers until the field is either removed or reversed.
This is known as inte1j"acial polarisation or dielectric absorption.
9
These losses may be considered to be equivalent to a low resistor in series
with the capacitor (see Figure 1.7(a)) or a high resistance parallel shunt in the
I Sill 9 I sin
(c) capacitor; these are related by the equation
.c___:__ _ _ _.___ _ .._E
'"' E I
rCcu=R.cco-
kvar kvar
kVA
lead!ng lagging wh.::re r is the low series resistance and R the high parallel resistance. Losses
in power capacitors are expressed in terms of watts per kvar, e.g. tan i:i = 0.0006,
9 E loss= 0.6 watts/kvar.
kW

Figure 1.6 Power phasors and complexors in a.c. circuits. (a) Inductive or capacitive
load, (b) capacitive, (c) inductive
CALCULATION OF CAPACITOR CURRENT
known as the dielectric loss which has the result that the current does not lead
the voltage by the full90. The phase angle by which the lead falls short of90o is Given that the rating in kvar is known, it is possible to calculate the current
called the loss angle. If this angle is represented by the sign b then the phase taken by the capacitor as follows
angle is (90- b) and the power factor of the capacitor is cos (90- b), which kvar x 1000
equals tan b. Because of the small value ofthc angle,) the loss factor is normally I=----~ single-phase capacitor
referred to as 'tan b'. The current taken by a capacitor is equal to I= wCV, and
v
the power absorbed by a capacitor is equal to VI cos, which is equal to I= kvar x 1000
VI tan b (as shov:n in Figure 1.7) for low values of b below 0.1. xVJ3 three-phase capacitor

(a) (b) where I =current flowing, and V= line voltage (volts)

1

!~'
tan b = rCw
9 = 90 -6
CHARGE AND DISCHARGE OF A CAPACITOR

LJc
..::. Ccc
Consider the circuit shown in Figllre 1.8. In this the charging current is given
by the expression

I chacgo =RV (I- e -t/CR)

r]

Figure 1 .7 Power absorbed by the capacitor equals VI cos 1;= VI tan ,j

The term 'CR' is known as the time constant of the circuit, and with C in
microfarads, R in megohms, C R in seconds, it is the time taken for the
The dielectric loss is complicated and molecular in origin. For molecules of
capacitor to be charged within 1/e times the full charge, i.e. (1- 1/e).
symmetrical structure subjected to an electric field there is a displacement of
Similarly, the discharge current is given by the expression
the outer layers of electrons with respect to the positively-charged nucleus
which results in electronic polarisation which is reversible in character. V '("R
=-c-'
Subst<mces with non-symmetrical structures arc termed polar, and when a R
 rI
14 Fundamental pm1cip/es ar1d Jpplications of capJcitors Capacrtors for power-factor rmprovement 15

CI~FI
L
~------~lr-------~ i
__J
Figure 1.9 Circuit containing resistance
and inductance, where: V=supply voltage,
R(megohrns)
~ VR=voltage drop across resistor R,
'-- VL ~voltage drop across inductor L,
v
I= current drawn from supply
""'-'
Figure 1 .8 Charge/discharge of a capacitor
'------0 -4--- V or V d e - o------J through a pure resistor

and again, for a time equal to the time constant, t = C R seconds, the discharge ~~ ~
current will be 1/e of its initial value. \/L
~

ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR v

" ~

/
The energy stored in a capacitor can be shown to be /
/
J =~CV 2 joules
/
wher~ C =capacitance (pf), and V= voltage (k Y). / Figure 1.10 Phasor diagram of R-L series circuit,
where: V=supply voltage, VR =voltage drop
across resistor, VL =voltage drop across inductor,
/=resultant current drawn from supply, </J=phase
THE FUNCTION OF THE CAPACITOR IN THE angle between resultant current and supply
voltage
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

Power capacitors have been used in many and varied ways in industry over the
past 40 years, but their increasing use is often limited by the apparent lack of
practical application information. Whilst there is .a great deal of information
available on capacitors and their application it requires much research among
trade journals and manufacturers' publications in order to obtain the
information relevant to the requirements of a given application.
In the following paragraphs descriptions are given of the main applications
of capacitors, the most common being dealt with in greater detail in later
Chapters. These include capacitors for power-factor improvement; series
capacitors in power-supply systems; surge protection, motor startjrun,
commutation, and harmonic-filter capacitors; direct-current smoothing capa-
citors; pulse-forming network capacitors; voltage-divider capacitors; line-
coupling (carrier current injection) capacitors; switchgear capacitors; syn-
thetic testing of switchgear; capacitor banks; surge-generator capacitors;
energy-storage capacitor banks, and capacitors for fluorescent lighting.
CAPACITORS FOR POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
The majority of industrial loads can be regarded as comprising a resistor and
an inductor in series. Figure 1.9 shows such a circuit.
If a phasor diagram for the circuit in Figure 1.9 is drawn, the result will be as
shown in Fiyure 1.10, from which it can be seen that the current (J) lags the
supply voltage (V) by some angle rp, i.e. the circuit is said to have a lagging
power factor where power factor (cosine rjJ) is given by
cos rP =-v-VR
Power, in an alternating current circuit, can be dissipated only in the
resistive part of the circuit. Therefore, the power dissipated in the series circuit
shown is IVR watts
but, as VR = V cos (p then power= VI cos.
Electricity supply authorities charge their consumers for the energy which
the consumers have used, and this energy is determined by the product of
power and time. The supply authorities' revenue is, therefore, determined by
the pmver supplied, which is independent of the power factor of the load.
Whatever the power factor is, however, the generating authority must install
machines capable of delivering a particular voltage and current even though,
in a particular case, not all the voltage and current product is being put to good
usc. The generators must be able to withstand the rated voltage and current
regardless of the power delivered. For example, if an alternator is rated to
 r
16 Fundamental prmciples arld applrcations of capacrtors 17

deliver 1000 A at 11 000 volts, the machine coils must be capable of carrying
rated current. The apparent power of such a machine is 11 MY A and if the load
power factor is unity this 11 M VA will be delivered and used as 11 M W of
""
active power, i.e. the alternator is being used to the best of its ability. If, lc
""" ""'-
however, the load power factor is, say, 0.8lagging, then only 8.8 MW are taken "- v
and provide revenue, even though the generator still has to be rated at 1000 A 2 """

~~
at 11 kV. The lower the power factor, the worse the situation becomes from the
supply authorities' viewpoint. Accordingly, consumers are encouraged to
improve their load power factor and in many cases are penalised if they do not. '
Improving the power factor means reducing the angle of lag between supply IL
II Figure 1 .12 Phasor diagram showing the effect
voltage and supply current. Ic of adding capacitance, where: /L ~current flowing
with no capacitor connected, ic~current due to
I capacitor only, 1~ current taken from supply with
capacitor connected
IL Res1stor

lc
(a)
Figure 1.11 Capacitor connected in Source
Capacitor
parallel with load, where: v~supply of
voltage, /L ~current taken by load, supply Load

v
"\...-
ic~current taken by capacitor, /~current
drawn from supply
ES ER
.L
T
I
Consider, therefore, the circuit shown in Figure 1.11 with a capacitor
connected across the supply voltage. A phasor diagram for such a circuit is
shown in Figure 1.12.
ill)
E
~5 1c :T:
l t
ER Load

It can be seen,'therefore, from Figure 1.12, that by installing a capacitor in __________ L~

parallel with the load, the angle of lag between current and voltage can be
reduced from c/> 1 to qJ 2 . By choosing a suitable size of capacitor the current
could be brought completely into phase with the voltage. In practice, as will be

7
seen later, in Chapter 3, this is not usually economic. I c)

ER ~
SHUNT CAPACITORS APPLIED TO POWER SUPPLY IR ~
SYSTEMS
Ic Es

~::-_:--_:-~
Consider the simplified distribution circuit shown in Figure 1.13 operating (d)
under the conditions of both lagging and unity power factor. It is assumed that : IXL drop
the load voltage is kept constant by varying the supplying-end voltage. The
analysis of such circuits and the conclusions to be drawn are discussed in ,, I ER ~ !Rdrop
Chapter 9 on capacitors used in transmission lines.
In many countries it has become common practice not to transmit reactive
L~ad \
!LOAD
power over high-voltage distribution lines. The reactive power is instead
generated at the receiving ends of the high-voltage lines. In Sweden alone. for F1gure 1.13 Simplified distribution system (a) System, (b) simplified circuit. (c) phasor
d1agram lagging power !actor, (d) phase diagram unity power !actor with shunt capa-
instance, it is estimated that the installed generation of reactive power by shunt CitOr bank
 r

18 Fundamental principles and applications of capacitors Capacitors for surge protection 19

capacitors amounts to approximately 6000 Mvar. In Great Britain, however, CAPACITORS FOR SURGE PROTECTION
the interconnected UK grid system reduces the need for shunt capacitor
banks. Surge protection of the insulation in rotating machines, such as motors and
g<;;nerators, poses problems somewhat different from those involved in static
SERIES CAPACITORS APPLIED TO POWER SUPPLY ;pparatus, such as transformers and switchgear.
SYSTEMS The windings of power transformers, for example, are usually immersed in
liquid and have relatively high impulse voltage withstand strengths. The
The simplified distribution circuit of the abovt: is shown in Figure 1.14, with insulation strength of a rotating machine is less, as the insulation is dry and
series capacitors. The analysis of such a circuit is given in detail in Chapter 9, space is limited.
and th~ conclusions which can be deduced from these expressions are also When, therefore, a rotating machine is connected to an overhead line and is
therein. exposed to lightning, it must be protected against lightning surges. These
surges may build up voltage on the end-turns of the inductive winding in these
(a) machines.
Source()---(])----:--Transmission line . Protecting such machines against surges involves limiting the voltage on
of 1 . (/'\\ ._ _
supply ~Load both the major insulation and the turn insulation in the windings. This
Es Series E
capacitor R necessitates limiting both the magnitude and the steepness of the incoming
surges.
It is necessary to limit the steepness, or rate of rise, of the surge because the

1r
XL Xc voltage applied to the turn insulation is dependent upon this rate of voltage
(b)
rise. In a rotating machine the machine \Vinding is wound back on itself,
thereby producing voltage between turns. The lower, therefore, the rate of rise
L
Js ER Load of voltage, the lower the turn-to-turn stress. In single-turn windings the turn

-~
insulation is usually the same as the insulation to earth, or major insulation.
----------- With multi-turn windings, however, the turn insulation is less than the major
insulation.
The complete basic protective circuit for rotating machines is shown in
Figure 1.15. It consists of an arrester ALto limit the incoming voltage. The
(c)
inductance L and capacitance C limit the rate of rise of the voltage at the
machine terminals. The second arrester, AM, limits the magnitude of the
ER I"' IR
voltage from the machine terminal to its frame.
I I Capacitors used for surge protection are generally connected between phase
[... r. ..1 and earth, and therefore the case is used as one terminal of the capacitor. A
1RcosR IXLsinQR typical value of capacitance is 0.25 JJF.
More details are given in Chapter 11 in the Section on surge protection
IXc
capacitors.
(d) ~

9s
i~
; I I
L
Machine

II I i I I I I I I I Machine frame
AI_
~ !.. :. .I
AM

IR cos <!JR I(XL -XC) R

Figure 1.14 Simplified distribution system with series-connected capacitors. (a) System, ':"
(b) simplified circuit, (c) phasor diagram without capacitor, (d) phasor diagram with
Figure 1.15 Fundamental surge protection circuit for a rotating machine
series capacitor
 r
t
20 Fundamental prrnciples and applrcations of capztcitors
ENERGY STORAGE CAPACITORS
The requirements for very high currents of short duration is ever increasing,
particularly in the field of nuclear engineering. These high currents can be
obtained by the discharge of capacitor banks previously charged with direct
current. The capacitor, when charged with direct current, can store very high
energies. The main requirement of these capacitors is a high dielectric strength
and the absence of internal inductance.
Energy storage capacitors have been used in discharge welding, impulse
testing, high-intensity Dash photography, spectrographs and X-ray
photography.
Details of design and operation are given in Chapter 11.
.I
CAPACITORS FOR STARTING SINGLE-PHASE
INDUCTION MOTORS
To start a single-phase induction motor it is necessary to produce a rotating
magnetic field. This can be done by providing two windings in the stator
('main' and 'auxiliary') designed so as to be displaced in phase from each other.
One method is to make the auxiliary winding more resistive than the main
winding, but the other is to connect a capacitor in series with the auxiliary
winding so providing a phase shift of almost 90 between the windings. This
wider phase shift, not possible with the first method, giving improved motor
performance, is dealt with in Chapter 12.
CAPACITORS USED FOR COMMUTATION PURPOSES
In thyristor applications it is necessary to have the facility for 'blocking' or
'turning off the current after a specified period of conduction and the most
common method is to employ a capacitor discharge current. This ensures that
the turn-off is effected in a minimum time, of the order of microseconds. Such
switching is defined as static switching and is used on both 'chopper' and
'inverter' circuits. Details of the design and operating conditions are given in
Chapter 12 under commutation capacitors.
HARMONIC FILTER CAPACITORS
The increasing use of large thyristor-controlled machines and the concern
expressed about the magnitude of harmonic currents and voltages being
impressed upon the grid system, has led to a demand by the supply authorities
that power filter networks be installed to absorb these harmonics. These filter
Voltage-divider capacitors 21
networks incorporate capacitors connected in series with inductors. Such
filters have a minimum impedance at the harmonic frequency.
In addition, the filter networks provide additional power-factor correction
at the supply frequency, 50 to 60Hz. The networks will be discussed in detail in
Chapter 10.
DIRECT-CURRENT SMOOTHING CAPACITORS
The applications of these smoothing capacitors are many and varied. They are
used for smoothing the waveform in circuits and vary in size according to the
frequency of the incoming source that is to be rectified. As the frequency
increases, the lower is the capacitance required to provide the necessary degree
of stability of the d.c. output. Capacitors used in connection with radio
transmitters operate at high voltage, typically at 20 kV d.c. The reliability of
such capacitors usually means that some de-rating is applied.
HIGH VOLTAGE CAPACITOR BANKS FOR
TRANSFORMER TESTING
Ratings of power transformers for connecting to EHV transmission system~
now have ratings up to about 600 MV A. To carry out the full scale
magnctising tests demanded imposes a totally unacceptable inductive load on
power systems and this must be compensated for by suitable capacitor banks.
Such banks must be capable of wide variations of voltage ~md kvar rating to
meet differing conditions, but maximum ratings can approach 200 Mvar at
voltages of up to 200-400 kV. More details are given in Chapter 11.
VOLTAGE-DIVIDER CAPACITORS
These capacitors, as their name implies, act as a potential divider across an a.c.
source of supply and can be used to monitor the supply for oscillographic
purposes, etc. On direct current, resistive elements are used, but on a.c.
supplies up to quite high frequencies capacitors are used. The ratio of the
divider can easily be altered by changing the bottom-end capacitor.
In fact, however, the measurement of current through a capacitor is difficult
at high or pulse frequency and it is best to calculate from a knowledge of the
voltage and the frequency of the source of supply. This avoids the problem of
providing a non-inductive resistor in series with the test capacitor.
These capacitors can also be used for stabilising the voltage on rectifiers for
d.c. transmission.
 ~

22 Fundamental prtnciples and applrcaticlllS of capacttors Surge ger1erator capactlors 23

LINE COUPLING OR CARRIER CURRENT-INJECTION Transmission line

CAPACITORS
-rI
For long high-voltage transmission lines it is uneconomic to convey pro-
tection and control signals by means of pilot wires. Such information is
conveyed, at high frequency, along the main high-voltage line. To supply the
I Caracitor

high-voltage transmission line with these high-frequency signals requires the

use of line-coupling capacitors, and a typical arrangement for single-channel
I Reactor

line coupling is shown in Figure 1.16. Sec carrier current-injection capacitors

in Chapter 11.

r - Intermediate
transformer
Load

Figure 1 .17 Typical arrangement for a capacitor voltage transformer

SWITCHGEAR CAPACITORS
Tuning inductance
These capacitors, contained in porcelain housings, are connected in series
across the series gaps of each phase of EHV circuit-breakers when opening. In
Matching Matching t:ffcct. the capacitors fulfill the duties of a potential divider in equalising the
transformer transformer
yoJtagc appearing across each contact gap.
-: -:

Figure 1.16 Single-channel line coupling

CAPACITOR BANKS FOR SYNTHETIC TESTING OF
swiTCHGEAR

Capacitor banks connected either in parallel with switchgear or by series

CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
The direct connection of a conventional voltage transformer to a very high
voltage transmission line is both relatively expensive and, as such voltage
transformers consist of many turns of fine wire, may introduce a possible
source of weakness into the insulation of the high-voltage transmission
system.
A simple method is to use a capacitor voltage transformer which has an
added advantage in that it does not require to be protected by means of
isolators or high-rupturing-capacity fuses.
A typical arrangement for a capacitor voltage transformer is shown in
Figure 1.17. In this the high-voltage capacitor is 2000 pF, 76.5 kV r.m.s.,
3680 VA, with a low-voltage unit 0.04 11F, 5 k V r.m.s., for use on the 132-kV
network. Two such units in series can be used on higher voltage network lines.
This is further discussed in Chapter 11.
injection method, have been adopted for the simulation testing of high-voltage
switchgear under re-strike conditions and are based on AST A No. 27. These
arc discussed in detail in Chapter 11.
SURGE GENERATOR CAPACITORS
Tcsting of insulation under surge conditions involves the use of a capacitor/
n:sistancc network as given in Figure 1.18.
Such tests require the voltage waveform to be one in which the voltage rises
rapidly in 1 ps and then decays to half its peak value in approximately 50 ps.
This is known as a 1/50 wave and is illustrated in Figure 1.19.
Tests normally applied comprise a series of five consecutive positive
impulses and five consecutive negative impulses, the positive and negative
being in regard to earth. Further details are given in Chapter 11.
24 Fundarnental orinciples and applrcations of capacitors

2 Types of capacitor and methods

Output
voltage of construction
R

~ II ~ b HISTORY OF CAPACITOR DEVELOPMENT

Capacitors for commercial installation came into being abDut 70 years ago
R hen their principal use was on telegraph and telephone circuits operating on
11
tow voltages. In those early days the paper dielectric was assembled in stack
[C form with interleaving electrodes of tinfoil, which extended beyond the edges
= Figure 1.18 Basic circuit for a surge generator (Marx)
of the sheets or the dielectric in two directions, and were soldered together to
form the two poles of the capacitor. The impregnant used was wax.
The usc of capacitors on mains frequency circuits of increased voltages led
to failure of the capacitors due to ionisation occurring in the contraction voids
formed when the wax cooled and solidified. Wax was therefore i"Cr'lac,;d by
100 100 petroleum jelly as the impregnant, but as voltages were increased above 400 V,
shrinkage voids were also found to affect the performance and petroleum jelly
kV kV
gave way to the use of mineral oil.
50 50 When aluminium foil in continuous lengths and of a thickness down to
seven micrometres became available, it replaced tinfoiL and reels of high-
quality, technically-suitable papers, based on rag, were produced. Cylindrical
Ou___________________ ~---

DILL----~- windings were designed and wound on synthetic resin-bonded paper core-
Microseconds 50 Microsecs 20 tubes, and these were left in position. This facilitated the assembly uf the
1/50 wave 1/20 wave windings on metal spindles passed through the tubes. Connections were made
Figure 1.19 Typical impulse waveforms (The J & P Switchgear Book, R. T. Lythall, by metal tabs inserted during the winding operation. One manufacturer also
Butterworths) included a corrugated-paper card which enabled the oil to flow through the
winding by convection currents to cool it internally.
Paper densities ranged between 0.8 (for machine-finished papers) to 1.2 (for
FLUORESCENT-LIGHTING CAPACITORS
supcrcalendered types) and had thicknesses in the range 10 to 25 micro metres.
These capacitors are usually for low-voltage operation and are used for the For reliability at above 250 Y at least three papers were used as the dielectric
power-factor correction of the choke and discharge tube or as a ballast between electrodes. This was necessary because paper contains a scattered
number of 'conducting particles', unavoidably introduced in the manufactur-
capacitor in series with the discharge tube, and are dealt with in Chapter 12.
ing processes, which cause short circuits when they coincide in adjacent
papers.
The period 1920 to 1940 saw, therefore, many improvements in materials
and methods of capacitor construction. The oil-immersed, cylindrical ekment,
tank type capacitor was produced in a wide range of sizes f;om I kvar to 500
kvar. At first these capacitors were suitable for use only at medium voltage, the

25
:~1
..;;
 26 Types of capacitor and methods of construction History of capacitor development 27

capacitor elements being delta-comfected. Later, by the use of series-parallel , , trket demands a closely-stepped range of ratings from 1 kvar
\'L)It dgt: 111 (
element groups, capacitors became available for systems up to 6.6 k V, then
upwards. . . . . .
11 k V, and finally 33 k V. Increasing demands for electnc power m the nmeteen-sJxtJes meant longer
In the UK in particular, the oil-immersed, cylindrical element capacitor transmission lines and requirements for larger high-voltage capacitor banks at
dominated the market until the late nineteen-fifties, although in the USA unit mMe .:conomical prices. This could be achieved only by increasing the
type capacitors had become standard at a much earlier date. maximum rating of individual high-voltage capacitor units which, in turn,
In the mid nineteen-fifties synthetic fluids classified under the collective term n uld require ne1v dielectric systems.
1 1
ask ere/ were introduced for use as imprcgnants. These fluids became generally The' end of the nineteen-sixties, therefore, saw the advent of the mixed-
known by the initials 'PCB' (polychlorinated biphenyl) and they were supplied dielectric capacitor with ratings up to 225 kvar. The mixed dielectric consists
under trade names, such as Aroclor, Bic!or, Pyraclor, Clophen, etc. They had tlf oriented polypropylene (OPP) film interleaved with paper. The paper acts
the advantages of being non-flammable and having a high permittivity, and :ts a 11 ick. permitting the impregnating fluid to penetrate between the layers of
high dielectric strength. PCB had to be used with paper made from wood-pulp. film. As a result the loss factor was drastically reduced from 2.5 Wjkvar
called Kraft paper after the process by which it is made, as shortened life an ,)=0.0025) to 0.6.Wjkvar (tan 0=0.0006).
11
resulted if rag-based paper was used. and impregnated with PCB. In 1975 Yirtually all the capacitors produced, both in the UK and abroad,
Despite an increase in loss factor, from 1.2 W per kvar (tan 6 = 0.0012) for were impregnated with PCB. Objections, however, were beginning to be raised
rag-based paper impregnated with mineral oil, to 2.5 to 3.0 W per kvar in respect of its usc. It was claimed that PCB, which is not bio-degradeable,
(tan 6 = 0.0025 to 0.003) for Kraft paper and PCB, the reduction in the size constituted both a health and an environmental hazard. These objections were
of capacitors achieved through the increase in permittivity (2.2 for mineral oil. so strong that the manufacture of PCB in the UK, and in the USA. had
5.75 for PCB) signalled the end for the oil-impregnated capacitor. stopped by 1978. Japan banned the use of PCB completely, America restricted
Because of the initial viscosity of PCB coupled with its relatively high cost, its usc. and many food industries, paint manufacturers and water authoritie~; in
compared with mineral oil, the amount of impregnating fluid contained within the UK also objected to its use.
the capacitor had to be drastically reduced. The original cylindrical windings Capacitor manufacturers were, therefore, compelled to look for altcrna L'.'f
were, therefore, replaced by careless windings compressed to a flat-oval shape imprcgnants for both low-voltage and high-voltage capacitors, and it w".s
and assembled in a rectangular pack before being inserted into a tight-fitting difficult initially to find a satisfactory replacement. However, several sub-
container with the free dielectric fluid kept to a minimum. In the instance of a stitutes for PCB are now in use which do not constitute either an en-
high-voltage capacitor rated at 100 kvar the amount of free fluid is approx- vironmental hazard or a health risk, and technical details of various types of
imately 6.75 litres (1.5 gallons). imprcgnant are giveri in Table 2.1.
High-voltage capacitor designs, at this time, were aimed at ensuring that the In the case of low-voltage capacitors the necessity of finding a new
temperature drop between the case and the 'hot spot' (the top centre of the imprcgnant coincided to some extent with developments already in progreso
pack) should be as low as possible. At one stage, to aid the transmission of heat to substitute polypropylene film for paper as dielectric. One UK manufacturer
to the sides of the case, aluminium fins were assembled between the windings in as a short-term solution reverted to a form of mineral oil with high-density
the pack. Later it was found that typically a width of 63.5 mm from the hot- paper. A European manufacturer has developed a design which combines
spot to the sides of the case was sufficient, for ratings up to 50 kvar, to avoid mctalliscd-paper electrodes and polypropylene film, fully impregnated with a
excessive hot-spot temperatures, and the aluminium fins were abandoned. As
ratings increased to 100 kvar the length of the thermal path was reduced to Table 2.1 Properties of capacitor impregnants
57 mm in a case-width of 114 mm. --
lmpregnanl Permiuivity BDS Pour Flash Fire
In spite of many improvements in Kraft paper and polychlorinated biphenyl
point point point
impregnants, by the mid nineteen-sixties it came to be accepted that 100 kvar open cup
represented the maximum high-voltage unit rating obtainable with impreg- (MV/m) CCJ (C) ("C)
------
nated paper dielectric.
DCW (droctyl phtha!ate) 5.26 10 6 -45 225 251
Developments in low-voltage unit type capacitors were also proceeding and UINP (dttsononyl phthalate) 4 68 11.8 -48 221 257
50 kvar was found to be the maximum unit rating obtainable with PCB- IPB (rsopropyl biphenyl) 2.83 51 kV* -55 155 175
BNC (herw;l neocaprate) 3.8 76 kVt -60 155 165
impregnated paper dielectric design in the 380 to 660 voltage range. The
PCB ltrrchlorbiphenyl) 6.0 74 kVt -23
reduced rating was due to the larger volume of material per kvar associated
with low-voltage capacitor design, and in any event was not serious as the low- t I ~
~ RS 148
28 Types of capacitor and methods of construction General charactenstics of capacrtor papers 29

non-PCB impregnant. Others have produced metallised-film designs, filled, Table 2.2 Variation of permittivity with type of paper and impregnant

not impregn:.tted, with non-PCB insulating fluid, while at least one UK Low Med;um H;gh M;xed
F;nis/J
manufacturer offers a completely dry metallised-film capacitor which is dielectric
performing satisfactorily in service. Low-voltage plastics film designs will be
Ex tr.J thickness
dealt with in more detail later in this Chapter. due ro packing % 0 10 0 5 10 0 5 10 16
It is obvious that drastic changes in capacitor design have occurred over the
[;I
past 25 years and the impact of these in reducing the weight per kvar of
high-voltage capacitors is illustrated in Figure 2.1. f1 ;chiOI
Lliphenyl 20'C 61 6.28 5.98 5 70 6 30 6 02 5 76 6.40 6 09 5 79 3.04
I rich lor
L1 iphenyl 50'C 5.6 6.00 5.72 5 44 6.14 5.81 5.53 6.24 5.91 5.62 3.01
kg/kvar
i't':lt:iCirlor
llipl1l'r1yl 20'C 5.1 5.71 5 42 5.15 5 88 5.56 5 28 6 06 5.72 5 42 2.97
Pt 1ltaclllor-
1

2.0 brplrenyl 50'C 4.8 5 50 5.22 4.96 5.72 5 41 5.11 5 95 5.60 5.31 2.94
t 1, 11 ,stormer oil 2.2 3.26 3 06 2.84 3 72 3.44 3.1 G 4.30 3.92 3.60 2 51

1.5

d~nsity 1.0; high-d~nsity (H), density 1.2. The permittivity of each type is
shown in Ti1ble 2.2 when impregnated with mineral oil and with tri-
1.0
chlorbiphenyl. Degrees of packing pressure influence the ratio of paper to
trichlorbiphenyl and are given as a percentage. The formula used for the
calculation of permittivity of mixed dielectric systems is
0.5
T
1: = -~~--~--

t T -t -t p"
1985 . + -:-!'_ X __[Jo_ + ___":' _ P 1.5 55
1982 Lopp E.,d 1.555 .
f,od ~-
Figure 2.1 Reduction in weight per kvar over the years: 1951, PCB replaced mineral oil where T =total thickness x space factor, t""" =film thickness, orr ,,film per-
as impregnant; 1957, larger capacitor units produced; 1960--87, improvement in paper
mittivity. tP =paper thickness, ,c~ =cellulose permittivity, Pr =paper density,
quality; 1967, thermoplastic film introduced; 1970-75, improvements in thermoplastic
film quality, and increase in film content of dielectric 1:"'1 =oil permittivity.

Impurities in the manufacture of capacitor paper are regi ;tered as

Numerous alternative impregnants to PCB have been, and are being,
investigated but so far none has possessed the quality of non-flammability
although they have properties similar to those of PCB without being non-bio-
degradeable. Some of the relevant properties are listed in Ti1ble 2.1 which
includes, for comparison, trichlorbiphenyl (PCB) containing 3% pentachlor,
which is not bio-degradeable but can be destroyed by high-temperature liquid
waste disposal.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CAPACITOR PAPERS
The paper used for dielectric purposes in capacitors is usually supplied, in the
UK. in three densities: low-density (L), density 0.8; medium-density (M),
conducting particles or pinholes. Although modern paper-making tt-:chniques
have reduced these weaknesses there is always a possibility of two dielectri-
cally weak areas, in adjacent papers, coinciding.
In practice the number of conducting particles per square metre determines
the area which can be wound without a short circuit occurring, thmugh the
coincidence of such particles. This can be calculated by the use of advanced
statistical theory.
Further improvements in paper manufacture, in which the cellulose chain is
closed by ionic exchange, have led to improved high temperature-loss
characteristics. In addition there has been a continuing increase in the
temperature at which minimum loss occurs. and this has enabled designs
utihsing a higher operating stress. and thus higher operating kmperatures, to
be tntroduced.
30 Types of capacitor ar1d methods of constructron Capacitor manufacture 31

GENERAL CHARACTERISTfCS OF POLYPROPYLENE THE BASIC CONSTRUCTION OF A CAPACITOR

FILM
lsotactic polypropylene film is a thermoplastic film which in the course of
manufacture is stretched in two directions (biaxially) and is known as oriented
polypropylene, abbreviated to OPP.
This stretching affects the mechanical properties in winding but retains the
inherent low-loss factor of tan b <j: 0.3 10- 3 with a corresponding permittivity
of 2.25 in the range 50 Hz to 1 MHz. The volume resistivity is high and on test
(AST A) is 10 15 ohm em in a relative humidity of 50%.
Film can be obtained in a number of thicknesses which in Europe typically
includes 4, 5, 6 and normally used 8, 10, 12, 15 and 18 micrometres, and in the
USA in 44, 50, 55 and 60 gauge corresponding to 11.2, 11.7, 13.8 and 15.2
micrometres respectively. The film is used in 'mixed' dielectric constructions in
the ratio of 2:1 polypropylene :paper, i.e. in the inverse ratio of their
permittivities.
In such an element, if the impregnated paper is operating at a stress of
16 M Vjm then the stress on the film would be of the order of 48 M Vjm. Thus,
for 10-micrometre paper and two 10-micrometre films, the voltage across the
impregnated paper would be 160 V r.m.s. and across the film would be 960 V,
giving a total of 1120 V r.m.s. for the element, illustrating why mixed-dielectric
elements are used exclusively for high-voltage operation. The overall loss
factor should be 0.5 10- 3
Power capacitors consist of a number of basic elements which are constructed
bv winding two layers of aluminium foil interleaved by several layers of tissue,
p;1per or mixed dielectric of paper and plastics film.
In the actual winding process two aluminium foils are wound on the
mandrel with one dielectric between the foils and one on the outside of one foil.
This ensures that a foil will always be adjacent, in either direction, to a
dielectric.
Two alternative mdhods of construction of the capacitor element are
possible. (1) If the element is wound with aluminium foils which protrude
bc:vond the edge of the dielectric, it is referred to as an extended~{oil element. (2)
ff the foils remain within the width of the dielectric it is called a buried-foil
ckment. ln the case of the extended foils the layers of foil are 'staggered' to
permit connections to be made to the foil, after winding. In the case of the
buried-foil winding, tinned copper tabs are inserted during the winding
process to enable connections to be made. The alternative arrangements are
shown in Fiyure 2.2. Fiyure 2.3 shows the completed circular element and thc
methods of mounting it, and the individual element fuse, while Fiyure 2.4
shows the actual winding process.
IJI
Kraft paper and/or film (bl

Table 2.3 Characteristics of plastics films used in capacitor manufacture

/

Permiuiviry tan b x 10- 3

BDS
'
(MV/m)

!"f
Polvpropylene 2.25 0 5 (25'C) > 32 Aluminium
0.4 (SUC) foil
J electrodes
Polycarbonate 2.7-3 1 0.5-10 50 Hz 120 Tinned copper tabs
100 1 MHz (thin films)
Polvethylene terephthalate 3.0-3.2 30 50 Hz 100/160
F1gure 2.2 Methods of capacitor construction. (a) Buried foil. (b) extended foil
50 1 kHz
140 1 MHz

Other films have been used in combination with paper, which acts as a
'wick', to enable a high-permittivity impregnant to fill the interstices and
suppress ionisation at these voltages. Notably, polycarbonate and poly-
ethylene terephthalate have been used under certain conditions, i.e. high
temperature, direct current, etc. All-film capacitors (i.e. with no paper) are now
being made with loose windings and the latest impregnants.
Single-film operation, in which the electrodes are metallised on the film, are
covered later in this Chapter and also in Chapter 12.
These arc operated 'dry', i.e. with no impregnant.
CAPACITOR MANUFACTURE
On completion of the winding process the elements are individually inspected
and tested before being sent in batches to the processing area. Here, the
dements arc dried under a high vacuum to an acceptable level of moisture, and
while still under vacuum, they are impregnated with an insulating fluid.
To prevent atmospheric moisture entering the chamber and contaminating
the windings when the vacuum is broken for unloading, only air which has
hccn dried to a very low dewpoint is allowed to enter. The impregnating fluid is
32 Types of capacitor and methods of construction
Figure 2.3 Completed circular elements
Figure 2.4 Winding circular capacitor elements
filtered and taken through a vacuum dehydrating and de-gassing process
before it passes, still under vacuum, to the impregnation chamber.
A systematic programme of testing, proceeding and continuing throughout
manufacture, is undertaken to ensure reliability of the impregnating fluid,
metal foil, composition and thickness of the paper tissues, sub-assemblies, final
assembly and finished product.
The tank type capacitor 33
CLEANLINESS DURING MANUFACTURE
For high-voltage capacitors the present voltage stress on the film layer of the
dielectric is of the order of 50 M V/m while the stress over the paper is about 17
rvl V/m. A capacitor element often has a dielectric surface area of the order of 10
m-.'
Consequently, in the manufacture of capacitors, elaborate precautions are
taken to ensure scrupulous cleanliness at all stages of processes and assembly,
and high-vacuum engineering techniques are incorporated in the plant used
for drying and impregnating the wound capacitor elements.
These precautions are taken because the main factor governing the
commencement of discharges in an impregnated capacitor, initially free from
voids, is known to be small quantities of ionic impurities, such as moisture and
minutt: dust particles, which produce oeletcrious effects on the dectricai
properties of the insulation. Hence the most vital necessities in the con-
struction of capacitor windings are the avoidance of all possible sources of
contamination during the winding and processing operations, the vacuum-
drying of the paper dielectric, and dehydration of the impregnating fluid.
The ideal manufacturing conditions involve the use of temperature control
and a filtered air-conditioning system in which the environment of the winding
plant is kept under a slight pressure to allow the atmosphere to flow outwards
from the winding room. This will prevent any traces of dust or other ionic
impurities being trapped between the layers of foil and tissues of the element
during the winding operation.
Temperature control is also important because any contamination due to
perspiration on the part of the operative may result in the life and efficiency of
the finished capacitor being seriously reduced. A comprehensive policy of care
and supervision is, therefore, essential at all stages of manufacture.
THE TANK TYPE CAPACITOR
The oil-filled tank type capacitor, contammg circular capacitor elements,
dominated the British market between the years 1930 and 1960.
This type of capacitor utilised the previously-mentioned circular elements
mounted in suitable frames. After being wound the elements were placed in a
process vessel where they were vacuum-dried and impregnated with oil. Figure
2.5 shows circular elements being lowered into an impregnation vessel. After
impregnation the elements were assembled in a rack, as shown in Figure 2.6.
Now basically complete, the rack, or board, containing the elements was
then fitted into a sheet-steel tank where the complete capacitor underwent
further vacuum treatment. The capacitor, filled with oil and still under
vacuum. was then sealed, and after undergoing final testing it was fitted with
either a contactor (Fiyt<re 2.7) or an oil circuit-breaker (Figure 2.8), if required.
34 35

,.,..
.
.

.~
~
-~-. "- ...
~v ~~
~~ II,~-
~-- ~%i '
\'

>n:~~ l
' . . '' I
~ ""..
.;1 I .
""'! l. ,,, ...

~ i(J -~~~!lt~i~~~
,.,. .. '!! "'

:Cr

_.....;-- ~l 1:-!':.;,:
. -arD;
~~'lL ~ ~'!

-=~

Figure 2.5 Circular capacitor elements being lowered into an impregnation vessel (John-
~
son & Phillips (Capacitors) Ltd)
Figure 2.7 Tank type capacitor with contactor unit for automatic control (Johnson &
Phillips (Capacitors) Ltd)

F1gure 2.6 Circular elements assembled in a rack (Johnson & Phillips (Capacitors) Ltd) Ftqure 2 8 Tank type capacitor with oil circuit-breaker (Johnson & Phillips (Capacitors) Ltd)
 The low-voltage unit type capacitor 37
36 Types of capacitor and methods of constructiOn

THE LOW-VOLTAGE UNIT TYPE CAPACITOR

With the introduction of PCB, the unit type capacitor with flat oval wafer-
shaped clements was produced. The elements for this type of capacitor are
wound in a manner similar to the tank type, except that the mandrel, on which
the element is wound, is collapsible. Once, therefore, a circular element has
been wound. the centre mandrel can be withdrawn and the element
compressed.
It is normal practice to provide an internal fuse for each element as part of
the assembly.
Several of these elements are placed together, pressed, and banded to form
the capacitor (Figure 2.10). Connections are then made to the elements (Figure
].!!).A steel lid, drilled with two holes to allow impregnation. is then mounted
on the capacitor element pack. connections being brought out to bushings on
the lid. Next, the complete assembly is fitted into a mild-steel case, and the lid is
welded in position. Figwe 2.12 shows a low-voltage capacitor prior to being
inserted into a container.
Once assembled, the complete capacitor undergoes a vacuum-drying
process and impregnation, and on completion of this process the capacitor is
removed, the holes in the lid are sealed, and the complete equipment
undergoes routine electrical tests.

Figure 2.9 A large bank of outdoor cylindrical-element-construction tank type capacitors

installed on the high-voltage system of an extensive factory (Johnson & Phillips
(Capacitors) Ltd)

Figure 2.9 shows a large high-voltage shunt capacitor bank for an industrial
installation.
The disadvantages of the oil-immersed cylindrical element tank type
capacitor were that it was bulky, heavy and expensive to manufacture, and
after the advent of the unit type capacitor it became uncompetitive. However,
even though the unit capacitor has been established for a long time, there is still
a limited market for high-voltage tank types up to 15 k V. Typical applications
would be in the mining and quarrying industries and other outdoor
applications where conditions are rugged or atmospheres heavily polluted or
where the necessity of providing electrically-interlocked enclosures essential
for open-rack type capacitor banks is not possible due to lack of space.
Modern high-voltage tank type capacitors utilise high-voltage capacitor
units housed in a steel tank. The low-loss mixed dielectric enables ratings of
2 Mvar to be housed in one tank with oil cooling, but air cooling may be
employed up to about 400 kvar. In this application delta-connection offers
some advantages, not the least being the elimination of out-of-balance Figure 2.10 Compressing the element and banding for the construction of low-
voltage un1t type capacitors (Johnson & Phillips (Capacitors) Ltd)
protection equipment.
38 Types of capacitor and methods of construction
r
I
I The low-voltage unit type capacitor 39

Figure 2.11 Connecting up the compressed elements (Johnson &

Phillips (Capacitors) Ltd) Figure 2.12 A low-voltage unit type capacitor, with compressed elements, and its
container (Johnson & Phillips (Capacitors) Ltd)

Except in special cases, it is of course essential to provide suitable discharge 9"

36"
devices for all low-voltage capacitors and these may be mounted internally or 1... ------1 1....~----1
914 mm I 1229 mm I
externally at the capacitor terminals. The discharge devices must be capable of I

discharging the capacitor down to 50 V within 60 seconds of disconnection [ h

from the supply. Rat in T
Initially, this type of capacitor was designed for indoor installations, and its 1' "Condu t II plate
'E
output was limited to about 12.5 kvar at 415 V, a larger capacitor being
obtained by assembling the units into suitable rack assemblies, as shown in
~ il Earth I
stud --,...
II [
;E
1':.2
1m
+ +- E
Figure 2.13.
L ~ E

;[:1p~~ ~~
+ +
Because unit capacitors were of lightweight construction they could be
1..,' .:
mounted on a factory wall, or on some other part of the structure of a building.
without the need for a heavy supporting platform.
31 r lrll
.
Earth I + + I
In recent years unit type capacitors rated up to 100 kvar at 415 V have been
...\~ ;.:.. . . stud ~ ~ 1

~ IM
_l____!_J_
i I
produced. The trend has been to supply these as separate units, or even to fit
control gear. Figure 2.14 shows an arrangement with outputs ranging from 20 16"
... , I .~ I
to 100 kvar at 415 V. Figure 2.15 shows a unit fitted with a control module.
406 mm
I
-~1
I I
10\<<''
~-~
,
!

32;:1" 831 mm '4-holes 266 mrn

Where automatically-controlled capacitor hanks with outputs greater than
:}8" clear
100 kvar have been required, modern practice has been to assemble these as 9 rnm
shown in Figure 2.16. Larger multi-stage capacitor banks of total ratings of ~'\JUre 2 13 A 100 kvar, 415 V capacitor comprising eight 12.5 kvar units in double tier
!total we1yht 440 lb/200 kg)
300 kvar and 600 kvar are shown in Fiuures 2.17 and 2.1 8.
40 Types of capacrtor and methods of construction High-voltage unit type capacrtors 41

Figure 2.14 (left) Unit capacitors: 20, 50 and 100 kvar capacitors at 415 V 50 Hz (John-
son & Phillips (Capacitors) Ltd)
Figure 2.1 5 (centre) A 100 kvar, 415 V capacitor fitted with control module to switch
automatically in 10 kvar steps (Johnson & Phillips (Capacitors) Ltd)
Figure 2.16 (right) A 200 kvar capacitor bank comprising two 100 kvar capacitors and
associated control equipment (Johnson & Phillips (Capacitors) Ltd)
HIGH-VOLTAGE UNIT TYPE CAPACITORS
After the elements are wound, they are assembled into packs fitted with
discharge devices and single-phase connections. Present-day practice favours
horizontal disposition of elements within the pack, the length of the finished
dement approximating to the width of the containa, itself an international
standard.
The packs are housed in mild-steel or stainless-steel containers fitted with
lids upon which arc mounted two porcelain bushings appropriate to the
design voltage of the capacitor. A hole in the lid, through which vacuum-
drying and impregnation is carried out, is finally sealed.
Experience has shown that while availability of three-phase units is desirable
for voltages up to the order of 3.3 kV, single-phase units will meet require-
mc:nts above this voltage.
Major insulation up to 125 k V BIL (Basic Insulation Level) is provided, but
for th-e higher values associated with extra-high-voltage transmission and
distribution systems, major insulation is provided on the capacitor racking.
This ensures that it is possible to design high-voltage capacitor banks for the
highest transmission voltages using standard units which are relatively cheap
in price.
The development of mixed-dielectric capacitors enabled capacitor manu-
facturers to meet the demand for high-voltage capacitors with a higher kvar
per unit volume, imposed by modern trends in high-voltage power trans-
...
Q
0)4;]

Although the basic principles of manufacture of low- and high-voltage unit

type capacitors are the same, there are differences of detail which are worthy of
note. The clements of a high-voltage unit, consisting usually of extended
aluminium foils, interleaved with Kraft paper, or paper and polypropylene
film, are wound on round mandrels but are larger than low-voltage elements. ~
They may or may not incorporate an individual fuse, depending upon whether i
or not the capacitor bank of which they are to form a part is to be fused .I
internally or externally. (See Chapter 8 for comments on internal or external
fusing). Element winding machines are usually computerised for accurate I~~
control. ~
For high-voltage operation, there is a range of basic element designs 1
between, say, 800 and 2000 V, relatively closely stepped, from which it is ~
possible to manufacture high-voltage unit capacitors giving a range of 1 to ~
-)(:

16 k V between terminals, virtually in the same size container for a given rating. I
This wide range is essential and made possible by using internal, series- ~, Fogure 2.17 Two 300 kvar (3 x 100 kvar) 4.5 Hz, three-phase automatically-controlled
paralkl, element connections. ~
'~
module capacitor assemblies at H. M. Robertson, Ellesmere Port, Cheshire (BICC)

42 Types of capacitor and methods of construction
Figure 2.18 A 600 kvar (12 x 50 kvar) 50 Hz, three-phase, automatically-controlled
capacitor assembly ( B ICC)
mission. The mid nineteen-sixties saw the first appearance of this design in the
USA, but it was not until1968/69 that it first became available in the UK and
Europe.
After much research work, orientated polypropylene film (OPP) was found
to be a suitable dielectric. It was compatible with the then acceptable PCB
impregnant and was subsequently proved to be compatible with recent
substitutes now is use. It was capable of accepting a stress of approximately
50 MV jm, 2} times that of Kraft tissue paper, and possessed very low losses.
These advantages offset the comparatively low permittivity of 2.2, compared i
with the much higher value for Kraft paper (5.5/5.9). Other thermoplastics ~'
such as polycarbonate and polyethylene terephthalate were used in com- ~
bination with Kraft paper, but did not possess the low loss of polypropylene.
Because plastics film does not readily absorb fluids it is necessary to employ i
Kraft paper as a wick to ensure full impregnation of the element. In a mixed
dielectric, the voltage stress appearing across the components is inversely
proportional to the permittivity of each component. The fact that plastic film
will accept a voltage stress 2} times that of Kraft paper, and that Kraft paper
has a permittivity approximately 2} times that of polypropylene film, means
fi
High-voltilge unit type capacitors 43
that each part of the composite dielectric is being utilised to the best advantage
and the low permittivity of the film is turned to advantage. In a mixed-
dielectric high-voltage capacitor, two layers of film and one of paper are
normally used between electrodes, the paper being the middle layer.
The higher overall stress possible and the lower losses have combined to
produce a capacitor with an increased rating of 50~;;; in the same volume,
operating at reduced internal temperatures, thus increasing life expectancy.
Losses are typically 0.6 W/kvar, approximately one quarter those of high-
voltage PCB-impregnated paper dielectric capacitors (2.5 W/kvar).
Subsequent developments have produced ratings of 200 kvar and 250 kvar
in one unit, with proportionately higher volumes, but market requirements
demand ratings of 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 kvar. Development work is still
continuing in the hope that the paper will eventually be eliminated in favour of
an all-film dielectric with the same high degree' of reliability.
To give some idea of the drastic reductions in size which have occurred in
the last 30 years, Figure 2.19 shows a comparison between a 400-kvar 6.6-kV
cylindrical-element tank type capacitor and 400 kvar of high-voltage unit
type capacitors of the mixed-dielectric type.
Capacitors are now in manufacture in which the dielectric consists only of
plastics film (OPP) surrounded by one of the bio-degradeable oils (MIPB).
The units have an extremely low loss factor of less than 0.2 W jkvar and as a
result there is no de-rating necessary for the super-tropical category (max-
imum ambient temperature 50C). In the same case size, the rating has been
increased from 240 kvar for the mixed-dielectric capacitor to 280 kvar, and
this applies to 20-kV operation with unfused elements or 8.8 kV with fused
j
Figure 2.19 Comparison be-
tween 400 kvar (6.6 kV) tank
and unit type capacitors
40 lypes of capacitor and methods of construction High-voltage unit type capac1tors 41

After the elements are wound, they arc assembled into packs fitted with
discharge devices and single-phase connections. Present-day practice favours

?ilP
horizontal disposition of elements within the pack, the length of the finished
elem<.:nt approximating to the width of the container, itself an international
@ ~,
standard.
The packs are housed in mild-steel or stainless-steel containers fitted with
lids upon which are mounted two porcelain bushings appropriate to the
design voltage of the capacitor. A hole in the lid, through which vacuum-
drying and impregnation is carried out, is finally sealed.
Experience has shown that while availability of three-phase units is desirable
for voltages up to the order of 3.3 kV, single-phase units will meet require-
ments above this voltage.
Major insulation up to 125 kV BIL (Basic Insulation Level) is provided, but
fo~ the higher values associated with extra-high-voltage transmission. and
distribution systems, major insulation is provided on the capacitor racking.
This ensures that it is possible to design high-voltage capacitor banks for the
highest transmission voltages using standard units which are relatively cheap
in price.
The development of mixed-dielectric capacitors enabled capacitor manu-
facturers to meet the demand for high-voltage capacitors with a higher k var
per unit volume, imposed by modern trends in high-voltage power trans-
Figure 2.14 (left) Unit capacitors: 20, 50 and 100 kvar capacitors at 415 V 50 Hz (John-
son & Phillips (Capacitors) Ltd)
Figure 2.15 (centre) A 100 kvar, 415 V capacitor fitted with control module to switch
automatically in 10 kvar steps (Johnson & Phillips (Capacitors) Ltd)
Figure 2.16 (right} A 200 kvar capacitor bank comprising two 100 kvar capacitors and
...... ""'
associated control equipment (Johnson & Phillips (Capacitors) Ltd)
Q)4~
HIGH-VOLTAGE UNIT TYPE CAPACITORS

Although the basic principles of manufacture of low- and high-voltage unit

type capacitors are the same, there are differences of detail which are worthy of
note. The elements of a high-voltage unit, consisting usually of extended
aluminium foils, interleaved with Kraft paper, or paper and polypropylene
j
film, are wound on round mandrels but are larger than low-voltage elements.
They may or may not incorporate an individual fuse, depending upon whether i
or not the capacitor bank of which they are to form a part is to be fused f 1

internally or externally. (See Chapter 8 for comments on internal or external j

fusing). Element winding machines are usually computerised for accurate .~
control. f
For high-voltage opnation, there is a range of basic element designs !
between, say, 800 and 2000 V, relatively closely stepped, from which it is ~
possible to manufacture high-voltage unit capacitors giving a range of 1 to ~
16 k V between terminals, virtually in the same size container for a given rating. f
This wide range is essential and made possible by using internal, series- Figure 2.17 Two 300 kvar (3 x 100 kvar) 4.5 Hz, three-phase automatically-controlled
parallel, element connections. l,1!: module capacitor assemblies at H. M. Robertson, Ellesmere Port, Cheshire (BICC)

42 Types of capacitor and methods of construction
Figure 2.18 A 600 kvar (12x 50 kvar) 50 Hz, three-phase, automatically-controlled
capacitor assembly (BICC)
mission. The mid nineteen-sixties saw the first appearance of this design in the
USA, but it was not until 1968/69 that it first became available in the UK and
Europe.
After much research work, orientated polypropylene film (OPP) was found
to be a suitable dielectric. It was compatible with the then acceptable PCB
impregnant and was subsequently proved to be compatible with recent
substitutes now is use. It was capable of accepting a stress of approximately
50 MV/m, 2~ times that of Kraft tissue paper, and possessed very low losses.
These advantages offset the comparatively low permittivity of 2.2, compared
with the much higher value for Kraft paper (5.5/5.9). Other thermoplastics
such as polycarbonate and polyethylene terephthalate were used in com-
bination with Kraft paper, but did not possess the low loss of polypropylene. .-.
Because plastics film does not readily absorb fluids it is necessary to employ
Kraft paper as a wick to ensure full impregnation of the element. In a mixed
dielectric, the voltage stress appearing across the components is inversely J.
proportional to the permittivity of each component. The fact that plastic film
will accept a voltage stress 2~ times that of Kraft paper, and that Kraft paper 'I,
has a permittivity approximately 2~ times that of polypropylene film, means "'
H 1gh-voltage Lmlt type capacitors 43
that each part of the composite dielectric is being utilised to the best advantage
and the low permittivity of the film is turned to advantage. In a mixed-
dielectric high-voltage capacitor, two layers of film and one of paper arc
normally used between electrodes, the paper being the middle layer.
The higher overall stress possible and the lower losses have combined to
produce a capacitor with an increased rating of 50% in the same volume,
operating at reduced internal temperatures, thus increasing life expectancy.
Losses are typically 0.6 W/kvar, approximately one quarter those of high-
voltage PCB-impregnated paper dielectric capacitors (2.5 Wjkvar).
Subsequent developments have produced ratings of 200 k var and 250 kvar
in one unit, with proportionately higher volumes, but market requirements
demand ratings of 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 kvar. Development work is still
continuing in the hope that the paper will eventually be eliminated in favour of
an ali-film dielectric with the same high degree of reliability.
To give some idea of the drastic reductions in size which have occurred in
the last 30 years, Figure 2.19 shows a comparison between a 400-kvar 6.6-k V
cvlindrical-element tank type capacitor and 400 kvar of high-voltage unit
t;pe capacitors of the mixed-dielectric type.
Capacitors are now in manufacture in which the dielectric consists only of
plastics film (OPP) surrounded by one of the bio-degradeable oils (r:.,1IPB).
The units have an extremely low loss factor of less than 0.2 Wfkvar and as a
result there is no de-rating necessary for the super-tropical category (max-
imum ambient temperature 50C). In the same case size, the rating has been
increased from 240 kvar for the mixed-dielectric capacitor to 280 kvar, and
this applies to 20-k V operation with unfused elements or 8.8 k V with fused
J
l
J Figure 2.19 Comparison be-
tween 400 kvar (6.6 kV) tank
and unit. type capacitors

44 Types of capac1tor and methods of construction
elements for single-phase units. Three-phase units of the same output of
280 kvar at 50 Hz are made for 11 kY with unfused elements and 3.8 kV with
fused elements.
LOW-VOLTAGE CAPACITORS WITH POLYPROPYLENE-
FILM DIELECTRICS
Impregnated film type
After the introduction of the high-voltage mixed-dielectric capacitor in the
nineteen-sixties, it was found that it was not possible to apply the design to
low-voltage capacitors with the same success since full advantage could not be
taken of the high-voltage stress capability due to the thickness of the
polypropylene film rendering the design uneconomical. However, unlike Kraft
tissue which requires a minimum of two layers between electrodes, a single
polypropylene film may be employed at voltages up to 440 V, which could
greatly increase the utilisation of the dielectric.
This has been achieved by a German manufacturer who has eliminated the
layer of paper, without impairing the full impregnation required, by using
paper-based electrodes metallised on both sides and suitably bonded. The
paper thus acts as a wick but is not under stress and hence forms no part of the
dielectric system. It has been claimed that the additional volume of the non-
active layer of paper offsets any production advantage, and indeed may prove
2
more expensive, but, as kvar is proportional to stress , this must be
counterbalanced by the higher stress possible across the film dielectric.
These capacitors are housed in cylindrical cans with either single-phase or
three-phase connections, with maximum ratings of the order of 12.5 kvar per
can in the 380 to 440- V range. The cans are designed to be assembled in
suitable enclosures to give the wide range of ratings demanded by the low-
voltage capacitor market.
Dry metallised-film type
The prohibition of PCB impregnants in the mid nineteen-seventies forced are-
think on low-voltage capacitor design and this, coupled with the fact that after
much development the dry metallised-film capacitor for fluorescent lighting
has now proved successful, led to the adoption of this design by one UK
manufacturer for power-factor correction capacitors. It was realised that the
duty of the industrial capacitor was more onerous than that of the fluorescent
lighting capacitor, and that the necessity for larger elements might cause
problems.
Because the elements were to be dry, it was essential that virtually no air
spaces were formed during winding. For the same reason, the element-edge
Types of capac1tor enclosure and assembly 45
registration must be very accurate to minimise breakdown occurring at the
ends of elements where stresses are very high. These problems were overcome
by the use of automated winding machines which continuously monitored
winding tension and registration.
Dry metallised-film capacitors are manufactured by winding two polypro-
pylene films together, each film being metallised on one side by a vacuum
deposition process, using zinc or aluminium. There is an unmetallised narrow
strip at one side of the film and the films are so laid as to give the equivalent of
an extended foil winding, with one layer of film between electrodes. Individual
ckments are rated up to approximately 1 kvar at 380 to 440 V and
lJGrmctically sealed in an aluminium can fitted with two flexible leads. The
capacitor incorporates a pressure-sensitive 'fail-safe' device to provide pro-
tection, and the individual cans are assembled in either three-phase or single-
phase configuration within steel confainers in a variety of standard sizes. For
larger, multi-stage, capacitor banks the individual cans are mounted in shelf
type enclosures within sheet-steel cubicles. Capacitor losses are about 0.3
W;kvar, so the capacitors may be mounted in small spaces without risk of high
temperatures.
A number of European manufacturers have similar designs but some of
these offer larger aluminium-can assemblies. One variation on the metalliscd-
film design is the use of flattened-element packs inside plastic rectangul::!r
cases, which are filled, not impregnated, with an insulating non-PCB fluid.
This reduces the risk of breakdown at the ends of the elements due to edge
stresses and hence accurate winding registration is less important. However, it
does not guarantee that any voids in the winding will be filled with the
insulating fluid.
Fiyures 2.20, 2.21 and 2.22 show low-voltage metallised-film capacitors of
va1ious ratings.
TYPES OF CAPACITOR ENCLOSURE AND ASSEMBLY
Low-voltage capacitors
Virtually all manufacturers are now offering low-loss film-dielectric designs
and, because of the requirements of the low-voltage capacitor market, the
range of capacitors housed in steel boxes extends from 1 to 10 kvar, and above
this in larger units, typically 25, 30, 40, 50 and sometimes 100 kvar.
For automatically-controlled capacitors the larger units may be assembled
in a floor-mounted frame, with control modules (including interconnecting
husbar sections) mounted on top. This gives a 'building block' construction,
relatively low in cost.
For more sophisticated or versatile requirements, units or special assem-
blies of elements may be housed in sheet-steel cubicles, with integral
contactors and control relays. Typical ratings would be up to 200 kvar, with
46 Types of capacrtor and methods of cor1structior1 I ypes ot capacrtor enclosure and assembly 47

' ,. '
- '
. '

r
~-----
r."J J~
,..-::

Figure 2.22 A 200 kvar, 415 V, 50 Hz, three-phase bank of capacitors of dry
metallised-dielectric construction (BICC)

eapacitors. These assemblies can be designed for any voltage but for normal
Figure 2.20 (left) A 22 kvar, 415 V, 50 Hz, three-phase capacitor of dry metallised-
dielectric construction (BICC) industrial applications ratings lie usually between 1.5 Mvar and 60 Mvar at
voltages between 3.3 kV and 66 kV.
Figure 2.21 (right) A 50 kvar, 415 V, 50 Hz, three-phase capacitor of dry metallised-
dielectnc construction ( BICC)
Cuhicle type capacitors

In industrial locations where open-rack type capacitors cannot be used

h~causc of lack of space, cubicle type capacitors offer the alternative solution,
facilities for switching in up to four stages. Several cubicles may be bolted
and low-loss capacitors permit more compact cubicles to be offered without
together to give a maximum of 600 kvar (sufficient for most needs) in one
supplementary ventilation. Cubicle enclosures may be used on systems up to
assembly with a single cable connection point. Although more expensive than
15 kV to give total ratings in excess of 6 Mvar. Where automatically-
basic 'building block' assemblies the low losses of capacitors permit more
controlled, multi-step capacitor banks are required, it is usually possible to
compact dimensions, thereby reducing the cost of the cubicles.
combine the control gear and capacitors in one housing.

'limk t\'{ie capacitors

High-voltage industrial applications
Open-ruck type capacitors
Provided that space is available to provide a safe electrical enclosure, the most
versatile method of high-voltage capacitor assembly is open-rack type
High-rating capacitor units have replaced cylindrical elements in the modern
tank typ~ capacitors which, nevertheless, require to be oil-cooled above
ratings of 400 kvar approximately. Maximum ratings are of the order of
2 :'vlvar per tank up to 15 kV. Although expensive, the tank type capacitor
 r
!

43 Types of capacitor and methods of construction I Mar1ufacturers routine tests on capucrtors 49

plays an important role where environ~1ental conditions are rugged, as in
mining, or where atmospheric pollution is excessive. By using double-entry
cable boxes, two or more tank type capacitors can be connected in parallel to
give ratings of up to 5 or 6 Mvar, which is adequate for most industrial
applications.
MANUFACTURERS' ROUTJNE TESTS ON CAPACITORS
BS 1650:1971 covers capacitors for connection to power-frequency systems.
This Standard lists the routine tests to which the manufacturer must submit all
completed capacitors. The following is a summary of these tests taken from the
British Standard in the order in which they are performed:

High-voltage system applications (1) Output test

Open-rack design
This type of assembly may be offered up to the highest transmission voltages,
by providing major insulation in the rack assembly. Virtually any required
rating can be achieved.
Capacitors in pole-mounted hangers
This is an important method of assembly for capacitors connected to high-
voltage secondary distribution Jines, and is common practice in some parts of
the world. Ratings may vary between less than 1000 kvar to 3000 kvar at
voltages up to 15 kV.
The hangers themselves are of galvanised steel, suitable for hanging on pole
cross-arms and may be of the single or double pattern. Also, it is usually
possible to mount control gear on the hanger to make a self-contained
assembly.
CAPACITOR LOSSES
It was mentioned in Chapter 1 that with every practical power capacitor there
is a dielectric loss. On small installations this does not present problems, but
with the large high-voltage capacitor banks, having ratings of many thousands
ofkvar, the loss angle becomes important. The lower the loss angle, the less are
the operating costs for the capacitor bank.
As the dielectric has changed over the years, so too has the loss angle. Table
2.4 shows how the loss angle varies as the dielectric changes.
Table 2.4 Comparison of capacitor losses
Dielectric Losses
W/kvar
The output is measured by either applying an alternating voltage and
measuring the current, or by using a suitable a.c. bridge. This measurement
must demonstrate that at rated voltage and frequency the rated output of the
capacitor, capacitor bank, or equipment, is not less. than the rated output or
more than 110/6 of the rated output. The rated output of a capacitor unit
forming part of a bank must not be less than 95% or greater than 110;;; of the
nominal rated output of the unit.
In polyphase capacitors the balance between phases must be such that, with
a symmetrical supply voltage, the ratio between the maximum and minimum
r.m.s. values of the line current does not exceed 1.08.
(2) Voltage test between terminals
Every capacitor is subjected for ten seconds to one or the other of the following
two tests. Either (a) a d.c. test where the test voltage= 4.3 U with peak
0
charging and discharging currents being limited to ten times the rated current,
the ten seconds being counted from the moment th~ full test voltage has been
reached; or (b) an a.c. test where the test voltage=2.15 U .
0
In both tests U 0 is numerically equal to the r.m.s. value of the voltage
between terminals which, in the test connection, gives the same dielectric stress
in the capacitor elements as the rated voltage gives in service.
(3) A.C. voltage test between terminals and container
The capacitor is subjected, for ten seconds, to a test voltage applied between
the line terminals Uoined together) and the container.
The test is made with an alternating voltage of 50 Hz nominal frequency and
a value is given in Tables 2.5 or 2.6.

Paper. oil-impregnated 2.0 to 2.5 (4) Discharge device test

Paper. PCB-impregnated 3.0 to 3.5
Plastics film/paper. PCB- impregnated 0.5 to 1.0
Plastics film/paper. oil-impregnated 0.5 to 10 A test is applied to verify that the capacitor is fitted with a device capable of
Metallised frlm under 0.5 reducing the residual voltage from the crest value of the rated voltage to 50 V,
Plastics film (OPP). MIPE-impregr1ated under 02
or less. within a given time after the capacitor is disconnected from the source
 r
I Temperature classificatior1 51
50 Types of capacitor and methods of construction
1
Table 2.6 Insulation levels for voltages from 100 kV upwards (BSI)
Table 2.5 Insulation levels for voltages below 100 kV (BSI)

Insulation level 2 3 4 5 6 7
Htghest system voltage -~--

(line to-line) Insulation level

Power frequency Impulse test Highest
(kV (r m s.))
a. c. test voltage voltage crest value svstem
(kV) voltage Power frequency Impulse test voi1age
(kV (r m s.))
(line-to a.c. test voltage crest value
3 15 line)
0.6 Full Reduced Alternative Full Reduced Alternative
1.2 6 25
35 insulation insulation reduced insulation insulation reduced
2.4 11
45 insulation insulation
3.6 16
60 (kV (r m s.)) (kV (r.m.s.)) (kV (r.m s.)) (kV (r.m.s.)) (kV) (kV) (kV)
7.2 22
75 ------
12 0 28
95 100 185 150 450 380
17.5 38 185
50 125 123 230 550 450
24.0 145 275 230 650 550
36.0 70 170
250 170 325 275 750 650
52.0 95
140 325 245 460 395 360 1050 900 825
725 300 510 460 1175 1050
360 570 510 1300 1175
of supply. (This time is one minute for capacitors of rated voltage up to and 420 680 630 1550 1425
including 660 V, and five minutes for capacitors of rated voltage above 660 V.) 525 740 680 1675 1550
If the discharge device is a resistor its value can be measured by a d.c. test ;\(Ht"!S
(II ftw full insulation values apply to or non effect1velv
and the discharge time calculated from the formula earthed systems The reduced values may be used only d the system IS earthed
\11l The choice betvveen the reduced 1nsulat1on of columns 3 and 6 and the alternative reduced 1nsulation of columns4 Jnd
t=2.3 x 10- 6 CR (log 10 U"-1.5) seconds 7 will depend on the overvoltage protective dev1ces used
(11') From 300 kV upwards no tullmsuiJt1on value 1s Indicated as unearthed or non-effectively earthed systems. or resona!lt
emthed systems. are not cons1dered in th1s range
where t =time to discharge to 50 V
R =measured value of resistance in ohms
C =capacitance (in microfarads) of the capacitor across which the
resistor, R, is connected TEMPERATURE CLASSIFICATION
U n = r.m.s. value of the voltage, at rated frequency, between .the
terminals which the capacitor is intended to withstand Capacitors are classified in temperature categories. The temperature category
continuously. is characterised by both the lowest ambient air temperature at which the
The above formula allows for the permitted possible 10% increase in the capacitor may be energised (chosen from the three values, - 40C, - 25C,
actual voltage that may be applied to the capacitor over its rated r.m.s. voltage. -lO"C) and the upper limit of ambient air temperature at which the capacitor
may be operated (chosen from the three values +40C, + 45C, + 50C,
(5) Final output test defined in Table 2.7). Typical temperature categories arc: - 40( + 40C,
-25/+40C, -10/+40C, -10/+45C.
The output test described in (1) above is repeated.

Table 2.7 Maximum ambient temperatures ( BSI)

(6) Sealing test
limit of category Maximum ambient air temperature
A sealing test is carried out to demonstrate that the impregnant does not leak ambient air temperature
Mean over Mean over Mean over
from the capacitor. 1 hour 24 hours 1 year
In practice this test is performed by placing the capacitor in an oven at a ('C)
(C) CC) CC)
temperature approximating to the normal operating temperature of the
40 (temperate) 40 30 20
capacitors, for a period of 24 hours. 45 (tropical) 45 40 30
It should be noted that while the sealing test is shown last in the testing 50 (super-tropical) 50 35
procedure it can be carried out at any convenient point in the testing sequence.
52 Types of capacrtor and methods of construction
CAPACITOR OVERLOADS
r 3 Power-factor correction
All power capacitors must be suitable for operation where the applied voltage
rises to a value not exceeding 1.1 times the rated voltage. This figure excludes
transients but includes the effect of harmonics. The British Standard states
that this increase in voltage is for prolonged periods only, i.e. not continuous.
Other European and world standards do not make this distinction, but state
that the 10% rise in voltage can be continuous.
The capacitor must also be suitable for operation under conditions in which
the maximum r.m.s. current through the capacitor does not exceed the current
which would flow through it at the rated (sinusoidal) voltage and rated
frequency by more than the following currents:
(a) Rated voltage up to and including 660 V:
15% (British Standard), 30% (all other world standards).
(b) Rated voltage over 660 Y:
30% (all standards).
It should be appreciated that overloads on capacitors can arise from several
causes, all entirely dependent on the supply system conditions, as follows:
(a) Increased voltage: kvar loading is proportional to the square of the
applied voltage.
(b) Increased freqrtenc y: kvar loading is proportional to frequency.
(c) Harmonics: see Chapter 10.
-general
To obtain the best possible economic advantage from electric power both the
~cnerating plant and consumas' plants should be operated at high efficiency.
To achieve this it is essential to have a high power factor throughout the
system.
Most a.c. electric machines draw from the supply apparent power in terms
of kilovolt-amperes (k YA) which is in excess of the useful power, measured in
kilowatts (kW), required by the machine. The ratio of these quantities
Useful power kW
--------- or ------=power factor (cos)
Apparent power kVA
is known as the power factor of the load and is dependent upon the type of
machine in use. A large proportion of the electric machinery used in industry
has an inherently low power factor, which means that the supply authorities
have to generate much more current than is theoretically required. In addition,
transformers and cables have to carry this extra current. When the overall
power factor of a generating station's load is lo~, the system is inefficient and
the cost of electricity correspondingly high. To overcome this, and at the same
time ensure that the generators and cables are not overloaded with wattless
current, the supply authorities often offer reduced terms to consumers whose
power factor is high, or impose penalties for low power factor.
Reductions in power costs can be made by taking advantage of these special
terms.
Any installation, including the following types of machinery or equipment,
is likely to have a low power factor which can be corrected, with a consequent
saving in charges, if a penalty tariff is in force:
(a) Induction motors of all types (which form by far the greatest industrial
load on a.c. mains),
(b) Power thyristor installations (for d.c. motor control and electro-
chemical processes).
(c) Power transformers and voltage regulators,
(d) Welding machines,
(e) Electric-arc and induction furnaces,
(0 Choke coils and magnetic systems,
(g) Neon signs and fluorescent lighting.
53
 Power-factor correction 55
54 Power-factor correctron- general

Table 3.1 Typical power factors encountered in industry

,

Industry
Power factor "~n0
Watt less ClreiJr I Power factor (cosine
1
I
065/075 component of lJolJe I=~
Textile load (kvar) Or (f .
Chemical
0.75/0 85 v-1; I kVA
04/0 65
Machine shops
0 35/04 I
Arc welding
0.7/0.9
Arc furnaces
Careless induction furnaces and heaters 0.15/04
0 78/0 8 Figure 3.1 Phasor diagram of plant operating at a lagging power factor
Cement works
Clothing factories
0 35/0 6
0 75/0 8
Breweries
0 6/0 85
Steel works
0 65/0 8 Leading
Collieries kvar added
0 6/0 75
Brick works
0.7/0.8
Cold stores
0 5/0 7
Foundries
06/075 Power (kW)
Plastics moulding
Printing
0 55/0 7
Resultant }
---,
0 5/0 7

'
Quarries t!ffectlve -~ Reduced
Rolling mills (thyristor drives) 0 3/0 7 5 kvar ~aPParen
arrer Cnr~~OWer

Typical power factors encountered in various industries are given in Tahlc

Initial
load
kvar }~_
c::::'fe;;; ......_
r100 /Jo~-z;&r ........._
orrectlon

j
6et;'-..
Ore .........._
3.1, but it must be emphasised that these power-factor values are for guidance ........
only. The actual power factor can vary from installation to installation. ........
......._ I
Even if there is no such penalty the factory cabling and supply equipment -----------~
can be relieved of a considerable wattless or reactive load, which will enable Figure 3.2 Power-factor correction by adding leading kvar
additional machinery to be connected to the supply without enlarging these
services. Additionally, the voltage drop in the system is reduced.
The method employ"ed to achieve the improvements outlined involves To improve the power factor, equipment drawing kvar of approximately the
introducing reactive kVA (kvar) into the system in phase opposition to the same magnitude as the load kvar, but in phase opposition (leading), is
watt less or reactive current mentioned above and effectively cancels its effect in connected in parallel with the load. The resultant kV A is now smaller and the
the system. This is achieved either with rotary machines (synchronous new power factor (cosine 2 ) is increased (Figure 3.2). Cosine 2 is controlled
condensers) or static capacitors. by the magnitude of the kvar added. Thus any desired power factor can be
It is usually found that the expense of correcting a low power factor by obtained by varying the leading kvar.
means of static capacitors is less than the saving effected in the first 18 months; Careful consideration should be given to the various methods of correction
subsequent annual savings are thereafter clear profit. possible in order that the most satisfactory results may be obtained.
As previously stated, there are two types of equipment by which leading
kvar can be drawn from the supply
POWER-FACTOR CORRECTION*
(l) By rotary phase advancers, synchronous condensers or synchronous
motors.
The apparent power (k VA) in an a.c. circuit can be resolved into two
(2) By static capacitors.
components, the in-phase component which supplies the useful power (kW),
and the wattless component (kvar) which does no useful work. The phasor sum The points to be considered in any installation are:
of the two is the k VA drawn from the supply. The cosine of the phase angle
between the k VA and the k W represents the power factor of the load. This is II) Reliability of the equipment to be installed.
(2) Probable life.
shown by the phasor diagram in Figure 3.1. t3) Capital cost.
* Sometimes referred to as power-factor improcemeni.
 56 Power-factor correction- general
(4) Maintenance cost.
(5) Running costs.
(6) Space required and ease of installation.
Generally, it will be found that for normal industrial installations, the
capital cost of rotating machinery, both synchronous and phase advancing,
makes its use uneconomical and, in addition, the wear and tear inherent in all
rotary machines involves additional expense for upkeep and maintenance.
Capacitors have none of these disadvantages. Compared with other forms
of correction, the initial cost is very low, upkeep costs are minimal and they can
be used with the same high efficiency on all sizes of installation. They are
compact, reliable, highly efficient, convenient to install and lend themselves to
individual, group or automatic methods of correction. These facts, coupled
with the low initial cost, show conclusively that power-faCtor correction by
capacitors is by far the most satisfactory and economical method.
The static capacitor, owing to its low losses, simplicity and high efficiency, is
now used almost universally for power-factor correction.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS DETERMINING THE
DEGREE OF CORRECTION
When considering the economics connected with power-factor correction it is
most important to remember that any power-factor improving plant will, in
general, compensate for losses and reduce the current loadings on supply
equipment, i.e. cables, transformers, switchgear, generating plant, etc.
The rating of the capacitors required to improve power factor depends
largely on the tariff. In many tariffs charges are related to kV A-hours, kvar-
hours, or maximum-demand kV A, all of which quantities are reduced by
installing power-factor correction capacitors.
The savings obtained from installing power-factor correction equipment
will depend on the tariff structure. In the UK, the types of tariff affecting power
factor are as follows:
(1) kVA maximum-demand (MD) charge plus a unit charge dependent on
the kVA MD, each charge with a sliding tariff scale for the different
ranges of k VA MD and number of units per k VA MD respectively.
Such tariffs are found in the following boards' areas:
Southern Electricity Board
East Midlands Electricity Board
Eastern Electricity Board
Midlands Electricitv" Board ,
> figure, the nearer the approach to unity the more kvar must be installed for
Yorkshire Electricity Board ~
South of Scotland Electricity Board. ~
(2) kW maximum-demand (MD) charge plus a unit charge dependent on~
!If/.
~
j}
:4"
Economic considerations determining the degree of correction
57
the kW MD, the demand charge being dependent on the power factor.
Both charges have sliding scales.
The above type of tariff can be subdivided into three further types
depending upon the basis of the demand charge:
(a) Demand charge increased according to the amount of average
lagging power factor below the base value which is usually 0.85 or
0.9.
Such tariffs are found in the following boards' areas:
North Western Electricity Board
South Western Electricity Board
North Eastern Electricity Board.
(b) Demand charge increased, or decreased, according to the ratio of
base power factor to the average power factor, or only when the
power factor is outside certain liri1its, such as between 0.8 and 0.9.
Such tariffs are found in the following boards' areas:
South Wales Electricity Board
North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board.
(c) By recording kW and kvar maximum demands, a penalty in the
form of excess kvar charge is imposed on consumers when the ratio
kvar demand/kW demand exceeds a stated value (e.g. 0.4).
In the UK this tariff is unique to the Merseyside and North Wales
Electricity Board.
Tariff structures in other parts of the world are based, in many cases, on
forms similar to those enumerated above, especially where electrical engineer-
ing and electrical supply standards are, or have been, implemented by UK
.practice.
Power-factor correction should always be regarded as an investment with
two main opposing considerations. First, the expenditure incurred in the
overheads charged against the capacitor installation and, second, the income
brought about by the saving in the cost of electricity, together with the
reduction of losses in the electrical system. The chief capacitor overheads are
depreciation, interest on capital, electrical losses and maintenance costs. In
most cases the last two items are covered by the saving on the losses on the
electrical system (cables, transformers, etc.).
As the efficiency of the capacitor installation remains almost constant
throughout its life it is usually estimated that an overhead allowance of
approximately 8 to 10~~ of the installed cost of the equipment should be used.
Where tariffs are based upon a basic standing charge perk VA plus a charge
for each unit (kWh) supplied, the most economical degree of correction is
found when the final power factor is approximately 0.98, since above this
given improvement. This can be seen from the curve in Figure 3.3.
In an average power-factor tariff, with a bonus or penalty clause if the power
factor is above or below some datum figure, there are so many variations of the
 Powerfactor dependent tariffs in Europe 59
58 Power-factor correction- general
Table 3.2 The most economic power factor required by electricity boards

Jt
1.0
Electricity board Type of rariff Power facror Type of power facror

v
should be
improved to
0.95
.I I
kVA MD

y . I
Eastern 0.97/0.98 maximum demand
8 i : l East Midlands kVA MD 0.97/0 98 maximum demand
~
1;
s0
0.90
I ~- London
Merseyside and
kW MD 0.90 average
' I '
North Wales kW MD
~- --- -l--
0.93 max1mum demand
' --t-t7 I
0.
c---
~ 0.8 Midlands kVA MD 0.97/0 98 maximum demand
North of Scotland Hydro kW MD 0.90
\L
0 average
0. kW MD
E I I
North Eastern
North Western kW MD
0.90
0.90
average
average
0.8
) v South Eastern
Southern
kW MD
kVA MD
0.85
0.97/0 98
average
max1mur11 dGmand

0.7 ,V
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-- ,...,...
South of Scotland
South Wales
South Western
kVA MD
kW MD
kW MD
0.97/0 98
0.95
0 90
average
average
average
kvar required Yorkshire kVA MD 0 97/0 98 maximum demand
Figure 3.3 Graph showing how the kvar to be connected varies with the power factor to
be achieved (based on an initial load of 100 kW at 0.75 power factor)

kW
Power factor~cos <jJ 1 ~--
Initial conditions: kVA1
different countries, and even in different areas of the same country, all of which
kvar 1 are independent of each other. The following are some examples.
Tan <jJ 1 =kVV

kvar 1 ~kWxtan <P 1

Holland: In the Netherlands there are 92 independent regional power supply
kW
authorities without a uniform tariff.
Power factor~ cos </Jz=-- In about eight regions, limits of an average powerfactor of 0.8 to 0.85 apply.
Corrected conditions: kVAz
If the power factor is less than the specific limit, a penalty of 1% per kvar is
kvarz
Tan </Jz= kW taken between the hours of 8 am and 5.45 pm. The remainder of the regions
refer to kW with no reactive clauses.
kvarz = kW x tan <Pz West Germany: Here the situation is complex because nationally there are 200
Capacitor kvar required to correct power factor from cos <P 1 to cos <Pz power-producing utilities, each with its own tariff, summarised in six regional
~ (kvar 1 - kvar 2 )
~kW(tan <P 1 -tan </Jz)
sub-divisions (basically the six German Bundesliinder), and although nego-
tiations for a common tariff have been taking place there is little chance that
This value of capacitor kvar can be determined either by drawing the phasor diagram to
agreement will be reached in the near future.
scale, or by calculation using values from trigonometrical tables
Generally, however, cos= 0.9 is standard, but industrial tariffs include
:J
power-factor penalty clauses based on average power-factor values below 0.85
penalty clause that it is difficult to give a set figure for the most economic 1evi~1 or 0.9.
The standard is measured during the 'day' period of 6 am to 9 pm in the
of correction. . t
Table 3.2 shows the most economical power factor required by the vanoust
i winter months, and from 6 am to 7 pm for the remainder of the year. If the
power factor is worse, a penalty will be paid by kvar in excess. Occasionally, a
area electricity boards in the UK. J' bonus will be paid if the power factor is better than prescribed.
Spain: This country also has a large number of power companies, but here the
POWER-FACTOR-DEPENDENT TARIFFS IN EUROPE power tariffs are established nationally by the Ministry of Industry and
::nergy. The power-factor penalty is based on average power factor, and then
The problems posed by the tariffs charged for the supply of electric power akcs the form of a percentage surcharge on the total kWh consumed, as
follows:
Europe are complicated by the number of supply authorities which exist in t
 Financial savings to be made by power-factor improvement 61
60 Power-factor correction -general
\:
Improved load conditions
(l) Lighting tariff: Percentage penalty (Kr) is applicable when the power
factor falls below 0.9 5. 205 kVA Power factor 0.98 201 kW
(2) Motor and general purpose tariff: In this case, the minimum power
factor requirement is 0.9. Ne\1' total charge per annum 2113.80
Belgium: The sole industrial tariff here includes a k W maximum-demand
Financial saving per annum 946.20
monthly charge related to the cost of living, plus day unit charges. A power-
factor penalty is applied which, to be avoided, requires a minimum power
Cost of correcting equipment recovered in about 12 months.
factor of 0.9 lagging. The average power factor is calculated, on a monthly
basis, from the formula

kWh
cos </! = (k wh)z + (ki~~h")Z Example 2
Load conditions initial!;:
There is also a separate charge for 'night' consumption where applicable
85 kV A Power factor 0.6 51 k W
and without any clause concerning reactive power.
Italy, Portugal, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland all base their tariffs on an
average power factor. For Portugal and Switzerland cos =0.87. TarifJ
The first 10 k W of MD or part thereof--per month 12.75
The next 10 kW of MD per kW-per month 1.27
Over 20 kW of MD per kW-per month 1.17
FINANCIAL SAVINGS TO BE MADE BY POWER-FACTOR
IMPROVEMENT If the power factor in a month is less than 0.9 (90%) the demand
charge for that month will be increased by 1% for each 0.01 (1 %) by
Example 1 which the power factor is below 0.9 (90%).
Load conditions initially
Total charge
300 k VA Power factor 0.67 201 k W
51 kW per month at above rate 61.72
Power-factor penalty clause per month 30% of above 18.52
Tariff Total charge per month 80.24
Total charge per annum 962.88
Maximum-demand (MD) charge each month
0.86
Each kV A of the first 200 kVA of MD
0.83 Correction
Each kVA of the next 300 kVA of MD
51 kvar required to correct to 0.9 5 (to allow for
future extension of load) at approximate cost of 280.00
Total charge
200 kVA per month at the above rate lmprorrd load conditions
100 kV A per month at the above rate
53.6 k VA Power factor 0.9 5 51 kW
Total charge per month
Total charge per annum
.Vrw total charge per annum 740.64

Correction Financial saring per annum 222.24

182 kvar required to correct to 0.98 at approximate Cost of correcting equipment recovered in about 15 months.
cost of
 r
t

62 Power-factor correction- general

;' I
I CALCULATION OF CAPACITOR SIZE
Calculation of capacitor size 63

Example 3
Load conditions initially Several methods of calculation of capacitor size are available. The tables and
charts included in this Chapter have been prepared with the object of
517 k VA Power factor 0.58 300 k W
I providing speedy and simple methods of ascertaining if any benefit can be
derived from correcting or improving the power factor of an a. c. electrical load.
It is not necessary to use all the tables and charts included in this Chapter.
Tariff However, a variety of methods has been included so that engineers can select
For the kW of MD at unity power factor those which are most suitable for their individual problems.
1.25 fiyure 3.4 shows a phasor diagram for determining the reduction of kVA
For each of the first 200 kW~per month
1.22 loading for constant kW loading by improvement of the power factor.
For all kW in excess of 200 kW~per month

I!
Where the supply is used by the consumer at a lagging power
factor, the kW of MD shall be increased by dividing the kW by the
average Jagging power factor for the month and multiplying the
figure so obtained by 0.95. G""'"""'

Total charge
The chargeable kW of MD is increased in line with the power-
factor penalty clause
~Jl'""; kW

Figure 3.4 Phasor diagram for finding the size of capacitor required to correct to a given
300 power factor
=-x0.95o=491
0.58
605.02
491 kW at above rate--per month
~per annum
7260.24
Factors governing the size of a capacitor required for the improvement of
po'wcr factor are given in Table 3.3 which provides a simple method of
calculating values of kvar, and the size of capacitor required to improve the
Correction power factor from its initial value to its desired value, i.e. capacitor kvar =load
2010.00 kW x factor to improve from existing to proposed power factor.
330 kvar required to correct to 0.98 at approximate cost of

Improved load conditions
316 kV A Power factor 0.95
New total charge
Examples
300 kW Given, 100-kW load to be improved from 0.77 to 0.95 power factor.
Factor from Table 3.3 is 0.5
. . capacitor (kvar) = 100 x 0.5 =50 kvar

300 x 0.95"" 300 k W at above charge--per month 372.00 The total kvar of a load can be determined as follows:
-~
0.95 4464.00 Given, 100-kW load at 0.57 power factor.
--per annum
tan (factor to improve from 0.57 to unity power factor)= 1.442
. total k var = 100 x 1.442 = 144.2 kvar
Financial saving per annum
Given. 100-k W load to be improved from 0.57 to 0.97 power factor.
Cost of correcting equipment recovered in approximately 12 months.
 r
f

64
I
~,"<
Calculation of capacitor size 65
Table3.3 Power-factor improvement Table. Based on the formula: Capacitor kvar f Table 3.3 continued
required=load kWx (tan 1 ~tan 2 ), where 1 is the uncorrected angle of lag and
<h is the corrected angle of lag
lnit;a/ Multiplying factor for improving power factor to:
I Initial
power
factor Unity
Multiplying factor for improving power facror to

--0.98~-0'96~~-- o.ss
power
fac10r Unity 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 I 0.70
0.71
1.020
0.992
0.99

0877
0.849
0.817
0 789
0 769
0.741
0.728
0 700
0691 0 536 0400
0

0 270
so

0 25 3.872 3.729 3.669 3.621 3.580 3.543 3.388 3 252 3.122 072 0.964 0 821 0 663 0 508 0 372
0 761 0 713 0.672 0 242
0.26 3.714 3.571 3.511 3.463 3.422 3.385 3.230 3.094 2.964 0.73 0.936 0 793 0.635 0480 0 344
0 733 0 685 0.644 0 214
0.27 3.566 3 423 3.363 3.315 3.274 3.237 3.082 2.946 2.816 0.74 0.909 0 766 0.607 0452 0.316
0.706 0.658 0.617 0 186
0.28 3.429 3.286 3.226 3.178 3.137 3.100 2.945 2.809 2.679 0 580 0425 0 289
0.75 0.882 0.739 0.159
0 29 3.300 3.157 3.097 3.049 3.008 2.971 2.816 2.680 2.550 0 679 0.631 0.590
0.76 0 855 0 712 0 553 0 398 0 262
0 652 0.604 0 563 0.132
0.30 3.181 3 038 2.978 2.930 2.889 2.852 2.697 2.561 2.431 077 0.829 0 686 0.526 0 371 0 235
0 626 0 578 0 537 0105
0.31 3.065 2.922 2.862 2.814 2.773 2.736 2.581 2.445 2.315 0.78 0.802 0 659 0 500 0 345 0 209
0 599 0 551 0.510 0079
0.32 2.960 2.817 2.757 2.709 2.668 2.631 2.476 2.340 2.210 0.79 0.776 0.633 0 473 0.318 0.182
0.573 0 525 0.484 0052
0.33 2.861 2.718 2.658 2.610 2.569 2.532 2.377 2.241 2111 0 447 0 292 0 156
0.80 0.750 0.607 0026
0 34 2.765 2.622 2.562 2.514 2.473 2.436 2.281 2.145 2 015 0 547 0 499 . 0.458
0.81 0.724 0.581 0.421 0 226 0.130
0 521 0.473 0.432
0.35 2.677 2.534 2.474 2.426 2.385 2.348 2.193 2.057 1.927 0.82 0.698 0 555 0 395 0 240 0.104
0 495 0447 0.406
0.36 2.592 2.449 2.389 2.341 2.300 2.263 2.108 1.972 1.842 0.83 0672 0.529 0369 0214 0078
0 469 0.421 0 380 0 343
0.37 2.511 2.363 2.308 2.260 2.219 2.182 2.027 1.891 1.761 0.84 0.646 0 503 0188 0 052
0443 0 395 0 354
0.38 2.434 2.291 2.231 2.183 2.142 2.105 1.950 1.814 1 684 0.317 0.162 0.026
0.39 2.362 2.219 2.159 2 111 2.070 2 033 1.878 1.742 1.612 0 85 0 620 0477 0.417 0 369 0.328 0.291
0.86 0.593 0450 0 390 0.136
0.40 2.291 2.148 2.088 2.040 1.999 1.962 1.807 1.671 1.541 0 342 0.301 0.264
0 87 0.567 0424 0 364 0109
0.41 2.225 2.082 2 022 1.974 1.933 1.896 1.741 1.605 1475 0.316 0275 0 238
0.88 0.540 0 397 0 337 0083
0.42 2.161 2 018 1.958 1.910 1.869 1.832 1.677 1.541 1411 0289 0.248 0.211
0.89 0.512 0 369 0309 0.056
0.43 2.100 1.957 1.897 1.849 1.808 1.771 1.616 1.480 1 350 0.261 0 220 0.183 0028
2.041 1.898 1.838 1.790 1.749 1.712 1.557 1 .421 1.291 0 90 0.484 0.341 0 281
0.44 0 233 0 192 0 155
0.91 0.456 0.313 0253
0.45 1.984 1.841 1.781 1.733 1.692 1.655 1.500 1.364 1.234 0 205 0164 0127
0.92 0.426 0 283 0 223
0.46 1.930 1.787 1.727 1.679 1.638 1.601 1446 1.310 1180 0.175 0 134 0 097
0.93 0 395 0 252 0.192
0.47 1.878 1.735 1.675 1.627 1.586 1.549 1.394 1.258 1128 0.144 0.103 0066
0.94 0.363 0 220 0.160
0.48 1.828 1.685 1.625 1.577 1.536 1.499 1.344 1.208 1.078 0 112 0071 0034
1.576 1.528 1.487 1.450 .1.295 1.159 1.029 0.95 0.329 0186
0.49 1.779 1.636 0126 0078 0037
0.96 0 292 0.149
1.248 0 089 0041
0.50 1.732 1.589 1.529 1.481 1.440 1.403 1 112 0.982 0.97 0.251 0108 0048
0.51 1.686 1.543 1483 1435 1.394 1.357 1.202 1.066 0.936 0.98 0 203 0 060
0.52 1.643 1.500 1.440 1.392 1.351 1.314 1.159 1.023 0.893 0 99 0143
0.53 1.600 1.457 1.397 1.349 1.308 1.271 1.116 0.980 0.850
0.54 1.559 1416 1.356 1.303 1.267 1.230 1.075 0.939 0.809
0.55 1.519 1.376 1.316 1.268 1.227 1.190 1.035 0.899 0.769
0.56 1480 1.337 1.277 1.229 1188 1.151 0.996 0.860 0.730
0.57 1.442 1.299 1.239 1.191 1.150 1.113 0.958 0.822 0.692
0.58 1.405 1.262 1.202 1.154 1.113 1.076 0.921 0 785 0.655
0.59 1.369 1.226 1.166 1.118 1 077 1.040 0.885 0.749 0.619 From Thble 3.3, 0.57 power factor-tan 1 = 1.442
0.60 1.333 1.190 1.130 1.082 1.041 1.004 0.849 0.713 0.583 0.97 power factor-tan 2 =0.251
0.61 1.229 1.156 1.096 1.048 1.007 0.970 0.815 0.679 0.549 ... tan 1-tan z = 1.191
0.62 1.265 1.122 1.062 1.014 0.973 0.936 0.781 0645 0.515
0.63 1.233 1.090 1.030 0.982 0.941 0.904 0.749 0.613 0.483 .".capacitor (kvar)-100 1 191
0.451
- x = 120 kvar (approx)
0.64 1.201 1.058 0.998 0.950 0.909 0.872 0.717 0.581
0.65 1.169 1.026 0.966 0.918 0.877 0.840 0.685 0.549 0.419 Figure 3.5 shows the variatio f k
0.66 1.138 0.995 0.935 0.887 0.846 0.809 0.654 0.518 0388 for varying val f ' no VA and kvar for a constant load of 100 k W
0.67 1.108 0.965 0.905 0.857 0.816 0.779 0.624 0.488 0358 ues o power facto Th f
loading) to improve the r. e srze o capacitor (per 100 k W of
power facto~ from one value to another, and the
0.68 1.078 0.935 0.875 0.827 0.786 0.749 0.594 0.458 0.328
0.429 0.299 corresponding reducti
0.69 1.049 0.906 0.846 0.798 0.757 0 720 0.565
on m k VA loadmg, can be quickly obtained.
 Power-factor correction ~general Calculation of capacitor size 67
66
120-::J 0
180. .--------.~----r----r------r-----r---r
11 o..-::
20

100
160. ~--
40

90 60

140.
so ..........._~ ~~
80
I
Load NG 70 --...
100
..___ ...__
120. 60
120
50 '7 140
100.~ 40 160
30

~1~-l ~--I . 20

10

0
kW
~

'.2
&,.o
/ ~7
200
A line extended from the kW
load value through the power
factor value intersects the
kVA scale at the
corresponding kVA loading
40. f-----+- value

kVA
20. f-----+-
Figure 3.6 Nomogram showing relationship between kW, kVA and various values of
power factor

0.~----J-----~----~------~----~----~~
.4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1
Power factor
Figure 3.5 Curves showing variation of kVA and kvar with power factor for constant kW
loading To find the reduction in kVA loading, resulting from improvement of the
power factor of a given load, join the value of the k W load shown on the k W
scale to the relevant value shown in the power-factor scale and read the result
Example shown in the k VA scale.

Given, a 100-kW load to be improved from 0.65 to 0.85 power factor. Example, From Figure 3.6: kW Power factor kVA
Pmver factor kVA kvar 80 0.65 123
From Figure 3.5:
0.65 154.0 117 80 0.90 89
0.85 117.5 62
34
36.5 55
Therefore, the reduction in kVA loading is 34 kVA, when the power factor of
Thus, a 55-kvar capacitor is required, and the reduction in k VA loading an 80-kW load is improved from 0.65 to 0.9.
effected is 36.5.
The same type of method can be used to determine the relationship between
To examine the relationship between kW and kVA loadings at various kW loading and kvar at various values of power factor, as shown in Figure 3. 7.
values of power factor, the nomogram shown in Figure 3.6 can be used. This Using the same method as shown in Figure 3.6 the capacitor kvar required
also assists in ascertaining the increase ink W loading, for a given maximum to improve the power factor of an 80-kW load from 0.65 to 0.9, can be
ascertained.
k VA loading, that can be carried at various values of power factor.
 f
kVA maximum-demand (MD) tariffs 69
68 Power-factor correction -general

I Col 2
2.3
Col 3
Unity
2.2
2.1
2.0
0
1.9
10 1.8
.99
')- 1.7
1.6
'? .98
c. /
/ 1.5
1.4 .97
<o /
. / 1.3
<0 / .96
1.2
"" './ 1.1 .95
o'z..X -~

/
/ /"'-""' ~0~ 50
1.0
.9
.94
.93
/ 0,.- .8
.92
/ 40
A line extended from the kW ....__ ....__ ~ +7
.6 .91
30 load value through the power .90
.70 .5
factor value intersects the ~ .89
20 kvar scale at the .4 -..___
~ .75 .88
corresponding kvar loading .3 ~
~
~
10 ..... .87
1103 value
.80
.2 ~
....__ .86
0 .1 .85 A line joining the initial
120-~ 0
kW c_..0-\ kvar .85 .84 power factor (Col 1) and the
0 improved power factor
.83
Multiplying factor required (Col 3) gives the
Figure 3.7 Nomogram showing relative kW and kvar loadings at various values of power .90 .82
.81 multiplying factor where it
factor intersects Col 2
.80
.95
.79
Initial power factor Improved power factor

kW Power factor kvar Figure 3.8 Nomogram for determining the capacitor kvar required for the improvement of
Example, from Figure 3.7:
80 0.65 94 power factor

80 0.90 39
PRACTICAL POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
55
The tables and graphs provided enable the capacitor requirements to be
Therefore, a 55-kvar capacitor is required.
calculated knowing the initial power factor. In practice the problem is to
determine this initial power factor.
Another method of determining the capacitor kvar required for the
The type of tariff that a consumer is charged determines not only the level of
improvement of a given power factor is shown in FigHre 3.8. If a given 100-kW
correction but also the method by which the size of the capacitor necessary to
load is to have its power factor improved from its initial level of0.65 to 0.85, a
effect the correction is defined.
multiplying factor can be found by placing a rule between the original power
factor and the required power factor.
In the example this multiplying factor is seen to be 0.55-then capacitor
kVA MAXIMUM-DEMAND (MD) TARIFFS
kvar= 100 kW x 0.55 =55 kvar.
To find the revised kVA loading resulting from an improvement in power
Under this tariff the MD is recorded on an MD meter which is designed to
factor, the nomogram shown in Fiyure 3.9 can be used.
measure the average load in k VA over a period of 30 minutes, which is
Thus, if a power factor is improved from 0.5 to 0.9 then the k VA loading is
indicated by means of a 'slave' pointer actuated by a smaller moving pointer.
reduced to 55.5~/,; of its original value.
 Capacitor size under MD tarifl 71
70 Power-factor correction -general

Col1
Col3 DETERMINING CAPACITOR SIZE FOR AN
INSTALLATION CHARGED UNDER A MAXIMUM-
.30
DEMAND (OM) TARIFF

The first step is to obtain past MD records. These will normally indicate either
MD k VA, or MD k VA and MD k W. If the meter records indicate both k VA
and kW MD, it is very easy to obtain the MD power factor from the
relationship between kVA and k W outlined earlier. If, however, the MD
records show only k VA, then it becomes necessary to try to arrive at an MD
power factor.
Col 2 Prior to doing this, however, the MD records should be studied and if there
is any marked variation in MD, or if there is an obvious pattern to the :rvrD
/ records, the reasons for this should be found.
/ A line extended from the As stated previously, if the MD records indicate only MD k VA, it is
/ improved power factor
/ necessary to try to arrive at MD power factor. This is done as follows.
(Col 1) through the initial
power factor (Col 2) The k W, k VA or kvar hour meters are read at the beginning and end of a
/ intersects Col 3 at the revised time period, normally half an hour. From the difference between these two
/ or reduced kVA loading readings the kW, k VA and kvar components of the load in usc during the
80 (shown as a percentage of
/
/ .70 the original kVA loading)
meter advance tests can be obtained.
/
.80 90 Ideally, these tests should be performed at the same time as the MD occurs,
.90
although in practice this very rarely happens. It is necessary, therefore, to
UnitY 100 determine what caused the difference between the test load and .MD in order to
Reduced kV A loadinq calculate the MD power factor.
Improved power factor Initial power factor as% age of original

Figure 3.9 Nomogram for determining the kVA loading resulting from the improvement
of power factor

Example

At the end of each 30-minute period, the moving pointer re-sets to zero, to start A study of a consumer's electricity bills indicated an average MD of 288 kV A.
another cycle. These MD tariffs normally have an MD charge based on the A test carried out at the plant produced the following results:
highest kV A MD recorded in any half-hour period in any month, or year.
With these tariffs, therefore, it is only necessary to ensure that capacitors are kVA kW Power factor kvar
in circuit at the time the maximum is being recorded, if the prime function of 240 168 0.7 171
the capacitor is to save money by reduced MD charges. It was noted, however, that at time of test there was 20 k W of resistive load
not in circuit and 31 kW of fluorescent lighting not in use. Both the resistive
load and the lighting load could be in use at maximum demand.
AVERAGE POWER-FACTOR TARIFFS Therefore

These tariffs, in addition to including a k W MD charge, also incorporate a kVA kW Power factor kvar
Test load 240 168
power factor determined from the kW hours and kVA hours or kvar hours. 0.7 171
Resistive load 20
Dependent on the tariff, the average power factor can be determined for a unity 0
Lighting load
month or a year. (assume 0.9 PF)
With this type of tariff it is necessary to reduce the number of kvar hours 31 0.9 15
~-~---

recorded during the meter reading period, and to do this capacitors must be in ---~-- -- -- --~

Calculated MD 288 219

circuit whenever reactive units are being recorded. 0.76 186
 r
Capacitor size ur1der MD tariff 73
72 Power-factor correction -general

Utilising the methods given previousfy in this Chapter it will be seen that to
improve this MD power factor of 0.76 to an economic level of say, 0.97,
132 kvar of capacitors are required.
Reduced MD with 132 kvar of capacitors in circuit
kVA kW Powerfactor kvar
55
226 219 0.97
Redr"ction in kVA-62
DETERMINING CAPACITOR SIZE FOR THE
INSTALLATIONS CHARGED ON A MAXIMUM-DEMAND
(MD) TARIFF INCORPORATING AN AVERAGE POWER-
FACTOR PENALTY CLAUSE
Again, the MD records arc required and the comments in the above Section
regarding these records are equally applicable here.
Meter reading details giving full records of kWh and kvarh consumed
during the month are needed, and from these the average power factor is then
determined from the ratio of kWh to kvarh. It is also necessary to ascertain the
number of hours worked by plant during the period covered by the meter
records. From these figures, a capacitor size can then be calculated to give a
corrected power factor of the required value, assuming that such a capacitor is
in circuit during the working hours.
From the kWh and kvarh consumption figures for the month it is possible to
calculate the number of kvar hours that must be removed by a capacitor to
give an economic power factor. If this figure is then divided by the number of
hours the plant is in operation, the result determines the capacitor size
required to improve the power factor to an economic level. As stated
previously, however, this is assuming that the capacitor will be in circuit at all
times during the working hours.
Example
Say, from a study of a consumer's electricity accounts the
representative figures were obtained:
kWh consumed in a month= 48 000
kvarh used in a month =56 000
From the above, the average power factor=0.65
This tariff, for example say, imposes a penalty when the average
factor falls below 0.9. Therefore, capacitors are required to improve the
factor to 0.9 or better, and to do this, using the methods given earlier,
33 000 kvarh must be removed from circuit using capacitors.
Assuming a 160-hour working month:
33 000 kvarh
Then, the capacitor required 206 kvar
160 working hours
fn practice this capacitor size would probably be increased by, say, 5 or 10% to
ensure that the average power factor was kept above 0.9.
The capacitor size arrived at in this manner is the minimum possible size of
capacitor required, but it does not necessarily follow that the installation of
this capacitor would, in fact, give the required value of average power factor
since consideration must be given to the following factors:
11) If load variation occurs so that the capacitor gives a leading power factor
at times, then the full kvar rating of the capacitor is not available for the
reduction of kvar hours during these periods. It will prevent, during such
periods, the recording of any kvar-hour units, but the difference between
the reactive component of the uncorrected load and the capacitor kvar is
lost. This is based on the assumption that kvar-hour meters are fitted with
devices to prevent 'unwinding' under leading power-factor conditions. It,
therefore, follows that the actual capacitance required must be increased
over and above the minimum value to allow for this.
(2) During periods when thefactory is not in production, k W-hour and kvar-
hour units may still be recorded due either to small items of plant that run
continuously or to transformer magnetising currents. It may, therefore. be
necessary to provide for a portion of the total capacitance to be left in
circuit during light load periods. It is reasonable to assume that electricity
boards will object to the whole capacitance being in circuit 24 hours a day.
(3) Apart from the requirements of the no-load period it is necessary to
determine the values of the maximum and minimum loads during normal
working hours in order to assess what increase in capacity is required over
and above the minimum size because of factors (1) and (2) above.
(4) In the case of plants where considerable variation in loading occurs due to
varying numbers of motors in service, it is possible to set a limit to the
maximum value of capacitance that should be required. If the details of the
motors running at maximum load periods are known then the capacit-
ance required to give a corrected power factor of 0.95 can be estimated
within a few degrees of accuracy, it usually being found that if motors are
corrected to 0.95 at say half full load, then the variation of corrected power
factor between quarter and full load is relatively smalL If the motors are
lightly loaded, this capacity may be quite close to the correct value.
Careful consideration must also be given to the question of individual
correction of motors. Normally, correction of such motors is to 0.95/0.98
power-factor and this can still be allowed when such motors are running
 74 Power-factor correction- general
continuously during normal working Hours. If, however, the motors run only
for periods then the corrected capacity must be reduced so that the corrected
power factor of the motors does not exceed the required value of average
corrected power factor, otherwise when the motors are not running the
capacity left in circuit may be reduced below the value required to give the
required power factor. For this reason it is useful if some indication can be
given as to normal motor loading when it is in circuit. When average power-
factor tariffs operate, the working hours of motors otherwise suitable for
individual correction should be ascertained and only those running for
significant periods selected.
DETERMINATION OF LOAD CONDITIONS
As stated, the first step in designing any practical power-factor correction
scheme must be to obtain accurate details of the load conditions with values of
kW, k VA and power factor at light, average and full load, together with type
and details of the loads. This may be achieved by any of the following ways:
(1) Measurement of kW and kvar.
(2) Measurement of voltage, current and k W.
(3) Measurement of k VA and kvar.
(4) Use of a power-factor indicating instrument with a voltmeter and
ammeter.
From this information conditions of the existing power factor can be
calculated.
METER READING FOR kW, kVA OR kvar
An instantaneous meter reading can be taken by means of a stop watch.
For the following calculations it has been assumed that the meter is of a
polyphase type.
On the disc of each meter will be found a small mark, usually a red or black
band, which can be watched. Count the number of revolutions of the disc for
approximately half or one minute, note the number of revolutions made and
the time in seconds taken to make the revolutions, then
3600 x N
X=-----
R Xt
where X= instantaneous reading in kilo units
N =number of revolutions of the disc in t seconds
t =time in seconds for N revolutions
R =meter constant (revolutions per kilo unit).
Meter read1ng for kW. kVA or kvar 75
The meter constant will be found on the rating plate of the meter and will
probably be shown in revolutions per kWh or revolutions per kvarh.
Where the meter constant is shown as units per revolution then the formula
is
3600 X N Xu
X=lOoOxt
where X= instantaneous reading in kilo-units
N =number of revolutions of the disc in t seconds
t =time in seconds of N revolutions
U =meter constant (units per revolution).
The meter constant in this case being in watt hours per revolution or reactive
volt/ampere hours per revolution.
It must be appreciated that readings taken by this method are instantaneous
readings which should be taken at a time when the load is normal and, if
possible, further readings taken when it is known that a maximum demand is
likely to be established.
In most installations the following alternatives can be employed to
determine load conditions:
(1) Where kWh and kvarh meters are installed (sometimes known as 'cosine'
and 'sine' meters)
These two instruments are the meters recording the consumption of k W and
the wattless kvar in the network, on an accumulative basis.
Hence, if readings are made simultaneously on the two meters, followed by
further readings, say five minutes later, a definite relationship between
consumption in kW and the consumption of the wattless kvar may be
es tab lis h ed.
It is essential that the readings on the two meters cover the same period, so
as to obtain the kWh consumption and kvarh consumption of the same load.
The period itself may depend upon local circumstances, but preferably
should be not less than 10 or 15 minutes. However, where the MD indicator is
based on a 30-minute period, as is normal, then the time period between
measurements should preferably be half an hour, thus enabling the values
obtained to be compared with the MD indicated.
If possible, several readings taken at different times of the day or night are
desirable when the load changes considerably. The most desirable readings are
those taken at normal load, light load and when an MD is likely.
It is generally only by enquiries from factory staff or electricity board
officials familiar with the nature the load and its changes that the periods can
be established when additional readings should be taken to estimate as nearly
as possible the critical period and the amount of maximum load. It must be
emphasised that the MD is the portion of the load that constitutes the
reducible charge.
 Siting of capacitors 77
76 Power-factor correction -general

The tariffs are usually based on two 'bf the following readings during the The kV A demand during the period investigated is given by
period of accounting by an electricity supply company:
kVA=.j3xExJ
(a) Total kWh supplied, 1000-
(b) Maximum demand of kW,
(c) Power factor, where kVA=kVA demand
I= ammeter reading in amps for the whole load registered by the
(d) Maximum demand of kVA.
kWh meter
The first two can be obtained from spot readings but (c) and (d) cannot be E =the voltage reading bdween phases in volts.
obtained from the kWh readings above. The kWh and kvarh, or MD kW and
The kW demand can be obtained from the kWh meter as previously shown.
MD kvar readings are needed to establish the k VA demand and the power
Having obtained the kV A and kW demands for the same load (in-
factor.
stantaneous readings for a period of load) the power factor for the given load
The readings of the two meters at the beginning and end of a time period will
show a difference in units. For the k\Vh meter let this differenct; be X 2 units, can be calculated.
while for the kvarh meter let the difference be X 1 units. Then the ratio of these
two differences will give the tangent of the phase angle. The cosine of the phase (3) 1ii-vector meter installation
angle is the power factor of the load during the time period between the A tri-vector meter registers the following on three different meters:
readings,
X 1 (kvarh) (a) kWh-the kilowatt hours consumption or cosine units consumption,
tan= X (kWh) (formula 1) (b) k V Ah-the product of the total current consumption times the voltage
2
between phases (vector sum of (a) and (c)),
where =phase angle (c) kvarh-the consumption of the wattless component of the load.
X 1 =difference of readings on the kvarh meter at the beginning and
end of a time period The MD in kVA can be read direct. Earlier MD readings may be obtained
X 2 =difference of readings on the kWh meter at the beginning and end from readings recorded on the meter card.
of the same time period. The instantaneous power factor can be obtained from the kWh and kvarh
parts of the tri-vector meter and formula (1) above.
Corresponding values of cos and tan can be read from coluruns 1 and 2 of
Table 3.3.
From the readings taken, kW is known together with the power factor and
hence the demand k VA can be calculated. CALCULATION OF CAPACITOR SIZE
kW
kVA=~~--:- Having determined the desired power factor and knowing the present load
Power factor
conditions the data listed earlier can be used to estimate the size of capacitor
(2) Where kWh, ampere and voltmeters are installed
required.
The ammeters and voltmeters will give the total consumption in amps and the
voltage between phases.
If an ammeter is not fitted, or fitted in such a way that it is not certain if it
SITING OF CAPACITORS
registers the whole of the current of the k W load, readings should be taken
with a clip-on ammeter.
Normally capacitors can be sited at the main distribution boards but if it is
It is important in each case to ensure that the ammeter readings refer to
required to reduce loading on feeders, or ifthe metering is at high tension and it
exactly the same load as the kWh meter readings. This is not always obvious,
is required to install low-tension capacitors, then it is necessary for sub-circuit
especially when the load is fed from two or more external feeders, sometimes
tests to be made to determine the point of connection of the capacitors. This is
even at different voltages, or when the load is concentrated in different
especially important in average power-factor installations. These clip-on tests
locations. In this case a stop watch and, as the case may be, a clip-on meter may
are usually made using clip-on ammeters, k W meters and kvar meters.
be required.
78 Power-factor correction-- general Correct application of capacitors 79

CORRECT APPLICATION OF CAPACITORS (3) Individual correction

To give the best results, the siting of capacitors is very important. For the
average industrial consumer the capacitors are normally connected to the low-
tension side of the transformer irrespective of whether the supply is taken at
high tension or low tension. This relieves the transformer of unnecessary load
and also helps compensate for the transformer magnetising current.
Three basic methods of capacitor connection are normally adopted, and for
small installations one method may suffice. For larger installations at least
two, and possibly all three, methods may be required.
(1) Manual control
Where loads consist of reasonably-sized motors, say 10 hp and above,
operating with a low-diversity factor, or where there are special drives running
continuously, then individual correction of each motor can be considered. The
main advantage of individual correction is that both motor and capacitor are
switched as one unit and no additional control gear is required for control of
the capacitor. It is also true to say that a capacitor connected directly across a
motor improves the starting conditions, and although it is untrue to say that a
capacitor itself improves the motor-starting torque, it is true to say that the
voltage drop at starting is reduced and hence an improved starting torque is
assured.

Manually-controlled capacitors, i.e. capacitors controlled from fuse switches,

circuit-breakers, etc., are normally employed on factory loads which are either
too small to warrant splitting the total capacitance required, or where high
diversity of the motor load makes individual correction uneconomic. While it
is possible to control all capacitors manually, it is not good engineering
practice to do so because if capacitors are left in circuit continuously when
plant is not in use then 10 W leading powerfactors can result. This can give rise
to increased voltage and over-saturation of transformer cores leading to
production of harmonics.
Manual control can only really be justified technically on plant engaged on
continuous process work where minimum switching is required and there is
sufficient reactive component in circuit continuously to warrant the capacitors
being in circuit continucusly. Normally, in the UK, up to about 40 kvar is
considered the maximum for manual control on plant other than that
operating continuously. Certain electricity boards may not permit more than
25 kvar on manual control, and in Europe manually-controlled capacitors on
low-voltage systems are generally discouraged.

(2) Automatic control

If the load is not of a continuous nature, it is desirable that capacitors above

approximately 40 kvar should be switched in and out of circuit as load varies.
Automatic switching is achieved by connecting the capacitor to a suitable
contactor unit, this contactor unit then being connected to the supply. The
contactor unit itself is controlled by reactive current relay which senses the
amount of reactive component in circuit and switches the capacitor in and out
of circuit as required. These rclays are normally set to bring the capacitors in to
or out of circuit at approximately 75~<, of the nominal capacitor value in order
to avoid 'hunting' which would have an undesirable effect on both capacitor
and contactor.
 81

4 Power-factor improvement of ...j

I~ I C0....---(.00)-::::tf"---
induction motors, transformers l(
2f2.
NMMM<:;;t..:;;t

'"'
r--
and privately-owned generating C0 0
'1J
0
--.)
I~
N~OLD.----<:;;t
MM77LDLO

plant 0
0
~
<.0.----["---MQN
(Y)-::;t<;;;tlDC.O(O

...j <:j"LDt.D(J)l.D<.O
0 ~NM~000MOOOLDOM~OONLDNN
l( .----.----.----NNMMMM'<:j"<;;j"LOcD
0 2f2.'"'
0
'"' I 0
LDCQ['-MQ)LD
~~~~0~~~~~mcnr--M~mMNcO

The induction motor is the most widespread contributor to the reactive load in "'0 '"'
--.)
r-- ,---.----NNNMM<0"-:::to:::tLD<.Of"-.

LOCQ(J)CD..-C..O
0
an industrial electric power system. Its power factor tends to increase with 0 ~~~~~0oowNc--NO~o~r--~~~
...-.----NNM<:::t-::JLDLDLOC.O['-CX)
increase in horsepower rating for a given speed. Similarly, for a given
horsepower rating the power factor decreases with decreasing speed. Table 4.1 --.)
coo:::tc.o<:::r
~~cn0m~~o~cnm~cnroMc--NooN
l( 0 .----.----NNNNMC0M'<:j"<:j-LOLDC.O
gives some typical values of reactive power for various motors. The power 0 ~
<D

0 r-- co~
factor, however, decreases with decreasing load conditions and these facts are 'Zl ~ 0 <D oo~~~ooocooor--mcn~o~~r--m~~

illustrated in the curves shown in Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3. 0

::J
"'
0 r-- .----~-.----NNNMMo:::to:::tLDLDlD(Q['-

c: ..._
--.)
~ ~N
2 0
The power factor of an induction motor may be improved by connecting a -c:: -2..._ 0
~
MLD000.----LDO<.O.----Mm.----(().----OOo:::tmror--..
.----.----NNMMM..-:j"q-lDLDC.OC.O!'--CO
(.)
capacitor directly across the motor terminals, or alternatively by connecting a c: s;
capacitor to the lines supplying the motor. ""'
~ -"< ...j m.qco.,-r---r----co

s s..._ l( 0L() ,....~NM~~OOc)~coN~illiDffiNCON~~co~M

,-,..---.,-NNNNNMM<:::t<::tLDLO<DI"-
0 2?
__
'"'r-- ~ 0
cON cO e--m
~N~~~c--~~c--Oc--COOONCOLON~COWL0~
2" '"'r--
0
INDIVIDUAL CORRECTION OF MOTORS Q "'0 ..-,-NNNNMMM<::j-L[)lDt.Dc.DI"-CO

T
0 "
Q)
;::;
(.)
--.)
0
0
('.J.,....--CQ:j"<..O<::::t ~
.,-NN~~~oNco.,-mOMI"-O<:::tM..-IDONOM
.,-,..---..-NNMMM<:::t<:::tlD~<Di'--COffiO
Q) ~

<1l
The practice of connecting a capacitor across the starter of an induction motor ~ Q)
Q)

...
0 ;;;. IZ
and switching the motor and capacitor as one unit is now universally 0 0 ...j COM 1"-<..0LDMCO
O~N~~~0~~LOc--mNcOOOM~CONr--woo~
E
Q)
l( 0
established, and it is to be recommended where there are no objections on ;,; 0
L() .,-- .,.-- '~"""""" ...-- N N N (Y) (Y) (Y) <::j" <::j" q LD LD

"'
:;, IZ 0 2? mm mco
technical and economic grounds. One size of capacitor will give an almost 0 0 ~""
~~NNMLD00Mc.om..-LDmMco.,-c.oNmCO<:::tCO
~ "' '"'r--
~
.,- .,- .,- N N N (Y) (Y) <:::t 7 LD L0 LD (0 CD
0
constant value of power factor over the normal load range since variations in
motor kvar are comparatively small. This can be seen from the curves shown
"'
>
>
--.)
0
0
.,-LD NMC.ON
~~NM~~OOOLDmM<:::tf'-.,-~<:::tr---Nm<DCOLDC.O
.,--.-..-NNNMMq-..:;:tl..[)lD<DC.Of'--00
.n ~

in Figure 4.4 and Table 4.2. as

Care should be taken in deciding the kvar rating of the capacitor in relation -e0 --.)
l( 0
1""--<:::ti'--UJCDLD
d~~~~~wr--~~r--r--m~~m~r--ocn~or--
.,-.,.--,-.,-.,..--NNNMM<:::t<::To:::tL.0L[)
to the magnetising k VA of the machine. If the rating is too high, damage may "'
.n 0
0 2f2. '"' CO"i"COCOr---m
result to both motor and capacitor, as the motor, while still revolving after "'...
L()
0 d~~~~~c--mN~00N~0C0ffiM0cO~m

disconnection from the supply, may act as a generator by self-excitation and Cll
:;:
~

"'0
--.)
'"'r-- .,.....-.---NNNNMMM<::j-<::j"L.OLD<.O<D
(J)l.D.,--NMf'-7
0 0 O~NM~~OOO<:::tf'-.,--o:::t<DOM!"-<:::tCO<.OMMCOf'--
produce a voltage higher than the supply voltage. If the motor is switched on a. 0
~
.,--,-.,.-NNNMMM-.:::t-::::tLDIDC.OC..Of'-
Cll
again before the speed has fallen to about 80% of the normal running speed, .~
the high voltage will be superimposed on the supply circuits and there may be ...u ...j (0.-LO...----LDMN
0 0 ~ ~N NM ~<D mN<:::t <D<DCO .,- M

I
l(
a risk of damaging other types of equipment. As a general rule the correct size "'~ 2f2. '"'
.,-.,-.,-.,-..-NN

Cll r--..,.-c.oMcom
of capacitor for individual correction of a motor should have a kvar rating not Cl ,oo 0 c).,--~NNMc.or---O<::j"!'-i--1'--0NLD

exceeding 85% of the normal no-load magnetising kV A of the machine. ~ "'0

--.)
'"'r-- .,--,.-,...-..-.,.-NNN

Cll OON!"-C.OM<:::tf"'-.
> 0 c),.:,.....:NM-:i0mMc.ooo.,--o:::rr---o
However, 85% does not constitute an invariable rule, and for slip-ring motors <l: 0
~
.,--.,-NNNNNM

and direct-on-line started squirrel-cage motors on drives which never entail .-

'<i
running over synchronous speed. the figure may be exceeded, although never Cll
2
'-
0
.n ~~~NM<Dc--O<nOooooooooooooooo
0 ~ ,....,.......N(Y)<::j"L[)c.Dr---coms~~~~~~~
beyond 90/~. "'
f- ~ [\)

1

80
r

po
vver- factor improvement of mduction motors etc.
r
1
I lndrvrdual correctron of motors 83
g? ~
" 0.9
~[
r-
0 g5
1! I I' I jl I I I 1
~..-~~ -
o.9oI

% o.s
,v -t-
;(
I..- ~ -- e.-- -- -- c.- 1
I
~.

t--

3 I("- -- t-- --+- ~

-- ~ ~

0.8
~ os
0
~

o7
'It ~
1- !--

JI'
f----!----c

I I I I I
I

~j
l J I ,llr ' r
j
0 JU ;- 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 50 65 )Q 75 80 85 90 95 1QQ
Horsepower
~
"-
0.7
_11Ypical full-load power-factor values for 1000 rev/min squirrel cage induction
4
frgure of vanous horsepower ratings
010
tors

0.5

oJS 50 75 100
Load (%)

Figure 4.3 Improvement of power factor of induction motors with increasing load
o7 375 500 600 750 1000 1500 3000
Synchronous speed rev/min

4zTypical full-load power-factor values for 50 hp squirrel-cage induction motors
f:gure us speeds
3110
at'
connecting a capacitor direct to a motor results in a lower load current for
. particular operation and, therefore, the overload setting on the starter
a~;dd be reduc_ed in order to obtain the same degree of protection.
'"conection of Individual induction motors is to be recommended where they
e used for group drives or where they are used continuously during
ar x'i11u!11load conditions, but it should not be applied where the motors are
m:;
1
[or haulage, cranes, colliery winders or where repetitive 'inching' or
: ' ,ging and direct-reversal takes place. Individual correction of tandem
10
Jri1; 1ordual-speect motors should be a voided. If correction is necessary then
thecapaotor shou]d never be connected directly to the low-speed component
but a contactor arrangement installed using one capacitor for both windings.
Also, care should be taken when offering capacitors for direct connection to a
motor whose braking system is intended to be operated by loss of voltage.
If it is necessary to connect a capacitor to a motor having an intermittent
horsepower rating quoted on the nameplate, the kvar rating of the capacitor
should be based on the continuous horsepower rating of the machine, which
will be less than the intermittent rating.
In cases where large induction motors are provided with special control
features, e.g. automatic slip control, any capacitor associated directly with the
machine should be connected at a point in the circuit where the capacitor
inrush current at switching-in will not flow through the primary winding of the
control transformer, if this is of the series type.
Where capacitors are connected directly to motors it is not usual to provide
 84 Power-factor improvement of induction motors etc Motors fitted with star/delta starters 85

Table 4.2 Effect on power factor of installing capacitors equal to 90% of the
0.951----+ magnetising kvar of slip-ring motors (based on specific motor characteristics)

% efficiency Cap. Power factor

Mowr Speed
0.9 raring
(hp) (rev/ ~~-----~-~

3
' (kvar) Wirhour Wirh
min) Full 4 2
load load correcuon corrccrion
load
0.85 ----~--------
---
Full 3
4 ,. Full %
load load load load load load
--~---------------
0.8
86 9 0 78 0.71 0.6 0.96 0.96 0 Q6
20 580 87 87
90 89 20 0.82 0.75 0.64 0.98 0.97 0 97
50 580 89
91 90 21 0.86 0.81 0.73 0.97 0.97 0.9 7
0.75 75 580 90
91 .5 91 27 0.86 0 81 0.72 0.96 0.96 0.96
100 580 91
93.5 93 45 0 89 0.85 077 0 97 0.97 0.97
200 580 93
87 86 7 0.82 076 0.66 0.96 0.96 0.95
20 720 87
0.7
89 88 11 0.86 0.82 0.73 0.97 0.97 0 96
40 720 89
91.5 91 21 0 87 0.83 0.74 0 97 0.97 0 96
80 720 91
92 91 32 0.88 0.84 0.75 0 98 0.98 0.97
120 720 92
0.65 l i - - - - + - 93.5 93 50 0.89 0 85 077 0.98 0.98 0.91!
200 720 93

0.6

0.55 1-----+1'----
CONNECTION .fl
Starting position (star) Runnmg position (delta)
----- 3 phase supply
-----
0.5
0 25 50 75 100
Load(%)

Figure 4.4 Curves showing the effect of correcting a 10 hp 1500 rev/min squirrel-cage
motor with a 3 kvar capacitor

the capacitor with any protection or isolating gear other than that afforded by
the control gear of the machine. Separate protection of the capacitors should
only be used when the drive is of such importance that it is undesirable for a
failure of the capacitor to put the motor out of service. In this connection, for CONNECTION 8
Running position (delta)
Starting position (star)
the individual correction of high-voltage motors, high-rupturing-capacity
fuses should be placed in the circuit between the motor and capacitor. c2

c,
MOTORS FITTED WITH STAR/DELTA STARTERS 4 ' ) ')

There are alternative ways of connecting a capacitor to a motor fitted with a

star/delta starter, as indicated in Figure 4.5.
Problems have been experienced with six-terminal capacitors connected to
star/delta start motors when the starter is in star position at starting. The
motor crawls and becomes locked at a subsynchronous speed and will not pick
up speed. This is often accompanied by excessive sound from the machine and
Figure 4.5 Alternative methods of connecting a capacitor to a motor fitted with a
star/delta starter, connection A using six-terminal capacitors and connection B using
three-terminal capacitors
 1 i

Capacitor sizes for individual motor correction 87

86 Power-factor improvement of induction motors etc.

the problem has been attributed to a resonant condition causing the A2 62 c2

circulation of excessive third harmonic currents between the star points of the
motor windings and the capacitor. The surge is pulsating, i.e. it circulates in
one phase at a time. It may be cured by connecting resistors in two-phase
connections between the capacitor and motor windings of a value between 0.3
and 1.0 ohm, depending upon the size of the motor. This provides effective i_A1 !s1 ~C 1
damping and prevents high currents from flowing.
The cause of the problem, which occurs at random, may lie in a feature of the
motor design. It has been known to occur in one motor of an identical pair,
mounted adjacent to each other, both fitted with capacitors. In spite of this,
six-terminal capacitors have been used with tens of thousands of star/delta
start motors over the past 30 years or so, in both the UK and Europe, where
the method is especially popular, without any trouble being experienced.
{b)
In Figure 4.5 connection A employs six-terminal capacitors. When a motor 1,)
is started (with the windings connected in star), the phases of the capacitor are
Figure 4.6 Incorrect method of connecting a capacitor to a motor fitted with a star/delta
also connected in star and therefore the capacitor will provide only one third of
starter. (a) Starting, (b) running
its maximum kvar output. This occurs when the power factor of the motor is
low, i.e. when the maximum kvar should be available for correction.
CAPACITOR SIZES FOR INDIVIDUAL MOTOR
Connection Buses a standard three-terminal delta-connected capacitor which
CORRECTION
gives maximum power factor correction at the start, when the power factor is
low.lt should be noted, however, that when this method of connection is used,
Capacitor ratings for individual correction of motors may be calculated from
the supply contacts must close on the capacitor and starter terminals A 2 , B 2
motor data supplied by the manufacturer. The method of calculation is as
and C 2 before the star contacts close and these connections with the supply
must not be interrupted during the changeover from star to delta. In switching follows:
off, this sequence is simply reversed. As the majority of modem star/delta . hp x 0.746 x percentage of full load x correction factor
starters conform to this pattern, disconnection of the motor/capacitor group kvar reqmred = - ---
Efficiency (at the above percentage of f~ll load)
1
from the supply during changeover does not occur, provided that the starter is
adequately maintained. The possibility of over-voltage occurring during A typical approach would be to correct to a power factor of 0.98 at three-
changeover, if the supply is disconnected, is due to the fact that, in the star quarter load.
connection, the motor-magnetising current may be reduced to as low as 30%
of its normal value per phase while the full rating of the capacitor is connected Example
across the terminals. However, provided that the above recommendations are
followed, the use of a three-terminal capacitor, connected as in Figure 4.5(b ), is Motor details: 50-hp, 415-V, 50-Hz 3-phase
perfectly satisfactory. Full load speed 2930 rev /min
Care must be taken to ensure that a three-terminal capacitor is never Efficiency at three-quarter load 89.5%
connected as shown in Figure 4.6. Connecting the capacitor in this way would Power factor at three-quarter load 0.88
result in the capacitor being short-circuited in the star position and thus Required new power factor 0.98
ineffective when most required. Also, since many starters make contact with
Calculation
the mains at A 2 B 2 C 2 (Figure 4.6(a)) before completing the connection A 1 B 1
C 1 , the capacitor is momentarily in series with the motor windings and a Percentage of full load =0.75
condition of partial resonance may be set up, due to the fact that, for high Correction factor 0.88 to 0.98 = 0.337 (from Figure 3.3)
values of power factor, the reactance of the motor winding and the capacitor 50 X 0.746 X 0.75 X 0.337
are nearly equal at mains frequency. Under such conditions high-voltage Therefore kvar required 0.895
surges could occur causing damage to both motor and capacitor. = 10.5
88 Problems associated with over-correction of motors 89

Table 4.3 Recommended capacitor rating for direct connection induction motors Table 4.3 continued
to improve power factors to 0.95 or better at all loads
z-~32--- 36 38 44 48 56
Capacitor rating in kvar when motor speed is: 210 34 36 38 46 48 58
215 34 36 38 46 50 58
Motor 3000 1500 1000 750 600 500 220 34 36 38 48 50 60
(hp) (rev/min) (rev/min) (rev/min) (rev/min) (rev/min) (rev/min) 225 36 38 40 48 52 62
230 36 38 40 50 52 62
2.5 0.5 1 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 235 36 40 42 50 54 64
5 1 15 1.5 2.5 3 3 240 38 40 42 52 56 66
75 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 4 245 38 40 42 52 56 66
10 2.5 3 3 4 5 5 250 40 42 44 54 58 68
12.5 3 3 4 5 6 6
15 3 4 4 6 6 6
17.5 4 4 5 6 8 8
20 5 5 6 6 8 10
22.5 5 5 6 8 8 10 II The rating of the capacitor required for the individual correction of the motor
is 10.3-kvar, 415- V, 50-Hz, 3-phase.
25 6 '6 6 8 10 12
27.5 6 6 8 10 10 12
30 6 8 8 10 12 14 It has been found in practice that for standard motors there is little
32.5 6 8 8 10 12 14 difference in the capacitor ratings recommended by most motor manufac-
35 8 8 10 12 14 14
37.5
40
42.5
8
8
8
10
10
8 10
10
12
12
14
14
14
14
14
16
16
16
I turers for a motor of given horsepower, and this applies particularly to
machines of 100 hp and below. In cases of doubt, or for non-standard or
special machines, or for technical reasons, it is essential to obtain details of the
12 14
45
47.5
50
8
10
10
10
10
12
12
14
14
16
16
16
18
18
18
18
I
'i
no-load magnetising kVA of the motor from the manufacturer to check that
the capacitor size calculated does not exceed 85 or 90% of the magnetising
55 10 12 14 16 18 20 kvar.
l
60 12 12 14 18 20 22 Table 4.3 gives the recommended capacitor ratings for the individual
65 12 14 16 18 20 24 \
70 12 14 18 18 22 24 I correction of induction motors, based on average motor characteristics,
75
80
14
14
16
16
18
20
20
20
22
24
26
28
I assuming correction to 0.95, or better, to all loads.

85 14 .18 20 22 24 28
90 16 20 22 24 26 30
95 16 20 24 24 28 30 ' PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH OVER-CORRECTION OF
100 18 22 24 26 28 32 tt MOTORS
105 18 22 24 26 30 32
110 18 24 26 28 30 34
115 20 24 26 28 32 34 ( It has been stressed, in this Chapter, that capacitors used for individual motor
120 20 26 26 28 32 36 correction should not exceed the no-load k VA of the motor. The reason for
125 22 26 28 30 34 36
130 22 26 28 30 34 38 [
this is to ensure that over-excitation of the motor cannot occur.
135 24 28 28 30 34 38 i If a motor runs, even momentarily, with its windings and capacitor forming
140 24 28 30 32 36 40 i
a closed circuit, and disconnected from the mains, over-excitation could occur
145 26 28 30 32 36 40
150 26 28 30 32 36 42 if the capacitor rating is too large. Such instances of motor windings and
155 26 30 30 34 38 44 capacitors forming a closed loop occur
160 28 30 32 34 38 46
165 28 30 32 36 40 48 (1) When switching off the supply to the motor,
170 30 32 32 36 40 48 (2) When step-changing a star/delta or auto-transformer starter,
175 30 32 34 38 42 50
180 30 34 34 38 44 50 (3) When a circuit-breaker trips, or fuses operate at a point on the electrical
185 30 34 34 38 44 52 distribution system such that motors with individual capacitors, or a
190 32 34 36 40 46 52 group of motors and a line capacitor, form closed circuits.
195 32 34 36 42 46 54
200 32 36 36 44 46 54 In such circumstances, and with no other apparatus on the motor circuit,
the motor(s) will be excited by the capacitor, if the rating of the capacitor is
 90 Power-factor improvement of induction motors etc. Location of capacitors 91

more than that necessary to provide the air-gap magnetisation of the motor(s). With any other capacitor rating, on disconnection of the supply, the voltage
On open circuit the motor will excite to the point where its volt-ampere in the closed circuit would rise or fall, in a few cycles, to a value determined by
magnetisation curve is intersected by the straight line volt-ampere characteris- the excitation provided by the capacitor.
tic of the capacitor. Thus, with normal running connections, the open-circuit Problems associated with an excessively large capacitor include
voltage of the machine, running at synchronous speed as a capacitor-excited
(a) 'Burn-out' of no-volt coil, or disruption of no-volt mechanism,
induction generator, would equal its rated voltage, if the rated current of the
(b) Insulation failure in motor, starter, or capacitor,
capacitor equalled the normal magnetising current of the motor. See Fig 11 re
(c) 'Burn-out' of lamps, or other voltage-sensitive, low-power appliances,
4.7.
operating on the same circuit as the motor capacitor combination.
175
If the connections between motor and supply are restored while the motor is
I I I I I c3 over-excited, there is risk of a violent electrical transient producing a
m~chanical shock. This has been known to fracture shaft couplings, damage
---
I /1
gearing, or to cause distortion of cores or motor windings.

125
I ~ j/{?1 ' For-these reasons, therefore, the rated kvar of the capacitor should never
exceed the no-load magnetising kV A of the motor. Thus, if the supply is
interrupted while the motor is running normally, the voltage at the motor
terminals will decline immediately due to subsynchronous speed.
8
0
E
0
MOTORS FITTED WITH MAGNETIC AND DYNAMIC
0
:> BRAKES
u
~ 75
0:
?fi
Over-speeding of a hoist or crane motor with a normally-rated capacitor
connected, caused by a runaway load, could cause serious over-voltage. In
50 addition the magnetic brake, where fitted, may be held off by the capacitor
even at normal speed. The control gear should isolate the capacitor from both
the motor and the brake in the stop position.
Where dynamic braking with a rectifier, or other solid-state device, is
25
employed, similar precautions are required to prevent the rectifier from being
damaged by over-voltage.

0 50 100 150 200 250

% No-load magnetising current of motor
LOCATION OF CAPACITORS FOR INDIVIDUAL
CORRECTION OR MOTORS
Notes
1 The magnetising curve (M) is typical but varies between motor manufacturers and
type of motor. As magnetising current is increased (or capacitor rating) curve flattens, Reference to Figure 4.8 will show that capacitors, for motor power-factor
and maximum over-voltage seldom reaches more than 150 to 160%. improvement, can be installed in one of three alternative positions. as follows:
2 Line C1 represents a capacitor which is too small to provide air cap magnetisation and
hence will not excite the machine.
(1) Location A
3 Line C2 represents a capacitor equal to 100% of the no-load magnetising current of
the motor giving rated voltage.
4 Line C3 corresponds to a capacitor equal to 200% of the no-load magnetising current
The capacitor is installed on the supply side of the starter and motor overload
of the motor which will excite the machine to approximately 145% of its rated voltage. relay. Therefore
5 Instances of random line disconnection may leave a group of induction motors in
circuit with a capacitor equivalent to 500% or more of the aggregate motor (a) The capacitor size is not dependent upon the motor no-load magnetis-
magnetising currents. In such instances the voltage within the disconnected circuit is ing current.
known to rise to as much as 200% of the rated value.
(b) The current to the starter remains unchanged.
Figure 4.7 Typical excitation curve for induction motor (c) The motor overload trip setting remains unchanged.
 92 Power-factor improvement of induction motors etc. Transformer reactance 93

Supply Supply Supply pOWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT OF TRANSFORMERS

~

6 Isolator
b Isolator In any electrical distribution system, the one item of plant continuously in
circuit is usually the transformer. It is often convenient, therefore, to connect a
capacitor directly across the transformer secondary terminals, to be left on
Fuse Fuse circuit permanently. The benefit of this to a consumer charged on an average
power factor tariff is that the total rating of capacitors required to correct the
total plant may be significantly reduced. Where consumers are charged by
tariffs penalising lagging reactive units, transformer correction is a necessity.
Where sites have numerous transformers and a high diversity of medium-
voltage load, compensating for the magnetising current of the transformers
may dispense with the necessity of having a central, automatically-controlled
bank of capacitors.
I.
TRANSFORMER REACTANCE

By design, all transformers require reactive energy for core magnetisation. The
reactive energy requirement of a transformer is usually between 1 and 12~~ of
LOCATION A LOCATION B LOCATION C the rated power of the transformer. Tczble 4.4 gives the reactive power required
Figure 4.8 Diagram illustrating the alterr.otive points of ccnnectior. for capacitors used to
correct the power factor of induction motors Table 4.4 Reactive power for typical European distribution transformers

7 2/12/17 5/23 kV 24 kV 36 kV

Rared Off load On load Off load On load Off load On load
(kVA) var var var var var var
,, .I (2) Location B
16 1080 1360
The capacitor is installed on the load side of the starter, but on the line side of 25 1500 2130 1740 2470 1950 2980
the overload relay. Therefore 40 2020 3170 2320 3680 2520 3880
63 2500 4460 3020 5300 3480 5760
80 2760 5340 3560 6540 4280 7260
(a) The capacitor size is dependent upon the motor magnetising current. 100 3600 6920 4160 7960 5080 8880
(b) The current to the starter is reduced. 125 4500 8760 5000 9860 6140 11000
(c) The motor overload trip setting is the same as without the capacitor. 160 5000 10 580 6050 12 390 7500 13840
200 6300 13 550 7160 15160 8900 16 900
250 7800 16 950 8620 18 970 10700 21 050
31 5 10000 21 700 10 300 23800 12 600 26100
(3) Location C 400 10800 25 700 13200 30000 15 200 32000
500 13 500 32 300 15800 36 800 18000 39000
The capacitor is installed on the load side of both the starter and motor 630 17 000 40700 18 800 43 600 21 200 46000
overload relay. Therefore

(a) The capacitor size is dependent upon the motor magnetising current.
both 'off-load' and 'on-load' for typical European transformers, the latter
(b) The current to the starter is reduced.
value approximating to twice that of the no-load value. In cases where it is
(c) The motor overload trip setting (OLTA) must be reduced as follows:
desired to compensate only for the no-load magnetising k VA of the
OLTA OL T A power factor without capacitors transformer, the capacitor rating may be determined from the following
- X--------
(with capacitors) (without capacitors) power factor with capacitors formula:
 94 Power-factor improvement of induction motors etc. Capacitor s1zes requ1red to comper1sate transformers 95

. transformer rating (kV A) x impedance value %

CapaCJtor kvar = --~---~- ----~---
200
:3
c::
(j)
I 0(Y)
(Y)(Y)
(Y)"
Typical values of the charactetistics of transformers manufactured to the
i:::
::J .g "'~
~0
British Tl specification are given in Table 4.5.
(.)
~ g81M McDM M"
~~~0
"" w~ ~~~~~

I~c:: "'""
(j) C.Dr- C'0C0NNN .,-- ....-- .-- ....--
(j) CAPACITOR SIZES REQUIRED TO COMPENSATE THE
"" ~I
E:
<I)
(Y)
M
"'
NO-LOAD REACTIVE POWER OF TRANSFORMERS
cf2. 0 cD
0 <pep
M M~o
I
The size of capacitor to be connected to the transformer will obviously depend
M NNN ~~

upon the no-load magnetising kV A of that particular unit, and the rating of
G 00) capacitor can be regarded as a minimum value. For one reason or another,
lo (Y)M
usually dictated by economic considerations, it may be considered necessary
"'"'
co "(j g oo
"'~ ~0
to connect capacitors of ratings greater than those necessary to provide
"'.....en cf2. ~ oo
co~
LOLDLDLDLDLO
LDLOLDLDr--.1--1"--f"'--1---f'"--
compensation for transformer magnctising currents, and in fact capacitor
<d--i~o::i~~.q-'-:i--i-=i
~
(j)
co~
..... c,
ratings of up to 10/~ of the transformer rating are quite acceptable .
I-
c:
(j)
(.)
c:: a"'
:0. M However, the maximum value of capacitor kvar that can be connected
0
.::; -ti M
<0 Q)
~ permanently to the secondary side of a transformer is influenced by the
(.)
;;: _ 0
0
LDLDLDLDLDL..0LD
r---r---r--r---r---r---r--- behaviour of the transformer under conditions of magnetic core saturation,
uQ)
(Y)
M I I --i -.i .q .q-' o:::t ~ i
usually attributed to a rise in system voltage above nominal value. In these
0.

."'"' ~ o"'
"""'
circumstances, the harmonic currents generated by the transformer, most
commonly of the 5th and 7th orders, can be significantly increased, depending
'E<0
"' 2 "'"'
~0100000 0000
upon the specification and core design of the transformer. With a capacitor
-2"'
0 oO O<XJOOO COO NO
co 1 0 o r--.--o.qc.o COLDOOO
lc.om.--N
....>-
'-
(j) Q)
<D.--
co~
.--N(i)o:::t connected across the transformer secondary terminals, the possibility of
Q
:g.... ~
a""
harmonic current resonance exists.
:n (.)
Q)
(.)

'0 "'
:0. M
M
jjj -2"'
~I
0000000
OOOO<.DON Table 4.6 Capacitor ratings for direct connection to transformers
~ LJ::- Oo:::t<Or--.COLDCO
"'
.::;
;: M
I INMqL.OCDO".l.,-
Transformer Capacitor rating in kvar at voltages of:
co nominal rating
....0 o""
MM 1' kVA 5/10 kV 15/20 kV 25/30 kV
"'~
E ~
-"' 2
~
"""'
"'~
~0
oo
oo
<.OLD I"""-- c--.J (Y)
or..or--cor-
0000
MNf'-.N
I 1
c
25
40
2
3
2.5
4
3
5
....0 co~ .---.---No:::t<D IQ'<j"f'--CO 0
(j) co~ ....--.-- ....- .-- "'ro 50 4 5 6
"'
<J)
c: !2
"" D 63 5 6 7
,g ~"'
c:: ~
7
....~
V; 75 5 6
M I 80 6 7 8
Q) M V;

10
0"'
<J)
100 6 8
~
<0 1'--l.O(J')LDLDOO
~
0 LDLDo:::tNCOOr'--- 125 7 8 10
j
0. M I INo:::t<OCOmo:;;:tr---
a, M ~~ 160 10 12 15
~ 200 10 15 20
~ D
ru 250 15 18 22
I- U) c
~ 315 18 20 25
"'.; o_o._a._o_CL
d:JU)
U)U)U) E 400 20 22 28
w
500 20 25 30
l
Q)

:;:2""
LDOOOOOOOOO 0
:c<0 NL..000000LD0LD
I 630 30 32 40
I- I ~ ~
.--NC'<')<:j"lDj--.QN
C-
750 30 35 45
1000 45 50 55
 96 Power-factor improvement of 1r1duction motors Voltage rise 97

Isolated cases of resonance have oc~urrcd in the past, but there is little obtain a power factor of 0.86, and the additional power, expressed as a
detailed information available. Nevertheless, the matter is considered to be of percentage, that is available if the power factor is improved. This assumes that
sufficient importance to be mentioned in several international specifications the transformer operates at full load.
for power capacitors, e.g. IEC 70.
Reference has been made to this subject in technical articles and books in the
United States, and recommendations for the maximum ratings of capacitors VOLTAGE REGULATION
for permanent connection to the secondary windings of distribution transfor-
mers vary between 40 and 67% of the transformer kV A rating. References have The effect of load power factor and transformer reactance upon transformer
been made earlier in this Chapter to the possibility of self-excitation of voltage regulation is shown by the approximate curve drawn in Figure 4.9.
induction motors occurring if such motors and line capacitors were left in
circuit due to random line disconnection.
Table 4.6 gives typical values of capacitor ratings suitable for direct
connection to distribution transformers to European specifications for the
4
compensation of transformer magnetising currents.
~
c 3
~
INCREASED POWER AVAILABLE AT TRANSFORMER ~

g' 2
0:
TERMINALS

When the power factor increases, the apparent power for the same active Figure 4.9 Variation of transformer
power. decreases. Table 4. 7 gives the size of capacitor in kvar required to 0 regulation with power factor (based on
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 a load of 1000 kVA, resistance drop
Power factor 1 %, reactance drop 5%)

Permanently connecting capacitors across the transformer secondary

terminals produces a rise in both no-load and full-load voltage, but does not
Table 4.7 Capacitor size required to improve power factor to 0.86 and showing alter the voltage regulation. Regulation can be improved only by automati-
'':1! extra power availabJe by improving the power factor
cally switching in capacitors as the load increases.
Initial power factor 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Extra power available if

Transformer power factor improved ro 086 VOLTAGE RISE
rating expressed in % of rated power
kVA of transformer 65% 53% 42% 30% 18% 7% As stated, the effect of connecting a capacitor across transformer terminals is
16 13 11 9 7 5 2 to cause a voltage rise at those terminals. A simplified expression for
25 20 17 15 11 8 3 determining this voltage rise is
40 32 28 23 18 12 5

rise=~p x percentage
63 50 45 36 28 18 8
80 62 55 45 35 25 10 Percentage voltage Xr
100 80 70 57 45 30 12
125 Capacitor size in kvar to 100 8 70 55 37 15
160 obtain a power factor of 0.86 125 110 90 70 45 20 where Q =output of capacitor in kvar
200 1 55 140 115 90 60 24 P =power of transformer in k VA
250 195 170 140 110 75 30 Percentage X r =percentage transformer reactance
315 245 215 180 140 95 38
400 310 275 225 175 120 48 This expression assumes that the primary system reactance is negligible
500 390 340 280 220 150 60
630 490 430 355 275 185 75 compared with the transformer reactance. If, however, the available short-
800 620 550 450 350 235 95 circuit capacity, in k VA, at the transformer primary is less than 100 times the
1000 775 680 565 440 295 120 transformer rating. then the system reactance must be added to the
98 Power-factor improvement of induction motors etc. Main generating plant 99

transformer reactance. The reader should refer to the J &P Transformer Book ability to ensure smooth operation. This situation would not of course, apply
(Butterworths) for fuller information on this subject. to smaller factories.
The second example of the use of private generating plant is for stand-by
purposes to ensure security of supply and thereby minimise interference with
CONNECTION OF A CAPACITOR TO COMPENSATE FOR productivity in times of power or fuel shortage, labour disputes, etc. In this
TRANSFORMER REACTANCE second example the generating plant, usually powered by diesel engines, may
not be in operation for considerable periods and in some cases will be started
Figure 4.10 gives the connection arrangement of a capacitor used to and switched-in automatically when the supply fails.
compensate for transformer reactance. It is usual to protect the capacitor by
means of high-rupturing-capacity fuses, which should have a rating of at least
1.5 times the capacitor current. A means of isolation should also be provided MAIN GENERATING PLANT
using a manual 'quick-break' switch.
The term 'main generating plant' has bee~ used to differentiate between
alternators employed to provide a permanent supply and those which provide
a temporary or stand-by supply.
The nameplate of an alternator is inscribed with the kW rating and full-load
power factor and sometimes the kVA rating. For example, a 2000-kW
alternator operating at a power factor of0.8lagging will be delivering a load of
Manual 'quick-break' switch 2500 kVA at maximum-load conditions. The kVA rating establishes the
maximum continuous temperature at which the machine should be operated
H RC fuses
for stable thermal conditions.
The value of 0.8 power factor is a recognised standard for industrial
alternators, but in special cases it may be lower than this to suit particular
Capacitor bank conditions but seldom is the figure lower than 0.7 lagging.
If the load supplied by the alternator is below its rated power factor, then the
Figure 4.10 Connections for reactive compensation capacitor full k W load cannot be supplied without overloading the machine. For
example, if supplying a load of 2000 kW af 0.6 power factor, an alternator
Depending upon site conditions, the manually-controlled capacitor may be rated at 0.8 would be required to operate at 2000/0.6 = 3333 k VA representing
connected to the main bus bars fed from the secondary of the transformer, if an overload of 33.3%.
this is more convenient. By correcting the power factor of the load to 0.8, the machine would deliver
the required load of2000 kW at 2500 kVA, i.e. no overload. Tables 4.8 and 4.9
demonstrate the effect of variation of power factor on a 2500-k VA alternator
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT OF PRIVATE rated at 0.8 power factor.
GENERATING PLANT
Table 4.8 Effect of varying power factor on kVA load of alternator
Private generating plant is usually employed in instances where ample
supplies of waste heat are available, usually dictated by the factory processes kW load Load power kVA load Perce mage
factor overload
which provide gas or steam supplies for prime movers enabling electricity to be
generated cheaply. This has applied to textile mills, sugar factories, chemical 2000 0.5 4000
plants, steel works, collieries, etc. Where the generating plant is associated with 2000 0.6 3333 33.33
2000 0.7 2860 14.5
a large industrial plant, material benefits may be obtained by the company and
2000 0.8 2500 0
the electricity supply authority forming arrangements which enable the 2000 0.9 2222 0
private generating plant to run in parallel with the authority's electricity 2000 0.95 2105 0
supply. Safeguards are, of course, built into the agreement but normally the
Note the eftect of power factors above the rated va!ue 1n prov1d1ng a margtn of kVA load on the alternators of 278 k'JJ.l.. and
company's electrical staff running the generating plant have the technical 395 kVA
 100 Power-factor improvement of induction motors etc. I 101

Table 4.9 Effect of varying power factor on kW load of alternator

kW load Load power kVA load Perce mage
factor reduction kW
"'ci
1250 0.5 2500 37.5 ":
0
1500 0.6 2500 25.0 U)

\
en
0.7
\
1750 2500 12.5 0 c
.JC)
2000 0.8 2500 o' "'
0 \ ~
.r::
0.9 2500 \'?tv""
2250
2375 0.95 2500 6
0~
'l. co
I \ \ \ ci

""
Note the effect on power factor above the rated value 1n providing an increase of load of 250 kW and 375 kW respectively

en
U)

<>'! "'
_j
;!]
<D
.E
They also illustrate the effect of power factor below the rated value of the ci
alternator in imposing either an alternator k VA overload "or shortfall in k W
Q)
.q
Li
load. !:l
(/)
U)
If the condition of meeting required k W load without k VA overload is to be Q)
"ci OJ
c
ci
met then additional supply facilities arc required in the form of a second .3:
0
alternator or mains supply, both expensive. Alternatively, power-factor .c
(/)

correction capacitors, which will prove cheaper, should be installed. "'ci .9

The Tables also show that, in theory at least, improving the power factor of <1:
"'c
> ~
the altemator load to a value above the rated value of the alternator makes it .oL E~.~
- o E "'> -ro
possible to generate more kW. It must be appreciated, however, that as the kW c: O:.Ec= -"'
":;; o c .2
load increases, so does the input power required from the prime mover. In 0.
0 ro
ci :;;" ro
-' .r::
general, prime movers are matched to the alternators they have to drive and ~ "- (.)

s
while some overload margin is built into the prime mover, it is unlikely to meet .oL
"'
(.)
c
the extra k W capacity released by correcting the power factor of the alternator "'ci "'
E
l:lli]
load to unity. For instance, a typical diesel engine permits an overload of 10% .2a;
for one hour in twelve. Steam- and gas-driven prime movers may have 0.

differing overload characteristics but it is the prime mover which limits the
U)
Q) "
ci -ro
(.)
0 a.
maximum kW load obtainable from the alternator. >-
1-
There is another aspect of alternator design which may determine the best ~

~
<!)
value of power factor to which the machine may be corrected and this is ci .q

concerned with the excitation system. It is well known that a lagging power
]
"':;OJ
weakens the flux which links the alternator stator, while a leading power factor ro _j u::
ci
strengthens it. In practical terms, this means that with low-lagging power ro
ci
factors it may not be possible to reach the nominal operating voltage of the ,...
"o~, ci
alternator even under load conditions below the maximum. With leading '} <!)

power factors however, in particular at light loads, even with the lowest ~@ ci
I I I _jo
'Zto
excitation permitted by the voltage regulator there could be a rise in generated 0' U)

0
":
voltage, causing damage to the voltage-sensitive devices connected to the ci
N
alternator supply. Under such conditions, the generator becomes unstable in ci
operation and cannot respond to sudden rapid increases in load or to faults in
the system.
Industrial alternators are particularly sensitive to leading power factors
especially at lower ratings. Tests carried out on small alternators with purely
 I 02 Power-factor improvement of induction motors etc.
T Power- factor correction of alternators 103

capacitive loading have indicated voltage increases of up to 33.3% above
nominal with minimum excitation.
The influence ofleading power factors on alternators is illustrated in Figure
4.11. For this particular machine rated at 0.8 power factor the maximum
purely capacitive load which could be connected to it would be 0.25 kvar per
unit kVA (25% of the kVA loading of the machine). Maximum capacitive
loadings of 30 to 40% of the k VA rating have been quoted for other machines.
For a particular machine only the alternator manufacturer can quote data for
the minimum capacity loading.
Figure 4.12 shows the effects of leading power factors on the excitation of a
250-k VA 0.8 power-factor alternator at full and half load. This information
was derived from excitation curves from the machine based on actual tests. It
will be noted that, at 50% load and 0.4 power factor leading, the excitation
current is below the 'minimum required to maintain nominal voltage, and
hence the alternator voltage would rise in these circumstances. The machine
could be unstable under these conditions of excitation, if subjected to a sudden
significant increase in load.
In practice, alternators have been corrected to power factors of 0.9/0.95
lagging without instability problems provided that the capacitors are switched
in accordance with the load variation. It may not be necessary to provide
automatic control for capacitors connected to alternator loads as, in most
cases, the central control panel is manned continuously. Capacitors controlled
by contactors with remote push-button control operated by the machine or by
35
11 :111111
30
IIi]
~~
25 1--
d be encountered from the power-factor correction of alternator loads, but if
"'
Q_
E there are any doubts the advice of the alternator manufacturer should be
:: 20
a switchboard attendant, in accordance with a predetermined programme,
would prevent any conditions of instability occurring and would form part of
the routine switching or alternator control programme.
POWER-FACTOR CORRECTION OF ALTERNATORS IN
PARALLEL WITH MAINS SUPPLY
In large industrial plants, usually operating under conditions of continuous
electrical load, alternators frequently run in pantllel with mains supplies.
Under these conditions and depending on the supply authority tariffs,
alternators are operated to a set programme, similar to operation in a central
power station. If the tariffs include a power-factor penalty then it is likely that
the' alternators will be operating at full load and high excitation to genera'le as
much lagging kvar as their rating will permit, thus ensuring as high a power
factor as possible on the mains supply intake. Increases in the total load will
result in a reduction in power factor on the mains supply and it may therefore
be necessary to provide power-factor correction. To arrive at the capacitor
rating required, depending on the tariff only the imported mains load should be
considered. The total load should be used only if it is also desired to reduce
loading on the generators. A review of the generating plant operating
programme may be desirable after installation of the capacitors.
If the higher proportion of the total load is derived from the mains supply
then any problems of instability on the alternators will be less likely than if the
generated load was predominant. It would then be necessary to determine the
effect of sudden loss of load on the alternator(s), with a fixed capaci'lor bank. In
such cases it is assumed that the capacitors would be connected on the high-
voltage side, but it might be necessary to split the capacitor bank into separate
locations, each section being associated with a load block.
Provided that full consideration is given to the matter, no problews should

~
c sought. On very large projects it is desirable to obtain generator rating and
t:J
j_5 0% load performance data from the manufacturer.

~~
u
l:J 15 -- Power-factor correction of generating plant is almost invariably associated
u:"' with industrial loads. Generators supplying power systems are designed to
10 meet different operating conditions which are allowed for in the specifications
f-----1-----
Minimum excitation possible
---- ~~ 1---- - of the alternators. Such machines are unlikely to be subjected to leading power
5 1---- with auto voltage regulator 1--- '- factors imposed by capacitors but they may be subjected to leading power
factors at light load conditions due to the effects of the capacitance of long
0 I transmission lines or the capacitance of underground cable systems in
0.6 0.8 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 extensive metropolitan areas such as London, New York, Tokyo, etc. Such
Lagging Leading
conditions can be alleviated by switching-in shunt reactors at light-load
Power factor
periods or by providing synchronous compensators (synchronous condensers)
Figure 4.1 2 Variation of field current with power factor (based on excitation curves for
250 kVA 0.8 power-factor alternator to give constant terminal voltage) with 'buck' and 'boost' excitation facilities. Such facilities allow the synch-
104 Power-factor improvement of induction motors etc.
ronous motors to operate at a Jagging power factor at light-load conditions
and a leading power factor at full-load conditions.
r l
Recent developments in saturable reactor control and thyristor switching of
capacitors have made available static equipment to fulfil the same function.
This equipment is described in Chapter 9 in greater detail under 'Variable
Compensators'.
STAND-BY GENERATING PLANT
Over the past five or six years the use of private 'stand-by' generating plant has
considerably increased. As the equipment is not normally in operation, power-
factor correction can be carried out on the installed load, as detailed earlier.
The only additional feature that must be incorporated in the capacitor
installation is a facility to ensure that the capacitors are switched out of circuit
in the event of a supply failure. It must be emphasised that in no circumstances
must the private generating equipment be allowed to 'switch on' to a purely
capacitive load of a rating exceeding approximately 30% of the k VA rating of
the altemator(s). This can be arranged by two methods: (a) in the case of an
automatic capacitor installation by providing a control relay with a loss-of-
voltage feature, or (b), in the case of a manually-controlled capacitor
installation by a system of 'Castell' key interlocks by which it can be ensured
that the capacitors are switched out of circuit before the switching-in of the
private generator.
When the capacitors are switched out of circuit prior to switching in the
generator then the capacitors need not be reconnected while the generator is in
use, provfded that the generator is capable of supplying the uncorrected load. '
If it is necessary to improve the power factor of the load and so limit the k VA
rating of the stand-by alternator, some degree of power factor correction may
be necessary. If the uncorrected load is below the power factor rating of the
alternator (0.8 lagging is a typical standard), then power factor correction to,
say, 0.85 will be desirable to limit the kVA rating.
If the stand-by alternator is connected close to the main supply intake,
which is obviously desirable, and there is an existing automatically-controlled
capacitor bank connected to the bus bars, it should be possible, by providing
an additional current transformer in the main supply from the alternator, to
provide automatic control facilities whether the supply is derived from the
alternator or the electricity board. If the stand-by alternator is required only to
supply certain essential parts of the factory load, then it may be prefereable not
to switch capacitors on the stand-by supply.
It is possible that the power factor correction capacitors already connected
to the factory bus bars might correct the power factor to a higher figure (say
0.98) than would be desirable for the stand-by alternator, and in this case the
alternator manufacturer should be consulted.
5 Capacitors for marine, mining
and welding plant applications
Previous chapters have been concerned with power-factor correction capa-
citors for applications operating under normal industrial environmental
conditions. In this Chapter, capacitor applications for marine, mining and
welding plant installations, where special environmental conditions exist, will
be dealt with under separate sectional headings in order to take into account
the influence these environmental conditions may have on the design of the
capacitors for the different applications.
MARINE APPLICATIONS
The use of capacitors in the field of marine engineering has increased as
alternating current generation and distribution aboard ship has become more
widespread, and capacitors for power-factor correction are being used
increasingly for saving space and weight by the reduction in size of generating
plant and cabling made possible, without Joss of power. It must be said,
however, that the use of power-factor correction on board ship has not yet
become general throughout the shipbuilding world for all passenger and cargo
vessels, but many vessels designed for specific purposes, including sand and
mineral dredgers, can be regarded as virtual floating power installations and
the general comments made herein will be relevant to installations aboard
vessels with such specialised duties as well as all others.
The most important aspects to be considered for the use of capacitors on
board ship are
(1) Temperature range,
(2) Effect of rolling action,
(3) Fire hazard,
(4) Resistance to salt-laden atmospheres.
The first point is of importance for vessels undertaking long voyages,
particularly those crossing the Equator, and where high temperatures prevail.
It is unlikely that low temperatures will pose any problem unless considerable
time is spent in Arctic waters, but operation in ambient temperatures of 50"C
should be assumed and the capacitors should therefore have a supertropical
rating as defined in BS 1650, IEC 70, etc.
105
 r-
i

106 Power-factor correction capacitors Mming appl1cat1ons 107

To counteract the rolling motion bf the ship in rough seas the capacitors
must be firmly mounted (resilient mountings will only counteract vibration) and
must be designed to contain only the minimum of free oil or other impregnant.
without any air space. Expansion of the impregnation is taken up by the
flexing of the sides of the case.
Stringent fire regulations exist aboard ship and the use of PCB as the

dielectric impregnant was at one time thought to be naturally ideal for the
purpose. As has been noted earlier, however, this material is no longer
available, but the modern replacements provided as the imp regnant fulfill the
requirement of non-flammability, and for electricity supplies up to 480 V the
first three requirements set out above are met adequately by the use of
unimpregnated (dry) metallised-film dielectric capacitors.
--r:he fourth point, resistance to salt-laden atmospheres, can be achieve<;! by
subjecting the mild-steel casing to shot-blasting and then spraying with zinc to
a depth of 15 to 20 micrometres or, for heavily salt-laden conditions, 25 to 30
micrometres. As an alternative, stainless-steel containers could be used.
If thyristor-controlled direct-current motors are fitted to drive items of deck
equipment, due allowance for the effects of harmonic currents must be made in
the capacitor specification. Also, the possibility that capacitors may be
connected to external electricity supplies in a ship-to-shore linkage in various
ports of call throughout the world must also be taken into account, and any
variation from the ship's standard power supply allowed for in the capacitor
design.
The modern trend of using block type contactors, coupled with solid state
:!11" capacitor control relays, has overcome some of the difficulties which arose
";~,l/1
with the use of mercury switches in conjunction with the clapper type
contactors of earlier control systems. Figure 5.1 Air-cooled tank type 300 kvar, 3.3 kV, 50 Hz mining capacitor, at Daw Miil
It should be noted that capacitors for the power-factor correction of Colliery
..:ll!i)

electrical supplies on oil tankers are not advised due to the potential danger
from arcing when stored energy is inadvertently or accidently discharged. In the UK, present recommendations from the coal mining industry do not
encourage the installation of capacitors underground. However, the in-
troduction of the new impregnants and the advent of air cooling may foster
MINING APPLICATIONS further discussion, bearing in mind the voltage drop that occurs on long cable
runs.
Capacitor applications in mining can be divided into the two main categories With respect to the capacitor types suitable for installation above and below
of mineral and coal, and the requirements from the capacitor design point of ground the following load subdivisions can be made, based on UK coal-
view are almost identical in that in both cases the capacitors should be of mining practice:
rugged construction and capable of efficient operation in a dust-laden Surface installation
atmosphere. In coal mining there is the additional requirement of non-
flammability and the possibility of operation in explosive atmospheres. In 11 kV Directly-switched 400--2500 k var
both categories the capacitor design must permit mobility, essential as the Automatically-operated 400~800 kvar
working face advances, and hence the provision of skids, or brackets in which 3.3 kV Directly-switched 200-400 kvar
bogie-wheels can be fitted, is a normal requirement. Figure 5.1 illustrates a Automatically-operated 200~500 kvar

300-kvar, 3.3-kV, 50-Hz capacitor of the air-cooled tank type, in operation Connected to motor terminals 100-400 kvar
underground at Daw Mill Colliery. sso v Automatically-operated 50~100 kvar
 108 Power-factor correction capacrtors
Underground installation
Air-cooled, non-flameproof
3.3 kV Directly-switched 300 kvar
The trend has been to use a 300-kvar, 3.3-kV capacitor unit which is air-
cooled, situated in intake airways and in main substations, and a flameproof
capacitor unit operating at 550 V. However, since the introduction of the
flameproof transformer, very few flameproof capacitor units have been
installed.
The 300 kvar, 3.3-kV unit is usually directly switched and left on the line
throughout the working week, and this gives rise to a situation appertaining
particularly to the mining industry. In the course of events under normal
system operation, no adverse effects should arise from leaving the capacitor in
circuit for long periods provided that during the periods of very light load or
no-load, knowledge of the system voltage under these conditions is available.
Under the terms of BS 1650, capacitors should not be operated at voltage
levels in excess of 1.1 times the nominal voltage rating of the capacitor.
The actual voltage at light load which can appear across a capacitor sited
underground is influenced by the natural upward swing of the system voltage
plus a voltage rise in the underground system due to a capactive current
flowing through the inductance of long lengths of cable. Hence it is possible.
particularly for colliery electrical systems, that the voltage at no-load may
exceed the nominal value by an amount greater than 10%. In these
circumstances, it could happen that premature operation of capacitor fuses
could occur and the capacitors themselves may also be subjected to increased
thermal duty as a result of the overloads imposed.
I' d~il!!ii
Where it is known that capacitors would be left in circuit at week-ends, some
cognisance should be taken of this fact in determining the capacitor voltage
Iii] II
rating in relation to the maximum voltage likely to be experienced.
Surface installations may be similar to normal industrial applications but
are associated with groups of plant involved in the industry such as
Mineral or coal preparation plant,
Ventilation and pumping plant,
Winding equipment,
Underground load and conveyors.
In any mining underground distribution layout the system is always
undergoing change, expanding in one section and contracting in another.
Expansion usually involves the extension of feeders from the central supply
point and problems arising from poor voltage regulation are accepted as
normal.
Hence the requirement for a capacitor underground is dependent upon the
distance from the central supply point to a particular underground load point,
and whether the voltage regulation at that location is acceptable or not.
Ventilation fans, if not driven by synchronous motors, can be corrected by
Characteristics of an arc-welding load 109
connecting the capacitors directly across the stators of the induction motors
ntess a Kramer drive is employed.
1
t Most large mines employ electric winding equipment, and modern practice
favours thyristor drives. The direct-current winder motors often have ratings
as high as 3 to 4 M W, imposing a rapidly-fluctuating load on the a.c. system at
a rdatively low power factor. Harmonic currents generated in the a.c. supply
by the thyristor equipment mean that power-factor correction capacitors must
b~ de-rated to prevent harmonic current overloading, or to permit connection
of series de-tuning reactors to prevent resonance. To alleviate any voltage
nicker problems associated with the fluctuating load, small variable static
compensators have been used in certain cases. Further details of variable static
compensators arc given in Chapter 9.
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT OF WELDING PLANT
Electric welding is widely used in industrial production processes and much
progress has been made in the various techniques since World War II. The
welding process falls into two types:
(1) Arc welding.
(2) Resistance welding.
The use of one type of welding plant compared with the other depends
largely upon the length of weld required and the thickness of the metal to be
welded. For instance, for thick metal plate sections, such as are found in
shipbuilding, arc welding is used, but in the car industry, where much thinner
sections are used, spot welding (a form of resistance welding) comes into its
own.
Whichever type of welding plant is to be used, however, it requires
correction of the low power factor inherent in welding systems.
With the exception of direct-current arc welding, both methods employ
transformers to provide high currents at relatively low voltages in order to
produce the heat required for making a satisfactory weld.
Electric welding loads, whether of the arc or resistance type, produce
unbalanced loads at low power factors and the electricity supply authorities
rightly expect that, as far as is possible, power-factor improvement be
provided by the users.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ARC-WELDING LOAD
Arc-welding equipment consists in most cases of a transformer and regulating
apparatus. To a much lesser extent motor-generator sets may be employed to
provide a direct-current source for the arc, and thus may also be provided by a
 110 Power -factor cmrectio11 capacitors

static transformer with rectifier equipment. In the majority of cases, however,

I
I Capacitors for arc welders 111

arc welding implies the use of welding transformers. Jagging. The same conditions apply when there are several single-phase
welding transformers connected to a common point of supply.
For single-operator welders, single-phase transformers arc employed up to
36 k VA in continuous rating, and for multi-operator equipments (for 3, 6, 9 or Capacitor sizes specified for three-phase multi-operator arc welders are less
12 operators) three-phase transformers with ratings up to 160 kV A are than 50~~ of the welder transformers' continuous k VA rating and usually
available. Primary voltages in Europe range from 380 to 440 V with secondary approximate to 33% of its value. This proportionately-reduced capacitor
(welding) voltages of 80 to 100 V. In the UK particularly, single-phase welders rating also reduces the corrected power factor, on a full-load basis, to a figure
are connected between two phases of a three-phase supply to limit primary of the order of 0.5 lagging. However, the even higher diversity between
current values. individual operators on the same transformer compensates for the pro-
The current loading is intermittent but not highly fluctuating, varying portionally small capacitor rating, and over the daily average working cycle
the average power factor is a high value.
between periods of several seconds up to one or two minutes. The power factor
is approximately 0.35 lagging whether for single- or multi-operator sets and The welding section of the British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers'
while the ratio of welding time to connected t-ime may be as high as 0.75 (75~~) Association {BEAMA) has published, in conjunction with the British electri-
in exceptional circumstances, the average figure is 0.3 (30%). city authorities, a booklet (Publication No. !37) titled Load conditions of
As between individual single-phase welders or the individual operators of
metal-arc and resistance-..:.elding plant on public supply mains from which
Tables 5.1 and 5.2 have been extracted.
multi-operator sets, there is fairly high diversity and some out-of-balance
current loading is inevitable. This may be less in factories or shipyards where
numbers of multi-operator welding equipments are used continually for the Table 5.1 Recommended capacitor ratings for use with typical single-phase
single-operator arc-welding transformers
production of boilers, or pressure vessels, or the welding of deck plates,. etc. r- ____ . n_
Averdyfl
rated kVA n t:t-urnmended Correcred
uncorrecred
capaciror power
power facror kvar
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT OF ARC-WELDING facror
TRANSFORMERS 0 35 4
12 0 35 0 55
18 6 0 625
0 35 8
Power-factor improvement of arc-welding equipment is effected by the use of a 24 0.35 0.58
30 12 0.62
capacitor connected across the primary wjnding of the arc-welding transfor- 0.35 15
36 0 35 0.62
mer. The relatively low value of the secondary voltage and its inherent '0
062
variation precludes the connection of capacitors on the secondary side of the
welding transformer. The capacitor and welder transformer are thus switched
as a composite unit. Table 5.2 Recommended capacitor ratings for use with three-phase mufti-
operator arc-welding transformers
Because of the low power factor and high diversity factor of arc-welding
iype rvraxrmum
loads, the aim is not to achieve a corrected power factor of high value, such as Conrrnuously Uncorrecred
raring rared Recommended Corrected
0.96 or 0.97, but rather to ensure that the no-load current equates approximately kVA
power capaciror
kVA power
to the welding current. With an uncorrected power factor of 0.35, this facror kvar facwr
condition is achieved by correcting the power factor to a value of approx: 350/3 95 57 0.35
350/6 190 16.5 048
imately 0.625 at full load. The rating of the capacitor required is 50% of the 350/9 95 0 35
285 128 30 049
continuous kVA rating of the arc-welding transformer. Allowing for some 350/12 0 35 45
380 160 0.51
0.35 60
variation of load on the welder, according to the size of welding rod used, a 0 53
capacitor of this rating will ensure approximate unity power factor at half
load.
This apparently low value of the corrected power factor of arc welders is
offset by the intermittent nature and high diversity factor of arc-welding loads.
CAPACITORS FOR ARC WELDERS
At periods of no-load, the capacitor/welder combination operates at a leading
Single-phase welding transformers are mainly air-cooled and portable and
power factor. Over the daily working period therefore the average power
often mobile, being mounted on wheels. Most UK equipment manufacturers
factor is much higher than 0.625 and may even reach a figure as high as 0.95
Provide capacitors built into the welder enclosure. Because of the possibility of
 112 Power-factor correction capacitors Characteristics of resistance-welder loads 113

higher temperatures within the welder enclosure, in the case of impregnated
capacitors it may be desirable to employ tropically-rated capacitors for
temperate conditions, or rated for supertropical duty if the welders are to
operate in hot climates. However, the present generation of dry metallised-film
capacitors do not require de-rating for high-temperature conditions. If the
welders are for outdoor use, it may be desirable to provide weatherproof
capacitors unless the welder container is itself weatherproof.
Single-phase capacitors may be supplied either with leads or open terminals
and need less elaborate containers than the standard type if they are to be
mounted inside the welder container.
For three-phase welders, it is likely that these will be designed for outdoor
use and it is unlikely that the transformers will be air-cooled, hence the
capacitors must be mounted externally and must be weatherproof. Often the
capacitor and welder transformer can be mounted on a common base with a
controlling weatherproof switch-fuse. Once again, if the welders are to be used
in tropical areas, and the capacitors are of the impregnated-paper type, due
allowance must be made for this in the capacitor design. Figure 5.2 shows
connection and phasor diagrams for a shunt capacitor connected directly
across an arc-welding transformer.
CAPACITORS FOR UNIDIRECTIONAL-CURRENT ARC
WELDERS
Wh.:rc for one reason or another it is necessary to use unidirectional-current
arc wdders, in the majority of cases the d.c. supply for welding is derived from
an a.c./d.c. motor-generator set, usually mounted on wheels for mobility.
Tht: generators are driven by a standard three-phase cage induction motor
and h.::nce the power factor is higher and the load is balanced but subject to
variation between welding and non-welding periods. Power-factor correction
is not mandatory, but if it is required as part of the overall power-factor
correction project, then the size of the capacitor required will be determined by
the k Wand speed of the primary motor. It is desirable to establish whether or
not the induction motor is of an intermittent or continuous r~tting to avoid any
possible over-compensation of the machine.
Again, if the welding set is to be used outdoors and/or in tropical climates.
suitable capacitors must be fitted. On a mobile welding set it may be necessary
to provide mounting brackets for the capacitor in the design stage.
Available unidirectional current welding equipment consists of a trans-
former/rectifier system to provide a static source of d.c. current. Here again
the load will be balanced equally across the three phases of the supply carrying
the welding load, and again the power factor on the a.c. side will be much
higher than for an a.c. arc welder. However, power-factor improvement is not

(a)
-Is
-
lw

~
mandatory.

10
s Shunt Wo<Oo.
~
u capacitor
lc
':,a:L:i ~ Es CAPACITORS FOR DISCHARGE WELDING
I
y T This application does not concern power-factor improvement since the
lc
capacitors themselves are used as the source of the welding current. The basic

t (b)
principle is to charge the capacitors from a d. c. source and discharge them into
the workpiece providing a very high current for a very short time, of the order
of milliseconds or less. Such equipments have very special applications and the
power factor of the supply of the static d.c. generator or a.c.jd.c. convertor
Es
would be relatively high. Factors which influence the design of this type of
capacitor are discussed in Chapter 11.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESISTANCE-WELDER LOADS

The use of resistance welders as a substitute for alternative methods shows

lw
Figure 5.2 Circuit and phasor diagrams for shunt capacitor connected across arc-welding
transformer, where: Es=supply voltage; is=supply current; iw=welder current;
lc =capacitor current; cos= uncorrected power factor; cos 1 =corrected power factor
dramatic increases in production with considerable saving in time and cost
and the added bonus of very low electricity consumption. These advantages
completely outweigh the disadvantage of an unbalanced, highly-fluctuating
electrical load.
 114 Power-factor correction capacitors
Resistance welding may be broadly classified as follows:
(1) Spot and projection welders characterised by short welding periods (as
low as two cycles) but significantly high currents.
(2) Seam welders operating continuously for relatively long periods.
(3) Butt, flash-butt and upsetting machines which are characterised by
welding periods of longer duration than projection and spot welding.
For all but the simplest resistance-welding operations, consistent welds can
only be obtained by using some form of automatic control to monitor time,
electrode pressure, and current.
Generally, all types of resistance welders conform to the following load
characteristics to a greater or lesser degree:
(1) The load is intermittent in nature and in tlre vast majority of cases
unbalanced. The duty cycle (ratio of duration of the electrical load to
complete process cycle) may be as low as 2% and upwards for spot and
projection welders. Seam and butt welders would normally have higher
duty cycles.
(2) The momentary current taken from the mains is often greater than the
value corresponding to the continuous rating of the welder.
(3) The power factor of different types of machines may vary from 0.2 to 0.5
lagging.
These characteristics have resulted in power-factor correction becoming
mandatory, especially in the UK, for any but the smallest resistance-welding
machines.
I '~,1:1 'ii
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT OF RESISTANCE
WELDERS
As regards power-factor improvement, resistance welders may be treated in a
manner similar to arc welders, the rating of the capacitor being based on the
continuous kVA rating of the resistance welder. Unlike arc welders, there is far
less information available concerning the kVA continuous ratings and
uncorrected power factors. It is recommended therefore that the welder
equipment manufacturer be approached for this information. The degree of
power-factor correction required is dependent upon the requirements of the
electricity supply authorities' tariffs, but there is no reason why the power
factor should not be improved to 0.95 or thereabouts. This is possible because
in the case of relatively small manually-operated welders, the capacitor may be
connected directly across the primary of the welding transformer, the
combination being switched by the welder contactor. Hence, between welds,
the capacitor is disconnected from the mains, and the low resistance of the
primary winding discharges the capacitor very rapidly so that a relatively high
Series capacitors for resistance welders 11 5
welding rate can be achieved without damage to the capacitor or welder
contactor.
The paucity of information concerning resistance-welder characteristics is
probably due to the fact that in many instances resistance-welding equipment
is designed to meet specialised requirements and therefore must be treated
individually. The welder power factor is inversely proportional to the length of
the secondary circuit which therefore should be as short as possible. However,
production requirements over-ride any other considerations and secondary
circuits must be tailored to the work. Consequently, some resistance welders,
particularly spot, projection, and seam welders, operate at power factors of
between 0.2 and 0.3 lagging.
Welders of, say, 100-kVA rating and above, operating on production lines
where consistency of welding is essential, usually require automatic control to
monitor time, current and electrode pressure. This implies the use of ignitron
or thyristor devices and associated circuitry. If a capacitor is connected across
the welding transformer primary for power-factor purposes, it is essential that
the automatic-control equipment is not affected by the capacitor inrush
current at switch-on or the capacitor discharge current at switch-off. It is
necessary to refer to the circuit diagrams of the welder to ensure an acceptable
connection point for the capacitor.
If it is impossible to find an acceptable point of connection, the capacitor
must be connected to the mains side of the welder transformer through a fused
isolator. Depending upon the size of the capacitor and the factory electrical
system this will probably be acceptable provided the capacitor is switched off
at periods of no-load, i.e. at the end of the working day or period.
As an alternative and more expensive method, the capacitor could be
connected through a contactor"interlocked with the welder main contactor.
However, a rapid welding rate would preclude the use of a clapper type
contactor and only a vacuum contactor or thyristor switching device would be
able to deal with the high switching rate. An external low-resistance discharge
path for the capacitor would also be essential to avoid any undesirable surges
occurring. Also, to achieve a given power factor, the contactor-switched
capacitor would require to be of a higher rating than one which was connected
to the line permanently. It would seem that some form of static switching
would provide a satisfactory solution, but this is for the future.
In the event of accurate load and power-factor data not being obtainable
from the resistance welder manufacturer, it is sometimes possible to take tests
on the welder on site.
SERIES CAPACITORS FOR RESISTANCE WELDERS
Large resistance welders, particularly spot and projection types, impose very
high currents on an electrical distribution system for very short times, often
considerably less than one second, in fact a succession of short-circuits at a
 116 Power-factor correction capacitors
power factor of 0.2 to 0.3 lagging. If the welders tend to dominate the load in il
small factory and the supply impedance is high, severe voltage dips giving rise
to voltage flicker may be experienced, thus causing annoyance to other users
connected to the same supply. Of more importance to the owners of the factory
is that the voltage dips impair the quality of the weld.
Contrary to popular opinion, the connection of a shunt capacitor across the
welder will not alleviate the condition, any improvement in voltage being
barely perceptible.
An ideal solution would appear to be to use a series capacitor connected in
series with the primary of the resistance-welder transformer, the capacitive
voltage thus produced neutralising completely, or reducing to whatever is an
acceptable value, the inductive voltage drop. The voltage compensation would
be virtually automatic.
It is true to say that series-capacitor compensation has been applied to large
resistance welders successfully, but the series capacitor and welder must be
designed as one unit and the project starts at the drawing board stage. It is very
difficult, because of the modifications required, to add a series capacitor to a
welder once the latter is on site and working, and may, in fact, be impossible.
Series capacitors for resistance welders may be quite large and will be
housed in a separate cubicle. The voltage bears little or no relationship to the
actual supply voltage and for, say, 380 to 440-V supplies the voltage appearing
across the capacitor may be 500 to 600 V or higher.
It is absolutely essential that the capacitor manufacturer be informed of the
reactance of the welding transformer at each tapping and that the welding load
and power factor at each tapping are known. This data will enable the
capacitor bank to be varied according to which particular transformer tap is in
,.J:;"II'
use and as these taps will be altered only when the work programme changes,
the capacitor subdivisions may be controlled by off-load isolators. Knowledge
of the welder load at various tappings will also enable the voltage appearing
across the series capacitor to be calculated and obviously the capacitors must
be designed for the highest voltage indicated in the calculations.
Because the welding current represents short-circuit conditions there is no
need to provide overload protection for the series capacitor, but a voltmeter
connected across the main terminals of the capacitor will provide useful
information.
Omission of discharge devices on series capacitors for electronically-
controlled welders ensures that the capacitor holds its charge between welding
operations and so avoids the recharging transient which would otherwise
occur at the beginning of each weld. However, a separate external discharge
circuit is supplied so that the capacitor may be discharged safely at the end of
each work period or shift.
Reference to the equivalent circuit diagram and phasor diagram for series-
capacitor-compensated resistance welders shown in Figure 5.3, which illus-
trates compensation to unity power factor, will indicate that the voltage which
appears across the primary of the welding transformer is reduced from the
Series capacitors for resistance welders 11 7
Series capacitor
c~
Rw
Load resistance I Rw I
(a)
Load reactance IXwl
- - - __ Ew
lxw
(b)
IRw
lxc
~
Figure 5.3 Diagrams for power-factor correction of resistance welders by series
capacitor. (a) Equivalent circuit, (b) phasor diagram
value Ew to the value E, with a series capacitor in circuit. Hence, adding a series
capacitor would require the welder transformer to be rewound. !1. more
practical solution would be to employ an auto-transformer in the welder
supply, one more difficulty in the way of adding a series capacitor to an
existing welder.
It has been demonstrated that where voltage flicker problems are experien-
ced with a large resistance welder already in service neither shunt nor seri-:-s
capacitors can alleviate the position. If there are several large welders some
form of selective control may help to reduce the welding current, to ensure that
only an agreed minimum number of welders can be connected to the supply at
the same time. If this is not successful then it may be necessary to introduce a
separate low-impedance supply for the resistance welders and to remove
others, say, domestic consumers, from the common point of connection.
In the case of resistance welders, to ensure a successful operation it is
essential that at the commencement of the project close contact is made with
the welding equipment manufacturer, electricity supply authority and capa-
citor manufacturer.
 118 Power-factor correction capacitors
POWER-FACTOR IMPROVEMENT OF LARGE WELDING
LOADS
T 6 Capacitors for electric-arc and
Often more problems are experienced when a single large welder is installed in
a small factory, than when a larger factory's load includes a number of arc or
resistance welders. One reason is that the larger factory's electrical system will
be designed to accept a greater electrical load and another is that with the
relatively large numbers of single-phase equipments, a theoretical load
balance may be achieved by spreading the connections across all three phases
of the supply. Repetitive welding loads working to a scheduled programme
will tend, in spite of the diversity, to produce a less intermittent load without
extreme out-of-balance between phases.
In such circumstances automatically-controlled three-phase line capacitors.
have been applied successfully to both arc- and resistance-welding loads. It
may be necessary to carry out load studies over a longer period than usual for
balanced loads and it is desirable to have some knowledge of the overall phase
balance. This will enable the capacitor control relay current transformer to be
connected in the heaviest loaded phase to ensure positive control.
Typical types of production to which this method has been applied include
car production lines, aircraft frame production and oil drum factories.
l,,.,lr111
induction furnaces
This Chapter is concerned with the application of capacitors to electric-arc-
furnace circuits processing the melting of iron and steel; and with capacitors
used in the production of steel and steel alloys in induction furnaces, which are
of a limited capacity compared with arc furnaces but are al-so used in the
smelting process of non-ferrous metals. The application of capacitors to
circuits in conjunction with graphitising furnaces is also described.
ARC-FURNACE CAPACITORS
The melting of metal in arc furnaces is accomplished by the high temperatures
which occur in the 'plasma' or ionised atmospheft CfeactC: :)cc-.vecn t,;o
electrodes. Temperatures in the arc are of the order of 5000oC.
Although direct-arc furnaces were used originally to provide special steels in
quantities of up to about four tonnes with ratings of 1500 to 2000 kV A, over
the past 30 years the furnaces have become much larger and are now used
increasingly on the production of basic steel from large SGrap metal. The
weight handled can be, in some cases, as much as 100 tonnes representing
approximately 150 MVA in transformer capacity. The most common ratings,
however, are between 10 and 60 MVA.
Some direct-current arc furnaces are employed, usually incorporating
a.c.jd.c. converter equipment, in conjunction with a vacuum process to
produce metals such as titanium and other special high-temperature steel
alloys of high purity. Because of the specialist nature of the product these
furnaces process a lower tonnage than those used to produce basic steel.
Except for the small furnaces, normal electrical supplies are three-phase
50 Hz, at voltages of 11 or 33 kV, but even 66 kV is common in Europe.
A line drawing of a Hall-Herault type of arc melting furnace is given in
Figure 6.1. This depicts a three-phase furnace in which the graphite electrodes
have their positions automatically and continuously adjusted to provide a
constant arc resistance. Charging can be carried out through side doors or by
removal of a section of the roof. The furnace can be tilted for slagging or
casting.
There are two distinct operating conditions for arc furnaces. At the
beginning of the melt, when the furnace is filled with assorted shapes of scrap
119
 120 Capacitors for electric-arc and induction furnaces
Electrode
control
Water-cooled
collars
0
Figure 6.1 Hall- Herault type three-phase direct-arc melting furnace as used for
steelmaking (Fuels, Furnaces and Refractories, J. D. Gilchrist Oxford: Pergamon Press
1978)
metal, the load is high, unbalanced and fluctuating, and the power factor may
be as low as 0.7lagging. This is termed the breaking-down period and, initially,
the r.m.s. value of the load is equal to the MVA rating of the furnace
transformer.
:;:~,]
As the scrap metal subsides into the molten state more scrap is added until
I :~j,']li the furnace is full to capacity and all the metal becomes molten. The breaking
down period usually accounts for over half the total melting time and persists
for about one to one-and-a-half hours. When all the metal is molten the
refining or holding period begins, the electrical load is much reduced and
intrinsically steady and the power factor increases to a figure exceeding 0.9
lagging. During this period slag is removed and additives are put in to produce
the type of steel required.
In all areas where a power-factor penalty applies, capacitor requirements
are based on the highest loads experienced during the breaking-down period.
Where the tariff is based on a maximum kVA demand it is desirable to correct
the power factor to a figure as high as 0.97 or 0.98. To achieve this the capacitor
bank must have a rating of 30 to 40% of the MVA rating of the arc-furnace
transformer.
In areas where it is necessary to achieve a power factor of only 0.9 the
complete operating cycle must be considered and the capacitor bank
requirement may be smaller. It is, however, usual for the arc-furnace
manufacturer to specify the capacitor rating required for a particular arc
furnace.
For one or two arc furnaces, the capacitor banks may be connected directly
Arc-furnace capacitors 121
, primarv side of the arc-furnace transformer and will be designed for
tOt hc . .
. , , possibly as htgh as 60 k V, but because voltages on the secondary stde
10 It,H(L 5
: . rc-furnace transformer are very low and subject to tappings over a
L) f 1I)L '"
1
. __ 1 --m"c of 230 V to 80 V, the connection of capacitors to the secondary
1 1' "'
tvptl
,id~ would be quite impracticable. Connect_ion of the capacitor directly across
-h~ primary side of the transformer ehmmates the need for extra control.
~owcvcr. because ?f the different load characteristics described, a fixe~!
a x!Citor bank wtlltmpose a leadmg power factor on the arc-furnace cncUJt
clu\-ing the low-load refining period. This is often not a matter of great concern
~ccausc, depending upon the size of the plant, the excess leading kvar will often
be absorbed by the other load and thus produce an overall lagging power
factor.
However, if the leading power factor is not acceptable for any reason, the
difficulty may be overcome by providing ~l tertiary winding on the arc-furnace
transformer to which the capacitors may be connected. The output of this
tertiary winding reflects the voltage tap-changes on the secondary winding of
the furnace transformer, and hence the voltage across the capacitor bank is
progressively adjusted to the change in furnace conditions as the melt
proceeds.
' With very large arc furnaces, it may not be desirable to switch capacitors
with the arc furnace and a tertiary winding may be too expensive to provide. In
this case a special circuit-breaker will be required for the capacitors and this
should be arranged to trip with the furnace circuit-breaker as, during the melt.
six to eight programmed switching operations may occur and this number
may be doubled by involuntary operations. A capacitor bank which is
separately switched must be provided with extra discharge reactors to ensure
that after disconnection the discharge time is such that safe voltages are
reached to permit rapid reconnection. If the capacitors are connected directly,
or through a tertiary winding, to the primary windings this will provide a
sufficiently rapid capacitor-discharge path.
Where two or more arc furnaces of significant rating are connected to the
same bus bars, to avoid excessive demands on the system it is likely that they
will be programmed to avoid the coincidence of peak loads. The total
capacitor requirement may be reduced considerably, as may be the capital
cost, by connecting a capacitor direct to the same busbars. Because arc
furnaces work on a 24-hour basis, the capacitors may be connected
permanently through a suitable circuit-breaker or breakers. It is important
that the capacitors be de-rated to allow for the harmonic currents involved in
the breaking-down period.
It is also important, whether a capacitor is connected directly across an arc-
furnace transformer or switched separately, that the switchgear must be
suitable for capacitor switching. For an integral connection to, say, a 60-MV A
arc furnace, the capacitor rating could approach 25 Mvar. At the beginning of
the melt or after a previous trip, before the electrode rods are lowered, the
furnace circuit-breaker will be switching a predominantly capacitive load.
 122 Capacitors for electric-arc and induction furnaces Arc-furnace capacitors 123

Simil~r~y, for voluntary tripping o~erations, it :Viii be brea~ing a mainly

capacitive load. The actual type of switchgear reqUired for these mstallations is
usually dependent upon the operating voltage of the system, but it is essential
that the switchgear manufacturer guarantees that there will be no re-strike of
tf
the switch contacts under normal duty since the capacitors would be subjected ~~,
to excessive over-voltages with disastrous results. ~~:
The capacitor banks employed for the power-factor connection of arc f:T.
~~

furnaces comprise standard capacitor units which comply with national and ~""

international specifications, e.g. BS 1650, IEC 70, etc. It may be necessary to

de-rate the capacitor units to meet any special requirements included in the
specification for capacitors drawn up by the arc-furnace manufacturer. If a
capacitor bank is to be added to an existing arc-furnace installation, the
furnace manufacturer should always be consulted so that the correct capacitor
rating is approved. Figuie 6.2 shows a 5 M var, 33 k V 3-phase capacitor bank
for power-factor correction of a 12.5 MV A arc furnace installation by BICC at
Lloyd Cooper Ltd, Dudley, W orcs.
Depending upon the size of capacitor bank required, and space available,
the smaller capacitor banks may be housed in an enclosure such as an oil-
cooled tank or air-cooled cubicle. However, most capacitor banks, the largest
of which may have ratings up to 60 Mvar, are of the open-rack type, installed
outdoors. For operational reasons, it is desirable to connect an off-load
isolator between the connections from the primary of the arc-furnace
transformer and the capacitor bank. Table 6.1 shows typical values of
capacitor ratings for direct connection to arc-furnace transformers.
Earlier designs of arc furnace, using transformers of ratings between 2 and
7.5 MV A, did not appear to pose any problems concerning harmonic currents.
1,.,~1,,::',!,[
Modern high-tonnage arc furnaces, frequently employing transformers with
ratings between 50 and 150 !'viVA, generate harmonic currents of significant
magnitude, the most common orders being 3rd, 5th and 7th. It is essential to
obtain accurate information from arc-furnace manufacturers on this matter
and capacitor banks will require to be de-rated. The use of series de-tuning
reactors may be necessary, to avoid the possibility of resonance.
Figure 6.3 gives four schematic diagrams showing various ways in which
capacitor banks are connected to arc-furnace installations.
High-voltage transmission lines supplying very large arc-furnace in-
stallations may suffer from voltage flicker due to the violently fluctuating and Figure 6.2 A 5 Mvar, 33 kV, 50 Hz capacitor bank for the power-factor correction of a
out-of-balance loads. This may be reduced to acceptable values either by 12.5 MVA arc furnace at Lloyd Cooper Ltd, Dudley, Wares
installing a voltage flicker compensator, which is a form of variable static
compensation (discussed in greater detail in Chapter 9), or by using thyristor- the installation of capacitors for connection to unity power factor completely
switched shunt capacitors. The first method is usually the responsibility of the eliminated the power-factor penalty. Without voltage flicker, the average
supply authority but the second method is under the control of the industrial voltage across the arc furnace increased, thus decreasing the total melting time
plant itself. and thereby increasing productivity.
ASEA Ltd of Sweden has developed a thyristor-switched capacitor system Voltage flicker can be eliminated by shunt capacitors alone only if
known as TYCAP which has been applied successfully to arc-furnace instantaneous and step less variation of capacitive kilovars can be ensured and
installations. In one particular steel plant voltage flicker was eliminated; also this has been achieved by using thyristors to switch the capacitors. Two
 124 Capacitors for electric-arc and induction furnaces Arc-furnace capacitors 125

--
Table 6.1 Rating of capacitor banks for power-factor correction of arc furnaces Table 6.2 Comparison of full load conditions with and without
TYCAP system m operation
Rating of arc furnace transformer Rating of capacitor bank
(MVA) (Mvar) F1xed capacitor bank 6 Mvar

5 1.5-2.0 Without TYCAP With TYCAP

12.5 4-5
25-30 7.5-12.0 u, kV 21 .4 21 .4
50-60 15-25 kV 18.2 20.1
100 40-45 pMW 29 35.5
150 60-70 PF 0.73 0.99
Total meltdown
trme mins 118 102
manufacturers to det<lll the rattng and speclftcutron of any capJcttor bank required
:s ,ll 20 ~I/ busbars Uo- no lodd vo,tage. UcJ' servtce volts at full furnace power, P-- furnace
,_., 1.c' F F -_ povver factor at 20 kV bus

(a) (b) (c)

----~~------~------220kV

1700 MVA

~I
74 MVA

----~r---------------130kV

50 MVA
f
(d) I
---+-------------+----------------~-- 20kV

~
"':.,1''111 240 MVA

I TYCAP
I I
.!. ..
50.5/42 I
MVA
Figure 6.3 Methods of connection to capacitors for power-factor correction of arc 6 Mvar
furnaces. (a) Capacitor connected directly across furnace transformer, with series reactor
if required. (b) Capacitor connected across tertiary winding of arc-furnace transformer,
with series reactor if required. (c) Capacitor for power-factor correction of large arc
furnace but controlled by separate circuit-breaker. Note shunt discharge reactor for rapid
discharge of capacitor to enable reconnection as quickly as possible. Inter-tripping
between furnace circuit-breaker and capacitor circuit-breake; is desirable. (d) One or
more manually-controlled banks fitted with series reactors if required, to correct power
factor of several arc furnaces connected to common busbars

methods of control of thyristor firing were required: voltage control at peak

loads and var-sensitive control to switch out part of the stepped capacitor
bank during the refining period, when the kvar load is much reduced and the
power factor much higher.
Table 6.2 compares full-load conditions with and without the TYCAP
system in operation, and Figure 6.4 shows a schematic diagram of the
10 x 3.5 Mvar I
' - - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _j
Figure 6.4 Schematic diagram of thyristor-switched capacitor bank to correct power
factor of arc furnace and eliminate voltage flicker. 1. Fixed capacitor bank and third
harmonic filter; 2. Step-down transformer for 10 x 3.5 Mvar switched capacitor bank;
3. Thyristor switches; 4. De-tuning reactors; 5. Capacitor groups; 6. Other loads
 126 Capacitors for electric-arc and 1nduction furnaces
installation. In order to reduce the voltage to an acceptable value for the
thyristors, it is necessary to use a step-down transformer for the capacitor
bank, with three separate windings on the secondary side.
CAPACITORS FOR USE WITH INDUCTION-FURNACES
Metal can also be melted or heat treated by means of induction furnaces in
which the heat is produced not by direct arc but by a magnetic field inducing
eddy-current losses in the material.
Induction furnaces are of two types: (a) The cored type, usually referred to as
the Ajax- Wyatt design, and (b), the coreless type, of which the Leeds-Northrop
design is typical (Figures 6.5 and 6.6). Careless induction furnaces are either
mains frequency (50 to 60Hz) or medium frequency (0.5 to 10kHz).
Capacitors are usually supplied as an integral part of the complete furnace
installation.
CORED INDUCTION FURNACE (CHANNEL TYPE
FURNACE)
In this type of furnace, the metal in its molten state forms the short-circuited
secondary winding of a single-phase transformer, the primary winding of
,.,~;::1!
Figure 6.5 Ajax-Wyatt type induction furance
(50 Hz) (Fuels, Furnaces and Refractories,
J.D. Gilchrist, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1978)
~~~-
,~~]
Figure 6.6 Leeds- Northrop core less high-
frequency induction furnace (Fuels, Furnaces
.-rr-~ and Refractories, J. D. Gilchrist,
Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1978)
Cored induction furnace 127
which operates at voltages usually in the range of 400 to 600 V and at 50 to
60 Hz. Such furnaces are often referred to as channel type fumaces and their
main use is for holding metal in a molten form, usually after it has been melted
in a careless induction furnace.
The electrical ratings in kW are comparatively low, the load steady and the
power factor without correction is of the order of 0.7. The requisite rating of
capacitor banks is connected directly across the primary of the transformer
and switched by the furnace control switch. A fixed capacitor bank is provided
to correct the power factor typically to a value of 0.95 lagging.
The basic circuit diagram of the cored type furnace is shown in Figure 6.7.
Charge
~o--.....---.----+---.,
50 Hz
Ill
Furnace
Figure 6.7 Basic circuit of cored induction (channel type) furnace with voltage tappings
and sectionalised capacitor
'
The primary current is passed through a coil housed in the hearth of the
furnace. Laminated-iron cores concentrate the electro-magnetic field so that
efficient coupling is effected with the narrow loop of molten metal which passes
from the crucible underneath the primary coils and, concentric with them,
back to the crucible. The loop of molten metal carries the secondary current
and produces the heating. Circulation of the metal in the crucible transfers the
heat evolved through the melt. This type of furnace usually operates at mains
frequencies and is simple in design and operation but the loop must remain
molten. The crucible can therefore be used for only one type of alloy and must
be kept in continuous production.
The waveform is sinusoidal and the duty is of an intermittent nature,
although the production is continuous: sections of the capacitor are switched
in as the melt proceeds. Standard 50-Hz capacitors can be used. Cooling is
generally by natural air (NA) circulation.
These furnaces are very successful with brass and other copper-based alloys,
but high-energy furnaces are used with ferrous-metal alloys which require a
much higher temperature. Aluminium alloys deposit oxide which chokes the
loop, and modified designs have been developed for processing them.
 128 Capacitors for electric-arc and induction furnaces Careless induction furnace 129

CORELESS INDUCTION FURNACE

(a) Mains-frequency type

With this design of furnace, an inductor is provided which surrounds the metal
pot, the metal itself forming the core. Coreless induction furnaces provide
batches of molten metal very rapidly in capacities varying from about 0.5 to 30
tonnes at mains frequency single-phase. Coreless induction furnaces are
Mai8s
supplY
50/60Hz
1(.:'!

(a)
Furnace
c f f"i "'i 'i ):~;:" "
transformer
Fixed
capacitor
section
Switched
capacitor
section

characterised by very low power factor of the order of 0.15 Jagging, and hence s, s2 s3 etc
are Single-pole,
capacitors are an integral part of the furnace installation, usually providing open type contactors
correction to unity power factor. As the melt proceeds the k W load increases
but the power factor docs not improve and consequently the capacitor banks
must include fixed and switched sections, typical proportions of the rating
being 40% fixed and 60% switched. The total rating of the capacitor banks may
be six or seven times that of the k W rating of the furnace transformer so that supp Heater
MaigC coil
for a 9-MW furnace, a capacitor rating of 63 Mvar will be required. A 50/6
capacitor bank for power-factor correction of three 31-tonne, 9-MW in- ~__...____._-L.--L-.1
duction furnaces is illustrated in Figure 6.8. Heater Fixed Adjustable
transformer capacitor capacitor
The capacitors shown are of the unit-construction type designed to IEC (b) with tapped section section
Standard 110, which specifies the maximum voltage at which the capacitor secondary
for adjusting s 1 s2 s3 s4 etc
heats are smgle-pole,
offload, pneumatically
operated isolators

Figure 6.9 Basic schematic diagrams of mains-frequency (a) coreless induction melting
furnace. and (b) induction heater

may operate. In effect this means that the capacitors are operating con-
'
1
:fl,lh~l '!i~: tinuously at 1.1 times the nominal design voltage which increases the ratin-g of
the capacitor unit by 20%, and individual units may have a maximum rating of
:,,1

1:11
Figure 6.8 Part of capacitor bank for power-factor correction of three 31 tonne. 9 MVA.
mains-frequency induction furnaces at Ford Motor Co's Leamington Works (BICC)
250 kvar.
The capacitor units are assembled in open type racks, a number of which are
connected in parallel to give the required kvar rating. As voltages lie within the
range of 1 to 3 kV and the supply is single-phase, substantial bus bars, usually
of aluminium, must be provided for each rack. To conserve space, of
paramount importance in the induction-furnace installation, forced-air
cooling enables mounting of the capacitors much closer together than for
normal power applications.
For the same reason, in the switched capacitor sections, switchgear in the
form of open type contactors is mounted on the capacitor racking above the
units. To eliminate the effect of interchange of energy associated with repeated
switching of large capacitor sections at high voltage, each incoming section is
switched through a damping resistor short-circuited by secondary contacts
when the switching is completed. As an additional precaution, when the
capacitors are disconnected, auxiliary discharge resistors are provided to
ensure a short enough discharge time to reduce the voltage to acceptable
values for repetitive switching. Schematic connections are shown in Figure 6.9,
 130 Capacitors for electric-arc and Induction furnaces Capacitors for induction heaters 131

!able 6.3

frequency range Duty

1-2 Melting
2-5 Billet heating
5-10 Surface heating or hardening

Table 6.4 Effect of water cooling

-
Type Cooling Energy densi1y
(kvar/litre)

Medium-frequency furnace capacitor Water 5.3

Standard 50- Hz capacitor Natural 3.0

The coil surrounding the crucible is helical in form and is water-cooled, heat
being generated in the metal charge by induced eddy currents.
Power supplies were originally derived from motor generator sets which are

~
} j",
i~i ll'il
'!l'~
Figure 6.10 (left) A typical capacitor for incorporation into capacitor banks of up to
-i~,! . 70000 kvar at 1 to 3 kV for careless induction furnaces
~; Figure 6.11 (right) Medium-frequency, paper/film dielectric, water-cooled capacitor
(500 to 10 000 Hz) 600 to 1200 kvar
while Figure 6.10 shows a capacitor unit suitable for incoFporation into large
capacitor banks for induction heating and furnaces.
(b) Medium-frequency type
Medium-frequency induction furnaces are usually used for melting metal in
small batches and often where special alloys are required. Like mains-
frequency induction furnaces, they may be used for both ferrous and non-
ferrous metal production, but the requirement for medium-frequency melting
furnaces is decided by metallurgical and production requirements. Medium-
frequency induction furnaces and heaters employ frequencies of between 0.5
and 10kHz, but there are three bands associated with melting, heating and
surface heating, as shown in Table 6.3.
now being replaced by static-frequency convertors. In the sphere of melting,
the load characteristic is similar to mains-frequency types and the power factor
uncorrected is about 0.1 lagging. Consequently both fixed and switched
sections are required.
Because the total capacitor kvar rating exceeds the k W rating of the furnace
to a greater degree than with the mains-frequency induction furnace, space is
still at a premium, but the effect of the higher frequencies is to increase the kvar
of the capacitor per unit volume and ratings of 1200 kvar are now in use, at
frequencies between 1000 and 2000 Hz and with voltages between 1000 and
1500 V. To help dissipate the heat generated by dielectric loss, the units are
water-cooled (see Table 6.4).
The requirements of the water-cooled medium-frequency unit include a
facility for subdivision, or 'trimming', purposes and, dependent upon rating of
the capacitor-switched sections, provide economy of space. Hence, capacitors
can be supplied with up to six subdivisions if required.
Control of switched capacitors is by means of open type contactors
. provided with surge-limiting resistors and also with discharge resistors.
Additional features provide for disconnection of the capacitors if the water
flow is not maintained. Figure 6.11 shows a medium-frequency, paper/film
dielectric capacitor (550 to 10000 Hz) 600 to 1200 kvar. Typical schematic
diagrams for medium-frequency induction furnaces, are shown in Figure 6.12.
CAPACITORS FOR INDUCTION HEATERS
Mains-frequency induction heaters are employed to heat metal billets up to a
certain temperature as part of a forming process, and the metal may be either
 132 Capacitors for electric-arc and induction furnaces Capacitor for graphitising furnaces 133

ferrous or non-ferrous. Induction heaters are designed to accept a range of
workpieces and this is achieved by providing a number of tappings on the
heater coil. Hence, a range of loadings is possible and the uncorrected power
factor of the heater is higher than for a melting furnace, usually of the order of
0.4 to 0.61agging. This is still low enough to justify providing capacitors as an
integral part of the complete heating equipment. However, corrected values of
power factor may not be as high as for melting furnaces and some heating
equipment operates at corrected power factors as low as 0.85 lagging.
Capacitors for mains-frequency induction-heating duty can lie between 380
and 660 V but more often, and particularly for large installations, they are of
the high-voltage design. Typical voltage ranges for high-voltage capacitors for
this duty lie between 2.5 and 6 kV single- or three-phase, and heater ratings of
1.5 and 4 MW are common. See Figure 6.9(b).
Furnace
coil
workpiece is pre-selected by means of off-load isolators before the heating
rogramme commences.
p (;1pacitor banks are switched frequently and rapid cycling periods at rates
of up to 120 times per minute may be imposed on a short-time basis to hold
h~at in the workpiece. Because the capacitor bank is switched with the heater
coil. a rapid discharge is assured and therefore no problems occur with cyclic
switching.
Similar remarks apply to medium-frequency heating equipment which may
be used for smaller workpieces at frequencies between 2 and 5kHz and,
because of the smaller banks employed, subdivided capacitors permit pre-
setting of the banks before any particular process.
Somewhat larger medium-frequency heaters are emerging in the frequency
band 2 to 5 kHz, and these are fed directly at high voltage and include static-
frequency convertors. Medium-frequency 'capacitors are provided as an
integral part of a tuned circuit but additional power-factor correction may be
made on the high-voltage side, typically at 10 or II kV, operating at mains
frequency. In such cases de-rating of the capacitors will offset the effects of
harmonic currents generated by the static frequency convertors.

capacitors capacitors 'TRIFLER' INDUCTION FURNACES, 150Hz

S 1 S 2 S3 etc
are smglepole In certain cases 'tripler' melting furnaces arc employed and as these have
contactors
}
power factors comparable with mains-frequency induction furnaces, capa-
+j~- citors form an integral part of the installation.
~,.,
:i,
u:! lol . ._
! ! Triple frequency of 150Hz is produced by a specially-wound transformer,
j
~Jj
'<ill and the 150Hz capacitors are connected-directly to the furnace coil. The
advent of the mixed-dielectric capacitor, with its low losses, has enabled
3-phas supply increased ratings of up to 250 kvar to be employed with a reduced volume
50/60 z corresponding with that of a single-phase 150 kvar, 50 to 60Hz capacitor. A
-
) complete capacitor bank would include fixed and switched section. Control is
as described for mains-frequency furnaces.
Induction furnace
and capacitors The tripler furnace transformer produces harmonic currents of a relatively
Inverter
high magnitude and it is normal to install capacitor banks on the incoming
Frequency between
500 Hz and 10kHz high voltage supply to provide harmonic current filtering facilities. These are
R ctifier according to duty
specially designed and details of the orders and magnitudes of the harmonic
de
currents can be obtained from manufacturers of the tripler unit.
-.,
Figure 6.12 Schematic diagrams of medium-frequency induction furnaces supplied
(a) from motor-generator set, and (b) from static-frequency converter CAPACITOR FOR GRAPHITISING FURNACES

Standard capacitors to BS 1650 and IEC 70 or other relevant specifications One of the applications of series capacitors in industry is for the power-factor
are usually employed, but to allow for variable load conditions on the furnace correction of graphitising furnaces.
coil capacitor banks are usually subdivided. Switching of capacitors does not Graphite, in the form of rods of up to 500 mm in diameter, is used
occur during the heating but the capacitor rating required for a particular exclusively for electric-arc-furnace electrodes and nuclear reactors. There is a
 1 34 Capacitors for electric~arc and induction furnaces Capacitor for graphitising furnaces 1 35

Busbar reactance
constant demand for these rods which are made by passing an electric current
through extruded carbon rods until, after a period of several days, a
temperature of 2600C is achieved, at which point the carbon changes into
graphite. During this period the current is increased from a few hundred High-voltage Graphitising
amperes to a maximum of 40 000 amperes at the end of the work period. single-phase furnace
supply (resistive load)
Graphitising furnaces are supplied from single-phase transformers con-
nected to a high-voltage supply of, say, from 6 to 15 k V. The secondary of the
transformer consists of a complex arrangement of bus bars which run to both
ends of the furnace between which the carbon rods are connected, and which Series step-up
constitute a lengthy circuit. It is this which causes the low power factor at high transformer

currents. Initially the power factor is unity but as the temperature of the
carbon increases its resistance falls, so the current increases and the power
factor decreases until it reaches a level of approximately 0.4 lagging, with a
maximum of 40 000 amperes in the s'econdary. Over a complete heat cycle the
XjR ratio of the secondary circuit may increase from 0.1 to 2.
Correction of the load on the primary side would not relieve the furnace Capacitor

transformer of any load, and a shunt capacitor would be required to be Figure 6.13 Diagram of connection of graphitising furnace incorporating a series
switched in steps, which would be expensive. capacitor

Because the power factor of a graphitising furnace varies inversely as the

load current, a series capacitor would be an ideal method of power factor so that arrangements may be made to restore the balance at some convenient
correction giving stepless automatic control. It would be impossible to time. Also, any extra voltage imposed across the capacitor due to malfunction
.connect such a capacitor directly into the secondary circuit because the of the operational procedures will be indicated.
voltage varies between only 200 and 40 V. However, by installing a series Figure 6.13 shows typical connections for a series capacitor for graphitising
~~. transformer of suitable design a maximum voltage in the range of 2400 to furnace. It is normal to include in the furnace control room a voltmeter
y.;IJ '..''II
1.1
4800 V will appear across the secondary enabling an economical design of connected across the capacitor terminals.
series capacitor to be used .
.;,i Because the secondary current of 40 000 amperes maximum represents
virtual short-circuit conditions, expensive over-voltage protection is not
)\~!
required for the series capacitor which maintains a power factor of unity over
ll the whole graphitising process.
Capacitor banks of up to 10000 kvar maximum have been designed for this
duty using graphitising-furnace transformers of up to 4 MV A in rating.
Without the capacitor the transformer rating required would be 10 MVA, so a
considerable saving is effected in the first cost which is often of more
importance than the possible saving on tariff charges.
Each unit of the capacitor bank is externally fused, and although the
maximum voltage of2.4 or 4.8 kVis relatively low, it is usual to split the bank
into two equal parts with each half consisting of two parallel groups of
capacitor units in series. This construction limits the possibility of rupturing
the expulsion fuse by excessive inrush currents in the event of fuse operation.
This design enables an out-of-balance voltage protection scheme to be
employed. Although the capacitor bank is not operating at full voltage
continuously, being a series capacitor, any loss of capacitor units will increase
the voltage across the whole bank. It is important that some warning be given
 High-voltage supplies 137

7 Capacitor location and of significant horsepower, forming a base load, these may be corrected
individually. By so doing, the line capacitor may be reduced to a rating
installation acceptable for manual control, thus reducing the capital cost by eliminating
automatic control equipment. However, installation costs may be increased,
and a high diversity factor between motors may preclude individual
correction.

HIGH-VOLTAGE SUPPLIES
In this context the location of power capacitors refers to those employed for Depending upon the policy of the local supply authority ,factories having load
industrial power-factor improvement and not to those applied to electrical capacities of 200 k VA and higher will probably be supplied from the high-
power systems as discussed later, in Chapter 9. Also, it must be borne in mind voltage side of the-network, often with a single transformer of up to 1000 k VA.
that the technical benefits deriving'from power-factor correction, i.e. release of
extra distribution system capacity due to reduced line current, reduction in
copper losses and improvement in voltage regulation, apply only up to the
point(s) on the system where capacitor(s) are connected.
The financial aspects of power-factor improvement may not be greatly I (i) High-voltage capacitor
affected by capacitor location unless significant reductions in capital costs can
be achieved by careful siting of the equipment, with consequent reductions in
cost of control gear.
-~,---_,---+---------- 380-440 v

LOW-VOLTAGE SUPPLIES
,}~1 ~~ ~:m:
..
-0
~fiT
Factories which are supplied direct at low voltage (380 to 440 V) do not 10
I
consume large amounts of elect:ricity, and peak-load capacity would be
unlikely to exceed 200 kVA. Capacitor requirements will not be large and any
capacitors needed could be connected on the load side of the supply
authority's metering at the consumer's main busbars. Figure 7.1 shows a f 1 1I 1 1 Sub distributio.n board

schematic layout, position (1) showing the line capacitor. Position (2) shows a
capacitor connected across an induction motor and if there are several motors 0
Figure 7.2 Schematic diagram of typical distribution system for a medium-size factory
with high-voltage supply, showing possible locations of capacitors

Figure 7.2 shows a schematic diagram of such a layout from which it will be
-+---r---r---~>-----t----r-- 380-440 V
noted that distribution within the factory is at low voltage. For larger ratings
of transformers, within the range it is not unlikely that two or more feeders
r -
(;\ Line
\.}_)capacitor
from the main low-voltage busbars will supply sub-distribution points within
the factory and the diagram indicates four positions at which capacitors may
be connected. Even with a 1000-k VA transformer it is unlikely that the
10 capacitor requirement would reach 500 kvar and, generally, factories of this
Capacitor across
individual motor(s) size work 40 to 60 hours per week, which means that automatic control will be
Figure 7.1 Small factory with low-voltage supply, showing possible locations of required for the capacitors.
capacitors
Position (1) shows a capacitor connected to the high-voltage side of the
136
 138 Capacitor location and installation High-voltage supplres with high-voltage distribution 139

Table 7.1 Maximum capacitor bank ratings (Mvar) for high-voltage switchgear

I
Type Standard Capacitor
rating rating
(A) (A) 3300 6600 11 000 33000 I I )( [_]

I
e-m
Oil circuit 400 280
MVar

1.6
MVar

3.2
MVar

5.3
MVar

16.0
.!
breakers 800 560 3.2 6.4 10.6 320 _ HS?voltage capacrtor
1200 840 4.8 9.6 16.0
1600 1120 6.4 12.8 21.3
---~~-

Vacuum 300 210 1 .2 2.4

contactors 400 280 1.6 3.2 53

No res 1 Capac1tor based on standard derat1r1g factor of 0 7 2. Capac:1tive current rat1ngs for other types of
sNitchgear could be to abpve but the rnanufacturers ad,Jice should be sought

supply. Although the cost per kvar for the hi.gh-voltage capacitor would be less
than for low voltage, the cost of switchgear even for a single capacitor would be
prohibitive, apart from inflexibility of control. (See Table 7.1). Setting aside any 6-15 kV
objections from the supply authority concerning additional high-voltage Motor correction

switchgear for the capacitor, connection on the high-voltage side would not
relieve the distribution transformer of kVA load, which is a powerful 380-440 v
8
advantage in favour of connecting capacitors on the low-voltage side,
especially if load extensions are contemplated.
Position (2) shows capacitors connected at the main low-voltage bus bars, a
lJ--m---~ c

logical position if the electrical load is supplied entirely at low voltage. On the
.I assumption that the disposition of load requires sub-distribution boards 0

~
Ji 111~ within the factory, local circumstances may favour connection of capacitors of
I-~~~
a rating compatible with the distribution-point load, at position (3), which will
relieve cable loading to the point of conhection and reduce copper losses.
,,,j! Position (4) shows capacitors connected to induction motors of reasonably
i'l large horsepower which form a base load or are an essential constituent of
peak-load conditions.
If automatic control is required for the line capacitors connected at
positions (2) and (3), and there are no serious cable loading problems, savings
in both capital and installation costs would be achieved by siting all the line
capacitors at position (2). If the factory does not operate under continuous
load conditions the Joss of saving on copper losses would not normally be
significant.
If certain motors could be connected individually, then the total capacitance
required at position (2) would be reduced, possibly decreasing the number of
control stages required and thus reducing the capital cost.
HIGH-VOLTAGE SUPPLIES WITH HIGH-VOLTAGE
DISTRIBUTION
For larger factories with high-voltage supplies, the distribution of load over a
comparatively wide area will usually require the main distribution to be at
Figure 7.3 Schematic diagram of layout for a larger-size factory with high-voltage supply
and high-voltage distribution, snowing possible location of capacitors. A, B, C, 0 are
distribution substations with A showing detail typical of the others
high voltage, say 6 to 15 kV, notwithstanding the fact that most, if not all, of
the load is supplied at 380 to 440 V. Figure 7.3 shows a schematic diagram of a
factory with four distribution substations fed from a high-voltage ring main
and it is assumed that the factory works five days per week on a 60 to SO-hour
basis. Hence the line capacitors will require automatic control.
Once again, there are four positions where capacitors may be connected.
Although the total load wili be greater than for a factory with a high-voltage
supply and low-voltage distribution, as discussed in the previous section,
flexibility of capacitor control is essential. Therefore, capacitors connected at
position (1) would not be an economical proposition, especially as now four
transformers would not be relieved of kVA load. Furthermore, with a more
extensive distribution network, savings in copper losses in both cables and
transformers, resulting from capacitors connected on the low-voltage side,
would become more significant. The comments made in the previous section
concerning capacitors connected at positions (2), (3) and (4) would still apply.
 140 Capacitor location and installation
High-voltage supplies wtth continuous-process loads 141

To determine the capacitor requirements for such a scheme, load anct

power-factor tests would need to be taken, not only at the main metering Poi 7.f shows a simple schematic diagram of the electrical distribution in such a
to detetmine total requirements, but also at each substation to determine locn;
iant. Once again, capacitors may be sited at locations (2), (3), (4) and (5), and
;rguments for and aga~n~t these locations have ~een developed sufficient!~ in
requirements. As automatic ~ontrol will be necessary, it will be found that loc:]
r~vious sections. In thts mstance, however, locatton (2) offers a further optwn,
control at each substatton ts far more sattsfactory than attempting overall
;hat of providing high-voltage capacitors for the power-factor improvement of
control from the main supply. The cost of remote-control wiring alone would
be prohibitive, and would far outweigh the extra cost of four separate relays. loads fed direct at high voltage for which there is really no practical alternative
since high-voltage loads very often form a significant contribution to the total
load.
ITEMS OF LOAD FED DIRECT AT HIGH VOLTAGE The schematic diagram shows the factory supplied at 30 to 36 k V while the
In many large industrial plants with high-voltage distribution, some of the main distribution is at 6 to 15 kV. If a high proportion of the low-voltage
load is supplied direct while the remainder is supplied at low voltage. Figure load, assuming this to be of significant magnitude, operates for only 40 to 60
hours per week, the low-voltage capacitors will require automatic control.
r----- Incoming supply This lessens the possibility of connecting capacitors at location (6), i.e. on the
main incoming 30 to 36 kV bus bars, as control at this point would be inflexible
---+--t---~--+- 30-36 kV quite apart from the fact that the factory distribution transformers would not
be relieved of any load and the cost of 30 to 36 kV switchgear is so expensive as
to render connection of capacitors at this location quite uneconomical.
Location (1) is referred to in the next Section.
The load which is connected direct at high voltage rr:ay cor.sist of large
---~---~---~-~~--+-~--~---~-----r6-15kV horsepower induction motors, or arc furnaces, or a.c./d.c. converter equipment
for the supply of rolling mills or electro-chemical processes. Such items of load
usually operate continuously and therefore high-voltage capacitors, either
I: connected integrally or with manual control, may be employed for power-
,_,J,~ .:<:1
. ~.~r.
' 0 factor improvement without causing operational problems. Alternatively, and
1 :ari h!::;~i
1
0 -'
where operational requirements permit, it may be possible to provide a fixed,
manually-switched capacitor bank connected to the 6 to 15 kV busbars
li'
,;~li which would reduce installation costs, and possibly capital costs, due to
)I savings on switchgear. This aspect will be dealt with in the next section.

c
380-440 v HIGH-VOLTAGE SUPPLIES WITH CONTINUOUS-PROCESS
LOADS

01 Industrial plants which operate manufacturing processes of a continuous

Motor
correction 0 nature, seven days a week, usually impose reasonably steady loads on the
electrical system. Typical loads of this nature include
(1) Oil refineries,
(2) Chemical and petrochemical installations,
D 0 (3) Electrochemical processes.
Loads of a more fluctuating nature, such as metal-rolling mills or multi-arc
6-15 kV furnace installations may also be included, as they impose continuous average
Figure 7.4 Schematic diagram of layout for a large factory with high-voltage distribution load conditions on the system. In magnitude, these loads may vary from
and loads fed direct at high voltage and low voltage. A B, C, 0 are distribution
substations with A showing detail typical of the others 10 !viVA to upwards of 500 MVA and are usually supplied at voltages no
lower than 30 to 36 kV. For the very large loads associated with certain
 142 Capacitor location and installation
electroheat and electrochemical installations, incoming supply voltages may
be of the order of 200 to 300 k V, stepped down to 60 to 66 k V or 30 to 36 k y
with secondary high-voltage distribution at 6 to 15 kY. Much of the plant will
be connected direct to the primary or secondary high-voltage distribution
systems, apart from low-voltage auxiliary loads which are also of a continuous
nature. Under these conditions, provided that there are no special distribution
or operational problems, satisfactory power-factor improvement could be
provided by a single high-voltage capacitor bank, with manual control
permanently left in circuit. The cost of switchgear would be minimised and th~
cost per kvar would be low, as also would be the cost of installation; see Figure
7.4, location (1). Capacitors would not then be required at other locations.
Consumers with large, steady and continuous loads can often negotiate
special tariff agreements with the electricity authority. For operational
reasons, power factors 'of the order of 0.85 to 0.9 lagging are very often
acceptable for avoidance of a penalty. Under such conditions, with a fixed
capacitor bank, the load might drop to as low as 40% of its peak value before
switching was necessary, and this hardly justifies installation of automatic
control for the capacitor bank, bearing in mind the normally continuous
nature of the load.
Conclusions
The industrial electrical distribution systems reviewed are typical examples
J.i i1'i:~11
j. only. In practice there are always exceptions to the norm demanding special
I 1 ,_~!~
attention. Generally, however, the following conclusions are valid:
(1) Factories not operating continuously, and which may be supplied at high
1J'i !:.;,
voltage but with low-voltage load, should employ low-voltage capacitors
\,1
for power-factor improvement. Low-voltage switchgear is much cheaper
than high-voltage gear and obviously is available with much lower ratings
which enable relatively small capacitor steps (100 kvar and below) to be
employed for automatically-controlled capacitors. This ensures flexibility
of operation without excessive switchgear costs.
(2) High-voltage capacitors should be employed for power-factor improve-
ment of all loads supplied directly from the high-voltage supply, e.g. large
induction motors, electric furnaces, a.c./d.c. converter plant, etc.
(3) Splitting total requirements for l.v. capacitors for power-factor improve-
ment between various locations may well increase capital and installation
costs. Such action can only be justified when special distribution or
operational requirements must be met or when, for example, individual
connection of suitable motors may reduce the cost of capacitor control
gear hence the total capital cost.
(4) In a factory where the low-voltage load is supplied from several
distribution substations, local automatic control at each substation is
Manually-controlled capacitor 143
generally much cheaper as well as operationally superior to an elaborate
~ethod of overall control operated from the point of incoming supply.
) To reduce initial costs, whenever practicable, switchgear for controlling
15 capacitors should be operated as closely as possible to its maximum
capacitive load rating. This condition, while easily met with low-voltage
switchgear (contactors), can only be satisfied with high-voltage switchgear
when the capacitor steps are relatively large, i.e. up to 5 Mvar. For a multi-
stage high-voltage bank with, say, 500-kvar steps, the switchgear could
cost considerably more than the capacitors.
(6) For the power-factor improvement of large continuously-operating
industrial plants with no local distribution problems or special oper-
ational requirements, the most economical scheme is one which employs a
large high-voltage capacitor bank manually-controlled by means of a
circuit-breaker connected to the line continuously. The cost per kvar is
low, switchgear operates close to its maximum capacitive rating and
installation charges are at a minimum.
Although the switching and control of capacitors is dealt with in more detail
in Chapter 8, it seems appropriate to include here some information on the
maximum ratings of capacitor banks that can be switched by high-voltage
switchgear of various standard ratings and of types which are commonly
employed for capacitor switching. This information is given in Table 7.1. The
relatively high ratings of high-voltage capacitor banks which can be switched
by the lowest available standard ratings of high-voltage switchgear, stress the
importance of using capacitor steps of the highest possible rating compatible
with satisfactory operation. This factor, in turn, has a significant influence on
the loeation of high-voltage capacitor banks.
MANUALLY-CONTROLLED CAPACITOR
In dealing with the location of capacitors little mention has been made so far of
the manually-controlled capacitor. This may be used for the power-factor
improvement of very small loads, where the factory is supplied at low-voltage
and where the electricity authority will tolerate capacitors of between 25 and
40 kvar being connected to the line permanently. The provision of automatic
control for capacitors of 25 kvar and below is not usually economical.
Industrial consumers who are supplied and metered at high voltage have to
bear the cost of transformer losses which are directly related to the number of
transformers on the system. These may be offset by connecting capacitors of
suitable rating to the main low-voltage busbars, with manual control, to be
permanently left in circuit. (Suggested ratings are given in Chapter 4 in the
Section on 'Power-factor improvement of transformers', page 96). This then is
a second example of the use of manually-controlled capacitors and it is a
particularly important application in cases where industrial consumers are
r

144 Capacitor location and Installation

Installation of power capacitors 145

penalised on an average power-factor tariff clause. This application is n
necessarily limited to low-voltage capacitors but may also be used wheot
secondary high-voltage distribution systems are in use (e.g. 3.3 kV). re
There is an increasing use of multi-stage automatically-controlled capacitor
banks housed in single enclosures with integral control gear; for both low.
voltage and high-voltage applications. The inclusion of a manually-controlled
capacitor section in such an assembly usually presents no problems and saves
space.
INSTALLATION OF POWER CAPACITORS
Low-voltage capacitors
The installation of low-voltage power capacitors does not usually present any
problems and the wiring-up of the equipment is well within the scope of the
average electrical contractor or the works' electrical department. No special
foundations are required and because of the minimum maintenance require-
ments of the capacitors the units may be mounted, where circumstances
permit, on walls or on stanchions, above floor level, thus saving valuable
space. The advent of the dry, metallised-film capacitor unit has resulted in
lighter and more compact capacitor assemblies, which tend to make such
installation even easier. However, capacitors designed for use indoors should
i ,..
always be installed in clean, dry, well-ventilated positions. Where very dusty
conditions prevail (e.g. in flour mills) special housings may be required, unless
:~ l,f!l~i the units can be sited in a cleaner zone, such as a substation.
I , 1r
,a,."l" ~
Temperature conditions
'If!
)
1~; Because both impregnated-paper and mixed-dielectric (paper/film) capacitors
are sensitive to ambient temperature it is essential, to ensure long life, that they
be installed in cool, well-ventilated positions. All national and international
specifications such as BS 1650 and IEC 70 contain specific recommendations
concerning the maximum ambient temperatures in which capacitors should
operate in the various climatic zones, and these are given in Table 7.2.
Because of their much-reduced losses compared with impregnated-paper
capacitors, mixed-dielectric capa~itors will usually operate i~ tropical con-
ditions without a reductton of thelf temperature ratmg, but wtll requtre some
daating for operations in super-tropical conditions. All-film dielectric
capacitors, however, because of even lower losses, do not require de-rating
c:ven for super-tropical conditions.
De-rating of power capacitors is, of course, effected by increasing the
dielectric thickness above that which is normally acceptable for a given
operating voltage. This reduces the kvar rating per unit volume, and hence the
total watts loss which in turn reduces the operating temperature of the
dielectric, thus enabling the capacitor to operate in a higher ambient
temperature without exceeding the maximum permissible dielectric operating
temperature.
All power capacitor dielectric systems, even low-loss ones, are sensitive to
excessive ambient temperatures in some degree, and sites where there is no air
circulation or where capacitors would be subject to sunlight through glass
must be avoided. This applies equally to outdoor capacitors sited in sheltered
locations with south-facing aspects.
Voltage variations
It is P.ssumed that when the power-factor survey was carried out any abnormal
voltage conditions on the electrical system to which the capacitors would he
connected would have been noted and that due allowance will have been made
in the capacitor design. It is not always possible to detect consistent over-
voltages as the conditions on the supply authorities' mains may have altered
between the times of survey and installation of the capacitors. However, if
under the worst ~onditions the increase in voltage is less than 10% above the
nominal value then there should be no problem. This also applies to capacitors
which may be connected continuously to the supply, especially if the factory is
fed by several miles of overhead power line. The increase in voltage above
nominal value during normal-load periods will be amplified at light-load
periods and may exceed, say, 10% above nominal value, which is the maximum
near-continuous over-voltage permitted in most power-capacitor specifi-
cations. In this case, some adjustment of transformer secondary winding
tappings may be necessary.

Low-voltage control gear

Table 7.2 Recommended maximum ambient temperatures for capacitors operat-
ing in various climatic zones Capacitor control gear is dealt with in greater detail in Chapter 8, but because
de-rating of control gear is a necessity when installing capacitors, no excuse is
C!J!naric Max1mum ambient A ve1age ambien1
zone
Average ambiem made for anticipating the information, albeit out of context. In the case of
over 7 hour over 24 h over 7 year
(C) (C) automatically-controlled low-voltage capacitor banks, the control gear is
--
(C)
usually supplied by the capacitor manufacturer and the necessary de-rating
Temperature 40 30
Tropical
20 factors will have been applied. Nevertheless, this is not always true,
45 40 30
Super-tropical 50 45 particularly for smaller installations, and in any event, for multi-stage
35
automatically-controlled capacitor banks the installer is usually called upon
 T
I
146 Capacitor location and installation
to supply a fused isolator between the point of low-voltage connection and the
capacitor bank.
Recommended de-rating factors are given below:
Minimum rating of contactor =nominal capacitor current x 1.25
Minimum rating of I-IRC line fuse =nominal capacitor current x 1.5
Minimum rating of fused isolator =nominal capacitor current x 1.5
Minimum rating of fused isolator fuses controlling capacitor bank
=total nominal capacitor current x 1.25
The de-rating factor for fuses and fused isolators controlling individual
capacitors (i.e. 1.5) takes into account the effect of the high inrush currents
associated with the switching-in of capacitors. For capacitors connected in
parallel, e.g. for multi-step automatically-controlled capacitor banks, these
may be considerably amplified.
It is now standard practice for a multi-stage capacitor bank to be connected
to the supply through an on-load fused isolator. The current rating of the
isolator contacts and fuses may be considerably greater than the line current of
a single capacitor step. Because the magnitude of a single capacitor inrush
current will have little effect on the main isolator fuses, it is permissible in such
cases to apply a de-rating factor of 1.25 to the main fused isolator. In addition
to providing close protection for the cable supplying the capacitor bank, the
fused isolator also permits down-rating of the interconnecting bus bars in the
capacitor assembly. However, if the multi-stage capacitor assembly forms an
integral part of the main low-voltage switchgear, and the capacitor units are
lJ
housed in a cubicle assembly provided by the switchgear manufacturer, then
~ ~~~~~il
the main low-voltage busbar may be extended into the capacitor cubicles
i:/i~ without the necessity.to interpose a fused isolator.
Provided that the capacitor contactor control circuits do not require a
"I,, phase/neutral supply, a three-core cable may be used to connect the capacitor
!I
assembly and there is no necessity for the connections to be phased out. For an
integral assembly, where all the connections are made by the manufacturer or
supplier, the only additional connections required will be a twin cable from an
external current transformer to the current coil of the control relay. The same
comments apply to single automatically-controlled capacitors and only a
three-core cable is required for a manually-controlled capacitor. Where
several individual capacitors are to be connected in parallel from the same
busbars, it may be possible to use a single fused isolator to control a sub-
busbar chamber to which individual capacitors may be connected, each with
its own switch fuse. Again, phasing out of connections is not necessary,
although it may be convenient to do so for capacitors connected in parallel.
De-rating of cables supplying low-voltage power capacitors
Power capacitors draw a constant load from the supply which may be
increased due to:
lnstallatton of power capacitors 147
(1) Increases in system voltage (up to 1.1 times nominal)
(2) Increases in capacitance due to permissible positive manufacturing
tolerances ( -0% to + 10%)
(3) Increases in system frequency ( 0.5%)
(4) Effects of harmonic currents in system.
Until recently the UK standard specification for power capacitors--
BS 1650:1971-specified a maximum continuous current over-loading for
low-voltage power capacitors of 15% above nominal line current. Coupled
with a maximum positive manufacturing tolerance of + 10%, the maximum
permitted line current for a low-voltage capacitor, taking into account all
causes, including harmonic currents, could be: nominal value x 1.15 x 1.1 =
+6.5% above nominal. As, in practice, the permitted capacitance to!erancc
seldom approaches 10%, and in fact averages far less ( + 3 to + 5%), a figure for
de-rating of control gear and cables of 1.25 x nominal capacitor current
continues to be realistic, notwithstanding the fact that for low-voltage dry
metallised-film capacitors, the maximum permissible current overload has
been increased from 15 to 30% above nominal line current for those capacitors
manufactured to BS 1650:1971. For other specifications, e.g. IEC Specification
70, the figure for all low-voltage power capacitors is 30~~ above nominal line
current. As a guide, Table 7.3 gives details oflow-voltage cable sizes for various
capacitor nominal line currents. The current ratings of the cables take into
account the de-rating factor of 1.25 and they are based on a maximum
permissible conductor temperature of 70oC. The cables listed are PVC-
insulated and are manufactured to UK specification BS 6346:1969. The
current ratings for cables conforming to other national and international
specifications may differ slightly from TI1ble 7.3, as indeed will cables
employing different insulation such as paper or polythene.
When connecting multi-stage automatically-controlled capacitor assem-
blies, if extensions are contemplated it is important that the main cables should
be capable of carrying the total ultimate capacitor line current.
Installing capacitors for direct connection across individual motors
To comply with local wiring regulations it may be desirable, whenever
practicable, to employ the same size cables for wiring-up the motor and
capacitor, unless the connections between the capacitor and motor starter are
very short.
After installing a capacitor directly across an induction motor, it is of the
greatest importance that the over-load settings on the motor control gear are
re-set. The new settings should be based on the reduced line current taken by
the motor/capacitor group, bearing in mind that the current in the stator
windings of the induction motor remains unaltered.
 148 Installation of power capacitors 149
Table 7.3 Cable size for power capacitors (1000-V PVC-insulated single-wire
armoured PVC-sheathed cables to BS6346:1969)
Commissioning and maintenance of low-voltage capacitors

Three-core cables
There are no special procedures to be adopted when commissioning low-
voltage manually-controlled capacitors under normal conditions except to
Copper conduclors Solid aluminium conduc!Ors Condi!ions clwck that all wiring connections arc tight. However, if capacitors are to be
of ins1alla1ion connected to the same busbars as equipment which generates harmonic
Nominal capaC/lor Cable Nom1nal capaciwr Cable
line curref71 size line currenl s1ze currents (e.g. thyristor converters) then it is essential that the line currents of
(A) (mm 2 ) (A) (rnm 2 ) the capacitors be checked to make certain that the harmonic currents accepted
------- by the capacitors are not causing unacceptable overloads. Once again, as with
Up to 15 1.5 1 One three-core
16--20 2.5 cable in air abnormal system voltage conditions, it is assumed that the fact that the
21 26 4 cleated against a capacitors will be connected to a point on the factory electrical system where
27-34 6 wall or cable
35-47 10 harmonic currents arc known to flow will have been taken into account when
tray in an ambient
48-61 16 up to 46 16 temp of 30'C. the power-factor survey was carried out, or will have been written into the
62-80 25 47-61 25 Higher ambient tender specification, so that suitable de-rating has been allowed for. (See
81 100 35 62-74 35 temps. requ1re a
101-124 50 75-88
Chapter 10 for further information on harmonic currents.)
50 de-rating factor.
125-152 70 89-116 70 2. Ratings are Commissioning of automatically-controlled capacitor banks does, how-
153--188 95 117-140 95 based on close ever, require more attention. It is important to establish that the current
189-216 120 141-164 120 excess current
217-248 150 165188
transformer for the control relay is in the correct position and that the current
150 protection.
249-284 185 189-216 185 and voltage connections to the relay establish the desired phase shift to allow
285-336 240 217-256 240 proper operation (see Chapter 8 for more detailed information). Also, it is
337-380 300 257-296 300
381-440 400
essential that the relay settings are correct to prevent 'hunting' (with
------------- ccn5~quent damage to control ge!lr <'.nd co.pacitors) :J.nd, in 11 ddition. to
guarantee complete control of the switching programme. In the UK it is
Single-core cables
normal for the capacitor manufacturer to commission the control relay and
I associated circuits as part of a free 'after-sales' service.
-~ ''.! l~! Copper conductors Solid aluminium conduc10rs Cond1tions
~
of ins1allation It is true to say that low-voltage capacitors require the minimum of
Nominal capaci1or Cable Nominal capacitor Cable
'~I line current
maintenance and, for indoor situations, all that is required is an occasional
s1ze line current SIZe
(A) (mm 2 ) (A) (mm 2 ) check on wiring connections for tightness, and the removal of any accumu-
iJ!! lation of dirt or dust. Here again, it is assumed that any abnormal atmospheric
~ From From 1 Three cables. in
341-400 240
conditions which could affect the paint finish will have been included in the
257-300 240 air. in trefoil
401-456 300 301-344 300 touching formation specifications. Low-voltage capacitors for installation outdoors will have
457-512 400 345-396 380 cleated against a specially-treated containers and gaskets, so routine maintenance should
513--576 500 397--448 480 wall or cable
577-648
include checking for effects of exposure to moisture. Occasional checks on line
630 449-504 600 tray in an ambient
649-696 BOO 505-568 740 temp. of 3UC. current and phase balance can be carried out with a clip-on ammeter. These
697-752 1000 569-632 960 Higher ambient tests should be supported by a line voltage check at the same time.
633-696 1200 temps. require a On the other hand, capacitor control gear, usually consisting either of
de-rating factor.
2. Ratings are based contactors or fused isolators, must be subjected to the same rigorous
on close excess maintenance as motor control gear. Fused isolators employed for the control
current protection of capacitors connected permanently to the supply should be operated several
F-or furth<? lilformu\lon or for c,lblcs run under condilrons clrfter<or1t frurlr above please COrlSult lEE Wrrrng Regr_rlatlons times (allowing one minute between switching operations) at regular intervals
(1 ~til Edn) or povver-cahle manufanurer
to keep contacts clean and avoid the possibility of hot-spots developing.
 l l

1 50 Capacitor location and installation Installation of power capacitors 151

High-voltage capacitors Table 7.4 Schedule of cable sizes and high-voltage capacitor ratings

Installation rvominal Stranded aluminium conductors Stranded copper conductors

area
The important factors of ambient temperature, voltage variation, harmonic Maxtmum Capacitor rating Maximum Capacitor rattng
of
conductor capacitor (Mvar) capacitor (Mvar)
currents and de-rating of control gear and cables which affect the installation (A)
(mnl 2 ) (A)
oflow-voltage capacitors apply equally to high-voltage capacitors except that (11 kV) (15 kV) (11 kV) (15 kV)
a de-rating factor of 1.4 is employed for high-voltage control gear and cables.
52 1.0 67 1.25
This takes into account a maximum permitted current overloading of 16
67 1.25 17 85 1.6 2.2
25
1.3 x nominal and a maximum permitted capacitance tolerance of + 10~~. 35 78 1.5 2.0 103 1.96 2.6
However, while the rating of low-voltage capacitor installations seldom 96 1.8 2.4 125 2.4 3.2
50
121 2.3 3.1 157 3.0 4.0
exceeds 1000 kvar at any one location and while most are indoors, not 70
146 2.7 37 189 3.6 4.9
95
requiring special foundations, the same cannot be said of high-voltage 120 171 3.25 4.4 221 4.2 5.7
capacitor installations. A significant proportion of these will be installed 192 3.65 5.0 250 4.7 6.5
150
225 4.2 5.8 285 5.4 . 7.4
outdoors, and for industrial installations the ratings may vary between 185
264 5.0 6.8 339 6.5 8.8
240
300 kvar and upwards of 20 000 kvar. Ratings much higher than this can be 300 307 5.8 8.0 385 7.3 10.0
installed on power systems (see Chapter 9) and hence, in many cases, it is 400 353 6.7 9.0 442 8.4 11.5
-~-~---

necessary to provide special foundations for high-voltage capacitor banks.

For thrt'!e-core cables run 1r1 em with <Jmb1ent
Obvious exceptions to this would be for capacitors located indoors in sheet- For further 1nformat1on or for C:Jbles run above. please consult lEE W1r1ng Regulat1ons (15th
fdn) or power-cable manufacturer
steel cubicles or tanks, not requiring special enclosures.
Whenever open-rack type capacitors are installed, indoor or outdoor,
mounted directly on the rack. Table 7.4 gives details of the maximum ratings of
because of the open live connections, electrical enclosures often employing
capacitor banks nt 1! 0nd 15 kV for various sizes of thrc:e-core PU.C SWA
steel fencing or wire mesh screens of stout construction must be provided.
cable. A de-rating factor of 1.4 has been applied.
Adequate earthed metal clearances must be provided and must take into
consideration the operation of external expulsion type fuses, if these are fitted 111~1''
High-voltage control gear
to the capacitor bank. This feature may require increased earth clearances. 'r'~'l~
The doors or gates to the enclosures must be interlocked with the capacitor The use of a de-rating factor of 1.4 for high-voltage capacitor control gear has
ti~'
switchgear and, depending upon the arrangement of the capacitor bank, already been explained. Unlike low-voltage installations, switchgear for high- """'';1
suitable earthing-down equipment may have to be provided. voltage capacitors is not always supplied by the capacitor manufacturer and "~

Open-rack type capacitor banks can vary between single racks with three-
phase connections to large numbers of single-phase racks for assembly in tiers
up to six high, the tier assemblies being arranged in groups of three to give an
overall three-phase configuration. Where overseas shipment is not involved,
the units can be transported already mounted in the racks. If, as is likely, out-
of-balance secondary protection is incorporated in the bank (see Chapter 8)
the racking will need to be erected to a set pattern laid down by the capacitor
manufacturer. This is necessary to provide accurate capacitance balance
between racks, essential to the proper operation of the capacitance unbalance-
detection equipment. Where overseas shipment demands packing in cases, the
capacitor manufacturer will be required to provide details of the capacitor
serial numbers to be mounted in each rack.
For high-voltage capacitors housed in cubicles or tanks, cable boxes andjor
glands are normally provided. For open-rack assemblies, depending upon
their size, copper rod, strip or tube connections are provided between the
cable-box position, usually on a post or gantry, and the capacitor rack
connections. The smaller, three-phase rack assemblies incorporate a cable-box
may be the subject of a separate contract. In certain cases, it may involve the
extension of existing high-voltage switchgear to accommodate the capacitor
control gear. In any event, the switchgear supplier must be aware of the fact
that the equipment will be used for switching capacitors and that a de-rating
factor must be applied. The recommendations for instrumentation and
protection for capacitor switchgear and the technical aspects of capacitor
switching are dealt with in more detail in Chapter 8.
High-voltage high-rupturing-capacity (HRC) fuse links used for capacitor
protection are also subject to a de-rating factor. Because of the greater
magnitude of high-voltage capacitor inrush currents, particularly when
parallel switching is involved, the arbitrary figure of 1.5 cannot be adopted for
high-voltage fuse links, and indeed a minimum factor of 2 is often applied.
However, depending upon the circumstances and the characteristics of
individual makes of high-voltage fuse links, the recommendations of the fuse
manufacturers should be sought. This is particularly important where HRC
fuses are an integral part of the control gear, e.g. fused isolators or vacuum
contactors.
 1 52 Capacitor location and installation
Capacitors for high-voltage motor correction
The comments already made concerning the installation of low-voltage
capacitors for individual motor correction apply equally to high-voltage
capacitors. However, high-voltage motors are often employed in driving plant
concerned with important continuous processes, and, for reasons of plant
security, it may be desirable to incorporate line fuses in high-voltage
capacitors for this duty. This provides a method of isolating the capacitor if
necessary. The rating of line fuses in the high-voltage motor contactor should
also be reviewed, especially if a number of motors fitted with capacitors are
switched in parallel from a common point of connection.
Commissioning of high-wltage capacitor banks
It is normal practice for high-voltage equipment to be pressure (i.e. over-
voltage) tested after the connections have been completed but before the
equipment is switched into service. This test can include switchgear, connect-
ing cable and capacitor. As each item will have been subjected to a full over-
voltage test after manufacture, the site tests both in magnitude and time are
usually less rigorous. However, if the cable and switchgear tests are not
acceptable to the capacitor, the connecting links in open-rack banks, or the
line fuses for cubicle or tank type capacitors, should be removed and a st:parate
test carried out on the capacitor.
For high-voltage capacitors in cubicles or tanks up to 15 kV, these are
,;
l .,,, l' usually connected in delta and fitted with external, current-limiting fuses,
~ '"''11
hence no commissioning tests for out-of-balance protection will be required.
~~ ii~,~l; :: The capacitor will normally be controlled by means of a circuit-breaker or
vacuum-contactor which should be fitted either with three ammeters or a
lf! single ammeter and three-way selector switch, so that the current may be
ji,I
measured in each phase to check phase balance, which should be within about
2% between phases. Observations of capacitor line current should be taken in
conjunction with an observation of the system voltage at the time of switching
in. It is quite likely that this could be 2 to 3% above the nominal value which
will increase the line current. (Capacitor kvarcc V2 ). Also, the permitted
positive capacitance tolerance, which might be 3 to 5% above nominal value,
will increase the line current still further. If the actual line current is greater
than the calculated value, allowing for the factors mentioned, then the
difference between the two could be due to harmonic currents in the system.
Any fluctuation observed in the capacitor line current would tend to confirm
this. Provided that the observed line current does not exceed 1.3 x nominal
value, and that the line voltage does not exceed 1.1 x nominal value, the
capacitor(s) are working within their design parameters for most specifi-
cations. However, if capacitors are being connected at a point on the electrical
system where harmonic currents are known to flow, it is prudent to carry out a
harmonic current analysis on the capacitor(s), to make certain that harmonic
Installation of power capacitors 1 53
current resonance is not occurring. It is assumed, of course, that the presence of
harmonic currents will have been allowed for in the capacitor specifications.
If the capacitor bank is provided with close-overcurrent protection as
rt:commcnded in Chapter 8, to arrive at a suitable setting for the relay both the
maximum permitted current overload factor (1.3) and the positive capacitance
tokrance must be taken into account. For example, based on information
from the capacitor manufacturer, if the capacitance tolerance is + 5%, then the
maximum permissible overload current would be:
Nominal (nameplate) line current x 1.05 x 1.3 = 1.365IL
The relay setting should be made accordingly.
If the control gear is fitted with a five-minute time delay relay, this should be
checked by switching out the capacitor and observing the time interval before
rcconnection is possible.
If automatic control is provided, the control relay should be checked in
accordance with the procedure laid down for low-voltage capacitors, except
that there should be a five-minute delay between reconnection of the capacitor
after a previous disconnection in the automatic mode. If the capacitor is
controlled by a circuit-breaker, it will have been necessary to interpose
additional relays between the capacitor control relay and the circuit-breaker
closing and tripping circuits.
So far, commissioning procedures for high-voltage capacitors have covered
assemblies in cubicles, tanks or single three-phase open racks. For open-rack
type capacitors which are assembled on site by contractors and which may
consist of three, six, twelve or more open racks, fitted with capacitance out-of-
balance detection equipment, additional procedures are necessary before the
bank can be switched in.
All capacitor bushings and rack insulators should be checked to make sure
that they have not been damaged during erection, and external capacitor unit
fuses, if fitted, should also be checked. The capacitance of each capacitor rack
should be measured and a low-voltage test (220 to 240 V) applied which will
reveal any obvious short circuits.
After completing all capacitor connections and the switching-in procedures
above, checks should be carried out on the capacitance out-of-balance
secondary protection equipment. This can be done by removing a capacitor
unit fuse from one phase to create an out-of-balance situation. Normally,
removal of one fuse will create an alarm situation. A further switching
operation should be carried out, this time with two fuses in the same phase
disconnected. This situation will normally create a circuit-breaker trip
situation. However, the number of units that need to be disconnected to create
an alarm or trip situation does depend upon the number of units in the
capacitor bank or subsection. For internally-fused capacitors, it will of course
be necessary to remove the connections to the actual capacitor units. After
restoring the capacitor connections to normal, the capacitor bank should then
be ready for service.
 154 Capacitor location and installation
Obviously, only general suggestions may be made as to the content of th
commissioning procedure, but other procedures may be required dependi e
upon the design of the capacitor bank, and local requirements. ng
Maintenance
High-voltage capacitor units require the m1mmum of maintenance and
generally can be regarded as equipment of high reliability. The complete
installation however, which will include control gear, should be submitted to
regular maintenance in accordance with the standard works or power-system
programme. Routine maintenance of the control gear is essential.
Fairly regular checks of capacitor line current, and more importantly phase
balance and line voltage, will indicate whether or not the capacitor bank is in a
healthy condition. This is a useful procedure for capacitor banks of up to
about 15 kV, enclosed in cubicles, tanks or single, three-phase open-rack
assemblies. For delta-connected capacitor banks, where maintenance checks
reveal out-of-balance current, the capacitor can continue in service until
inspection is possible. For capacitors enclosed in natural air cooled cubicles, it
may be desirable, say on an annual basis, to open up the cubicle and remove
any accumulation of dust or dirt and check all connections.
For large capacitor banks of up to 15 kVand for all capacitor banks above
this voltage it is likely that the construction will be of the operr-rack type, with
multi-rack assemblies connected in star and provided with one or more
sections of capacitance out-of-balance detection equipment. Loss of capacit-
':--,: 11
ance in any section initiates an alarm or trip operation. In one sense this may
I, .'.;jl,g ,'j
be looked upon as a reminder that maintenance is required.
I For externally-fused capacitor units, the construction of the fuse link
enables fuse operations to be detected quickly by visual inspection. In cases of
bank disconnection, it is possible to restore the capacitor bank to service
I
quickly with slightly reduced output, by disconnecting capacitors in other
phases to restore capacitance balance. This may not be so easy with internally-
fused units, and with banks of this construction regular checks of capacitance
balance, using a capacitance test bridge, are desirable as part of the
maintenance programme.
At pre-determined intervals, for open-rack type capacitors, it is desirable to
clean down capacitor unit and rack insulators and to check for any mechanical
damage.
Large outdoor capacitor banks comprising units with painted cases will
require repainting at intervals. Although more expensive in first cost, the
provision of units with stainless-steel cases ensures savings in maintenance
costs in the long term.
8
Control gear and protection for
power capacitors
LOW-VOLTAGE CAPACITORS
Where it is necessary to provide manual control for capacitors it is usual to
employ an on-load air-break isolating switch, in which case it is desirable to
incorporate high-rupturing-capacity (HRC) fuses within the capacitor as-
sembly or triple-pole switches or switch fuses, according to the manufacturer's
standard designs.
Power capacitors present a continuous current loading to the electric
supply which can increase due to upward excursions of the system voltage at
certain periods and also to the positive capacitance manufacturing tolerances
of up to 10% permitted by most national and international specifications
(BS 1650, IEC 70, etc.). In addition, the capacitor line current may be increased
further above the nominal value due to absorption of harmonic currents by the
capacitor. If full tolerance is allowed for and based on 15% permitted overload
on nominal line current, the capacitor line current may actually be increased
by 26.5%. Many specifications, including IEC 70, permit 30% current
overloading above nominal, but the fact that po~tive manufacturing capacit-
ances seldom exceed 5%, and for low-voltage capacitors harmonic absorption
is generally less than for high-voltage capacitors, a multiplying factor for de-
rating purposes of 1.25 multiplied by the nominal line current is generally
acceptable for the isolator itself.
There is, however, an additional factor to be taken into account and this is
the high current experienced when switching a capacitor, particularly when it
is being parallelled with existing capacitors. For this reason, to prevent
spurious operation, HRC fuses for low-voltage capacitors should be de-rated
to 67% of their nominal rating, i.e. the nominal capacitor line current should be
multiplied by 1.5 to obtain the correct size of switch fuse. These de-rating
factors have been well proven in practice over the past 40 years or so.
It is seldom that capacitors of 40 kvar and above are manually controlled
but, if circumstances permit, air-break switch fuses can be used to control
capacitors of 100 kvar and above.
AIR-BREAK CONTACTORS
Most low-voltage capacitors of 40 kvar and above are automatically
1 55
 156 Control gear and protection for capacitors l_ine fusing 157

controlled and for this pt:rpose it is .normal to t:sc triplc-poh; air-or-c&I . rient which flows at the time of dielectric breakdown burns away a
contactors for swJtchmg 111 conJunctwn With smtable relays whi h fi1lmth~ ..ellrc millimdres of the metal electrode around the fault and leaves a
f.:\\' sqlll . I . h. h . I
described later in this Chapter. c . ortion of damaged dte ectnc w 1c 1s no onger under stress. Hence the
s.nMI ~cHS itself. and the total rating of the capacitor is virtually unaffected.
1
To meet the exacting demands associated with the switchinQ of
fault'- , . the's'>' self- hea I.mg actwns . are usua II y so msJgm
. . .f.1cant as not to
with switch fuses, it is necessary to de-rate contactors and. : 1s is usua) B~ll I SL ~ ~

multiply the thermal rating by a factor of 0.8 to arrive at the rna:( ' 10 ,. c.' .10 ,. disturbance within the capacitor, protection in the form of an
1 .;rc.llc . . . II .
se would requ1re a ratmg so sma as to be unable to withstand the
capacitive current loading of the contactor. This allows for the ; "'.:. c\<:Rl(n I fl 1- .
0
increase of 25% above nominal value of the capacitor line cu rrcnt. SSt . al inrush current. On the other hand an element fuse of the usual ratmg
The block contactor, with its advantages of reduced volume for a . Mnnht not be sufficiently sensitive to deal with multiple self-healing incidents
.
ratmg an
d h" h .. . h" rf
1g er repelltlve s~Jtc 1~g pe orma~ce, has supplanted the'
gl\IQI . m~
1\hich could nccur 1f the capaCitor
was su b.Je~te d to external overload. Such
clapper ty~e contactor f~r ca~acJ~o.r sw1tchmg notwithstanding initial difficuJ. ltipk operations m the case of dry metal!Jsed film generate hydrocarbon
mu f h. h I
~ascs and the builc~-up o pressure w1t 1n t : e emen~ con:amer would seem to
ties expenenced w1th freezmg-m of contacts on block contactors wh
employed for capacitor switching duty .. However, suitable modifications~ demand the usc o! some pressu.re-sensJtJVe f::ul-safe dev1ce to disconnect the
contacts overcame this difficulty and many reliable types of block contact~ raultY ckmcnt. Various methods have been adopted to provide this facility.
are now available; some of these incorporate additional discharge devices (o Fiqu~c s. 1 shl1WS intern:tl connections of a delta-connected impregn:lted-
the capacitor to reduce the rig ours of parallel switching. Block contactors ha~ ra.pcr didcctric capacitor with individually-fused elements.
now m~de possible extremely compact . totally-enclosed. multi-stage
automatically-controlled assemblies but capac1tor steps seldom. 1f ever, excet(j L,
L2 L3
100 kvar per contactor and may be as low as 10 kvar.
To provide adequate short-circuit protection, contactors must be used in
conjunction with HRC fuses which are subject to a de-rating factor of l.S.
With proper selection of contactors, the inrush currents associated wilh .
parallel switching of capacitors cause no problems in low-voltage applicationi
J lilj
and this is true also for switchgear re-striking.
-~~~ ,~:~lllii I 1!

~i UNIT Fl)SING

1J! Most of the capacitors connected to low-voltage electrical systems are

~:. purposes of power-factor correction and are of the three-phase type,
connected in delta. For capacitors employing an impregnated paper dielectnc,
the elements consist of high-quality paper interleaved with aluminium foils a('
electrodes, and each element is provided with its individual fuse, usually ofth(
'buried' type. A number of elements are connected in parallel across a pair of: Figure 8.1 Diagram of connections of a low-
phases, and therefore in the unlikely event of element failure, the fuse operates' voltage, three- phase, delta-connected
in a positive fashion, leaving the rest of the capacitor in a healthy state. Thf capacitor with internally-fused elements
fuse operation is made more positive by the fact that the healthy element$''
discharge into the fault, thus preventing a prolongation of the fuse operatioa"
and a consequent build-up of gas pressure within the capacitor container. Thif.
method has proved very effective over the past 50 years. . LINE FUSING
However, improvements in metallisation techniques and the development
of plastics film have produced reliable low-voltage capacitors using either One or more capacitor units may be assembled in a suitable housing to
provide a capacitor of desired rating for connection to a three-phase supply.
metallised paper or dry (unimpregnated) metallised film. One of the principal ..
advantages of metallised film or paper dielectrics is their 'self-heali~i
Depending upon whether control is to be manual or automatic, the capacitor
Will be controlled either by a switch fuse or air-break contactor. Although each
property, whereby in the event of deterioration within the element, the fault IS,
of the capacitor units will be intemally fused this will not provide protection
self-clearing. Because of the extremely thin metal deposition on the paper or
 158 Control gear and protection for capac1tors
against a fault in the main internal connections of the capacitor or against a
breakdown in the case insulation of the capacitor, however unlikely that ma
be. Therefore, to provide comprehensive protection three HRC line fuses mu~
be provided. In the case of capacitors controlled by air-break contactors, the
line fuses also provide protection against any faults which may develop in the
contactor itself.
Reference has been made previously to the necessity for de-rating control
gear for use with capacitors and this also applies to HRC line fuses. For low-
voltage capacitors it is desirable to multiply the nominal value of the capacitor
line current by a factor of 1.5 to determine the minimum size of HRC line fuse
which should be used, but decreasing the multiplying factor by any significant
decrree will considerably sj1orten the life of the HRC fuses.
b
GROUP FUSING
When connecting a multi-stage automatically-controlled low-voltage capa-
citor bank to the supply it is normal to provide a fused outlet between the point
of connection and the capacitor assembly, and in fact this may be statutory
according to local or national regulations. In this instance, the HRC fuses
provide protection against faults in the connecting cable and the interconnect-
ing copper work in the capacitor assembly. However, the rating of the HRC
fuses is, in many cases, greater than those on the individual capacitor stage,
and the effects of the capacitor inrush current will be much less. In such cases
J ,,c>,, '"il
the de-rating factor for group fuses may be reduced to 1.25. However, the
~ :C~;kl !li
rating of the cable connecting the capacitor bank to the supply may be the
' ~:
.~!:1 deciding factor in determining the fuse de-rating.
Operating experience oflow-voltage capacitors in all parts ofthe world over
mt'l
the past 40 or 50 years has proved this combination of internal fusing and main
'~)
line fusing to be satisfactory. However, in view of the significant increase in the
connection of harmonic current-generating equipment to low-voltage sup-
plies, with the attendant possibility that the permissible maximum overload
capacity of low-voltage capacitors may be exceeded more often than at
present, it may become desirable to review the necessity of providing close
overload protection in the future.
AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF LOW-VOLTAGE CAPACITORS
General
In densely-populated, highly-industrialised countries probably the highest
proportion of electrical loads supplied by the power authorities is for factories
where the electric motors and other industrial appliances are supplied at low
voltages (between 380 and 440 V) irrespective of whether the factories are
Automatic control of low-voltage capacitors 159
supplied at high voltage (over 1000 V) or direct from the supply authorities'
!ow-voltage networks.
Such loads, which lie typically between 50 and 5000 k VA, are most generally
of a fluctuating nature in operation, eight to twelve hours daily, five days per
week. Because of this, and the widespread importance of power-factor
correction, it follows that a significant total of the capacitive load could be
connected to the electrical distribution systems at light-load periods if left
unswitched.
Supply authorities object to large blocks of capacitors being connected to
their distribution systems at light-load periods for the following reasons:
(1) Increases in system voltage normally associated with light-load con-
ditions will be amplified by the presence of capacitive loads and may
well reach values which are unacceptable to voltage-sensitive devices
which may, of necessity, be connected to the supply permanently, e.g.
tungsten and fluorescent lighting, solid-state devices, computers, etc.
(2) Increased system copper losses.
(3) Possibility of instability of generating plant and system operation
generally.
(4) Depending upon the age and/or specification of distribution transfor-
mers, increase in voltage regulation may cause over-saturation of the
transformer cores resulting in the generation of harmonic currents and
hence the possibility of harmonic resonance.
(5) In areas where domestic and industrial loads are fed from a common
sourGe of supply, voltage distortion produced by television sets and
washing machines can produce an undesirable flow of harmonic
currents in the system if capacitors in nearby factories are left in circuit.
This has been verified by trials carried out by the electricity boards in
the UK.
(6) Depending upon the structure of the electricity tariff, the type of
maximum-demand metering employed and the local circumstances in
the factory, the consumer may suffer a loss of financial saving if
capacitors are left in circuit permanently.
From the point of view of the capacitor manufacturer the increases in
voltage referred to in (1) may be such as to expose the capacitors to voltages in
excess of the maximum value recommended by the relevant standard power-
capacitor specifications (BS 1650, IEC 70, VDE 0560, etc.) which would tend
to shorten the working life of the capacitor. Furthermore, the possibility of
thermal overload due to harmonic current resonance or overloading is
increased.
In the UK most supply authorities will not allow low-voltage capacitors of
ratings greater than 25 kvar to be left in circuit permanently, therefore the need
for automatic switching is obvious.
 160 Conu-ol gear and protectior1 for capacrtors
Methods of automatic control
The need for the automatic control of capacitors having been demonstrated, it
remains to discuss the methods available. Basically a relay or other control
device usually sensitive to variations of some sort in electrical system
conditions is arranged to switch a capacitor or capacitors in and out of circuit.
and the sensing device operates contacts in the control circuit of the capacitor
contactor.
Because capacitors are, in the context of power-factor correction, money-
saving devices, relays and contactors used for automatic control must be of the
highest possible reliability, and the requirements for capacitor control relays
are summarised as follows:
(1) They must be robust to withstand industrial emironme~ts.
(2) They must be reliable in operation and hence as simple as possible in
design.
(3) They must be capable of switching either one capacitor or a number of
capacitors, in steps.
(4) They must provide positive switching operations and also flexible,
easily-adjusted settings to prevent unstable switching conditions.
(5) In the case of multi-stage relays, they must provide facilities for
extension, response to temporary loss of voltage, as well as facilities for
time-delay.
~~ I';. \J ' lljl In larger factories where high-voltage ring mains are employed for primary
~~ <li !~ii distribution, a low-voltage load may be supplied from two or more distri-
' bution substations. In such cases, it is cheaper and more effecti'>;e to provide
i~ll:i~,;
local relay control at each substation than to attempt over-riding control from
~'~ ~~) I'.: the central supply intake.
~' '"' The ratings of capacitor steps forming part of the capacitor bank may be as
low as 10 kvar or as high as 100 kvar per step.
Methods which have been employed for capacitor control are
(1) Var-sensitive relays,
(2) Current-sensitive devices,
(3) Voltage-sensitive devices,
(4) Time switches.
Var-sensitive relays without power-factor control
The var-scnsitive relay, and not the power-factor-sensitive relay, is the most
logical form of capacitor control. To attempt to maintain a constant power
factor, or a power factor within close limits, at all conditions of load from
maximum to minimum, is neither practical nor desirable, requiring as it does
different values of capacitance for each variation of load, which is constantly
Automatic control of low-voltage capacitors 161
changing. On the other hand, var-sensitive relays will initiate capacitor
switching on a more stable and positive basis, resulting in the minimum
amount of switching for a given set of conditions.
It is over 40 years since the var-sensitive relay became available in the UK,
originally as an induction-disc type sensing device, directional in operation,
which initiated contacts to drive a sequencing motor forward or in reverse,
operating mercury switches through a camshaft. The relay was housed in a
floor-standing cubicle fitted with selector switches and remote indicator
lamps. Improvements in capacitor design providing a drastic reduction in the
volume :kvar ratio and other market pressures have culminated in a relay
having a solid-state sensing device with sequence switching, all housed in a
case 144 mm square. This can be fitted as an integral part of an automatically-
controlled multi-stage capacitor/contactor assembly in one housing. See
figure 8.2.
Notwithstanding the spectacular reduction in size, positive and fkxible
relay settings are still essential. Maintenance has been improved by one UK
manufacturer who provides an easily-replaced printed-circuit board sensing
unit which can be changed with the relay in situ.
The principle of a var-sensing device is based on the fact that at unity power
factor the voltage and current connections to the relay should be 90 out of
phase. This represents a null point of the relay since no signal is generated at
unity power factor. At lagging power factors a signal proportional to EI sin 1p
(vars) is generated, which initiates switching at a pre-determined value. With
leading power factor, a negative signal is generated which causes capacitors to
be switched out.
No phase-shift device is required by this relay, the desired phase shift being
achieved by connecting the current coil to a current transformer in the red (R)
phase and the voltage coil across the yellow and blue (Y and B) phases.
The relay has an inherent loss-of-voltage feature which ensures that, after
a supply failure, the capacitors are all switched out of circuit. With con-
temporary designs of compact multi-stage capacitor assemblies, the contactor
control circuits are supplied from a central source. If a loss-of-voltage feature
was not provided, on restoration of the supply after a failure the control circuit
would be subjected to a serious surge caused by a 'pull-in' current of say 10 or
12 contactors, resulting in the operation of the control fuses and the loss of the
whole capacitor bank. This feature is also desirable for rural installations fed
from overhead lines where the capacitor inrush current might cause a local
problem. The feature is also essential if the capacitors are connected to a
system supplied by private generators. Most industrial generators are very
sensitive to leading power factor.
The relay is available in single-stage or multi-stage models, the latter having
an inherent time-delay feature. It is marketed by G EC Measurements Ltd
under the trade name NOVAR and is believed to be the only relay available
from a UK manufacturer.
The var-sensitive relay without power-factor control was developed in the
 162 Control gear a11d protectron for capacitors
'<.! 1 ql~)
ll!i1!iil
,'l~
~ '~~
L
:./
Figure 8.2 A 400 kvar automatically-controlled power-factor capacitor, 415 V, 50 Hz,
comprising four 100 kvar capacitors and a Beluk solid-state relay
UK on the basis of UK industrial electricity tariffs. When nationalisation of
the UK electricity supply industry took place in 1948, a decision was taken to
standardise industrial tariffs within three types of structure, and this was
implemented during the nineteen-fifties. In not one of the tariffs is there a
penalty for leading power factor and so there is no necessity for automatic
relays with a power-factor over-ride feature. In the UK, therefore, there is a
larger demand for single-stage relays, and, for automatically-controlled multi-
stage capacitor banks, the individual steps lying between 50 and 100 kvar, with
Automatic control of low-voltage capacitors 163
the accent on a smaller number of larger steps. This is in contrast to European
practice where although 100-kvar steps are employed, automatically-
controlled capacitor banks with steps as low as 10 kvar are not uncommon,
but the number of stages is increased.
Var-sensitive relays with overall power-factor control
Although the electricity authorities in nearly every country in Western Europe
offer industrial tariffs with some form of power-factor penalty, in contrast to
the UK, leading power factors are not tolerated and consumers are penalised
further if their electrical loads operate at leading power factors even for short
periods of the day. This applies particularly in p~uts of Holland, Belgium and
Germany. In some cases, not only are leading power factors forbidden but
attempts are made to ensure a high lagging power factor within close limits at
all conditions of load. As a consequence, capacitor loads having a large
number of small steps are common, sometimes equal in rating, sometimes
having the rating of capacitors in the ratio 1:2:2 ... or even 1:2:4:4 ....
It is a matter of conjecture what technical benefits accrue from attempting to
maintain a high lagging power factor at all loads, but it is certain that the
capacitor contactors are subject to a more onerous switching ciuty. The use of
different capacitor ratings in a multi-step bank, such as 1:2:2 or 1:2:4, does
offer economy in the initial cost, however. From the first arrangement five-step
1
switching can be achieved with only three contactors, while from the second ~
arrangement seven-step switching can be achieved with only three contactors,
but these would be of different ratings. This system can be adapted still further
,.
by using still larger numbers of steps and while the switching duty on the
I~.
contactors is still more onerous, the effects may be offset by using a recently
available pre-programmed contactor selector device to even-out switching
duty.
The twin requirements for close-step switching and prevention of leading
power factors have had a significant effect on the design of var-sensitive relays
on the Continent of Europe and it is probably true to say that German
manufacturers have had the most influence and are the most numerous.
Earlier patterns of relays were of the wall-mounting design, employing a
Ferraris motor or induction-disc arrangement responding directionally to
lagging or leading power factors. Through gearing, the motor actuated a
camshaft operating mercury switches, and a friction clutch was interposed
between the relay motor and the camshaft to prevent over-winding.
As with the British version, the null point of the relay occurs when the
current and voltage vectors are 90 out of phase at unity power factor. By using
a variable phase-shift device in the voltage coil circuit of the relay the null point
can be made to coincide with other values of lagging power factor. Typical
power-factor adjustments could be 1.0 or 0.95 or 0.9 or 0.85 lagging. The
---
164 Corrtrol gear and protection for capucitors
sensitivity of the relay can be varied by means of tappings to obtain the correct
settings.
Market pressures and the passage of time have helped to evolve more
compact relays and most manufacturers now offer solid-state sensing devices
in cases measuring 144 mm 2 , which is now an EEC and European standard.
Unlike the British designs some European relays utilise different voltage
connections. The current transformer is connected in R phase and the voltage
connections are taken from either the R and Y phases or the R phase and
neutral. These are not 'natural' connections for var-sensing, but the phase-
shifting device provides the necessary facilities. However, some European
relays do employ the natural var-sensing connections, i.e. the current
transformer (CT) in the R phase, voltage connections from theY and B phases.
To allow for switching capacitor steps with rating ratios of 1:2:2 ... and
1:2:4 ... specially-profiled cams arc necessary, and wide variations are
possible if specified at the time of ordering.
To ensure that correct connections are made to the relays the use of a phase-
rotation indicator is recommended.
Relay settings
Having established correct connections to the current and voltage coils of the
relay it is important to check that the current transformer is in the correct
1.:.,,
position. This must be sited in the main incoming supply to the factory low-
i:~u
,.~1
voltage switchboard or in a distribution sub.station where it links both the
J:1i} total load and the capacitor load.
It is of vital importance that the correct relay settings be calculated and set.
[~(!),!''
l,, ',1
If this is not done, the relay will either not switch in the capacitors at all or will
cause the capacitor to 'hunt', i.e. switch in and out continuously. Hunting for
prolonged periods can seriously damage both capacitors and contactors and
may cause system disturbances in rural areas.
Whether the relays are of British or European design the setting principle is
broadly the same, i.e. the capacitor rating per step is expressed as a percentage
or ratio of the total kvar capability of the relay. Hence to ensure correct
settings, the current transformer (CT) ratio must be known.
Depending upon the arrangements or layout of the distribution substation,
it is necessary sometimes to summate the currents of two, three or even four
low-voltage supplies to obtain satisfactory overall control of the capacitor
switching. Suitable current summation transformers are available as standard
items but it is desirable that the current transformers in the supplies to be
summated are of the same ratio, if standard current summators are to be
employed.
The effect of summating currents is to increase the total CT ratio, for
example if three supplies each having 1000:5 CT ratios are to be summated,
AutomGtic control of low-voltage capacitors 165
the effective CT ratio for the calculation of the relay setting will be 3000:5. If it
is necessary to summate incoming supply currents, special attention must be
paid to the size of the capacitor steps employed to ensure that the setting
obtained is not below the minimum setting of the relay.
Where only two supplies are to be summated, this difficulty may be
o\'crcome by connecting the two CT in parallel to the relay current coil, and
even if this procedure produces a total secondary current in excess of five
amperes most relays having a five-ampere current coil will accept currents up
to ten amperes. Taking 1000:5 CT again as an example, with parallel
connection the effective CT ratio becomes 2000:10 or 1000:5, so there is no
Joss of sensitivity in the relay.
Most capacitor control relays may be energised from a CT on the high-
voltage side of the distribution transformer and the voltage ratio must then be
introduced into the setting calculation, but as this will usually result in a
setting below the minimum sensitivity of the relay, it is therefore not
recommended.
When relay settings are below the minimum values for any particular relay,
this may be overcome either by increasing the size of each capacitor step (i.e. by
using a smaller number of larger capacitor steps) or by providing additional
auxiliary contacts on the capacitor contactor such that the relay switch closes
both contactors in short sequence. For example, two 75-kvar capacitors could
be connected to one relay stage to give an effective switching of 150 kvar.
In preparing specifications for large automatically-controlled low-voltage
capacitor installations which involve current summation of several electrical
supplies which could affect the sensitivity of control relays, it is of vital
importance to consider relay settings at the same time. Figure 8.3 shows
typical connections for var-sensitive relays.
Current-sensitive relays
Current-sensitive relays may be employed for capacitor switching, and indeed
they have been used successfully by electrical utilities for switching capacitors
on their own systems in several areas where load patterns and other
circumstances permitted.
However, for low-voltage industrial installations their use is limited to small
installations for switching single capacitors. Where the rating is relatively
small, say 25 to 30 kvar, the cost of a var-sensitive relay would be too high in
proportion to the cost of the capacitor and a current relay could provide an
economic advantage.
For successful operation there should be a marked gap between the values
of'pull-in' and 'drop-out' current and this tends to encourage a leading power
factor at light load and a low power factor for a longer period than desirable
with a rising load. This Jack of power-factor control could offer a serious
disadvantage in certain tariff areas.
 166 Control gear and protection for capacitors Automatic control of low-voltage capacitors 167

sited underground in collieries remote from supervision, but where the load
Incoming pattern is predictable. For fluctuating loads, successful operation would
lowvoltage supply
I depend upon the use of a time-delay relay suitably set to prevent the capacitor

~~
being subjected to excessive switching operations. It would also imply the
(a)
acceptability of a leading power factor for short periods.
The position of the current transformer is of vital importance for the correct
oad
c operation of the current relay. For current control the relay CT must be

Relay I ~T Capacitor
connected to the load side of the capacitors, otherwise the reduction in line
current up to the point of connection of the capacitor might cause problems
with settings.

Time-switch control
Incoming
lowvoltage supply
As with current control relays, time switches may be employed for switching in
and out of a single capacitor. This is probably the least flexible form of
(b) automatic control and probably also the least expensive.
Loarl
It could be applied only to small factories with regular and predictable load
patterns, and where overall power-factor control was not mandatory, e.g. in
the UK and in other countries where the tariffs are based on UK practice.
Relay Mcde;-n time switches are reliabie in operation and can offer a variety of
programmes at relatively low prices.

l':''d '~l:
~i .~n 1 1 1 1 ~~
Automatic control practice in the USA
Incoming
~~ ';fJ!; highvoltage supply
If industrial power-factor correction is regarded in a wider sense as a reactive
fi ,, ! power generator, this may help in explaining the American and, to a somewhat
;I ;~,, (c) lesser extent the Canadian, practice in this matter.
Load
Electrical systems in the USA have tended to develop as independent
utilities rather than as tightly-integrated interconnected 'grid' systems familiar
to the UK and Western Europe. Long radial high-voltage transmission and
Relay distribution lines facing the problems of rapidly increasing industrial loads
demanded reactive power generation by the utilities themselves to reduce
Figure 8.3 Typical connections for var-sensitive relays for (a) low-voltage control,
voltage drop and permit increased MW transmission. Consequently, shunt
(b) low-voltage control with phase-shift in volt coil, and (c) high-voltage control capacitor loads, often of large M var rating, were connected at the ends of long
transmission and distribution lines.
Current relays could not be employed satisfactorily for multi-stage control In addition, the connection provides a valuable bonus in the reduction of
and their application would be limited to small steady loads following a system losses, so much so that in the USA some power utilities actually
regular daily load pattern. connect small pole-mounted capacitors on low-voltage overhead distribution
They have, however, been used for certain special applications for lines. Of course, even domestic loads which include air conditioning equip-
controlling single capacitors remote from supervision where kvar fluctuations ment operate at comparatively low power factor.
could produce hunting conditions on a var-sensing device. To control these capacitor banks, var-sensing, current- and voltage-sensing
A typical example would be for underground control of single capacitors devices and even time switches arc frequently employed. If system operational
 168 Control gear and protection for capacitors
requirements demand it, var-sensing or current control may be used in
conjunction with over-riding voltage controL Similarly, for smaller in-
stallations time switch control with over-riding voltage control may be
employed.
As a consequence, there is less pressure on the consumers themselves, except
in specified circumstances, to install low-voltage automatically-controlled
capacitors. It is likely, therefore that in the field of low-voltage capacitor
control relays, development practice and progress are dictated by European
manufacturers.
It is known, however, that there are companies in the USA which offer low-
voltage power-factor correction, undertake factory surveys, and offer low-
voltage capacitors manufactured by leading capacitor manufacturers in the
USA. Their brochures make little or no reference to automatically-switched
capacitors but flexibility and inherent automatic control is achieved by
concentrating largely on individual motor correction. This is not to say that in
the future more accent will not be laid on power-factor correction by individual
consumers in the USA which will involve more automatic correction of low-
voltage capacitors and the emergence of American-designed var-sensitivc
relays.
These comments also serve to avoid any comparison in the use of current
and voltage sensitive relays and time switches for capacitor controL While not
ideally adapted for control of low-voltage industrial capacitor installations,
they do find widespread use where capacitors are connected directly to high-
'. . , 'r: voltage and low-voltage systems by the power utilities themselves.
i .~~~\'! I::~~~
rt~~
: ,,;; CONTROL GEAR FOR HIGH-VOLTAGE CAPACITORS
1,]
General
Careful selection of high-voltage control gear is essential, both for technical
and economical reasons; technical because of the problems associated with
parallel switching and the energising transients; economically because
switchgear is very expensive. Neither of these reasons creates problems with
low-voltage switchgear although similar constraints regarding de-rating are
common to both.
For the industrial applications of high voltage capacitors the economical
aspect may be highlighted by the fact that an 11 k V 400 A circuit-breaker, the
smallest rating available, is capable of switching a 5.3 Mvar capacitor bank
after allowing full de-rating. If, for example, it was required to switch a 2-Mvar
capacitor bank at 11 kV in four stages of 500 kvar, it is likely that the cost of
switchgear could outweigh the cost of capacitors.
Many industrial loads for which high-voltage capacitors are employed for
power-factor correction are of a continuous nature with limited load variation
Control gear for high-voltage capacitors 169
over 24 hours. In such circumstances, it may be possible to employ a fixed
capacitor bank, with one circuit-break~r~ thus achiev_ing a more economical
use of switchgear. In any event the m1mmum of switching steps should be
employed compatible with satisfactory operation of the factory electrical
distribution system under emergency or fault conditions.
The economical aspect of high-voltage switchgear is of far less significance
in the application of high-voltage shunt capacitor banks to extra-high-voltage
transmission lines and primary distribution lines, because the ratings of the
capacitor banks employed, say, 25 to 100 Mvar, and the comparatively few
switching operations required, ensure economical selection of switchgear.
Types of switchgear in common use which may be employed for high-
voltage capacitor control are listed below:
(1) Bulk-oil circuit-breakers,
(2) Minimum-oil circuit-breakers,
(3) Air-break circuit-breakers,
(4) SF6 circuit-breakers,
(5) Air-blast circuit-breakers,
(6) Vacuum circuit-breakers,
(7) Vacuum contactors.
These types of switchgear, some dictated by the system voltage, are
described in greater detail in The J & P Switchgear Book (Butterworths). Of
course, the type of high-voltage switchgear employed may also be influenced
by that which is already in use at a particular site or which has been adopted as
standard by the supply authority.
Whichever type of switchgear it is proposed to use, the manufacturer must
be made aware of the fact" that it is to be employed for capacitor switching and
confirm that it is suitable for this duty.
Recommended technical requirements for high-voltage switchgear for capacitor
loads
In making these recommendations it is assumed that the circuit-breaker or
contactor is suitable for withstanding all normal system requirements such as
insulation level and fault level withstand.
(1) Continuous current rating: Because of permitted pos1t1ve capacitance
tolerance, possible upward excursions of system voltage, and taking into
account the possibility of r.m.s. current increase due to harmonic currents, the
circuit-breaker or contactor must be capable of carrying continuously a
current equal to 1.43 times the nominal capacitor current calculated a',
nominal kvar and nominal voltage.
 ~
-;~-
,(,~~
1-/0 Cor1trul CJear and protection for capacitors
(2) Current breaking: The circuit-breaker or contactor must be re-strike free
when interrupting a power-frequency capacitor current of 1.2 times the
nominal power-frequency current at 1.1 times the rated voltage. The device
should have been type-tested as IEC 56 Part 4 (or equivalent) to prove this and
should have remained re-strike-free during the whole test sequence. The device
should be re-strike-free when interrupting the current of 1.43 times nominal
value. See (1) above.
(3) Current making: When a capacitor bank is energised, a large transient
inrush current flows at high frequency, an effect which is intensified when a
capacitor bank is switched in to busbars to which another capacitor bank is
already connected. The magnitude and frequency of this inrush current
flowing between capacitors is dependent on the inductance of the circuit
linking the capacitors and can be calculated if the details' of the layout,
interconnections and fault level are known. The manufacturer of the switching
device must state the maximum making-current so that the necessity or
otherwise for additional series reactance may be determined.
In addition, the switching device must be so designed that the period
between initial current-make and final contact closure is not more than one
quarter of the power frequency cycle. The transient voltage on energisin:g will
not exceed 2.2 times the normal voltage.
When these requirements have been met, bulk-oil circuit-breakers and
vacuum contactors have both been used successfully for controlling high-
:;,_..,, '~.::;
voltage capacitors of up to 11 kV, and oil and air-blast circuit-breakers of up to
!1' 11i'li 33 kV. However, it would appear that the developments in vacuum and SF6
circuit-breakers show some promise for capacitor switching from 11 kV
'1~1
upwards, without re-strike problems.
,,,..'',i'
'1"'
RE-STRIKING OF SWITCHGEAR WITH CAPACITIVE
LOADS
Re-striking of switchgear which may occur after a capacitor bank has been de-
energised can cause high voltages to appear across the capacitor dielectric,
thus causing early breakdown.
When a capacitor is disconnected from the supply the circuit is interrupted
at current zero. At this point the residual voltage across the capacitor is at the
maximum of the system value and decays slowly. One half-cycle later (i.e. 10
milliseconds on a 50-Hz supply) the voltage on the supply side is at a
maximum in the reverse direction, and the peak values of voltage appearing
across the opening switch contacts has doubled. If a re-strike occurs across the
switch contacts one half-cycle after the opening at a current zero, an over-
voltage of three times peak system voltage will appear across the capacitor and
higher voltages on subsequent re-strikes. Re-strikes which occur within one
quarter-cycle after opening cannot cause significant capacitor over-voltage.
/
Capacitor energisrng transrents 171
The design of the switchgear must be such as to inhibit re-strikes between 5
and 10 milliseconds (i.e. between one quarter- and one half-cycle) from
interruption. Normally the switchgear itself will withstand re-striking voltage
transients but capacitors will not unless they are designed to completely
uneconomical specifications.
It is of the utmost importance therefore, when switching high-voltage
capacitors, that the switchgear is designed so as to inhibit re-striking and that
manufacturers be prepared to issue a certificate stating that a particular design
of switchgear has been tested for capacitor switching and found to be re-strike-
free. There are, of course, suppliers of high-voltage switchgear who can comply
with these requirements and thus ensure satisfactory switching operations.
CAPACITOR ENERGISING TRANSIENTS
When a high-voltage capacitor bank is connected to the supply a high
transient current flows for a short period. In the case of a single capacitor bank,
the peak value of the inrush current rarely exceeds 20 times the normal r.m.s.
current of the capacitor at a frequency which may approach 1kHz. Provided
that the switchgear and fuses have been suitably de-rated, no problefl1s are
experienced.
The peak value of the inrush current for a single capacitor bank may oe
calculated from the following formula:
_ ( JShort circuit k VA)
lmax-1.15Jo 1 + C k
apac1tor var
where I 0 =nominal steady-state power-frequency peak current.
The frequency of the inrush current is given by the formula
Short circuit k VA
f=Fo
J Capacitor kvar
where F0 =power frequency.
However, when switching one or more capacitor banks in parallel with an
already energised capacitor bank, the energised bank(s) discharges energy into
the incoming capacitor bank which presents a virtual short circuit to the
energised banks. The inrush currents are limited only by the inductance of the
connecting link and switchgear, which is very low. Consequently the inrush
current and frequencies can be of an order of magnitude higher than for
switching a single bank with peak currents of up to 200 times greater than the
nominal peak values at frequencies of up to 20kHz.
The following formula may be used to calculate the transient currents which
flow when a capacitor step is switched in parallel with an already energised
capacitor bank and also of frequency fo:
 1 72 Cor1trol gear a11d protectio11 for capacitors Use of co11trol gear wrth 110 assrgned fault rating 173

very high frequency, high peak, inrush currents- a serious matter with

J
[(11-l) kvar]
I pk = 2900 - - x - - peak amperes intemally-fused capacitors. Instances have occurred, especially with double-
11 L0
wound current transformers of high inductance, where the high voltage
where 11 =number of steps induced across the secondary terminals has caused rupture of the insulating
kvar =capacitor step in kvar per phase material and destruction of the current transformers. Even if the current
L 0 =inductance between bank steps in micro henries per phase transformers themselves have not been damaged, high voltages across the
current transformer secondary terminals have caused damage to protective
The frequency of the transient (f,) =
126 v
;,--------= Hz relays. Problems such as these have been cured by installing surge-limiting
v' L 0 x kvar reactors to reduce the magnitude and frequency of the inrush currents.
Note: In these formulae L 0 is based on a system frequency of 50 Hz. For 60-
Hz systems L 0 will be correspondingly greater. RECOMMENDED INSTRUMENTS AND RELAYS FOR USE
y =rated voltage line/neutral r.m.s. WITH SWITCHGEAR CONTROLLING HIGH.-VOLTAGE
kvar =capacitor step in kvar per phase. CAPACITOR BANKS
L 0 =inductance between bank steps pH per phase.
The question of capacitor-bank protection is dealt with in more detail later in
Figure 8.4 illustrates a schematic circuit for two capacitor banks connected this Chapter but a suggested list of essential relays and instruments is given
in parallel, single-phase connection being shown for clarity. below:
(1) Three-phase over-current and earth-leakage relay with IDMT (Inverse

I 7 I
definite minimum time) features.
(2) Close current-overl.oad protection relay.
(3) Five-minute time-delay relay in the closing circuit of the circuit-breaker or

) :. , "j)

;,, .:n~::i
T +
Figure 8.4 Schematic crrcuit for a capacitor bank switched in parallel with another
already E!nergised bank
contactor to ensure switch is not re-closed within five minutes of a
previous disconnection. This lines up with the five minutes discharge time
imposed by most national and international specifications (see
Appendix A).
(4) Out-of-balance current and/or voltage relay for capacitance out-of-
! Ll~\ :'1~: .:1
balance detection .
.,
.t'. ./,.,,
~~;
Some approximate inductance values are quoted below to help in calculat-
(5) Additional interposing relays which may be required if the capacitor bank
is automatically controlled by var-sensing relay.
ing L 0 :
(6) Ammeter with three-way selector switch or one ammeter per phase to give
Overhead line connection 0.33 pH per ft per phase indication of current unbalance particularly with a delta connected bank.
Three-core cable 0.09 pH per ft per phase
The current ratings of switchgear are fairly widely stepped, e.g. 400,800 and
Characteristic inductance of
1200 amperes are typical ratings, and very often capacitor bank current ratings
block capacitor bank 1.0 pH per phase
are well below the maximum. In such cases it may be desirable to use standard
Switchgear 1.0 ~~H per phase approx.
current-transformer ratios below the maximum rating of the switchgear,
If the peak transient currents calculated exceed the maximum 'making' particularly in the instances where close current-overload protection is
current of the switchgear as defined by the manufacturers, then it will be required. If at any time the capacitor bank is extended then it may be necessary
necessary to provide surge-limiting reactors which are normally rated in ~~H to change the current transformers.
and of the air-cored design. They can usually be accommodated within the
capacitor cubicle enclosures, mounted on open type capacitor racks without
USE OF CONTROL GEAR WITH NO ASSIGNED FAULT
difficulty, or can be enclosed inside switchgear cubicles.
RATING
Side effects arising from excessive inrush current transients may cause
serious damage or inconvenience to ancillary equipment. For example, unit or In certain circumstances, to reduce expense single capacitors may be
capacitor element fuses may be caused to operate, being unable to withstand controlled by fault-making, load-breaking oil switches, especially when the
 .,
-~
1 74 Control gear and protection for capac1tors
capacitor is left in circuit permanently and switching operations arc few in
number. Additional protection may be provided by fitting high-rupturing-
capacity (HRC) fuses in the oil switch. Overall protection would, of course, be
provided by the main circuit-breaker controlling the busbars to which the
capacitor is connected. It is not recommended that such switches be used for
parallel switching of capacitors.
In the USA and Canada and other parts of the world motorised oil switches
of special design, sometimes known as 'Kyle' switches, have been used for
multi-step control of outdoor capacitor banks of the open-rack type. Such
switches have no assigned fault rating but are used in conjunction with HRC
fuses to suit a variety of control modes. Maximum voltage is of the order of
15 k V ratings of up to 400 amperes. Parallel operation is made possible by the
usc of surge-limiting resistors specially designed for this type of switch, which
is marketed by several manufacturers in the USA. The complete capacitor
bank is of course protected by a main circuit-breaker with an assigned fault
rating.
For voltages above 15 kV up to 34 kV, vacuum interrupters have been used
in a similar fashion; again, the complete bank being controlled by a fully-rated
circuit-breaker.
AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF HIGH-VOLTAGE CAPACITOR
BANKS
" Var-sensing relays for automatic control of low-voltage capacitors have been
[II
dealt with in some detail earlier in this Chapter. Such relays may be used with
1' ,,;~
"' equal facility for automatic control of high-voltage capacitors, with the
proviso that, depending upon the make of relay, it is probably necessary to
i')"
introduce an additional factor, based on the ratio of low-voltage/high-voltage
voltages (e.g. 400 to 11 000 V) when calculating the relay settings. Figure 8.3(c)
shows typical connections for var-sensing relays for high-voltage use.
Most var-sensing relays can be provided with 110 V voltage coils for direct
connection to the high-voltage supply through suitable potential transfor-
mers, in accordance with standard practice, but standard low-voltage relays
can also be employed with an interposed auto-transformer (typically 110 to
400 V).
All var-sensing relays for controlling high-voltage capacitors should be used
in conjunction with time-delay relays to prevent reclosure within five minutes
of a previous disconnection. The relay itself need not incorporate a five-minute
time-delay feature provided that it is incorporated in the circuit-breaker or
contactor used for switching the capacitor. The five-minute period complies
with the recommended allowance for high-voltage capacitors dicharge time as
laid down in national and international specifications.
Where circuit-breakers and not contactors are employed for capacitor
switching with var-sensitive control it will be necessary to provide interposing
Protection of high-voltage power capacito1s 175
relays between the capacitor control relay and the circuit-breaker closing- and
tripping-control circuits.
In certain circumstances, var-sensitive relays controlling low-voltage
capacitors have operated with the current coil connected to the current
transformer on the high voltage side of a delta/star distribution transformer,
the voltage coil of the relay being connected to the low-voltage side. Apart
from introducing problems of relay insensitivity it is necessary to compensate
for the inherent phase shift between the high-voltage and low-voltage
windings of the distribution transformer. This method of connection is not
recommended for use in controlling high-voltage capacitors unless no suitable
voltage transformers arc available.
For outdoor open-rack type or pole-mounted high-voltage capacitor banks
associated with secondary distribution lines where daily switching is on a
single-stage basis, current- or voltage-sensitive relays are often used in
conjunction with the motorised oil switches previously described. Time
switches may also be used directly or as an over-riding control in conjunction
with either voltage- or current-sensitive relays.
PROTECTION OF HIGH-VOLTAGE POWER CAPACITORS
(1 kV AND ABOVE)
In the context of this Section, protection of power capacitors relates to the
protection of a.c. power capacitors operating at mains frequency connected in
shunt to an electrical system, providing the function of power-factor
correction, improving voltage regulation or increasing the MW capacity of
high-voltage transmission and distribution lines for the same voltage re-
gulation. Capacitors fulfilling other functions may or may not be provided
with internal fusing or with external control gear, depending upon the
circumstances of their use. The protection of high-voltage series capacitors
used on power-system transmission and distribution lines is dealt with under
the Section 'Series capacitors' in Chapter 9.
General
The protection of high-voltage capacitors is more comprehensive than for
low-voltage capacitors. This is due to the fact that across the whole spectrum
of the role of high-voltage power capacitors for both industrial and power-
system applications the rating of three-phase capacitor assemblies may lie
between values below 100 kvar to above 100 000 kvar. The voltage range lies
between 1 and 500 k V and even higher.
A broad summary of the classes of protection employed for high-voltage
capacitor banks is given in Table 8.1. For larger capacitor banks all three
~ ~
~-

176 Internal-fuse operation 177

classes are employed. These classes of protection are complementary to one

~ another and are not alternatives.
6 .c _c "' c
Q) 0
0).;::::;
"'c 8 8
CL
~2
ro
.D ~ ~
;:L.
OJ
i'J -~
0
cu
.::?
FUSING OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS
:;;
ro
~2
"'~
~ gc ~3 ~ ~ m~
.c (!) c (]) " 0
5:
D.
>
~c
- 0
-~ u
u 0
=
;::; 0
u ~ u
G;

E~ ~
~-::::_ "0
~ m
Fuses are an essential part of high-voltage capacitor-bank design to provide
OlQ "'~
-;_ g
~.8
a.. u E ~ ~ -~ 6 ~ protection against the effects of unit dielectric failure. This protection must
-~ 0 Ul;: c 0 0
(/}

s function in such a way as to enable the remainder of the capacitor bank to

~ ~ 3 ECi_::
"'~ ;:: 0. Q_
~ c ~ ro
o
u.D
ro
uu v
c
i3 c;: CJ m Q) 0 continue to operate satisfactorily with the minimum disturbance to the system.
c.c cv rv o1 -~ L -~ !:S
<lJD
~ <1J "'~
E~E~~
High-voltage capacitor fusing may be achieved by either internal or external
u~~
Q) 0 - -
c (]) c
E~ E~ 2;; u 2 ()::::: methods, which are discussed under separate headings as follows.
c c Cii c 111 ox- x Cll
ro "' c
~g~2'~cn
::J
.S2 CD .S2
oc.c
u. (!)-

~ ~ g
Q) v u c cQ c c
~ G ~ :g
"'t:
c:QJ ~

Q)
~

.8
Q)
Q)
D
-~.~
~
c
c
- c
>
0~ -c
::J 8 Q)Q)Q)_
0. '- u
t: ucnu
'- .__ "(li
D.O
u
D.O
0 ()
>....
O.C!lO.c
0 (j) 0 -
INTERNAL-FUSE OPERATION
0 0 0 c 0
\.) lL l L - 1-- 1-- 1- 1-

The design of element fuses for high-voltage capacitors is subject to the same
parameters as for low-voltage capacitors. The tin/copper fuse link must be
c Q)
OJ c
0 capable of withstanding the transient inrush currents experienced by capa-
~ c ;:;
::J
u "'
0
>
(])
0 u
uo
- Q) citors at switching-in without deterioration and it must also operate positively
(])
u
c
u
c - - D.
Ql ~
when an element suffers dielectric breakdown. This condition depends upon
::::: c c 2 Ql

c
ro
ro
-"'ro w .Q ~ 0. Q) an adequate number of elements being connected in parallel with the faulty
c _o U -~ ro
U ::JU.....,
0
0 - Q)
.0
' cmurvo element so that the additional discharge current from the healthy elements
0 2Cl 0~ ~0
:e u~ ~ 9 ~ 2 ensures positive operation of the faulty element fuse.
('"''!1' ...
<!)

0 h
'lJ
32: a: ~u
IW!--
S
0
~
oO
::J
u
'
0
-
u
(])
0
>
High-voltage capacitors of up to 2 kV approximately usually have all the
fl'''r:li' c.... c c elements connected in parallel and so satisfy the condition, and indeed
<ll

' .J, fi: ~~: 0

.t:
() c
c
<1J
(!)
.9
~
u "' s
"'~
<ll
capacitors of up fo 2 kV are usually fused internally anyway. Above this
(])
5 ~c 0 <ll B 2 2 voltage, the element pack consists of elements connected in series/parallel
f;: '') "'c. -ro-roE
c c (])
~
(]) 0
<::s-"
ro ~' > > >
groups, so that the number of elements in parallel is reduced. Up to 3 kV
l~ ' "'
()
EEmc 1--jl:
"' ~
.0 u (J) 0
f- VJ m
"E 2Q_ 0.0. 0.
Q.
<!) ~

8
~
u ia; :J :J :J
approximately the capacitor pack would consist of a number of groups of two
Cl ~- u<= roD
\I?.;L (f);cL_
OJ c Ol c
VJ..:::L.
c
~~"
~"'0 - - Q)
c c ::::::
:J ::J
Eu
0 Q)
~
E
o
J: c
D. ro
.............
,.-roc
::: .D - .D - ..0
Q
O"l
c ro elements in series, connected in parallel. Figure 8.5 illustrates the internal
:;-
::J ~ ~
Eo E m E <ll connection arrangement of an internally-fused, high-voltage capacitor. In this
~~.o '+- .~ Y. u 8-~ 0 '& 0 1) 0 ill
.c: ."'."'I v 0 c Q) - 0 U-0-U-
c: co rom
(]) D. ro "'()o_ CO.CO.CO.. particular case, there is a total of 40 elements with four element groups in
.!? a ~~-...0 - ro
Ol D.~ ~ E-~ E -~ E
~ E:
~a
.c: Olro~
....0 ~
X
~ (])
X~
Cv
c
t) 0 '- ~ i3 ~ - 0 - 0 - 0
roo ro u cu u series, each group consisting of 10 elements in parallel. The provision of
__, ww. w ow 2 2 :;;; bonding wires separates each parallel group into discrete sections and these
(I)
<!)
(I)
(I)
are essential to ensure proper fuse operation.
ti"' It is obviously desirable that the number of elements in parallel (n) should be
....0 aa ""c ~ <I>
as large as is practicable, and indeed there is restriction on the minimum
>- >- > >
>
.... -s<lJ :;; ro
a;
ro ro
"' number of elements in parallel, which relates to the increase in voltage
~
Q) (])

"'E :_;;;
::J
lL a: a: ([
occurring across a parallel group of elements when one element fuse has failed.
E The reactance of the group is increased by the ratio n/(n- 1) and, assuming a
::::
(/)
.... c: cro constant current supply, the voltage across the element group rises in the same
cO ag >- v
c
proportion. In actual practice the voltage rise is somewhat less than this ratio
<!) ()
ro
:0 t:5 ~ E
0
u 0
c due to other factors. However, under the terms of most national and
'" a Q)
"'
t- (JCs_ & Ul _j
international power-capacitor specifications, the maximum permitted con-
 ~'
..
..

Internal-fuse operation 179

178 Control gear and protectron for capacrtors

rating, thus saving both space and money. The use of these larger units for
small loads is not always possible with externally-fused units and is a
particular advantage for the large numbers of relatively small banks
required in industry.
(3) As no external fusing is required per unit, space is saved and hence expense
on capacitor racking, enclosures, etc. This has made possible the
economical design of the very large single-phase capacitor banks
operating at voltages of up to 3 kV, which are required for the power-
factor correction of high-rating mains-frequency coreless induction

IIIIIIIIII fum aces.

(4) Intemally-fused capacitors may be used in confined spaces in situations
where the operational characteristics of external expulsion fuses are
unacceptable.

Iliiiiiiii Disadvantages

IIIIIIIIII1
TTTTITITTTI
(l) Internal fusing does not provide protection for major insulation, such as a
fault between the element pack and the unit case. Unusual though such
faults are, unless current limiting high-rupturing-capacity (H RC) fuses
were provided in the main connec::ti.on to !h": cap9.ci!or, ca~e :up!.!:e cft~e
capacitor unit(s) could result.
(2) The capacitance unbalance detector methods described later, and which
Figure 8.5 Diagram of internal connections of high-voltage unit type capacitor with are essential for warning of unacceptable voltage increases across the
'" '~1'1 individual element fusing parallel element/capacitor unit groups after dielectric failure has occur-
prr~
red, are more sensitive, more complicated and m9re expensive for
fill'''~'~~ tinuous over-voltage is L 1 times nominal system voltage. To ensure that a intemally-fused capacitors. This is due to the fact that because there are
.l.;.~,r

single element failure in one group is below this requirement, ten elements per
}'.:!'
parallel group is virtually essential, preferably more if possible.
I"" ,,,;:,
When it is considered that is neither practical nor economical to manufac-
ture high-voltage capacitor units with more than 40 elements, no more than
about four series groups can be considered. This limits the maximum voltage
of internally-fused units to 6 k V approximately.
The main advantages and disadvantages of internal fusing may be
summarised as:
Advantages
(1) They enable a capacitor unit to continue in service after the first dielectric
breakdown. On the smallest rated externally-fused banks dielectric failure
can result in the loss of the complete bank.
(2) The development of the mixed-dielectric (plastics/paper) high-voltage
capacitor has made possible the use of units with outputs in the order of
250 kvar (as against the maximum of 100 kvar possible with paper
dielectric units). These are obviously more economical and internal fusing
makes it possible to use a smaller number of larger units for banks of small
more elements than units in a capacitor bank of given size, the actual
capacitance unbalance when the alarm condition is approached (1.1 times
nominal voltage) is far less for an internally-fused bank than for one with
external fuses.
(3) Internally-fused capacitors give no indication of fuse operation. The only
method of detecting premature fuse operation is by individual capacitance
measurement of each up.it. This is a time-consuming procedure, especially
as it should be regarded as a regular maintenance programme.
(4) Operating experience has proved that with high-voltage capacitor banks
fast transients can cause high transient currents in a capacitor bank.
Under these conditions some, or all, of the fuses in the capacitor may
operate without any dielectric failure occurring in the capacitor units.
External fuses could be replaced easily under such conditions, but with
internally-fused capacitors, many or all of the units would need replace-
ment, a much more expensive proposition.
(5) Capacitor unbalance protection is essential for medium-sized internally-
fused capacitor banks up to 15 kV, whereas it is completely unnecessary
for externally-fused capacitors employing current-limiting HRC fuses.
 T
External-fuse operation 181
180 Control gear and protectron for capacitors
This is an important feature as it takes into account that a current-limiting
EXTERNAL-FUSE OPERATION HRC fuse normally has to be assigned to withstand the high-frequency
switching transient characteristic of the capacitors. This is of far more
Current-limiting HRC fuses significance than with low-voltage switching. For single capacitor banks, a de-
rating factor of 1.5 may be employed as for low-voltage capacitors, but when
Capacitor units for use with external fuses, whether these be of the HRC type paralld switching is involved, it is often necessary to consult the fuse
or the non-current-limiting expulsion fuse, are not subjected to any element manufacturer for recommendations.
pack design restrictions. Figure 8.6 shows the internal connection arrange- It is important to note that with delta-connected capacitor banks of ratings
ment for a single-phase, high-voltage unit type capacitor suitable for operation up to 5 Mvar, the discharge energy whic.h is caused by healthy capacitors in
at voltages of up to 15 kV approximately, using as many as ten elements in parallel discharging into the faulty unit is not significant and does not
series for higher voltages. influence H RC fuse selection.
To obtain the advantage of positive and safe fuse operation of the HRC fuse,
and still retain the essential features of transient withstand, the connection of
capacitors must be such as to ensure that capacitor failure results in. a short
circuit. Hence arrangements where the fault current is limited, as by series
connection of capacitors, must not be considered suitable.
Figure 8.7 illustrates fusing arrangements for delta-connected capacitor
banks of varying size. An additional advantage of delta-connected banks is
that failure of one capacitor unit does not impose an over-voltage on any other
section of the bank. Consequently, a capacitance unbalance detection system
is not necessary thus saving significant expense and space. The latter feature is
of particular advantage for many industrial installations since high-voltage
capacitor banks often need to be completely enclosed. Providing capacitance

xxxxxxx
unbalance detection equipment in such circumstances would be a difficult
Figure 8.6 Schematic diagram of
""'{f integral connections of high-
problem.
1'~11 voltage unit type capacitor for However, it is desirable to have indication ofHRC fuse failure, and such fuse
use with an external fuse, links are normally provided with striker pin indication.
!1 1'1'1111
'I ~w
suitable for operation up to
15 kV approximately
ij "!.fi
~:- Non-current-limiting expulsion fuses

With external fusing, breakdown of an element causes over-stressing of the
remainder of the elements in the series group which results in progressive
breakdown until final dielectric failure causes operation of the external fuse
without case rupture.
The availability of capacitor units for use up to 15 kV means that for a
greater proportion of industrial applications series connection of capacitor
units is not necessary. Hence, three-phase capacitor banks of up to 5 Mvar can
be made up of single-phase units connected in parallel directly across the
supply to give a delta configuration. Each group of units is controlled by
external HRC fuses, connected so as to disconnect a faulty unit from the
supply at the time of dielectric failure. As the unit is connected directly across
two phases the prospective power-frequency fault current is limited only by the
system impedance and is large. This ensures that the fuse will operate correctly,
notwithstanding the fact that its rating considerably exceeds its normal
current.
It has been explained that with capacitor units employing more than, say, four
elements in series, i.e. with design voltages above 6 kV, the use of external fuses
is preferable as it imposes no restrictions on the series-parallel element
groupings within the capacitor. The previous section dealt with the use of
external fuses of the current-limiting HRC pattern. This section deals with the
use of non-current-limiting expulsion fuses.
This type of fuse is cheaper than the HRC fuse and its current rating and
fusing time with power-frequency fault currents are both less than the HRC
fuse. It has an ability to withstand high-frequency energising transients but the
maximum breaking capacity is generally less than the fault level of the system
to which it is connected. Consequently the use of this type of fuse is restricted to
instances where the capacitor units are series connected in such a way that the
fault current is limited by the series connection, e.g. as with a star-connected
capacitor bank with ungrounded neutral point. However, because of the
 182 Control gear and protection for capacitors

Line
r Secondary protection- Capacitance unbalance detection

ungrounded star points is employed for most capacitor banks as these are
gc;erally at least 5 Mvar in rating.
183

fuse ~ The design of fuse incorporates an inherent indication of fuse operation.

When the fuse operates, a weighted lanyard is ejected and this hangs vertically
downwards.
Because the operation of expulsion fuses is noisy and involves the emission
"'
<. ' ) of gaseous ionised material, earth clearances are critical and capacitor banks
'v m;st be of the open-rack type. In line with general practice, such types of bank
(a) arc usually located outdoors.
Depending upon the rating and design of the expulsion fuse there is a
minimum number of capacitors which may be connected in parallel to ensure
satisfactory operation of the fuse under short-circuit conditions. This some-
Line times precludes the use of capacitor units of the maximum available rating.
fuse
However, in these circumstances, it is likely that a delta-connected bank with
HRC fuses would serve the purpose equally well.
There is also a limit to the maximum number of units which can be
connected in parallel to prevent destruction of the fuse casing, but bank
designs can easily be modified without extra expense to prevent this situation.
Notwithstanding the pros and cons of internal and external fusing, recent
developments in design of high-voltage unit capacitors have made it possible
to increase the maximum voltage at which intemal fusing can be adopted
(b)
without prejudice to the positive operation of the element fuse when
breakdown occurs. There is increasing evidence to date (1983) that in Europe
(including the UK) internally-fused, star-connected, open-rack capacitor
"'"f{'" I assemblies arc supplanting externally-fused assemblies, making it possible to
I,,. Incoming
supply take full advantage of the increased unit ratings now available (between 250
~ ,1.!11 I and 300 kvar) and thus enabling smaller and cheaper racked assemblies to be
>-'i-f,

offered.
Module I 1 Externally-fused assemblies continue to be popular US practice and for
,- . ,;;,, fuses I )< industrial applications up to 15 kV in the UK, delta-connected assemblies
I / \
I I \ I with extemal HRC fuses still offer advantages.
I I \ I
(c)
~-- --::.

Figure 8.7 Fusing arrangements for delta-connected capacitor banks of various sizes.
(a) Three-unit, high-voltage capacitor assembly with current-limiting (HRC) line fuses
for use up to 15 kV. (b) Multi-unit tank type capacitor for use up to 15 kV with current-
limiting line and unit fuses. (c) Open-rack type capacitor bank up to 5 Mvar at 15 kV,
each three-unit, three-phase module protected by three current-limiting fuses. This
method of connection may also be applied to enclosed assemblies
availability of high-voltage capacitor units with a voltage rating of up to
15 kV, series connection of capacitor units is not normally necessary at
industrial voltages up to this level, unless the rating of the bank is sufficiently
large to justify the use of an expulsion fuse on grounds of economy.
Of course, for voltages above 25 k V, then the series connection with
SECONDARY PROTECTION-CAPACITANCE UNBALANCE
DETECTION
When either external or intemal fuses are used in series-connected groups of
capacitor units or elements, it is a basic fact that operation of a fuse results in
an increased voltage being imposed upon the remaining units or elements
connected in parallel with the fuse which had operated. This is due to the
increase in reactance of the group. It is of vital importance to the life of the
capacitor units or elements that the fuse operation be detected as soon as
possible before so many fuses operate in a parallel group as to cause a voltage
rise in the group so high that cascade breakdowns occur.
Ideally, the detection system should initiate an alarm before the voltage rises
 184 Control gear and protcctior-, for capacrtors Out-of-balance current protection 185

to an unacceptable value, most often above 1.1 times the nominal design
voltage. There are two basic methods by which fuse operation and hence 'local' Ia I
voltage increase may be detected, and these are described below. The
successful operation of these methods of detection is dependent upon three-
phase capacitor banks being connected in star with an ungrounded neutral
point. Where line voltages exceed 15 kV or thereabouts, or where for reasons
dictated by design requirements, it is necessary to connect more than one
capacitor unit in series, this method of connection is virtually standard.

OUT-OF-BALANCE CURRENT PROTECTION

This method is the most often used for medium sized three-phase capacitor
banks connected in star and operating with an ungrounded neutral. The bank
must be so designed to give two star-connected assemblies in parallel, a
connection being provided between the two star points. A typical diagram of
connections is shown in Figure 8.8(a). For balanced conditions, i.e. with all
fuses intact, no current will flow between the two star points. Operation of a
Figure 8.8(a) Schematic diagram of double-star connection for high-volwge capacitor
unit fuse in one or other of the star-connected assemblies will cause a voltage to bank showing position of current transformer to detect current unbalance due to loss of
appear between the star points and a current will flow between them, the capacitance in one section
magnitude of which depends upon the numbers of units in each phase of the

n n n
star-connected sections. By connecting a specialiy-designed current transfor- lbl L, L2 L3
mer in the star-point connection, a current-sensitive relay can be made to
operate. It is important to note that, because of the low magnitude of the out-
~'''fl'' of-balance current which flows, a standard current transformer would be
Pl 11iii u
unsuitable. The current transformer is, of course, required to meet the
~1.1~ insulation level of.the system to which it is connected. Normally capacitor
I- I I I I I
b
' t\<;k~~
banks with external fusing are so designed that the loss of one unit due to fuse
'~i , ~?
!~. ,, .;. :
operation will not increase the voltage across the remaining units in parallel to
a value exceeding 1.1 times the nominal unit design voltage. Hence, most out-
T T To
relay
To
relay ~relay
To

of-balance current relays provide two-stage operation, i.e. initial alarm, which
means that the bank can continue in service until balance can be restored, or
second-stage trip in the event of a second unit fuse operation in the same
group. The relay(s) are mounted in the relay panel of the controlling circuit-
breaker and form part of the control system. It is not essential that the -::'

numbers of units in each star connected section be equal, for example one
section may contain say eight units per phase and the other nine units per
phase the difference being allowed for in the calibration of the relay. To
prevent spurious operation the instrument should include a time-delay
feature.
For larger star-connected capacitor banks, typical of shunt capacitor banks
connected to transmission and primary distribution lines, it is desirable, and
assists in easier identification of external fuse operation, for more localised
out-of-balance current protection to be provided.
This can be achieved by connecting the relay current transformers in
Figure 8.8(b) Schematic diagram of current unbalance detection using differentially-
connected current transformers located in each phase of a double-star-connected
capacitor bank. Neutral point must be earthed
positions shown diagramatically in Figure 8.8(b). For this application the
current transformers required are two per phase, connected differentially, the
phase currents per section being compared. Fuse operation in one section will
cause unbalance between sections and the differential connection will enable
use of sensitive current relays. For the connections shown, a total of three
current relays, one per phase, will be required.
 "1
i

186 Control gear and protection for capacitors Out-of-balance voltage protection '187

The method described above may be varied to provide adequately sensitive

unbalance detection for larger extra-high-voltage (EHV) banks using the same
L1--1
basic principles, but it is doubtful whether they could be used to detect the
relatively small unbalances caused by element fuse operation with internally- (a)
fused capacitors.

OUT-OF-BALANCE VOLTAGE PROTECTION c-: To voltage-sensing

relay

For star-connected capacitor banks of relatively small rating, say 5 Mvar and L3
below, the number of units employed may be so low as to render impracticable =
an unbalanced detection method employing double star connection. An Figure 8.9(a) Schematic diagram of voltage unbalance detection scheme for star-
alternative method of detecting voltage unbalance may then be used, connected capacitor bank employing voltage transformer connected between star point
and earth
connections being shown in Figure 8.9(a). A specially-designed voltage
transformer is connected between the star point of the capacitor bank and
earth, to the secondary of which is connected a voltage-sensitive relay. The
L1 -
voltage transformer must comply with the insulation levels of the system to
which its primary winding is connected.
For balanced conditions no voltage will appear across the voltage V.T.
transformer but operation of a unit fuse will cause the neutral point to be lbl
displaced and voltage will appear across the secondary winding; its value will
depend upon the number of units in the capacitor. In line with usual practice,

L'" ~'" '."' "'

V.T.
operation of a single unit fuse will impose a voltage increase of less than 1.1
times nominal design voltage across the remaining parallel units, and hence
'ir the voltage relays will provide an initial alarm function followed by a trip
i'iiiil
;:rlll II
operation if any further fuses in the same group operates.
r,~,lll As with the current out-of-balance system, the voltage relay should
relay
~~:1 '
incorporate a time-delay feature and will be connected into the control circuits L2 _ _ _ ___J

,0.! of the capacitor circuit-breaker.

Although this method of unbalance detection has been used satisfactorily it
can be adversely affected by zero sequence voltage and/or currents in the
system.
An alternative method of detecting voltage unbalance is shown in Figure
8.9(b ). This incorporates voltage transformers connected across each phase of
the star connection, the voltage-transformer secondaries being connected in
series and to a voltage-sensitive relay. Fuse operation in one phase would
result in voltage appearing across the relay and, again, two-stage operation, i.e.
alarm and trip, with a time-delay feature, could be incorporated.
For either method of unbalance detection, i.e. current or voltage, it has been
said that under balanced conditions, no voltage will appear across, or current
flow through, the protective relay. This assumes ideal conditions but in
practice, owing to the permitted tolerance on capacitance and some uneven
temperature distribution as between units, perfect balance cannot exist. For
this reason, both voltage and current relays are designed so as to take into
account residual out-of-balance conditions. The effect of capacitance toler-
LJ--------------------J
Figure 8.9(b) Schematic diagram of voltage unbalance detection using voltage
transformers across each phase of the bank
ance is minimised by special attention to phase balance when the capacitor
bank is being assembled at the factory.
The capacitance unbalance detection methods described above may be used
for either externally-fused or internally-fused capacitor units, although with
the latter design more sensitive and hence more expensive detection equip-
ment is required. As some compromise unbalance detection systems for
internally-fused capacitors are usually designed to alarm for the effective loss
of one capacitor unit in a group.
Because of the proven reliability of modern high-voltage unit type
capacitors, based on many years of intensive research, development and
material quality control, random capacitor unit failure rates of considerably
 188 Control gear and protection for capacitors Overvoltage protection 189

less than 0.1% per annum are being achieved and the capacitance unbalance
detection methods described above have been proved effective.

LINE PROTECTION
This form of protection in the main controlling circuit-breaker(s) provides
overall cover for the complete capacitor bank and any ancillary equipment
including surge-limiting or de-tuning/tuning reactors, discharge reactors'
cabling, bus bars, and other external connections. It includes over-current and,
earth-leakage protection, with inverse time characteristics as a matter of
course. In addition, some form of close-current overload protection is highly
desirable, if not essential.
The line current of a capacitor bank may be increased above its nominal Figure 8.10 A 5.72 Mvar, 11 kV, three-phase type capacitor bank with controlling
value by increases in line voltage, permitted capacitance tolerances, increases circuit-breaker (BICC)
in fundamental frequency and the effect of harmonic currents flowing in the
system to which the capacitor presents a low impedance path. Because of the
increase of the use of thyristor convertors in the past few years the incidence of indeed for power systems to operate at voltages in excess of this for lengthy
harmonic currents flowing in any high-voltage electrical system is much periods.
greater, particularly for capacitor banks for industrial applications. However, under conditions of harmonic current overloading caused by fifth
The margin of 1.3 times nominal line current, which is the maximum and/or seventh harmonics (which may occur at light load periods), the
pem1itted by most national and international specifications, takes into capacitor bank rn~"!.Y b~ s~!bject~d to cvervo!tag~s i!1 excess of 10/~ bef:Jre the
maximum permissible current overloading of the capacitor has been reached
account particularly the effect of harmonic currents, and the possibility that
this value can be exceeded is becoming greater. Hence, close-current overload (see Chapter 10). Hence the close-current overload protection would not
... j n~ I protection should be included as a line-protection feature. Any relays operate .
ll':'ii Ill employed for this purpose should be three-phase type, sensitive to true r.m.s. In these, and other special circumstances, such as sudden loss of load which
might cause a voltage rise on the system, overvoltage protection may be
a'~t~ ill
current, which calls for some care in selection ..To prevent spurious operation
desirable. Overvoltage relays ~hould not be affected by switching transients
1:1~,1 1!:
of the relay due to capacitor energising transients, a short time-delay feature,
typically of one second, should be incorporated . and should operate when the voltage exceeds 10% for prolonged periods.
.'~ , !:;'i
~ '' ;:. The capacitor line current may vary above the nominal value due to Alarm and trip features, with suitable time delays, should be incorporated.
capacitance manufacturing tolerance. The actual line current adjusted to the Preferably the relay should be peak-voltage sensitive and can be operated
nominal system voltage should be used as a basis for calculation of the from a V.T. ih the capacitor circuit-breaker.
overload setting of the relay, provided that it is not magnified by harmonic Figure 8.10 shows a circuit-breaker controlling a 5.72 Mvar, 11 kV three-
currents flowing in the system. If the positive capacitance tolerance of the phase capacitor bank.
capacitor bank is known (information readily obtainable from the manufac-
turer) the maximum permissible overload may be calculated as follows, for a
capacitance tolerance of, say, +5%:
Nominal (nameplate) line current (I L) x 1.05 x 1.3 =I L x 1.365
The close-current overload protection relay should be set accordingly.

OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION
Power capacitors are normally designed to accept overvoltages of up to 1.1
times the nominal voltage for prolonged periods, although it is very rare
 m--

'l
Shunt capacitors 191

9 Application of power capacitors
to high-voltage transmission
and distribution circuits
Capacitors connected either in shunt or in series can be used in transmission
lines. A shunt capacitor is defined as one which is connected between phases
(or line-to-line)..It may be thought of as a source supplying magnctising kvar
to the system. A series capacitor, as its name implies, is connected in series with
the line, in each phase. and neutralises or reduces the inductive reactance of
that particular line.
The application of shunt capacitors to a transmission or distribution line
alters the load characteristics by improving the power factor, while the
application of series capacitors alters the circuit parameters with the load
remaining virtually unaltered. This alteration in circuit parameters may pose
operational problems but field experience has provided solutions to most of
these.
It is probably true to say that the application of shunt capacitors to high-
voltage power systems is commonplace, but this is less true for series
""'1?' .,.
pr: 11!1 capacitors. However, for successful application of shunt or series capacitors, a
full engineering study of the project should be undertaken by the supply
ill: ,~1 11'1
'.',~'f\ 1\,l
I
authority in conjunction with the capacitor manufacturer, from which a
~j .V
'1
II suitable design of capacitor installation may be determined.
.<;;:,
SHUNT CAPACITORS
Shunt capacitor installations on electric supply systems provide the following
advantages:
(1) They ensure that the transmission of inductive kvar to the load area
For an acceptable voltage drop at maximum-load conditions shunt
capacitors sited at the end of transmission or primary distribution lines will
cnable an increased kW load to be carried without up-rating the line. Shunt
capacitors therefore offer relatively quick solutions to peak load bottlenecks
or postpone the necessity for electricity distribution system reinforcement in a
particular locality.
Capacitors are not the only type of equipment which can be used to
compensate for lagging kvar and so improve the system power factor.
Improvements can be made by the use of rotating machinery such as
synchronous compensators. These large, synchronous motors, uncoupled
from any mechanical plant, have automatically-controlled excitation systems
which enable the machine to import lagging kvars at light load and export
leading kvars at peak load. They would normally be used only at t~e end of
long high-voltage transmission lines, not only to provide power-factor
improvement but also to prevent excessive voltage rise at the end of the line at
light-load periods. Rotating plant has high losses and requires regular and
comprehensive maintenance and the choice of equipment depends on
individual conditions and overall economics. Capacitors are flexible in
application, and have extremely low losses, particularly the mixed dielectric
type with losses down to 0.6 x 10 ~ 2 W per kvar. As capacitors have no moving
parts the maintenance required is minimal, and very heavy foundations may
not be required.
Considering a single radial distribution line, the circuit is depicted in Figure:
9.1.
If it is assumed that the receiving-end voltage is to be kept constant by
varying the source voltage the following equations can be written:
2
E~= (ER cos R + IR) + (ER sin R I X) 2 .
where the suffixes Sand R relate to the sending and receiving ends respectively.
And the line losses= 3 x 12 R x 10 ~ 3 k W
_R~ 10~ 3 kW.
2
(kW) X
= (Rjl COS 2 1/JR
From this it can be seen that the line loss decreases until it reaches the ultimate
value of

[~(ER)W)~ x R x 10 ~ 3] k W
from the generating source is kept to reasonable limits.
(2) They avoid overloading of circuits and/or release circuit load-carrying 2
capacity.
(3) By avoiding overloading they release spare MY A capacity on the at unity power factor.
generators. The effect ofleading power factor is, of course, to increase the losses since the
(4) They reduce the system 12 R losses. value of cos diminishes. If the power factor becomes more, leading Es will
(5) They reduce the system J2 X losses. decrease and will become less than ER. If the voltage variation exceeds
(6) They improve the voltage regulation and/or restore it to an acceptable permissible limits this could lead to transformers receiving abnormally high
level for a given load. voltages and producing harmonic currents due to over-saturation of the

190
 192 Capacitors in high-voltage circuits Design of high-voltage shunt capacitor banks 193

Source kW
of 3-phase high-voltage

II
supply overhead line Load
Es ER

R XL

f kvar 1
Es

--------
j __ Load
kVA 1

jj Figure 9.2 Power complexor

diagram-determination of shunt capacitor
requirement

Capacitor kvar = k W (tan 1 -tan <p 2 )

where =uncorrected angle of lag
2 =corrected angle of lag.
Lagging power factor This is illustrated in Table 9.1 which gives the multiplying factor
(tan 1 -tan 2 ) for a range of power-factor conditions.
Shunt capacitor banks may be connected to high-voltage distribution and
I Es ~/XL drop transmission lines at voltages from about 2.4 kV upwards to the highest
transmission line voltages, and this is made possible by the use of standard
capacitor units assembled in open racking which itself can be designed to
~
~/Rdrop l incorporate major insulation.
Depending upon the project and system voltage, typical ratings may be
'" "tl' , between 1 and 100 Mvar. Although the application of shunt capacitors to
Leading power factor
ill'i'JI 1- high-voltage power systems is standard practice in many parts of the world,
Figure 9.1 Radial transmission system-effect of improved load power factor
fl; ,!11 I~ there are relatively few installations in the UK, and these are confined mainly
~~ i!~l
to the CEGB transmission system.
.,. ~r The important matter of control and protection of high-voltage shunt
l'i ,". magnetic cores. Also, electrical apparatus designed to operate within close
capacitor banks has been dealt with in some detail in Chapter 8.
voltage tolerance would be affected adversely.
For these reasons the receiving-end voltage should normally not exceed the
sending-end voltage by more than 6%, i.e. the power factor of the load should
TYPICAL BASIC INFORMATION FOR DESIGN OF
not become appreciably leading. Hence, the kvar rating of the shunt capacitor
HIGH-VOLTAGE SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS
banks must be regulated either by some form of automatic switching or by
transformer tap changing, at periods of light load.
To form the basis of a satisfactory engineering study certain information is
required by the .capacitor manufacturer, details of which are given below.
Most of this information can be provided only by the supply authority.
RATING OF CAPACITORS FOR POWER-FACTOR
CORRECTION
System details
Assuming the load has a power factor of cos 1 and it is desired to raise the Nominal voltage, frequency, number of phases
power factor to cos 2 , it can be seen from Figure 9.2 that the kvar Any abnormal voltage variations and duration
compensation required is kvar 1 -kvar 2 . For a given load and power factor and System insulation level
desired corrected power factor the required capacitance is given by the Fault level-nominal
following formula: Existing methods of actual, if known, system voltage controL
 -~ G; ~ . ~

\'~-!,!: !il M
.;;o:_~ ~

Table 9.1 Multiplying constants to determine the size of capacitor required to correct power factor from cos 1 to cos 2 for a given load (D
-!'>
(kW)

Power factor Size of capacitor in kvar per kW of load for raising the power factor to
of load before
applving 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 Unitv
capacitors

0.40 1.537 1.668 1.805 1.832 1.861 1.895 1.924 1.959 1.998 2.037 2.085 2.146 2.288
0.41 1.474 1.605 1.742 1.769 1.798 1.831 1.860 1.896 1.935 1.973 2021 2.082 2.225
0.42 1413 1.544 1.681 1.709 1.738 1.771 1.800 1.836 1.874 1.913 1.961 2.022 2.164
0.43 1.356 1.487 1.624 1.651 1.680 1.713 1.742 1.778 1.816 1.855 1.903 1.964 2.107
0.44 1.290 1421 1.558 1.585 1.614 1.647 1.677 1.712 1.751 1.790 1.837 1.899 2 041
0.45 1.230 1.360 1.501 1.532 1.561 1.592 1.626 1.659 1.695 1.737 1.784 1.846 1.988
046 1.179 1.309 1446 1.473 1.502 1.533 1.567 1.600 1.(/36 1.677 1.725 1.786 1.929
0.47 1.130 1.260 1.397 1.425 1.454 1.485 1.519 1.532 1.588 1.629 1.677 1.758 1.881
0.48 1.076 1.206 1.343 1.370 1.400 1.430 1.464 1.497 1.534 1.575 1.623 1.684 1.826
0.49 1.030 1.160 1.297 1.326 1.355 1.386 1.420 1.453 1.489 1.530 1.578 1.639 1.782
0.50 0.982 1.112 1.248 1.276 1.303 1.337 1.369 1.403 1.441 1.481 1.529 1.590 1.732
0.51 0.936 1.066 1.202 1.230 1.257 1.291 1.323 1.357 1.395 1.435 1.483 1.544 1.686
0.52 0.894 1.024 1.160 1188 1.215 1.249 1.281 1.315 1.353 1.393 1.441 1.502 1.644
0.53 0.850 0.980 1.116 1.144 1.171 1.205 1.237 1.271 1.309 1.349 1.397 1.458 1.600
0.54 0.809 0.939 1.075 1.103 1.130 1.164 1.196 1.230 1.268 1.308 1.356 1417 1.559
0.55 0.769 0.899 1.035 1.063 1.090 1.124 1.156 1.190 1.228 1.268 1.316 1.377 1.519
0.56 0.730 0.860 0.996 1.024 1.051 1.085 1.117 1.151 1.189 1.229 1.277 1.338 1.480
0.57 0.692 0.822 0.958 0.986 1.013 1.047 1.079 1.113 1.151 1.191 1.239 1.300 1.442
0.58 0.655 0.785 0.921 0.949 0.976 1.010 1.042 1.076 1.114 1.154 1.202 1.263 1.405
0.59 0.618 0.748 0.884 0.912 0.939 0.973 1.005 1.039 1.077 1.117 1.165 1.226 1.368
0.60 0.584 0.714 0.849 0.878 0.905 0.939 0.971 1.005 1.043 1.083 1.131 1.192 1.334
0.61 0.549 0.679 0.815 0.843 0.870 0.904 0.936 0.970 1.008 1.048 1.096 1.157 1.299
0.62 0.515 0.645 0.781 0.809 0.836 0.870 0.902 0.936 0.974 1.014 1.062 1.123 1.265
0.63 0.483 0.613 0.749 0.777 0.804 0.838 0.870 0.904 0.942 0.982 1.030 1.091 1.233
0.64 0.450 0.580 0.716 0.744 0.771 0.805 0.837 0.871 0.909 0.949 0.997 1.058 1.200

0.65 0.419 0.549 0.685 0.713 0.740 0.774 0.806 0.840 0.878 0.918 0.966 1.027 1.169
0.66 0.388 0.518 0.654 0.682 0.709 0.743 0.775 0.809 0.847 0.887 0.935 0.995 1.138
0.67 0.358 0.488 0.624 0.652 0.679 0.713 0.745 0.779 0.817 0.857 0.905 0.966 1.108
0.68 0.329 0.459 0.595 0.623 0.650 0.684 0.716 0.750 0.788 0.828 0.876 0 937 1.079
0.69 0.299 0.429 0.565 0.593 0.620 0.654 0.686 0 720 0.758 0.798 0.840 0.907 1.049
0.70 0.270 0.400 0.536 0.564 0.591 0.625 0.657 0.691 0.729 0.769 0.811 0.878 1.020
0.71 0 242 0.372 0.508 0.536 "0.563 0.597 0.629 0.663 0.701 0.741 0.783 0.850 0.992
072 0.213 0.343 0.479 0.507 0.534 0.568 0.600 0.634 0.672 0.712 0.754 0.821 0.963
0.73 0.186 0.316 0.452 0.480 0.507 0.541 0.573 0.607 0.645 0.685 0.727 0.794 0.936
0.74 0.159 0.289 0.425 0453 0480 0.514 0.546 0.580 0.618 0.658 0.700 0.767 0.909
0.75 0.132 0.262 0.398 0.426 0.453 0.487 0.519 0.553 0.591 0.631 0.673 0.740 0.882
0.76 0.105 0.235 0.371 0.399 0.426 0.460 0.492 0.526 0.564 0.604 0.652 0.713 0.855
077 0079 0.209 0.345 0.373 0.400 0.434 0.466 0.500 0.538 0.578 0.620 0.687 0.829
0.78 0.053 0.183 0.319 0.347 0.374 0.408 0.440 0.474 0.512 0.552 0.594 0.661 0.803
0.79 0.026 0.156 0.292 0.320 0.347 0.381 0.413 0.447 0.485 0.525 0.567 0.634 0.776
0.80 0.130 0.266 0.294 0.321 0.355 0.387 0.421 0.459 0.499 0.541 0.608 0.750
0.81 0.104 0.240 0.268 0.295 0.329 0.361 0.395 0.433 0.473 0.515 0.582 0.724
0.82 0.078 0.214 0.242 0.269 0.303 0.335 0.369 0.407 0.447 0.489 0.556 0.698
0.83 0.052 0.188 0.216 0.243 0.277 0.309 0.343 0.381 0.421 0.463 0.530 0.672
0.84 0.026 0.162 0.190 0.217 0.251 0.283 0.317 0.355 0.395 0.437 0.504 0.645
0.85 0.136 0.164 0.191 0.225 0.257 0.291 0.329 0.369 0.417 0.478 0.620
0.86 0.109 0.140 0.167 0.198 0.230 0.264 0.301 0.343 0.390 0.450 0.593
0.87 0.083 0.114 0.141 0.172 0.204 0.238 0.275 0.317 0.364 0.424 0.567
0.88 0.054 0.085 0.112 0.143 0.175 0.209 0.246 0.288 0.335 0.395 0.538
0.89 0028 0.059 0.086 0.117 0.149 0.183 0.230 0.262 0.309 0.369 0.512
0.90 0.031 0.058 0.089 0.121 0.155 0.192 0.234 0.281 0.341 0.484
0.91 0.027 0.058 0.090 0.124 0.161 0.203 0.250 0.310 0.453
0.92 0.031 0.063 0.097 0.134 0.176 0.223 0.283 0.426
0.93 0.032 0.066 0.103 0.145 0.192 0.252 0.395
0.94 0.034 0.071 0.113 0.160 0220 0.363
0.95 0.037 0.079 0.126 0.186 0.329
0.96 0.042 0.089 0.149 0.292
0.97 0.047 0.107 0.250
(D
0.98 0.060 0.203 Ol
0.99 0.143
To use. Aqa1nst uncorrected power factor 1n Col 1 1ead off multiplying constant under des1red corrected puNer factor
load x multiplying constant (tJn rjq- tan 2)
 "Y-
Series c<Jpacitors 197
196 Capacitors in high-voltage circuits

ER
Line details fs

Length
XLJ
Single or double circuit
Arrangement and spacing of conductors -;.I
Resistance of conductors Ia!
Inductive reactance of conductors
Transformer ratings, impedances, winding configuration.

Load details ER~~

,;omoo~"H-\
Peak load and power factor
Minimum load and power factor
Seasonal variations, if any, 0 R monthly k W/kvar chart recordings. lbl
.j31X LSln<i>R
winter and summer
Projected load increases
.j31Xc~.;::;
Details of harmonic current content
Es f'........_
Desired degree of power-factor improvement, AND/OR improvement

I:~.J
in voltage regulation. ER

V"X,
Climatic conditions
.j3/RcosR
Ambient temperature range and humidity (c)

Any abnormal conditions. \

-)3/IXL -Xc)sinR

General Figure 9.3 A general radial transmission system with series capacitors. (a) Equivalent
'''tl' ,
series capacitor circuit, (b) phasor diagram without series capacitor, (c) phasor diagram
ll'lill illi
Any onerous atmospheric or environmental conditions. with series capacitor
Jtl 1~I

~:.. tll
For more complex projects for high-voltage shunt capacitor banks, further
,'"'
information may be required. resistance exceeds the total circuit reactance, the effect of a series capacitor
I;'
will be small.
(2) Conversely, with a low power-factor load. and comparatively high circuit
reactance, the inductive voltage drop is dominant. Series capacitors will
SERIES CAPACITORS produce the maximum effect in reducing total voltage drop as they
directly compensate for inductive voltage drop. Provided that improve-
Considering a simple radial system once again, in this case with series ment only in voltage regulation was required. under these conditions a
capacitors connected in each phase of the line, Figure 9.3 shows the system series capacitor would be more effective than a shunt capacitor of the same
impedance diagram and the phasor diagrams, which are self-explanatory. kvar.
The following formula gives the line-to-line voltage drop: (3) Series capacitors reduce voltage drop by compensating for the line
reactance but they have no effect on receiving-end power factor, and, in
Voltage drop (line-to-line)= j3 I[R cos R +(XL- X c) sin (PR]lO - 3 kV. radial circuits, no significant effect on the reduction of line losses. The
improvement in power factor of the load at the sending end is due to
This is the appropriate short line formula and from consideration of this compensation of the 12 XL component of the line.
formula it follows that: (4) Series capacitors are self-regulating, because, at any load, the I x~.
(1) With high power-factor loads, the value of cos R is high and sin R is component of the voltage drop is automatically cancelled by the voltage
small. Hence, the resistance drop is predominant so that if the total circuit appearing across the series capacitor.
 198 Capacitors in high-voltage circuits
T Application problems
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF SERIES CAPACITORS
(1) Improvement of voltage regulation
I commencement of a project involving series capacitors, it is essential to make a
Used on transmission and distribution lines and individual distribution
transformers where necessary to reduce voltage drop and improve voltage
regulation.
(2) Reduction of rapid voltage fluctuations (voltage flicker)
When loads of a repetitive and rapidly fluctuating nature are supplied by
radial feeders, light flicker and voltage variations occur. Series capacitors
with their automatic compensadons for voltage variation, are particular];
useful for reducing voltage fluctuations to an acceptable value. Examples
of such loads are motors with large starting currents in relation to supply
rating, arc furnaces, saw mills, colliery winders, excavators, welders, etc.
However, with large arc furnaces and 1:olling-mill installations, because of
rapid fluctuations in k VA load and low-frequency transients, series
capacitors alone may not reduce voltage flicker to an acceptable value, as
proved by operating experience. In such cases, variable static com-
pensators, adapted as flicker compensators, are usually required. (See the
Section on 'Variable compensators' later in this Chapter.
(3) Resistance welders
Large resistance welders impose very high currents on the supply circuit
which may persist for only two or three cycles. Series capacitors have been
used effectively to compensate for the excessive voltage drop. (In this
connection please refer to Chapter 5. However, for successful operation of
the series capacitor, the point-on-wave switching of the welders should be
"ff "
rglllll! controlled and this form of control is standard on resistance welders of
111 ~~~I significant rating.
,~~ rtl 1 (4) Control of load sharing between parallel feeders
,~1
~ I"'' It is not uncommon for an overloaded transmission or distribution line to
;;;, be reinforced by a second circuit operating in parallel. The second line
may not be of the same length or may be at a different voltage, e.g. an
existing 11-kV line may be reinforced by a 33-kV line or a 66-kV line by a
132-kV line. As a result, the circuit impedances differ, and to ensure
approximately equal loading it may be desirable to connect a series
capacitor in the line of higher impedance. Where voltages differ, the line
impedances require to be related to a common base voltage.
(5) Improvement of power limits and stability margins
In very-high-voltage transmission lines the maximum power transfer may
be increased for the same regulation by the introduction of series
capacitors. Alternatively, for a given power transfer, the stability margin
may be improved.
APPLICATION PROBLEMS
In planning the use of series capacitors it must be borne in mind that the results
of application are not as predictable as with shunt capacitors. At the
199
detailed study of all combinations of possible loads.
Resonance with transformers (ferro-resonance)
Since transformers subjected to excessive line voltages produce harmonics, it is
desirable that the ohmic value of a series capacitor should not produce a
voltage on the primary windings of transformers connected on the load side of
the capacitor which exceeds their highest design terminal voltage rating.
If a series capacitor is installed between a transformer and the source of
supply a phenomenon defined as ferro-resonance may occur which becomes
more likely if the capacitor reactance exceeds the inductive reactance of the
supply. Ferro-resonance occurs either when the transformer is being energised
or during any rapid load fluctuations, and it is associated with the shape of the
magnetisation characteristic of the transformer and especially with conditions
of saturation. When transformer cores are saturated, the magnetising
reactance is greatly reduced and can resonate with the capacitor reactance. A
high voltage then appears across the capacitor, which, unless the spark-gap
operates, may persist until the circuit is de-energised.
The condition may be prevented by connection of parallel damping
resi3tors across the capacitor terminals, reteniion of a certain minimum load
on the transformer side of the capacitor during energising, either by siting the
capacitor away from the transformer or by by-passing the capacitor during
energising. Experience has proved that the inherent resistance in the circuit
and the load is often sufficient to provide enough damping to prevent
resonance effects.
Hunting of synchronous motors
It is possible for synchronous machines, when operating in parallel, to 'hunt'
when subjected to sudden load variations, especially in circuits where the ratio
R:XL is high.
As the presence of a series capacitor decreases the inductive reactance, when
the line supplies a synchronous motor, the possibility of hunting cannot be
overlooked. However, partial compensation of line reactance should be
possible. In very-high-voltage high-power lines, however, the risk is slight
owing to the high X:RL ratio and the degree of compensation normally
applied to such lines.
Circuits containing motor loads
Because the voltage across a series capacitor depends on the current flowing,
protective devices must be provided to limit this voltage to a safe value.
 200 Capacitors in high-voltage circuits
Therefore, series capacitors connected in circuits supplying predominantly
motor loads should have a voltage rating sufficiently high to withstand motor
starting currents. It is important that any protective device should not operate
during the motor starting period. If all motors start within a short period of
each other, it should be possible to determine a value and time duration for the
short period current from which the capacitor design voltage can be assessed
as follows:
1
Vc 1: --- x I sT x X c
1.5
where Vc =capacitor design voltage, and 1sT= shorHerm high current.
Another circumstance to be considered is the possibility that, because
starting curre.nts of large induction or synchronous motors may contain
significant subharmonic components, resonance can be set up between the
capacitor reactance and the inductive reactance of the system and motor.
Should this occur, the resonant frequency will be below that of the supply and
the motor will accelerate from rest and 'lock-in' at a subsynchronous speed.
Possibly damage to the machine may be caused by the excessive vibrations
and large current pulsations which characterise this condition.
To minimise the effect, the series capacitor can be short-circuited out during
the disturbance, or, what is more likely, be provided with damping resistors
connected in parallel. Suitable ohmic values of resistor lie between 10 and 40
times the capacitive reactance, but as high a value as practicable should be
~ ,, chosen to ensure minimum continuous losses. These values would apply also
l!.lfl'l to damping resistors to avoid ferro-resonance effects in transformers.
"'ill',JII,'
~
This condition of subsynchronous resonance is most likely to occur if an
';!
individual motor rating exceeds about 10% of the circuit full-load rating.
However, in many cases, the inherent resistance of the circuit will be sufficient
.... to damp out resonant conditions.
SHORT-CIRCUIT CONDITIONS
Connecting a series capacitor into a line reduces the line reactance and
therefore can increase the magnitude of the fault current while the capacitor is
in circuit. Hence, the short-circuit rating of the circuit-breaker andjor fuses
need special consideration. In a radial feeder, depending upon whether the
capacitor is connected at the sending end, in the middle or at the receiving end,
and assuming the fault to occur on the load side of the capacitor, the
magnitude and phase angle of the fault current would be different at each
location. The fault current imposes a severe over-voltage on the capacitor and
this must be considered in its design. It is essential that protective equipment
operates quickly to by-pass the capacitor, and this can be achieved within one
Location of series capacitors 201
half-cycle. When the capacitor is by-passed the magnitude of the fault current
is reduced and its phase angle altered.
DEGREE OF COMPENSATION
No hard-and-fast rule can be quoted for the degree of compensation of line
reactance to be provided by a series capacitor, and to some extent this depends
on the requirements of the individual project. Generally only the minimum
capacitive reactance to achieve the desired objective should be connected,
whether this be to improve voltage regulation, increase maximum power
transfer or any other of the applications listed earlier. In many cases,
compensation of 40 or 50% of the inductive reactance of the line will suffice.
While, in theory, it is possible to over-compensate for the line inductive
reactance, any project which involves this should be subjected to compre-
hensive engineering studies.
LOCATION OF SERIES CAPACITORS
For a lagging power-factor load, connection of a series capacitor causes a
voltage rise on the load side of the capacitor, the approximate magnitude of
which is given by the following formula:
Line-to-line voltage rise= J3 I Xc sin R
where I= maximum load current
Xc =capacitive reactance ohms/phase
R =angle of lag at receiving end.
Where the circuit consists of a radial feeder with a single load at the end, the
voltage at the load is independent of the position of the capacitor, and in such
cases the position is governed by considerations of fault current and
convenience. However, it is usual to site the capacitor either at the mid point of
the line, or at the receiving end. Provided that there are no problems of access,
the mid point of the line is preferable, as location at the receiving end, close to
transformers, enhances the possibility of resonance problems and of over-
voltage conditions on receiving-end transformer primary windings.
However, when loads are distributed at points along the line, attempts
should be made to iocate the capacitor so that the voltage distribution along
the line is as near as possible uniform. This condition is usually satisfied when
the capacitor is sited so that the voltage drop between source and capacitor is
equal to 50% of the voltage rise produced by the capacitor.
 ,......
-,p-

202 Capacitors in high-voltage circuits Cornparison between shunt and senes capacitors 203

TYPICAL BASIC INFORMATION FOR DESIGN OF HIGH- calculations relating to a 33-kV distribution line.
VOLTAGE SERIES CAPACITOR BANKS The three numerical calculations which follow will illustrate the differences
System details between an uncompensated transmission line, one which employs a shunt
capacitor at the receiving end and one which incorporates a capacitor in series
As for shunt capacitors but with additional information as below: with the line.
Detailed information of existing line protection schemes The system diagram of one phase of a three-phase line, the voltage and
Actual fault level at proposed capacitor site current phasor diagrams, and the power diagram for each of the three
Magnitude and phase angle of fault currents with and without capacitor in conditions are given in Figure 9.4, 9.5 and 9.6.
circuit. In all cases it is assumed that transmission by overhead line is at 33 k V from
a sending transformer of 400 V/33 kV rating to a receiving 33-kV/400-V
Line details transformer with a load of 600 kW at a power factor of 0.6. Calculations are
As for shunt capacitors. based on the load power factor being increased to 1.0 and the capacitor
reactance completely offsetting the line reactance. These conditions are ideal
Load details but permit comparison between the three conditions:
Peak load and power factor (1) Assuming that the line-to-line receiving-end voltage is kept constant at
OR monthly kW/kvar chart recordings for winter and summer periods 33 kV and all variations are limited to the sending-end, calculation is as
Projected load increases follows:
Details of harmonic current content
600 -!
Details of any large induction or synchronous motors forming part of the IR=-~~---x L(-cos 0.6)
y (3) X 33 X 0.6
load
Degree of compensation required. = 17.5 L (-53 ) amperes per phase
Note: Depending upon the particular application of the series capacitor
(e.g. for reduction of voltage flicker) it may be necessary to obtain Es=ER+[J(3)IRL(R)(R+}XL) 10- 3 ] kV
=33+[J(3)x 17.5L(-53)(64+j196) 10- 3 ] kV
r"
It illtl
very short time recordings of peak load fluctuation.
= 33 + [1.94 L(- 53) + 5.94 L(37)] kV
rt 11!'1 Climatic conditions =39LW) kV
fi~ 111
As for shunt capacitors. (see Figure 9.4).
~}1
.,.-,,"
In certain circumstances, especially for series capacitors for connection to (2) For a transmission line with a shunt capacitor on each phase adjacent to
very-high-voltage high-power lines, further information may be required. the load, capacitor current must be equal and opposite to the reactive load
In connection with the design of series capacitors generally, it must be borne current.
in mind that the voltage which appears across a series capacitor in normal
33000
service bears no relation to the voltage of the system to which it is connected I o = J{3lxl360 L (90o)
and is usually very much below this value. Instances of capacitor voltages
having values of 10% of the system voltage are quite common. However, the = 14 L (90) amperes leading the applied voltage by 90
complete capacitor assembly must be designed to the same insulation level as
the system to which it is connected. The inductive component of the load current
=17.5 sin 53 L(-90)
= 14 amperes L( -90) lagging the applied voltage by 90.
NUMERICAL COMPARISON OF CAPACITORS IN SHUNT
I R= 10.5 L (0)
AND SERIES WITH HIGH-VOLTAGE POWER LINES
E 5 =33+J(3)x 10.5(64+)196) 10- 3 kV
Having discussed the applications of both shunt and series capacitors to high- =34.1 L(5.5) kV.
voltage power lines, it may be helpful to consider actual worked examples of (see Figure 9.5).
 -~

204 205

Transformer Transformer
Supply Transformer
400 V/33 kV 33 kV/400 V
33 kV /400 V
I
3-phase 33kV 0/H line Load 3-phase 33 kV Load
600 kW 0/H line 600 kW
R at 0.6 pf R at 0.6 pf
XTS XTR
XL XTs XL 800 kvar .
ref'd to 33 kV ref'd to 33 kV
ref'd to 33 kV shunt capacrtor
XTS == leakage reactance of sending-end transformer ~ 87!1/ph
XTR " " receiving-end " ~ 87!1/ph XTs = leakage reactance of sending-end transforrner 0
87!1/ph
receiving-end " ~ 87!1/ph
R =line resistance per phase ~ 64!1/ph XTR == " "
reactance " ~ 22!1/ph R == line resistance per phase ~ 64n/ph
XL
" reactance " ~ 22D./ph
(a)
XL
XL~ 196!1 (a)
R ~ 64!1 IR ~ 17.5A R ~ 64D. XL~ 196!1

Load Load

nl
(b) 600 kW (b) 600 kW
at 0.6 pf
. Xc ~ 1.36 x 10 3 at 0.6 pf

Es fR
----------- -----

y
Es fR
3"
l c,~coC3kV I C ~ 14A

R ~ 53o~ '
lii"l
".-.." m
./ ER~ 33 kV ~ .,fJIRXL
drop
s ~ 5.50

VJIRRdrop

"' ,,0 IR sin R ~ 14A IR

~I

~10.5A
load cos L \
\
fs ~ 34.1 L (5.5) kV
~- ~,I 3 IRXL drop
.s
7
~
(c)
E
R ~ 33 kV y ~ 1R R drop
3

It ~I
,!111~1 ~, . I\ : ;:
~' (c)

:y, :~~! <Ps

:~
Shunt capacitor kvar
~ 800 leading

kvarR ~ 800
kvar 5 ~ 980

fs

(d) ad~~~==~~~--------~~
'~ --~P ER

kVA
5 ~624

(0 \
"o- Load kvar
+t- ~800 lagging
7
' -a
1b
Figure 9.4 A 33 kV radial transmission system without capacitors. (a) System diagram,
(d)
(b) equivalent circuit diagram. (c) voltage and current phasor diagram, (d) power
complexor diagram
Figure 9.5 A 33 kV radial transmission system with shunt capacitors. (a) System
diagram, (b) equivalent circuit diagram, (c) voltage and current phasor diagram,
(,-4\ ............ , ........................................... ...,!; ............... ........
 -.r-
....,,,.

206 Series capacitors in VHV AC transmission lines 207

I
Supply Transformer
400 V/33 kV capactr
196.\2 series Transformer
33 kV /400 v
(3) For a capacitor unit connected in series with each phase, the reactance of

~ kCJJ'H_IIr)e~-
each being 196 ohms.
fr:\ 3phase 33 kV _ Load
~~600kW I R = 17.5 L (- 53) amperes
R X at 0.6 pf
X TS X TR
ref'd to 33 kV L ref'd to 33 kV E 5 =ER+[yi(3)/RL(R){R+)(XL -Xc)} 10- 3 ] kV
Xrs "leakage reactance of sending end transformer = 87r2/ph = 33 + [ j(3) x 17.5 L (- 53) x {64 + j(196- 196)} 10- 3 ] kV
XT R = " " receivingend " " 87r2/ph
R "line resistance per phase = 64E/ph =33+[j(3)x 17.5L(-53)x64x 10- 3 ] kV
XL "reactance " = 22E/ph =34.1 L(-2.SO) kV.
(a}
(see Figure 9.6 ).
R- 64!1 X L = 196E Xc =
196E ]
The comparison of these three conditions for the sending-end and receiving-

(b)
~es capaCitor
Load
600 kW
end calculations are summarised in Table 9.2.
From this it can be seen that:
at 0 6 pf
(1) Both shunt and series capacitors reduce the voltage drop and also the kvar
----- ---ER
Es demand at the source of the supply.
(2) The capacitor ratings of 800 kvar for the shunt bank and 180 kvar for the
series bank produce the same voltage drop, but the series bank does not
compensate for the reactive power of the load. The cost of supplying

:i,~
--:F-
- I
R-53
-~- ---,.-;;(<
Es = 39L (3") kV (without series capacitor)

7~~/ ER=33kV
. /..j3/RRdrop \ fitRXL
protection and by-pass isolators would outweigh the cost of the control
gear for the shunt bank.
(3) Shunt capacitors reduce the line power losses by reducing the receiving-
_., s " 50.5 drop
end current, thereby reducing the loading on generators, transformers and
-"~ ./
y'"JiRXc rise
switchgear.
.~1 E5 = 34.1 L (-25') kV
(c)
(with series capacitor)

:I[' SERIES CAPACITORS IN VERY-HIGH-VOLTAGE

I .:~~!' ALTERNATING-CURRENT TRANSMISSION LINES
kWR "600

~9} kWs"659 ~:: Depending upon environmental conditions, transmission of power at very
high voltages can have economic advantages. Until recently, the operating
voltages lay in the 400 to 500-k V a.c. range, but schemes operating at 750 k V
a. c. are now in operation, and the use of voltages of up to 1 M V is under
investigation.
~.... -kvarR =800 There are many long EH V transmission-line systems incorporating series
.,
capacitors in operation throughout the world and amongst those of particular
-Q ?Cb0 ~ l--kvar 5 = 800 note arc the seven series capacitor schemes in Sweden where power is

~<\\ transmitted over distances in excess of 500 km at voltages of 400 kV a.c. Figure
9.7 shows the 105-Mvar series capacitor bank at Djurmo, Sweden. American

\~
(d)
and Canadian experience is also not inconsiderable, for example the Peace
River project in British Columbia in which power is transmitted at 500 k V for
distances in excess of900 km, and the Bonneville Power Administration's lines
at 230, 345 and 500 kV, including the Pacific Northwest/Pacific Southwest
Figure 9.6 A 33 kV radial transmission system with series capacitors. (a) System 500-k V a. c. inter-tie.
diagram, (b) equivalent circuit diagram, (c) voltage and current phasor diagram,
(d) power complexor diagram In South America the El Choc6n-Cerros, Colorados, project is also worthy
 :~ t1_ !

N
0
CD

Table 9.2 Comparison of conditions for sending-end

Type of Line voltage Voltage Power factor Sending-end power Receivingend power Active
system drop power
Sending Receiving Sending Receiving Active Reactive Apparent Active Reactive Apparent loss
end end end end power power power power
(kV) (kV) (k\IV) (kvar) (kVA) (k\IV) (kvar) (kVA)

Case A---without 39 33 6 kV 0.56 0.6 659 980 1180 600 800 1000 59 k\IV
capacitors (18.2%) lag lag lag lag (9 85%)
Case B~with 34 1 33 1.1 kV 0.995 1 621 62 624 600 nil 600 21 k\IV
shunt (3.34%) lag lag (3 5%)
capacitors
Case C~with 34.1 33 1.1 kV 0.64 0.6 659 800 1030 600 800 1000 59 k\IV
senes (3.34%) lag lag lag lag (9.85%)
capacitors

(f) "Tl
~
0 g :!1
c 0-, 3' tO'
:::1 :::J c
~. u- ( !~)
-"' g
o.~
9:ro
()J >())
;:: <D ::J<D
. ru
ru 00 < -.J
~ ........ ~
,......., :::r- r..n :a ~ :
:T::J
g ()J 0 (!) "' ~;:;
CD 8 5 "110 ru"'
:::1 :::1 v c -
-
"' ~
:y ~~
CJ..S. cro a ~ <
(")
:y "'
::l n r..n -
:::J ~
'"
(]) ()J <D ~-
(]) 0 "' "' X <0 "'
~ ::l r<t>
d: Ulrn
:2' 0 a_~-
< ;- s ,..o ~"'
(") (!)
::::;._ (D ~ (")"' ru CD
E!, n ~ ~< u
ru
::J ::,; ::: "' (])
'0 ...,
'"a_ :J' Q.
........ ~ (\; o'. "'0
g 0. \C -ro ~ OJ
c:::!-b 0" u
ru [l)
"'c 0..., ?-:
_, ::J 0
n~
:TV>
:g B ::r 0 "'
"'
;'! 0
..........rt p_) '"'u r:o
0 -
'< :::1 (Jq :::J ru 2
p.: c ~ c 0
::::: ~ ~
03' 3
;:.~c. ct; 3 _o <
I
0 c r..n (f) <
::J
0"' "'-
~.. @ 8 n~ :2' )>
__. 0 :y <t>
(tl
..... """'' 0 Q. ()
-<t>
r..n ~ 0 c::;w
< :::: '-") "':::J (;;
..... 0.. ,....._ '"m
a..,_ 0
~ ::r 0 }; V>
(f; ~ (f)
:::::r- -
[/0 ('!}
(/0 3
m
p (]) :~ )> iii
(f>
(") 0. 0 <3 ~ ru
g ~ "0 ::J 0
r..n cc (t ::J
"' "'ct; Q. :::J
(/) ...., ...., ::-. ro
:::J "' 0
0 .....
a ::."' ru (")
~ru
CD
::l 0 (f>
u ('!}::::::: :l>u
0 0. uo r.nru
m Q.
~ :~ N
ni v (D"
- ~c::; 0
...., '< VJ CD
 210 Capacitors in high-voltage circu1ts
Internally-fused units 211

system design and operating data from which specifications for the necessary protection equipment of the bank, i.e. on .isolation, the _fuses I~ust withstand
series capacitors and other equipment can be prepared. any discharge current likely to occur, thelf purpose bemg to Isolate a faulty
The length of these lines poses problems which affect maximum power section of the bank within a wide current/voltage range, wherein the spark-gap
transfer, operational stability and voltage regulation, and their viability is ignition voltage is one of the limits and 50% of the rated line current the other.
made possible only by connecting series capacitors and other devices as an Such fuse operation must disconnect in such a way that it will cause no other
integral part of the line project. Series capacitors enable the desired peak MW disconnections and at such speed that the co-ordination with the unbalance
loads to be transferred whilst maintaining acceptable voltage regulation and protection of the section of the bank will not be affected. The remaining fuses in
keeping stability within manageable limits. the bank must be able to withstand the discharge of the bank on spark-gap
The series capacitor itself will conform with certain basic principles operation.
common to all manufacturers, but the capacitor protection scheme, although It is a simple matter to divide the bank into a number of sections each
part of the bank, may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. protected by a fuse, but there should always be sufficient elements or units in
parallel to ensure positive operation of the faulty element/unit fuse within the
voltage/current iimits of the bank.
DESIGN OF CAPACITORS FOR VERY-HIGH-VOLTAGE
TRANSMISSION LINES INTERNALLY-FUSED UNITS
The design and test requirements of a unit for a series capacitor bank depend
This division while applying to the sections of the bank of units also applies to
largely upon the gap setting and the type of spark-gap, since the heavy currents
the fused elements in the units. This is illustrated in Figure 9.9 which shows the
and high voltage which appears across the capacitor before the spark-gap
internal connection diagram of a capacitor unit in which each element is wired
operates require rigid interD2.1 con!1ecticns and the ability of the diclectri~ to
withstand short-term over-voltages. Typical unit overloads (maximum)
related to line current In are:
Overload Duration
1i.
;ill81':!1 Maximum current 3.2 In 5 cycles
,;11\411 overload capacity 1.35 In 30 minutes
Ji;ho fll, 1.25 In I hour in 24 hours
1.15 In 2 hours in 24 hours
;,
1.1 In continuously
Most banks in large systems and power ratings permit the use of units in
which all the elements are connected in parallel and are individually fused. The
Figure 9.9 Capacitor with 36 internal individual-element fuses
use of internal grouping of elements in series within the unit, thereby
increasing the rated voltage of the unit, has the advantage of increasing the
number of units to be connected in parallel but reduces the number of series with an internal fuse. The fuse is designed to operate immediately following the
connected units. This may lead to more compact arrangements and result in a dielectric failure of an element. This relies on the discharge of the stored energy
smaller platform being needed to insulate the bank to the system level. With in the remaining parallel elements into the fault, and isolation would probably
more of the units in parallel, the remaining healthy units in parallel with the occur in microseconds. The isolation of one element is designed to reduce the
faulty one will be less stressed and there would be no necessity to take the bank
capacitance by about 3~;~ or less.
out of service for one faulty unit.
Fuse operation of the embedded type should cause negligible con-
tamination and have little effect on the life of the capacitor unit. Consequently,
EXTERNAL FUSES capacitors with internal fuses should remain in service for quite a long time
after operation of an element fuse.
Fuses form an integral part of the series capacitor system. Not only do they If external fuses are used with unfused elements disconnection of the
have to operate on the failure of a unit but they must be co-ordinated with the complete unit occurs compared with the loss of about 3/::, of the unit fitted with
 ~
..
I
212 Capacitors in high.voltage circuits Conventional protection schemes 213

internal fuses. The disconnection of a unit/units might lead to over-stressing of

the remainder and to the complete bank being taken out of service.

SERIES CAPACITOR BANK LAYOUT

Figure 9.10 shows a series capacitor bank in South Africa, while Figure 9.!}
illustrates part of a 500-Mvar capacitor bank in Sweden. The series capacitor
units, rack and protective equipment, spark-gap, damping device, etc., arc:
mounted on a platform with the same insulation level as the line.
The units are arranged horizontally in the racks and, because they arc:
equipped with internal fuses, conductors can be connected directly to and
between the bushings on the units. The units are connected in parallel and two
such racks are connected in series. Insulation to the adjacent pair of racks in
series or to the platform is achieved by using standard post insulators. The:
racks are mounted one above the other with a total stack height of up to 4 or
4.5 m above the platform.
Each section is divided into parallel branches of units to form the two halves
for unbalance protection.
By way of example if we look at the British Columbia Hydro & Power
Authority's Peace River scheme data in Table 9.3, this shows transmission by
t\VO 500-k V single-line circuits having the nominal values therein together
with details of the capacitor installations.

,;." Figure 9.11 Series capacitor bank rated at 500 Mvar, 400 kV, protected by an optronic
system developed by ASEA (Swedish State Power Board and ASEA)
-~
~!~,
'l)i'"''l
;; <''
CONVENTIONAL PROTECTION SCHEMES

The conventional approach to the over-voltage protection of series capacitors

Figure 9.10 A BICC series capacitor bank in South Africa
used in high-voltage transmission applications is to insert a low impedance
shunt across the bank, thus removing it from the circuit during faults. A typical
conventional scheme accomplishes the shunting of the bank with a spark-gap
set below the short time over-voltage rating of the capacitor. A low reactance is
usually included in series with the spark-gap to limit the current during the
discharge of the capacitor through the spark-gap and a switch in parallel with
the spark-gap provides the means of taking the capacitor out of circuit. Figure
9.12 illustrates diagrammatically the basic circuit.
After the fault is cleared the current through the spark-gap is extinguished
and the capacitor is returned into circuit by opening the by-pass switch.
The tendency to interrupt the by-pass current occurring near the line
current zero leads to transient capacitor voltages which are likely to cause re-
ignition of the spark-gap if the line current is high and no re-insertion resistors
 --,-
l

214 Capacitors in high-voltage circuits Conventional protection schemes 215

Table 9.3 Transmission by two 500 kV single-line circuits of the British Columbia
Hydro and Power Authority Peace River scheme (a) G. M. Shrum generating
station (b) Technical data of capacitor banks (From IEEE Transactions Vol1, PAS , Spark gap I
96, No 6, Nov/Dec 1975)
Discharge damping reactor r .. ~
(a) G M Shrum generating station

j_ Kennedy I -~ Kennedy II
Figure 9.12 Conventional protection scheme
Xc=45 5 Q Xc--4551.!

-- lo2700 A

Mcleese
Xc=54Q
1~1950A
1

T
1=2700A

Mcleese II
Xc= 54 Q
I= 1950 A
[
Spark gap
,.___
Series capacitor

I
Load ___...

Creekside
Xc=368!.1
I Chapmans
Xc51.2Q
_ _ _!.._
T 1-1900 A

~
T
Ingle Down
1=1900A
resistor

Lower Mainland Reactor 52

Vancouver Island
Figure 9.13 Schematic diagram of a series capacitor protection scheme using a non-
linear resistor
(b) Technical details of capacitor banks
_ __________________ __
_. , --------------- - - - - -
Capacitor bank Kennedy Me Leese Chapmans Creekside
I and II I and II
------
Rated output 995 iVIvar 616 Mvar 554 Mvar 399 Mvar
Rated voltage
across bank 123 kV 105 kV 97.3 kV 69.9 kV
.. ' Rated current 2700 A 1950 A 1900 A 1900 A Igniter
~ < circuit
Capacitance 58.3 11F 49.1 pF 51.8 11F 72 0 pF resistor Q1 --1- Blocking
~;1111 I 45.5 Q 54.0 Q 51 2 Q 36.8 Q rectifiers
Reactance
Capacrtors in
rl
,,. i'l: parallel 38 28 27 27
Series 80 70 64 46
f1'1' Total number
~' ( ~ of capacitors 9120 5880 5184 3726
-----
Unn
Output 111 kvar CdUdC,1alll8 122 / Ji~ ~ 7 ~,,
Voltoge 1 S50 V Frcq,JerC'i 60 Hz
Current 71 6 A Tcrnp~rature r,,nge - 80" to -+ 40"C
lrnr;edance 21 6 ohrns

Discharge
resistor
are used. When the line current is transferred to the capacitor at current zero
the absence of charge on the capacitor results in a direct current replacement of
Series capacitor
the capacitor voltage after re-insertion.
Figure 9.14 Protection of series capacitor by ignitrons (UK Patent No 838150,
In an attempt to overcome this problem a scheme was suggested by the 'Improvements in, or relating to, services for protective series capacitors', C. Dey,
Bonneville Power Administration and successfully introduced into their G. A Curtis, L. Clarke (BICC 41))
Pacific Northwest/Pacific Southwest 500-kV inter-tie. This was by substitut-
ing a non-linear resistance for the discharge damping reactor, as shown switching with the re-insertion problems and gives full protection whilst the
diagrammatically in Figure 9.13. fault persists.
A further system involving the use of ignitrons has been described and is The operation of the circuit can be explained as follows. Assuming that at
illustrated in Figure 9.14. The advantage of this system is that it avoids the instant of the occurrence of a fault, the anode of the ignitron T1 is positive
 ~
-~.

216 Capacitors in high-voltage circuits Arplication of shunt capacitors to VHV AC/DC converter stations 217

with respect to the cathode. The voltage rises until the spark-gap breakdown (1) Probably lower capital costs.
at a voltage sufficiently low to protect the capacitor. This will cause current to (2) Lower losses.
flow through T1 and ionise the mercury inside. After a few microseconds the (3) Considerably less maintenance.
ignitron conducts, thus by-passing the capacitor. When the voltage is nearlv (4) Economic in smaller kvar ratings.
zero the ignitron de-ionises, thereby restoring the capacitor to the circuit. (5) Flexibility in application.
Should the fault persist during the next half-cycle the sequence is repeated but (6) The effect of an outage is much less serious.
current will be flowing through ignitron T2 . (7) Shunt banks can be used as filters for harmonics generated by the
The tubes will continue to conduct alternately for as long as the ovt.:r- rectifier/inverter valves.
voltage lasts.
Large shunt-capacitor banks are employed in many of the world's direct-
current transmission schemes, of which the following outlines some note-
worthy projects:
(1) The Cross-Channel power link (England/France).
THE APPLICATION OF SHUNT CAPACITORS TO VERY- (2) North Island/South Island New Zealand power link (Cook Strait).
HIGH-VOLTAGE A.C./D.C. CONVERTER STATIONS (3) Italian mainland/Sardinia power link.
(4) British Columbia/Vancouver Island power link.
The transmission of power is a profound subject requiring detailed exam- (5) CEGB SE Region Kingsnorth/Beddington (London) power link (illus-
ination of technical and economic factors for each large high-voltage project. trated in Figure 9.15).
In certain circumstances it is more economical and technically viable to
convert alternating current into direct current and transmit at high voltage, Although capacitors used in conjunction with direct-current power links
eliminating reactive power losses and reducing the cost of conductors. At the
remote end of the direct-current line the direct current is converted back into
alternating current at an inverter station.

"
., When transmission is at high-voltage d.c. converted to a.c. by means of
;eli! I
inverter valves for reasons of satisfactory commutation, it can only deliver a
leading power-factor current to the a.c. system. The inverter operates at a
~t II power factor of0.8 to 0.9 leading, which means it demands from the a.c. system
li ~:1'1 II
about 0.5 to 0.75 kvar leading for each kW delivered.
Instances, such as the Gotland scheme in Sweden, can be quoted where
synchronous compensators have been used to supply this reactive kV A and
the reasons given are:
(1) Because of their stored kinetic energy, synchronous compensators can
supply transient power to the a. c. system during faults, thus improving the
transient stability of the circuit.
(2) Synchronous compensators with automatic control give a quicker and
smoother response to reactive power demand than do shunt capacitors.
(3) Synchronous compensators help to stabilise the frequency and voltage on
the a.c. side of the inverter station. However, if the inverter feeds into an
existing system containing synchronous machines in the form of gene-
rators and motors many of the functions of the synchronous compensator
can be performed by these machines and the application of shunt
capacitors becomes possible.
Figure 9.15 120-MVar, 132-kV capacitor bank for reactive compensation and harmonic
The points in favour of shunt capacitor banks as compared with synch- filter duty~ CEGB (SE Region), Kingsnorth HV d.c. transmission project (BICC Bryce
ronous compensators are: Capacitors Ltd)
 T
218 Capacitors in high-voltage circuits
usually operate at very high voltages, typically 220 kV and above, the same
principles of protection are employed, as described in Chapter 8.
VARIABLE COMPENSATORS
Although shunt and series capacitors and synchronous compensators have
been used successfully in many applications, in certain circumstances it is
essential to have some form of compensation which will respond to rapid
fluctuations in system load with a minimum of delay of the order of a few
milliseconds. The importance of the variable compensator is indicated by the
fact that it has formed part of symposia held by the Institution of Electrical
. Engineers in 1978 (Newcastle-upon-Tyne), in 1979 (Birmingham) and 1980
(London), and an international symposium on high-voltage transmission
systems held in November 1981.
The variable compensator, or 'variable static compensator' as it is also
known, is a static device which can provide leading or Jagging vars according
to requirements. The compensator, which is also referred to as an 'SVS' (static
var supply) device, consists essentially of a reactor shunted across the supply,
connected in parallel with a fixed or variable high-voltage capacitor bank. The
proportion of lagging and leading vars to be provided depends entirely upon
the individual requirements of a particular transmission line or system.
''I Variable compensators have been used in all parts of the world since the
181111 early nineteen-sixties, the first user in the United Kingdom being the Central
Electricity Generating Board in 1966.
(~ One installation employed a capacitor bank and linear reactor connected in
'!'fflil parallel and controlled by a tapped transformer. This gave a time of four
minutes for switching from approximately 30 Mvar inductive to 60 Mvar
capacitive load. This met the requirements of the daily load cycle but was far
too slow to provide system stability support under fault conditions. Another
installation with the same approximate inductance/capacitance range, em-
ploying a transductor (saturable reactor), installed at about the same time, and
this gave much smoother control and reduced the total time required to pass
from maximum inductive to maximum capacitive vars to Jess than two
seconds. At the time, this was thought to be superior to the performance of a
synchronous compensator (synchronous condenser*) without the added
disadvantages of maintenance problems and higher losses. The lower response
time could also help the compensator to improve system stability under fault
conditions or sudden loss of load.
During the past 20 years, increases have occurred in the magnitude of bulk
power transfers, transmission-line voltage (up to 765 k V) and lengths (up to
800 miles). These factors have made variable compensation a virtual necessity
* The time response of these machines has since been much improved over the years.
Variable compensators 219
and much progress has been made in the design of such equipments
particularly in the reduction of the time of response to the order of one cycle.
The transductor has been replaced by an alternating current self-saturated
reactor designed to saturate at a voltage (V 5) approximating to the normal line
voltage (V L). Relatively small increases of up to 20% in line voltage will result in
an increase in the reactor current up to three to four times its normal value and
hence a significant increase in inductive var absorption. By connecting a
capacitor bank in parallel with a saturated reactor with suitable control gear it
is possible to achieve a rapid and smooth transition from absorption oflagging
vars at light-load conditions to generating leading vars, and providing voltage
support as the line load increases. Figure 9.16 shows typical characteristics of a
variable static compensator consisting of a saturated reactor and capacitor
bank connected in parallel, shunted across a high-voltage supply. On the
inductive side, the slope of the saturated reactor magrietising curve shows the
effect of increase in voltage across the saturated reactor from which it will be
apparent that a relatively small voltage rise in the range 7 to 15% produces a
considerable increase in the current flowing through the reactor and hence in
inductive vars absorbed.
Increase in line voltage typifies the behaviour of a long transmission line at
its receiving end, or at intermediate stages, under light-load or open-circuit
conditions. Connection of a saturated reactor, in effect a variable inductive
load, neutralises the voltage rise on a continuous basis.
v
6V
vs
Xc =Shunt capacitance Constant voltage characteristic
....----Capacitive Inductive-----!-.
Figure 9.16 Typical characteristics of variable static compensator consisting of saturated
reactor in parallel with shunt capacitor. t.V is typically 7% to 15% above V,. Constant
voltage characteristic obtained by connecting capacitor in series with saturated reactor
such that X, ~Xc; V, ~saturation, VL ~line voltage (nominal), VL ""'V5
 _.,_
~po-
~)::J
220 Capac1tors in high-voltage circu1ts
The capacitive side of the characteristic curve relates to the effect of an
increasing load on the transmission line, causi?g a voltag~ dr?p, offset by
connectmg shunt capacitors. By connectmg a smtable capaCitor m series with
the saturated reactor the slope of the magnetising curve can be reduced and a
constant voltage characteristic can be obtained if Xc=X 5. This provides a
suitable control basis for the compensator when close control of voltage is
required such as at points of interconnection with other transmission lines or
for the reduction of voltage flicker.
Three of the most common types of variable static compensator are:
(1) The saturated reactor with fixed shunt capacitor or thyristor-switched
capacitors,
(2) The thyristor-controlled reactor which uses a separate transformer, and
fixed shunt capacitors,
(3) The thyristor-switched capacitor which is usually combined with a
thyristor-controlled reactor.
Which of these methods is employed depends upon local circumstances and
the economics of the application, not least the losses of the equipment at zero
compensation. Thyristor-controlled reactor installations and the latter design
may be marginally faster in operation.
The saturated-reactor compensator has also been used w.ith success in
reducing to acceptable values voltage flicker associated with the violently-
fluctuating loads imposed by high-power electric arc furnaces and rolling
' 'M mills. To improve the performance and ensure close control of voltage
rllflllll variation a capacitor is connected in series with the reactor for this application.
Typical basic connection diagrams for variable static compensators are
It!~
' shown in Figure 9.17 and basic connections for thyristor switching of
"'
:'~Jill capacitors in Figure 9.18.
The design of variable compensators demands a detailed knowledge of the
(a) (b)
Xc R = Xs
Figure 9.17 Typical connections tor variable static compensator (a) with saturated
reactors and fixed and switched capacitor banks. and (b) with series capacitor to give
constant voltage characteristic for flicker control
Variable compensators 221
L, L2
Control
...- ---
T I T
Figure 9.18 Arrangements for thyristors for switching capacitors
loads, circuit parameters and operational procedures of the electrical system
to which they arc to be connected which can only be obtained from a detailed
system analysis. This information will decide the rating of the compensator
capacitor, the inductive var absorption required from the saturated reactor,
and whether or not a capacitor is to be connected in series with the reactor.
The design data will also provide a basis for the capacitor specification and
as the capacitor section is equally as important as the reactor section, and
contributes substantially to the total cost, a high degree of reliability is
essential. The modern, mixed dielectric high-voltage capacitor unit has been
developed to a high degree of reliability. Experienced and reputable capacitor
manufacturers have no difficulty in meeting the specifications, if indeed these
differ from existing standards.
If the load on the transmission or primary distribution line contains a
signilicant proportion of harmonic currents, part of the capacitive section of
the compensator may provide harmonic filter facilities. Indeed this facility is
more likely to be necessary if the compensator includes a thyristor-controlled
reactor, particularly with six-pulse connections. This arrangement may
generate significant harmonic currents compared with the use of a saturated
reactor employing a harmonic compensated twin or treble triplerconstruction
which may be said to generate insignificant harmonic currents.
Where thyristor-switched capacitors are employed, no harmonics are
generated, but it is desirable to check the possibility of resonance with system
and compensator transformer impedances for each combination of capacitor
steps. It is possible, however, that more onerous voltage conditions may be
imposed on the capacitors when thyristor switching is employed than with
conventional switchgear, and this factor must be allowed for in the capacitor
design.
When the system voltage exceeds about 70 k V compensators will probably
be supplied from a suitable step-down transformer but, in any event, by using
 T-
222 Capacitors in high-voltage circuits
standard capacitor bank open-rack construction, with appropriate series
parallel grouping and rack insulation, virtually any system voltage require-
ment can be met. Capacitor protection is provided by a combination of
internal or external unit-fusing arrangement and suitable capacitor unbalance
detection, as described in Chapter 8.
If a slope correcting series capacitor is applied to the saturated reactor its
design will depend on the transient voltages experienced during switching as
well as overload currents. Some form of spark-gap and by-pass protection will
probably be required. Again, open-rack construction will be employed with
suitable racking insulation to comply with full system insulation levels.
Where control for the compensator is required, for thyristor-controlled
reactor systems and for capacitor switching, this is normally provided by
voltage-sensing devices.
It seems likely that the use of variable compensators in a variety of
combinations will continue to grow and that experience will determine the
best combination for a given set of circumstances. In 1978, the total installed
capacity of variable static shunt compensators employing alternating-current
self-saturated reactors and capacitors exceeded 1000 Mvar, and subsequent
progress seems to indicate that this figure now exceeds 1500 Mvar and is
continuing to rise rapidly. The largest variable static compensator in the UK is
at the British Steel Corporation works at Scunthorpe which has a capacitor
rating of 144 Mvar at 33 kV. This compensator provides voltage flicker
control and harmonic filter facilities in addition to providing normal reactive
'I compensation. The installation is shown in Figure 9.19.
ilttlll
:t:~
::~I'M
Figure 9.19 A 144-Mvar, 33-kV, variable static compensator installation at the British
Steel Corporation works at Scunthorpe, Lines
Short-circuit limiting couplings 223
SHORT-CIRCUIT LIMITING COUPLINGS
The use of short-circuit limiting couplings (SLC) in distribution systems at the
design stage allows a reduction to be made in the short-circuit ratings of
certain equipment such as cables and switchgear. In large industrial electrical
complexes where the total load is often derived from private generation and
public utility services operating in parallel, problems of upgrading fault levels
of switchgear and main cabling may arise. Problems of this nature can also
arise even if the supply is derived entirely from a public utility system.
By use of an SLC, often referred to as a resonance link, reinforcing electrical
supplies may be introduced into an existing electrical distribution system
without up-rating the switchgear. The resonance link is a high-voltage three-
phase equipment comprising a reactor and capacitor in seties. If Xc===XL per
phase then the link will have negligible impedance. However, under fault
conditions, the link must be capable of limiting drastically any fault power
flowing into the fault from the additional supply source, ifthe fault rating of the
existing switchgear is not to be exceeded. To achieve this condition, the
capacitor section must be by-passed during fault conditions to leave only the
reactor in circuit.
The simplest form of resonant link or SLC is shown in Figure 9.20, only one
phase being shown for the sake of clarity.
New supply
Existing
supply
Reactor
By-pass operates
under fault
Fault conditions
Figure 9.20 Short-circuit limit coupling (SLC) (only one phase shown)
Ideally the SLC should be automatic in operation since otherwise, after a
fault condition, the advantages of its installation would be lost if the capacitor
section were not rapidly restored. By employing a combination of auxiliary
saturated reactors and damping resistors, the capacitor/reactor circuit is de-
tuned during fault conditions and the capacitor effectively by-passed by the
auxiliary reactor. The low impedance condition is immediately restored after
the fault is cleared. Figure 9.21 shows the general arrangement, one phase only
being shown.
Depending upon the circumstances, the SLC may be located either between
adjacent busbar sections or in the main incoming supply cables.
Correct application of the SLC requires full knowledge and experience of
 * 1 W411QW~

224 Capacitors in high-voltage circuits

Series capacitor
10 Harmonics and harmonic filters
Series reactor

Damping

Figure 9.21 General arrangement of

Auxiliary
saturable automatic operation of SLC (only one
reactor phase shown)

power-system engineering and generation. The capacitance section obviously
behaves as a series capacitor and will be designed accordingly, the specifi-
cation being dictated by the designers of the SLC. The capacitor design must
take into account the normal peak load conditions to which the link is
subjected and also the load which passes under fault conditions. In some cases,
this will not exceed about twice the normal peak load. Until by-pass occurs,
the capacitor may be subjected to over-voltages of between 30 and 70% above
its normal operating voltage which of course bears no relation to the system
voltage. All this information must be passed to the capacitor manufacturer
who will then decide on a suitable design.
In some cases the capacitor bank may occupy up to 80% of the volume
required for the total installation but this depends entirely upon the layout. It
:x~;
is sometimes desirable to allow for future extension of the components and as
the capacitors are usually of the open-rack design, suitable for outdoor use,
lillt'.~
this presents no problem.
,._
" The first SLC installations were completed in the late nineteen-sixties but
!~~~ ~! IIJ their use has become more widespread over the last few years and load ratings
' ~f. ,.-; have extended from 1.5 to 200 MVA at voltages from 6.6 to 132 kV.
HARMONIC FILTERS
Harmonic {ilters, as applied to electrical power systems, comprise power
capacitors in series with inductors forming one or more circuits or 'arms' each
of which is 'tuned' to accept a particular order of harmonic current. The
function of the harmonicfilter is to contain the harmonic currents generated in
a particular circuit or factory system and to prevent circulation of such
currents in the electrical supply system with consequent adverse effects on
system operation. In effect the capacitor banks are providing a 'sink' for
harmonic currents. For large filters, due to increasing design and operating
experience, the number of 'arms' employed tends to be reduced to c;s little as
two per phase, but of more complicated design.
Over the past 20 years the introduction of the power thyristor and its
subsequent development has made it possible to cheapen and broaden the
application of a.c./d.c. conversion in the form of frequency converters to
provide accurate speed control of direct-current motors or to provide d.c.
supplies for' large electrolytic processes, particularly in the chemical industry.
Consequent upon the increased use of motor drives with thyristor control for
both large and small projects, expansion of electrolytic processes and the rise
in ratings of electric arc furnaces, the percentage of harmonic currents flowing
in power systems in all highly-industrialised countries is growing. In the UK it
is estimated that the increased flow of harmonic currents in electricity board
networks will, by the second half of the nineteen-eighties, cause voltage
distortion of up to 10% in certain areas-a very serious situation if allowed to
happen.
Although many thyristor-controlled devices are connected to 415 V
supplies, these are not normally of a size which could justify the use of
harmonic filters. In any event, low-voltage supply systems are relatively highly
damped with high source impedances, tending to restrict the flow of harmonic
currents to the high-voltage system. Furthermore, low-voltage harmonic
filters could not normally be justified on grounds of economy, except in very
special cases, where particularly sensitive loads, such as computers, are
present. Harmonic filters then are normally connected to high-voltage
systems, from 11 k V upwards, operating as three-phase assemblies of a fixed
rating and permanently connected to the supply.

225
 226 Harmonics and harmonic filters Requirements for harmon1c filters 227

Capacitor banks which are fitted with series de-tuning reactors to avoid th
possibility of harmonic resonance are sometimes referred to as filters. This i~ l j_
not correct notwithstanding the fact that the capacitor/reactor group will
accept a higher percentage of that particular order of harmonic content closest
to the tuned frequency of the combination than it might do if no reactor were
present. However, the de-tuned capacitor/reactor circuit differs from a filter in
that increasing orders of harmonic current are increasingly rejected and not
accepted.
In the UK, to protect supply systems from the increasing magnitude of High pass 2nd order
or
harmonic currents, the electricity supply boards in conjunction with the damped Figure 10.2 High pass or damped
CEGB have produced a document Engineering Recommendation G5j3 which
lays down definite permissible maxima of various orders of harmonic currents a.c.
System
side
at various voltage and fault levels. Consequently, in the UK at least, the
necessi"ty for installing harmonic filters is decided by the area electricity boards
or CEGB.

REQUIREMENTS FOR HARMONIC FILTERS 6phase

converter

Typical applications for harmonic filters are quoted as:

(1) Direct-current po\ver links in high-voltage transmission systen1s (see
Chapter 9). Ls L7 ct, Ltt

...('
'l
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Electrolytic processes in the chemical industry.
Groups of high-power electric-arc furnaces.
Large steel-rolling mill complexes.
Other industrial loads where specified, including frequency convertecs
5th 7th 11th

Figure 10.3 Tuned shunts lor harmonics on a.c. side. The tuned shunt circuit is, in etlect,
a harmonic filter. In the form of a single three-phase circuit tuned to the 5th harmonic,
its etlect is similar to the fitting of a capacitor with a series de-tuning reactor to prevent
. (i.e. inverters) .
resonance. The application of series de-tuning reactors to prevent resonance is discussed
later in this Chapter in the sections on resonance and series reactors
'!!1'1 ~

Direct-current power links which connect a.c. transmission systems operat-

ing at 100 to 300 kV, and which may transmit peak loads of2000 MW or more, Line Rectifier equipment
require large harmonic filter banks connected to the a. c. systems at each end of
the link. The fundamental frequency ratings of each bank exceed 500 Mvar,
and earlier types of filters could have consisted of five simple 'series-tuned'
circuits or 'arms' per phase. Modern designs, backed by increasing experience,

lc j_c
wl = _1_
we
w= 2JT In Figure 10.4 Filter circuits lor harmonic on a.c. side

In = -i;- J-L~ Notes (Figures 10.3 and 10.4)

L L
Figure 10.1 Series tuning Each arm
tuned lor a single harmonic
To prevent resonance between the system reactance and the power-factor correction
capacitors, each capacitor is provided with a series reactance tuned to the lowest
generated harmonic. Higher-order harmonics can be dealt with in a similar manner if
required. Some economy can be introduced by using tuned circuits lor 6th, 12th,
18th . . harmonic frequencies to shunt 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, 19th . . harmonics
 ~
228 Harmonics and harmonic frlters
could consist of only two 'arms', e.g. a 'damped arm' and a '2nd order filter'. Sec
Figures 10.1 to 10.4.
Because of the magnitude of the loads involved and the corresponding
magnitudes of the harmonic currents generated by the converter equipment,
filter banks are an inherent part of d.c. power-link projects. In addition to their
filter function, harmonic filter banks also provide a degree of reactive load
compensation. As might be expected, filter banks for d.c. power links present
complex design problems, greater than for industrial applications.
Items (2) to (4) above share the same common factor of presenting high-
magnitude loads to the electrical system, 100 to 500 M W at system voltages of
100 to 300 kV. Because these examples are loads which operate at compara-
tively low power factors, any harmonic filter banks will contribute also to the
reactive power compensation as part or even the whole of the compensation
(power-factor correction) required.
Items (3) and (4) also share rapidly-fluctuating load characteristics, and if
voltage flicker is to be controlled then a variable static compensator could be
installed, part of which would include capacitors to fulfil the triple functions of
voltage flicker control, reactive compensation, and harmonic current filters.
Generally speaking, harmonic current filter banks are of a less complex
design for industrial applications than for direct-current power-link projects.
Item (5) may include relatively small loads, below 10 MW, requiring
harmonic filter banks having fundamental frequency ratings as low as 2 M var.
Examples in this category include supplies to thyristor-driven d.c. mine
, "~I winders, frequency converters for induction furnaces, small rolling mills, etc. In
this category the need for harmonic filters may arise from local network
Mit ill
problems and not from the magnitude of the loads to be connected.
ll~
.,
~tlNjj
INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR THE DESIGN OF AN
HARMONIC FILTER
Harmonic filter banks require to be designed specifically for a particular
project and cannot therefore be offered on an 'off-the-shelf' basis.
The requirement for an harmonic filter will usually originate from the
supply authority concerned. If the filter is to perform efficiently over a long
period of time, the specification must be based on the harmonic current
analysis of the system and, from the converter manufacturer, full information
concerning the harmonic currents generated. The most important information
not normally known to either the equipment manufacturer or the capacitor
manufacturer is the details of the electrical system impedance and its
connection with both frequency and time. For filters for direct-current power
links this is vital information which can only be obtained from the supply
Design of capacitors for harmonic filters 229
authority. In industrial systems, however, assumptions can often be made
since the source impedance is usually predominantly transformer impedance.
Apart from the basic supply information, the capacitor manufacturer will
require to know:
(1) The orders and magnitude of the harmonic currents to be accepted by
the harmonic filter and whether future load increases have been allowed
for.
(2) Whether the calculated values of harmonic currents include the effects
of the harmonic filter attracting harmonic currents from external
sources.
(3) Whether all possible variations in source impedance have been
accounted for.
(4) Whether the capacitor bank is also required to provide the dual
function of full reactive power compensation.
DESIGN OF CAPACITORS FOR HARMONIC FILTERS
For capacitor units to give reliable service it is essential that the permissible
over-currents, over-voltages and increases in kvar laid down in typical
specifications, such as BS 1650 or IEC 70, are not exceeded.
Capacitor units required for harmonic filter duty will be required to accept
given magnitudes of various orders of harmonic current which will increase
the nominal line current and hence the thermal duty on the capacitor. In
addition, voltages due to these harmonic currents will appear across the
capacitor and will cause an increase in the r.m.s. voltage. Some degree of de-
rating is, therefore, necessary for capacitors used as harmonic filters.
The normal current overload permitted in typical power capacitor specifi-
cations is 1.3 multiplied by the nominal current, and in determining this factor
due attention has been paid to the fact that a capacitor connected to an
alternating-current power system may be required to accept an unknown
magnitude of unspecified harmonic currents. In the case of a properly designed
harmonic filter the magnitudes and orders of the harmonic currents arc known
and hence, provided that the permitted over-voltages and kvar loading are not
exceeded, the de-rating factor for the capacitors may not be as great as would
be expected.
In designing the filter arms, care must be taken to ensure that a combination
of two arms does not provide a parallel circuit tuned to another harmonic.
To ensure accurate tuning, particular attention must be given to selecting
individual capacitor units so that the filter arms are as close as possible to the
nominal capacitance. Since the introduction of film dielectric capacitors the
problems of de-tuning associated with capacitance 'drift' due to temperature
variations has largely disappeared.
Series inductors are an important component of harmonic filter banks and,
 -~il-
230 Harmonics and harmonic filters
l Resonance
Figure 10.5 A capacitor bank in which
only part provides a filter function
again, the manufacturing tolerances must lie between narrow limits if stable
tuning is to be achieved. Because of the difficulties in defining the precise effects
of harmonics on the iron (causing increased losses), and hence making it
difficult to specify a 'Q' factor (indication of quality of tuning), it is normal to
use air-cored inductors. Oil-cooling is therefore eliminated and reduced
weight provides more flexibility in mounting.
A basic schematic diagram of a capacitor bank in which only part provides a
filter function is shown in Figure 10.5.
'~i I
11
~-I P.RIMARY PROTECTION
~
IIi:!
The nature of the duty of harmonic filters presupposes that they will be
1'
connected to the 11-kV system and upwards and that they will be in circuit
continuously. The circuit-breaker should be selected with the usual provisos
for capacitor switching duty and when arriving at a thermal de-rating factor
notice should be taken of the fact that for a given 50-Hz rating the line current
will be increased above the nominal by the presence of significant harmonic
currents. The effect of the presence of the series inductor in increasing the re-
strike capability of the circuit-breaker should not be overlooked.
The relays providing short-circuit and earth-fault protection may need to be
modified to take account of the harmonic currents flowing into the capacitor
bank.
SECONDARY PROTECTION
This will be more complicated than for a straightforward capacitor bank and
here again modification to the relays themselves may be necessary because of
the harmonic currents flowing.
231
HARMONICS AND CAPACITORS FOR POWER-FACTOR
CORRECTION
Although capacitors were used for power-factor correction before World War
I. the greatest increase in their use for this purpose on a world-wide basis has
occurred since the end of World War II.
Since then also, there has been a great increase in the use of static a.c./d.c.
converter equipment in industry, and in some applications, for example the
metal industries, the use of static equipment has imposed much lower power
factors on the system than those normally associated with a.c./d.c. motor-
generator sets, especially when it is considered that the alternating-current
driving-motor for such equipment, being usually of the synchronous type, was
able to provide a fair degree of power-factor correction itself.
A. C./D.C. converter equipment, with its inherent characteristic of generat-
ing harmonic currents, has also become more widespread on low-voltage
systems (380 to 660 V) especially for use with direct-current variable-speed
motors, and also imposes a low power factor on the alternating-current side of
the system.
Consequently, power-factor correction capacitors may be more exposed
than previously to the effect of harmonic currents flowing in the electrical
system, with the consequent possibility of thermal overloading and increased
vc!tngc stress, both cf vyhich can shorten the life of the capaciLor~.
RESONANCE
Furthermore, the possibility of resonance occurring due to the foregoing must
not be overlooked, as should this occur at a particular harmonic frequency1he
capacitors and the associated circuit may be subjected to current and voltage
overloading, in extreme cases, to currents of up to ten times greater than the
nominal line current.
However, resonant conditions are very rare indeed and many variables are
involved, including the presence of resistance which results in damping
resonance effects. In industrial loads, resistance is provided by the wattful
loads (with the exception ofthyristor loads) of induction motors, heating loads
and the resistance of transformers and cables. In practice, therefore, it has been
found that resonance is extremely unlikely to occur. If it is necessary for this to
be ascertained, the only way to be certain would be to conduct a system study
with all that this implies. Such a course would be expensive and for everyday
industrial installations would not be economical. It would be justified,
therefore, only for very large installations. However, an approximate method
which can provide some guidance as to the possibility of resonance occurring
is provided by the following formula:
Fault level at busbars (kVa) ~tSO-Hz
Resonant frequency j~ = --- - x 50 Hz
) Capacitor rating on busbars at 50 Hz
 ~

232 Harmonics and harmonic filters Harmonic current overloading of capacitors 233

The nominal fault level at the busbars can be calculated from the It follows that with higher orders of harmonics the increase in capacitor
transformer k VA rating and percentage impedance given on the nameplate voltage and kvar loading would be less.
but introducing yet another variable, it is the actual value which will determin~ It must be stressed that the percentages of harmonic currents quoted above
whether or not resonance is likely at a particular harmonic frequency. are to a base representing the nominal capacitor-line current at 50 Hz.
If resonance does occur then it may be overcome by altering the rating of the Manufacturers of converter equipment will quote harmonic current contents
capacitor bank at the location, and moving part of it to another point on the of their equipment at various loads, expressed as a percentage of the 50 Hz
system, if conditions permit. Otherwise the condition may be cured by current at the appropriate load. Typically, for a full-load condition, these
connecting a reactor in series with the capacitor bank to ensure that the could approximate to 20% 5th harmonic, 14% 7th, 9% 11th and 8% 13th for a
combination of capacitor/reactor presents an inductive load to the system at six-pulse converter. For three-phase equipments, 3rd harmonic currents are
the particular resonant frequency. This remedy has been proved in practice. usually negligible. For 12-pulse equipments, these figures will vary and include
23rd and 25th harmonics. It will be found, however, that the highest
percentages in this case apply to the II th and 13th harmonics. In the case of24-
pulse equipments, the highest perceptage harmonics will usually be the 11th,
HARMONIC CURRENT OVERLOADING OF CAPACITORS 13th, 23rd and 25th harmonics.
It is obvious that these quoted percentages bear no relation to the
For a capacitor, its (capacitive) reactance Xc may be expressed as follows: percentages which could appear in a capacitor connected to the same system,
as the fundamental current bases are different. Typical third harmonic current
1
Xc = ---- wh ere C IS
. 111
. f arads waveforms are illustrated in Figure /0.6 showing a third harmonic current in
2nfC phase with the fundamental (50 Hz) current which produces a 'dimpled'
12 resultant current wave. In the second case, the third harmonic current leads
2
and var loading=J Xc=2nfC the fundamental by 90 producing a peaked resultant current wave of higher
magnitude.
This means that for a given current, both impedance and loading are If the third harmonic current lagged the fundamental by 90c, it would be
~II
inversely proportional to frequency and it follows that capacitors in general
are capable of withstanding quite high harmonic currents without damaging
I effects. The higher the frequency, the less likely are the capacitors to suffer
Jl' ~
-- In -r-- r---
overloading.
"'~~: 1/
Power capacitors manufactured in accordance with national and in-
ternational specifications should have an r.m.s. current overload capability of
1.3 times their rated current at rated mains frequency (50 or 60Hz). Since this
I
II
r ['\ v ~
I' \
II
1/
v
f'J ~I\
1\\
.~
I
I

is an r.m.s. figure, to achieve this value a current at a single harmonic frequency

would have to be 83% of the fundamental (50 Hz) current and currents at two '
' I

harmonic frequencies would each have to be 58% of the fundamental capacitor 11 ll I 1\ ) li\ I 1\ I
current. These are high values, and generally percentages of harmonic currents
obtained from harmonic analyses of capacitor-line currents give much lower
0
\ J
'I
I ' \!J
\
0 0
1 ' J. ' ' i
'IJ
J
0

values. These values should, of course, be reduced if, for example, the actual \ 11 I \ !J ! \l I \ Ill
line voltage was significantly above the nominal system value for long periods. ll II
~
These figures do not take into account the effects of the harmonic current(s)
on kvar loading and capacitor voltage. For 5th harmonic currents, the loading
would be increased by 16%, which is acceptable, and the voltage by the same
r-- .
\
1\.\ /
l
1\. r.J
I
-------
' 1"'1
\ 1\
J
figure, which is outside the 10% normally permitted. But a 50% 5th harmonic
\ \
1./
' 1\. ...)
current would be acceptable, as a single harmonic, giving a voltage increase of 1\ I
r-- "~t---
10%.
For the 11th harmonic, with 83% harmonic current, the voltage increase Harmonic in phase Harmonic 90' lead
"'
(and increase in kvar loading) would be H = 7.5'/~ increase. Figure 1 0.6 Typical waveforms showing the effect of harmonic currents
 ~

234 Harmonics and harmonic filters Site-testing of capacitors 235

found that the resultant current wave would be smoother and of lower 5%. In practical terms, this means that the capacitors to be used with 5% series
magnitude. This shows that capacitive circuits tend to magnify harmonic reactors on a 415- V system must be designed for continuous operation at
currents and inductive currents tend to supress them, due to the fact that 440 V.
inductive reactance varies directly as harmonic frequency while capacitive The percentage voltage rise across the capacitor for a given tuned frequency
reactance varies inversely. For example, a fifth harmonic voltage of 1% of the is:
fundamental would produce a current of 5% of the fundamental value if
applied to a capacitor. 1
V10/ =~X 100
0
n2

SERIES REACTORS where n= ~ (for 50-Hz systems)

One method of preventing resonant conditions in circuits where capacitors are J, =required tuned frequency
connected to the same busbars as harmonic current genet:ating equipment is
by connecting de-tuning reactors in series with the capacitors. Provided that INFORMATION REQUIRED BY CAPACITOR
the source impedance always remains inductive (only in the most exceptional MANUFACTURER
conditions does it become capacitive), a properly designed reactor/capacitor
combination will present an inductive path to all orders of harmonic current In order to obtain sufficient data upon which to base capacitor designs for use
following in the particular current. In most three-phase power systems, on systems in which harmonic currents flow, certain basic information is
converters are seldom less than of the six-pulse type and the lowest order of required, broadly defined below:
harmonic current of any significance is the 5th. By tuning the capaCitor;
reactor group to a frequency of 225Hz, it will be inductive at 250Hz, thus (1) System voltage variation.
preventing the possibility of a resonant condition occurring. The combination (2) System fault level both minimum and maximum.
tuned to 225Hz will not reject harmonics completely, indeed it may tend to (3) System diagram indicating:
accept more 5th harmonic than otherwise, but rejection will increase as (a) Location, rating and effective pulse number(s) of main harmonic
~ harmonic frequency increases. generating load.
(b) Location and rating of other main loads.
Jli Experience has proved that specifications for series re?ctors must be very

.,
<j
strict, especially as to tolerance and performance under short-circuit con-
ditions. The latter proviso applies particularly to iron-cored reactors, for
which type also the iron losses should be calculated carefully since the effects of
harmonic currents on iron cores are not fully understood. Iron-cored reactors,
normally air-cooled, are used with low-voltage capacitors, but with high-
voltage industrial type capacitors, reactors are oil-cooled. For larger open-
rack type high-voltage capacitors, air-cored, air-cooled reactors may be
employed economically and these generally have a better performance than
their oil-cooled counterparts.
Where it is necessary to use series reactors with either low-voltage or high-
voltage, multi-step, automatically-controlled capacitor banks, each individual
step must have its own reactor. This is necessary to preserve the correct tuning
irrespective of the switching state of the capacitor bank.
Because capacitive currents flowing through inductors produce a voltage
rise, it follows that a capacitor with a series reactor will be subjected to a
permanent increase in voltage, irrespective of the normal, permitted system
voltage variations. Hence, all capacitors for use with series reactors must be
de-rated with respect to voltage. In the case of capacitor/reactor combinations
tuned to 225 Hz, the increase of voltage across the capacitor is approximately
(c) Location and rating of existin'g capacitors.
(d) Location of proposed new capacitor.
(e) Transformer ratios, ratings and impedance.
(f) Proposed future load extensions.
From this data, the recommendations submitted by the capacitor manufac-
turer would certainly stipulate that any capacitors for connection to the
system should be de-rated to allow for series reactors to be added, if they were
not already included, at some later date should circumstances dictate. They
would probably specify, if reactors were not fitted, that site tests be carried out
on the capacitors after commissioning in service to ensure that no harmonic
current overloading was being experienced. Allowances should be made in
layout plans to permit space for the addition of series reactors should
subsequent operational experience prove this to be desirable.
SITE-TESTING OF CAPACITORS
The increase in the use of thyristor convertor equipments for industrial
applications over recent years has made it more desirable to monitor capacitor
 ~
236 Harmonics and harmonic f1lters
line currents after installation, to ensure that increases due to harmonic
currents do not exceed permissible overloads.
If it is merely a question of determining the percentage increase in capacitor
line currents caused by harmonic currents, this can be obtained by measuring
the capacitor line current by means of a clip-on ammeter, in the case of low-
voltage capacitors, or by observing the ammeter reading on the controlling
circuit-breaker in the case of high-voltage capacitors. This reading can then be
compared with the nominal line current of the capacitor marked on the
nameplate. The actual line voltage must also be measured as the capacitor line
current marked on the nameplate is calculated from the nominal system
voltage.
A nominal assessment of harmonic content can be made by means of a
harmonic analyser indicating the voltage across a filter circuit tuned to the
desired harmonic and comparing.it with the measurement of the fundamental
frequency. The percentage harmonic currents may usually be read direct from
each tuning.
Alternatively, a recording of the oscillographic trace of the current
waveform may be subjected to a Fourier analysis by taking the amplitude of
the wave, say, every 5 to 10 angular displacement in the wave, and using this
data as the basis for the analysis.
More sophisticated harmonic analysers are now available with computer
and data print-out facilities. One such equipment is the Robinson analyser
used mainly by the electricity supply authorities and research organisations.
The main effects of harmonic current on the capacitor are:
~ (!) The increase in current taken by the capacitor, and
Ill
(2) The heating effect of such .harmonic currents. If due allowance for this
"ll has not been taken into account in the capacitor design it could lead to
thermal instability, reduction in overall life and eventual failure of the
capacitor.
11 High-voltage capacitors
- special applications
A number of capacitor applications are of such specialised nature that this
Chapter has been divided into sections dealing with high-voltage applications,
not power-frequency operation, while Chapter 12 deals with similar spe-
cialised low-voltage applications.
High-voltage capacitors with noteworthy duties are summarised into:
Capacitors for surge protection
Surge generator capacitors
Synthetic testing of switchgear
Capacitor voltage transformers (CVT)
Carrier current injection capacitors
Ripple control
Energy storage capacitors.
HV capacitor banks for transformer testing
CAPACITORS FOR SURGE PROTECTION
Overhead power lines and overhead electric traction systems are susceptible to
high over-voltages during electric storms. The resultant surges from these
disturbances are a source of danger to electrical equipment connected to the
system, and protection of such equipment is advisable, particularly in the case
of rotating machines (such as motors and generators) which pose problems
somewhat different from those involved in static apparatus (such as transfor-
mers and switchgear). Power transformers, for example, are designed to
withstand the impulse levels of the system and, being immersed in insulating
fluid, can withstand these high impulse voltages. The insulation strength of
machines is less. The insulation is dry and space is limited. Not only must the
machine withstand the impulses from conductors to frame, but the voltage
stress between turns of multi-turn coils sets a limitation, and the magnitude of
the surge voltage must be controlled so that it will not cause breakdown of
turn-to-turn insulation, resulting in short-circuited turns.
Surges may occur anywhere in the system and are not necessarily confined
to lightning, although this is usually considered the worst case. They may have
an infinite variety of shapes (Figure 11.1) ranging from a short wave of high
amplitude to a long one of low amplitude, any one of which is capable of
237
 238 High-voltage capacitors- special applications
Capacitors for surge protection 239

Crest 2
/? = ------~~
- pC2 1 +1

1/2
where 1 =a unit wave of peak magnitude C (used also as a symbol of unit
function in Heaviside's Operational Calculus)

The figure '2' is introduced to account for the wave-doubling effect at the
1-10 100-1000 line termination (i.e. capacitor).
Time in microseconds Generally, the solution is
Figure 11.1 Generalised waveshape of a lightning stroke v time. Standard wave used in
tests in the UK is 1 /50 microsecond, i.e. 1 microsecond to crest, 50 microseconds to half 12 =2E(c-"' -s- 11')
(1)
value
where <;=base of Naperian logs= 2.718 and CJ. and fJ are constants,
causing dam(lge to the equipment. Those that arise at the point where the
and the worst condition is for e 1 = 1, which is the case of a un_it function, in
equipment is connected, a direct strike, are the most dangerous, but apart from which the solution is given by
the fact that the great majority will originate at other than these points, it is
/ 2 =2(1-~;-t/CZ)
uneconomical to cater for such contingencies.
Capacitors provide one form of protection and will modify the shape of
which is the usual solution for the charging-up of a capacitor through an
wave by reducing the steepness of the wave front to acceptable levels, i.e. impedance Z.
reducing the rate of change of voltage d Vjdt to acceptable levels. However.
capacitors do not limit the amplitude of the surge appreciably and com- For a 1/50 microsecond wave
binations of capacitors, surge arresters, silicon diodes and non-linear resistors 12 = [1.036(e-ooJ46t -e-256')]2
have been adopted.
In designing capacitors for use in a given system it is necessary to assign a and for a 1/5 microsecond wave
,. hypothetical surge condition, which should not be less onerous than the worst 12 = [ l.S 1(8-ozsJ, _ C us')] 2
-~ condition likely to occur in practice. The capacitors have then to be related to
'"'Jill the surge impedance of the system. and the general solution to (!)

~r.-~ Thus, in the analysis of the effect of the capacitor it is usual to restrict the
applied surge to a point remote from the point of connection to the equipment 12 =____3_!!_- (c->t _ 0 -t/CZ)- -~-(~;-fit _ 0 -r;CZ)
, .
:i'~lift~

' ~'
to the system, i.e. to a travelling wave system, and to select a waveform
generally representative of an onerous condition.
1-CJ.CZ

and for a 1/50 microsecond wave

1-{JC2

, =--:r
Diagrammatically, the circuit can be represented as
12 2.072 001 '6 cz 2.072 2-6 ;cz
f z, (c "'-e-' 1 ) - - (e- ''-~:-' -)
1-0.0!46CZ 1-2.56CZ
For a 1/5 microsecond wave
{2

3.62
I=~~~--~(~:-
2 - '-e-' ;cz-)- 3.62 (e- 135 '-~:--' ;cz-)
02'3
1- 0.253CZ 1 -1.35CZ
where 2 1 =line surge impedance
2 2 =capacitor impedance
= 1/pC The value of CZ is, therefore, of prime importance. However, the greater the
/ 1 =travelling wave magnitude 11
value of C the flatter is the front of the wave, and hence, while there is a
/ 2 =voltage across capacitor
minimum value, greater values are beneficial. Generally accepted practice uses
p =operator 0.5 pF on systems in the range 2.4 to 6.9 k V and 0.25 pF in the range 11.5 to
13.8 kV and 0.125 pF for higher-voltage systems.
22 The capacitors are connected to the motor terminals, one to each phase with
12 =----e/1
21 +22 the common point connected to earth, i.e. star-connected. It is not considered
~ll!~~~."'$1!i11lilta!Eii$Rlt4!kM.{ItUI.'$MiilMiiIIM5il5!!!!!!11!1lli!:@t!AAMI! I %Q~iMII - *iiW!1!!!!il!!t!!@t!!iillit!!lll!!'r$j':1i't&111lh$!!!@lii~EH~ilm---1iM$li!Jii!M

240 l11gh voltage cap<Kitors spec1al appl1cat1ur1s

Surge generator capacitors 241
advisable to connect a number of motors to one switchgear unit because of
Table 11.3 Capacitors and arresters for use with rotating machines
multiple earths. ---------------------------------
1\llachine " -- CdfkiCIIOr
~Urge
voltage Capacitance Arrester
(l) Since the capacitors are of the single-bushing type, the final tests are from voltage raung Arrester not
rating grounded effectively
bushing to case, and tests of the major insulation, rendering the impulse (kV rm.s.) (kV r.m.s.) (11F) grounded
voltage test unnecessary. (kV r.m s.) (kV rms)
(2) The inductance of the capacitor is normally low enough to be neglected in 0.65 0.65
2.4
1.0 065/075
comparison with the surge rating. 2.4 0.5 0 65/0.75
4.16 4 16 3.0 3.0
(3) No de-rating is needed since this is built into the design in assessing the 4.8 0.5 3.0
48 0.5 45
surge rating. 6.9 6.9 4.5 60
11 5 0.5 6.0
(4) When considering the stress on the dielectric the peak voltage value, and 11.2 0.25 75
13.8 13.8 9.0 120
not the r.m.s. voltage value is used. 0.25 12.0 15.0
(5) A short-term voltage rating can be given in accordance with N EMA - --- -------
Tile wave Iron; should be 1educed m dura11on to 10 to 20 miCroseconds or greater to avwJ b1eakdowr oJ the 1un1 1uu1
ltiSU!at:Otl
specification CPI 1973, shown in Tc1hlr I 1.1. In addition, the number of
incidents should be limited as shown in Tc1hlr 11.2.
SURGE GENERATOR CAPACITORS
Table 11.1 Permissible short-term sinusoidal overvoltages
Insulation is related to the highest system voltage (see second column of Tc1h/e
Permissible duration Multiplving factorx 11.4) and this is defined as the highest line-to-line r.m.s. voltage which is
rated rm s. voltage sustained under normal operating conditions at any time at a point on the
system.
1 half -cycle 3.0
1 cycle 27 Equipmem designed to test insulation to such levels comprises a basic
1 5 cycles 20
1 second 175
15 seconds 14 Table 11.4 Basic impulse withstand levels
1 minute 1.3
Rated system

rfi.
5 minutes 1.2 Highest svstem Impulse withstand
1.1 5. voltage voltage
30 minutes voltage
(kV rm s.)
(kV peak)
I
3.6
6.6 45 (30)* (
Table 11.2 Recommended limits to number of incidents per year 72 60 (45)*
11.0 12.0 >r
13.8 75 (60) * ~~ !
Probable number of Permissible peak Permissible peak 1 5.0
incidents/vear transient voltage x transient current x
no 24.0
95
11<

330 125
r ms rated volts rms. rated current 36.0 170
66.0
72.5 325
4 5.0 1500
40 40 1150 Full
400 3.4 800 Reduced
insulation
4000 2.9 400 insulation
88.0
1000 450
110 0 380
Note: In the case ot d c tractton. 1\ts commor1 to use r.tgh values of capac:tO:lce a value of 4 Jlf- ts constdered t10ri1Ltl" 123.0 550
conJUnCtiOn wtth a non-ltnear reststo (s~;rge arrester)
132.0 450
145.0 650
220 0 550
245.0 1050
275.0 900
300.0
330 0 1050
400 0 360.0
420 0 1175
The capacitors are not fused, since fuse operation would result in the loss of 500.0
525.0 1425
protection. As a consequence it is usual to de-rate the capacitors in the design 750 0 1800
1000.0+ 765.0
stage, or increase their voltage rating by at least 10?{. 11000 2300
2800
Summarising, Tc;b/e 11.3 lists capacitors and arresters for use with rotating 1
+ 1,: :n L\3rc,Jt. 1Pses dte atternJttves lor
iflStallat'OI1S
machines.
 242 Hrgh-voltage capacitors~ special applicatrons Surge generator capacitors 243

(a)
Output ~~
voltage

\.
I
R

I ~~
":"

(b) Wave front Wave tail ----------~-~

0.9 ----~
,I

~
I
L.5 ~1__ 1
~----

I
-
-
"''Il
~~ 0.1
li
t2 tp t3
Time-..

Figure 11.2 (a) Basic circuit for a surge generator (Marx). C1 , C2 , Cr~apacitors; G 1 ,
G 2, G 3 ~spark-gaps; R--resistors. (b) Method of measuring time to wave peak of a
1 /50 l's waveform
resistance/capacitance Marx network as illustrated in Figure 11.2(a) resulting
in a waveform approximately as shown in Figure 11.2(b).
The voltage waveform is one in which the voltage rises to its peak value
rapidly, i.e. in 1 ps. and thereafter decays to half peak value in, say, 50 ps. This
is the 1/50 wave quoted in the normal (British Standard) requirement.
The design of such capacitors is based on a series arrangement of flattened
elements interleaved with pressboard separators to prevent flashover between
winding connections, similar to capacitor voltage-transformer (CVT) stacks
but of higher capacitance. The elements are usually of the extended-foil type to
reduce the inductance to reasonable values, but it should be borne in mind that
the major source of the inductance in the system is the large loop formed in
Figure 11.3 A 6-MV, 450-kJ mobile surge generator. Each stage 0.375 flF, 200 kV,
750 kJ, in a cast-resin case (BICC)
assembling the capacitors and spacing insulators between stages. However,
normal test procedure stipulates testing with a 1/50 ps wave and this should be
easy to achieve.
Capacitors are normally rated at 120 to 200 k V per stage but higher ratings
are possible; the 0.12 ;<f, 400 kV, 9.6 kJ per stage achieved in the surge
generator installed at the National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, UK, is
an instance.
Figure 11.3 shows a 6-MV, 450-kJ mobile surge generator with each stage
0.375 pF, 200 kV, 750 kJ mounted in a cast-resin case.
To produce the high unidirectional voltage required, a Marx generator
,.....--~- -------~ ~

',,

244 H1gh-voltage capacit01s- spec1al applications Synthetic testing of switchgear 24 5

Master Make Aux_ T

circuit is used in which the capacitors are charged by a high voltage connected k
b rea~
sw1tch b k riggered
~ spark-gap
in parallel and are then discharged in series by the sequential firing of

Jcc~~ J~2~Jti
interstage spark-gaps. The only control required is on the first gap which holds
off the charging voltage until it is triggered. The remaining gaps are then over-
voltaged and automatically fired.
c,
Tests applied comprise a series of impulses consisting of five consecutive
positive impulses and five consecutive negative impulses, positive and negative
being in respect to earth.
The capacitance of the test samples will determine the size or capacitance of I
the generator. The larger the test capacitance, the larger the generator (a) =
capacitance. For insulator testing where the stray capacitance of the insulator
to earth is low, the generator capacitance can be a minimum. In general the
generator capacitance should be at least .ten times that of the test or the
waveform will be modified.
Variations of the standard 1/50 wave can be used---thus a tail length of
1,
200 11s or 1000 ps. In certain research programmes the use of a wave-front less
than 1 11s is required and this can only be achieved by using capacitors of very
low inductance with parallel plate busbars and special low-inductance
triggered gaps as used in plasma physics (see Section 'Energy storage

voltage_~ ~~rnl\o-.
capacitors' later in this Chapter).

uJuUUvv--
Transient recovery
(b)
SYNTHETIC TESTING OF SWITCHGEAR ocw "" ''""" """'"

The synthetic method of testing switchgear is not new and a variety of circuits

~
has been used for years for research and development. Its application as a
means of proving circuit-breakers in recent years has been the subject of
considerable investigation. In particular a co-ordinated series of investigations
""~ on a collaborative basis was undertaken by representatives of AST A, the
~",: British electrical manufacturing industry, the CEGB and the Electrical
,,)
Research Association (ERA), whose findings have been fully reported.
The subject, however, is far too extensive to be recorded here in any detail
and for further reference the reader should consult The J & P Switchgear Book
(Butterworths). Two methods are covered in the AST A rules. The first is the
parallel current injection method, in which by definition the voltage circuit is
effectively connected in parallel with the current circuit and the test-breaker
before main current zero. The other is the series current injection method in
which the voltage circuit is effectively connected in series with the current
circuit and the test-breaker before main current zero. The former method has
been the one used foremost in the validity testing performed in the UK and is
preferred. It is suitable for testing with transient recovery voltages whose
frequencies are 1 kHz and above. For frequencies below this the method may
be doubtful and for these the series injection method may be used.
Figure 11.4(a) shows the circuit used in the parallel current injection
method, and the current circuit comprises a generator or a generator/
transformer combination, a master-breaker and making switch in series with
Figure 11.4 Synthetic testing of switchgear-parallel current injection method.
(a) Schematic diagram, (b) current and voltage waveforms (ASTA)
an inductance L, to control the short-circuit current, an auxiliary circuit-
breaker and the test circuit-breaker.
The voltage circuit comprises a source capacitor charged from a separate
direct-current source in series with a triggered spark-gap and an inductive low
voltage, the whole being connected across the test circuit-breaker in parallel
with capacitor C, which controls the frequency of the transient recovery
voltage.
Operation of the circuit is as follows. Read in conjunction with the current
and voltage waveforms shown in Figure 11.4(b). The current circuit is set to
give the power-frequency current, the make switch being open and the
auxiliary- and test-breakers both closed. The source capacitor C 0 is charged to
a value appropriate to the required test voltage. If the make switch is closed at
the voltage peak the symmetrical test current I, will flow through the
auxiliary- and test-breakers in series. At a predetermined time t 0 the auxiliary
and test-breakers open and arcing commences in both. At a time t 1 the
triggered spark-gap is fired and the current I v flows from the source through
the test-breaker, adding to the power frequency current I" When the power-
frequency current reaches zero at the timet 2 , the auxiliary breaker interrupts
 T

246 High-voltage capac1tors spec1a! applications Capacitor voltage transformers 24 7

leaving the current I v to form the voltage circuit flowing alone through the
test-breaker. At a time 13 , I v will reach zero, and the test circuit-breaker will
attempt to interrupt. Should interruption occur, capacitor C, will be charged
from C 0 through Lv causing the transient recovery voltage to appear across the
test-breaker. If the test-breaker re-ignites, the current from the high-voltage
circuit will be re-established through the test-breaker.
If the voltage 0 to which C 0 is charged is equal to the peak value of the
power-frequency component of the test recovery voltage, and the com-
ponents of the voltage circuit (C, and Lv) have the same values as those which
would have been used in an equivalent direct test, both the rate of change of
current I v at its zero and the transient recovery voltage will approximate
closely to the conditions of direct test.
Figure 11.5 shows the series current injection circuit from which it can be
seen that the voltage circuit is connected across the auxiliary circuit-breaker
instead of across the test circuit-breaker.
CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
This form of capacitor (CVT) can be used for carrier current injection purposes
into the 132 kV and 275 kV national grid systems.
These capacitors are normally supplied in porcelain housings in order to
withstand outdoor conditions, whereas capacitors for use as voltage dividers
indoors can be in resin-bonded paper, or epoxide resin housings.
The CVT normally consists of a number of flattened windings interleaved
with insulation to prevent flashovers from one element to an adjacent one.
Elements are of the extended-foil types to reduce the phase angle of the
capacitor due to inductance, and are stacked in layers between resin-bonded
fabric rods. Pressure is applied to the stack and a retaining plate secured when
the stack reaches a prescribed compression limit. The construction is
illustrated in Figure 11.6, ana their use as a capacitor potential divider is the
275-kV grid system as shown in Figure 11.7.
Usually mineral oil is used as the imp regnant for these capacitors because of
the need to fill most of the free space in the housing. Chlorinated oils are not

brea~
Master s:,tch
M ': (
X
break~er
':"
L,
l
Tnggered

" " ' "'"

normally used due to their being so much more expensive than mineral oil.

' ---;;-, I.
l--~~---,
~~
vc
'- ~::;::r T. C co=:=y Eo
Tj
Oiil(' (a) y -=-
11:1;
tf

.~:--i;;;
~~
~~':~~
~~~
~
~It~
~-~
-~~

Transient recovery voltage

(b) across test circuit-breaker - - - - -

Figure 11.6 Construction of CVT showing

Figure 11 .5 Synthetic testing of switchgear-series current injection method. flattened windings stacked in layers, prior
(a) Schematic diagram, (b) current and voltage waveforms (ASTA) to insertion in housing
!lfli!IIIIWM:I.~IMUIMMINdM!@i;pwiMftA~!!It&llt$4lldMIM!N!SIWWfl$-llM*M*&M WiWiiiJI

-.,...

Ripple control 249

o:i
248 High-voltage capacitors- special applicatiOilS

Line trap Line trap

\:_'\
--D I Overhead line I Q--

/!...-Pi]--
Couplmg capacitor

~"'"'m"'" ~ocm-
~'
~' Tuntng Inductance

Carrier

Matchmg
Matching "':"" "":"' transformer
transforrner

Figure 11.8 Coupling capacitor connections for superimposed high-frequency control

equipment

part of terminal equipment for the control and protection of unmanned

systems in which high-frequency control signals are carried by the main
conductors. A schematic diagram for a single-channel line system is shown in
Figure 11.8.
Such systems have special advantages for high-voltage lines where the use of
tA
-=
=
pilot wires is practically ruled out due to their cost, and the effect of the
secondary circuit burden. Multi-channel operation involves simultaneous
transmission at different frequencies selected by different tuning devices. The

~
signal is independent of load current.

c
A capacitor voltage transformer is simpler in construction than the
conventional voltage transformer which includes many turns of fine wire that

~-
~ introduce a possible source of weakness in the insulation of the transmission
l,!
Figure 11.7 Capacitor voltage transformer in use as a potential divider on the British
275 kV grid system
Moreover, the element stacks are handled following impregnation, which
must be carried on outside the porcelain housing, with the consequent risk of
contamination if chlorinated oils were to be used.
The most interesting feature of the design, however, is that the operating
stress is governed by the magnitude of the voltage surges which it might
encounter on the system. which is well defined. See Table 11.4. As a result the
normal operating stress of the capacitors is well below maximum.
Thus, capacitors required to operate on a 132-kV system must withstand an
over-voltage test of 300 kV r.m.s. but the capacitors will operate on a phase
voltage of 76.2 k V, i.e. an over-voltage of four times the operating voltage.
CARRIER CURRENT INJECTION CAPACITORS
Line coupling capacitors for the injection of carrier currents into overhead
power lines used for remote control and metering purposes are an essential
line. In addition, the capacitors do not require isolators or high-rupturing-
capacity fuses as protection.
Typical ratings are 2000 pF operating at 76.5 k V r.m.s., 3680 var plus 0.04
11F, 5 kV r.m.s., 314 var, as the lower section. Low inductance is obtained by
using a multi-packed stack of extended foil windings as illustrated later in
Figure 11.17. Mineral oil is used as the imp regnant anf filling fluid to lower the
risk of contamination, as mentioned in the previous Section on capacitor
voltage transformers.
RIPPLE CONTROL
Ripple control, involving the injection of medium frequency currents into low
and high voltage distribution systems, is used for the control of street lighting
and other functions.
Typical magnitudes and frequencies of the coded signals currents are 50 A at
500/800 Hz. Capacitors form part of tuned links through which the signals
currents are injected into the system(s) and typical ratings are 2.5 11F at
6.35 kV. The duty cycle is fairly light and standard single-phase high-voltage
power capacitors, three per assembly, could be employed. These capacitors
form an integral part of the ripple equipment, and Figure 11.9 illustrates
examples of typical ripple control circuits.
 ~
j

250
General considerations 251
(a)

Alternator selection
Variable
inductors C .
ENERGY STORAGE CAPACITORS
~a~Citors
J--}
contacto\
The role and general characteristics of capacitors used for energy storage

~
:Ha
~
f J---. 6600
volts
purposes is dealt with in this Section. Every capacitor is capable of being
j ~J--.- supply charged and discharged on mains frequencies at 50 or 60Hz. However, the
energy-storage type of capacitor is charged with unidirectional current over a
f
Isolating
transformer Rhythm i Jong period of time, i.e. of the order of a minute, and discharged in a
I
Alternator
contactor HT
HRC fuses
comparatively short time (of the order of nanoseconds, microseconds, or
milliseconds) thereby producing a high current in the discharge circuit.
Application of energy-storage capacitors ranges over a wide field including
the shock magnetisation of metals, laser excitation, shock-wave testing of
aircraft components, the electro-hydraulic and electro-magnetic formation of
(b)

~ tf Station
alternator
metals, replacing the explosive charges previously used .
Perhaps the greatest application has been in the controlled thermo-nuclear

~~bars I lF L }~~bars
reactor (CTR) field which is still actively pursued in addition to the Tokomac
{ I I f T machines in which the energy is stored inductively (tLI 2 ).
In all cases the units are defined by the stored energy in joules or kilo joules
at the rated charging voltage, J = tCV 2 . Banks of such units arc assembled in
series/parallel combination to achieve an overall rating of severalmegajoules,
LT { LT
busbars
1
1 v .0
1. 0 I.C II } feeder if this is required.

Coupling capacitors
Control switch GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

In a circuit comprising a capacitance (C) in farads in series with an inductance

(L) in henries and a resistance (r) in ohms, the current (I) in amperes, in an
oscillator discharge, is given by the expression:
(c) To feeders
~ I= 2nfCVc exp(- rt/2L) x sin 2nt
Section 2
where };=resonant frequency=J(l/LC-r 2 /4L2 )x 1/2n
Injection transformer
fo= J(l/LC) x l/2n
C =capacitance (farads)
Tuning inductor
Vc =charging voltage (volts)
r =total circuit resistance (internal and external) (ohms)
L =total circuit inductance (henries)
t =time (seconds)

Magnitude of first current peak

/(peak)= VcJ( c; L) X exp(- rtp/2L)
tP =time to first current peak
= j(l- r2 /4L2 ) tan -r J[l/LC- r2 /413) x 2L/r]
Injection transformer
'-------'
To feeders
For critically damped circuits when 1/ LC = r 2/4L2
Figure 11.9 Typical ripple-control circuits. (a) Principle of high-voltage parallel injection, Maximum current is given by / 1peakl = Vel ex j( C/L)
(b) principle of low-voltage parallel injection. (c) principle of high-voltage series
injection
where e=base of naturallogarithm=2.7183
 Clamped discharge operation 253
252 High-voltage capacitors- special applicatio11s

From this, it can be seen that for maximum . .

current the charginob voltd~ -------------
Table 11 .5 Characteristics of discharge waveforms
----~---- -~---------
Clamped
should be high and the inductance at a mm1mum. In practice. charging R<4L R=4L
voltages are 111 the range 10 to 40 kV d.c., thus keep1~g the msulation of the
auxiliary equipment to reasonable levels. Some expenments have been made Dielectric v v
voltage v
in which the charging voltage has been 100 kV d.c. The inductance would v Vc ..... V
Vc=--- --- Vc=V
Cl1arg'mg voltage
normally be of the order of 10 nanohenries to 10 millihenries giving raks of rise (1 +R/100)
e- rc/20
times (T-JL) of 20 picoseconds (20 x 10- 12 seconds) to 1 microsecond (lO-" Damping factor
e-r../20

seconds). It should be noted that the inductance is the total inductance in the 1
~cv2 (1+R';10o)2 KV 2
circuit, and there is little point in using very low inductance capacitor units Stored energy
unless the remaining circuitry, i.e. the wiring and/or busbars, is equally well 1
designed. Stored energy factor (1"+ R 11 00) ;;
VcwC
/C:: = VcwC
Peak current VcJ~= VcwC e
Vc
\ L
DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS voltage rcversJI c--capacrtance 0 c1rCUI!
fa\lcw=Li!J;r.

)- /.;r!z= '2rr (c1rcurr reson<:~r1t r= total crrcurt resrstance e-- base of Naperrcm
11
The type of discharge depends upon the circuit in which the capacitor
operates. This can vary from a lightly-damped discharge in which the
to peak, it is possible to operate capacitors which do not reverse in voltage, i.e.
discharge decays exponentially, sometimes known as a ringing discharge
under critically-damped and non-oscillatory conditions, at a higher charging
because the resistance and losses are minimal (R < 4L), to a critically-damped
circuit in which the circuit resistance R = 4L giving a non-oscillatory dischame voltage and therefore higher stress.
and a highly-damped circuit (R > 4L) which is non-oscillatory (Figure 1l.IO).
This is illustrated in Figure 11.11, and Table 11.5 illustrates some of the main
CLAMPED DISCHARGE OPERATION
features of these circuits. Too much energy is lost in the resistor in the highly-
damped circuit to make it important.
Operation under critically-damped conditions leads to a reduction in the
Because ionisation effects depend upon the excursion in voltage from peak
maximum discharge current by a factor of lje. Howev~r, if the capacitor is
'clamped' by means of a triggered switch or spark-gap, such that it short
circuits the load immediately the voltage starts to reverse, advantage can be
taken of the increased voltage stress permissible of the capacitor (see Figure

i
Vc
11.12). As an example, a unit normally rated as having a stored energy of 2 kJ
in an oscillatory circuit could be rated at 4 kJ under clamped conditions, to off-

l
Figure 11.10 Basic tuned circuit
-= Main
switch
D.C.s~

~l
c_
Clamp Load
v,
switch
\\ / '\
VI I I
' I" A
\
\
Current without clamprng

-
-= \
'
Voltage without
clamping
R V ...... _'!....
100 c
Time
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 11 .12 Clamp circuit and waveforms
Figure 11.11 Characteristics of discharge waveforms. (a) R <4L. (b) R=4L, (c) clamped
 . _,.
2 54 H1gh -voltage capacitors--special applications
set the cost of the triggered gap and/or the switch. However, it is important to
ascertain that the original rating applies to an oscillatory discharge duty. In
actual fact intermediate ratings occur and are dependent upon the amount the
voltage will reverse in the circuit. For laser excitation, the duty is a non-
reversing voltage one.
PROTECTION OF CAPACITORS IN A BANK
The discharge currents in large banks can be very high, of the order of many
kiloamperes of short duration, and it is impracticable to provide internal fuses
to protect the capacitor. External fuses have been used to isolate sections and
units which are faulty, due, say, to an external flashover of ancillary
equipment.Jn'order to limit fault currents in the case of a dielectric failure of a
unit it is usual to limit the parallel connection of units within the bank to
blocks of about 30 kJ. Such blocks can be connected to the work area by
coaxial cables thus introducing impedance separation between blocks. Thus,
under fault conditions, only energy available within the block (30 kJ) would be
available immediately, and result only in mechanical damage (i.e. bulging of
the case) avoiding catastrophic damage.
It is essential that the coaxial cables are of the same length between blocks,
to obtain the same transit time to the work area.
LIFE REQUIREMENTS
Normal operational duty involves a finite life. The repetition rate of discharges
can be low due to the limitation of the charging equipment, say, of the order of
ten discharges per minute, which means the resistive and dielectric losses are
low and heating effects can normally be neglected. A ten-year life would
approximate to a total of 1.2 x 106 discharges (based on an eight-hour day 250
days per year). By way of comparison, mains-frequency capacitors operating
continuously over a period of ten years the unit would have experienced
15.8 x 10 9 voltage reversals.
The necessity for a finite life can be capitalised upon by increasing the
charging stress in the dielectric above the ionisation level, although the extent
of the up-rating depends upon the system used.
DIELECTRIC SYSTEM
Originally minerai-oil-impregnated paper of high density was used for
capacitors while a number of experiments were carried out to evaluate
different systems. Life tests were made on high-density (HD) Kraft paper
impregnated with castor oil and pentachlorbiphenyl (PCB) which yielded the
Pulse repetition rate 255
Table 11.6 Comparison of life performances of dielectric systems
Oil/paper combinalion Life x permi1i!V!Iy Figure of meri1
Castor oii/H D Kraft paper 4 1 X 10 5 X 5 5 22.5x 105
Mineral oii/H D Kraft paper 1 0 x 10 5 x 4 2 4.2x 10 5
PCB/HD Kraft paper 2. 9 X 10 4 X 5. 5 1.59x10 5
information summarised in Table 1 J .6. A figure of merit can be calculated from
the product of the life in discharges under standard conditions and the
permittivity as shown in Table 1 1.6.
From Table 11.6 it can be seen that the castor oil/Kraft paper gives the best
performance. Other dielectrics have been used for small capacitors parti-
cularly polyethylene terephthalate (PET) marketed under the trade names of
Melinex or Mylar. Most other thermoplastic films have a lower overall
permittivity, particularly when the thick electrodes needed to withstand the
high surge currents are taken into account.
PAPER DIELECTRIC
Impregnated Kraft paper is used for economic reasons. Because of the low
repetition rate of discharges, high-density paper with its relatively higher
dielectric loss factor (tan o) can be used for normal operation at these low rates
of discharge. Further improvements in performance can be obtained by
incorporating alumina into the paper which increases the life ~xpectancy and
makes the results more uniform. Other additives to the oil could produce the
same effect.
The purpose of these additives is to absorb initial impurities and render
them inert to the influence of high electrical stress and, if applicable, high
temperature. They also absorb products of decomposition generated as a
result of electro-chemical and possibly thermal degradation. The increase of
life expectancy is at least two-fold.
PULSE REPETITION RATE
Dependent upon the system, the pulse repetition rate for large installations is
small due to the limitations of the charging system. For small systems an
increase in the repetition rate could result in overheating due to the resistive
losses in the connections, etc., and can be corrected by reducing the charging
voltage or increasing the dissipation area. There is no limit generally to the
charging current. If required, shock charging could be used, but normally slow
charging is carried out.
 ~~

2G6 High-voltage capacitors~ special applications Design of energy storage capacitors 257

OSCILLATORY DISCHARGE FREQUENCY
The effect of the oscillatory (ringing) frequency is offset by-and-large by the low
repetition rate, but the higher the ringing frequency the lower the effective life
in discharges (Figure 11.13). To give an example, a capacitor having a life of 10"
discharges in a circuit, with a discharge frequency of 200Hz, would have an
expected life of 75 000 discharges in one ringing at 2kHz. The 'Q' or
magnification factor of the circuit also has a slight effect. Thus in high "Q'
circuits, the number of voltage reversals per discharge is higher.
before undergoing an identical drying process, under vacuum, and impreg-
nation with a dry, de-gassed oil, as described in Chapter 2.
Windings can be of the extended- or buried-foil form, and can have series
windings in the length or may consist of several in series across the width of the
paper. With this latter method accuracy of registration of the foils must be
~xceptional. (See Chapter 2). In the case of windings using extended-foil
construction no special precautions need be taken. If the windings have tinned
copper tabs inserted, then to avoid excessive high concentration of stress at the
sharp edges of these tabs they should be screened by covering them with a
further piece of foil. This can be done for each tab irrespective of polarity, or
alternatively each electrode may consist of two foils with the tabs placed
between them. Figure 11.14.

Life at frequency f
I Ill

l '; : ';' -
Life at 20kHz 1.0 r------+------+_:_~-c---.f------_:
f-

0.1 L.._ _ __ j_ _ _ __..l_ _ _ __J._ _ _-:-:-:-:'

100 Hz 1000Hz 10kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

Circuit ringing frequency f Figure 11 .14 Windings of minimum inductance

Figure 11.13 Variation of life with ringing frequency

In the case of single tab per electrode it is essential to include a third tab
SUMMARY (non-current-carrying) whi~h is positioned across the remaining dielectric
space to avoid voltage-doubling through the presence of standing waves at the
Combining the above effects an empirical equation has been quoted in which open end of the electrode producing high voltages. Figure 11.15 illustrates the
life (in discharges) is inversely proportional to V 4 S 3 5f 0 2 Q2 2 effect.
However, the principal differences in the design of the energy storage type of
where V is the charging voltage (kV)
capacitor compared with the mains frequency types are:
S is the charging stress (MV/m)
f is the discharge frequency (kHz) (1) The impregnant is usually castor oil, but this is not mandatory and any oil
Q is the circuit magnification factor (wL/R) of high permittivity may be used.
w is 2nf (2) Due to the necessity of carrying high discharge currents, the internal wiring
must be able to accommodate such conditions and withstand the electro-
magnetic forces involved. Here there is a feature, insomuch as during the rapid
DESIGN OF ENERGY STORAGE CAPACITORS change in current the bulk of the current will be confined to the 'skin depth',
and to increase this area wide flat strips should be used in preference to solid
The basic design of such capacitors generally follows the same form as those conductors. See Figure 11.16.
for mains frequepcy in that they are wound with multiple layers of Kraft paper To keep the inductance low these flat strips should be arranged so as to
with aluminium foil electrodes on a large-diameter winding mandrel which is ensure minimum spacing between the current 'go' and 'return' paths. However,
then removed and the winding flattened for assembly with others to form a it must be remembered that magnetic forces occur which will tend to separate
rectangular pack. The pack, after being wrapped with paper for major the conductors unless adequately secured.
insulation, is placed in a mild-steel case fitted with a closure lid with terminals, (3) Special care should be taken regarding the connection to the terminal and
 ~

Design of energy storage capacitors 259

258 High-voltage capacitors- special applications

(a) (b)
(b)
(a) Swit~ch~ t ~ Current transfer

0~
at max diameter
~~
7
t ---- {:::

/- /\
-~~~~
~-~
--==i-~~ v(' t t I
/fU'
%~~ =i~~"'~X
_f~I~:-~'-\\ <\\\,
y. - _c'"f.:C::
__ Insulation
\
o~t
I
/ r_~ ((I~- r ~~)~~-~ ~
I ~: ~ J !J
-\ ~ 1 !)I)1 1
1 J( I t Eros'1on due to
current bunching

\\\\\~\\~-
,_:-==--~-/-0
Current transfer
r \ .
t
d;j/ / o~t
at max diameter

\"'""---- '~
'\ "-~-~~:...~>-~;;::::;.
\'
t
J! I+ Figure 11.17 Skin effect-terminations. (a) Bad practice, (b) good practice
/

.
',"'-~ ~-- -_.~/ /
"'~-~--- 0 -,-t The force generated between the two paraJlel plates is given by the formula

LC generator P=2n(J/W) 2 10- 12 atm

I~ n(LCI 112

Figure 11 .15 Cross-section of spiral generator showing waves propagating from the where I= the peak current in amperes
switch in alternate layers W =the width of the plates in metres.
It should be borne in mind that the term non-inductive, as applied to
windings in which the electrodes are extended beyond the edges of the
dielectric, is a misnomer; in fact the element is inductive, and even more so
when one considers the large loop necessarily introduced when connected to
1- the external circuit. Inclusion of the element in a return circuit (cylindrical
housing) to give a coaxial effect reduces the inductance but has limitations
even when the diameter is large, as illustrated in Figure 11.18.
~ v Insulation
6 . . = ~ c between plates
8 Copper = L em 0 Alumm1um ylf m 2 mm Melmex ft>r
yf 40 kV de charging
I I
Figure 11.16 Skin effect on conductors I Lo I
I Inductance of I
I winding
I
I
I I
to the external circuit since the discharge current will follow the internal edge
up to the skin depth. See Figure 11.17. LEXT
(4) In order to take advantage of the extremely low inductance of some
capacitors, the external circuits should use parallel-plate geometry, in which Inductance of external
the separation is kept to a minimum by layers of polyethylene or other circuit :P L0

insulation and clamped together to avoid magnetic separation of the plates.

The inductance of a parallel busbar system is given by the formula
L = 4nt/w nH/cm
where L=the inductance of the busbar
t =the separation distance in em, ins or feet
_ _ ,1
w =the width of the plate in the same units.
L ~ 2 loge _2 per em
rl
Note: With the ratio tjw, provided that the same units are used for each, the
inductance will always be given in nH/cm. Figure 11.18 Extended-foil windings with and without coaxial return circuit
 ~ ........
260 High -voltage capacitors- special applications Installations 261

(5) To reduce the charging current and the loss of discharge current, discharge
resistors are omitted, and hence, to avoid any injury to personnel due ;
0
electric shock, it is essential that the banks of capacitors are solidly short-
circuited and both poles are connected to earth before handling. In fact these
precautions should be taken before entry of any protective cage surrounding
any installation area. ~
Discharging the capacitor bank should, preferably, be carried out in two
stages, initially through a resistor, while the final stage must ensure that there
is a visible solid earthing device between both terminals andjor the case. In the
special case, where the capacitors are operating in series, the individual
sections must be progressively discharged and then connected to a visible solid
earth.
The electrical stress used in the design depends upon the criteria of
performance, but in general it lies between 70 and 80 M V/m for oscillatory
discharges and up to 100 MV/m where the duty is non-oscillatory or clamped.
Allowance should be made for a possible malfunction of the clamped switch or
spark-gap.

INSTALLATIONS

There have been many installations of the larger systems undertaken in all
parts of the world. One of the first experiments carried out by the UKAEA in
the UK was ZETA (Zero Energy Toroidal Apparatus), illustrated in Figure
11.19. In this now famous experiment, the capacitors were all rated at 38 J.<F,
8 k V d.c., 1.2 kJ. These were used in groups of three units in series operating at
a charging voltage of up to 24 kV direct current. The total stored energy of the
bank was 5 MJ, or 4167 units.
Another experiment conceived, called Intermediate Current Stability Ex-
periment (ICSE), was designed to use units each of0.5 J.<F, 100 kV d.c., 2500 J.
These were of extended-foil construction and housed in a cylindrical, mild-
steel container forming a coaxial system. To a void excessive ionisation the oil
was pressurised to one atmosphere. The experiment did not mature due to the
ever-increasing costs, and the capacitors were dispersed throughout the world
Figure 11.19 A 1 MJ bank of ZETA capacitors, each of 3811F, 8 kV d.c .. 1216 J.
to laboratories in the UK and other countries, notably the USA where they operating groups of three units in series (UKAEA, Culham Laboratories)
have been used as surge generators and other high-current generators. See
Figure 11.20 and the schematic drawing in Figure 11.21. which with others form a large bank shown under test. A schematic
Eventually a need arose for very low inductance units of the order of 10 nH, arrangement in Figure 11.26 shows a I MJ bank operating at 40 k V a.c. giving
which could also be used as structural building blocks and support not only 15 MA, and the dimensions given in the illustration naturally reduce the size of
busbars but also spark-gaps, etc., and be contained in a minimum of space the building required to house the bank, thus representing a considerable
(Figures I 1.22, 11.23 and 11.24). These systems represent a considerable saving economic advantage, especially if a new building has to be taken into account.
on the bank cost due to the simplicity of the racking, ancillary equipment and The larger units consist of a number of normal size 2 kJ packs of windings,
overall size, a~d demonstrate the maxim that a system should be designed as a connected in series or parallel depending upon the operating voltage, housed
complete entity and not by using existing types and adapting circuits in one mild-steel case and assembled in two rows such that the connections
accordingly. Units provided were of ratings of 10 kJ, 15 kJ, 20 kl and 25 kJ at from the outer windings are made to the case, thus reducing heavy major
charging voltages from 20 to 60 k V. Illustrated in Figure 11.25 is one such unit insulation to a minimum. The inner'livc' connections are made onto centrally-
iM@ilflil"",.,.qll-ltiij!#MMMNMMSiiW!i!......,.,..."@l!''wwiW\illi4iiiliiifM!!!Mi!i>MMfi"""""''!$1~-'t!W!tffi' 11

262 H:gh-voltage capacitors- special appl:cat:ons Provmg tests 263

Figure 11.20 ICSE 0.5 pF, 100 kV d.c., 2500 J capacitors used as a lightning test
facility-see Figure 11.21 (UKAEA. Culham Laboratories) Figure 11.22 A 40 kV, 10 kJ capacitor spark-gap unit under test (UKAEA. Culham
Lai.Jorato.-ics)
situated terminals mounted in an insulated closure lid. External connections
are aluminium alloy plates connected to two rows of the terminals. The case initial high discharge current. The test procedure involves the following steps:
can be fitted with brackets welded at right-angles to the side of the case (Figure
(1) Test the dry windings after packing at a nominally low voltage of, say, 1 k V
11.22).
a.c. to eliminate faulty windings damaged during assembly of the pack.
PROVING TESTS (2) Test the impregnated packs on over-voltage direct current for oscillatory
discharge duty at 1.5 E, and for clamped or damped discharge duty to 1.25 E,
In view of the high operating stress, one of the big problems lies in producing
Earth plate
an acceptable final test procedure. With units operating on mains frequencies (aluminium alloy)
over-voltage testing is acceptable and the test level can be related to the system HV plate Load plate
(aluminium alloy) (aluminium alloy)
insulation level. In the case of large banks of energy-storage capacitors such
surges are not common, and in good circuit design should not occur. The
principal requirement is to ascertain the ability of the unit to withstand the

Pressure
compensator
Major insulation
Extended foil

Figure 11.21 Section diagram of ICSE capacitor illustrated in Figure 11.20 (UKAEA.
Figure 11.23 Capacitor unit spark-gap-termination detail
Culham Laboratories)
 ~

264 Proving tests 265

Load
A
1----------------------~
~~~~~~~-~~-~::--=:--~--:;:---/
~~-~""'~_~
b' ----~~--=-~~~---~~a-~~-;,-
~~~- ~ ,-~ :~~~----
'11 ~--~~~-~ .

~~ C_2~~~~--ro~ .. ~
~-~-" ~~~~-~-~-~. liLCo~~~~--
_- ~
-

~
.c.?~ll~~~ljl~. .~~~~/~~-
Section through AA A
Alternative methods
of low inductance
connection to units 8
f~?
/ ~.l~.l_[.l
"'1/r~ ""'~/ Q_.~
-?~~~-~~.~~.
-~~t~~J:::t-
C).

6~-;:~-
~ ~./" -~~
~--.
.- _ ,.-./" . ..-.,- _
-~2f'
-- -~o
--.--~.~.---
"'~
_

-~//_
-----.

~~ ' 11'~~~ >-~ ~ ~;/ -;;....t.

. ..t
. . .: : i - ... -_-
':__
"-. . . _ '.~~ "Z.~.~tl O:.>~_dljl~- .~-- "~~--/~- -~/
0;&

f(f=-41~ "" / v /
~ '~ ~~~~ ~/ ~p? '

/~~0'"'
? .

Section through BB B
(a) c::==J (b) c:-~ (c) (?2ZZ2J (d) SSSSS1 ( e ) -
Insulation Earth Intermediate Live Insulated lid
connection connection connection

Figure 11.24 Alternative methods of low-inductance connection to units ~-

Figure 11.26 Probable form of capacitor bank 40 kV, 15 MA. 3 nH. 1 MJ at 85%, 1.8 MJ
at 10% (UKAEA, Culham Laboratories)

where E is the charging voltage of the bank. It should be noted that because of
the increase in operating stress for clamped or damped discharge duty these
criteria mean that for any particular dielectric thickness the same over-voltage
proof test is applied. Thus, irrespective of duty this test acts as a quality
controL
(3) Short-circuit tests are carried out using a specific low inductance and a
charging voltage of E or 1.1 E. This is repeated a number of times by
agreement with the user. Tests of capacitance and insulation resistance are
made before and after these tests. Oscillographic records of the discharge are
made to detect any perturbation.
Tc1ble 11.7 shows typical results obtained on a 12.5 kJ capacitor unit of

Table 11.7 Typical short-circuit test results on a 12.5 kJ capacitor of 30 kV

charging voltage

Charging voltage C1rcuit resistance Circuit mductance Peak curren/

(kV) (mQ) (nH) (MA)
------
220 4.2 8.0 12
27.8 2.9 74 1.5
Figure 11.25 A 50 kV, 10 kJ bank of capacitors on final test (UKAEA Culham 30.1 3.2 7.8 1.6
Laboratories) 31.8 3.0 7.5 1.7
 ~

266 H1gh-voltage capacitors- special applications HV capacitor banks for transformer testing 267

30 kV nominal charging voltage assembled with strip connections in parallel
busbar manner and discharged into a solid dielectric switch.
Subtracting the bus bar inductance and resistance which had values of
2.5 nH and 1.3 mQ, the capacitor characteristics were calculated to be 5.0 nH
and 1.7 mQ internal resistance.
The proof test would consist of subjecting such units to a peak discharge
current of 1 MA at least three times.
Full scale magnetiSlng current and heat run tests last several days and
because of the high ratings involved, impose unacceptable inductive loads on
the supply. For this reason high-voltage shunt capacitor banks are used to
neutralise the excessive inductive kilovars.
Capacitor banks for transformer testing need to be versatile in application

SMALL SYSTEMS

The previous Sections have in general been concerned with the operation of
large banks of capacitors of 1 to 10 MJ. However, smaller systems of single or
only a few units of! ow stored energy occur and the discharge c~trrents involved
are commensurate with this. Such systems are
(1) Laser excitation,
(2) Shock magnetisation of metals,
(3) Flash photography.
Each of these applications has its own requirements which define the design.
In the case of laser excitation the discharges into flash discharge tubes gives
an over-critically damped waveform, and no voltage reversal will occur. Shock
magnetisation of metals involves a low-frequency discharge and low-voltage
reversal in the discharge.
Operation of impregnated paper capacitors at high stress, which is
economically desirable, is difficult at the lower voltages required for some of
these duties. For reliability the dielectric should be at least three thicknesses of
paper and preferably four. Paper thicknesses range from 10 to 25 micrometres
and hence for 30-micrometre dielectric thickness operating at a stress of
Figure 11.27 A 162 Mvar, 400 kV capacitor bank for transformer testing duty at
83.3 MVjm, and having a 25% over-voltage test corresponding to test level of Transformatoren Union AG (W. Germany). The section isolating links can be clearly seen
104.1 MV/m, the failures during the routine test would make the design in the illustration (BICC)
economically unacceptable. Increasing the dielectric thickness would make
the design uneconomic.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is used as a dielectric and offsets its high and suitable for use at a wide range of voltages up to 400 k V. The ratings must
cost by its ability to withstand increased stress, and because it has greater be capable of adjustment over a range up to maximum values between 150 and
purity than paper, in that there are fewer faulty spots due to conducting 200 Mvar. This is made possible by using open rack type high-voltage
particles, so the losses on over-voltage tests will be lower. It is possible, capacitors mounted on an insulated platform, the racking fitted with off-load
however, to compromise to some extent by connecting discharge tubes in isolators to permit various series-pazallel arrangements of the capacitor units.
series, thereby permitting the use of capacitors operating at higher voltages, Although the capacitors may be in circuit for several days during a test there
and using thicker papers as the dielectric. will also be long periods of rest. Moreover, the capacitors are not switched
directly onto the supply but are brought up to the desired voltage gradually.
This makes possible the up rating of standard high-voltage unit capacitors, of
HV CAPACITOR BANKS FOR TRANSFORMER TESTING the mixed dielectric type, by a factor as high as 1.3, depending upon operating
conditions and could make significant savings in both capital cost and space.
Large transformers for connection to EHV transmission systems have Figure 11.27 shows a 162 Mvar, 400 kV, capacitor bank for transformer
maximum ratings of the order of 600 MY A. testing duty at Transformatoren Union AG, Nuremberg, West Germany.

12 Low-voltage capacitors
-special applications
Of the applications for small low-voltage power capacitors, the most common
arc listed below and described under their various headings in the following
Chapter:
Capacitors for fluorescent and discharge lighting.
Single-phase motor-start/motor-run capacitors.
Commutation capacitors for use with thyristors.
(1) CAPACITORS FOR FLUORESCENT AND DISCHARGE
LIGHTING
Since 1946 there has been a spectacular increase in the use of fluorescent and
discharge type lighting, particularly in commercial and industrial applications
and for street and highway lighting. Both these forms of lighting share a very
low inherent power factor of the order uf 0.4 lagging. In common with other
loads of very low power factor it is highly desirable and usually mandatory
that power-factor improvement devices form part of the complete installation.
In the case of discharge and fluorescent lighting fittings a corrected power
factor of0.85lagging is acceptable for shunt-connected capacitance, and small
capacitors ranging from between 3 and 45 ,uF form part of the complete
assembly.
Design of capacitors for fluorescent and discharge lighting circuits
As with all equipment requiring integral power-factor correction devices,
lighting manufacturers regard the capacitor as a necessary evil which
threatens the competitivity of the product. Consequently, the specifications for
lighting capacitors dictated by the lighting manufacturers are very strict
indeed, demanding as they do high reliability and low price. There has been
increasing co-operation between capacitor and light fittings manufacturers
over the years but the atmosphere is still highly competitive and designs
change rapidly.
The earliest lighting capacitors were for discharge lighting duty established
before World War II. The capacitors were of the impregnated-paper dielectric
type usually employing petroleum jelly as impregnant for cheapness. Con-
Capacitors for fluoresce111 a11d d1scharge l1ghti11g 269
tainers were soldered tinplate with connections by means of flexible leads.
Ratings were up to 20 JLF at 240 V.
Experience gained with the earlier designs of capacitor showed that, because
capacitors were housed in the base of the lighting standards they sometimes
suffered from the effects of low temperatures on dielectric performance.
Furthermore, being in circuit during the night, they tended to suffer from
overloading problems, caused by the higher voltages and increased risk of
harmonic current overloading associated with low-load conditions on
electrical distribution systems.
The appearance of fluorescent lighting fittings on the scene and the upsurge
of their world-wide use after World War II had a profound effect on lighting
capacitors.
Lighting manufacturers demanded capacitors which could be incorporated
in lighting fittings and mounted in the ballast assembly. Consequently,
capacitors had to be capable of operating in temperatures of 70 to 85'T and
increased safety standards were demanded in view of the widespread use in
commercial and industrial environments.
By this time, improvements in Kraft paper tissue and the use of PCB
impregnant enabled considerable reductions to be made in capacitor volume.
coupled with greater thermal stability. While ambient temp;:;ratures up to
85oC would be unthinkable for industrial power capacitors, the fact that
lighting capacitors consist of a single element enabled them to be used in much
higher ambient temperatures consistent with the maximum permitted 'hot
spot' temperature in a multi-element capacitor pack of approximately 85C.
Containers were of aluminium in cylindrical or obround form (as described
in Chapter 2), impact extruded, and initially with welded lids or bases, though
later a rolled-seam technique was employed. The element itself was provided
with a discharge device and an internal fuse for safety purposes. Terminal
arrangements were made to suit manufacturers' needs.
Because of the high operating temperatures serious difficulties were
experienced with effective sealing due to incompatability between the
expansion of the sealing agent and the aluminium container. These difficulties
were experienced by manufacturers in all parts of the world and were.
unfortunately, not detectable by any of the stringent tests carried out during
manufacture. The problem was greatly exacerbated by the early nineteen-
seventies when PCB impregnants became environmentally unacceptable.
However, out of much research and development undertaken in the
nineteen-sixties to find an alternative to Kraft tissue for the dielectric,
polypropylene film emerged as a viable alternative for, or as complementary
to, paper. For low-voltage capacitors, because of its structure and high
dielectric strength, a single polypropylene film could be employed between
electrodes to give satisfactory performance.
The modern lighting capacitor then, consists of a thin isotactic-orientated
polypropylene film. metallised on one side. two films being wound together as
a cylindrical element, with one layer of film brtween the metallised surfaces.
w.rw "JMiil;;,,., ::~;[:~fJ)~ii '~~
~-~~UII111DijMIMMIIMMMMIJIIIII!III~i~B~~"~~m;

270 Low voltage capac;tors- special appl;cations

Selt-heal;ng properties of rnetallised dielectric capacitors 271

SELF-HEALING PROPERTIES OF METALLISED-

m
--
HI DIELECTRIC CAPACITORS

For a conventional impregnated-paper dielectric capacitor element, the

aluminium foil electrodes are probably about five to six micro metres thick and
if a breakdown of the dielectric occurs, sufficient current will flow to cause the
fuse to operate, the electrodes showing a small burn mark.
For metallised-film capacitors, the metallic layer is extremely thin and if a
breakdown occurs, the current which flows evaporates the thin metal
surrounding the breakdown area, the flow of fault current ceases and the
reduction in capacitance is infinitesimal. If the capacitor, or an element
forming part of a capacitor (used as a power Llnit), was fitted with an internal
fuse, it would not operate with such a small current for such a short time, and
the capacitor would continue in service virtually unimpaired. Such capacitors
are said to possess 'self-healing' properties which increase their life and
reliability.
The self-healing process with polypropylene film capacitors generates a
small quantity of hydrocarbon gas which is insignificant in itself. However,
since the capacitor is hermetically sealed against moisture ingress, in the event
of a sustained fault on the system which couid impose extreme conditions of
voltage or current on the capacitor, or when the capacitor comes to the end of
its natural life, a rapid succession of self-healing incidents could cause a
significant build up of pressure within the container with consequent risk of
explosion or fire. To avoid this possibility, one manufacturer of UK origin has
incorporated a pressure-sensitive disconnect system in the design of the
lighting capacitor, which breaks the internal wiring, thus isolating the element
from the supply, the gas being retained in the container. Hence modern
lighting capacitors are safe, completely leak-free and able to withstand high
temperatures and are much smaller in volume.
To avoid any confusion, the developments which have occurred in
Figure 12.1 Metar automatic machine for winding metallised capacitor elements (Metar, fluorescent lighting capacitors apply also to those used for street lighting, and
SA Fribourg, Switzerland) there is no difference in the design.
Care and attention to winding tension and registration has reduced ionisation
and edge stresses within the element to acceptable limits for absolute
reliability, and this necessitates the use of automatic winding machines of the
type shown in Figure 12.1. More importantly, the control of edge stresses and
ionisation has eliminated the need for an imp regnant. The single element, with Capacitor connections for fluorescent lighting
moulded major insulation is generally housed in a cylindrical container.
There are three main connections for fluorescent lighting circuits in-
usually of aluminium but sometimes of plastics. It is safe, reliable, and
corporating capacitors, and details of these are given in the following Sections.
completely leak-free.
All impose different conditions on the capacitor. It must be emphasised that
Originally, dry mctallised-film capacitors were available only up to 250 V,
the advantages and disadvantages of each of these three connections, and any
50 to 60Hz but they are now available up to 440 V.
economics involved, are dictated by the requirements of the lighting fittings
Typical ratings lie between 1 and 50 pF and most designs comply with
market. The capacitor manufacturer merely has to produce a design capable of
BS 4017: 1972, I EC 82, and other national and in tern a tiona! spccifica tions.
meeting the different conditions imposed by each circuit.
 ~
272 Low-voltage capacitors - special applications
Shunt-capacitor circuit
As shown in Figure 1 2.2, the basic circuit in which the capacitor operates is in
shunt with the lamp and choke (referred to as ballast). With this connection the
capacitor operates on the supply voltage (220 to 250 V) only and is not
subjected to any significant voltage transient or switching surges other than
those normally acceptable to a shunt capacitor. The user gains some
advantage because the capacitor provides a low impedance path to in-
terference currents and helps to by-pass any 3rd harmonic currents.
Starter switch
L Choke
' ' .r______L)
No-~----------------------------------~
Lamp
Figure 12.2 Schematic diagram of fluorescent lighting assembly with shunt capacitor
circuit
Series capacitor circuit
Figure 12.3 shows a typical series capacitor circuit. The posttJon of the
capacitor at the end of the line in the circuit is important since it assists starting
and suppresses interference. However, metallised-film capacitors having very
low stray capacitance between terminals and container are able to provide
only a low level of suppression.
The fact that the capacitor and choke have a relationship X c = 2X L gives
some voltage magnification, and for a 230 V supply the capacitor operating
voltage will be about 400 V, for which it should be designed. Also, at the
incoming terminals the circuit is capacitive, hence the power factor is leading.
Starter switch
Lamp
No---------------------------------------~
F1gure 12.3 Schematic diagram of fluorescent lighting assembly with series capacitor
circuit
Capacitors for small single-phase induction motors 273
The capacitor starting voltage is not onerous, but in the event of a starter
switch becoming faulty, rapid re-striking of the lamp current occurs which can
impose an arduous duty on the capacitor if no action is taken.
This method of connection is employed for twin-tube 'lead/lag' circuits, in
which one tube is uncorrected. The average power factor of such a circuit
approximates to unity.
Semi-resonant circuit
Figure 12.4 illustrates the simplest of semi-resonant starterless circuits and its
operation is complex. One winding of the ballast is in series with the supply
and acts as the choke with the lamp lit. The second winding is in opposition to
,
0
c:: ) ~
Cap a
"mo OJ I
N~----_j
Figure 12.4 Schematic diagram of simple semi-resonant (starterless) circuit for
fluorescent lighting assembly
the main winding although it is of approximately equal inductance. At switch-
on before the lamp strikes the current is imposed by the capacitor. However,
due to the leakage inductance and the non-equality of the two opposing
windings "in the ballast, a voltage greater than the supply voltage is applied to
the lamp. After the lamp has started, the capacitor maintains a high power
factor and absorbs some harmonics. The capacitor design voltage for the
application is generally 250 V.
(2) CAPACITORS FOR STARTING AND RUNNING SMALL
SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
Induction motors for use on single-phase supplies incorporate, in addition to
the main windings, an auxiliary winding shifted in phase from the main
winding but connected in parallel with it. This phase difference produces a
rotating magnetic field, necessary to start the motor.
One method of achieving this phase-shift is to design the auxiliary winding
so that its R:X ratio is significantly greater than that of the main winding. This
will introduce an appreciable difference in phase between the two windings.
Machines of this type are often referred to as split-phase motors but, because
the angle of the phase difference possible with this design is considerably less
than 90, the starting torque performance is limited.
 ~
--.-;'~

274 Low-voltage capacitors~ special applications Capacitors lor small s1ngle-pilase induction motors 275

If, instead of increasing the R :X ratio of the auxiliary winding, a capacitor is Types of capacitor motor
connected in series with it, the phase displacement will approach 90", thus
greatly increasing available torque. Motors which employ capacitors in the Depending upon the design of the machine and its duty, there are several
auxiliary winding are often referred to as capacitor motors. A schematic different arrangements by which capacitors can be connected into the
diagram of a split-phase motor, with the appropriate phasor diagram is shown auxiliary winding. The capacitor motor is usually a small machine, generally
in Figure 12.5 (a). below one horsepower but as small as one-eighth horsepower, employed for
driving domestic appliances, small tools, small fans, pumps, blowers, etc.
Where starting the motor is the main duty, capacitor start motors are
d--~L--
VL
(a)Mam
IL IN E
employed, the capacitor being automatically switched out of circuit when the
Wind!ng motor attains 75 to 85% of full speed. Figure 12.5(b) shows such an
Auto 1Aux....-"/';
Aux L, R sw1tch ' /I arrangement and its associated phasor diagram which is applicable to
Winding /IM capacitor motors generally. Comparing this with Figure 12.5(a) shows the
much greater phase shift between windings inherent in capacitor motors.
Where the maintenance of a positive torque is desirable during running
XL of main winding is large
compared with aux winding. Phase shift is obtained periods, a capacitor start-and-run motor is employed. No switching of the
by increasing ratio B._ in winding capacitor is required. Figure 12.5(c) gives the appropriate schematic
x, arrangement.
Capacitor start
Where start-and-run motors are employed, but high starting torques are
I L1 N E
required, dual-section capacitors may be used, one section of which, of
(b) comparatively large capacitance, is switched out when the motor has attained
Main
winding
c:~
~L-~
-------:1 ~ 1rvl
its desired speed. See Figure 12.5(d).
In the remote areas of some countries single-phase supplies between 400 and
C~switch
Auto 480 V, 50 to 60Hz, are employed. Single-phase motors of up to ten or 15
L1 1AUX
Aux horsepower may be in use. These also have capacitors for start-and-run duty
winding
which may vary between 25 11F (12.5 + 12.5) to 200 11F (1 00 + 100). The
Value of C depends upon design
and value of L 1 capacitor sections are connected in parallel for starting and in series for
running, the switching operation being incorporated in the motor starter.
Standard designs of power capacitor are used and, as such, are not within the
Capacitor start and run scope of this part of this work.

(c)

Mo;o

Aux
E~~ L
1
C
Mo<o
No switch
Design of capacitors for motor-start and start-and-run duties

The specification for capacitors for motor-start and for start-and-run duties is
decided by the motor manufacturer and not by the capacitor manufacturer.
(d) ......___VL-...- Capacitors for these duties are rated in microfarads and are suitable for
operation on 50 to 60-Hz supply systems. The size of capacitor is determined
Main Auto-switch closed for by the horsepower rating of the motor and also by the starting torque required.
start, open for run.
C 1 is up to six times as large The average capacitances for start duty lie within the range 30 to 100 pF. For
as C
Aux start-and-run duty the capacitances are smaller and lie within the range 2 to 20
JlF. Dual-section capacitors are sometimes employed for start-and-run duty
where high starting torque requirements demand additional capacitance at
Figure 12.5 Comparison between split-phase and various arrangements of capacitor
starting. By using equal sections and parallel-series switching, a 4:1 ratio of
motor connections capacitance can be achieved between starting and running operations.
276 Low-voltage capacitors-- special applicatio11s
Capacitor voltage
The voltage which appears across the capacitor is not related to the supply
voltage but depends upon the motor horsepower and design and, in the case of
motor start-and-run capacitors, by the duty. The value of capacitor voltage is
determined from data supplied by the motor manufacturer and, for a 240- y
motor, may be between 350 and 400 V.
Because the capacitor forms part of a series circuit, it will be affected by the
inrush current associated with motor starting and this will impose a voltage
surge across the capacitor. The peak value and duration of this voltage surge
must be taken into account in the capacitor design.
It will be appreciated that when replacing a faulty capacitor on a capacitor
start or start-and-run motor, it is useless to take the motor operating voltage
as a guide. The supply voltage is, in effect, the vector sum of the voltages
appearing across the auxiliary winding and the starting or start-and-run
capacitor.
The voltage across the capacitor may also be influenced slightly by
transformer effect between the main and auxiliary windings of the motor.
TYPES OF CAPACITOR EMPLOYED
(1) Impreynated paper/foil capacitors
As the accent is on low-volume capacitors for motor starting, the use of
impregnated paper/foil type capacitors has virtually ceased on the score of
bulk and hence expense. It was possible, with this design, to use a reduced
thickness of dielectric for intermittently-rated capacitors and so reduce the
volume. At a very early stage, however, intermittently-rated paper/foil type
capacitors for motor-start duty were supplanted by the electrolytic capacitor.
However, because electrolytic capacitors cannot be used on a continuous basis
(i.e. for start-and-run duty) due to polarisation problems, the use of small
impregnated paper/foil capacitors persisted until the availability of other
dielectric systems.
Impregnated paper dielectric capacitors were housed in rectangular tinplate
cases, with terminal and/or flexible leads, and base- or wall-mounting fixing
brackets. The smaller capacitors for start-and-run duty were later housed in
aluminium cans, with terminal lags or leads, and fixing clips.
(2) Electrolytic capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors utilise an aluminium foil which has been anodically
treated to produce an oxide film. One electrode is the aluminium itself, and for
unidirectional operation a plain foil of aluminium is used for the other, but for
Types of capacitor employed 277
alternating current operation a second anodised foil is used as the other
electrode. The foils are separated by a high purity paper which is soaked in
electrolyte to provide intimate contact between oxide layers.
The surface of the aluminium can be treated by etching prior to anodising to
increase the surface area or, alternatively, aluminium can be sprayed onto
fabric before anodising, with similar effect. These types are known as etched
foil and sprayed foil respectively.
The capacitance per unit volume can be increased enormously, and for
capacitors for motor-start duty only, advantage can be taken of the short
operating time to achieve values of 8 to 20 kvar per litre in the voltage range of
125 to 350 V r.m.s. Assuming operation time is 30 seconds intermittently, this
gives a life of 50 000 starts with operation in an ambient temperature of 65C.
This limitation is due to the high loss factor inherent in this type of capacitor.
It is probably" true to say that capacitors for start duty only are most
commonly used with single-phase motors, and electrolytic capacitors with
their high capacitance per unit volume arc ideal for this application. However,
electrolytic capacitors will not withstand high-voltage surges and therefore
should be designed to accept any surge associated with the motor-starting
operation. Unless drastically de-rated, thus losing the advantage of low
volume, electrolytic capacitors, as we have said, cannot operate on a
continuous basis and are not normally used for start-and-run duty.
Housing usually consists of a cylindrical aluminium can, with tags or leads
and a suitable circular fixing clip for securing to the motor frame.
(3) M etal/ised-paper capacitors
Metal deposition techniques have made it possible to reduce the thickness of
capacitor plates (electrodes) from the 5 micrometres of foil capacitors to as low
as 25 millimicrometres. Furthermore, the self-healing properties of metallised
dielectrics have made possible the use of a single layer of paper instead of the
minimum of two layers necessary with foil type capacitors. Both factors have
produced capacitors of much lower volume than conventional designs.
It is, of course, necessary to use impregnated paper for the dielectric and
while capacitors of this type of intermittent rating can be used for motor-start
duty, they still cannot match the high-capacitance/unit volume ratio of
electrolytic capacitors. They do, however, tend to have a longer service life, and
lower losses. For motor-start duty, a life of 3000 hours at 500 V has been
quoted. By de-rating to 450 V and 400 V respectively, lives of 10 000 hours and
30 000 hours have been quoted. These relate to an ambient temperature of
70oC. These figures represent very large numbers of starting operations as the
capacitor is in circuit for only a few seconds.
Unlike electrolytic capacitors, metallised-paper capacitors can be operated
continuously and are therefore suited to start-and-run duties, which is their
main function with single-phase motors. They have a relatively low surge
280 Low-voltage capacitors-- special applications
Factors influencing capacitor I ife
281
waveforms are shown in Figure 12.6 and from these it can be seen that the
current-flow approximates to a series of pulses of a sinusoidal form (Fourier
analysis) which when summed give a mark :space ratio of frequency 2(t 1 + t 2 )
with a space of zero current. The var rating of the capacitor depends on the
mark :space ratio. For further simplification it can be thought of in telegraphy
terms.
The explanation above is intended to emphasise that an increase in
repetition frequency gives higher effective values of var in the capacitor and,
over a given period of time, the mark :space ratio is increased. The com-
mutation capacitor must therefore be capable of withstanding a heavy load
because the short rise-time increases the rate of change of voltage giving higher
current approximating to high-frequency duty. Standard a.c. capacitors
designed for 50 and 60Hz are, in consequence, unsuitable for this duty due to
the relatively high current involved and the resistance of the current "paths.

Types of capacitor suitable for commutation purposes

Capacitors of many types are available for this duty such as those with
impregnated-paper dielectric, metallised-paper, plastics-film dielectric (poly-
carbonate and polypropylene) as well as the mixed-dielectric types with
polypropylene film interleaved with paper. Operating voltages vary from 200
to 1200 V d.c. and occasionally up to 2000 V d.c. The most favoured rating,
Figure 12.7 Commutation capacitor in
however, is 600 V d.c. obround container ready for installation
(BICC Bryce Capacitors Ltd)

Design
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE LIFE OF THE CAPACITOR
Generally the windings are of the extended aluminium-foil type with multiple (1) Operating temperature:
layers of paper, or polypropylene film interleaved with paper as dielectric
which, when compressed, take the form of a flat oval (sometimes called
Normal capacitor ratings cover their use at temperatures from - 40C to
obround) as described earlier.
+SO" C. Operation above this maximum will reduce the life of the capacitor
A single winding is used and this is assembled in a container which is also of
due to the chemical processes which will occur. All chemical processes increase
the flat-oval, or obround, form. The container is constructed of impact-
by double with every soc temperature rise, and halve with every soc
extruded aluminium alloy and provides adequate cooling surfaces for the
temperature fall and this will thereby affect the capacitor. This is illustrated in
dissipation of heat. As the current handled by the capacitor is high, Figure 12.8 in which a graph shows the de-rating.
connections from the extended foil electrodes to the terminals are usually
made from copper braid or tape soldered on to the electrodes and terminals. (2) Operating voltage:
Impregnation is carried out, after assembly, in the container through holes
which are afterwards sealed off. Figure 12.7 shows a 1000- V capacitor in an
Increased life performance of the capacitor can be anticipated for voltages
obround container ready for installation.
below the rated voltage which, in any case, should not be exceeded by 10%.
 ~

282 Low-voltage capacitors- special applicaf1ons Factors influencing capacitor l1fe 283

3.0 60
"
+S"C - - 1--
'"" .... 1'--- 65 ~
\ "
Cl

~
\
u +6'C
\
- --- ~
.!!!
2.0 ,...----- r----
..............
--- ---- 70 E
0
.......... ~--.
0
Ci
0 +4'C ~ 75 ~
""f1X \ Maximum recommended
case temperature "E .............
0
.c
+2'C
~ .......... 80
~
ro

~
E 1.0 u
............
c o'c 1'---r-... E
.s"
0
-~
-2'C
\ ~
............
85
X

-!
\
-~
0 - '----- -- -- -- ---
>
Cl 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
E -4'C
.'l
"ro -6'C
\ Ambient temperature C

Figure 12.10 Volt/ampere rating-multiplier for variation in ambient temperature ('C)

u

-s'c
\ -----~

The electrical life of the capacitor varies as the fifth power of the voltage, i.e. L
a
N
a
M
oaooooo
;t LO <D ~"-- rocno
0
0
0
0
is inversely proportional to V 5 (Figure 12.9).
N M

%life at 80 'C and normal voltage

(3) Volt/ampere rating:
Figure 12.8 Maximum recommended case temperature

A maximum case temperature of 30oC is considered to be normal a!ld ailows

for a temperature rise of l5C in an ambient temperature of 65oC. At lower
ambient temperatures an increase in volt/amperage rating can be permitted
thus increasing the case temperature rise. This is illustrated in the graph shown
in Figure 12.10.

120

Maximum recommended
operating voltage
e"
i'i\
110
0
>
"'
-~ I. ~ [\
~ 100
I
1\ '
0

""'
j'l
:iiu II

~ I
Q._ 90

I
'
''
80 1---- -- ' ' ~

0 o o a o o ooo 0 0
0
0
0
N M .q- LD CDr-.. COOlO 0
N M 'l"

Percentage rated Iife

Figure 12.9 Maximum recommended operating voltage
-------------------------------- .........

Appendices

A - Power-capacitor standards

Standard specifications deal mainly with criteria for the manufacture and use
of capacitors, but they also define procedures to ensure compliance with safety
requirements and give guidance for their installation and operation. All these
matters are of great importance to the designer, manufacturer and user of
power capacitors and are worthy of very careful study.
In many countries throughout the world the international standard
specification IEC 70:1967 is applied for power systems, including industrial
capacitors, and is associated with IEC 70A which was issued the following year
to cover impregnated metal!ised-paper dielectric types of capacitor.
When IEC 70A was produced, however, it was not foreseen that metallised-
plastics film dielectrics (as used in low-voltage power capacitors today) would
so rapidly become the substitute for metallised paper, and IEC 252:1978 and
BS 5207:1976 were issued to cover this advance in technology.
British Standard 1650:1950 was the basic forerunner of the European
specifications and BS 1650:1971, the latest issued by the British Standards
Institution, had the advantage of a further four years of refinement after the
issue of IEC 70 in 1967.
The principal differences between these standards lie in the harmonic
overload requirements, which for high-voltage capacitors is 30% and for low-
voltage capacitors 15%. Both high- and low-voltage capacitors are limited to
30% over kvar rating.
The national standard specifications for power capacitors are listed in Table
A.J, and the principal international standards are given in Table A.2.

COMPARJSON OF NATIONAL STANDARD

SPECIFICATIONS

Two of the national standards which illustrate extremes of severity are the
USA standard NEMA CP1, issued by the National Equipment Manufac-
turers' Association, and that of the Electricite de France (EDF), NF C54-101.
The NEMA standard is less severe than both BS 1650 and IEC 70. The
Electricite de France standard follows IEC 70 but includes additional clauses
imposing prolonged endurance testing which will be discussed bter in this
Appendix.

285
;,,.,,,.,,...._KOOIIIIO':Iml1lllll!lm;i!!ll~i!llli!il&iilf~WilliJ!i~~--;fu~-:jll;!ijffi~ff~~:r~~il!Biml!fH:'JIW'~I!(;OWM'l'11oilr.;j,~~~111Uii'li!lilt'i!HJOO<_,.,.~r;<il~.l1Hflllll'.l'lliLOlll!ll'"""-""'-""""'""'~

286 Appendrx A- Power-capacrtor standards Apper1dix A- Power-capacitor standards 28-/

Table A.1 National standards for power capacitors led to a number of dielectric constructions that are in use today. The main 'l
Australia AS 1013:1971
point to note is that of the relationship of working voltage to proof-testing of 1
Belgium
Denmark
NBN 2011969. NBN C54-2101977
OS 70 (IEC 701967). OS 70A1968 (IEC 70A1968)
metallised-polypropylene capacitors for low-voltage applications as distinct
from that of the film with aluminium-foil electrodes, used in high-voltage
1,J
Finland SFS 2854 (IEC 2521978)
capacitors. 1
France NF C54-100:1970. C54-1011979. C54-1431974. :j
C54-144 1979 The effect of these changes is the need for tests to demonstrate the efficiency 4
India IS 2834:1964 and amendments of the self-healing performance of the metallised-dielectric capacitors, and the
Japan JIS C4801 1977, C4802:1977, C4901 1974
C4902 1977. C4908 1979
need to be able to measure accurately the reduced power losses of the film 1
;1
Netherlands NEN 10-0701968. NEN 10-1431972 dielectrics, which can be a quarter of those of paper dielectrics. As noted ,,)
New Zealand NZ 1122:1964. BS 1650:1971 earlier, IEC 70A:1968 was written for impregnated metallised-paper capa- j
Portugal NP 446:1969
SA Bureau of Standards
citors and is not adequate for metallised-plastics film capacitors which are
South Africa
Spain UNE 20-010 1975. 31-031 1975 covered by IEC 252:1978.
Sweden SEN 27 05 00 1977-07-01
United Kingdom BS 1650 1971. BS 5267:1976, BS 40171979
United States of America NEMA CP1
West Germany VOE 0560 Part 4A 1973 TESTING PROCEDURES

The routine tests applied to every capacitor are given in Table A.3 which shows
Although, as noted earlier, the forerunner of the European Standards was that capacitance and power loss are the first of the IEC 70 requirements to be i
BS 1650:1950, the IEC specification recently under revision will be split into l
high-voltage and low-voltage parts, and when BS 1650 is again revised it will Table A.3 R~utir:e tests-----~EC 70:1967
~
j
be drafted to harmonise with the IEC standard and will deviate only in aspects l
( 1) Capacitance test 1
related to usage peculiar to the UK.
(2) Capacitor losses
With the recent changes in the type of construction of dielectric materials, ( 3) D.C. or a.c. test between terminals
1
~
the acceptance, type-testing and proof-testing require fresh consideration (4) AC test between terminals and container (dry test) j

~
because. for some half century or so the dielectric material was impregnated (5) Test between terminals and earth for capacitor banks

paper and, by virtue of its extensive usage, the specification values were weli
established. :j
measured. BS 1650 requires loss measurement only as a type test, but IEC 70
However, in certain countries, principally West Germany, metallised paper
was used for power capacitors for fluorescent lighting and electronic
requires a loss measurement at the capacitor's rated voltage and frequency l
applications. The system has the property of being self-healing in the event of
an electrical breakdown because the metallised layer of the electrode is
extremely thin and evaporates in microseconds, thus interrupting the fault
unless it has been agreed differently with the purchaser.
The capacitance test is a relatively easy task to achieve. A precision of0.5%
or less capacitance varies little with changes of voltage, frequency and ambient
room temperature, but the loss angle may change significantly with these
I
}
current.
parameters and also with the length of the time of energisation undergone
The rapid advance in the use of propylene film since the nineteen-sixties has
during the test. These effects are peculiar to impregnated capacitors in which
impurities in the dielectric may have a pronounced result.
Table A.2 Principal international standards for power capacitors The routine test to prove the electrical withstand capability of power
capacitors is either a 2.15 times the rated a.c. voltage test (3.04 V peak) or a 4.3
IEC70:1967 Power capacitors
I EC 70A:1968 Self-healing metallised-paper power capacitors
times the rated voltage as a d.c. test. The 2.15 times rated voltage test is a little
IEC 1431972 Series capacitors greater than the maximum possible stress imposed on a capacitor during
IEC1101973 Induction-heating capacitors switching.
IEC5491976 Hrgh-voltage external fuses for power capacitors
IEC 5661977 Capacitor for use in tubular. fluorescent. high-pressure mercury and
The origin of the use of 4.3 times the rated voltage as a d.c. test is wreathed in
low-pressure vapour-discharge lamp circuits the mists of time and the latest draft of I EC 70 gives a compromise value of 3.5
IEC5931977 Internal fuses and disconnections for power capacitors times the rated voltage. The fact that direct-current testing does not
IEC2521978 Motor start-and-run capacitors for a.c. single-phase induction motors
adequately prove the internal connections or internal fuse current-carrying
 ;:
288 Appendix A- Power-capacitor standards Appendix A- fJower-capacitur standards 289
!
~:

capacity has resulted in some users, such as Electricite de France, stipulating
alternating-current tests only. However, the new IEC draft standard requires a
short-circuit discharge test to give a high current withstand in the case of
direct-current proof tests. NEMA specifics twice the rated alternating
voltage and a 4.3 times rated voltage as the direct-current test level, but some
users in the USA are specifying 6.25 times the rated voltage. NEMA
CP1-5.05 requires the testing of all units as high-voltage units, i.e. voltage
ratings 0 to 1199 at 4.3 times rated voltage r.m.s. and 1200 to 15 000 at 6.25
times rated voltage r.m.s. The test is applied for ten seconds at capacitor-case
temperature, 25C plus or minus 5.
When the tests between the terminals have been carried out, a repeat of the
capacitance measurement is undertaken to ensure that no internal failures or
operation of internal fuses occur during the test procedures.
ROUTINE TESTS ON LINE TERMINALS
Tests between line terminals and earth, or the capacitor case, are also required
in order to ensure that the insulation will meet the levels set out in IEC 71.
There are difficulties in respect of capacitor banks with earthed star points <md
these are very common in North America. The power-frequency alternating-
current test level to earth for a 6.6 kV line-to-line system voltage is 22 kV, and
this would be applied across tl).e capacitor, an over-voltage of 5.8 times the
capacitor working voltage, which is 6.6 kV/J3 which equals 3.8 kV, and to
achieve this would need considerable de-rating of the capacitor. One argument
favoured is to consider that the capacitor bank acts as a surge absorber and
therefore the insulation given in IEC 71 is not appropriate.
capacitors operating at their upper temperature limit. It is a common ~
t
characteristic of impregnated capacitors (which have an inherent degree of !
contamination) for the loss angle to increase with temperature rise. In fact, a t
more sensitive test is to make the measurement at low stress because of the
'Garton' effect. This is because ionic impurities moving against the viscous
forces in the imp regnant are in motion over a greater part of the voltage cycle
at low stress, and as a consequence the proportion of power loss to reactive
power (tan delta) is enhanced. Hence, it was usual a few years ago to specify the
maximum ratio of low voltage (0.1 U nl to the rated volrage (l.OU nl losses.
(Note: The Garton effect takes its name from G. C. Garton, author of
Appendix B of BS 1650.)
The therma~ stability test shown in Tab/t' A.4 is common to IEC, BSI and
NEMA standards. The IEC and BSJ test conditions are identical and consist
of loading the capacitor at 1.44 times the rated kvar output at an ambient
temperature of 45oC (for temperate-rated capacitors). The test is made in an
oven in which the only air circulation is by natural convection. The oven
should be large in comparison with the capacitor. The test conditions in
accordance with the IEC specification 70:1967 are given in Table A.5.
Table A.5 Thermal stability test parameters--ii:C 7G:19o7
Test Service
Cooling-air temperature Mean ambient temperature
4UC 3UC
45'C 40'C
5UC 50'C
Power load1ng 1.44 times the rated kvar output
Period of test: 48 hours

Acceptance conditions: Container temperature rise :t OSC

TYPE TESTING Loss angle increase :t 1o- 4
During the final ten hours of the test the loss angle and/or the
temperature are measured every two hours and the increase in loss angle
The type-test requirements set out in IEC 70:1967 are given in Table A.4. o-
must not exceed 1 4 , or the temperature increase must not exceed
OS C.
The significance of the choice of temperature of 75C, as given in the
footnote to Table A.4, is that this value will usually be reached in impregnated The NEMA method of testing may be considered to resemble more closely
the service conditions for unit capacitors because the test unit is flanked by two
Table A.4 Type-test requirements~IEC 70:1967
dummy capacitors so arranged as to dissipate the same amount of heat. The
test, however, is made at the lower level of 1.21 times the rated kvar.
(1) Capacitor losses However, there is an adjustment to increase the test power if the loss angle
(2) Thermal stability
(3) Tests between term1nals and container
of the test capacitor is less than the level stated by the manufacturer, i.e.:
(a) A.C. dry test
(b) A.C. wet test Wm
(c) Impulse test for exposed installations
(4) Discharge test
(5) lon1sat1on (partial discharge) test
VT= 1.1 X VR
J-~
WA
where VT =test voltage
VR =capacitor rated voltage
~mmR.!iiDlfiWPijM!fWtp:nmti!!.tJM'IWEMi*ii*M!i 1 iiH*'t&1 H*BM M@ 1 Mifi#.#JMI!Ji!MW&i@MliliiiiJiiDiR4 ~.,.-

~~~
i
!
~
290 Appendix A- Power-capacitor standards

Wm =manufacturer's maximum allowable watts loss at 110% rated

voltage
Appendix A- Power-capacitor standards

discharge aspect. They do not guarantee a satisfactory life. They ensure that
the capacitor does not leak impregnant, although the revision of IEC 70 will
291

I l
~
~
WA =actual watts loss of the test capacitor using 110% rated voltage take this into account.
To ensure uniformity of quality of capacitor production, some users require i
~
The temperature of the test capacitor is measured by thermocouples attached repeat type tests periodically throughout a large contract, i.e., say, one batch in
to the case sides and cover of the capacitor; accuracy of measurement 1oc. every hundred. ~
In the IEC 70 specification, the a.c. voltage test to the container, as a type
test, is increased to one minute but at the same voltage as the routine test. In
~
addition, an artificial rain test to IEC 60 is also required at the same voltage.
Table A.6 EDF requirement for :1
~
endurance and over-voltage
Impulse tests of five minutes at each polarity at levels specified in IEC 71 are
~
also required. Time of test 5000 hours
Voltage 1.4 Un
The IEC 70 specification requires a discharge test for a capacitor charged

l
Temperature 90'C hot spot
by direct current to twice the rated voltage. Then the capacitor is discharged pass criterion no breakdown
five times into a short circuit, the capacitance being measured both before and
after. The purpose of this test, in addition to proving the dielectric (at less J

l
voltage than the routine test voltage), is to check the internal connections and, Surge-endurance test: Voltage U" for seven hours. Superimposed surge of
if fitted, the fuses. A corresponding test in IEC 593 standard for internal fuses is 2.25 U, for 1 sec every 5 min. Followed by 12 hours rest period at temperature
identical for rated voltages up to 660 V, but the test voltage is raised to 2.5 - 25C. Whole cycle to be repeated 12 times.
times the rated voltage for voltages above 660 V. This standard also requires a
disconnecting test on internal fuses. The purpose of this is to demonstrate that
the fuses operate safely at the lowest and the highest service current at a.c.
voltages of 2.2 times the rated voltage, and at d.c. voltages of up to 5.3 times the
Table A.6 shows the requirements set out in the EDF specification for
endurance and over-voltage.
Research and discussion continues among engineers and technicians of
Il
rated voltages. The test is also intended to show if sympathetic failure occurs in
fuses adjacent to the fuse under test.
capacitor manufacturers and institutions in order to devise tests of endurance
which simulate operating conditions of cyclic temperature variations and
i
Partial discharge tests are stipulated in both the IEC specification and the voltage changes. A particular problem posed is how to condense a capacitor's J
British Standard but not in NEMA or EDF.
Partial discharges are gaseous discharges which occur in such a way that
there is always a solid or liquid dielectric in series with them; they do not occur
,life-span conditions into a short period, taking into consideration the fact that
unrealistic mechanisms of breakdown may arise, especially with respect to
plastics dielectric material which may soften with increasing temperature.
I~
!}
directly between electrodes. Appendix B of BS 1650 gives a concise treatment
of the subject.
The object of both the IEC and the BSI standards is to show that growing
discharges do not occur in the final period after an initial one-second over- I
I
voltage of twice the rated voltage followed by a recovery time of ten minutes at
1.2 times rated voltage, and then increased 1.5 times the rated voltage for a
further period of ten minutes.
BS 1650 requires a final level of less than 5JC
picocoulombs (where Cis in
microfarads), while IEC 70 requires that the partial discharges shall not
increase in the last period.
It is usual to make tests on model capacitors or single windings in order to

~
achieve adequate sensitivity and freedom from external noise. Some work in
the USA on the use of acoustical detectors of noise a void electrical problems. A
sensitivity of 10-picocoulomb discharges has been claimed. :j
It must be remembered that the proof- and type-testing required in the il
1
standards are concerned with the short-term electrical integrity of the 'i
l
capacitor and the adequacy of the design thermally and from the partial
1
jJ
'l
',1
-~~~~~~-~--~'"' i--~----~ ..
B- Glossary of terms relating to
power capacitors
a.c. electrolytic capacitor Electrolytic capacitor for a.c. operation. Often used
for starting single-phase induction motors.
ambient air temperature The temperature of the air at the pro'posed location of
the capacitor.
hank See capacitor bank.
capacitance of a capacitor Property: The ability of a capacitor to store an
electric charge. Quantity: The charge of one electrode divided by the
potential difference between the electrodes, the influence of any other
conductor being negligible.
capacitance tolerance Permissible difference between actual and rated
capacitances.
capacitor bank A number of capacitors connected together in such a way as to
give the required rating at a given voltage.
capacitor element A device consisting essentially of two electrodes separated
by a dielectric.
capacitor installation An assemblage of capacitor units forming a bank
together with switchgear, connections, control and protection equipment.
capacitor losses Active power dissipated by a capacitor, usually expressed in
terms of watts per kvar. Usually includes losses in fuses and discharge
devices forming integral part of capacitor.
capacitor stack An assembly of capacitor units connected in series or series-
parallel.
capacitor unit A capacitor element, or a number of capacitor elements,
assembled in the same container and with the terminals brought out.
capacitor voltage transformer (CVT) Capacitor stack comprising units in
series connected to a high-voltage a.c. supply suitably tapped to act as a
voltage divider.
charging a capacitor Storing energy therein.
charging current The current by which a capacitor is charged.
circuit-breaker capacitor Capacitor connected in parallel with the interrupting
units of the pole(s) of an extra-high-voltage circuit-breaker and intended to
ensure equal voltage distribution across the gaps when the circuit-breaker
is open or when breaking load.
coupling capacitor A high-voltage capacitor stack which, in addition to its
function as an a.c. voltage divider, also provides a low-impedance path for
Appendix B- Glossary of terms relc1trng to power capacitors 293
r;
i
the injection of high-frequency currents into the system for control and ~
protection purposes.
dielectric The solid andjor fluid insulation between capacitor electrodes. i
dielectric constant St'e permittirity.
discharge device A device connected across the terminals of a capacitor, usually
I
internally, capable of reducing the residual voltage to a safe value, in a given
time, after the capacitor has been switched off. Usually in the form of a
resistor. In certain cases may be connected externally in the form of
I
I
resistance or reactor.
discharge of a capacitor Extraction of energy stored by a capacitor.
discharging current The current which flows when a capacitor is being
discharged. ,,~
tl
earth terminal Terminal connected to earth. ~
electrolytic capacitor A capacitor in which the dielectric consists of an
anodically-formed oxide film on one or both electrodes. For use on d.c. only
~
I'
one electrode is anodised, lw use on a.c. requires that both electrodes be ~
anodised. ~
I
electrode Metal plates, metal or metallised strips forming part of a capacitor
clement to which an electric supply is connected.
element See capacitor element.
energy-storage capacitor Power capacitor intended to store >:11ergy ,,_t d.c. c.!od
to release it within a very short time.
equivalent series resistance An effective resistance which, if connected in series
with an ideal capacitor of equal capacitance value to that of the capacitor in
question, has a power loss equal to the active power dissipated in that
capacitor under specified operating conditions.
film capacitor A capacitor having a dielectric of plastics film. When used on
low-voltage circuits, impregnation is not required.
filter capacitor A power capacitor forming part of a circuit designed to accept
specified percentages of one or more orders of harmonic currents, thus
reducing the harmonic currents flowing in the adjacent electrical system.
fuse, high-rupturing capacity See high-rupturing-capacity (HRC) fuse.
fuse, internal See internal fuse. 't
II
high-frequency capacitance Effective capacitance, at a given frequency,
resulting from the joint effect of the intrinsic capacitance and self-
inductance of the capacitor.
high-rupturing-capacity (HRC) fuse Device for protection of apparatus against
possibility of damage due to the passage of current greater than normal.
HRC fuses are dealt with comprehensively in The J & P Switchgear Book
(Butterworths).
high-voltage capacitor (of a capacitor divider) (C 1 ) Capacitor connected
between high and intermediate voltage terminals.
impregnation Manufacturing process by which any voids within the capacitor
dielectric and insulation are filled with a suitable fluid of high insulation
properties. Usually preceded by a period of drying under vacuum.
294 Apperldix B ~Glossary ot terms relating to power capacitors
intermediate-voltage capacitor (of a capacitor divider) (C 2 ) Capacitor con-
nected between intermediate and low-voltage terminals.
intermediate-voltage terminal (of a capacitor divider) Terminal for connection
to an intermediate circuit, e.g. the electromagnetic unit of a capacitor
voltage transformer.
internal fuse Fuse connected inside a capacitor, in series with an element or
group of elements.
kilovar (kvar) The unit of reactive power and equal to 1000 vars, the var in turn
being equal to the product of r.m.s. capacitor current and r.m.s. supply
voltage.
limiting current Maximum peak current which can be supplied by a capacitor.
limiting voltage (Uriml Maximum peak voltage which can be applied periodi-
cally or occasionally to the terminal of a capacitor.
line terminal'Terminal connected to lines. In polyphase capacitors terminal-
to-neutral is not considered to be a line terminal.
low-voltage terminal (of a capacitor divider) Terminal to earth, directly or via
an impedance of negligible value at network frequency. In a coupling
capacitor this terminal is also connected to the signal transmitting device.
maximum permissible current The maximum r.m.s. alternating current which a
capacitor can carry for a given time under specified conditions.
maximum permissible voltage The maximum r.m.s. alternating voltage which
a capacitor can sustain for a given time under specified conditions.
metal-foil capacitor A capacitor with electrodes of metal foil or strips.
metallised capacitor A capacitor with electrodes formed by vacuum evap-
oration of metal deposited directly onto the dielectric (paper or plastics
film).
mixed-dielectric capacitor A capacitor with a dielectric which consists of at
least two different dielectric substances. Usually impregnated.
motor start-and-run capacitor A small-power capacitor permanently con-
nected in series with the auxiliary winding of a single-phase induction
motor to provide starting facilities and to improve running torque.
motor-starting capacitor A power capacitor, usually of the a.c. electrolytic
type, connected in series with the auxiliary winding of a single-phase
induction motor to provide starting facilities only. Disconnected automati-
cally when the motor reaches full speed.
open-circuit intermediate voltage (of a capacitor divider) The voltage across the
terminals when applied between high-voltage and low-voltage terminals,
no impedance being connected in parallel with the intermediate-voltage
capacitor.
over-pressure disconnector Device designed to interrupt the current path in
case of abnormal increase of the pressure inside the capacitor.
over-voltage protector A quick-acting device for limiting the voltage across
capacitor terminals to a permissible value.
paper capacitor Unit with dielectric of paper. Usually impregnated.
Appendrx B- Glossary of terrns relating to power capacitors 295
permittivity (or dielectric constant) Ratio between capacitance and dielectric
compared with that if the dielectric was air.
power-factor improvement (correction) The usc of capacitors to reduce the
phase angle between line current and voltage in electricity supplies to
industrial and commercial premises, thus improving the power factor to a
high value.
rated capacitance (CN) Capacitance value for which a capacitor is designed.
rated current (IN) The r.m.s. value of the a.c. current for which a capacitor is
designed.
rated frequency (JN) Frequency for which a capacitor is designed.
rated output (QN) The reactive power in kvar derived from the rated values of
capacitance, frequency and voltage or current.
rated temperature category Range of temperature of ambient air or cooling
medium for which a capacitor is designed.
rated voltage (UN) The r.m.s. value of the voltage at rated frequency between
terminals which the capacitor is designed to withstand continuously.
ratio (of a capacitor divider)( voltage) The ratio corresponds to the sum of the
capacitances of the high-voltage and intermediate-voltage capacitors
divided by the capacitance of the high-voltage capacitor (C 1 +C 2 )/C 1 .
self-healing capacitor A capacitor, the electrical properties of which arc
restored after local breakdown of the dielectric.
series capacitor A power capacitor connnected in series with the line.
Essentially used for compensation of the reactance of the line.
shunt capacitor A power capacitor connected in parallel with a line. Essentially
used for power-factor correction.
stack See capacitor stack.
stored energy (J) Energy in joules stored in a capacitbr=tCV 2
tangent of loss angle (tan b) The capacitor losses (watts/kvar) divided by the
reactive output of the capacitor (kvar).
unbalance protection Protection employing device sensitive to current or
voltage difference between parts of a capacitor bank.
unit See capacitor unit.
voltage divider A series of capacitor resistors or inductors so connected that a
desired fraction of the applied voltage may be obtained.
voltage ratio (of a capacitor divider) Ratio of voltage (applied to the capacitor
divider) to the intermediate voltage, no impedance being connected in
parallel with the intermediate capacitor. See ratio.
 Appendix C- Useful formulae relating to power CJpciCitu s 2c17
1

C - Useful formulae relating to vars =I, l\

kilovars (kvar) =I, v; x 10- 3

power capacitors
where v; =line voltage
2n:fCV
1,=106-
2n:fCVx 10 3 x V
kvar = ~--~---
109

Capacitance in parallel 2n:fCV 2

Capacitance in series
-169
1 1 .1 1
C = C 1 + C 2 + C 3 etc. --=-+---+--etc. where C =capacitance in microfarads (pF)
c C1 cz c3 f =supply frequency (Hz)
where C =total capacitance where C =effective capacitance V =line voltage (delta-connected)
of series circuit =phase voltage (star-connected)

Capacitive rl'actance Capaciror current This formula can be applied to either single- or three-phase capacitors.

10 6 E
X, (ohms)= 2n:fC I,= ,~
"'-c To calculate capacitance from capacitor kvar rating
where C =capacitance in where E =volts across kvar x 10 9
microfarads (,uF) C=------
capacitor 2n:fV2
per phase X,= capacitive reactance
f =supply frequency (Hz) .(ohms) where C =capacitance in microfarads (pF)
f =supply frequenc'y (Hz)
Voltage across capacitor V =line voltage

E=l,X,
where E =volts across capacitor To calwlate capacitor line current
/,=current flowing through capacitor (amperes)
Single-phase Three-phase
X,= capacitive reactance (ohms)
3
kvar x 10 kvar x 10 3
I, I=---
Vcu raring of capacitor v c }3xv
vars=lzX, where I,= line current where I,= line current
kilovars (kvar) =I; x c x I 0- 3 V =line voltage V =line voltage

For tlzrrc-plwse circuit

kilovars (kvar) = 3( 12 X, x 10 - 3 ) Calculation of capacitor kvar required for power-factor improuement

where X,= capacitive reactance per phase (ohms) capacitor kvar= kW(tan 1 - tan 2 )
/,=capacitor current (shunt-connection) (amperes) where k W =three-phase k W load
I= current flowing through capacitor
1 =angle of lag before improvement
(series-connection) (amperes)
2 =angle of lag after improvement
 flliJIIlrMCiliWW.WWI~-----

298 Appendix C- Useful formulae relating to power capacrtors

Capacitive currents flowing through inductive reactance D- Bibliography

Voltage rise E =I ,XL
where !,=capacitive current
XL= inductive reactance
=2nfL
L =inductance (henries)

Tlansformer supplying purely capacitive load

Chapter 1
capacitor kvar
Volts rise % = ------~ ----- x% impedance of transformer The application of power capacitors, BICC, 1965
transformer kVA
Chapter 2
Fibres, Films, Plastics and Rubbers, W J ROFF and J R SCOTT, Butterworths, 1971
To calculate inrush current for single capacitor 'Medium-voltage power capacitor development-a quiet revolution', ERIC G STANLEY,
Electrical Review, 16 Jan 1981
Peak value of inrush current

_
Jmax - 1.15 J0
(
1+ .
f.:)
Jshort-~irc~~ -k V
Chapter 4
'Private plant and power-factor correction', D WOODFALL, Electrical Times, Nov 1949
'Stability of large electric cable systems', A J GIBBONS and E B POWELL, Engineering, 13 Aug
capac1tor kvar
1949

where I 0 =peak value of nominal capacitor power frequency current Ch~pter 5

'Capacitor applications and design', G COOPER and W A BRECK NELL, Mining Technology,
AMEME Jnl, Sept 1975
Frequency of inrush current Chapter 6
'Power-factor correction of arc furnaces', L CLARKE and G A CURTIS (and R 0 M POWELL),
J.=F J~~ort-circuit ~VA Electrical Times, 6 Aug 1959
'
0
capacitor kvar Fuels, Furnaces and Refractories, J D GILCHRIST, Pergamon Press, 1'!78
'Power-factor correction for foundries', W A BRECK NELL, Electrical Times, 8 Oct 1976
where F 0 =power frequency. 'Raising the production of arc furnaces by stabilising the voltage with thyristor-switched
capacitors', H FRANK and K PETERSSON, ASEA Jnl, Vol 50 No 1, 1977

Chapter 8
'The design and application of polypropylene film capacitors to power distribution circuits', G A
CURTIS and M J SMART, Paper 31, CIRED, Liege, Belgium, 1975
'Power capacitors for supply applications', L CLARKE, Electrical Times, May 1968
'Capacitors in relation to transient, fluctuating and distorting loads', L CLARKE, G A CURTIS
and R 0 M POWELL, lEE Paper No 4168, lEE Jnl, 12 Dec 1962
'Medium-voltage power capacitor development-a quiet revolution', ERIC G STANLEY,
Electrical Review, 16 Jan 1981

Chapter 9
'Capacitors in relation to transient, fluctuating and distorting loads', L CLARKE, G A CURTIS
and R 0 M POWELL, lEE Paper No 4168, lEE Jnl, 12 Dec 1962
'Series capacitor installations in British Columbia hydro 500-kV system', J L BA THO eta/., IE bE
PES winter meeting 1977
'Series capacitors in power systems', N T FAHLEN, G JANCKE and 0 NERF, IEEE PES
summer meeting 1973
'400-kV series capacitor at Kangsala', A J PERSON EN, Electricity in Finland, Sahko 38, 1965
'A new series capacitor protection scheme using non-linear resistors', A L COURTS, N G
HINGORANI and G E STENTER, IEEE Jnl, PAS-97, 1978
'SLC-an automatic resonance link', M N JOHN, Electrical Times, 29 Aug 1968
'The problems of overseas high-voltage transmission systems', lEE NE Centre discussion meeting,
Session 6, 'Compensation', 13 Apr 1978
 -JII...........-.IMIIIUIIIBEillll-

300 Appendix D- Bibliography Apperrd1x D- Bibliography 301

'Over-voltages in extra-high-voltage transmission lines due to faults and subsequent by-passing of
series capacitors', V MADZAREVIC eta/., IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vol PAS-96, No 6, Nov/Dec 1977
'Power capacitors for supply applications', L CLARKE, Electrical 1imes, May 1968
References (lEE Conf Pubn No 205)
From papers submitted to the international conference organised by the lEE Power Division in
London, 30 Nov-3 Dec 198 I, titled 'Thyristor and variable static equipment for a.c. and d.c.
transmission'
1. Series capacitors. 'A new scheme for damping subsynchronous resonance in compensated a.c.
transmission systems', N G HINGORANI (Electric Power Research Inst, USA), R A HEDIN
and K B STRUMP (Siemens-Allis Inc, USA), A L SCHAULB and N MINCER (Salt River
Project, USA). Pu bn 205, p 60
2. High-voltage d.c. power/inks. 'Dynamic reactive compensation for the 2000-MW d.c. link', N
HARRIS and I M WELCH (CEGB Transmission and Technical Services Div, Guildford,
England). Pubn 205, p 21
3. Variable static compensators (Static Var Compensators (SVC)). 'Evaluation of static com-
pensators', R M MATHER and M Z TARNAWEEKY (Univ of Manitoba, Canada), D A
WOODFORD (Manitoba Hydro, Manitoba High-voltage d.c. Research Centre, Winnipeg,
Canada). Pubn 205, p 1
4. 'Static compensators for power systems and industry', V V KHO UDIAKEV and V N IV AKIN
(All-Union Elcctrotechnical Inst, USSR). Pubn 205, p 25
5. 'Experience and lessons of India's first static compensator in power system', B S SHARMA (UP
State Electricity Board, India), Y GEORGE (ACEC, Belgium). Pubn 205, p 38
6. 'An analysis of switching transients in thyristor-switched capacitor-compensated systems', T J
E MILLER (GEC, USA), P CHADWICK (Canadian General Electric, Canada). Pubn 205,
p 104
Chapter 11
'Surge protection by means of capacitors', W G HAWLEY and F B KITCHIN, Rai/ll'ay Ga:etre.
Feb 1948
'Protection of machines connected to exposed overhead lines. The influence of certain
transmission-line associated apparatus on travelling waves', J L MILLER, lEE Jnl. Vol 34.
1934
'Surge protection of cable-connected distribution equipment on underground systems'. IEEE
Committee Report PAS-89, No 2, Feb 1970
'Surge protection for rotating a.c. machinery', Westinghouse Pubn 38-300
'Transient suppression', Ferranti Technical Information Bulletin, Issue 3, Aug I 965
High-voltage Technology, L L ALSTON, T W HUNTer a/., pages 328--348, OUP !968
The J & P Switchgear Book, 7th edn. R T LYTHALL, Butterworths, 1972, rev 1976
Heaviside's Operational Calculus Uf'p/ied to EnginC'ering and Physics, Dr ERNST J BERG,
McGraw-Hill Book Co
Chapter 12
'Capacitor type induction motors', J L WATTS, AMIEE, Electrical Re1icw. 9 Aug l '163
Appendix A
'ERA discharge detector', G MOLE, ERA V/T 149, 1962
'Measurement of the magnitude of internal discharges in power capacitors', G MOLE ct a/. ERA
Report 5204, 1967
'Factors controlling the life of power capacitors', Z KRUSUCHI, CIGRE Paper 138, 1962

Chapter 10
'Capacitors in relation to transient, fluctuating and distorting loads', L CLARKE, G A CURTIS
and R 0 M POWELL, lEE Paper No 4168, lEE Jn!', 12 Dec 1962
Harmonic filters. 'Harmonic filters for the 2000-MW cross-Channeld.c.link', G L BREWER and I
M WELCH (CEGB Transmission and Technical Services Div, Guildford, England) and B J
ABRAMOVICH (K C Derrick & Assoc, London). lEE Conf Pubn 205

References (I EE Conf Pu bn No 205)

From papers submitted to the international conference organised by the lEE Power Division in
London, 30 Nov-3 Dec 1981, titled 'Thyristor and variable static equipment for a.c. and d.c.
transmission'
1. Series capacitors. 'A new scheme for damping subsynchronous resonance in compensated a.c.
transmission systems', N G HINGORANI (Electric Power Research lnst, USA), R A HEDIN
and K B STUMP (Siemens-Allis Inc, USA), A L SCHAULB and N MINCER (Salt River
Project, USA). Pubn 205, p 60
2. High-voltage d.c. power links. 'Dynamic reactive compensation for the 2000-MW d.c. link', N
HARRIS and I M WELCH (CEGB Transmission and Technical Services Div, Guildford,
England). Pubn 205, p 21
3. Variable static compensators (Static Var Compensators (SVC)). 'Evaluation of static com-
pensators', R M MATHER and M Z TARNAWEEKY (Univ of Manitoba, Canada), D A
WOODFORD (Manitoba Hydro, Manitoba High-voltage d.c. Research Centre, Winnipeg,
Canada). Pubn 205, p 1
4. 'Static compensators for power systems and industry'. V V KHOUDIAKEV and V N IV AKIN
(All-Union Electrotechnical Inst, USSR). Pubn 205, p 25
5. 'Experience and lessons oflndia's first static compensator in power system', B S SHARMA (UP
State Electricity Board. India), Y GEORGE (ACEC, Belgium). Pubn 205, p 38
6. 'An analysis of switching transients in thyristor-switched capacitor-compensated systems', T J
E MILLER (GEC, USA), P CHADWICK (Canadian General Electric, Canada). Pubn 205.
p 104
~ft%Wr !iio!liiiitiiM!!@tM\I!!I!!MMii!!Bidllljji!ii<i!iiR!i#d!Q9#1j!i;tM@I.G,S4@ IWMfl! W 1 "'111 'D*'l~S&R'M!fhji;!JrrjO!ii!,JI!'tJjMNil1iji!iii!l!dijQMki!Mijilil@ii1!~----~,jjj~j,~~e~

Index

Absolute permittivity, 2 Capacitance, 4 5

A.C. voltage test, 49 resistance and, 9
Air-break contactors, LV capacitors, series and parallel connection, 5
155-156 unbalance detection, !83!84
Air, dielectric strength. 3 Capacitive loads--re-striking H V switchgear,
Air, permittivity, 2 170
Ajax-Wyatt induction furnace, !26 Capacitive reactance, 8
Alternating current Capacitors
capacitors, 7-9 applications, !4-24
circuits. !0 carrier current inject:on, 22, 247- 249
Altemators charge/discharge, 13 -14
main generating plant, 99 -!04 construction, 3!
standby plant, 104 cubicle type, 47
Aluminium-foil electrodes, 25, 31 current calculations. 8, 13
anodiscd, 277- 278 d.c. smoothing, 2!
Arc furnace design for energy storage, 20, 251 -267
capacitors, 119-126 design for harmonic currents, 235
typical ratings, 124 development, 25 -28
Arc welding, I 09-1 10 dielectric loss, 48
capacitors, Ill -112 discharge welding, 113
load characteristics, I 09 enclosures and assemblies, 45--48
transformers, p.f. correction, 110 -Ill energising transients, 171- !73
undirectional current, 113 energy storage, 14
Automatic controL 78 formulae, 296 -298
HV capacitors, 174--175 function in electric circuits, 14
LV capacitors, !58-168 harmonic current overloading, 232-234
US practice, !67-168 harmonic filters, 229-230
Average p.f. tariffs, 70, 72-74 history of development, 25-28
impregnants, properties, 27
induction beating, 130-133
Basic capacitor construction, 31 installation, 144-154
Basic design information kvar, 8, I 0, 63
HV series capacitor banks, 202 location, 136-144
HV shunt capacitor banks, 193, 196 losses, I 0, 12, 13, 48
Braking, magnetic and dynamic, 90 manufacture, 31-33, 37-39
Buried-foil elements, 31 motor start/run, 276
open-rack type, 46, 48
overloads, 52
Cables parallel-plate, 6
de-rating, 146 p.f. improvement (correction). 14-18, 54
LV capacitors, !46-!48 protection of banks, 254
sizes. 148 protection of series-connected in H V lines,
Calculation of capacitor current, 8, 13 213-216
Calculation of capacitor rating (kvar), 63 -65, protection of shunt-connected, !56 -158,
69, 72 173, 175, 189

304 I r1dex
Capacitors, continued
rating transformers, 94 96
rating in kvar, I 0
routine testing, 49 -51, 287
series and parallel, 5
series, EHV transmission lines, 209 -212
ships, 105-106
site testing, 149, 152 154, 235
siting. 77 79, 136 143
size calculations. 63 -69, 71 -74
standards, 285
switching, 155, 156, 168-174
switching, motor start/run, 279
tank type, 47
temperature classification. 51
voltage transformers, 247-248
weight reduction, 28
winding, 31, 45, 271
wound. 5
See also High-voltage capacitors
Low-voltage capacitors
Series capacitors
Shunt capacitors
Carrier-current injection, 22. 247-249
Castor oil impregnant, 254-256
Channel type induction furnace, !26
Characteristics of paper dielectric, 28
Characteristics of polypropylene film
dielectric, 30
Charging current, 13
Circuit containing resistance and
capacitance, 9
Clamped discharge of energy-storage
capacitors. 253
Commissioning
HV capacitors, 152-154
LV capacitors, 149
Commutation capacitors, 20, 279 -284
Comparison, shunt/series capacitors on HV
power line, 202-207
Compensation, line reactance. 201
Compensators, variable static, 218-222
Contactors, air-break, 155--156
Control gear
HV capacitors, !51, 168-175
LV capacitors, 145-146, 158-168
Cored (channel type) induction furnaces,
126-127
Careless induction furnaces
mains-frequency, 128-129
medium-frequency, 129-130
Careless windings, 26
Correction (improvement) of p.f., 14 -18
Cubicle enclosures, capacitor assembly, 46
Current
calculation, 8, 13
making-breaking switchgear, 170
protection, out-of-balance, !84 188
rating switchgear, 169
-sensitive relays, 153, 165, 173, 175, 184
~----
l11dex :ll.h
D.C. smoothing capacitors. 21 Fluorescent and discharge lighting, 24
Degree of correction, economics History of capacitor development. 25 ,
circuit connections, 272-274
determining. 56 HRC fuses, current-limiting, 180 181 2
LV capacitors for, 269---274
Huntilig. synchronous motors. 199
Dielectric Flux density, electric, 4
constant, 1-2 Fuse operation, detection, 181 -183
losses, 10, 11,12 13,48 Fuses
lCSE(lntermediate Current Stabilitv
material, 1 external, for H V series capacitors, 210 211 Expenmcnt), 260
paper, 28, 255 external, for HV shunt capacitors, 180 183 I EC 70, routine tests, 287
polypropylene film, 30 internal, for HV series capacitors, 211 212 lgnitrons, series capacitor !'rc't , .
stress. 2--3, 7 internal, for HV shunt capacitors, 177-179 216 Cctcon . .21~.
systems comparison, 255 internal, for LV shunt capacitors, 156-157 lmprgenants, 25 -29
Dielectrics external, for LV shunt capacitors, 157-158 air, 1
composite, 6--7 castor oil, 255
HV capacitors, 42 43, 254-255 leaking, 51
loss angle. 48 Generating plant, private, p.f. improvement, properties, 27
LV capacitors, 44-45 99-104 permittivity, 29
mixed, 27-28, 29 .Generators, surge protection, 19 types, 27
paper, 25---~see also Papers Graphitising furnaces, 133--135 Impregnated-film dielectric, 44
Discharge Group fusing, 158 Improvement (correction) of p.f. 14
charact~ristics, energy-storage capacitors, 54-56 , 18c.
252 Individual correction
current, 13 -14 Hall-Herault melting furnace, 120 capacitors, 79
device test, 49-50 Hangers, pole-mounted, capacitors in, 48 induction motors, 80-84
HV capacitors, 252--254 Harmonic currents, 231 Induction furnaces, 126- 133
lighting, LV capacitors, 269 274 capacitor overloading, 232--234 tripler, 133
operation, clamped, 253 filter networks, 20-21 Induction heaters, 130-133
oscillatory (ringing) frequency, 256 measurement of absorption, 235 Induction motors
welding capacitors, 113 H~rmonic filte(s, 225 -226
capacitor ratings, 87 88, 89
applications, 226-227 excitation curve, typical, 91
capacitors for, 229-230 individual correction, 79 84
design, 227-229 over-correction, 88, 89
Economics of p.f. improvement, 56-57 protection, primary/secondary, 230
p.f. characteristics, 81 -84
EDF requirements for endurance and High-rupturing-fuses--see H RC fuses
series capacitors and, 199-200
overvoltage, 291 High-voltage capacitors single-phase, 274--277
Electric field intensity, 2 assembly, 46-48 star/delta starters, 84--87
Electric f1ux or charge, 3 -4 automatic control, 174-175 starting, 20
Electricity boards' tariff structures, 56-DO capacitor voltage, transformers, 247 248 Inductive reactance, 8
Electrodes, l commissioning, 152--154 Installations
aluminium-foil, 25, 31 control gear, 151, 168-175
energy-storage capacitors, 260
Energy storage design, 26 HV capacitors. 150
capacitor proving tests, 262-266 dielectrics, 254-255 LV capacitors, 144
capacitors, 14, 20, 256-266 discharge, 252254 Insulation, 50
in small systems, 266 energy storage, 251-266 HV capacitors, 41, 42
installations, 260-262 energy-storage installations. 260 -262 surge conditions, 24
Energising transients, 171- 173 f1ash photography, 286 Internal fusing---see Fuses
Energy stored in capacitors, 14, 251, 252 installation, 150-151
European tariff structures, 59~60 laser excitation, 266
Expulsion fuses, 181 183 life, 254-256
Kraft paper dielectric, 26, 40, 42, 254 -256
Extended-foil elements, 31 line coupling, 248-249 See also Papers
External fuses---see Fuses location, 136--143
KVA maximum demand tariffs, 69
maintenance, 154
protection, 175-189,254
ripple control, 249--250
Laser excitation, HV capacitors, 266
Fail-safe devices. pressure-sensitive, 45, 157, shock magnetisation, 266
Leeds-Northrop induction furnace, 126
272 surge generators, 240-244
Lighting, fluorescent, capacitors, 24, 269 273
Ferro resonance, 199 surge protection, 237 -240
Line coupling, HV capacitors, 21. 22,
Field intensity, electric, 2 switchgear synthetic testing, 244-246 248-249
Film (polypropylene) dielectric, 30 transformer testing, 21, 266 -267 Line fusing, !57 158
Financial savings from p.f. improvement, unit type, 40-44
Line protection, HV capacitors, 175, ISX
6062 High-voltage supplies, 138-140 Load and p.f. measurement, 74~77
306 Index
Losses, dielectric, 10, 12, 13,48
Low-voltage capacitors
assembly, 45--46
automatic control, 158-168
commissioning and maintenance, 149
commutation, 279-284
control gear, 145-146
design, 26--27
design for commutation, 281
design for lighting circuits, 269 -272
dry metallised-film, 44-45, 279
electrolytic, 277-278
impregnated film, 44
impregnated paper/foil, 277
induction motors, 274-277
installation, 144-148
life, 282-283
location, 136
metallised-paper, 278 -279
polypropylene film, 44
special applications, 269
switching, 279
unit type, 37-40
Main generating plant, 99
Maintenance
HV capacitors, !54
LV capacitors, 149
Manual control, capacitors, 78
Manually-controlled capacitors, location,
143--144
Manufacturing processes, continuous,
141-142
Marine capacitor applications, 105-106
Maximum-demand tariffs, 69-74
Measurement of load and pJ, 74-77
Metallised dielectric, 44, 270-272
Meter reading, 74-77
Mining applications, 106-109
MIPB oil impregnant, 27, 43
Mixed dielectrics, 42
Magnetic and dynamic braking, 90
Motors
magnetic and dynamic braking, 90
over-correction problems, 88-90
start/run capacitors, 274-279
surge protection, 19
See also Induction motors
Synchronous motors
National/international standards, 285-291
Non-linear resistors, series capacitor
protection, 214-215
Oil switches, load-breaking, 173-174
OPP film dielectric, 30-43
Open-rack capacitor assembly, 46--47, 48
Operating temperature, 282
Operating voltage, 283
Oscillatory (ringing) discharge frequency,
256
Out-of-balance current/voltage protection,
184-188
Output test, 49, 51
Over-correction, induction motors, 88-90
Overloads
due to harmonic currents, 232-234
maximum permissible, 52
Overvoltage, series capacitors, 213-215
Overvoltage protection, 188-189
Paper dielectrics, 25, 28--29, 255
See also Kraft paper dielectric
Parallel-plate capacitor, 4--6
PCB impregnant, 26-28
Permittivity, 1-2, 29
Photography, llash, 266
Pole-mounted hangers, capacitors in, 48
Polychlorinated biphenyl-see PCB
impregnant
Polypropylene film dielectric, 27-28, 30,
42-44
Potential gradient, 2
Power-factor control, var-sensitive relays,
163-164
Power-factor improvement (correction),
14-18, 53-55 . time switches, 16 7
economics/financial savings, 56-62
induction motors, 80-92
multiplying constants, 64, 194
private generating plant, 98-104
transformers, 93--98
Power factors, 53-54
Power relationships, a.c. circuits, 10
Power surge~ see Surge
Pressure-sensitive fail-safe device, 45, !57,
272
Properties of capacitor imprcgnants, 27
Protection
energy-storage capacitors, 254
harmonic filter banks, 230
line, HV shunt capacitor banks, 175, 188
out-of-balance current/voltage, 184-188
overvoltage, HV series capacitor banks,
213
overvoltage, HV shunt capacitor banks,
188
secondary, HV shunt capacitor banks,
184-188
Pulse repetition rate, capacitor life, 255
'Q' factor, 256
Rating of capacitors for p_f_ improvement,
63 -65, 69, 71--73
Reactance of power transformers, 93-94, 98
Reactors, series, 234
Relative permittivity, 1
Relays
and instruments, HV-capacitor switchgear_
173
current-sensitive, 153, 165, 173, 175, 184
LV capacitors, 158--159
relay connections for var-sensitive, 166
settings, 164-165, 174
var-sensitive, 160-165, 167, 174
voltage-sensitive, 167, 175, 186, 188
Resistance, capacitance in series, 9
Resistance welding, 113-115, 198
load characteristics, 113
pJ. improvement, 114
series capacitors, 115-117
Resonance, 231-232
harmonic currents, 231
transformers, 94, 199
Re-striking of switchgear, 170-171
Ringing (oscillatory) discharge frequency,
256
Ripple control capacitors, 249-250
Rotating machines, surge protection, 19
Routine tests, capacitors
BS 1650, 48--51
IEC 70, 287
line terminals, 288
Sealing test, 50
Secondary protection, HV shunt capacitor
banks, 184-188
Semi-resonant circuits, lluorescent lighting,
274
Series capacitor circuits, lluorescent lighting,
273
Series capacitors, 196-199
bank Ia you t, 212
degree of compensation, 201
design, 202, 209-210
EHV transmission lines, 207-215
lluorescent lighting, 273
graphitising furnaces, 133
H V power systems, 196 215
location, 201
protection, 213-216
resistance welding, 115-117
short-circuit conditions, 200
synchronous motors, 199--200
typical applications, 198
Series reactors, 234--235
Ship capacitors, 105-106
Shock magnetisation of metals, 268
Short-circuit limiting couplings, 223 -224
Index 307
Shunt capacitors
banks, design basic information, 193 196
banks, rating determination. 192
comparison with series on H V power line,
202--207
EHV transmission lines, 215 218
nuorcscent lighting circuits, 273
power supply systems, 16-18, 190 196
rating, 192--193
Single-phase motors, starting, 20, 274
Site testing, capacitors, 149, 152 154. 235
Siting capacitors, 77, 136-143
Standards, national/international, 285 291
Standby generators, I 04
Star/delta start induction motors, correction.
84-87
Start-and-run/starter motors, 276 279
Starters, star/delta, 84 -87
Stresses, composite dielectric capacitors, 6, 7
Surface capacitors, in mining, 107
Surge generator capacitors, 24, 240--244
Surge protection capacitors. 19, 237-240
Surge withstand levels, ?41
Switchgear, 23 -24
HV maximum capacitor ratings, 138
t-:rv' technical requirements, capacilui
switching, 169-174
instruments and relays, 173
re-striking, 170--171
synthetic testing, 24, 244-246
Switching, 158--159
LV capacitors, 279
Synchronous motors, hunting, 199
Tank type capacitors, 33-36, 47--48
Tariffs
average pJ., 70, 72 74
Europe, 58-60
maximum demand, 69 -74
United Kingdom, 56-59
Temperature classification, capacitors, 51
Temperature conditions, capacitors, 144 145
Terminals, voltage test between, 49
Test routines, capacitors, 49-51,287
Test procedure to IEC 70, 287
Thyristors, 280
static switching, 20
Thyristor-switched capacitors, 122- 126
Time switches, 167
Transformers
arc welding, II 0 Ill
ferro-resonance, 199
k W load capacity increase, 96
magnetising currents compensation, 94, 95
pJ improvement, 93-98
reactance compensation, 93-94, 98
testing, 21, 266-267
voltage regulation, 97
308 Index
Transients. capacitor energising, 171 173
Transmission lines, very-high-voltage,
207 218
Tripier type induction furnace, 133
TYCAP capacitor system, 123 126
UKAEA, experiments. 260 261
Underground capacitors, in mining, 106 -!OS
United Kingdom electricity tariffs, 56-59
Unit fusing, 156-157
Unit type capacitors, HV 40-44, LV 37 39
Values of pL industrial loads, 54
Var-scnsitive relays, 160--165,167, 174
p.f. control, 163-164
Variable static compensators, 218 -222
Volt/ampere rating, capacitors, 284
Voltage
arc furnaces, 122-123
at transformer terminals, 97 98
Voltage, contin11ed
divider capacitors, 21, 247
fluctuations (flicker), 198
protection, out-of-balance, 187-188
regulation improvement, 198
rise at transformer terminals, 97--98
-sensitive relays, 167-!75, 186, 188
test between terminals, 49
transformer capacitor, 22, 247
transformer regulation, 97
variations, 145
Water cooling, medium-frequency induction
heating capacitors, 132
Welding and p.f. improvement, 109-118, 198
Winding, dry metallised-film elements. 31,
45, 271
Wound capacitors, 5
ZETA (Zero Energy Toroidal Apparatus),
260
TheJ & P
Transformer
Book
Eleventh Edition
A C Franklin
D P Franklin
Since this book was first published in 1925 by
Johnson & Phillips, it has established a
reputation as 'the transformer sngineer's
bible' and earned its place as the leading
treatise on the power transformer.
This completely revised edition, published in
1983, takes full account of recent advances
made in design and engineering practice in
the transformer and allied industries. It is an
essential up-to-date reference work for the
practising engineer as well as being an
invaluable textbook for architects, system
planners, graduates and students.
Hardcover 826 pages 234 x 156 mm
Illustrated 040800494 0
Full details available from the publishers
D Butterworths,
00 Borough Green, Sevenoaks, Kent TN15 8PH
 i
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i I
The J & P i
1
Switchgear "]

:f
~
Book j
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l
I
Seventh Edition c1

R T Lythall
:t
J
Edited by C A Worth
A comprehensive reference book on all types and
.{
ranges of switchgear, which was first published in ~
1927 by Johnson and Phillips.
'The book contains a mass of technical data together
with about seven hundred and fifty illustrations and
line drawings. The twenty-three chapters cover the
whole spectrum of switchgear science from short-
circuit calculation of symmetrical faults, busbar
systems to control boards, and instruments and
measuring transformers.
This should prove a valuable addition to the refer-
ence bookshelf of even the most experienced
engineer'.
Electrical Equipment

Hardcover 816 pages 234 x 156mm

Illustrated 0 408 00069 4

1-0 Butterworths, i
~
gQ Borough Green, Sevenoaks, Kent TN15 8PH f
'l!
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