!

Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics Douglas

C. Giancoli Physics for Scientists and Engineers
Raymond A. Serway John W. Jewett
University Physics with
Modern Physics Young H. D. Freeman R. A. Concepts of
Modern Physics Arthur B.

i
ii
iii

. - 3
. Michelson-Morley 5
.
9
. 10
. Twin Paradox 12
. 18
. - 19
. 20
. 27
. 29
. 30
. Doppler 36
. 40
. 41
. 42
.
44
51
54

. 62
. Planck 68
.
77
. 83
. ? 85
. X 85
. Compton 89
. 95
iv

. 101
. - 106
. 107
. 110
.
111
. 113
. Bohr 116
. 118
. 122
. 125
. 127
129

132

.

140
. 141
. Heisenberg 147
. 155
. Schrdinger - 156
. Schrdinger 159
. 163
. 166
. 174
. 178
184

186

. 192
. Schrdinger 194
. 199
. 205
. 208
 v

. X 212
. 217
. Fluorescence Photorescence 221
. 222
. (Holography) 228
229

232

. 238
. 244
. (van der Waals) 248
. 253
. 264
. Fermi 267
.
275
. 279
. 282
. 286
289

292

301


The Re
elativity

-

Michelson-M
M Morley












-
-



(Lorentz)



( )

Doppler

Isaac Newton (-)

Newton


(Special Relativity) Albert Einstein (-
)

Classical Physics

(Quantum Mechanics)

Albert Einstein



(physical universe)

. - (GALILEAN-NEWTONIAN RELATIVITY)

Einstein

(inertial reference frame)

inertial
frame of reference inertial reference frame

1
Concepts of Modern Physics
Arthur Beiser
Tata
McGraw-Hill

?
Maxwell 3
10 m. s
(ether)
c

cv
(
)


.
v c+v
c v

(c 2 v 2 )1/ 2

. v c
(a) c + v (b)

cv (c) (c
2
v 2 )1/ 2

(
)

.

c + v

-
-

. MICHELSON-MORLEY

(Michelson Morley)

3 10 m/s
10 (3 10 m/s)

Albertt A. Miche
elson

E
Edward W
W. Morle
ey


interferom
meter







Michelson
M




Michelson
M Morleyy

(ether wind)


Michelson


interferom
meter Arm 2


M



















-
c v




M c + v

M c

M M






Telescop
pe




on-Morley
Michelso
.

Michelsson-Morleyy

(ether
( hyp
pothesis)

3 10 m. s

Albert Einstein

A
Albert Einsstein (1879
9-1955)






Ulm




























E
Einstein

Einstein
E

Einstein

Michelson Morley

Michelson-Morley
ether
(ether hypothesis)

M M M M L
M M c v M c + v
/
/
L L 2Lc 2L v2 1
t1 = + = = (1 2 ) (.)
c v c + v c2 v2 c c
M M
-
(c 2 v 2 )1/ 2
L /(c 2 v 2 )1/ 2
2L
t2 = (.)
(c v2 )1/ 2
2

2L v 2 1 v 2 1/ 2
t = t1 t2 = (1 ) (1 ) (.)
c c2 c2
v / c << 1
2 2

1 1 1

v / c = x
2 2

Lv2
t = t1 t2 = (.)
c3

3 10 m/s
Michelson Morley 11 m

11 m 3 10 m/s
7.3 10 s
3 10 m/s

5.5 10 m
/
5.5 10 Hz
.
1.8 10 s
. H
7.3 10 s Michelson Morley



ether


ether

.
(POSTULATES OF THE SPECIAL
THEORY OF RELATIVITY)

Einstein

The laws of Physics have the same form in all inertial reference frames.

The speed of light in free space has the same value in all inertial frames of
reference.

10

Einstein (special theory of relativity)


Einstein

(general theory of relativity)
()

3 10 m/s





Michelson-Morley
Einstein

. (SIMULTANEITY)

Albert Einstein

 11

Absolute, true, and mathematical time, of itself, and

from its own nature, flows equably without relation to anything external.



Albert Einstein
Einstein

12

(b)


Einstein

. Twin Paradox (TIME DILATION AND TWIN PARADOX)

!



( )

 13

( )

(proper time)

( )

v



LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation) LASER
(
)
LASER (
)
t p

LASER c

LASER
distance traveled 2d
t p = = (.)
speed c

2 2

.

(a) (b) (
)

14

LASER
v

LASER
vt

t
2
LASER

laser

ct vt
2 2

= +d
2

2 2
2d 2d
t = 2 2 =
c v v2
c 1
c2
2d
t p =
c
t p 1
t = = t p = (.)
v2 v2
1 2 1 2
c c

t
t p
t f t p
(time dilation)

3.0 s

0.95c ?

0.95c
0.95c

3.0 s

 15

1 1
t = t p = t p = t p
(0.95c) 2
1 0.902
1
c2
= (3.2)(3.0 s) = 9.6 s

30 m/s
5 h

5 h

5 h

= (1 v 2 / c 2 ) 1/ 2
1 1 1
1 10
1 3 10 m/s
1
3 10 m/s

1 1 ; 1

1
1 10 1 10 1 5.0 10
2

1

t = t p = (1 + 5.0 1015 )(5.0 h) = 5.0 h+2.5 1014 h=5.0 h+0.09 ns

0.09 ns

Twin Paradox Twin
Paradox ()

16

Speedo Goslo


Speedo
20
0.95
Speedo 0.95
Goslo
42 62 Speedo
13
?
?

Goslo
Speedo
Speedo
Goslo

. Twin Paradox

(GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM)

 17

GPS (global
positioning system receiver)

(atomic clock)




GPS
15 GPS

GPS 4 km/s
GPS
1
10

GPS 4000 m/s:

1

1
1

4 10 m/s
1
3 10 m/s
1

1 1.8 10

1 1 1

1 1

18

1
1 1.8 10 1 9 10
2

1 9 10 1 10

1 10
1000

. (LENGTH CONTRACTION)

(proper length)

L = Lp 1 v2 / c2 (.)

L p
v
L = L p 1 v 2 / c 2 L
L p
(
)

 19

120.0 m
20.0 m
0.99c
?

v 2 1/2 (0.99c) 2
L = Lp (1 2 ) = (120.0 m) 1 = 17 m
c c2
20.0 m

30 m/s



4.3 m
30 m/s ?

v2 1/2 1 v2
L = Lp (1 2 ) Lp (1 2 )
c 2c

Lp v 2 4.3 m 3.0 101 m/s 2

Lp L ( 2)=( )( ) = 2.2 1014 m
2 c 2 3.0 108 m/s

2.2x10-14 m

. - (FOUR-DIMENTIONAL SPACE-TIME)

0.65 7: 00
7: 15

20

15
20
20 cm

15 cm

. (GALILEAN AND LORENTZ TRANSFORMATIONS)

(Galilean Transformation Equations)



(inertial frame)





( )

Principle of Galilean Relativity

The laws of mechanics must be the same in all inertial frames of reference.

 21

(a) (b)

.
(a)
(b)

(a)

(b)

(inertial system)

( x, y, z, t )

22

S S . S

xx ' S


S S
t = 0
S

- ( x, y, z, t )
S ( x' , y ' , z ' , t ' )

S
S

S S

-
(Galilean Space-Time Transform Equations)

dx
dt S
S dx ' dt
dx ' = dx vdt S v

x ' = x vt
y' = y


(.)
z'= z
t'=t

.
P


S S' S'
S

S ( dt = dt ' )

dx' dx
'
= v u ' x = ux v (.)
dt dt

 23

u ' x u x

x S S' (
u

v

)

LOREN
NTZ (Loren
ntz Transfo
ormation Eq
quations)

v 0
Lore
entz



S
S

Hend
drik A. Lo
orentz (
-)

Einstein
E

Loren
ntz

Lo
orentz

t ' = t

Lorentzz
t'

S t

x

Lorentz
z
x ' = ( x vt )
y'= y
(.)
z'= z
v
t ' = (t 2 x)
c

.


Lorentz
Albert Einstein
n

v v





x = ( x '+ vt ')
y = y'
z = z'
v
t = (t '+ 2 x ')
c

24

Lorentz
Lorentz

Lorentz

v
u 'x


dx '
u'x =
dt '
dx ' = (dx vdt )
v
dt ' = (dt dx)
c2
dx
v
dx ' dx vdt dt
ux =
'
= =
dt ' dt v dx 1 v dx
c2 c 2 dt
dx
ux
dt

ux v
u'x = (.)
uv
1 x2
c

y z

uy uz
u' y = u ' z = (.)
ux v uv
(1 2 ) (1 x2 )
c c

u ' y u ' z v





Lorentz

 25

ux v c u ' x ux v
ux = c
v
c (1 )
cv c = c
u '
x = =
cv v
1 2 1
c c

ux u ' x v v ux u ' x :

u 'x + v
ux = (.)
u 'xv
1+ 2
c

0.75c
0.85c

v = 0.75c ( )
ux = 0.85c

ux v 0.85c 0.75c
u'x = = = 0.977c
uxv ( 0.85c )(0.75c)
1 2 1
c c2

c
c

c

u ' x = ux v = 0.85c 0.75c = 1.60c )

0.80c

26

0.70c
?

v = 0.80c



u 'x = 0.70c ux

0.70 0.80
0.96
. 0.70 0.80
1 1

c
?

: c

0.60

0.60
( )

0.60
2

. . .
. . 0.88 0.60 1
.

1.2 ()

 27

. (RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM)

()

- p
- p m v v

mv
p= = mv
v2 (.)
1 2
c
v m v
= (1 v 2 / c 2 ) 1/2
mv
v c

F p
dp
F= (.)
dt

9.111031 kg
0.75c

v = 0.75c
me v (9.11 1031 kg)(0.75 3.00 108 m/s)
p= = = 3.10 10 22 kg.m/s
2 2
v (0.75c )
1 1
c2 c2

28

()
pclassical = mev = 2.05 1022 kg.m/s

50%

(Relativistic Mass)


(rest mass)

(relativistic mass)

(Relativistic Second Law):

(.)

( ) 1

. . . . .
/

 29

1 /

1 /
1 / /
1 /

1 / /

(.)
/
1

. (THE ULTIMATE SPEED)

Milkey Way

30

. (MASS AND ENERGY)

( )

( 0) (

|
1

 31

1 / 1

1 1
1

1
1

(.)

(.)

1 (.)

(.)

(.)

32

(.)

( Einstein )

/ (.)

c
2

(constant conversion factor) p

E 2 = p 2 c 2 + (mc 2 )2 (.)

p = 0 E = ER = mc2
(photon)

E = pc (.)

v = 0.25c
(eV)

0.511 MeV

me c 2 0.511 MeV
E= = = 1.03(0.511 MeV)=0.528 MeV
2
v (0.25c ) 2
1 2 1
c c2

3%
:

0.528 MeV 0.511 MeV 0.017 MeV

. (eV)

 33

ER = m p c 2 = (1.67 10 27 kg)(3.00 108 m/s) 2

= (1.50 1010 J)(1.00 eV/1.60 1019 J) =938 MeV

.
?

mp c2
E = 3m p c = 2

v2
1 2
c
1
3=
v2
1 2
c
1 v2 8
= 1 2
v= c = 2.83108 m/s
9 c 3

(eV)
.

K = E m p c 2 = 3m p c 2 m p c 2 = 2m p c 2 m p c 2 = 938 MeV

K = 1880 MeV
.

E = 3m p c 2

E 2 = p 2 c 2 + (m p c 2 ) 2 = (3m p c 2 ) 2
p 2 c 2 = 9( m p c 2 ) 2 ( m p c 2 ) 2 = 8( m p c 2 ) 2
mpc2 (938 MeV)
p= 8 = 8
c c
= 2650 MeV/c

1.0 kg 0.6

2.5 kg

34

1.4 kW
()

?
1.5 10 m

1.4 10 W/m ) 1.5 10 m 4 4.0 10 W

4.0 10 J

4.0 10 J
4.4 10 kg
3.0 10 m/s

1.4 kW. m

1 /

 35

/ 1
1 1 | | 1
1 1
1
1 / 2

1 1
1
2 2

1.4
1.2

1.0
1
/

0.8

2
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.20.40.60.81.01.21.41.6
0
/
.

1.005 0.10
0.10 3 10 m/s
0.10

36

. DOPPLER (DOPPLER EFFECT)

?

Doppler



Doppler

Doppler


1+ v / c
fobs = f source (.)
1V / c

c =
v = (+ -
)
V = (+ -
)

Doppler

 37

Doppler



Dopp
pler

f source

:






1/



/ 1 /

1 / (.)

1 / 1 / 1 / 1 /
1 / 1 / 1 / 1 /

/ /
/ / (.)

38

:


/

/ /
/ /
(.)

Doppler

( 5.60 10 Hz )
( 4.80 10 Hz) Doppler

1 1 km/h
80 km/h
?

1 /
1 /

5.60 4.80
3.00 10
5.60 4.80

4.59 10 m/s =1.65 10 km/h

1 m/s = 3.6 km/h $ 1.65 10 80
$ 164, 999, 920

 39

radar (radio detection and ranging)
(radio communication) Doppler
Doppler radar

(earth satellites)

!
Doppler (tool)

(spectral lines)
Doppler (Doppler shift)
()
(red shifts)


Hubble

Big
Bang

() Hydra 6.12 10 m/s
500 nm
?

/ /

40

1 /
1 /
6.12 10 m/s 0.204 500 nm
.
500 615 nm
.

(shift) 115 nm
2.9

. (RELATIVISTIC ENERGY AND

RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM)

1 /

1 / 1 /
mv
p =
v2
1
c2

m2v 2c 2
p 2c2 = (.)
v2
1 2
c

m 2 c 4 m 2 v 2 c 2 m 2 c 4 (1 v 2 / c 2 )
E pc = 2 2 2
2
= 2
= (mc 2 ) 2
v v
1 2 1 2
c c

E 2 = (mc2 )2 + p 2c2 (.)

?

?

 41

p = mv
2
v
1
c2
E 2 = (mc2 )2 + p 2c2 0
0
0
0/0 0/0


E 2 = (mc2 )2 + p 2c2
0



()

(eV):

(eV) 1 eV

1
1eV 1.602 10 C 1.000 V 1.602 10 J

(
) (
)

Albert Einstein

42

Einstein



(Correspondance Principle)

0.10 0.10


1%
0.10

.
(ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM)
!

Albert Einstein

()


(relativistic effect)
10

(relativistically invariant)

a



b

 43

1 /

I
(a)

II

I
iI
(b) I
II

II
iII

I
(c)
2 II

I
(d)

2 II

?
II

I II
( c)
II 2

II

44

II
I II

2
( d )

I

II

I

.
(THE GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY)

Einstein



(gravitation) (inertial property)

(Gravitational property) Fg = mg g
(Inertial property) F = ma i

(gravitational mass)
(inertial mass) ( mg = mi )

 45

?


Albert Einstein


(general theory of relativity)

Einstein


. (a) (b)

. (a) (b)

(
)

46

Einstein

( )
laser
6000km
1 cm (

)

Einstein
1.


2.

.
Albert Einstein

 47

Gamma
20 m

Albert Einstein

(Special Relativity) Einstein

2
(General Theory of Relativity)
Einstein

- (.)

(principle of equivalence)

(Gravity and Light)

.

0.005 1.6 km

48

1 mile





(.) Einstein

(.) Quasar
100

 49

(gravitational lensing)
quasars quasar
(massive object)

(gravity)
(black
holes)

(Other Findings of General Relativity)

relativity
Perihelion (planetary orbit)

(mercurys orbit) (peculiarity) perihelion (shift or
precess) 1.6 43" 1" 1 arc second 1/3600
of degree)
(discrepancy)
Vulcan



/
Einstein

(precession) 43"

. perihelion

(gravitational waves)

50

Pulsar Pulsar



Pulsar (binary system) 59
(ms) Pulsar (pulsar ) (orbital
period) 8
relativity
spiral
( )

 51

1

1

(
)
( )

3 10 m/s

52

Lorentz


Lorentz

x ' = ( x vt )
y'= y
z'= z
v
t ' = (t 2 x)
c

0.10




(Milkey way)

1
-

1
1

 53

54

. 2000 kg 20.0 m/s
1500 kg

10.0 m/s

. 20.0 m/s
40.0 m/s

)
)
)

. 1 m
0.500 m?

.
?

. 0.500
75.0 1


?
0.99 ?

 55

0.350

. 1000 km/h 1

1 ?

. 0.950
.
4.42 Alpha Centauri
.
4.20 )
? )
Alpha Centauri ?

. 300 m 0.750 s

. 1.01?

.
20 m
19.0 m
) ? ) ? )
?

Lorentz:

. 0.75

0.95 ?

56

. 0.75

. 2.00 m
30 () 0.995

. Klingon 0.800
0.900
Klingon 0.100
Klingon ?

. ) 0.010
) 0.500 ) 0.900

.

/

.

() ) ?
) ?

. 90.0 m/s

? ( ( / )

.
0.500 0.900 0.900 0.990

 57

. 0.95c ) )
)

.
) )

. 73 10 W
450 nm
3
solar cell

33%
solar cell
4

. 0.65
0.85

. 14000

.
180 000 kg
35 0.70


?
0.70
?

.
0.85

58

. 6.0 ( 1 =
)
2.50
)
(


)
?

. 20

.
?

. 0.100 MeV

1
1
1

.
1.2 10 m/s 2.4 10 m/s?

. 62 MeV 335 MeV/c

MeV/c

.
S

0.24
S

0.95

0.5 10 m ) ? )

? )

 59

km/s ? )

0.24 0.5 10 m

0.95

.
0.800
Tau Ceti 12

Tau Ceti )

?
? )

Tau Ceti
? ?

.


)

) )
0 0
t ?

60

. ()
( )
?

Early Quatum Theory and Models of the Atom

Planck



Compton

-





Bohr
de Broglie

62

( Albert Einstein)



Max Planck

Schrdinger Heisenberg

. (ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES)

James Clerk Maxwell

(disturbances)


( .)

Faraday Maxwell





(
)

Maxwell

2.998 10 m/s (.)

 63

(electric permittivity)
(magnetic permeability)
Maxwell

(m) Radio Microwave Infrared Visible Ultraviole Xray

10 Gammaray
10 10 10 0.5 10 10 10

Protozoans

(Hz)

10 10 10 10 10 10 10


(K)
1K 100K 10, 000K 10 Million K

. ()
390 750 nm
(ultraviolet) 10 400 nm
( http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/everyone/radio-astronomy)

Heinrich Hertz
Maxwell
Hertz

(detector)

64

Hertz

(reflected)
(refracted) (diffracted)

Band () Frequency Range Wavelength Range

( ) ( )

Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) 3 kHz 100 km

Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3-30 kHz 10-100 km

Low Frequency (LF) 30 -300 kHz 1-10 km

Medium Frequency (MF) 300 kHz -3 MHz 100 m 1 km

High Frequency (HF) 3 30 MHz 10 100 m

Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 300 MHz 1-10 m

Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 MHz 3 GHz 10 cm 1 m

Super High Frequency 3-30 GHz 1-10 cm

Extremely High Frequency 30-300 GHz 1 mm 1 cm

4.3
10 Hz 7.5 10 Hz

"

amplitude
(wave variable)

 65




1

(trains of light waves)

(interfere)



(constructive
interference)

(destructive interference)



(.)
.

( ) ( )

a b
. a b

(

1

)

66

Thomas Young
(a pair of slits)
( .)


Young
Maxwell

(David Jonathan Gross

- )

.
Young
, ,2

, ,

 67

Jame
es Clerk Max
xwell

Jame
es Clerk Maxwell
M (
-
)




Michael Faraday






Cambridge
C e (Cambrid
dge Univerrsity)







(ph
hysics off
color vis
ision)









M
Maxwell

(ringgs of Saturn
rn)







Maxw
xwell

Farada
ay







Maxwellll

"On
n
Fa
Faraday's Lines o
of Force
e"

Maxwelll

Cam
mbridge

Kingss
C
College



























(Maxw
wells Eq
quations)

M
Maxwell











M
Maxwell

Heinricch Hertz

Maxwell

(viscosity)
y)

68

Maxwell Boltzmann

Maxwell

(treatise)
Maxwell
Cambridge Cavendish
Laboratory


Henry Cavendish Maxwell
Albert Einstein
Maxwell

Albert Einstein


Newton Galileo

. Planck (PLANCKS
QUANTUM HYPOTHESIS AND BLACKBODY RADIATION)

.
(
)
(
) 6000 K .


()

 69

1000 K

2.90 10 m. K (.)

Wein Wein (Weins

Displacement Law) K

Hz

nm

500 nm

500 nm Wein
2.90 10 m. K 2.90 10 m. K
6000 K
500 10 m

70

32500 K
?

Wein

2.90 10 m. K 2.90 10 m. K
89.2 nm
32500 K

UV
(ultraviolet)

(

)

Planck


Maxwell




W.
Wein () Lord Rayleigh ()
Rayleigh
J. Jeans
Rayleigh-Jeans

Max Planck (-)

(
Max Planck):
, (.)

 71

,
(K)
Boltzman
Planck
Planck

6.626 10 J. s (.)

, ,

Max Planck
-
(quantum number)
quantum
discrete amount
countineuous
-

(blackbody) Gustav Kirchhoff

(blackbody is an idealized
object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation falling on it)
(
)

(thermal radiation)
blackbody
radiation

72

(infrared IR)


UV
UV

(thermal equilibrium)

(.)

 73

( )

Planck

2 1 (.)
,
1

,
(solid angle)

Planck ( 6.626 10 J. s)

3 10 m/s
Boltzmann ( 1.381 10 J. K )

Kelvins K

StefanBoltzmann:

(.)

(
0 Kelvin
5.67 10 W. m . K Stefan-Boltzmann

74

(IR)
2

Stefan-Boltzmann

2m
( )
33
28 20

100 W

9 MJ
2000 kcal ( ) (basal metabolic rate)
40 35 kcal/ m . h
1700 kcal 2 m
50% 70%

Wein

(peak wavelength)

2.898 10 K. nm
9500 nm
305 K

9500 nm

Doppler

Doppler

2
Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_body)

 75

1
1 cos
1

(The Ultraviolet Catastrophe)

. ?

Lord Rayleigh James Jeans

Intensity

4000 K

3000 K
2000 K

1 2 3 4
-6
Wavelength in micron (1 micron =10 m)
.

(.)

Boltzmann 1.381 10 J/K

76

B
Boltzmann

Ra
ayleigh-Jeans


( ) 0 (.))

Ma
ax Planck

Max Planck
P
Kiel
K

Munic
ich
Berlin
n


Municch





Professo
or
Kie
el

Kirchhoff


Berlin (University
ty of Berlilin)










(quan
ntum of action)
a (
Planck )



(spectrral distribu
bution)











Nobel






(q
quantized nature of
energy)




Planckk


Nobe
bel :

Pla
lanck

 77

Erwin Nazis

Planck Kaiser Wilhelm

Berlin Max Planck
Planck Hitler
Nazis

Max
Planck
Gttingen

.

(PHOTON THEORY OF LIGHT
AND PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT)

Albert
Einstein
Max Planck


Einstein

1
packets quanta

Planck


Maxwell

Einstein


Albert Einstein

78

(THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT)

Hertz
Maxwell

.
C
A
C


C
C A

C A
A
( ) A
(stopping potential retarding
potential) A

A
e

A
V

.
Albert Einstein

 79

(.)

-
(cutoff frequency)

(work function)

Einstein

(.)

( 3.00 10 m/s)

(.)

(.)

80

(.)

(eV)
Cesium Cs 1.9
Potassium K 2.2
Sodium Na 2.3
Lithium Li 2.5
Calcium Ca 3.2
Copper Cu 4.7
Silver Ag 4.7
Platinum Pt 6.4

300 nm
2.3 eV

6.626 10 J. s 3.00 10 m. s
300 10 m
6.63 10 J
6.63 10 J 4.14 eV
10 J
1.60
1 eV







 81

1eV 1.60 10 J =
= 4.14 eV 2.3 eV 1.84 eV

(cutoff wavelength)
(eV) (J)

10 J
2.3 eV 2.3 eV 1.60 3.68 10 J
1 eV

. J. . .
5.401 10 m = 540 nm
. J

7.68 10 m. s

350 nm
1.00 W/m )
) 0.50

1.00 cm ?

)
6.626 10 J. s 3 10 m. s
1 eV 2.2 eV
350 10 m 1.6 10 J

3.5 eV 2.2 eV

1.3 eV

)
Joules 5.68 10 J

/ 1.00 W/ m 1.00 10 m
1.76 10 1
5.68 10 J/photon

82

Burglar
(photocell) ( .)

(
)
UV IR
(
)

(soundtrack)

(photocell)

(smoke detector)

(photographic light)

absorption spectrophotometers
(film sound track)
(.)

(modulation)
photocell detector
(vacuum-tube)
photocell (semiconductor)
photodiode

 83

450 nm ()

450 nm, 6.626 10 J. s 3 10 m. s
6.626 10 J. s 3 10 m. s
4.4 10 J 2.8 eV
45 10 m

. (ENERGY, MASS, AND

MOMENTUM OF A PHOTON)

3 10 m/s (relativistic
particle)

/ 1
(
)



(.)

(.)

(.)

10
100 W

84

) 500 nm )

)
6.626 10 J. s
1.3 10 kg. m/s
500 10 m

) 10

0

1
0 10 s 10 kg. m. s 10 N
1

( )

(CO2) (carbohydrate)
(O2) 670 nm
( 650 700 nm )
?
4.9 eV
( (4.9 eV)
9 ( ) )

9 6.626 10 J. s 3 10 m. s 6.7 10 nm 2.7 10 J

17 eV

4.9 eV
29%
17 eV

 85

. ?

390 750 nm

()








(
)

Compton
()

. X (X-RAYS)

X ( X)
X 0.01 10 nm 3 10 Hz
3 10 Hz 120 eV 120 keV

86

?

? (inverse
photoelectric effect)
Planck Einstein Wilhelm Rntgen


X

X

X



bremsstrahlung

X (diffraction)

(diffraction grating)
X

0.01 nm 10 nm
X
Gamma X

Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen

Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen (-) Lennep

Pruissia ( Remscheid )

 87

R
ntgen
professor Wrrzburg












barium
b pla
atinocyanid
de








(cathode-ra
( ray tube)


(cardbo
oard)












X



Rntgen
n








X

X










B
Becquerel





X
Rntge
en

Munich
M Un
niversity
Munich
h

(targett)

V
V

.
X

.

X

88

(thermionic)

(.) (target)
X
target

bremsstrahlung
X X

.
V. m (.)

. X

(accelerating potential) X

(.)

.


.
Duane Hunt (.)

 89

, , Planck,

() (accelerating potential)
X

Duane-Hunt
X

X
(accelerating potential) 50, 000 V

.
V. m

1.24 10 V. m
2.48 10 m 0.0248 nm
5.00 10 V

3.00 10 m/s
1.21 10 Hz
2.48 10 m

. COMPTON (THE COMPTON EFFECT)

Einstein
/ /

/

Einstein Arthur Holly Compton (-) Peter
Debye Einstein

X ( )

X
X

/ Compton

90

.



X Compton
( )
Recoilingelectron

Scatteredphoton

. X Compton Compton X

. Compton
Compton X

90
Rotating crystal 0

spectrometer

135
45

Ionization
Chamber

X

. Compton Compton

(0, 45, 90, 135)

 91

rotating crystal
spectrometer (target)
Ionization chamber
X

0.071 nm

Compton Compton

1 cos (.)

Compton (Compton Shift Equation)

/ Compton
( C )

0.00243 nm (.)

(.)

Compton
(recoilling electron)

(.)

92

Compton

cos cos
(.)
0 sin sin

Compton
X

1 cos (.)

Compton ?

1
1
1

 93





1

=
+

1
1
1



cos
cos
1

sin
0 sin
1

1 cos

Arthurr Holly Com
mpton

Arthur Holly
H Comp
pton (
-)
)

Ohio



Co
ollege of Wooster
W


(Bachelor
( ce)
of Science







Prince
eton (Prin
inceton Universisty)
U )










Washington
W n
(W
Washington
on Universitity) St.
S Louis


X

Chica
cago

Com
mpton

(Cosmic
ic ray)






(

)

Gamma

94

Compton

Rumford (Rumford Gold Medal)
(American Academy of Arts and Sciences)
Radiological Society Franklin
Franklin (Franklin Institute)

Compton

Compton
Berkley

X 10 pm
)
X 45 )
X )

) 1 cos 1 cos

1 cos

45 10 pm 10 m

0.293 10 m 10.7 10 m 10.7 pm

) 1 cos 2 180

2
2 10.0 pm 4.9 pm 14.9 pm

)
1 1

1 1 1
6.626 10 J. s 3 10 m. s
10.0 m 14.9 m 10

6.54 10 J 40.8 keV

 95

X 0.20 nm

X 45
X X
Compton (fraction of energy lost by
photon in the collision) ( = /

0.200710 nm 0.00354

. 700 nm
. X 0.200 nm

60 ) Compton (Compton shift)
) Compton

. (PHOTON INTERACTION AND PAIR

PRODUCTION)

!



1.

2.

3.
( Compton)


( )

96

4.
.

() ( Compton)

()
(positron) (positively charged
electron)

( ) ( .)

Electron
Photon

Nucl

+ Positron

-
(.)
( (


0.51 MeV
1.02 MeV

1.2 pm


(cosmic rays)

 97

:
(.)

1.02 MeV
0.51 MeV

2
-

cos
cos
/

2 cos
2 cos

2 cos

/ 1 cos 1 2
2

(Photon Absorption)
X
.

98

Compton


Compton (Compton Scattering)


1 MeV
X Gamma
Compton

Compton






. X Compton

1.02 MeV

(crossover energy)
4 MeV 10 MeV

Compton
X

(cross-sectional area) /
:

 99

(linear attenuation coefficient)

(.)

X Gamma

1
Compton

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100



1

Compton
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

. Compton

1.6

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8

0.6
0.4
0.2
0 Compton

0510152025

Compton


X

100

/
I
ln
I

( )

(.)

2.0 MeV
4.9 m )
10 cm )
1 ?

). :

4.9 m 0.10 m 0.49

/
.
e 0.61

61
10 cm

).
I
100
I

ln ln 100
0.94 m
4.9 m

) -
? )

 101

2 9.1 10 kg 3.0 10 m. s 1.64 10 J 1.02 MeV

1MeV 10 eV 1.6 10 J
-

)
6.63 10 J. s 3.0 10 m. s
1.2 10 m
1.64 10 J

Gamma ( X )

( ) -

. (PHOTON AND GRAVITY)

(.)

102

= +

1 (.)

Pound Rebka Harvard
22.5 m
7.3 10 Hz 22.5 m

 103

9.8 m/s 22.5 m 7.3 10 Hz
1.8 Hz
3.0 10 m/s

Pound Rebka Gamma

(Gravitational Red Shift)

(.)

104

/
(.)

1 (.)

Gravitational red shift

(.)
1

 105

(Black Holes)

/ 1?




(black hole)

( )


/ Schwarzschild

(.)

. ?

event horizon

Quasars and Galaxies

quasar
quasars
quasars

106

qu
uasar





Milky Way

qua
asar




100













(swallow
w)







quasa
ars




Milky
M Way
W

.
Quassars


quasa
ar ?







Milkyy Way










Milky Wa
ay

.

-
(WAVE
E-PARTICL
LE
DUALITY AND THE
E PRINCIP
PLE OF CO
OMPLEMENTARITY)

Compton
C












Young
g

 107

Niels Bohr (-)

. ( )

. (WAVE NATURE OF MATTER)

Louis de Broglie (-)
-


de Broglie





(.)

Planck
(
) ( 0.1 )

de Broglie
()
de Broglie
(.)

108

1

Louis de
e Broglie
Louis de Broglie
B (-
)










Maurice



















de Brog
glie

Bo
ohr









Erw
win Schr
dinger















de Broglie
B








de
d
Broglie

de Brog
glie )




46 g 30 m. s )


10 m. s

) 1

6.626 10
0 J. s
4.8 10
0 m
46 10 kg 30 m/s

) 9.1 1
10 kg

6.626 100 J. s
7.3 1
10 m
9.1 10 kg 10 m/ss

 109

5.3 10 m

de
e
Broglie
1.000 fm 10 m

0.938 GeV

:
4.136 10 eV. s 2.998 10 m. s
1.240 10 eV
1.000 10 m

0.938 GeV 1.234

40 GeV 1.555 GeV
V

1
1.555 0.9
938 GeV

0.617 GeeV 617 MeV
M
()


.




de oglie
Bro

Condensing

X 100
1 keV
()
.






de Brroglie

?
?

eyyepiece




?


J. J. Thomson
T





.

110

(
)



Bertrand Russel
(a logical construction)

. (ELECTRON MICROSCOPES)

.

(transmission electron microscope)
(scanning electron
microscope)



.

10 V
0.004 nm

 111

0.1 0.5 nm
10

(a) (b)
. Escherichia coli (a) transmission
electron microscope (b) scanning electron microscope

. (EARLY MODELS OF THE ATOM)

Earnest Rutherford (-)

.

alpha ( )
(.)
. Rutherford
.

. Rutherford

112

Rutherford
. alpha








Rutherford

10 m

( )

. Rutherford

99.9%

 113

Milky Way .

.
Rutherford

10 m

10 m

. Rutherford

. (ATOMIC
SPECTRA: KEY TO THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM)

(discharge tube)



(discrete)

(spectroscope) (spectrometer)
(continuous spectrum)

.

114

(absorption
spectrum) (. (c))


UV IR
UV IR

. (a) (b)
(c)

(a) (b)
. (a) (b)

 115

(Spectral Series):


J. J. Balmer
. Balmer

364.6nm
656.3nm

. Balmer H H H H

(.)

UV IR
. Lyman Balmer Paschen

656.3 nm H
H 486.3 nm

Balmer

116

3, 4, 5, nm

Rydberg ( 1.097 10 m 0.01097 nm

Balmer
UV IR
UV Lyman:
Lyman 2, 3, 4, (.)

IR

Paschen 4, 5, 6,
Brackett 5, 6, 7, (.)

Pfund 6, 7, 8,

. Bohr (THE BOHR ATOM)

Bohr Rutherford
Rutherford
Bohr

(quantum jumps)

(.)

Niels Bohr de
Broglie

de Broglie

 117

de Broglie

5.3 10 m
6.626 10 J. s
4 3.1416 8.85 10 C /N. m 9.1 10 kg 5.3 10 m
9.1 10 kg 1.6 10

33 10 m

2 33 10 m

(.)

de Broglie



de Broglie
2

2 1,2,3,

(quantum number)

4
2

(.)
1, 2, 3,

118

Bohr (Bohr radius)

:
5.292 10 m (.)

(.)

de Broglie
. de Broglie

.
(ENERGY LEVELS AND SPECTRA)

(.)

1,2,3, (.)

1 2.18 10 J 13.6 eV

1



(atomic electron)

 119

(ground state)
, , ,
(excited states)



0
-

. 2, 3, 5

(ionization energy)

0

13.6 eV 13.6 eV

1 1

120

1, 3 13.6J
1 1
13.6 eV 12.1 eV
3 1

Rydberg )
Bohr 0.0100 mm )

) 1.00 10 m

1.00 10 m
435
5.29 10 m

)
13.6 eV
7.19 10 eV
435
Rydberg

()
()

- =
(.)

1 1 1 1

 121

(.)

(.)

( )

( )

( )

Lyman 2, 3, 4,

Balmer 3, 4, 5,

Paschen 4, 5, 6,

Brackett 5, 6, 7,

Pfund 6, 7, 8,

122

Lyman 1 Balmer 2 Paschen 3

Brackett 4 Pfund 5

Rydberg

9.109 10 kg 1.602 10 C
8 8.854 10 C /N. m 2.998 10 m/s 6.626 10 J. s

1.097 10 m
Rydberg Bohr

Balmer

Balmer 2


3
1 1 1 1 1
0.139
2 3

1 1
6.56 10 m 656 nm
0.139 0.139 1.097 10 m

. (CORRESPONDENCE PRINCIPLE)

 123

(.)

electron speed
orbit circumstance 2 2 4

2 2
8 (.)

) Bohr 1
2 )
2 1 )
10 s
(Bohr orbit)
1.00 10 s 2?

)
2 2
8

2 2.18 10 s
2 6.58 10

1 6.63 10 J. s
2
0.823 10

2 8
)
1 1

2.18 10 J 1 1
2.88 10 Hz
6.63 10 J. s 1 2

)

124

8.23 10 1.00 10 s 8.23 10

Bohr

1 1

( 1,2,3,

1 1 2

2 2

1

2,3,4,
2
300
10,000 0.01

Bohr Correspondence Principle

1,2,3,
2

de Broglie /
2
(integration number)

 125

. (NUCLEAR MOTION)

()


()

(.)

1
8

0.99945

Hydrogen
Nucleus

Centerofmass

Axis

(positronium)

(.)
2 2

126

Rydberg

(muon) (unstable) 207
(
(muonic atom) )
Bohr )
(ionization energy)

) 207 1826

207 1826
186
207 1826

Bohr 1

5.29 10 m

2.85 10 m

186

) 1 13.6 eV

186 2.53 10 eV 2.53 keV

2.53 keV 186

 127

. (ATOMIC EXCITATION)
?

(joint kinetic energy)

10 s ()

121.7 nm
2 1
2

.
( )

( )

128

(absorption spectrum)




(transitions)

Photonof Spectrum
Wavelength

Originofemissionspectra

Photonof Spectrum
Wavelength

Originofemissionspectra

Franck-Hertz



James Franck Gustav Hertz ( Heinrich Hertz)



Franck Hertz

Grid

I

 129

Planck

Planck

Albert Einstein

Compton
Compton

Compton
X Compton
Compton Compton

Compton 0.00243 nm

130

( )

de
Broglie

(
Einstein)
Pound Rebka
Harvard

Rutherford

 131

(line spectra)
Bohr )
occupy
(discrete values) )
)

)

( ) 1
13.6 eV
1

13.6eV

132

Planck

.
460 nm ?

.
273 K 4.2 K

. Planck

. (peak wavelength)
( )

37

.
?
?

. 700nm

. FM 1 kW 880kHz

. FM 104.1 MHz
?

. 410 nm 750 nm
?

.
6.20 10 m

.
4.8 10 J ?

. 700 MeV

 133

.
1.0 10 J
600 nm?

. 2.30 nm

1.5 eV

. 1.1 10 Hz
)
(
1.5 10 Hz

.

200 nm ?

. 400 nm
2.50 eV )
)

Compton:

. X 1.1
10 kg. m/s

. 10 MeV?

. X 55.8 pm
46 X Compton

. X 1.5 10 Hz
1.2 10 Hz
Compton

. X 100 keV
90 keV?

.
Compton
40

134

? (Hint: cos cos sin sin

40)

.

(recoiling particle)

. Compton 0.160 nm


) )

.
1.00 MeV

. 2.000 MeV

.
Compton 60 - (Hint:
Compton
)

. 2.0 10 kg 7.0 10 m
(gravitational red shift)
500 nm
. 500 nm

(6.4 10 m)

. Schwarzschild 5.98 10 kg

 135

. 0.23 kg
0.10 m/s

. (1.67 10 kg)
8.5 10 m/s

.
0.21 nm?

. 0.98
de Broglie

. de Broglie 6 10 m

.
)20 eV ) 200 eV ) 2 keV

. de Broglie

33,000 V
?
5 cm?

Bohr
. Rydberg Bohr
1.0974 10 m

. 0.98 de Broglie

. 75 W 3%
550 nm
(
4.0 mm )

136

.

?

. (microwave oven)
12.2 cm 860 W

. 1350 W/m

550 m

. 633 nm
6.5 nN
?

. Big Bang


(cosmic microwave)
2.7 K

. 2
( 1)

. Rydberg 273

. Rydberb
273?

. X 0.200 nm

45 X

. Zn 4.31 eV ) Zn
) Zn
Zn )

 137

5.50 eV Zn

. Compton

B

. (inonizing
radiation) 10.0 eV

138

.
)
) / )

Quantum Mechanics

(Double Slit)
Heisenberg

Schrdinger -
Schrdinger
(Free particle; plane wave and wave packet)
()

Solvay

(): A. Piccard, E. Henriot, P. Ehrenfest, Ed. Herzen, Th. De Donder, E.
Schrdinger, E. Verschaffelt, W. Pauli, W. Heisenberg, R. H. Fowler, L. Brillouin,
(): P. Debye, M. Knudsen, W. L. Bragg, H. A. Kramers, P. A. M. Dirac, A. H. Compton,
L. de Brouglie, M. Born, N. Bohr
(): I. Langmuir, M. Planck, Mme Curie, H. A. Lorentz, A. Einstein, P. Langevin, Ch. E.
Guye, C. T. R. Wilson, O. W. Richardson

140

Bohr





( )
Bohr


Bohr

Bohr

-

Bohr




de Broglie

Erwin Schrdinger (-) Werner Heisenberg (-
)

.
(QUANTUM MECHANICS: A NEW
THEORY)




141

(Correspondence Principle)







( 0.1 )

. Double-Slit
(THE WAVE FUNCTION AND ITS INTERPRETATION; THE DOUBLE-SLIT
EXPERIMENT)

( )

( )

( )
()

de Broglie ( )

142

( psi
)

-



(.)

(.)

(.)

(
)




143

Max Born
n (-
)

| |

| |

(

)

| |


| |








| |

Max Born

Ma
ax Born

Breslau


(Professor)
( )
Gustavv Born

Margarettte ne Kauffmann
K n


S
Silesian

Max orn
Bo
Knig Wilhelm'ss
Gymna
asium
Breslau


B
Breslau (






Rosan
nes

ma
atrix calcu
ulus) Heidelberg
rg Zu
urich (

Hu
urwitz
) G
Gttingen




K
Klein, Hilb
bert, Min
nkowski, Run
nge


S
Schwarzsch
hild
Voigt
V



(Prize of the Phi
hilosophicall Faculty ) Gttingen
n




(stability of elasticc

144

wires and tapes)

Born Cambridge
Larmor J.J Thomson Breslau -
Lummer Pringsheim

Minkowski Gttingen
Minkowski

Minkowski
Gttingen
(relativistic electron)
Michelson Chicago
Michelson (Michelson grating
spectrograph)

Born (Professor)
Max Planck Berlin
(German Armed Forces)



Dynamik der Kristallgitter Dynamics of Crystal Lattices

Gttingen

Born
Frankfurt-on-Main

Otto Stern

Max Born Gttingen

James Franck




145

Pauli, Heisenberg,
Jordan, Fermi, Dirac, Hund, Hylleraas, Weisskopf, Oppenheimer, Joseph Mayer
Maria Goeppert-Mayer

Heisenberg Jordan ( )

Cambridge
Stokes
Infeld

- Born
Bangalore
Sir C.V. Raman
Tait Professor of Natural Philosophy Edinburgh

Bad Pyrmont

Max Born
fellowship
Gttingen, Moscow, Berlin, Bangalore, Bucharest, Edinburgh,
London, Lima, Dublin, Copenhagen, Stockholm, Washington Boston

Bristol,
Bordeaux, Oxford, Freiburg/Breisgau, Edinburgh, Oslo, Brussels Universities,
Humboldt University Berlin Stuttgart
Stokes Cambridge Max Planck Medaille der
Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft ( German Physical
Society) Hughes Medal Royal Society, London,
Hugo Grotius Medal MacDougall-Brisbane Prize
Gunning-Victoria Jubilee Prize Royal Society Edinburgh


Gttingen

146

Gran
nd Cross of
o Merit witth Star of the
t Order of
o Merit off the Germa
man
Federal Republic
R


Hedwig,
He ne
e Ehrenbe
erg
1

Max
M Born

(Double-S
Slit
Interferen
nce Experim
ment for Ellectons):

Thomas

Yo
oung






.













?

()












































| |


| |









1
www.nobelprize.org




147

( )

| |

-

. Heisenberg (THE HEISENBERG

UNCERTAINITY PRINCIPLE)

1 mm
mm

148

()


(
)
















(
)

-






/














149

Heisenberg

Werner Heisenberg (-)

Werner Heisenberg Wurzburg

August Heisenberg Annie Wecklein
(Professor)
Munich
Heisenberg Yukawa
meson mesotron
mesos tr ( mesotron
meson)

150

Heisenb
berg

milian
Maxim Munich
h






Munich
h


Sommerfe
feld, Weiin, Pring
gsheim
Rosen
nthal

--

gen
Goting Max Bor
orn,
Francck Hililbert





Munich


Max Born

Gottin
ngen

vvenia lege
end

Rocckeffeler Niel Bo
ohr
Copenhe
hegen




Gottingen
n

Copenheg
gen


Niell Bohr





(Professo
or)

Le
eipzig

Berrlin

Kais
iser Wilhelm
lm

Gottin
ngen









Max Planc
nck

Heis
isenberg



Cambridg
ge




151

- (Gifford Lectures) St. Andrews

Heisenberg Max
Munich
Planck
Munich
(Professor) Munich

Max Planck

Heisenberg




(allotropic form) Heisenberg

Niel Bohr

Heisenberg

Heisenberg
Plasma (thermonuclear)

152

Alexander von Humboldt

(unified field theory of elementary particle)

Heisenberg

Brouxelles
Karlsruhe Budapest
Order of Merit of Bavaria Grand Cross for Federal
Services with Star ( ) Fellow Royal Society of London
Knight of the Order of Merit ( )
Gottingen, Bavaria, Saxony, Prussia, Sweden, Rumania, Norway,
Spain, The Netherlands, Rome (Pontificial), the German Akademie der
Naturforscher Leopoldina (Halle), the Accademia dei Lincei (Rome) American
Academy of Sciences -
(German Research Council)
Alexander von Humboldt

Heisenberg Elisabeth
Schumacher Munich2


(position measurement)

(.)

2
www.nobelprize.org




153

/


(.)

(.)

(.)

Heisenberg

( )

(h-bar)

. J.
1.055 10 J. s (.)
.

(.)

(.)

154

Planck



( )

1.10 10 m. s

0.10%

( 0.0010

)

9.1 10 kg 1.10
10 m. s 1.00 10 kg. m. s
0.10%
1.0 10 kg. m. s

1.055 10 J. s
1.1 10 m
1.0 10 kg. m. s

110 nm

1000

150 g
42 1 m. s

( 1 m. s

Heisenberg)




155

150 g 1 m. s

150 g 1 m. s 0.15 kg. m. s

1.055 10 J. s
7 10 m
0.15 kg. m. s

.
(PHILOSOPHIC IMPLICATIONS; PROBABILITY VERSUS DETERMINISM)

(
)

(double-slit
experiment)

156

Heisenberg

(
)

. Schrdinger - (THE
SCHRDINGER EQUATION-TIME INDEPENDENT FORM)

Schrdinger



Schrdinger




157

Schrdinger


( psi)
, , , ,

Schrdinger
Schrdinger







sin

sin cos (.)

sin cos (.)

2 /
de Broglie

2 (.)

158

(.)

(.)

sin cos cos sin

cos sin sin cos

/2

(.)
2 2

(.)
2

Schrdinger


( 0.1 )


( )
, ,

Schrdinger Schrdinger


(
) 1 (100
) | |


| |
(.)










159

| | (.)

| | | | 1 (.)

(normalized condition)

. Schrdinger (TIME-DEPENDENT
SCHRDINGER EQUATION)

Schrdinger

, ,
, (.)

Schrdinger
1

0 Schrdinger


Schrdinger

, (.)

Schrdinger

160

1 1
2 (.)

1 (.)
2

(.)

(.)
2

Schrdinger

Schrdinger Schrdinger

(.)

1 (.)

(.)

(.)

ln

(.)

, (.)




161

Schrdinge
S er

,




,

|
|

( )
| | 1 (.)

| | 1

| , | | | (.

Erwin
n Schrdinge
er

Erwin
n Schrdin
nger


Vienna



Rudol
olf Schrdin
nger Alexander
A B
Bauer

Vi
Vienna

Erw
win
Bavar
arian



Vienna

Schrdinger
Sc r

Gym
mnasium

Vie
enna

Fritz Hasenhrl
H

162

Boltzmann Schrdinger
eigenalue
Franz Exner
K. W. F. Kohlrausch

Max
Wien Stuttgart ( ) Breslau
( ) Zurich ( von Laue)

Schrdinger
Zurich
Hermann Weyl Peter Debye

(specific
heat) (
Boltzmann)
( Kohlrausch
Exner Helmhotz)
Schrdinger

Bohr
eigenvalue
Dirac

Schrdinger Berlin

Planck


Hitler ()

fellowship Oxford
Princeton

Graz




163

Oxford
Ghent

Dublin

Dublin

Schrdinger


Einstein
( What is Life? )

Vienna


Annemarie Bertel
3

. (FREE PARTICLES; PLANE WAVE

AND WAVE PACKETS)

Schrdinger 0

3
Schrdinger


Le Prix Nobel

Nobel Foundation
Schrdinger

164

(.)

2 (.)
0

sin cos

0 (
)
2
(.)

. (a) (b)

6.3 eV 0
a) b) 0

sin )

a)




165

. J.
. . V . J/ V

4.9 10 m 0.49 nm

b)

2
1.28 10 m

sin sin 1.28 10 m

(
)

.
(PARTICLE IN AN
INFINITELY DEEP SQUARE WELL POTENTIAL (A RIGID BODY))

Schrdinger

(rigid)





(infinitely deep
square well potential) () .

0, 0

, 0

166

0 0 Schrdinger

sin cos (.)

sin


0

0
0
0 0 0 (.)

0 sin 0 cos 1

0 0 sin 0 cos 0 0

.


(
) sin

( 0 )
0 sin (.)

0 | | 0
sin 0
0, , 2 , 3 , 0, , 2 , 3 ,
1,2,3, ( )
(.)




167

1,2,3, (.)

8
2
4 (.)

9
(.)

0
(zero-point energy)
( 0 K )

/
( )
()

Heisenberg

sin (
/
sin
(.)

1 sin

168

0
0

sin (.)

.
1,2,3,10

. | |
1,2,3,10

. 1,2,3, 10

. 1,2,3 10




169

.
1.00 10 m
(
) .
2 1

.
6.626 10 J. s
6.03 10 J
8 8 9.11 10 kg 1.00 10 m

10 J
6.03 37.7 eV
1.60 10 J/eV

2 37.7 eV 151 eV

3 37.7 eV 339 eV

.
151 eV 38 eV 113 eV 1.81 10 J

(
)

6.626 10 J. s 3.00 10 m/s

1.10 10 m
1.81 10 J

11.0 nm

3 1

. 0.062 nm . 620 nm . 301 nm . 3.2 10 m .4.1 nm

170

sin



1 | | sin

0 0


sin 1 cos 2

1 sin 1 cos 2
2

1
1 sin
2 2 0 2

(regid box)


1.00 10 m
1.0 10 m

( 0.50 10 m)?

| |

sin




171

2
| | sin

2 0.50 10 m
sin 1.0 10 m 0.02
1.00 10 m 1.00 10 m

2%

1.0 10 m 1%
1.00 10 m 2%

1%
2%

0 /4

| |


| | 0
.

.

1 2
sin
0 /4

172

( /4 )


sin 1 cos 2

/ /
2
| | sin

1
1 cos 2

1 1 /4
sin 2
2 0
1 1
0.091
4 2

0.091 9.1%

9.1% 1/4
25%

(most likely and
average positions) 1.00 10 m
2 . ?
?

.
| | .

| |

. 2 sin

2 2
| | sin

| |
0

2 2 2 2
| | 2 sin cos




173

( 0, , 2 ,

( , , 0,


, , , 2
.

. ( sin 1 cos 2 ):

2 2 1 4
| | sin 1 cos

1 4 4
sin cos
2 4 16 0 2

| |
2

10 kg

0.1 mm . .
1 mm 100s

0
. 1 2 /
.

. 1 /8

2 6.6 10 J. s
3 10 m/s
4 2 2 10 kg 10 m

174

. 10 m/1
100 s 10 m/s

1 1
10 kg 10 m/ss 0.5 10 J
2 2

8 0.5
5 10 J 8 10 kg 10 m
3 10
6.6
626 10 J. s

( 3 10 3 1
10 1)

1 eV

.

(FINIT
TE POTEN
NTIAL WEL
LL)

.


(finite
( potential well)
















.

II



Schrrdinger

0





II

II sin cos 0

0



.


I III Schrdin
nger

2









175

2 (.)
0

(
)

Schrdinger

0
(.)

I,III (.)

I
(
)
III

I 0

III

I III



. (a)

176

I II I II
0
(.)
II III
II III

0
sin 0 cos 0

cos 0 sin 0

, , ,

| | 1
.(a)
.(b)
| |

( / )

( )

.(b)

(uncertainity
principle)
(.)




177

~ /

.
/2 II 0
0 (.)

I III

0 (.)

6.0 eV
4.5 eV 10.0 nm

. 0.50 nm . 0.58 nm . 1.0 nm . 10 nm . 20 nm

178

. (TUNNELING THROUGH A BARRIER)

0
( )
()
() .(a)








(b) .



Schrdinger
. (a)

(b)





( )

0 0

| |

(tunneling)




179

(barrier penetration)
(
)

(transmission coefficient) (reflection
coefficient) 0.03 0.97 100
3 97
1



0
(.)
( 1)

.





(b)

50 eV
70 eV a. 1.0 nm b. 0.10 nm

180

eV J

.
10 J
70 eV 50 eV 1.6 3.2 10 J
1 eV

2 9.11 10 kg 3.2 10 J
2 2 1.0 10 m 46
1.055 10 J. s

1 10

. 0.10 nm, 2 4.6 .

0.010

1% 0.1 nm
1 10 1 nm
10
10

(tunneling)

-


(b)



(




181

. ( ) ( )

1/

(Coulomb barrier)
(

182

)








1 10

(tunnel
diode)

scanning tunneling electron-microscope STM

(surface of specimen)
CRT
1 nm

. scanning tunneling microscope

(surface of specimen)




183

(resolution)
0.1 nm 10 nm 10 nm

184

Schrdinger Heisenberg

Heisenberg
-

Heisenberg



( /2

| |
(normalized)
| | 1

Schrdinger:

Schrdinger

sin cos /




185

(rigid
box) Schrdinger

sin

2 8

Heisenberg
Schrdinger

186

. 0.030 eV
0.60 mm
1.0 m?
( )

. 3.0 g
150 m/s
3.0 mm


1.0 cm?

. 7.560 0.012 10 m/s

?

. 10 s

(eV)

.
2.6 10 m

.
10ns
500 nm /
/

. 12s
5.5 keV

. 12 g 180 m/s )
)




187

0.65 cm ()

. 95m/s
0.085%

. (muon) (
105.7 MeV/c ) eV/c 2.20 s

. ( 1.67 10 kg) 900 s

kg

. 2
10 s 1 )
2 )
(transition) )
nm

. 3.50 keV
1%?

. ()


/2

(
)

188

Schrdinger
. Schrdinger , ,
, ,

. , Schrdinger

, cos , sin
de Broglie
/

. sin 2.0 10
) )
) )

. ) )
3.0 10 m/s

.


( 2 cos 2 sin 2 )
sin sin
2 / 2 / ( t 0.05s t 0.15 s




189

.
0.20 nm

.

de Broglie

.
E 9.0 eV

. 4 1
340 nm

.
610 nm

.

2.0 nm

. 180 eV
56 eV 0 0.50 nm
) ) )

. 4 5

.
0( 0)

)
)
0, 0 ,

190

. 0.16 nm
2.0 keV
1% ?

.
2 ()
? ) ) )
)
)
?

Quantum Mechanics of Atoms

Schrdinger



X

Fluorescence Phosporescence

(Holography)

( )

()
192

Bohr






Bohr

. (QUANTUM-MECHANICAL
VIEWS OF ATOMS)

Bohr



()

Bohr Bohr

Bohr
( )


Schrdinger
1
(.)

Bohr
| |
.

 193

. | |
Bohr ( )

( )

.

( )

194

. Schrdinger (HYDROGEN
ATOM: SCHRDINGER EQUATION AND QUANTUM NUMBERS)

()

Schrdinger
(H)

1
4 (.)

Schrdinger

1 (.)
2 4

/ , / / ,
Schrdinger H
, ,
Schrdinger




Schrdinger

.



Bohr

Bohr

 195


13.6eV
1,2,3, ,

Bohr

1. Bohr
(principle quantum number) 1

2. (orbital quantum number)

0 1
3 0, 1 2

1
(.)

3. (magnetic quantum number)

2 2, 1, 0, 1, 2


2

(space quantization)



(.)

196

Zeeman

.

. 2 ( 6 )

.
3, 2

(2, 1, 0, -1, -2) 2, 1 (1, 0, -1)

( )

Zeeman

4.
(spin quantum number)
+1/2 -1/2
Schrdinger

, ,

Schrdinger
P. A. M Dirac Dirac







 197

(Fine structure)








Fine structure


(spin-orbit interaction)




1/2


1 (.)

(.)

(spin up, spin down)
(.)

. S

198

(principle) 1,2,3, ,

0,1,2, , 1
(orbital) , 1,

, 0, ,
, ,
(spin) 1/2 1/2

3

3

3, 2,1,0 2,
2, 1, 0, 1, 2 5
( ) 2
2 5 10 1 1, 0, 1
1/2 1/2
6 0 0
2 2 1/2 1/2

10 6 2 18

 199

) )

Bohr 13.6eV/

) 3

13.6 eV
1.51 eV
3

) 0

1 0

1 1 1 1 1.49 10 J. s

1 2 2 1 6

. (HYDROGEN ATOM WAVE FUNCTIONS)

Schrdinger
13.6 eV

1
(.)

/ 0.0529nm Bohr 100

, ,

200

1, 0 0
1/2 1/2

| | (.)

(normalized)

| | 1

| |



(.)

.
4

4

4

| | | | 4

 201

4 | | (.)

4 (.)

.

Bohr

. 1, 0
Bohr

()
(most probable distance)

4 0

8 8 0

202

()

8 8 0

Bohr

Bohr

0 2

| | 4

1 1 4
2
2 2 0

( ; 2 /
4)

2 :
1 4
2 2
2 0
1 4
1
2 0

 203

0 4

8 4 1 0.76

76%
2 24%
2

(normalized) ( 0 ) | | 1

2 0 Schrdinger

2 (.)

. (a) .(b)

1
4 | | 2
8

5
(most probable value) 2
0

2 0 1, 0

. (a) 2 0 (b)
2 0

204

2 1

1 1

32

(.)

64

( 1)

. 2, 1

. 2 1

. 2, 1

1,0 1

Schrdinger

?

 205

1/3

| | | | | | (.)

. (COMPLEX ATOMS; THE

EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE)

, ,

()

Bohr

206

Bohr

Wolfgang Pauli (-)
Pauli (Pauli exclusion principle)

( , , ) Pauli

(helium)
1 ( 1/2 )
( 1/2 )
Pauli
1
.

 207

(
) ( )

. .

( 1) 1
Pauli 2, 0
2, 1
.
, , , 3, 1, 1, 1/2






11
.

.
( 1/2 1/2 )

(1/2, 3/2 )
(fermions)

208

Enrico Fermi


(statistical theory)



( 1, 2, 3,) meson
bosons ( Satyendranath Bose)

.
( )
He, Li Na 2 1

. (PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS)

Dmitri Mendeleev (-)

. Mendeleev

Mendeleev
.


(synthetic elements)
(liquids or melt at close to room temperature)
(solid) (gases) (Alkali metals)
(Alkali Earth metals) (Transition metals)

 209

(other metals) (metalloids)

(other non metals) (Halogens) (noble gases)
(Lanthanides & Actinides) .
(subshell)

. Mendeleev

(shell) 1
2
3
( 4 )

. 0
1 2 3
, , , , . .. , ,
sharp, principle, diffuse fundamental

Pauli
2
1 (
1

 210

.


Mendeleev

 211

1 ) .



2 2
1
2
2, 1, 0, 1, 2
( 1/2 1/2)
2 5 10
.

.


1 2 2 3

?
). 1 2 2 3 ). 1 2 2 3 3 4
). 1 2 2 2 ?

).
()
( 3 )

212

).
3 4

).
2 2
3

(gallium)
31

. X (X-RAY SPECTRA AND ATOMIC

NUMBER)

UV IR



1


50 50 2500
Lyman
( 100 nm ) 10
10 nm
X

. X X 50kV

X
metal target X

 213

X

.

target
target X


target

X
.


( 1)
2 ( ) ( 1)
( ) 3 ( )
1

. 1/ X
Moseley

X

X

214

2 1 ( )
1
1 H. G. J. Moseley (-)
1/
.

X

2 1 42

Bohr ( )

1 41

Bohr

1 1 1 1
8

2 1

1 1 1
1.097 10 m 41 1.38 10 m
1 4

1
0.072 nm
1.38 10 m

(0.071)

6.626 10 J. s 3.00 10 m.
17 keV
7.2 10 m 1.60 10 J/eV

 215

X 66.3 keV

X
(.)

(
1 )
2
Bohr 1 (
)

2 1
10.2 eV 1
1

1 10 eV
66.3 6.50 10
1 10.2 eV

1 6500 81 82

X .

target
target
( 99) X

target (.)
bremsstrahlung
( (braking radiation))

(.)

216

. Bremsstrahlung
target

X
bremsstrahlung



( 0)

(.)

X

X X 50 kV

target
50 keV X

6.626 10 J. s 3.0 10 m. s
2.5 10 m 0.025 nm
1.6 10 C 5.0 10 V

 217

. (MAGNETIC DIPOLE
MOMENT; TOTAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM)

Bohr



Bohr

1
2

1
2

(.)

Bohr

1
2

2







218

(.)
2

Bohr magneton

9.27 10 J/T

Stern-Gerlach g



Stern-Gerlach (
)

(collimator)



( . )
/

. Stern-Gerlach

 219

Stern
Gerlach (
)





( 0
0 1 1, 0, 1

Stern-Gerlach

1
2 2

(.)

(g-factor)

(gyromagnetic ratio) 2 2.0023

() 1

(total angular momentum)

2 1 1/2

1 (.)

220

1

2

1

2

1 s 0 1/2
2 1 3/2

, 1, ,

2 1/2, 1/2 1/2

3/2 , 3/2, 1/2, 1/2, 3/2

, , , , , , (
)

(spectroscopic notation)


(spectroscopic notation)

( )

2 / 2, 1, 3/2 2 /

 221

. Fluorescence Photorescence (FLUORESCENCE AND

PHOTORESCENCE)

UV

fluorescence

fluorescence

. Fluorescence

UV

UV

photoresence

10 s photorescence

(metastable)
photorescence

( )

222

. (LASERS)

(
)




(
)


10 s
.


( ,







(. b)
(stimulated emission)




Light Amplification for Stimulated Emission Radiation

 223

(natural population)
Boltzmann (Boltzmann
distribution) Boltzmann (Boltzmann factor)

(.)

(.)

(inverted population)
()

. (a)
(b)

(metastable state)

224

(ruby
laser) Al2O3
Cr Cr
(laser pumping)
550nm 2.2eV

 225

3 10 s
( 10 s )

(metastable state)

(inverted population)


1.8eV 694.3nm (
ruby-red light)

-
He 85% Ne 15%
He
( )
20.61 eV
20.66 eV He
Ne He
Ne (
Ne) (0.05 eV)
Ne

(Cr)
. 2.2eV
()

226

(semiconductor diode laser) junction laser






CD DVD

(chemical laser)

(dye-laser)

(CO2 gas laser)

(rare-earth solid-state laster) Nd YAG laser

(pulsed-laser)
()

He Ne He
.
Ne

 227

bar-code (
) CD DVD
bar-code

CD DVD


CD DVD
500
( 500 rpm )
(b)

( 200 rpm)

. (a) CD DVD


0
1

228

.
(HOLOGRAPHY)

holography

. (a)




( )

. (a)
(b)

 229

Schrdinger

1
4

Bohr

, ,
1. (principle quantum number)
1, 2, 3,
Bohr
2. (orbital quantum number)
1
3. (magnetic quantum number)

4.
(spin quantum number) 1/2
1/2

1

1 1/2 1/2

Zeeman

230

(selection rule) 1

forbidden transition

0 0

() | |
4 | |

Pauli (Pauli Principle of Exclusion)


, ,

( ) ( )

, , , ,
1
1 2 2

Mendeleev
(
)
Mendeleev

 231

X

target X X

target
target

.

2.0023
Stern-Gerlach

Fluorescene UV


Photorescent

(Laser)
Holograms

232

. 7 ?

. 6 3 ?

.
5?

. 4 ,
?

.
5, 3

. 7 ).
). ). (orbital angular momentum)
).

. 5 ,
?

. 5d

). fine structure ?

.
6.84 10 J. s 2.11 10 J. s
,

. (normalized)

. ) ) | | )
1.5

. 2, 0 ) ) | |
) 4

 233

. )
Bohr
32% )
2

.
) 50% ) 90% ) 99%

. )
1.1 fm )
(muon) 207

| | | | 4

. 2
(normalized)

. 2, 1

1 1 1
4 | | | | | |
2 2 3

.
0.99 1.01

. 2, 0
4
5

. 3, 0
1 2 2
1
27 3 27

234

) )

.
8

. )
6 ) 13

. 6, 4?

. 2

. 1 6

.
Bohr

( 1)
( 92 )

.
Bohr 5.36 eV

X:

. X

32.5 kV

. X

1240
nm

 235

. 2
1 26

. Bohr
3 1 ( 42)
0.063nm

. Bohr 9.27 10 J/T

. ( , , , )
(1, 0, 0, 1/2) (1, 0, 0, 1/2)
1 2.5T

. 1.0T
)
)

)
?

. Stern-Gerlach Ag
780 m/s / 1.8 10 T
5.0 cm )
) -factor 1
?

. 5
, ,
?

. ) 4 ) 4
) 3 )

.

0.5 mW
3.0 mm )

236

)
15 W 2.0 m

. He Ne

.



45

Molecules and Solids

(van der Waals)


Fermi




Integrated Circuits

chip chip 800

(semiconductor)
chip (penny)




238

.
(BONDING IN MOLECULES)

H



( )
( 1 )
( )
( )

1/2 1/2 1 0

 239

1






1
.

. ()
( 1): (a) (b) | |

. ( 0):
(a) (b) | |

H

0
( 1/2
1/2 )

240

. .

(less well localized)






H (entity)

(bond energy) (binding energy)
(dissociation energy)
4.5eV

 241

( NaCl )
(.)

. | | Na NaCl

( Na Cl )



?

11 10
(.)

10 11
1
12 17
( 1 2 2 3 ) 12
3
2

3

242

doughnut (doughnut-shaped) z
.

. 10
1

. 17 12
3
doughnut

5

 243

. 0




.
5 17
12

5 1
Cl
.

H , O Cl




()

244

.


( 1 2 2 )

doughnut z

4

( +1e)

. (POTENTIAL-ENERGY
DIAGRAMS FOR MOLECULES)

1
4

 245

(1/4 9.0 10 N. m /C

. (a)

( )

.
(b)

. H r
( 0
) 4.5eV 0.74nm

()

.

246

0
4.5eV 0.74nm

1( )

.




()
(activation energy)







 247

. .

(H O) O H
H O

H O


O H


(activation energy)

. ATP ADP P

NaCl Na Cl





(activation energy)


ATP (adenosine trisophate)

248

( P )
.

(ATP ADP
P )

(activation energy) eV

.
(van der Waals) (WEAK (van der Waals) BONDS)

2 5 eV





( )

0.0 4 0.3 eV

.


- (dipole-dipole bonds)
-

(dipole-induced dipole bonds)



(van der Waals)

 249

van der Waals
.
van der Waals 1/

. C O H N (
DNA nucleotides bases cytosine guanine)

. (a) DNA
(b)
cytosine (C) guanine (G) DNA
()
H N
C O

- (.)

250

 251

(double helix shape) DNA DNA

( 300 K) 0.04 eV

20



.

DNA
A, C, G T
(genetic code)
DNA
messenger-RNA ( m RNA )
DNA
m RNA

DNA T (Thynime)
(U) . (a)
C m RNA DNA A
T DNA
C
m RNA

252

m RNA

ribosome ribosome
transfer- RNA ( t RNA ) t RNA

t RNA
t- RNA
t RNA (anticodon)

m RNA ( G C A U )
m RNA
t RNA (ribosome)
t RNA
(
.)
( ) t RNA
-

m RNA

t RNA
m RNA DNA

 253

. (MOLECULAR SPECTRA)

1 10 eV

(
)


(10
10 eV)

.

. (a)
(b)

254

1
2 2

1 0, 1, 2, ,

(rotational angular
momentum quantum number)

(.)
1
0, 1, 2,
2 2

(selection rule)

1 1
2 2

(.)

 255

2, 3, 4,

. ( )

( eV)
1.39 10 kg. m

(.)

256

1 0
CO 2.60mm ( )
) CO )
CO ( ) )

 257

)
/

1( )

6.63 10 J. s
4 4 3.00 10 m/s

1.46 10 kg. m

) C O 12.0 u 16.0 u 1 u 1.66 10 kg

12.0 16.0
1.66 10 kg 1.14 10 kg
28.0

6.86u

1.46 10 kg. m
1.13 10 m 0.113 nm
1.14 10 kg

) / 1/
2 1 1.30 mm

3 2 0.87 mm
4 3 0.65 mm

/ 4.8 10 eV, 9.5 10 eV, 1.4 10 eV
1.9 10 eV

258

. . .



.
(restoring force)

(.)

( )

. H (simple harmonic
oscillator SHO) SHO | | | | 0.50eV
( SHO 0 U 0 )

Schrdinger SHO

1
0,1,2, , (.)
2

(vibrational quantum
number) ( 0)
(zero-point energy)







 259

, .
(selection rule)

(.)

SHO

10 100

( 10 m

260

) .
)

k (energy height) 0.50 eV

.
0.074 nm
0.017 nm

) SHO SHO SHO 0 0

2 SHO 2 0.50 eV 1.6 10 J/eV

550 N/m
1.7 10 m

)
1 1 27
1.0 u 1.66 10 kg
2 2

0.83 10 kg

0.83 10 kg
2 2 3.0 10 m. s 2300 nm
550 N. m

2300 nm ) )

/
0

 261

6.63 10 J. s 3.00 10 m/s

0.54 eV
2300 10 m 1.60 10 J/eV

J eV

) 0

1 1
0.27 eV
2 2

(rotational plus vibrational levels):

1 1

.
( )

.
1 1

1 1 (.a)
0,1,2, ,
1

1
1,2,3, , (.b)
1

262

1
1

.

X

(.) .
1

 263

1 .
HCl

. HCl 1
1

. Cl
HCl

HCl
.

.
(.)
.
0.0025 eV

264

(.)

6.626 10 J. s/2
2.8 10 kg. m
0.0025 eV 1.6 10 J/eV

1.0 u 35 u
1.66 10 kg/u 1.6 10 kg
36 u

2.8 10 kg. m
1.3 10 m
1.6 10 kg

.
(BONDING IN SOLIDS)

(solid-state physics)
(condensed-matter physics)

(lattice) .

(face-centered)
NaCl
(face-centered) . Na Cl

 265

( )
( NaCl)

. (a) (b)
(face-centered) (c)

NaCl . Na
Cl
Na Cl

. NaCl

Na Na
Cl

266

1
4

Madelung Na Cl
6
Madelung 1.75 NaCl



/

1 (.)
4

(.)

1 1
1
4

(energy (per ion) needed to take the solid apart into
separated ions, one by one)

1
3eV (5 10eV)

 267

(metallic)

. Fermi (FREE-ELECTRON
THEORY OF METALS; FERMI ENERGY)

268

1cm 5.0 5.5 eV

10

Maxwell

4

( )

/
/ (.)

5.0 5.5 eV
1cm

g(E)
N ( )

1 cm 10 m 0.50 eV

5.25 eV

 269

82 9.1 10 kg
5.25 1.6 10 J/eV
6.63 10 J. s

1.0 10 m 0.50 eV 1.6 10 J/eV

8 10

1.0cm

. 0K F Fermi

(.)
?
0 K
( 0 )



Fermi-Dirac
( , , )
Fermi-Dirac
fermions
Fermi


( ))

270

( ) 2 (.)



0 K

Fermi
.

(.)

(.)

3 (.)
F
8

3
F
(.)
5

F 7.0 eV 4.2 eV
( 0.04 eV)

0 F
F
0?

Boltzmann

Fermi-Dirac ( Fermi)

1
(.)
F / 1

 271

F Fermi
. 0 K 1200 K
0 ( )
F /
. F
F

1 F
0
0 F

.
.
Fermi [ 1]
1200 K Fermi

. T
F (.) 0.50

F 50%

/ /
82 (.)
F
1

. Fermi-Dirac 0 K () 1200 K
() 1
0.50 F F 50%

272

.
1200 K

0 K
Fermi Fermi

0 K 1200 K


1200 K
0.1 eV Fermi
eV

F 0.7 eV 1200 K 7eV

0.1 eV
()
Fermi

3 eV

.
1200 K

 273

) Fermi )
) Fermi ( Fermi)

/ (.)
(.)

/ /
82 F
/
82 2 /
F
3

3
F
8
/
[ 22 2]

8.4 10 m

) Fermi

6.63 10 J. s 3 8.4 10 m 1
F 7.0 eV
8 9.1 10 kg 1.6 10 J/eV

) .

3
F 4.2 eV
5

) 0 (

)

2 F 2 7.0 eV 1.6 10 J/eV

F 1.6 10 m/s
9.1 10 kg

274

3
2

Boltzmann 300K

3 1
1.38 10 J/K 300 K 0.039 eV
2 1.6 10 J/eV

100
4.2 eV

 275

.
0

(
13.6 eV )

Schrdinger
(bands)

Fermi

.
(BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS)

1 (
) . (a)
1 2


(c)

. 1 , 2 2
3

276

3
3
2
3
3

. 1s 2s (a) (
) ) )

. (Na)

3
3 3

 277

5 10 eV (300 K)
( 3 0.04 eV
5eV

( )

(semiconductor)
. )
) )


1 eV




(resistivity)

(holes)

278

. ) )
)

(c)

345nm

()
345 nm ( )

345 nm

6.626 10 J. s 3.00 10 m. s
3.6 eV
345 10 m 1.60 10 J. eV

Fermi-Dirac

10

( 300 K) ) 1.1 eV )
5 eV

 279

0 Fermi


F

) 1.1 eV

F 0.55 eV

0.026 eV

F 0.55 eV
21
0.026 eV

1 1
10
F
1

1 10

) F 5.0 eV 5.0 eV 2.5 eV

1 1
. 10
. 1

10
( 10 10 10 ) 10 10 10
10

. (SEMICONDUCTOR AND
DOPING)

( Si ) ( Ge )

280

1 10 10





(. b)

. a)
b)
( )

1 10

1 10 10
( -type
semiconductor)

(Ga)
Ga

 281

Ga

(.)

. p Ga Si a) Ga
b) Si
Ga Si

.
n
0.05 eV Si (
Ge) 0.04 eV
300 K

282

(donor level) p
(. b)
(acceptor level)

.
(SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES)

chip

.
(a) (b)

( junction
diode)

 283

( 0.3 V Ge 0.6 V Si
)
p

(. b)

[ ]

-.
4.0 V

15 mA
?

.
0.7 V 15 mA

284

4.0 V 0.7 V 3.3 V

3.3 V
220
1.5 10 A

.


Zener
Zener
Zener

()

. a



. b



. a

R
. b
C

 285

RC
. c

. (a) (b)
R

. (a) (
)
(b) (c)

(light-emitting diode
LED)

286

LED
LED
()
DVD
LED
LED



LED solid-state lighting

(solar cells)

(photodiodes)

-


(particle detector)

.

(TRANSISTORS AND INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS)

. a collector, base
emitter
. b emitter

 287

. CE
collector emitter C
base base bias voltage BE BE
emitter base base
( 1 m
chip) collector

. (a) (b)

C collector emitter
base ( B ) B C
base
C

C

. () B B ( ),

288

( B )
base
collector
collector base
B C

output collector ac current C

input base ac current B

10 100

output collector ac voltage

input base ac voltage

collector base
off on (
1) (gate)

chip
integrated circuit

 289

( van der Waals)

( 10 eV 10 eV )

1
0, 1, 2,
2 2

1
0,1,2, ,
2

290

(vibrational quantum
number)

1
1

0K
Fermi F


F 0 K

(300 K)

Fermi-Dirac

1
F / 1

F Fermi

(conduction band)

( )
( 5 10 eV)
( )
0.04 eV

1eV

 291

0 1 IC
chip

292

. ) N )
HCl ) Fe?

. CaCl

. H ?

.
?

. H

Pauli

.


?

. ?

. ?

. ?

. KCl
K Cl
0.28 nm 1.0e

. KCl 4.43 eV

0.28 nm

 293

. H
0.074 nm 33%

.
kcal
eV
kcal eV ? KCl
( 4.43 eV) kcal ?

. /

. ) KCl ) ) HCl

.
2 1

. / N 2.48 10 eV
N

. LiH
(equilibrium separation)
0.16 nm

. H 0.074 nm

) 1
0 ) 2 1 ) 3 2

294

. CO 6.421 10 Hz )
)

. Li Br
1.7 10 Hz

. NaCl
(successive wavelengths)
23.1 mm , 11.6 mm
7.71 mm

. )
H ( ) )

 295

( H )

( )

( )

/
/

/ )

. NaCl 1.75 , 8
0.28 nm

. ( NaCl ) 2.165 g/cm NaCl

58.44 Na Cl [

296

(
)]

. KCl 1.99 g/cm

. Na Cl NaCl 0.24 nm
Na

.
1.00 cm 0.985 F F 5.48 eV

. 7.00 eV 7.05 eV
1.00 cm

. Fermi Fermi
0.97 10 kg/m

. Fermi 11.63 eV )

3
F
8

)
2.70 10 kg/m
27.0

.
T 0 K F

1,2,3,
8

 297

[ ( )

2 /
]

. Fermi

. ) (T=293 K) Fermi

1
F / 1

0.12 eV Fermi

? ) 0.12 eV
Fermi )
()

.
( 1.14 eV)

.
0.72 eV

. 0.72 eV
(detector)
730 keV
?

298

. LED
1.6 eV?

. LED 680 nm
( )

.

860

12 mA?

( , )

.

150 2.0 V

.
0

. Zener
2.80 k 130 V

12 V
120 mA
18.0 k
130 V ?

 299

245 V

?

. 120 V

35

. 120 V 60 Hz

28
35 F ) )
0.10 F ?

. C
75
B

B 3.8 k 7.8 k )
)

300

( )

.
B,

C E B C 0

 301

Arthur B. (2003). Concepts of Modern Physics. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.

Douglas C. G. (2009). Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics.
USA: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Servey R. A., & Jewett J. W. (2010). Physics for Scientists and Engineers with
Modern Physics. USA: Mary Finch.
Young H. D, & Freeman R. A. (2008). University Physics with Modern Physics.
New York, USA: Pearson Addison Wesley.