Short summary of the 4th week of Electrodynamics I

Toshihiko Ota1,
1
Yachay Tech, Hacienda San Jose s/n y Proyecto Yachay, 100119 San Miguel de Urcuqu, Ecuador
(Dated: April 27, 2017)

When you find typos and mistakes, please let me know.

I. MAGNETOSTATICS VOL. 3

First, we observed the following three natures of the line integral of B.

#1.

B dr = B dr,
C C

where C is the same path of C but the direction is taken to be opposite of C.

Proof: dr for C is dr for C.

#2.
I
B dr = 0 I,
C

where the path C is the circle (with any radius) that takes the straight current I as the central axis.
Proof:
=2 ( )
0 I 1
(LHS) = e (e Rd)
=0 2 R
In general dr = er dr + e rd (Check 2D polar coordinate). Here, we are
thinking dr on C, which only has the e -direction component.

0 I =2
= d
2 =0
=0 I.

#3.
I
B dr = 0,
C

where C is any path that does not enclose a current.

Proof: First we consider a closed path which consists of 2 concentric arcs with radii R1 and R2 (R1 > R2 , the range
of the angle is = [1 , 2 ]) and 2 straight lines of the radial direction. Here, the current I is placed at the center of
the radii R1 and R2 .
2 ( ) 2 ( )
0 I 1 0 I 1
(LHS) = e (e R1 d) + e (e R2 d)
1 2 R1 1 2 R2
The contributions from the straight-line parts of the path are zero,
because B dr = 0 on those parts of the path.

Electronic address: tota@yachaytech.edu.ec

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=0 I(2 1 ) 0 I(2 1 ) = 0.
Combining many of the paths with this fan-shape, which are neighboring each other, we can draw any shape of closed
path. We can show that the line integral with any closed path C that does not enclose a current I results always in
zero.
Using #1-#3 to deform the path, we can calculate the line integral with the path that encloses many straight
currents,1 and we found

I
in C
B(r) dr = 0 Ii , (1)
C i

where C can be any closed path on the plane that is perpendicular to the currents. The right-hand-side means the
sum of the currents enclosed by C (=currents passing through the area bounded by the loop C).2 Pay attention to
the positive direction of the currents Ii and the path C! From Eq. (1), we find

Eq. (1) = ( B(r)) ndS = 0 j(r) ndS
S S

Here we applied Stokes theorem to the left-hand-side of Eq. (1). S is the surface
bounded by C. Note that j(r)[A/m2 ] ndS[m2 ] in the right-hand-side represents the
current [A] passing through the small area dS at r.
= B(r) = 0 j(r). (2)
This is Amperes law

rotB(r) = 0 j(r). (3)

By the way, in the last week, we showed divB = 0 in general. You know that the identity div(rotX) = 0 holds true
for an arbitrary vector X (Prove this. cf. Mathematical Physics I). So, we expect that any magnetic field B can be
given with the rotation of a vector A as3
B(r) = rotA(r), (4)
where A(r) is called a vector potential. When a steady current I with a path C is given, the vector potential A takes
the following form4

0 Idr
A(r) = . (5)
4 C |r r |

1 You will encounter a similar deformation of a path of integral, but on the complex plane, in Mathematical Physics II. That is an important
technique to solve Maxwells equations in general case. So, do not miss Mathematical Physics II.
2 As you see, the discussion we have done here is not enough! Here we dealt only with straight currents Ii and the path C on the plane
that is perpendicular to the currents. To extend our discussion to the case with currents with arbitrary path, what do we have to do?
Think about it.
3 Since rot(gradf )=0, A = A + f gives the same magnetic field as A. This redundant degree of freedom f is called gauge freedom.
This is a very important aspect of electrodynamics. We will come back to this topic later. If you want to know more about this now,
check out Wikipedia article Gauge fixing.
4 This is the vector potential for the case of magnetostatics (which reproduces Biot-Savart law), i.e., This is a solution of magnetostatics
version of Maxwells equation and not the general solution of Maxwells equation. Actually, the solution of A depends on how to
expend the gauge degree of freedom (=how to fix the gauge). Although I did not mention, when we solved Maxwells equation and
obtained Eq. (5), we chose a special gauge which is consistent with magnetostatics. We will discuss this later with gauge symmetry and
1
(r)
gauge fixing. By the way, it is not coincidence that Eq. (5) looks similar to the scalar potential (r) = 4 dV Both of
0 V |rr |
them are the solutions of Poisson-type equation.
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Actually, taking rot of Eq. (5), you can reproduce Biot-Savart law (Check it) So, you can believe Eq. (5) is
correct in magnetostatics. When we know A, we can always derive B by taking its rot.5

II. CHARGE CONSERVATION

We have, so far, dealt with Electrostatics and Magnetostatics. The electrostatics means that the distribution of the
source charges does not change in time, i.e., the charge distribution is a constant in time;

Electrostatics = = 0. (6)
t
In the magnetostatics, we studied the magnetic fields induced by a steady current. What is a steady current? How
can we express the condition that a steady current holds? As the charge density in electrostatics, the current density
in magnetstatics should not depend on time jt = 0. A steady current also holds the condition

Magnetostatics = j ndS = 0 (7)
S

for any closed surface S, because the in-coming flow and the out-going flow about the volume V bounded by S must
be balanced (otherwise the charge in V changes (increase or decrease) in time that is not static). Using Gauss
theorem, this condition of steady current is expressed in dierential expression as

Eq. (7) = divj = 0. (8)

Now we are going beyond statics i.e., we will deal with electric and magnetic fields changing in time. Even in
such a case, the number of charge must be conserved We know, electric charges do not appear/disappear in the
air.6 The condition of the charge conservation is expressed as (Chapter 5.1.3 in Griths 3rd ed.)

Charge conservation: (Decrement of the charge in V ) = (Amount of the charge going out of V )


= dV = j ndS
t V S

Note that j has the unit [A/m2 = C/(sm2 )]. The unit of the LHS
(that is [C/s]) is, of course, the same as that in the RHS.


= dV = jdV
t V V

= + divj = 0. (9)
t

As I mentioned in Magnetostatics (vol. 3), this relates to the gauge symmetry, although it does not look so we
will come back to this later.7 By the way, this type of equation (Decrement of a quantity in a volume) = (flow of a
quantity, which is going out from the volume) is called a continuity equation, in general. We will see the continuity
equation for energy conservation of radiation You know Poynting vector. That is exactly the flux of energy density
carried by electromagnetic wave.

5 You can know E from in electrostatics (we will see, in general case, E is calculated with and A). In short, to know E and B
(6 independent components), the information that you have to know is and A (4 independent variables). We will reduce Maxwells
equations (8 equations) and will have 4 independent equations to determine and A.
6 In reality, an electron can be produced from photons. However it is always associated with a positron. So, the total number of electric
charge is conserved before and after the pair production of an electron and a positron; Before the production, we have photons, whose
electric charge is zero. After the production, we have an electron (charge e) and a positron (charge +e), in total, the charge is zero.
7 If you want to know a bit more about this now, check the paragraph Connection to gauge invariance in the Wikipedia article Charge
conservation.
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III. TIME-DEPENDENT FIELDS VOL. 1

Faraday reported his famous experiments in 1831 (Chapter 7.2 in Griths 3rd ed. See Fig. 7.20 for his experi-
ments). #1. He moved a conductor in a fixed magnetic field. Then, he found that the electric field is induced in the
conductor. #2. He fixed a conductor and changed a magnetic field around it. Then, he found again that the electric
field is induced in the conductor. From these observations, Faraday concluded that a change of magnetic field flux
induces an electric field, and the results of these two experiments can be summarized with an equation
I

E dr = B ndS, (10)
C t S

where S is an open surface S, which is bounded by the closed path C. This is called Faradays law (of induction)
in integral expression. In the class, we explicitly checked the meaning of sign in the RHS of this equation, assuming
concrete and simple situations. Here I sample some sentences from Chapter 7.2.1 of Griths 3rd ed. about the sign;
Keeping track of the signs in Faradays law can be a real headache. ... But theres a handy rule,
called Lenzs law, ... The induced current will flow in such a direction that the flux it produces
tends to cancel the change. ... Notice that it is the change in flux, not the flux itself, ...
Nature abhors a change in flux.

Experiment #1 is understood with Lorentz force 1.The movement of a conductor can be regarded as a current.
2.The current in a magnetic field gets the Lorentz force. 3.The force pushes the charges in the conductor, which
means that an electric field appears in the conductor. From this way of understanding, you can show that the LHS
of Eq. (10) coincides with the RHS not only in the sign but also in the size(Check this! or we will check this in
exercise. cf. Chapters 7.1.2 and 7.1.3 in Griths 3rd ed. and check the term EMF=Electromotive force). But how
can we understand Experiment #2? That is only understood with Eq. (10). This is actually a new knowledge
obtained through the experiments done by Faraday.