Gagan Thesis PDF

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Energy is curial input in the process of economic, social and industrial development. The degree
of development and civilization of a country is measured by the utilization of energy by human
beings for their needs. The energy demand of our country is increasing at a rapid rate and energy
resources are limited in nature. Energy requirement for cooking accounts for 36% of total
primary energy consumption in India. In India, maximum population lives in rural areas, which
generally uses the conventional energy sources for cooking, such as dung cakes, agricultural
residues, wood, charcoal, kerosene, electricity etc. Charcoal is usually produced from forest
resources and its production is often inefficient so it can lead to localized deforestation and land
degradation. The conventional energy sources are exhaustible, polluting and responsible for
global warming. Also it is a crime against nature and future generation to use our irreplaceable
fossil fuels for low temperature heating. These should be reserved for high temperature heating
and manufacturing of commercial commodities like rubber, plastics and fertilizers etc. Due to
this reason the people around the world are switching to renewable energy sources. Renewable
energy sources have the capacity to replace the use of wood, animal dung etc. for cooking. So it
is necessary to harvest the available solar energy for the domestic uses. Solar cooking has the
following advantages:
Solar cooking is absolutely free. Cost of solar cooker can be recovered through saving on
conventional fuels.
Solar cooked food is easily digestible. It gradually relieves stomach disorder,
constipation, gastric trouble and acidity.
Solar cooked food preserves most of the vitamins, minerals and antioxidants
In villages, women have to travel less often to forage for firewood, thus keeping them
closer to home and safe as a result.
There are no chances of explosion or fire while using Solar Cooker. It is very dangerous
for household families with infants to use LPG which is highly explosive.
It helps in preserving our environment.
It is durable and simple to operate.
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1.1 Solar collectors
Solar energy is collected by a device called solar collectors. A solar collector collects the
radiations and transfers the energy to a fluid passing in contact with it. For home heating, water
heating flat plate collectors is used. Concentrating collectors are used to concentrate the energy
on absorbing surface by reflection. The solar collectors are classified as:
1.1.1 Non-focusing type or non- concentrating:

The non-focusing type of collectors collects both types of radiations diffuse as well as direct
radiations. In non focusing type of collectors the absorber area is equals to the aperture area.
These types of collector are generally employed for the low temperature requirements. These
are of two types:
1. Flat plate solar collector

2. Evacuated tube solar collector
1.1.2 Focusing or concentrating type:

Solar concentrator is a device which concentrates the solar energy incident over a large surface
on to a smaller surface the concentration is achieved by the use of reflecting elements, which
results in an increased flux density on the absorber surface as compared to that existing on the
concentrator aperture.
1. Parabolic Trough solar collector

2. Linear Fresnel reflector
3. Parabolic Dish
4. Power Tower
1.1.3 Application of solar energy

There are many application of solar energy:
Solar water heating and electric power generation
Solar heating of building
Solar pumping
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Solar cooking
Solar electric power generation
1.2 Solar cooking

One of the major applications of solar energy in modern era is solar cooking. Solar cooker is a
device that cooks food using solar radiation. It is simplest, safest and most convenient way to
cook the food without consuming fuels or heating up the kitchen. Solar cookers also enable some
significant processes such as pasteurization and sterilization. It is a clear fact that there are
countless styles of solar cookers in the world and they are continually improved by the
researchers and manufactures. Generally solar cookers are classified as: box type and
concentrator type.
1.2.1 Box type solar cooker:

A box type solar cooker consists of an outer box made of fiber glass or aluminium sheet, a
blackened aluminium tray, a double glass lid, a reflector, insulation and cooking pots. The
blackened aluminium tray is fixed inside the box, with insulating material in between to prevent
heat loss from all the sides. A double glass lid acts as the cover of the cooking tray, it allows the
radiation from sun to come inside but do not allow the heat from the blackened aluminium tray
to come out of the box. A reflecting mirror reflects the solar radiation. The food to be cooked is
placed in the cooking pots and kept in the box. The cooker is kept facing the sun to cook the
food. Box type solar cooker has the following advantages:
Can cook multiple pots simultaneously.

Multiple reflectors can be attached which results in more solar energy available for
cooking.
1.2.2 Concentrator type solar cooker:

The concentrating type solar cookers are useful for homes and small establishments. In this type,
a parabolic reflecting surface concentrates the radiation towards the focus. The reflecting surface
can be glass mirrors, aluminium sheet and aluminium foil. The concentrator cookers are useful
where large number of meals to be prepared at the same time on daily basis (hostels, hotels,
pilgrimage places etc). Concentrator type solar cooker has the following advantages;
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Temperature achieved by this type of solar cooker at the focus could be around 300 to
350 which is sufficient for roasting, frying and boiling.
Food can be cooked quickly.
The limitation associated with concentrators is that except for glass, the reflectivity of all other
surfaces decreases with the passage of time.
A limitation of solar cookers is that cooking can only be done during sunshine hours. If solar
cookers are provided with heat storing medium, then there is possibility of cooking food during
off sunshine hours also. Fortunately, India is blessed with ample amount of solar radiation. In a
year, almost 270 days are sunny days. Hence, solar cookers have good potential in India.
A detailed literature review on parabolic trough solar collector and solar cooker with thermal
storage unit has been described in chapter 2 of the thesis.
Experimental setup of parabolic trough solar air heater has been used for analysis of thermal
performance of parabolic trough solar air heater at different air flow rates. The experiments have
been carried out during clear sky days in the month of March and April, 2013. The experimental
data is recorded at intervals of 30 minute during the daytime. The experimental results and
discussion are helpful to find the performance of the parabolic trough solar air heater described
in chapter 3 of the thesis.
The experimental comparison of parabolic trough solar cooker with heat storage unit at different
tracking modes has been studied. The experimental data has been collected in the month of
October 2013during clear sky days. The results are shown in chapter 4 of thesis.
The benefit of solar cooker depends upon the money saving on conventional fuels. Cost analysis
has been performed (shown in Chapter 5) to estimate the costs associated with installation of the
system and to calculate the payback period.
The main conclusions from this research work have been presented in chapter 6 of the thesis.
Suggestions for future work have been presented in chapter 7 of the thesis.
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CHAPTER 2
Literature Review
In developing countries, to fulfill the energy requirement for different purposes is one of the
major problem. In rural area of developing countries the cooking energy demand is met by
conventional resources such as wood, coal etc. whereas LPG is the main cooking source for
urban area. The conventional resources accounts for growth in level of greenhouse gases and
price of LPG is rising day by day. So one of the solution to this problem is solar energy and India
is blessed with ample amount of solar radiation. Hence, solar cooking has good potential in
India. If solar cookers are provided with thermal storage unit, then there is possibility of cooking
food during off-sunshine hours. From the last few decades, solar energy is utilized in the field of
cooking with different types of collector such as box type solar cooker, parabolic dish collector
and evacuated tube collector.
The work reported in the literature on solar cooker based on parabolic trough collector can be
divided into two categories:
Parabolic trough solar collector

Solar cooker with thermal storage unit
2.1 Parabolic trough solar collector

Seluck M. [1979] investigated the thermal performance of the vacuum tube receivers with and
without reflectors. Using vacuum tube with reflectors, the value of heat loss coefficient (U L) was
reduced. This was resulted in the increased incident flux on an absorber tube and increased its
thermal performance.
Rabl A. et al. [1982] calculated the performance and optimized the design of parabolic trough
solar collector. They optimized the different collector parameters like rim angle, concentration
ratio and intercept factor.
Clark J.A. [1982] analyzed the technical and economic performance of a parabolic trough
concentrator for solar industrial process heat application. The factors considered in this study
were reflectivity of mirror system, incident angle modifier, absorptivitytransmissivity product
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of receiver tube and receiver tube misalignment. As per economic point of view longer periods
of investment increases the economic competiveness of solar concentrator for industrial process
heat application.
Prapas D.E. et al. [1987] analyzed optical behavior of parabolic trough collectors, based on a
ray-tracing technique. The effects on the collector performance were studied by varying angular
distribution of the diffuse isolation, scattering of the direct isolation by a transparent aperture
cover and the total optical error of the concentrating system. They concluded that the amount of
diffused radiations collected were negligible for parabolic trough collectors with high
concentration ratio (C.R.>10).
Hamad F.A.W. [1988] conducted an experimental study for determining the performance of a
cylindrical parabolic concentrating collector with a novel design of the absorber. The
experiments have been performed during winter and summer at Basrah, Iraq. It has been found
that the concentrator performance depends mainly on water mass flow rate, and there is no
significant change when the water mass flow rate becomes more than 10kg/h. This paper
concluded the following points: The collector performance varied from 26 to 62% while the
water mass flow rate is varied from 2 to 34 kg/h. The concentrator can supply 20kg/h of hot
water with a temperature rise of 15.
Thomas A. [1992] experimentally studied the solar steam generation system (parabolic trough
collector) that generated steam at a temperature of 150C. The average daily efficiency of the
system was 33.5%.
Kalogirou et al. [1994] investigated the design and performance characteristics of a parabolic
trough solar collector system. They optimized the aperture area, rim angle and receiver diameter
of a parabolic trough collector. It was observed that, with a 90 rim angle, the mean focus to
reflector distance and the reflected beam spread was minimized.
Fend Thomas et al. [2000] used highly reflective aluminum coil for solar concentrators.
Experiments were conducted using standard commercial anodized aluminum sheet of different
thickness. They found that highly specular aluminum had an excellent chance to meet the trough
requirements.
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Bakos et al. [2001] studied analytically the parabolic trough collector, due to their ability to work
at high temperatures with high efficiency. The results produced from a simulation program,
showing the variation of collector's efficiency as a function of heat transfer fluid flux, pipe
diameter, solar radiation intensity and active area of the parabolic trough collector were
presented.
Brogren Maria et al. [2004] used aluminum polymer laminated steel reflector and tested its
optical properties, durability and reflector performance in solar thermal and photovoltaic system.
The optical properties of the reflector material were investigated using spectrophotometer and
scatterometry. Before ageing, specular reflectance value was 77% and after 2000 h in damp heat,
specular solar reflectance had decreased to 42%. This decrease was found to be due to
degradation of the polyethylene terephthalate layer, caused by UV radiation and high
temperature.
Li and Wang [2006] investigated the two types of solar evacuated tube to measure their heating
efficiency and temperature with fluids of water and nitrogen gas. It was found that water
temperature at 90-100C provide the better efficiency about 70% with both evacuated tubes. For
the high temperature application with ammonia, the efficiency of solar concentrating system with
evacuated tube collector decreased to 40%.
Arasu and Sornakumar [2007] designed and tested the fiberglass reinforced parabolic trough for
parabolic trough solar collector. It was tested under a load corresponding to force applied by a
blowing wind with 34 m/s. They analyzed that the deflection at the center of the parabola was
only 0.95 mm with wind drag force load of 72 kg, which is considered adequate.
Reddy and Kumar [2009] presented 3-D numerical analysis of the porous disc line receiver for
solar parabolic trough collector. The analysis was performed on renormalization-group (RNG) k-
turbulent model by using therminol-VP1 as working fluid. The introduction of the porous disc
in the receiver, improves heat transfer characteristics of the receiver but with a pressure drop as
penalty. The maximum heat transfer co-efficient is achieved in top half disc receiver with
H=0.5d at =30 with reasonable drag.
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Yashavant et al. [2011] numerically investigated the performance of parabolic trough receiver
with outer vacuum shell and compared with non-evacuated shell receiver. The vacuum shell
configuration performs better than the non-evacuated tube even without a selective coating and is
significantly better with selective coating.
Jin et al. [2012] investigated the operational performance and energy conversion efficiency of a
developed 15 kW solar chemical receiver/reactor for hydrogen production. Solar receiver/reactor
was tested at 200-300C. They found that the solar thermo-chemical process was feasible at this
temperature level.
Yu Zitao et al. [2012] designed a U-type natural circulation heat pipe system and experimentally
investigated for generating mid-temperature steam. It was observed that thermal efficiency of the
system was 38.58% at a discharge pressure of 0.5 MPa during summer time.
2.2 Solar cooker with thermal storage unit

Domanski et al. [1995] experimentally investigated the possibility of cooking during off
sunshine hours using phase change materials as storage media. Stearic acid or Magnesium nitrate
hexahydrate was used as phase change material (PCM). Solar simulator was used to provide the
desired solar radiations and they found that the parameters such as solar intensity, mass of
cooking medium and the thermophysical properties of the PCM have a strong effect on cooker
performance.
Buddhi and Sahoo [1997] designed and fabricated a solar cooker with latent heat storage for
Indian climate conditions. They found that late evening cooking was possible with a solar
cooker having thermal storage unit and also compared the experimental results with those of
conventional solar cooker.
Sharma et al. [2000] designed and developed a cylindrical PCM storage unit for a solar cooker
with two reflectors and compared the performance of this solar cooker with a standard solar
cooker. Commercial grade acetamide was used as PCM and experimental results showed that the
melting temperature of PCM should be in the range of 105C to 110C for evening cooking.
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Buddhi et al. [2003] designed and developed a PCM storage unit for a box type solar cooker
having three reflectors to store energy during sunshine hours. They used commercial grade
acetanilide as a latent heat storage material. The experimental results demonstrated that late
evening cooking is possible in a solar cooker with reflectors and latent heat storage unit.
Schwarzer and Silva [2003] tested a solar cooking system with or without heat storage in
different countries of the world. The system presented many interesting features such as
possibility of indoor and night cooking, heat flow control in the pots, modularity and the
possibility of further adjustments to incorporate a baking oven.
Sharma et al. [2005] investigated the thermal performance of a prototype solar cooker based on
an Evacuated tube collector with PCM storage unit. The system achieved high temperatures up
to 130C without tracking when erythritol was used as a PCM, which was sufficient to cook food
during late evening.
Mettawee and Assassa [2006] experimentally investigated the performance of a compact PCM
solar collector. Paraffin wax was used as a PCM to store solar energy, and results showed that
during the charging process, with increase in molten layer thickness, the average heat transfer
coefficient increases sharply as the natural convection grows strong. During the discharging
process, the useful heat gain was found to increase as the water mass flow rate increases.
Nallusamy et al. [2007] experimentally studied the thermal energy storage (TES) with integrated
constant/varying temperature source. Paraffin filled spherical capsules were filled in insulated
cylindrical storage unit of TES. They concluded that at a constant inlet fluid temperature, mass
flow rate has a small effect on the rate of charging and with an increase in inlet temperature of
heat transfer fluid, rate of heat transfer also increases.
Hussein et al. [2008] presented a novel indirect solar cooker based on flat plate solar collector
and having Magnesium nitrate hexa-hydrate as a PCM thermal storage unit. Solar cooker was of
elliptical cross section and wickless heat pipes were used. The results showed the feasibility of
elliptical cross section, wickless heat pipes and PCM in indirect solar cooker for use in evening
cooking and to warm the food during off sunshine hours.
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Foong et al. [2011] studied a small scale double reflector solar concentrating system with high
temperature heat storage medium (NaNO3 and KNO3) and a finite element model was used to
numerically analyze the latent heat storage unit. The experimental results demonstrated that the
melting of phase change material occurred in 2 to 2.5 hr and reached a temperature range of 230-
260, suitable for cooking and baking purposes.
Umanand L. and Prasanna J.R. [2011] modeled and designed the solar thermal system with
parabolic collector for hybrid cooking. The system is modeled using the band graph approach.
They compared the results of the simulated modeled system with experiments at different flow
rates. At optimal flow rate, there is about 6% increase in efficiency as compare to thermosyphon
flow rate.
Velraj et al. [2012] studied the performance of a solar parabolic trough collector with a thermal
energy storage system and took therminol-55 as heat transfer fluid. Various performance
parameters like useful heat gain and thermal efficiency of individual components were evaluated.
Chaudhary et al. [2013] investigated a solar cooker based on parabolic dish collector with phase
change material. It was observed that solar cooker with phase change material having outer
surface painted black along with glazing stores 32.3% more heat as compared to PCM in
ordinary solar cooker.
Lecuona et al. [2013] simulated a portable solar cooker of parabolic type using 1-D finite
difference method. A numerical model was used to study its transient behavior with two different
types of PCMs: Paraffin and Erythritol. High melting heat and conductivity of a PCM like
erythritol is an advantage for fast cooking.
Farooqui Suhail [2013] presented a solar cooker based on Fresnel lens type collector. The
proposed cooker consists of rectangular glass mirror strips mounted on wooden frame and
requires one dimensional solar tracking. The maximum temperature attained in the experiment
was 250C. Heat absorption capacity of this collector was five times more than conventional box
type solar cooker.
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Mussard and Nydal [2013] used two different types of heat storage units with solar parabolic
trough. The latent heat storage unit contained nitrate mixtures (salt) and oil was used as the heat
transfer fluid which self circulates in the loop connecting the collector and storage unit. A
storage based on thermal oil is much more efficient than aluminium based storage unit as it
reduces thermal losses in the pipe and absorber.
2.3 Research Gaps from Literature Survey

Many researchers have worked on parabolic trough collector for water heating and steam
generation. But none of them worked on air heating system based on parabolic trough collector
in the Indian climatic conditions.
Many researchers had experimentally investigated solar cooker based on parabolic dish collector,
evacuated tube collector and flat plate collector with heat storage unit for late evening cooking.
Some used sensible heat storage medium like engine oil, coconut oil, sand etc. while others used
latent heat storage medium like magnesium nitrate hexa-hydrate, erythritol, acetamide, stearic
acid etc. But none of them focused on potential of solar cooker based on parabolic trough
collector having evacuated tube as receiver and acetanilide as phase change material.
2.4 Objectives of the Present Work

Some primary objectives of the present study are:
1. To experimentally investigate the potential of parabolic trough collector for air heating
and to increase the thermal performance of parabolic trough collector by considering
different cases in Indian climatic conditions.
2. To experimentally evaluate and compare the thermal performance of solar cooker based
on parabolic trough collector with thermal storage unit for evening cooking at one and
two axis sun tracking
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2.5 Methodology Adopted
In the present work, the methodology adopted is as follows:
1. Exhaustive literature survey has been done and research gaps have been identified.
2. Initially, parabolic trough solar collector is fabricated. Then it is tested and the obtained
experimental results are analyzed to enhance its performance with different cases.
3. After that, the parabolic trough solar collector is used to cook food and the obtained
experimental results are analyzed.
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CHAPTER 3
Design, Fabrication and Experimental Study of Thermal Performance of
Solar Parabolic Trough air Heater
3.1 Introduction
A solar parabolic trough air heater was designed, Fabricated and experimentally investigated.
The main components of solar parabolic trough air heater which strongly influence its
performance are Reflector, Absorber tube, Copper coil, Secondary reflector and Glazing. For
many years, parabolic trough has been used to heat the water and produce steam. In this chapter,
experimental study is done on the parabolic trough solar collector for the generation of hot air
and its performance is investigated through different cases in Indian climatic conditions. The
experimental data has been analyzed and the performance results of solar parabolic trough air
heater have been discussed. The results of the experiments are presented in this chapter.
3.2 Design of Parabolic Trough Collector

The parabolic trough collector is designed on the basis of two design parameters: Geometric
parameter and Functional parameter.
3.2.1 Geometric parameters:

The different geometric parameters are aperture width, length of the parabola, rim angle,
focal length, diameter of the receiver, diameter of the glass envelope and the concentration
ratio. The geometric parameters are shown in figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Design Specifications of a parabolic reflector

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3.2.2 Functional parameters:
Optical efficiency, instantaneous and overall thermal efficiency and receiver thermal losses.
These parameters are largely influenced by the absorptivity of the absorber. The errors are due
to the defects in reflector material, support structure, location of the receiver with respect to the
focal plane of PTC and misalignment of PTC with respect to the sun caused by the tracking
errors.
3.2.3 Calculation of designing parameters

In order to determine the dimensions of the PTC minimum two parameters should be considered.
In this case the fixed parameters are: rim angle of 90 and the width of the aluminum sheet S =
1.4 m. Based on the two parameters, it is possible to determine the aperture of the parabola, W a
[Kalogirou S.A],

2 tan 2
=

sec 2 tan 2 + ln sec 2 + tan 2
And the focal length, f [Kalogirou S.A],

=

4 tan 2
On the other hand the concentration ratio is given by [Kalogirou S.A]

=

Where Wa is the width of the collector and D is the outer diameter of the receiver. The
dimensions of the parabolic trough collector are calculated by using above expressions are
shown in table 3.1.
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Table 3.1: Specifications of the parabolic trough collector
Parameter Dimension
Length of PTC frame (m) 1.22
Breadth of PTC frame (m) 1.22
Aperture area of PTC (m2) 1.4884
Linear diameter of PTC (m) 1.3999

Focal length of PTC (m) 0.305
Rim angle (degree) 90
Absorber tube inner diameter (m) 0.030
Absorber tube outer diameter (m) 0.032
Concentration ratio 12.14
3.3 Experimental Setup

The aim of the experiment is to study the thermal performance of a solar air heater based on
parabolic trough collector. The objective of this study is to investigate the temperature of outlet
air at different air flow rates with different attachments. Parabolic trough air heater having an
aperture area 1.4884 m2 and focal length 0.305m is used for solar air heating. A copper coil is
placed inside the absorber tube to enhance the temperature of outlet air. The experimental setup
of parabolic trough air heater is shown in figure 3.2.
A blower with power of 0.335 kW is used to blow air through the absorber tube. The blower is
connected to AC mains supply and a regulator is used to regulate the air flow rate through the
absorber tube. The experimental setup consists of following parts:
Reflector
Absorber tube
Copper coil
Glazing
Secondary reflector
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Figure 3.2: Photograph of the experimental setup
3.3.1 Reflector
Reflector is one of the vital part of the parabolic trough air heater as it decides the fraction of
solar irradiance to be focused on the absorber tube. Hence optical efficiency of parabolic trough
air heater is largely affected by the reflectivity of the material used for reflector. A parabolic
reflector reflects and concentrates all the sun rays on the absorber tube. The reflector is a
parabolic shaped galvanized aluminum sheet with a reflectivity of 86% at clean surface.
3.3.2 Absorber tube

The absorber tube is placed at the focal length of the parabolic trough collector. The outer
diameter and inner diameter of absorber tube are 0.032 m and 0.030 m respectively along with a
length of 1.22 m, as shown in figure 3.3. The solar radiations reflected by the parabolic trough
air heater are collected by the absorber tube. Air is used as working fluid in the absorber tube.
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Figure 3.3: Schematic diagram of absorber tube and copper coil
3.3.3 Copper coil

A copper wire is turned into coil which is placed in the absorber tube. It provides obstruction to
the air flow and increase the surface contact time of air with absorber tube, as shown in figure
3.3, due to which the outlet temperature of air increases. The length and outer diameter of
copper coil are 1.22 m and 0.018 m respectively. The thickness of copper wire is 0.004 m.
3.3.4 Glazing
The glazing is a concentric tubular glass cover which surrounds the absorber tube. The purpose
of the glazing is to minimize the convection losses from the surface of the absorber tube. Glass
tube is transparent to the radiations of short wavelength (coming from sun) and opaque to the
radiations of long wavelength (emitted by the absorber tube). The outer diameter and thickness
of the glass tube are 0.060 m and 0.002 m respectively, having length equal to 1.22 m, as shown
in figure 3.4 (a) and (b).
(a) (b)
Figure 3.4: (a) Schematic diagram of absorber tube with glazing (b) Photograph of absorber
tube with glazing
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3.3.5 Secondary reflector
The secondary reflector is semi-cylindrical in shape with reflective sheet glued on the inner
surface. The purpose of the secondary reflector is to reflect the by pass radiations on the surface
of the absorber tube. This increases the radiations falling on the absorber tube. The length and
inner diameter of secondary reflector are 1.22 m and 0.132 m respectively, as shown in figure 3.5
(a) and (b).
(a) (b)
Figure 3.5: (a) Schematic diagram of secondary reflector (b) Photograph of secondary reflector
3.4 Measuring devices and instruments

The parameters which are measured in this work; these includes:
Temperature of air at outlet

Intensity of solar radiations
Air flow rate
Ambient Temperature
These parameters are measured by the following devices:
3.4.1 RTD PT100 thermocouples

RTD PT100 thermocouples are used to measure the temperatures of the air at outlet. The
thermocouples are connected with a digital temperature indicator that gives the temperature with
a resolution of 0.1 . A photograph of digital temperature indicator with RTD PT100
thermocouple is shown in Figure 3.6.
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Figure 3.6: Digital temperature indicator with RTD PT100 thermocouple
An RTD (Resistance temperature detector) is basically a temperature sensitive resistor. It is a

positive temperature coefficient device, which means that the resistance increases with
temperature. The resistive property of the metal is called its resistivity.
The criterion for selecting a material to make an RTD is
The material must be malleable so that it can be formed into small wires.
It must have a repeatable and stable slope or curve.
The material should also be resistant to corrosion.
The material should be of low cost.
RTD PT100 thermocouple which is used in the experimental analysis works in the range of 0
to 200. The platinum RTD has the best accuracy and stability among the common RTD
materials. Platinum has a very high resistivity, which means that only a small quantity of
platinum is required to fabricate a sensor and making platinum cost competitive with other RTD
materials. Platinum is the only RTD commonly available with a thin film element style. Copper,
nickel and nickel iron are also commonly used RTD materials. They are mostly used in lower
cost noncritical applications.
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3.4.2 Pyranometer
The pyranometer (shown in Figure 3.7) is used for the measurement of global solar radiation
received on a horizontal surface. It has sensitive surface which is exposed to total (beam +
diffuse + reflected from earth and surrounding) radiations. The sensitive surface consists of a
circular, blackened (hot-junction) multi-junctions thermocouple whose cold junctions are
electrically insulated from basement. The temperature difference between hot and cold junctions
is a function of the radiation falling on the surface. The sensitive surface is covered by two
concentric hemispherical glass domes to shield it from wind and rain. This also reduces the
convention current.
Figure 3.7: Pyranometer with digital display unit
Pyranometer when provided with an occulting disc, measures the diffuse radiation. This disc or
band blocks the beam radiation from the surface. It may be noted that the pyranometers are
calibrated so as to measure the solar radiation on the horizontal surface. Therefore when tilted,
the change in free convection regimes within the glass dome may introduce an error in
measurement.
In most pyranometer, the suns radiation is allowed to fall on a black surface to which the hot
junctions of a thermopile are attached. The cold junctions of the thermopile are located in such a
way that they do not receive the radiation. As a result an emf is generated, which is proportional
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to solar radiation. This emf which is usually in the range of 0 to 10 mv can be read, recorded or
integrated over a period of time with regular calibration of about 2% can be obtained.
3.4.3 Anemometer
The air flow rate is measured with the help of anemometer of model AM-420 as shown in the
figure 3.8. The flow rate of the air is adjusted in the beginning of experimental work. The
accuracy {(2% + 1) } and resolution 0.1 m/s.It provide fast and accurate readings with
digital readability and convenience of a remote sensor separately low friction ball bearing design
allow free vane movement, resulting in accuracy at both high and low velocity.
Figure 3.8: Photograph of Anemometer
3.4.4 Sling psychrometer

Sling psychrometer is the simplest form of hygrometer, (shown in Figure 3.9) a device that
measures water vapor in the air. Psychrometer has two thermometers that measure different
tepmeratures.
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Figure 3.9 Photograph of Sling Psychrometer
The dry bulb thermometer measures the temperature of the atmospheric air. The wet bulb
thermometer measures the lowest temperature to which the air can be cooled only by the
evaporation of water. The evaporation from the wet bulb takes place quickly because the
psychrometer is twirled in a circle through the air. The wet bulb temperature is almost always
less than the dry bulb temperature. Because the evaporation of water from the wet muslin will
take the heat away from the bulb of the thermometer and cools it down.
The most effective way of wetting the wick is by using a plastic eyedropper or pipette. The
psychrometer is rotated for at least 45 to 60 seconds. If it is done for less than 45 seconds the wet
bulb temperature may be on the higher side. The wet bulb temperature is always read and
recorded first immediately after slinging. One difficulty in measuring air temperature is that the
solar radiation (energy from the sun) and thermal radiation affect thermometers. One way to help
fix this problem is to increase the rotational speed of psychrometer.
3.5 System Operation

The parabolic trough air heater is manually tracked on each day before the reading starts so that
the solar radiations fall normal to the plane of aperture area. When the solar radiations fall on the
aperture area of the parabolic trough collector, these radiations are concentrated on the absorber
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tube. This causes the heat transfer from the surface of the absorber tube to the air flowing inside
the absorber tube and air gets heated up. The copper coil increases the obstruction to the air flow
due to which contact time (residence time) of air with in the absorber tube is increased and it
increases the temperature of the outlet air. Two air flow rates are considered categorized as high
air flow rate and low air flow rate. Figure 3.10 shows the Schematic diagram of the experimental
setup.
Figure 3.10: Schematic diagram of the experimental setup
Different cases are studied by implementing various changes to the existing parabolic trough
collector. These are as discussed below:
1. Ordinary absorber tube.

2. Absorber tube painted black.
3. Black painted absorber tube along with glazing.
4. Black painted absorber tube along with glazing and secondary reflector.
23
3.5.1 Ordinary absorber tube
The ordinary absorber tube consists of a copper coil which is placed inside it. The photograph of
the ordinary absorber tube is shown in figure 3.11 (a).
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 3.11: Photograph of (a) Ordinary absorber tube (b) Absorber tube painted black (c) Black
painted absorber tube along with glazing (d) Black painted absorber tube along with glazing and
secondary reflector
24
3.5.2 Absorber tube painted black
The photograph of the absorber tube painted black is shown in figure 3.11 (b). In this case the
outer surface of the absorber tube is painted with dull black color.
3.5.3 Black painted absorber tube along with glazing

In this type, a glazing of glass is used which surrounds the absorber tube to minimize the
convection losses. Glazing covers the absorber tube over the trough length. The photograph of
the black painted absorber tube along with glazing is shown in figure 3.11(c).
3.5.4 Black painted absorber tube along with glazing and secondary reflector
The secondary reflector is of semi-cylindrical shape with reflective sheet glued on its inner
surface so that the maximum numbers of radiations fall on the surface of the absorber tube. It is
attached on the upper side of absorber tube as shown in the figure 3.11(d).
3.6 Collector Performance Theory

The thermal performance of the parabolic trough air heater can be estimated by the solar
collector efficiency factor, , which is defined as the ratio of the net heat gain to the solar
radiation energy based on diffuse reflection area of solar collector AP.
= mcpa (Tout Tin ) I0 AP
In case of secondary reflector, efficiency can be find out by considering shaded area of
secondary reflector
= mcpa (Tout Tin ) I0 (AP Asr )
Aperture area of the parabolic trough air heater is given by
AP = LP BP
Shaded area of secondary reflector is given as
Asr = Lsr Dsr
25
3.7 Experimental Results and Discussion
In this experimental setup, the main concern is focused on the heating of air at different flow
rates. The experimental data is collected in mostly clear sky days and some partly cloudy days.
The results are taken in the month of March and April 2013. In most of the days, ambient
temperature is in the range of 23 C to 32 C. The readings are taken from 9:30hr to 17:00hr and
noted at an interval of 30 minutes each. Performance of parabolic trough air heater is analyzed in
terms of temperature difference and thermal efficiency. Four cases are considered and various
results are obtained.
26
3.7.1 Parabolic Trough with Ordinary Absorber Tube
(a) At a low air flow rate of 16.83 kg/hr

The difference in the temperature of Inlet and outlet air, solar intensity and efficiency in the
setup with ordinary absorber tube at low air flow rate i.e. 16.83kg/hr are shown in Table3.2.
Table 3.2: Temperature difference of Inlet and outlet air, and efficiency for the case of ordinary
absorber tube with solar intensity at low air flow rate i.e. 16.83kg/hr
Time Solar intensity Temperature Difference Efficiency
(hours) (W/m2) ()
9:30 593 5 0.1634
10:00 714 6.6 0.1691
10:30 786 11 0.1799
11:00 606 8.8 0.1854
11:30 894 11.3 0.1948
12:00 961 13.6 0.1957
12:30 994 13.3 0.204
13:00 995 14.1 0.218
13:30 850 13.7 0.2217
14:00 842 15.2 0.232
14:30 745 12.4 0.2218
15:00 648 10.4 0.2051
15:30 554 9.8 0.1942
16:00 460 8.9 0.2046
16:30 348 8.9 0.2304
17:00 227 6.4 0.2603
27
As shown in figure 3.12, it is observed that the temperature difference of air is directly related to
solar intensity. When the solar intensity is high, temperature difference of air is also high and
vice versa. During the day, maximum solar intensity is 995W/m2 at 13:00hr and maximum
temperature difference is 15.2 C at 14:00hr.
Temperature difference Solar intensity
50 1100
45 1000
Temperature difference (C)
40 900
800
Solar intensity (W/m2)

35
700
30
600
25
500
20
400
15
300
10 200
5 100
0 0
Time (hr)
Figure 3.12: Variation of temperature difference and solar intensity during the day at an air flow
rate of 16.83 kg/hr for an ordinary absorber tube
28
The efficiency is inversely proportional to solar intensity and directly proportional to the
temperature difference. As shown in figure 3.13, initially efficiency is nearly same from 10:30hr
to 13:00hr, because increase in temperature difference is countered by increase in solar intensity.
There is an increase in efficiency from 15:00hr to 17:00hr. This effect is due heat released by
copper coil and simultaneous decrease in solar intensity.
Efficiency Solar intensity
0.4 1100
1000
0.35
900
0.3

800
0.25 700
600
Efficiency
0.2
500
0.15 400
300
0.1
200
0.05
100
0 0
Time (hr)
Figure 3.13: Variation of thermal efficiency and solar intensity during the day at an air flow rate
of 16.83 kg/hr for an ordinary absorber tube
29
(b) At a high air flow rate of 33.94 kg/hr
setup with ordinary absorber tube at high air flow rate i.e. 33.94kg/hr are shown in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Temperature difference of Inlet and outlet air, and efficiency for the case of ordinary
absorber tube with solar intensity at high air flow rate i.e. 33.94kg/hr
(hours) (W/m2) ()
9:30 538 3.9 0.0461
10:00 634 4.8 0.0481
10:30 691 3.4 0.0313
11:00 814 7.8 0.0609
11:30 880 8.9 0.0643
12:00 910 12.5 0.0874
12:30 926 11.5 0.079
13:00 912 12.7 0.0886
13:30 884 12.5 0.09
14:00 829 11.5 0.0883
14:30 761 8.9 0.0744
15:00 674 7.8 0.0736
15:30 577 6.8 0.075
16:00 477 5.8 0.0774
16:30 368 5.4 0.0934
17:00 254 3 0.0751
30
As shown in figure 3.14, at high air flow rate, the attained temperature difference slightly
decreases as compare to low air flow rate because contact time of air within absorber tube is low.
Initially the temperature difference of air increases with increase in solar intensity. The
temperature difference is nearly same from 12:00hr to 14:00hr. After 14:00hr there is continuous
drop in temperature difference with decrease in solar intensity. During the day, maximum solar
intensity is 926 W/m2 at 12:30hr and maximum temperature difference is 12.7C at 13:00hr.
50 1100
45 1000
40 900

800
35
700
30
600
25
500
20
400
15
300
10 200
5 100
0 0
Time (hr)
rate of 33.94 kg/hr for an ordinary absorber tube
31
As shown in figure 3.15, initially efficiency decreases as the temperature difference is low.
Efficiency is nearly same between 13:00hr to 14:00hr because decrease in temperature difference
is countered by decrease in solar intensity. The efficiency of the system is higher at high air flow
rate than that of low air flow rate, because the air flow rate is high and losses are low. After
16:30hr, there is sudden drop in efficiency because decrease in temperature difference is
significant as compared to decrease in solar intensity.
0.4 1100
1000
0.35
900

0.3
800
0.25 700
600
Efficiency
0.2
500
0.15 400
300
0.1
200
0.05
100
0 0
Time(hr)
of 33.94 kg/hr for an ordinary absorber tube
32
3.7.2 Parabolic Trough with Absorber Tube Painted Black

setup with absorber tube painted black at low air flow rate i.e. 16.83kg/hr are shown in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Temperature difference of Inlet and outlet air, and efficiency for the case of absorber
tube painted black with solar intensity at low air flow rate i.e. 16.83kg/hr
(hours) (W/m2) ()
9:30 584 15.2 0.0821
10:00 760 20.8 0.0863
10:30 850 26.6 0.0987
11:00 921 28.9 0.099
11:30 880 29.6 0.1061
12:00 720 26.4 0.1157
12:30 625 15.8 0.0797
13:00 457 12.1 0.0835
13:30 931 30.5 0.1034
14:00 801 30.5 0.1201
14:30 476 13.8 0.0915
15:00 560 18.2 0.1025
15:30 354 11.3 0.098
16:00 274 9.4 0.1082
16:30 179 8.5 0.1498
17:00 153 7.8 0.1609
33
As shown in figure 3.16, it is observed that the temperature difference of air varies
according to variations in solar intensity. In this case, a black painted absorber tube result in
increased absorptivity, due to which the temperature difference is quite higher than that of the
previous case of ordinary absorber tube. The temperature difference curve follows nearly the
parallel path with the solar intensity curve. During the day maximum solar intensity is 931 W/m2
at 13:30hr and maximum temperature difference is 30.5C at 13:30hr, and remains same till
14:00hr.

50 1100
45 1000
900
40
800
35

700
30
600
25
500
20
400
15
300
10 200
5 100
0 0
Time (hr)
rate of 16.83 kg/hr for an absorber tube painted black
34
As shown in figure 3.17, at same air flow rate, the efficiency in this case is higher than that of
ordinary absorber tube because black color of absorber tube improves its absorptivity. This
improved absorptivity results in higher temperature difference. So the resulting effect is to
increase the efficiency as it is directly related with temperature difference.
0.4 1100
1000
0.35
900

0.3
800
0.25 700
600
Efficiency
0.2
500
0.15 400
300
0.1
200
0.05
100
0 0
Time (hr)
of 16.83 kg/hr for an absorber tube painted black
35
setup with absorber tube painted black at high air flow rate i.e. 33.94kg/hr are shown in Table
3.5.
Table 3.5: Temperature difference of Inlet and outlet air, and efficiency for the case of absorber
tube painted black with solar intensity at high air flow rate i.e. 33.94kg/hr
(hours) (W/m2) ()
9:30 612 12.8 0.1331
10:00 710 16.2 0.1452
10:30 780 17.6 0.1436
11:00 845 19.4 0.1461
11:30 878 21.3 0.1544
12:00 900 22.6 0.1598
12:30 920 23.6 0.1632
13:00 818 22.5 0.175
13:30 880 23.7 0.1714
14:00 904 21.4 0.1507
14:30 793 18.6 0.1493
15:00 480 11.2 0.1525
15:30 605 14.1 0.1483
16:00 498 12.4 0.1585
16:30 390 11.2 0.1828
17:00 265 9.1 0.2185
36
decreases as compare to low air flow rate. The temperature difference is increasing almost
uniformly till 12:30hr and after that it varies according to the variation in the solar intensity. At
the same air flow rate, the temperature differences with black painted absorber tube are higher
than that of ordinary absorber tube. During the day maximum solar intensity is 920W/m 2 at
12:30hr and maximum temperature difference is 29.3 C at 12:30hr.
50 1100
45 1000
900
40
800
35

700
30
600
25
500
20
400
15
300
10 200
5 100
0 0
Time(hr)
rate of 33.94 kg/hr for an absorber tube painted black
37
As shown in figure 3.19, the efficiency in this case is higher than the case of low air flow rate.
This is because the temperature difference reduces very insignificantly, but the air flow rate is
about twice. Initially efficiency slightly increases continuously from 9:30hr to 13:00hr because
there is a sharp increase in temperature difference as compared to the increase in the solar
intensity. There is a sharp increase in efficiency from 15:30hr to 17:00hr. This effect is due heat
released by copper coil and simultaneous decrease in solar intensity.
0.4 1100
1000
0.35
900

0.3
800
0.25 700
600
Efficiency
0.2
500
0.15 400
300
0.1
200
0.05
100
0 0
Time (hr)
Figure 3.19: Variation of thermal efficiency and solar intensity during the day at a air flow rate
of 33.94 kg/hr for an absorber tube painted black
38
3.7.3 Parabolic Trough with Black Painted Absorber Tube along with Glazing

setup with black painted absorber tube along with glazing at low air flow rate i.e. 16.83kg/hr are
shown in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6: Temperature difference of Inlet and outlet air, and efficiency for the case of black
painted absorber tube along with glazing with solar intensity at low air flow rate i.e. 16.83kg/hr
(hours) (W/m2) ()
9:30 647 15.4 0.0751
10:00 740 19 0.081
10:30 631 15.4 0.077
11:00 596 20.2 0.1069
11:30 660 22.4 0.1071
12:00 750 25.5 0.1073
12:30 980 36.4 0.1172
13:00 923 34 0.1162
13:30 922 35.4 0.1211
14:00 830 33.5 0.1274
14:30 814 29.6 0.1147
15:00 712 24.7 0.1095
15:30 606 20 0.1041
16:00 500 15.1 0.0953
16:30 386 13.4 0.1095
17:00 265 9.4 0.1119
39
vice versa. For this case, the temperature difference is quite higher than that of the previous case
of black painted absorber tube. The effect of glazing results in reduced convection losses from
the surface of the absorber tube. During the day maximum solar intensity is 980 W/m2 at 12:30hr
and maximum temperature difference of air is 36.4C at 12:30hr.
50 1100
45 1000
900
40
800
35

700
30
600
25
500
20
400
15
300
10 200
5 100
0 0
Time (hr)
rate of 16.83 kg/hr for a black painted absorber tube along with glazing
40
As shown in figure 3.21, at same air flow rate, glazed black painted absorber tube gives higher
efficiency than that of black painted absorber tube. The effect of glazing is to increase the
temperature difference of air because convection losses from the surface of absorber tube are
minimized.

0.4 1100
1000
0.35
900
0.3
800

0.25 700
600
Efficiency
0.2
500
0.15 400
300
0.1
200
0.05
100
0 0
Time (hr)
of 16.83 kg/hr for a black painted absorber tube along with glazing
41
setup with black painted absorber tube along with glazing at high air flow rate i.e. 33.94kg/hr are
shown in Table 3.7.
painted absorber tube along with glazing with solar intensity at high air flow rate i.e. 33.94kg/hr
(hours) (W/m2) ()
9:30 480 12.9 0.171
10:00 470 11.8 0.1598
10:30 745 15.6 0.1332
11:00 803 21.1 0.1672
11:30 865 21.1 0.1552
12:00 820 21.5 0.167
12:30 830 25.1 0.1925
13:00 816 24.3 0.1895
13:30 800 24.2 0.1925
14:00 727 20.7 0.1812
14:30 654 15.7 0.1528
15:00 598 19 0.2022
15:30 486 16 0.2095
16:00 460 14 0.1937
16:30 380 12.6 0.211
17:00 265 12.3 0.2954
42
decreases as compare to the low air flow rate. At same air flow rate, glazed black painted
absorber tube gives high temperature difference of air than that of simple black painted absorber
tube. During the day maximum solar intensity is 865 W/m2 at 11:30hr and maximum
temperature difference is 25.1C at 12:30hr.
50 1100
45 1000
900
40
800
35

700
30
600
25
500
20
400
15
300
10 200
5 100
0 0
Time(hr)
rate of 33.94 kg/hr for a black painted absorber tube along with glazing
43
As shown in figure 3.23, the efficiency in this case is higher than the case of low air flow rate.
This is because the temperature difference reduces very insignificantly but the air flow rate is
about twice. There are sharp up and downs in the efficiency curve with variations in solar
intensity and temperature difference. There is a sharp increase in efficiency from 16:00hr to
17:00hr. This effect is due to heat released by copper coil and simultaneous decrease in solar
intensity. The convection losses in this case are minimized using glazing.

0.4 1100
1000
0.35
900
0.3

800
0.25 700
600
Efficiency
0.2
500
0.15 400
300
0.1
200
0.05
100
0 0
Time (hr)
of 33.94 kg/hr for a black painted absorber tube along with glazing
44
3.7.4 Parabolic Trough with Black Painted Absorber Tube along with Glazing and
secondary reflector

setup with black painted absorber tube along with glazing and secondary reflector at low air flow
rate i.e. 16.83kg/hr are shown in Table 3.8.
painted absorber tube along with glazing and secondary reflector with solar intensity at low air
flow rate i.e. 16.83kg/hr
(hours) (W/m2) ()
9:30 655 23 0.1203
10:00 740 25.2 0.1167
10:30 817 29.4 0.1233
11:00 863 33.6 0.1334
11:30 912 35.7 0.1341
12:00 910 37.5 0.1412
12:30 944 37.3 0.1354
13:00 920 36 0.1341
13:30 878 34.2 0.1335
14:00 755 33.3 0.1522
14:30 749 27.1 0.124
15:00 674 22.1 0.1124
15:30 568 19.2 0.1158
16:00 453 14.9 0.1127
16:30 345 13.7 0.1361
17:00 244 9.7 0.1362
45
vice versa. Initially temperature difference increases till 12:00hr. For this case, the temperature
difference is quite higher than that of the previous cases. The effect of secondary reflector results
in increased solar radiations falling on the surface of the absorber tube. During the day maximum
solar intensity is 944 W/m2 at 12:30hr and maximum temperature difference of air is 37.5C at
12:00hr.

50 1100
45 1000
900
40
800
35

700
30
600
25
500
20
400
15
300
10 200
5 100
0 0
Time (hr)
rate of 16.83 kg/hr for a black absorber tube along with glazing and secondary reflector
46
As shown in figure 3.25, at same air flow rate, higher efficiency is achieved in this case when
compared with glazed black painted absorber tube. The effect of secondary reflector is to
minimize the radiation losses and maximum temperature difference is achieved. Therefore, there
is an increase in efficiency of parabolic trough collector.
0.4 1100
1000
0.35
900
0.3

800
0.25 700
600
Efficiency
0.2
500
0.15 400
300
0.1
200
0.05
100
0 0
Time(hr)
of 16.83 kg/hr for a black absorber tube along with glazing and secondary reflector
47
setup with black painted absorber tube along with glazing and secondary reflector at high air
flow rate i.e. 33.94kg/hr are shown in Table 3.9.
painted absorber tube along with glazing and secondary reflector with solar intensity at high air
flow rate i.e. 33.94kg/hr
2
(hours) (W/m ) ()
9:30 642 14.7 0.1634
10:00 747 17.7 0.1691
10:30 825 20.8 0.1799
11:00 889 23.1 0.1854
11:30 934 25.5 0.1948
12:00 970 26.6 0.1957
12:30 959 27.4 0.204
13:00 917 28 0.218
13:30 911 28.3 0.2217
14:00 840 27.3 0.232
14:30 782 24.3 0.2218
15:00 696 20 0.2051
15:30 566 15.4 0.1942
16:00 464 13.3 0.2046
16:30 350 11.3 0.2304
17:00 255 9.3 0.2603
48
decreases as compare to the low air flow rate. It is observed that, temperature difference
continuously increases from 9:30hr to 13:30hr. This is because the radiations falling on the
absorber tube are increased by secondary reflector. During the day maximum solar intensity is
970 W/m2 at 12:00hr and maximum temperature difference is 28.3C at 12:30hr.
50 1100
45 1000
40 900
800

35
700
30
600
25
500
20
400
15
300
10 200
5 100
0 0
Time (hr)
rate of 33.94 kg/hr for a black absorber tube along with glazing and secondary reflector
49
The efficiency achieved in this case is the highest due to coupled effect of black color, glazing,
secondary reflector and high air flow rate as shown in the figure 3.27. The losses are minimum
as compared to the previous cases due to combined effect of black color, glazing and secondary
reflector. Because of higher absorptivity, reduced convection losses and increased solar
radiations falling on the surface of absorber tube the setup becomes more efficient.
0.4 1100
1000
0.35
900

0.3
800
0.25 700
600
Efficiency
0.2
500
0.15 400
300
0.1
200
0.05
100
0 0
Time(hr)
of 33.94 kg/hr for a black absorber tube along with glazing and secondary reflector
50
3.8 Conclusion
The following conclusions have been made from the experiments conducted.
1. Due to glazing, the convection losses are reduced and temperature differences achieved
in this case are more than that in the case of black absorber tube.
2. On attachment of secondary reflectors, the solar radiation incident on the absorber tube
practically increases hence the efficiency increases.
3. The highest temperature difference achieved by this setup is 37.5oC at an air flow rate of
16.83kg/hr.
4. At an air flow rate of 33.94kg/hr, the efficiency of ordinary collector lies in the range of
6% to 9% during the day and it is increased up to 17% to 26% with black absorber tube
along with glazing and secondary reflector.
51
CHAPTER 4
Experimental Comparison of Solar Cooker Based on Parabolic Trough

Collector with Heat Storage Unit at one and two axis Sun Tracking
4.1 Introduction
In this chapter, a solar cooker based on parabolic trough with heat storage unit was
experimentally investigated for evening cooking. Solar cooker with heat storage unit is attached
with parabolic trough solar collector. During day time, acetanilide (phase change material) stores
solar energy throughout the sunshine hours. Energy stored by the PCM during the day time is
transferred to the cooking vessel throughout the day up till late evening time. The main
components which affects the performance of the system includes parabolic trough collector,
solar cooker and phase change material. In present work, there is no external work required to
transfer the heat from parabolic trough collector to the solar cooker. The experimental setup is
installed at NIT Kurukshetra.
4.2 Experimental setup

The experiment was performed to compare experimentally the thermal performance of parabolic
solar cooker at one and two axis sun tracking with heat storage unit. The test section of solar
cooker is based on parabolic trough collector. This system consists of parabolic trough collector,
header, solar cooker which encases three concentric vessels, vacuum tube and connecting pipes.
The photographs of experimental setup with one and two axis sun tracking are shown in figure
4.1 and 4.2. Acetanilide is used as phase change material and it is filled in middle vessel of the
solar cooker. The experimental setup includes the following components:
Parabolic trough collector

Vacuum tube
Header
Solar cooker
Phase change material
Heat transfer fluid
52
Figure 4.1: Photograph of the experimental setup with one axis sun tracking
53
Figure 4.2: Photograph of the experimental setup with two axis sun tracking
54
4.2.1 Parabolic trough collector (discussed in chapter 3)
4.2.2 Vacuum tube

The test sections of the vacuum tube used in this system are shown in figure 4.3. The vacuum
tube consist of two glass tubes made from extremely strong borosilicate glass and between them
vacuum (P 5x10-2 Pa) is present. The outer tube is transparent which allows solar radiation to
pass through with minimal reflection. The inner tube is coated with a special selective coating of
aluminum nitride (Al-N/Al) with excellent features such as solar radiation absorption and
minimal reflection properties.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.3: Schematic diagram of vacuum tube (a) side view of vacuum tube (b) front view of
vacuum tube
4.2.3 Header
Header is a rectangular hollow pipe made up of stainless steel with a hole on its lateral surface.
Open end of the vacuum tube is fitted in this hole and it is sealed using a silicon seal. The outer
surface of the header is insulated with insulflex to prevent the heat losses from the header. The
header is filled with heat transfer fluid. One end of header is connected to the inlet of solar
cooker and other end is connected to outlet of the solar cooker. The schematic diagram and
photograph of the header are shown in figure 4.4(a) and 4.4(b) respectively.
55
(a) (b)
Figure 4.4: (a) schematic diagram of the header (b) photograph of the header
4.2.4 Solar cooker

Solar cooker is made up of three hollow concentric cylindrical vessels of aluminum as shown in
figure 4.5(a) and 4.5(b). The diameters of inner, middle and outer space are 0.12 m, 0.18 m and
0.22 m respectively. The inner vessel is used for cooking and a lid is also provided over it. The
middle space is filled with 3.5 kg of commercial grade acetanilide which is used as phase change
material. The allowance is considered for volumetric expansion of PCM. The outer space
contains heat transfer fluid which transfers heat to PCM. Three ports are provided on the top
surface of solar cooker, two for PCM filling and one for filling the thermal oil. These ports also
act as safety valves. Cooker is well insulated with an insulflex sheet and threads of jute sack
wrapped around it in order to reduce the heat losses from its outer surface. Photograph of the
solar cooker is shown in figure 4.5(c).
56
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 4.5: Schematic diagram of solar cooker: (a) Side view of solar cooker (b) Top view of
solar cooker (c) Photograph of the solar cooker
4.2.5 Phase Change Material

The selection of phase change material depends upon its properties such as melting temperature,
latent heat of fusion and toxicity etc. In present paper, commercial grade acetanilide is used as
phase change material. The heat stored in PCM during day time is utilized in the evening
cooking. Its thermo physical properties are given in Table 4.1.
57
Table 4.1: Thermo physical properties of commercial grade acetanilide
Melting temperature of acetanilide (commercial grade) 118.9 C
Latent heat of fusion of acetanilide (commercial grade) 222 kJ/kg
Specific heat of acetanilide 2 kJ/kg
Density of acetanilide 1210 kg/m3
4.2.6 Heat transfer fluid

For experimental setup, thermal oil (engine oil) is used as heat transfer fluid. The heat transfer
fluid circulates through vacuum tube, header, connecting pipes and solar cooker where it
transfers heat to the solar cooker. The heat transfer fluid used was same in both the cases i.e. one
and two axis sun tracking. Its thermo physical properties are given in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Thermo physical properties of Thermal oil (engine oil)

Properties Thermal oil (engine oil)
Density (kg/m3) 888
Specific heat (J/kg K) 1880
Temperature range (C) Up to 160
4.3 Measuring devices and instruments

Different parameters are measured, which are as follows:
Heat transfer fluid temperature, PCM temperature and food temperature

Ambient temperature
Solar radiation intensity
58
Heat transfer fluid, PCM and food temperatures are measured with the help of RTD PT100
thermocouples as discussed in chapter 3.
Dry bulb temperature of ambient air is measured with sling psychrometer as discussed in chapter
3.
The solar radiation intensity is measured during the day time with a Pyranometer-Model CM11,
of Kipp and Zonen, Holland as discussed in chapter 3.
4.4 System operation

In this experimental setup, parabolic trough collector having vacuum tube receiver is connected
with solar cooker through header and connecting pipes. The inlet and outlet of the solar cooker
are connected with header through connecting pipes. In case of one axis tracking, the collector
was tracked once about its east-west axis in the starting of the day. In case of two axis tracking,
the collector was tracked on two different axis i.e. once about its east-west axis in the starting of
the day and also about its north-south axis after every 15minutes throughout the day. The
schematic diagrams of one and two axis tracking are shown in figure 4.6(a) and 4.6(b)
respectively. During sunshine hours solar radiations falling on the parabolic reflector, are made
to focus on receiver tube. This available energy at the receiver is transferred to the heat transfer
fluid. The heat transfer fluid is circulated through the receiver tube, header, connecting pipes
and outer space of cooker. Cold heat transfer fluid which is coming from the bottom end of the
solar cooker receives heat after passing through the vacuum tube receiver and reaches to the
upper end of the solar cooker. This whole process is carried out by thermosiphon phenomenon.
During this process heat transfer fluid transfers heat to the thermal heat storage unit. The
thermal heat storage unit stores and transfer heat to the cooking vessel. During the day time the
heat transfer is a two-fold process, heat is first transferred and stored in intermediate storage unit
and further it is transferred to the cooking vessel for cooking purpose. During off sunshine hours,
stored energy of PCM is utilized to cook food in late evening.
59
(a) (b)
Figure 4.6: Schematic of the experimental setup (a) one axis sun tracking (b) two axis sun
tracking
4.5 Analysis of experimental data:
Heat stored by the PCM is given by
QPCM = mPCM CPCM Tm Ti + L + CPCM Tmax Tm
It is assumed that the specific heat for solid and liquid phase of PCM is same.
60
4.6. Experimental results and discussion
The main objective of this experimental setup was to compare the thermal performance of
parabolic solar cooker on one and two axis sun tracking. The experiments were conducted during
the month of October 2013. In most of the days, the ambient temperature was in the range of
23C to 34C. Everyday, solar collector was exposed to solar radiation at 8:30hr and readings
were taken from 09:00hr at an every interval of 30minutes. The parabolic trough collector was
faced towards the south. In case of one axis sun tracking, the collector was tracked once in a day
in the beginning of the experiment. In case of two axis sun tracking, the collector was tracked on
two different axis i.e. once about its east-west axis in the starting of the day and also about its
north-south axis after every 15minutes throughout the day.
Experiments were carried out on one axis sun tracking on 22, 24, and 26 of October. The
same experiments were conducted on two axis sun tracking on 28, 29 and 30 of October. Six
cases with different quantity of cooking load were considered to compare the thermal
performance of solar cooker on one and two axis sun tracking.
61
4.6.1 Solar cooker with water (600g) as cooking load and one axis sun tracking
Data of oil temperature, PCM temperature, load temperature for the case of water (600g) as
cooking load and one axis sun tracking with solar intensity and ambient temperature are shown
in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Data of oil temperature, PCM temperature, load temperature, ambient temperature
and solar intensity for the case of water (600g) as cooking load and one axis sun tracking.
Ambient Solar Oil PCM Load
Time Temperature Intensity Temperature Temperature Temperature
9:00 28.2 398 24.5 24.5 -
9:30 29 466 25.8 25.3 -
10:00 29.5 500 28.3 27.6 24.5
10:30 31 596 36.6 36.2 33.4
11:00 32 687 69.3 55.3 37.8
11:30 31.5 757 78.6 72.4 60.5
12:00 32 820 82.1 75 66.2
12:30 32 754 86.3 82 76.8
13:00 33 721 88.6 84.6 78.9
13:30 33 683 90.9 85.3 -
14:00 32.5 593 87.3 85.6 -
14:30 33 507 82.9 83 -
15:00 32 332 80.2 82.7 -
15:30 32 299 78.9 80.3 -
16:00 31 210 75.6 77 32
16:30 30 104 72.7 75.6 56.3
17:00 29 32 68.3 72 70.2
17:30 29 11 65.1 67.2 66.8
18:00 28.5 0 62 63.1 62.7
62
The experiment was carried out on October 22, with 600g of water as a cooking load. The solar
cooker was loaded twice in day. During the day, the maximum intensity achieved at 12:00hr was
820W/m2 and the ambient temperature was in the range of 28.2C to 33C. As shown in the
figure 4.7, the maximum temperatures of thermal oil and PCM were 90.9C and 85.6C
respectively. In the first session load was placed at 10:00hr and the maximum temperature of
water was 78.9C at 13:00hr. While in the second session load was placed at 16:00hr and the
maximum temperature of water was 70.2C at 17:00hr.
Ambient Temperature Oil Temperature PCM Temperature

Load Temperature Solar Intensity
110 1000
100 900
90 800
Solar Intensity (W/m)

80
700
Temperature (C)
70
600
60
500
50
400
40
300
30
20 200
10 100
0 0
Time (hr)
Figure 4.7: Variation of temperature and solar intensity with time in case of one axis tracking
and water (600g) as cooking load
63
4.6.2 Solar cooker with water (600g) as cooking load and two axis sun tracking
Data of working fluid temperature, PCM temperature, food temperature for the case of water
(600g) as cooking load and two axis sun tracking with solar intensity and ambient temperature
are shown in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Data of working fluid temperature, PCM temperature, food temperature, ambient
temperature and solar intensity for the case of water (600g) as cooking load and two axis sun
tracking.
9:00 23.5 302 22.3 21.7 -
9:30 25 550 33.2 33 -
10:00 26 624 51.3 50 24.3
10:30 26.5 640 65 59.1 48.1
11:00 27.5 769 75.7 68.3 63.2
11:30 29 747 82 74.5 70
12:00 29 777 89.1 79.3 74.6
12:30 29.5 710 95.8 84.4 76.2
13:00 29 675 98.1 88.2 79.1
13:30 29.5 605 98.7 92.4 -
14:00 30 600 97.5 94.1 -
14:30 30 575 96.1 96.4 -
15:00 29.5 448 94.8 95.6 -
15:30 29 372 90.2 93.1 -
16:00 27.5 281 86.8 89.9 32
16:30 7 112 83.5 86.3 68.7
17:00 26 56 81.7 84.9 78.7
17:30 25 0 77 80.8 79.5
18:00 25 0 73.4 76.2 74.9
64
On October 28, the solar cooker was loaded with 600g of water as cooking load twice in a day
and collector was tracked on two axis. During the day, the maximum intensity achieved at
12:00hr was 777W/m2 and the ambient temperature was in the range of 23.5C to 30C. As
shown in the figure 4.8, the attained maximum temperatures of thermal oil and PCM were
98.7C and 96.4C respectively. It was observed that PCM was charged continuously till 14:30hr
and afterwards it started discharging the stored energy. In the first session load was placed at
10:00hr and the maximum temperature of water was 79.1C at 13:00hr. While in the second
session load was placed at 16:00hr and the maximum temperature of water was 79.5C at
17:30hr.

110 1000
100 900
90 800

80
700
Temperature (C)
70
600
60
500
50
400
40
300
30
20 200
10 100
0 0
Time (hr)
Figure 4.8: Variation of temperature and solar intensity with time in case of two axis tracking
and water (600g) as cooking load
65
4.6.3 Solar cooker with pulse (200g) as cooking load and one axis sun tracking
Data of working fluid temperature, PCM temperature, food temperature for the case of pulse
(200g) as cooking load and one axis sun tracking with solar intensity and ambient temperature
temperature and solar intensity for the case of pulse (200g) as cooking load and one axis sun
tracking.
9:00 24.4 451 22.5 22.3 -
9:30 25.5 551 24.1 24 -
10:00 28 676 30.4 29.2 30.1
10:30 28.5 727 37.1 36.7 33
11:00 29.5 796 65 49.7 35.6
11:30 30.5 844 73 62.3 59.4
12:00 30.5 834 75.5 67.6 64.3
12:30 32 831 80 74.3 72.1
13:00 33.5 723 83.6 78.1 77.8
13:30 34 734 88.6 83.5 80.8
14:00 34 649 92.1 88.1 -
14:30 33.5 525 87.2 87.8 -
15:00 32 375 84.2 85.8 -
15:30 31 261 82.9 84.2 -
16:00 30.5 167 77.9 79.1 32
16:30 30.5 74 73.3 75.2 68.8
17:00 30 32 72.2 74.8 73.3
17:30 30 2 68.8 70.8 69.7
18:00 29 0 66.7 67.9 66.9
66
On October 24, the solar cooker was loaded with cooking load (200g pulse + 600g water) twice
in a day at 10:00hr and 16:00hr. As shown in figure 4.9, the maximum intensity during the day
was 844W/m2 at 11:30hr and the range of ambient temperature was 24.4C to 34.0C. The
maximum temperature attained by thermal oil and PCM were 92.1C and 88.1C respectively. In
the first session of cooking, food was loaded at 10:00hr. The pulse was found to be fully cooked
at 13:30hr with maximum temperature of 80.8C. In the second session of cooking, the food was
loaded at16:00hr and it was checked at 18:00hr. In this session, food was not fully cooked, it was
around 70% cooked. Food attained maximum temperature of 73.3C at 17:00hr.

110 1000
100 900
90 800

80
700
Temperature (C )
70
600
60
500
50
400
40
300
30
20 200
10 100
0 0
Time (hr)
and pulse (200g) as cooking load
67
4.6.4 Solar cooker with pulse (200g) as cooking load and two axis sun tracking
temperature and solar intensity for the case of pulse (200g) as cooking load and two axis sun
tracking.
9:00 24.5 453 20.8 20.6 -
9:30 26 580 40.6 35.5 -
10:00 27 710 59.6 54.5 30.5
10:30 27.5 717 73.3 67.4 46.5
11:00 27.5 715 77 72.5 67.6
11:30 28 729 86.5 78.6 74.4
12:00 29 740 90.2 80.7 77
12:30 31 701 94.7 86 82.2
13:00 31.5 675 97.2 90.3 85.2
13:30 31 637 99.5 94 -
14:00 31.5 616 101.1 98.6 -
14:30 31.5 528 98.2 98.9 -
15:00 31 390 96 98.1 -
15:30 29.5 312 92 93.2 -
16:00 29 202 88.3 91.7 30
16:30 28 106 85.3 88.1 70.2
17:00 28 0 79.9 83.1 79.7
17:30 27.5 0 74.6 77.2 76.7
18:00 26 0 72.3 74 73.7
68
On October 29, the solar cooker was loaded with cooking load (200g pulse + 600g water) twice
in a day at 10:00hr and 16:00hr. As shown in figure 4.10, the maximum intensity during the day
was 740W/m2 at 12:00hr and the range of ambient temperature was 24.5C to 31.5C. The
maximum temperature attained by thermal oil and PCM were 101.1C and 98.9C respectively.
In the first session of cooking, food was loaded at 10:00hr. The pulse was found to be fully
cooked at 13:00hr with maximum temperature of 85.2C. In the second session of cooking, the
food was loaded at16:00hr and it was well cooked at 17:45hr. Food attained maximum
temperature of 79.7C at 17:00hr.

110 1000
100 900
90 800

80
700
70
Temperature (C)
600
60
500
50
400
40
300
30
20 200
10 100
0 0
Time (hr)
69
4.6.5 Solar cooker with pulse (300g) as cooking load and one axis sun tracking
(300g) as cooking load and one axis sun tracking with solar intensity and ambient temperature
temperature and solar intensity for the case of pulse (300g) as cooking load and one axis sun
tracking.
9:00 23 351 20.8 20.9 -
9:30 24.5 433 22.1 22.4 -
10:00 25 534 25.3 25.1 24
10:30 26.5 585 35.9 32.7 25.5
11:00 27.5 680 61.8 48.5 36.1
11:30 29.5 692 76.2 65.9 63.9
12:00 30 765 79.1 72.9 70
12:30 30.5 780 80.3 77.2 74.3
13:00 30.5 792 88.6 79.3 76.6
13:30 30.5 769 90.2 82.8 78.7
14:00 31 730 85.1 84.2 79.8
14:30 32 605 82.5 83.5 -
15:00 31 481 78.3 81.4 -
15:30 31 338 74.8 79.1 -
16:00 30.5 234 72.4 75.9 30
16:30 29.5 116 70.6 73.9 66.1
17:00 28 38 68.3 71 70.2
17:30 27.5 0 64.2 67 66.8
18:00 27.5 0 60.1 62.6 62.1
70
The experiment was carried out on October 26 and the solar cooker was loaded with pulse as
cooking load (300g pulse + 900g water). During the day, the maximum intensity achieved was
792W/m2 at 13:00hr and the ambient temperature was in the range of 23C to 32C. As shown in
the figure 4.11, the maximum temperatures of thermal oil and PCM were 90.2C and 84.2C
respectively. In the first session of cooking, the food was loaded at 10:00hr. Solar cooker was
opened at 14:00hr and food was around 80% cooked. The maximum temperature of food was
79.8C. In evening time, food was loaded at 16:00hr. It was checked at 18:00hr and food was
around 50% cooked. The maximum temperature attained by food was 70.2C at 17:00hr.

110 1000
100 900
90 800
80

700
70
Temperature (C)
600
60
500
50
400
40
300
30
20 200
10 100
0 0
Time (hr)
71
4.6.6 Solar cooker with pulse (300g) as cooking load and two axis sun tracking
temperature and solar intensity for the case of pulse (300g) as cooking load and two axis sun
tracking.
9:00 23.5 368 19.2 18.6 -
9:30 24.2 422 20.9 20.2 -
10:00 24.6 564 32.9 28.2 21
10:30 25.8 580 56 52.8 25
11:00 26.5 690 66.3 60.1 58.4
11:30 27 720 75 69.1 62.8
12:00 28 745 78.8 73.1 70.2
12:30 28 719 84 77.5 72.3
13:00 29.2 640 87.1 79.4 77.6
13:30 29.9 608 89.6 84.9 81.3
14:00 30.5 600 92.4 85.4 82.4
14:30 30.5 549 94 89.4 -
15:00 30 490 89.9 92.7 -
15:30 29.3 414 86.6 88 -
16:00 28.55 310 84.1 85.6 30.5
16:30 28 195 80 83.3 69.4
17:00 28 72 76.8 80.3 76
17:30 27 0 72.6 75.6 74.3
18:00 26.5 0 69.6 73.8 73.1
18:30 26 0 64.3 68.2 68
72
On October 30, the experiment was conducted with pulse as cooking load (300g pulse + 900g
water). During the day, the ambient temperature was in the range of 23.5C to 30.5C and the
maximum intensity was 745W/m2 at 12:00hr. As shown in figure 4.12, the maximum
temperatures of thermal oil and PCM were 94C and 92.7C respectively. It was observed that
PCM was charged continuously till 15:00hr and afterwards it started discharging the stored
energy. In the first session of cooking, food was loaded at 10:00hr. The pulse was found to be
fully cooked at 13:45hr. The maximum temperature of food was 82.4C at 14:00hr. In the second
session of cooking, the food was loaded at16:00hr and it was checked at 18:30hr. The food was
not fully cooked, it was around 90% cooked. Food attained maximum temperature of 76C at
17:00hr.

110 1000
100 900
90 800

80
700
Temperature (C)
70
600
60
500
50
400
40
300
30
20 200
10 100
0 0
Time (hr)
and pulse (300g) as a cooking load
73
4.7 Comparison of heat stored by PCM in different cases
In different cases of one axis sun tracking, it can be seen that the energy stored by PCM during
charging process was in the range of 427.7kJ to 460.6kJ. Whereas, the energy stored by PCM in
different cases of two axis sun tracking laid in the range of 518.7kJ to 548.1kJ. Overall energy
stored by PCM was nearly 1.2 times more in two axis sun tracking as compared to energy stored
in case of one axis sun tracking. More energy stored by PCM in case of two axis sun tracking
makes the evening cooking possible as compared to one axis sun tracking. The comparison of
heat stored in PCM in different cases of one and two axis sun tracking is shown in figure 4.13.
one axis sun tracking two axis sun tracking
600
500
Energy stored in PCM (kJ)
400
300
200
100
0
600g water 200g pulse 300g pulse
Figure 4.13: Heat stored by PCM in different cases
74
4.8 Conclusion
The present experimental setup gives the following conclusion:
1. In case of two axis tracking, PCM starts discharging its stored heat on an average 40
minutes later as compared to the one axis tracking. This enables it to store more energy
and to cook food in the evening session which is not possible in case of one axis tracking.
2. In one axis tracking, it was found that pulse was fully cooked only in the first session of
low load (200g) whereas in two axis tracking, pulse was fully cooked in both the sessions
except the case of 300g of pulse in second session of cooking.
3. The end losses from the vacuum tube receiver were reduced to great extent with two axis
tracking which were considerable in one axis tracking.
4. It was observed that for different cases, maximum temperature of thermal oil in two axis
sun tracking was nearly 4C to 9C high as compared to one axis sun tracking.
5. It was also analyzed that in case of two axis sun tracking, quantity of heat stored by PCM
was increased by an amount of 17.06% to 22.25% as compared to heat stored in case of
one axis sun tracking.
75
CHAPTER 5
Cost Analysis
5.1 Estimation of costs and benefits of solar cooker based on parabolic trough collector
The use of a solar cooker depends on its cost effectiveness. In financial terms, investment is
made towards the cost of solar cooker to reduce the bill on conventional fuels. The return on
investment depends upon the saving in conventional fuels.
The economics of solar cooker can be looked at different angles:

With an increase in cost of conventional fuels and due to their shortage; there is an
urgent need to utilize the source of renewable energy like solar energy for cooking
purpose.
Solar cooking is pollution free and it preserves the nutrition value of food.
In the following sections, the costs associated with solar cooker and benefits of solar cooker are
discussed:
5.1.1 Total cost

Total cost of the system consists of:
The cost of solar cooker including sub components if any.

Cost of components provided on subsidy basis/ loan basis by various agencies like
Indian renewable energy development agency limited (IREDA).
If the system has parts which undergo wear and tear, then maintenance cost must be
added to the total cost.
5.1.2 Costs and benefits

The economic benefit of solar cooker is obviously the money saved each month on conventional
fuels. Cooking based on LPG is costly; as 1 LPG cylinder costs around Rs. 980. Electricity can
be used for cooking as in induction cooker, but in India mainly electricity comes from thermal
power plant where coal is used and coal is considered as non renewable resource. Moreover,
induction based cooking depends upon the domestic electricity tariff which varies from state to
state. Thus solar cooker is a viable option in terms of cost saving.
76
5.1.3 Payback period
Payback period represents the amount of time that it takes for a system to recover its total cost.
The concept of payback period emphasizes the need to install such systems that provides a
reasonable return on the investment made.
Payback period (days) = Total cost/saving per day.
Payback period depends upon:
1. Type of the solar cooker installed.

2. Mode of payment self financing or loan through agencies like IREDA.
3. Interest payable on investments made and loan availed.
4. Tax benefits.
5.2 Cost estimation

The capital outlay for the installation of solar cooker with thermal storage unit is shown in Table
5.1.
Total cost of experimental setup Rs 8260
Unsubsidized cost of 1 LPG cylinder Rs 980
Average running period of 1 LPG cylinder for a family of 3 member 45 days
Cost per day for cooking considering 1 LPG cylinder = 980/45 = Rs 21.77
If solar cooking with PCM storage unit is used for cooking food,
Then saving per day for cooking = Rs 21.77
Payback period = Total cost/ saving per day = 8260/21.77 = 379.42 days =13 months
77
Table 5.1: Cost estimation for solar cooker with thermal storage unit
Components Specification Cost (Rs.)
Parabolic Base frame material cast iron 3750
Trough collector Concentrator material - anodized aluminium
Segments of anodized aluminium 01
Manual tracking
Focal length 0.305 m
Rim angle 90
Aperture area of dish 1.4884 m2
Concentration ratio of dish 12.14
Acetanilide Melting point of acetanilide (commercial grade) 3.5660 =2310
(PCM) 118.9
Latent heat of fusion of acetanilide (commercial grade)
222 kJ/kg
Specific heat of acetanilide 2 kJ/kg
Quantity of PCM used 2.5 kg
Solar cooker Material aluminium 1500
Diameter of outer water vessel 0.22 m
Diameter of PCM vessel 0.18 m
Diameter of cooking vessel 0.12 m
Thickness 0.003 m
Paint Manufacturer Asian paints 50
Dark black colour
Quantity used 100ml
Insulation Insulflex sheet and Threads of jute sack 150
Connecting Material- Rubber 500

Pipes
Total 8260/-
78
CHAPTER 6
Overall Conclusion
The objective of the present research work was to enhance the performance of parabolic trough
collector and to study the feasibility of solar cooker based on parabolic trough collector. In this
work main attention has been given to the solar cooker based on the parabolic trough collector
due to its advantages of achieving higher temperature, no high grade energy required and its
capability to be driven by solar energy. The main conclusions come from the present work are:
1. By analyzing the experimental data for the solar parabolic trough air heater, it is found
that, the highest temperature difference of air achieved by this setup is 37.5oC at low air
flow rate of 16.83kg/hr and 28.3 at high air flow rate of 33.94 kg/hr. This temperature
difference is obtained by using black absorber tube along with glazing and secondary
reflector.
2. The efficiency of the collector with ordinary absorber tube is only 8% and this efficiency
is increased up to 26% with black absorber tube along with glazing and secondary
reflector.
3. The maximum temperature of thermal oil in two axis sun tracking was nearly 4C to 9C
high as compared to one axis sun tracking and the high temperature of thermal oil at
80C and above is retained for 3 hours and 4.5 hours on average basis in case of one and
two axis tracking respectively.
4. The end losses from the vacuum tube receiver were reduced by using two axis tracking
due to this, the quantity of heat stored by PCM was increased by an amount of 17.06% to
22.25% as compared to heat stored in case of one axis tracking.
5. The heat stored is more in case of two axis tracking, so the PCM starts discharging its
stored heat on an average 40 minutes later as compared to the one axis tracking. This
enables it to cook food in the evening session which is not possible in case of one axis
tracking.
79
CHAPTER 7
Suggestion for Future Work
The present work experimentally investigated the potential of solar cooker based on parabolic
trough collector with natural convection and Thermal oil as working fluid for day time cooking
and evening cooking in Indian climatic conditions. Many operating and design parameters have
been covered in this research. However there are still many other issues that may be investigated
and recommended for future studies which are as follows:
1. Experimental comparison of various phase change materials for evening cooking by

using different concentrating collectors.
2. Experimental investigation of various methods to increase the heat transfer rate from
working fluid to cooking vessel through PCM, can be made for solar cooker based on
parabolic trough collector
80
List of Publication
International Journal
1. Gagandeep, Harvinder Singh, Karamjeet Saini, Avadhesh Yadav, Thermal performance

of solar parabolic trough air heater at different flow rates: Experimental investigation,
International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology (Under Review).
2. Gagandeep, Karamjeet Saini, Harvinder Singh, Avadhesh Yadav, Comparison of
thermal performance of a parabolic solar cooker with heat storage unit at one and two
axis sun tracking, International Journal of Sustainable Engineering, Taylor and
Francis (Under Minor Revision).
81
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CHAPTER 1

1.1.1 Non-focusing type or non- concentrating:

1. Flat plate solar collector

1.1.2 Focusing or concentrating type:

1. Parabolic Trough solar collector

1.1.3 Application of solar energy

1.2 Solar cooking

1.2.1 Box type solar cooker:

Can cook multiple pots simultaneously.

1.2.2 Concentrator type solar cooker:

Parabolic trough solar collector

2.1 Parabolic trough solar collector

2.2 Solar cooker with thermal storage unit

2.3 Research Gaps from Literature Survey

2.4 Objectives of the Present Work

3.2 Design of Parabolic Trough Collector

3.2.1 Geometric parameters:

Figure 3.1: Design Specifications of a parabolic reflector

3.2.3 Calculation of designing parameters

And the focal length, f [Kalogirou S.A],

On the other hand the concentration ratio is given by [Kalogirou S.A]

Length of PTC frame (m) 1.22

Breadth of PTC frame (m) 1.22

Aperture area of PTC (m2) 1.4884

Linear diameter of PTC (m) 1.3999

Absorber tube inner diameter (m) 0.030

Absorber tube outer diameter (m) 0.032

Concentration ratio 12.14

3.3 Experimental Setup

3.3.2 Absorber tube

3.3.3 Copper coil

3.4 Measuring devices and instruments

Temperature of air at outlet

3.4.1 RTD PT100 thermocouples

An RTD (Resistance temperature detector) is basically a temperature sensitive resistor. It is a

The criterion for selecting a material to make an RTD is

Figure 3.7: Pyranometer with digital display unit

Figure 3.8: Photograph of Anemometer

3.4.4 Sling psychrometer

3.5 System Operation

Figure 3.10: Schematic diagram of the experimental setup

1. Ordinary absorber tube.

3.5.3 Black painted absorber tube along with glazing

3.6 Collector Performance Theory

= mcpa (Tout Tin ) I0 (AP Asr )

Aperture area of the parabolic trough air heater is given by

Shaded area of secondary reflector is given as

Asr = Lsr Dsr

(a) At a low air flow rate of 16.83 kg/hr

9:30 593 5 0.1634

10:00 714 6.6 0.1691

10:30 786 11 0.1799

11:00 606 8.8 0.1854

11:30 894 11.3 0.1948

12:00 961 13.6 0.1957

12:30 994 13.3 0.204

13:00 995 14.1 0.218

13:30 850 13.7 0.2217

14:00 842 15.2 0.232

14:30 745 12.4 0.2218

15:00 648 10.4 0.2051

15:30 554 9.8 0.1942

16:00 460 8.9 0.2046