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HYDROCARBONS
Before one tries to understand the Geological
methods of exploration one must understand
Origin, Generation, the concept of Petroleum System. This starts
with the Origin of Petroleum.
Migration & Accumulation
of oil Commercial quantities of Hydrocarbons are
associated with Sedimentary Basins.

SEDIMENTARY BASINS
A Sedimentary basin may Petroleum is found in
be defined as a large linear sedimentary rocks chiefly of
depression in which
sediments accumulate marine origin.
rapidly during a particular
span of time, it has Some amount of petroleum is
significantly great thickness also found in sediments of
of sediments.
continental or non marine
As the sediments get
deposited, the basin gets origin which might have been of
subsided & the rock units marine origin and then might
within the sedimentary have been migrated into non
basin gets folded and
faulted .
marine rocks. 4

Petroleum is found in rocks In general, Petroleum occurs in the

from Pre Cambrian (4,500 rocks of :
m.yrs) to Pleistocene (1m.yrs).
Cenozoic (70 2m.yrs)
But, petroleum geologists are
mainly interested in rocks Mesozoic (200 20 to 66 2m.yrs)
which are of approx. 600 million
years old or less in age because Paleozoic (550 50 m.yrs to 200 20
almost all of the Oil & Gas found
so far is contained within the m.yrs) Eras.
rocks. 5

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Age of oil
The Geologic Time Scale
Geologic events are measured in
10s, 100s, 1000s of million years,
so, it became necessary to use a
standard time scale to avoid
confusion during co-relation of
events and rocks.

The Geological Time Scale was

developed during the early 1800
century.

Earth
history has The animal and plant fossils help in
been
divided into finding the age of the fossil bearing
Eras
rocks.
Eras into
Periods. But, all rocks are not fossil bearing.
Periods into So other methods like isotopic
Epochs.
dating are used to date the rocks.
In Europe,
carboniferous
period has
In Isotopic Dating, the decay rates
been divided
into of radioactive materials like
Pennsylvanian
& Potassium, Uranium, Thorium etc. are
Mississippian
period. measured and are used as clocks to
calculate the ages of various rocks.

Sedimentary rocks with abundant

organic material in non- oxidising
conditions are required for
ORIGIN OF OIL & GAS formation of petroleum.

All sedimentary rocks do not have

conditions for formation of
petroleum.

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Conditions to be present for HC deposit to Oil Window

form:
A source rock rich in organic material
(0.5 5%)
There must be heating event (65
150C)
A porous and permeable reservoir rock
for it to accumulate in.
There must be a trapping mechanism
A porous but impervious Cap Rock.
Time
The most important factor in the
generation of oil from organic
matter in sedimentary rocks is
temperature.
The zone in the earths crust where
the oil is generated is called Oil
window.
A min. Temp. of about 65C is
necessary for oil generation .

Oil Window (Cont..)

Oil can form only in a narrow zone Geothermal gradient is the rate of
of temperature (65oC to 150oC). increasing temperature with respect to
increasing depth in the Earth's interior.
If the sedimentary source rocks are
heated up to this temperature, it is
Away from tectonic plate boundaries,
said to be mature.
it is about 25C - 30C per km of depth
Deeper the depth, higher the in most places.
temperature(Geothermal Gradient).
At shallower depth, the temp. is not
sufficient to generate oil.

Oil Window (Cont..)

Major oil generation starts at about 65C
and reaches optimum at about 100C.
At temperature higher than 150C crude
oil is irreversibly transformed into
graphite (Carbon) and natural gas at a
depth of about 5500m (the process is
similar to Thermal Cracking in
refinery).
At the Blackbeard site of Gulf of
Mexico, McMoran Exploration Co.
reached a drilling depth of over
32,000 feet (9754 m), the deepest
test well in the history of gas
production.

Therefore, deep wells mostly generate

gas.

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Oil Window (Cont..) Oil Window (Cont..)

Oil generation occurs from about 2130m
(7,000ft) to 5500m (18,000ft) deep.
Heavy oil ( immature oil) is generated at
lower temp. in the oil window.
Light oil, called mature oil is generated at
higher temp.
At temp. above 200C , all the organic
material is further broken down and
destroyed.
In general the pressure is about 0.46
psi per ft.
Therefore, at 2130 m i.e. at 7000 ft ,
the pressure is about 3220 psi
At 5500m i.e., at 18,000 ft., the
pressure is about 8280 psi.
(1m = 3.28ft.)

Oil Window (Cont..)

At shallower depth, bacterial action on the
organic matter forms large volumes of
biogenic gas ( pure methane) at a very fast Generation of Biogenic gas
rate. This gas is also known as swamp or decreases with depth as bacterial
marsh gas. action decreases with increasing
This biogenic gas is rarely trapped and is temperature.
leaked into the atmosphere.
The largest gas field (about 285 Tcf),
Urengoy (Siberia), is believed to be filled
with biogenic gas.

GENERATION OF OIL AND GAS FROM

ORGANIC RICH SEDIMENTS
Temperature Depth Nature of Oil &
Gas
Biogenic Gas (Methane)
Hydrocarbon generation, migration
& entrapment occur within time Min. 650C
2130m Heavy Oil
span of about 1.0 1.5 m.years. (3220 psi) OIL
WINDOW
Max. 1500C Light Oil
5500m
Wet Gas
(8280 psi)
Thermogenic
Gas
Dry Gas

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(A) Inorganic Theory

Theories of Origin of Petroleum
Dmitri Mendeleevs Theory (1877)
Metallic Carbide (CaC2) + Water (H2O)
(A) Inorganic Theory within earth at high temperature formed
acetylene (C2H2) , which condensed to form
(B) Organic Theory heavier hydrocarbons (as is readily formed
in the lab).
(Acetylene)
High T
CaC2 + 2H2O C2H2 + Ca(OH) 2
NOT
ACCEPTED

Inorganic Theory (Cont.):

Sokoloff (1890) proposed a cosmic
Berthelot & Mendeleevs Theory (1860, origin.
1902):
The earths mantle contained iron carbide One of the HCs precipitated as rain
which reacted with percolating water and from original nebular matter from which
formed methane. the solar system was formed and then
(Iron Carbide) (Methane)
ejected from earths interior onto the
Fe3C + 4H2O + O2 = CH4 + Fe3O4 + 2H2O
surface rocks.

No evidence for the presence of iron

carbide in the mantle.

(A) Inorganic Theory (Cont.):

Sokoloffs Theory (1980) : proposed a cosmic origin. It
proposed an extra-terrestrial source for Hydrocarbon.

Rain of Hydrocarbon The origin of petroleum by inorganic

Original Nebular
Matter EARTH sources, still remains a debatable
Rain of Hydrocarbon
issue.
Formation of Solar
System from Original
Nebula Hydrocarbon ejected
from the interior of
earth to surface rocks

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It is believed that:
Coal, is formed by decay of large
masses of plant material in shallow
swamps.
(B) Organic Theory: Petroleum is formed by decay of both
animal and tiny floating plant material in
stagnant water, where no oxygen exists.
Most Accepted .. The organic matter from dead plants and
animals were deposited together with
sediments in marine environments
during low energy periods of basin
formation.

Through experiments, it has been

seen that biota (flora & fauna of a
The conversion of the organic region) when heated at 100C under
matter occurs over geological time pressure for 160 days, starts
as sediments become showing conversion to the extent of
progressively buried and more than 40%.
temperature and pressure increase.
Further, when we add some catalysts
( like clay minerals, e.g. Bentonite) ,
60% conversion can be achieved by
heating at 60C for 100 days.

Over geological. time the organic

matter, mixed with mud, is buried
under heavy layers of sediments. Since hydrocarbons are lighter than
water, they tend to migrate upward
The resulting high T and P cause the
through adjacent rock layers until
organic matter to chemically change
they become trapped beneath
first into a waxy material known as
impermeable rocks, within porous
kerogen (found in various oil
and permeable rocks called
shales) and then with more heat into
reservoirs.
liquid & gaseous hydrocarbons
(catagenesis process).

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ORGANIC ORIGIN OF ORGANIC ORIGIN OF

PETROLEUM PETROLEUM
Crude oil was formed over Crude oil was formed over
millions of years ago from millions of years ago from
tiny aquatic organisms tiny aquatic organisms
called planktons that lived called planktons that lived
in ancient water bodies in ancient water bodies
mainly seas. mainly seas.

Rocks that contain sufficient

amount of Kerogen are called
SOURCE ROCKS.

When a source rock starts

generating oil and gas then it
is said to be mature.

When the Kerogen is further

heated with time, it forms
waxy, and viscous crude oil.

At greater depth, the

temperature is high and the
pressure of overlying
sediments and water column
is also high.

This make the

hydrocarbons to become
lighter.

A no. of compelling reasons that support

an organic theory.
1. Carbon Hydrogen organic matter
Ohio River Valley could have had as connection.
Carbon & Hydrogen are the primary
much oil as the Middle East at one constituents of organic material (both
plant & animal).
time, but that it escaped due to a lack Moreover, carbon, hydrogen and HCs are
continually produced by the life processes
of traps. of plants & animals.
A major breakthrough occurred when it was
discovered that HCs and related
compounds occur in many living
organisms.

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2. Chemical characteristics of petroleum 3. Temperatures of petroleum reservoirs.

reservoirs. Temperatures in the reservoirs seldom
Nitrogen & Porphyrins (chlorophyll derivatives exceed 141C, and temperatures never
in plants & blood derivatives in animals) are exceed 200C
found in all organic matter and they are also
found in petroleum. To be remembered that Porphyrins are
Presence of porphyrins also means that
destroyed above 200C
anaerobic conditions must have been there in
the formation process because porphyrins Therefore, the origin of
are easily and rapidly oxidized and petroleum is most likely of organic origin.
decompose under aerobic conditions.
Additionally low oxygen content also implies
a reducing environment.

Sedimentary rocks are important in

petroleum geology because most
oil and gas accumulations are
found in these rocks.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Igneous & metamorphic rocks

rarely contain oil or gas.

PETROLEUM SYSTEM

SOURCE ROCKS

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Source Rocks are the porous
sedimentary rocks which originally
contained sufficient amount of
organic matter (0.5 5%).
From source rocks, HCs were able
to migrate possibly to get trapped
in reservoir rocks.
Shales, Limestones, can act as
source rocks.
RESERVOIR ROCKS
The two most important petro
physical properties that control the
quality of a reservoir rock are
(a) POROSITY
(b) PERMEABILITY
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When a source rock starts
generating oil and gas then it is
said to be mature.
Oil moves from source rock to
reservoir and then accumulates.
The reservoir rock is a porous and
permeable lithological unit that are
capable of holding oil, gas or water.
For a reservoir to be commercially
viable, it must be large and thick
enough with adequate pore space
capable of holding an appreciable
volume of HCs.
Sandstone, Siltstone, Porous
Limestone and Dolomites can act
as reservoir rocks.
When a sedimentary rock is observed under
microscope, number of openings or voids are
seen between the constituent grains of the
rock.
These openings are called pores.
These pores are the locales of hydrocarbon
molecules.
So, it is important to know and quantify the
volume of pores in a particular rock type,
because that gives us an idea about the
volume of HC fluid that could be present in the
rock.
This property of a sedimentary rock is termed
as porosity.
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POROSITY :
The total sum of opening or voids that
occur within a rock i.e. it is the ratio of
pore space to total volume of rock.
Porosity is denoted by phi ()
= (Pore volume of rock 100) / Total
volume of rock
The more the volume of porosity, the
greater is the capacity of the rock to hold
oil, gas or water.
There are two types of porosity:
(a) Absolute / Total Porosity: It is
defined as the ratio of total volume
of pore space to the total volume of
rock. It includes all interstices of
voids, whether interconnected or
not.
(a) Effective Porosity: It is the ratio of
interconnected pore space to total
bulk volume of the rock.
What is good porosity?
0 - 5% - Negligible
5 -10% - Poor
10 -15% - Fair
15 - 20% - Good
> 20% - Very good /
Excellent
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Cubic packed Spheres
Porosity = 48%
Geologically, porosity can be classified into two
types:
(a) Primary Porosity: It is also called original
porosity because it is the inherent
characteristic of the rock when it was
deposited. It is dependent upon packing which
in turn dependent upon sorting. Porosity
declines rapidly with addition of fine matrix,
filling the interstices.
(b) Secondary Porosity: Post depositional
porosity. It is created ( can be formed by
fractures). Commonly seen in limestone,
dolomites etc.
Controls of Porosity
Compaction
Over a long period of time, sediments can
accumulate and create formations that are
thousands of feet thick.
The weight of the overlying sediments squeezes
the particles together into the tightest arrangement
possible.
The load pressure also squeezes out the water that
occupies the pore spaces between the particles,
thus reducing the bulk volume of the formation.
Compaction affects porosity & permeability by
reducing the amount of interconnected pore space.
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Controls of Porosity:
In Sandstone, porosity is largely controlled by
sorting. Sorting is the arrangement of grains.
Well Sorted Rocks: Grains are generally of the
same size and shape. If the grains are well
rounded and are of similar size, then they will not
fit well together, thereby leaving a large amount of
pore space between the grains. Porosity in a well
sorted rock is generally high.
Controls of Porosity ( Cont..)
Cementation:
It is the crystallization or precipitation of
soluble minerals in the pore spaces between
grains/particles .
Common cementing agents include calcite
(CaCO3), silica (SiO2) and iron oxide (Fe2O3).
Porosity & permeability can be reduced
significantly due to cementation.
PERMEABILITY
Recovery of HCs from the reservoir is
an important process in petroleum
engineering & estimating permeability
can aid in determining how much HCs
can be produced from a reservoir.
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Controls of Porosity ( Cont..)
Poorly Sorted Rocks: Rocks that are composed
of a wide variety of grain sizes and shapes.
Porosity can be reduced considerably because
smaller or irregularly shaped grains can be
inserted in between the larger grains, thereby
reducing the amount of pore space.
Controls of Porosity ( Cont..)
Cementation
When a well is drilled into a reservoir,
the reservoir fluid moves out of the
pores and into the well.
The rocks permeability determines at
what ease the reservoir fluid can move
out or flow within the rock.
Permeability is measured in darcy units
or more commonly millidarcy (md - one
thousandth of a darcy) after Henry
Darcy.
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To be permeable, a formation must

Main controls on permeability are: have interconnected porosity.

1. Grain size The fluid present in the pores of a

2. Pore connectivity. rock can move only when the pores
are interconnected.

Permeability is dependent on porosity, The grain size has a negligible effect on the
but not directly related to it. porosity of a rock, but this has a predominant
effect on permeability.
If porosity is 0%, permeability is also More frictional forces are encountered while
zero, since there are no pores to be passing the same fluid through a fine granular
pack than through a coarse granular pack of
interconnected.
equal porosity.
But, when porosity is, say 20%,
permeability may be 0 to any quantity
depending on the nature of the porosity.
Fractured rock have very good
permeability.

The relationship between the

What is good permeability? porosity and the permeability of a
given formation is not necessarily
< 1 millidarcy - Poor a direct one.

1 - 10 md - Fair
However, a high porosity is often
accompanied by high permeability
10 - 100 md - Good when they are interconnected.
e.g. sandstone has good porosity and
100 - 1000 md - Very good also good permeability.
But, Shale has got good porosity but
low permeability.

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A petroleum Reservoir is a subsurface

formation containing gas, oil and water
in varying proportions.
PETROLEUM RESERVOIR

Reservoir rocks are either of clastic or

carbonate composition.

The clastic or sandstone reservoirs form
after the sand grains have been
transported over large distances and
have deposited in particular environment
of deposition.
The carbonate reservoir rock is usually
found at the place of formation (in situ).
The carbonate rocks are susceptible to
alteration by the process of diagenesis.

The main component of clastic reservoirs

is quartz (SiO2), chemically it is a fairly
stable mineral which is not easily altered
by changes in P, T or acidity of pore
fluids.

are composed of silicates,

The fluids are contained in the in the pore

spaces of rock formations (among the
grains of sandstones or in cavities of Diagenesis is due to :
carbonates).
(i). Welding: Is the process of
Diagenesis is the process of
The pore spaces need to be compaction of the sediments
transformation
interconnected soofthe loose
fluidssediments
can move accumulated in lower layers of a basin
deposited
through thein the basins to solid
reservoir. due to the pressure exerted by the
cohesive rock masses either under load of the overlying sediments.
pressure or because of cementation is
collectively known as diagenesis. This results in squeezing out all or
most of the water from the sediments
and transforming into a solid rock
mass.

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(ii) Cementation: Is the process by
which loose grains or sediments in a
basin are held together by a binding
material or the matrix.
The pores are referred to as porosity in
oil field terms.
Permeability measures the ability of a
rock to allow fluid flow through its pore
system.
The reservoir need to be sealed in such a
way so that the fluids cannot escape.
A reservoir rock which has some porosity
but too low a permeability to allow fluid
flow is termed tight reservoir.
CAP ROCKS
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The pores between the rock components
e.g. sand grans in a sandstone reservoir
initially are filled with the pore water.
The migrating HCs will displace the water
and thus gradually fill the reservoir in the
pore spaces of rock formations (among
the grains of sandstones or in cavities of
carbonates).
For a reservoir to be effective, the pores
need to be interconnected to allow
migration, and also need to allow flow of
HC towards the borehole once a well is
drilled into the structure.
Oil in itself does not have a stored force
or energy i.e. it cannot move itself.
The only stored energy in the reservoir is
in the form of gas or water under
pressure which can move the oil into the
wellbore.
When this energy has been spent, only
the slow method of gravity drainage
remains to move the oil into the well bore.
The impervious rocks or stratum
that overlies the reservoir rocks is
called 'Cap Rock' or 'Roof Rock'.
The main characteristic of this rock
is to act as a seal and trap the oil
gas in the reservoir.
Shale, Massive Impervious
Limestone and Compact Clay
stones act as common cap rocks.
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The clastic sedimentary rocks are classified

according to grain size.
Sediments Grain Size
Clay < 1/256 mm = Less than 0.004 mm

Silt 1/256 - 1/16 mm = 0.004 - 0.167 mm

Sand 1/16 - 2 mm = 0.167 2mm MIGRATION
Granule 2 4 mm
Pebble 4 64 mm
Cobble 64 256 mm
Boulder > 256 mm

Migration is the process of the oil and

gas moving away from the source rock.
This is a slow process i.e. perhaps a few
MIGRATION kms over a period of millions of years.
Migration typically occurs from a
. Oil moves from source rock structurally low area to a higher area
to reservoir and then because of the relative buoyancy of
accumulates . hydrocarbons in comparison to the
surrounding rock.
Migration can be local or can occur
along distances of hundreds of
kilometers in large sedimentary basins.

Natural Forces which help in bringing Migration (Cont)

about migration and accumulation of The Transformation of Oil and Gas (Liquid
Petroleum: and Natural Gas) from Solids (Organic
Matter) causes large increase in Volume
resulting in Fracturing of Source Rocks.
a. Gas Pressure.
b. Water Pressure. The burial also tries to expel Oil and Gas
c. Earth Pressure. away from the Source Rock Migration
d. Burial and Compaction of due to Lithostatic and/ or Tectonic
Sediments. Forces.
e. Selective action of gravity on the The Hydrocarbons tries to escape
rock fluids. through these Fractures and
f. Volume Expansion Accumulates in the Reservoir Rocks.

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Migration (Cont.)
Oil is Known to have Migrated
More than 300km (horizontal) away
from Source Rock.
Most hydrocarbons migrate to the
surface as oil seeps, but some gets
trapped.
Migration (Cont.)
If there is no trap on the migration
route, the oil and gas will flow out
onto the surface as a gas or oil
seep.
If there is a trap along migration
route, the oil & gas will
accumulate in the trap.
Migration (Cont..)
Once the water , oil and gas
migrates into the trap, it separates
according to density.
Gas being the lightest, goes to the
top of the trap to form the free gas
cap.
Oil goes to the middle and water
that is always present, on the
bottom.
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Migration (Cont.)
In the Williston basin of Montana,
the oil has migrated more than 320
km horizontally out from the
source rock to the traps on the
flanks of the basin where it got
trapped due to the presence of
suitable trapping mechanism.
Migration (Cont.)
Of all the oil & gas that forms in a
sedimentary basins,
Only 0.3 to 30% is ever trapped.
On the average , only 10% of the
oil & gas is trapped.
Rest either did not get out of the
source rock or, was lost during
migration or seeped into the
surface.
PRIMARY & SECONDARY MIGRATION
Primary migration is the process by which hydrocarbons are
expelled from the source rock into an adjacent permeable
carrier bed.
Secondary migration is the movement of hydrocarbons along
a "carrier bed" from the source area to the trap.
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Driving forces for migration:

Driving forces for migration:
Buoyancy : This force acts
vertically and is proportional to the Hydrodynamic flow: Water
density difference between water potential deflect the direction of oil
and the hydrocarbon so it is migration, the effect is usually
stronger for gas than heavier oil. minor except in over pressured
zones .

Accumulation is the phase where

hydrocarbons migrate into and get
trapped in a reservoir.
ACCUMULATION
The upward migration of generated
HCs due to buoyancy continues
until it is halted by an impermeable
barrier or trap.
When hydrocarbons cease moving,
we say that accumulation has
occurred and a reservoir is formed.

What is Trap ?
A trap is produced by geological
conditions that cause oil and gas to be
retained in a porous & pervious
reservoir, or at least allowed to escape
Geological Structures at a negligible rate.
for Petroleum There are mainly 3 types of traps:
Entrapment (1) Structural Trap
(2) Stratigraphic Trap
(3) Combination Trap

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Structural Trap
Structural traps are formed by
tectonic processes acting on
sedimentary layers after deposition
resulting into folding or faulting of the
rock layers that contain the HCs.
Anticlinal Fold Trap:
Sedimentary rocks are deposited in
essentially horizontal layers called
Strata or Beds.
The rock units undergo bending very
slowly over long periods of geological
time which were originally laid down
horizontally and then folded into an
arch or dome.
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The traps are created by the
deformation of rock strata within
the earths crust.
The deformation can be caused by
compression or tensional forces ,
which results in the folding and
faulting within sedimentary rock
formations.
Anticlinal Fold Trap ( Cont..) :
Folds result due to the physical bending
of the rock units mostly due to
compressional force.
A common kind of deformation is the
buckling of layers into Folds
The rock units undergo bending very
slowly over long periods of geological
time which were originally laid down
horizontally and then folded into an arch
or dome mostly due to compressional
force.
Fold Trap (Cont..)
Reservoirs formed by the folding of
rock layers usually have the shape of
structural domes or anticline.
The rock beds in anticline were filled
with petroleum after it moved in from
its source below.
In an anticline, further movement of
petroleum is arrested due to the shape
of the structure and by seal or cap
rock.
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In an anticlinal folds, the oil and gas get

Fault Trap
trapped at the crest.

Faults are the result of fractures

within the rock units where one side
has moved relative to the other side.
Faults usually act as barrier.

The faulted traps are formed due

to breaking or shearing and
offsetting of strata.
The escape of oil from such a trap
is prevented by non porous rocks
that have moved into a position
opposite the porous & pervious
petroleum bearing formation
which restricts the natural flow of
HCs allowing them to accumulate.

Stratigraphic Trap: STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS

They are formed by changes in the Stratigraphic traps are
rock types ( facies change) such as formed due to:
pinch out and lenticular sand bodies
Variation in the
surrounded by impermeable rock Lithology of the
formation. reservoir rock.

The processes involved in the Variation in local

porosity and
formation of stratigraphic traps are permeability.
complex as they involve changes in
the depositional environment.

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Lithological variation may be

depositional or post depositional
the truncation occur where erosion
removes a significant portion of an
existing tilted structure followed by
deposition of another litho unit, the
latter forming the roof rock.

An unconformity is a non-depositional
surface separating two rock masses
or strata of different ages, indicating
that sediment deposition was not
continuous.

In general, the older layer was exposed to

erosion for an interval of time before
deposition of the younger, but the term is
used to describe any break in
the sedimentary geologic record.

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A Lenticular trap
Salt Dome / Salt Plug Trap
They are produced by piercement
or intrusion of stratified rock
layers from below by ductile
nonporous salt.
Salt Dome / Salt Plug Trap
HCs accumulates in the porous &
permeable beds on the sides of the
column of salt and also around the
outside of the salt plug if a seal or
Cap rock is present..
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Combination Traps
The traps, which are formed due to a
combined effect of structural and
stratigraphic are termed as
'Combination Traps'.
Each effect may contribute its share
and not only one mechanism may
operate.
Salt Dome / Salt Plug Trap
The intrusion causes the lower
formations nearest the intrusion to be
uplifted and truncated along the sides
of the intrusion, while layers above
are uplifted creating a dome or
anticlinal folding.
Salt Dome Trap ( Cont..)
A salt dome is a mass of NaCl. This
mass of salt pushes upward from
below through the surrounding rock
and sediments. The source of salt
lies as a deeply buried layer that was
formed in the geologic past.
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Salt Dome Trap ( Cont..)
Salt beds were formed by the
evaporation of sea water from an
enclosed basin. Subsequently the
precipitated salt layer was buried by
successive layers of sediments over
geologic time until it starts flowing
upward towards the surface of the
earth.
Salt Dome Trap
Salt Dome Trap
Salt is a peculiar substance. If you put
enough heat and pressure on it, the
salt will slowly flow, much like a
glacier that slowly but continually
moves downhill.
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Salt Dome Trap ( Cont..)
Salt is primarily halite that dissolves
as the salt dome rises, leaving the
insolubles like anhydrite, gypsum,
limestone, dolomite etc. to form the
cap rock.
Such traps are seen in Gulf of
Mexico, Texas, North Sea, Persian
Gulf and Russia, etc.
Salt Dome Trap
Unlike glaciers, salt which is buried
kilometers below the surface of the
earth can move upward until it breaks
through to the Earth's surface, where it
is then dissolved by ground- and rain-
water. To get all the way to the Earth's
surface, salt has to push aside and
break through many layers of rock in its
path. This is what ultimately will create
the oil trap.
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