ARMA/USRMS 05- 714

The effects of large scale faults on narrow vein

stope stability A Case Study
Villaescusa, E.
Cepuritis, P.M.
Western Australian School of Mines, Kalgoorlie, WA Australia

Copyright 2005, ARMA, American Rock Mechanics Association

This paper was prepared for presentation at Alaska Rocks 2005, The 40th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics (USRMS): Rock Mechanics for Energy, Mineral and Infrastructure
Development in the Northern Regions, held in Anchorage, Alaska, June 25-29, 2005.
This paper was selected for presentation by a USRMS Program Committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted earlier by the author(s). Contents of the paper,
as presented, have not been reviewed by ARMA/USRMS and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of USRMS,
ARMA, their officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written consent of ARMA is prohibited.
Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgement of where
and by whom the paper was presented.

ABSTRACT: An empirical methodology has been developed to estimate stope size taking into account the
location and number of large scale features with respect to narrow vein stope boundaries. Other controlling
factors such as stope wall undercut, dip of the orebody, blast damage and number of joint sets are also
considered. Data from 30 stopes has been collected, analyzed and presented on a stope stability rating plot
which relates narrow vein stope geometry to stope stability.

1. INTRODUCTION
Major structural features such as faults, shear zones,
dykes and contacts usually play a prominent role on
stope wall instability and have a size of the same
order of magnitude as that of the stope excavations
to be characterized. Those features have limited
shear strength, can be seismically active and often
control stope wall behavior, especially if undercut
by drilling drives or as a response to excessive blast
vibrations.

2. GEOTECHNICAL MAPPING
Geotechnical design requires the position in space,
physical properties and geometrical characteristics Fig. 1. Large scale features exposed on a stope hangingwall.
for each of those main discontinuities with respect
to a stope design block. Conventional geotechnical Instead of geotechnical mapping, most mines
mapping techniques such as line and cell mapping undertake routine drive mapping which is carried
[1] rely on spot sampling to establish statistically out by mine geologists who gather information on
based joint set characteristics from an infinite rock types, alteration and main structural features,
population. Such techniques do not provide typically mapped at 1:500 or 1:1000 scales. On a
systematic information for widely spaced large typical large scale operation, several tens of
scale structures likely to contribute to dilution from thousands of metres are mapped this way every
stope walls (See Figure 1). year. Usually structures having exposed traces
greater than approximately 5m (or the maximum
drive size) are mapped. The main geological
features include: location of the features with
respect to a mine coordinate system, orientation,
infill information, thickness and usually a locally
established fault type indicator.
Following the completion of mapping along several
drives and elevations, the mine geologists undertake
data interpretation to determine which structures are
continuous across several drives, thus forming a
large scale structure. The interpretation is based
upon structure type, orientation, alteration, infill
type and thickness. Figure 2 is a plan view showing
major rock types, mapped and interpreted large
scale structures at El Teniente Mine, Chile [2].
a core.
E
N developed ore drive strikes at regular intervals
b orebodies extracted by bench stoping. Figure 5
E
Fig. 2. Plan view of mapped (a) and interpreted (b) large scale
features at El Teniente Mine (Grid is 200m x 200m from [3]).
3. LARGE SCALE FEATURES IN NARROW
VEIN OREBODIES
Steeply dipping narrow vein orebodies extracted by
bench stoping methods [3] can be very susceptible
to the behaviour of large scale features, likely to
control dilution at the exposed stope walls. Given
the narrow vein nature of the orebodies, in addition
to the position of the large scale features, the profile
of the drives and ore contacts provides relevant
spatial information required to minimize dilution
following production blasting. Logging of core
from exploration holes can be used to establish the
location, frequency and nature of faults with respect
to an orebody boundary as shown in Figure 3.
Major faults - Hangingwall
orebody
Fig. 3. Location of large scale features within exploration
In addition to core logging, drive profiles and
narrow ore contacts can be mapped along the
(usually less than 10m) to determine the presence of
large scale features likely to cause dilution during
the stoping stages. Interpretive geological cross
sections or level maps are likely to feature the
position of the major discontinuities with respect to
an orebody boundary within a design area (See
Figure 4).
4. STOPE STABILITY RATING
The method presented here was developed to
account for the dominant effects of large scale
structural features on the extraction of narrow
(usually < 10m), steeply dipping high grade
shows the nature and frequency of such large scale
features, which sometimes are nearly parallel to the
orebodies and sometimes define the boundary or
trend or splay off into the hangingwall of the
stopes. The largest dilution is experienced when
faults are located very close to a stope boundary.
When the faults planes are undercut, they become
unstable due to the low friction angle and lack of
cohesion within the infill material. Although the
faults control instability, they combine with several
joint sets that act as a release surfaces for the
unstable blocks formed.
Location of faults from geotechnical mapping
Interpretation of faults
Fig.4. Longitudinal View of location and orientation of large
scale features on a stoping block scale.
The large scale faults at this particular location are
planar, strongly slickensided with polished surfaces,
usually dry and having a thickness of 1 to 5mm. At
this site conventional rock mass classification
systems were used to determine a range of RMR of
40-60 and Q ranging from 3.3 to 7.5 (See Table 1).
Up to two faults within
the first 3m of F/W
Fault on stope F/W
boundary, OK
if not undercut
Fig.5. Large scale features undercut on a stope boundary.
Conventional calculations using Mathews stope
stability [4] based on average Q values can not
readily take into account the presence of multiple
large scale features where the RQD values drop to
20 within the fault zones. At this particular
geotechnical environment, the induced stress was
not a dominant factor, as the underground stoping
operations ranged from 100-400 m in depth. Hence,
following Mathews and given the UCS values
exceed 100 MPa and the fact that the in-situ stress
are perpendicular to the narrow orebodies, the A
factor for the exposed stope hangingwalls (dip of
70 and distressed) was set to 1. The splay nature of
the faults set B= 0.2 and the steeply dipping
slabbing nature of the failures suggests a C= 6.
Consequently, the allowable N range from 2.9 to
23.5. For 15m unsupported floor to floor stope
heights, the maximum allowable strike length for
the stopes using the conventional Mathews method
exceeds 37m. However, in practice failures are
experienced when the excavation exceeds 20 to
25m or immediately when large scale structures are
present, sub-parallel to the excavations, particularly
hangingwall and footwall stope surfaces.
Table 1. Summary of rock mass classification data

Parameter Comments Range of values

RQD Typical RQD = 80-90 43 - 88
RQD within fault zones = 20
Joint sets Two sets or two plus random 4-6
Joint roughness Smooth undulating faults 2
Joint alteration Sandy clay coatings 3-6
Clay infill <5mm thick
Q (RQD/Jn) (Jr/Ja) 2.4 - 14.7
Stress Factor A UCS >100 MPa, distressed from 1 A=1
2 acting at < 12 MPa
Joint orientation Factor B Splays at shallow angle to stope B = 0.2
walls
Failure Mode Factor C Steeply dipping (70 -90 ) slabbing 6-8
Modified Stability Number N N = Q A B C 2.88 23.52
Allowable
Hydraulic Radius HR HR = 10[0.573 + 0.338 Log N] 5.3 10.9
(Nickson, 1992)
Stope height (m) H = 15m floor to floor 15m
Permissible L= (2 HR H)/(H-2HR) 37m
length (m)

The observed stope wall instability is due to

gravity driven failures, strongly dependent upon Table 2. Influence of large scale sub-parallel faults.
the presence of sub-parallel planar, continuous
Proximity to Stope Number of Sub-Parallel Faults
fault planes in combination with daylighting low
(m) 1 2 3+
angle joints. As the stopes are extracted, the 0 3m 18 12 6
sidewalls are relaxed and when large scale 3 5m 36 30 24
structures are intersected, blocks are formed and No faults or >5m 51 48 42
free to move under the influence of gravity and
blast damage. Consequently, an alternative
4.2. Influence of minor structural features
empirical stope wall design tool was developed to
take into account the location and number of large In addition to the large scale faults, the block
scale features sub-parallel to the stope wall failures are also controlled by other geological
surfaces. Other factors such as stope wall discontinuities. Steeply and shallow dipping joints
undercut, dip of the orebody, blast damage and are also likely to contribute to failure. The
number of joint sets are also considered. The stope following table has been developed to account for
stability rating is a number which is calculated by the number of families present and their continuity
adding a number of factors deemed to be critical to with respect to the open spans:
the exposed stope behaviour, as follows:
Table 3. Influence of minor geological discontinuities.
4.1. Influence of large scale faults Joint Number of Discontinuities
Continuity 1 Set 2 Sets 3 Sets 4 Sets
The frequency of large scale structures, usually 0 21 20 19 16
with clay infills, that are oriented sub-parallel to 1 18 17 15 14
the mean orientation of an open stope surface has 2 * 13 12 11
been proven to be the most important feature in 3 * * 10 9
respect to stability. In this regard, the following 4 * * * 8
table has been developed.
Joint continuity in the above table refers to the
number of joint sets that are typically continuous
across the span of the stope surface.
 were necessary due to the down-hole charging and
initiation requirements.
4.3. Influence of stope geometry
4.5. Worked example
Experience has shown that stope geometry also
contributes to instability, especially when The stope stability rating (SSR) is a number from
development drives undercut the stope walls. In 19 to 100. The higher the number the more stable
narrow vein mining operations, this is particularly the stope wall in question. The allowable stope
apparent, especially where orebody widths are dimensions are determined using the hydraulic
similar, if not smaller, than development radius concept. The applicability of the hydraulic
dimensions. For this particular environment, radius reduces once the maximum stope wall
development typically undercuts most dimension exceeds 3 times the minimum wall
hangingwalls and footwalls along their entire dimension. In fact, the hydraulic radius has limited
strike length. In addition, the shallower the dip of effect once the maximum wall dimension exceeds
an orebody, the more unstable the hangingwall of 5 times the span (or minimum dimension). The
the stope is likely to be. The following site SSR can be used as described below:
specific table has been developed, principally for
Table 6. Example of stope stability rating calculation.
hangingwalls and backs:
Typical condition of faulted rock mass
Table 4. Influence of stope geometry. 2 faults, within 3 m of stope boundary. Rating: 12
Average Depth Dip of Stope Boundary
of Wall Undercut At least 2 crosscutting structures, 1 continuous on the
55 65 65 80 80 90
stope scale. Rating: 17
0 1m 12 14 18
1 2m 6 8 16
Dip of orebody 65-80 deg, more than 2m of undercut
>2m 2 4 10 Rating: 4

Generally wide orebody with average drill deviation

4.4. Influence of drill and blast Rating: 9
Finally, in narrow tabular orebodies, the influence
Total SSR rating = 42
of drill and blast must be considered. Drillhole
deviation is likely to cause excessive explosive
confinement at the toes, leading to rock damage In order to relate the stope stability rating to stope
from confined gases and large vibrations. In geometries a back analysis of 29 extracted stopes
situations of excessive burdens, the operators are is shown in Figure 6. Stability predictions are for
likely to increase the powder factors to achieve narrow vein stopes, steeply dipping orebodies at
breakage. In addition, narrow orebodies are more shallow depth (100-400m), where large
difficult to blast, as it is difficult to achieve a discontinuities are the main controlling feature.
pattern in which the spacing of the holes is greater Faulting occurs in both the hangingwall and
than the burden. The following table has been footwall of the orebody.
developed: 100
90
Table 5. Influence of drill and blast.
80
Stope Design Deviation in Production Drilling
70
Stope Stability Rating

Width (m) High Low

60
<1.2m 3 5
50
1.2 2.6m 4 7
2.6 3.6m 6 9 40
>3.6m 9 10 30
20 Hangingwall - stable
Hangingwall - unstable
This table was based on site specific requirements 10 Footwall Unstable
Footwall Stable
of achieving a maximum 1.5m burden utilising 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
76mm up-holes. Drill hole deviation was assessed
Hydraulic Radius (m)
from drill-hole break-through observations which
Fig.6. Stope Stability Rating.
 Symposium, New Horizons in Resource Handling and
Geo-Engineering, Ube, Japan, 351-359.
A stope stability rating of 42 on Table 6, indicates
an allowable hydraulic radius of approximately 4. Potvin, Y.1988. Empirical open stope design in
4.0. If the bench stope height is 15m a maximum Canada. PhD. Thesis, Dept. Mining and Mineral
Processing, university of British Columbia, 343p.
stable strike length of 17 to 20m is predicted. This
strike length is similar to the actual mine site
conditions, suggesting the method has the
potential to become a reliable design tool,
providing the conditions to which it was
developed are applicable.

5. CONCLUSIONS
A site specific empirical methodology to estimate
stope size in narrow vein stopes, where large scale
sub-parallel discontinuities exercise large control
has been conceptualized and proposed. This
methodology has been presented as an alternative
approach to conventional rock mass classification
design methods. Although traditional rock mass
classification systems provide a generic design
tool, they may not offer sufficient precision under
site specific geological and mining conditions. The
proposed methodology takes into account the
position and location of large scale features sub-
parallel to the excavation surfaces, which have
been identified as the most important factor
controlling stability. The method also considers
the number of joint sets and their relative
continuity, the effects of development
undercutting and production drill-hole deviation.
Initial application of the methodology suggests
that it is possible to discriminate between stable
and unstable design geometries for the site specific
conditions analyses. Additional application and
modification of the technique is required to
determine the range of applications under various
site specific conditions.

REFERENCES
1. Villaescusa, E., 1992. A review and analysis of rock
discontinuity mapping methods: Proc. 6th ANZ Conf.
on Geomechanics. Christchurch, New Zealand, pp
274-279.
2. Brzovic, A. 2005. Rock mass characterization at El
Teniente Mine. Master Thesis, WA School of Mines,
Curtin University of Technology (In Progress).
3. Villaescusa E., Neindorf L.B., and J. Cunningham.
1994. Bench stoping of the Lead/Zinc orebodies at
Mount Isa Mines Limited. Proc. Joint MMIJ/AusIMM