Making Connections Efficient: Multiplexing

and Compression
Chapter 5

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter you should be able to:

Describe frequency division multiplexing and list its applications, advantages, and
disadvantages
Describe synchronous time division multiplexing and list its applications, advantages, and
disadvantages
Outline the basic multiplexing characteristics of both T-1, ISDN, and SONET systems
Describe statistical time division multiplexing and list its applications, advantages, and
disadvantages
Cite the main characteristics of wavelength division multiplexing and its advantages and
disadvantages
Describe the basic characteristics of discrete multitone.
Cite the main characteristics of code-division multiplexing and its advantages and
disadvantages.
Apply a multiplexing technique to an example business situation
Define the difference between lossy and lossless compression schemes
Describe the basic operation of run-length, JPEG, and MP3 compression

Chapter Outline
1. Introduction

2. Frequency Division Multiplexing

3. Time Division Multiplexing

a. Synchronous time division multiplexing
T-1 multiplexing
SONET/SDH multiplexing
b. Statistical time division multiplexing

4. Wavelength Division Multiplexing

5. Code Division Multiplexing

6. Discrete Multitone

7. Comparison of Multiplexing Techniques

8. Compression Techniques
a. Lossless compression
b. Lossy compression

9. Business Multiplexing In Action

10. Summary

Lecture Notes
Introduction
Under the simplest conditions, a medium can carry only one signal at any moment in time. Many
times, however, we want a medium to carry multiple signals at the same time. This technique of
transmitting multiple signals over a single medium is multiplexing. Multiplexing is a technique
performed at the physical layer of the OSI model or the interface layer of the Internet model.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

Frequency division multiplexing is the assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges to each
user of a medium. So that multiple users can share a single medium, each user is assigned a
channel. A channel is an assigned set of frequencies that is used to transmit the users signal.

Time Division Multiplexing

Time division multiplexing directly supports digital signals. In time division multiplexing,
sharing of the signal is accomplished by dividing available transmission time on a medium
among users. Since time division multiplexing was introduced in 1960s, it has split into two
roughly parallel but separate technologies: synchronous time division multiplexing and statistical
time division multiplexing.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Wavelength division multiplexing is a fairly new technology that multiplexes multiple data
streams onto a single fiber optic line. Unlike frequency division multiplexing, which assigns
input sources to separate sets of frequencies, and time division multiplexing, which divides input
sources by time, wave division multiplexing uses different wavelength lasers to transmit multiple
signals.

Code Division Multiplexing

Code division multiplexing is a relatively new technology most commonly found in cellular
telephones which allows multiple mobile devices to transmit at the same frequencies and at the
same time. In order to separate the signals, each mobile device is assigned a unique binary code.
When the devices transmits a binary 1, the unique binary code is transmitted instead. To
transmit a binary 0, the mobile device would send the inverse of the unique binary code.

Discrete Multitone
Discrete multitone is a multiplexing technique commonly found in digital subscriber line (DSL)
systems. Each subchannel in DSL performs its own quadrature amplitude modulation. Up to
256 subchannels can be combined to produce one downstream path.

Comparison of Multiplexing Techniques

Frequency division multiplexing relies on analog signaling and is the simplest and most noisy of
all the multiplexing techniques. Synchronous time division multiplexing is also relatively
straight forward, and like frequency division multiplexing, input devices that have nothing to
transmit can waste transmission space. The big advantage of synchronous TDM is the lower
noise during transmission. Statistical TDM is one step above synchronous TDM because it
transmits data only from those input devices that have data to transmit. Thus, statistical TDM
wastes less bandwidth on the transmission link. Dense wavelength division multiplexing is a
very good, albeit expensive, technique for transmitting multiple concurrent signals over a fiber
optic line.

Compression Techniques
The compressing of data can be either lossless (in which no data is lost) or lossy (in which some
data is lost). Common lossless compression techniques include run-length encoding and the
Lempel-Ziv techniques. Typical lossy compression techniques include MP3, JPEG, and MPEG.

Business Multiplexing In Action

The In Action example for this chapter involves a retail outlet which wants to connect its cash
registers to a computer server in the back room. Should the store run separate lines from each
cash register to the server, use a wireless solution, or use some form of multiplexing? As it turns
out, a commonly found solution is to collect all terminal output at a multiplexor near the cash
registers, then run one higher-speed line to the server in the back office.

Quick Quiz

1. What types of applications might use frequency division multiplexing? Time division
multiplexing? Dense wavelength division multiplexing?

FDM: modern digital TV, radio, cellphones are common examples; TV and cellphones use
combinations of discrete analog signals, while basic radio is still all analog. TDM: cash register
systems, terminal-mainframe connections, telephone systems. DWDM: long-haul
telecommunications

2. What is the primary advantage of TDM over FDM?

TDM can use digital signals which are better for removing noise.

3. Where is discrete multitone commonly used?

In cellular telephone systems.

4. How does code division multiplexing work?

Each mobile device is assigned a unique binary code for transmitting 1s and 0s.

5. How many examples of lossless compression can you think of? Lossy compression?

Lossless: data systems, security systems; Lossy: audio and video examples

Discussion Topics
1. Is frequency division multiplexing going to disappear in the near future?

2. Will wavelength division multiplexing revolutionize multiplexing?

3. Is there a practical limit to how many devices can transmit simultaneously using code division
multiplexing?

4. Do people actually notice a loss of signal when MP3 or JPEG is incorporated?

Teaching Tips
1. Compare FDM to a multiple lane highway. Many concurrent lanes of traffic, with the stripe
down the road acting as the guardbands.

2. Mention the recent development of the blue laser (and the blue LCD) and its effect on dense
wavelength division multiplexing (and other fields of technology).

Solutions to Review Questions

1. List three common examples of frequency division multiplexing.

Broadcast television, radio, cable television

2. Frequency division multiplexing is associated with what type of signals?

Analog signals and discrete analog signals

3. In what order does synchronous time division multiplexing sample each of the incoming
signals?

Round robin order.

4. What would happen if a synchronous time division multiplexor sampled the incoming
signals out of order?

The demultiplexor would not know what was what.

5. How does a synchronous time division multiplexor stay synchronized with the
demultiplexor on the receiving end?

There are sync bits inserted in the transmission stream at regular intervals.

6. How many separate channels does a T-1 multiplexor combine into one stream?

24.

7. How are a T-1 and SONET similar?

Both are synchronous multiplexing, non-stop, 8000 frames per second

8. What are the main differences between statistical time division multiplexing and
synchronous time division multiplexing?
Sync: continuous bit stream, never out of order; Stat: packets or frames of data, order may vary.

9. If a statistical multiplexor is connected to 20 devices, does it require a high speed output

line that is equivalent to the sum of the 20 transmission streams?

No. Assume that only a percentage of all input streams will have data to transmit at one given
time.

10. Why is addressing of the individual data streams necessary for statistical multiplexing?

Because the order of data streams can vary depending on demand.

11. What type of medium is required to support wavelength division multiplexing?

Fiber optic cable.

12. How many different wavelengths can dense wavelength division multiplexing place onto
one connection?

Potentially 100s

13. What is the difference between dense wavelength division multiplexing and coarse
wavelength division multiplexing?

The number of concurrent lambdas.

14. How is discrete multitone different from the other multiplexing techniques? How is it
similar?

Same: multiple channels combined over one medium

Different: the multiple channels are all intended for one user; each channel is modulated separate
from the others

15.How does code-division multiplexing distinguish one signal from another?

Each signal is transmitting using a unique binary code or sequence.

16. What are the two basic forms of compression?

Lossless and lossy

17. Run-length encoding can be used to compress what kind(s) of data?

Data that cannot be lost during compression, and data with a majority of one type of symbol.

18. What are the three phases of JPEG compression?

Discrete cosine transformation, quantization, run-length encoding

Suggested Solutions to Exercises

1. Compared to the other multiplexing techniques, state two advantages and two
disadvantages of each of the following:
a. frequency division multiplexing
b. synchronous time division multiplexing
c. statistical time division multiplexing
d. dense wavelength division multiplexing

FDM Adv: simple, popular, all receivers dont have to be in same place.
FDM Disadv: analog signals and noise
Sync TDM Adv: less noise (digital), can apply digital techniques
Sync TDM Disadv: never-ending stream is not an efficient use of medium
Stat TDM Adv: less noise (digital), can apply digital techniques, more efficient use of medium
Stat TDM Disadv: May not be able to support all inputs at the same time.
WDM Adv: incredible capacity
WDM Disadv: cost.

2. A benefit of frequency division multiplexing is that the all the receivers do not have to be
at the same location. Explain what this benefit means and give an example.

All people watching television do not have to be in the same place. Their de-multiplexors
(television sets) can be located anywhere.

3. Twenty-four voice signals are to be multiplexed and transmitted over twisted pair. What
is the total bandwidth required if frequency division multiplexing is used?

Each voice channel has a bandwidth of 4000 Hz. 24 times 4000 Hz equals 96000 Hz.

4. Twenty-four voice signals are to be multiplexed and transmitted over twisted pair. What
is the bandwidth required (in bps) if synchronous time division multiplexing is used, if we
use the standard analog to digital sampling rate, and if each sample is converted into an 8-
bit value?

Each voice channel has a bandwidth of 4000 Hz. Sampled two times the frequency equals 8000
samples per second. Each sample is then converted into an 8-bit value, so 8000 samples per
second times 8-bits per sample = 64,000 bits per second. 24 signals times 64,000 bps each
equals 1,536,000 bps.

5. If only four computers are transmitting digital data over a T-1 line, what is the
maximum possible data rate for each computer?
It doesnt matter how many are currently transmitting, T-1 allocates space for 24 separate
devices.

6. What is the purpose of the synchronization bit in a T-1 frame? Why is it necessary?

The synchronization bit is necessary to keep the receiver synchronized with the incoming data
stream.

7. Ten computer workstations are connected to a synchronous time division multiplexor.

Each workstation transmits a 128 kbps. At any point in time, 40 percent of the
workstations are not transmitting. What is the minimum necessary speed of the line
leaving the multiplexor? Will the answer be different if we use a statistical multiplexor
instead? Explain your reasoning.

Sync TDM: 10 workstations x 128 kbps = total speed of high-speed line. Doesnt matter if a
device is transmitting or not, a space is still allocated for each device.
Stat TDM: It should be different, because a stat TDM only reserves a space for devices that
currently have data to transmit. So should be 40% capacity of sync TDM.

8. When data is transmitted using a statistical multiplexor, the individual units of data
must have some form of address that tells the receiver the intended recipient of each piece
of data. Instead of assigning absolute addresses to each piece of data, is it possible to
incorporate relative addressing? If so, explain its benefits.

Yes, relative addressing can be used. Only need to create an address for those devices connected
to this pair of multiplexors. Should be a smaller address space than all the devices in the entire
system.

9. The telephone company has a fiber-optic line with time division multiplexing that runs
from the United States to England and lies on the ocean floor. This fiber-optic line has
reached capacity. What alternatives can the telephone company consider to increase
capacity?

Good possible solution is wavelength division multiplexing

10. A discrete multitone system is using a modulation technique on its subchannels, each of
which generates a 64-kbps stream. Assuming ideal conditions (no noise), what is the
maximum data rate of the discrete multitone system?

Assuming the system supports 256 simultaneous channels, 256 x 64 kbps = 16,384,000 bps.

11. The cell phone company in town uses code division multiplexing to transmit signals
between its cell phones and the cell towers. You are using your cell phone while standing
next to someone using her cell phone. How does the system distinguish the two signals?
Essentially each cell phone is assigned a different bit or chip sequence. When a cell phone
transmits a binary 1, it is using its assigned sequence. The receiver can separate one cellphones
sequence from another.

12. Mobile user A is using code division multiplexing and has been assigned a binary code
of 00001111. Mobile user B, also using code division multiplexing, has been assigned a
binary code of 01010101. Mobile user A transmits a 1, while Mobile user B transmits a 0.
Show the sum of products that results and your calculations.

A sends a 1, so code sent is: - - - - + + + +

B sends a 0, so code sent is: + - + - + - + -
Total: 0, -2, 0, -2, 2, 0, 2, 0

As original signal: -1, -1, -1, -1, 1, 1, 1, 1

Products: 0, 2, 0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 0
Sum of products: 8

Bs original signal: -1, 1, -1, 1, -1, 1, -1, 1

Products: 0, -2, 0, -2, -2, 0, -2, 0
Sum of products: -8

13. How many frames per second does a T-1 and SONET transmit? Why this number?

8000 frames per second; typical voice range of 4000 Hz, sampled twice per highest frequency
(Nyquist rule), yields 8000 samples per second

14. Why is wavelength division multiplexing more like frequency division multiplexing and
less like time division multiplexing?

Because in wavelength division multiplexing different wavelengths of color lasers are used, and
different wavelengths of color are simply different frequencies of radio signals.

15. Which of the multiplexing techniques can be used on both conducted media and
wireless media, which on only conducted media, and which on only wireless media?

Conducted and wireless: frequency division and time division

Only on conducted: wavelength division
Only on wireless: code division (can actually be done on conducted media but most if not all
examples are performed on wireless)

16. In theory, code division multiplexing can have 264 different signals in the same area. In
reality, this is not possible. Why not? Show an example.

What happens if you assign one mobile device the code 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 and a second device the code 0
0 0 0 1 1 1 1? If first device transmits a 1 and second device transmits a 0, they would be sending the
same code. Furthermore, the sum of signals would be 0. Is this a positive or negative?
17. Is the form of DSL that a company uses different from the form of DSL that a home user
subscribes to? Explain.

More than likely, yes. Corporate DSL is typically faster, thus more expensive. And it is often
symmetric.

18. If data has a large number of one type of symbol, which type of compression would be the
most effective?

Run-length encoding

19. Given the following bit string, show the run-length encoding that would result:
00000001000001100000000000000000010000001110000000000

7, 5, 0, 18, 6, 0, 0, 10
Or 4-bit binary nibbles:
0111, 0101, 0000, 1111, 0011, 0000, 0110, 0000, 0000, 1010

20. Can you compress a set of bank statements using JPEG compression? Explain.

Better not, since JPEG is lossy.

21. MP3, JPEG, and MPEG all rely on what characteristic in the data in order to perform
compression?

That some loss of data will not be noticed by the end user.

Thinking Outside the Box

1. Wireless? Such as terrestrial microwave or free space optics? What about running a couple
strands of fiber and doing stat TDM multiplexing? I would avoid copper-based media

2. Either wireless as above, or call the telephone company and see what they can offer. Right-of-
way is definitely a problem here.

3. The only connection is the need for the receiver to stay in sync with the incoming bit stream.

4. The newer techniques like discrete multitone are getting much more complex by trying to
combine separately modulated signals over one medium.

5. You might see a slowdown, as DSL is affected by noise, and AM radio might be generating
some of the same frequencies as used by DSL. But most DSL systems now transmit signals that
avoid AM signals.
6. 640 x 800 x 24 bits/pixel x 30 frames/second x 7200 seconds/2 hours = 2.654 x 1012 bits for a
two hour (7200 seconds) movie. A DVD holds 4.7 GB, or 3.76 x 1010 bits. So a movie has 100
times more data than a DVD.