International Journal of Food Microbiology 53 (1999) 111

www.elsevier.nl / locate / ijfoodmicro

Review
A review of traditional fermented foods and beverages of
Zimbabwe
a a b, c
T.H. Gadaga , A.N. Mutukumira , J.A. Narvhus *, S.B. Feresu
a
Institute of Food, Nutrition and Family Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
b , Norway
Department of Food Science, Agricultural University of Norway, P.O. Box 5036, N-1432 As
c
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, P.O. Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe

Received 29 July 1999; accepted 6 September 1999

Abstract

Several traditional fermented foods and beverages are produced at household level in Zimbabwe. These include fermented
maize porridges (mutwiwa and ilambazi lokubilisa) fermented milk products (mukaka wakakora /amasi and hodzeko)
non-alcoholic cereal-based beverages (mahewu, tobwa and mangisi) alcoholic beverages from sorghum or millet malt
(doro /uthwala and chikokivana) distilled spirits (kachasu) and fermented fruit mashes (makumbi). There are many regional
variations to the preparation of each fermented product. Research into the processing technologies of these foods is still in its
infancy. It is, therefore, important that the microbiology and biochemistry of these products, as well as their technologies be
studied and documented in order to preserve them for future generations. This article reviews the available information
regarding traditional fermented foods in Zimbabwe and makes recommendations for potential research areas. 1999
Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Traditional fermented foods; Mutwiwa; Doro; Mahewu; Makumbi; Amasi

1. Introduction to the detoxification and destruction of undesirable

Fermented foods make up an important contribu-
tion to the human diet in many countries because
fermentation is an inexpensive technology which
preserves food, improves its nutritional value and
enhances its sensory properties (Murty and Kumar,
1995; Steinkraus, 1996). Fermentation may also lead
*Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 47-64-948-550; fax: 1 47-64-
943-789.
E-mail address: judith.narvhus@inf.nlh.no (J.A. Narvhus)
factors present in raw foods such as phytates, tannins
and polyphenols (Sharma and Kapoor, 1996).
Several traditional fermented products have been
documented in different African countries and in-
clude non-alcoholic beverages, alcoholic beverages,
breads, pancakes, porridges, cheeses and milks (Van
der Walt, 1956; Haggblade and Holzapfel, 1989;
Ashenafi, 1990; Dirar, 1993; Mwesigye and Okurut,
1995; Steinkraus, 1996). In Zimbabwe, fermented
foods are produced at household level from various
raw materials such as cereals, milk, fruits, and wood

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PII: S0168-1605( 99 )00154-3
2 T.H. Gadaga et al. / International Journal of Food Microbiology 53 (1999) 1 11
sap. Some of these household fermentation tech-
nologies have been converted to an industrial scale in
Zimbabwe and South Africa in order to meet the
demand for traditional products by the urban popula-
tion. Routine home preparation of fermented foods is
too arduous and time consuming in the urban
environment (Okagbue, 1995). Industrialised prod-
ucts include non-alcoholic and alcoholic beverages
such as mahewu and chibuku, respectively, and
fermented dairy products such as lacto.
This review aims to list and summarize the
production processes of common Zimbabwean tradi-
tional fermented foods and to highlight, where
available, some of the microbiological and biochemi-
cal properties of the fermented foods and technologi-
cal improvements which have been achieved on the
production of some of the foods.
2. Cereal based fermented products
Most cereal-based non-alcoholic and alcoholic
beverages in Zimbabwe are prepared using either
sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), bulrush millet (Pen-
nisetum typhoideum) or finger millet (Eleusine
coracana) malt. The Shona generic name for all
these malts is chimera (Gomez, 1989).
2.1. Preparation of malt
Sorghum or millet malt (chimera) is prepared by
packing the grain in a sack and steeping it in water
(pond or river) for about a day (Madovi, 1981;
Benhura and Chingombe, 1989). The swollen grains
are either spread on the floor in a layer up to 10 cm
thick and left to germinate for up to 3 days (Benhura
and Chingombe, 1989) or are washed and left to
germinate for 2 days in the sack at ambient tempera-
tures (Zvauya et al., 1997). The germinated grains
are then spread out on a flat piece of rock or other
suitable surface and left to dry in the sun. Tradition-
ally, the malt was coarsely ground using a grinding
stone, however today hammer mills are more com-
monly used (Benhura and Chingombe, 1989).
2.2. Non-alcoholic beverages
Mahewu (amahewu) is a beverage, which is
prepared from either thin maize porridge or thick
maize porridge (sadza) (Gomez, 1989; Okagbue,
1995). It is an adult-type food, which is commonly
used to wean children and is introduced to infants
between 418 months (Simango, 1997). The maize
porridge, if thin, is mixed with water or if thick
(sadza) is mashed into small pieces and mixed with
water. Sorghum or millet malt or wheat flour is then
added to either mix and left to ferment (Simango and
Rukure, 1991; Mutasa and Ayebo, 1993; Okagbue,
1995). The fermentation is a spontaneous process in
which the natural flora of the malt carries out the
fermentation at ambient temperature (Simango and
Rukure, 1991; Mutasa and Ayebo, 1993; Okagbue,
1995). The drink is consumed after standing for
about 24 h (Okagbue, 1995). This traditional way of
producing mahewu requires an extended fermen-
tation time because of the low initial number of
desirable lactic acid bacteria (Mutasa and Ayebo,
1993). The use of uncontrolled conditions, especially
temperature, may also result in the proliferation of
undesirable microorganisms which convert lactic
acid to undesirable end products which adversely
affect the taste and texture of mahewu (Holzapfel,
1991).
Little information has been recorded on the gener-
al properties, microbiological processes and safety of
traditionally prepared Zimbabwean mahewu. Mutasa
and Ayebo (1993) carried out several laboratory
experiments in which they simulated the traditional
fermentation of mahewu and varied the levels of
sorghum malt and type of ingredients added to the
porridge; the solid content and the cooking time of
the porridge; and the temperature of fermentation.
The best mahewu was obtained when 30 g of a
mixture of finger millet (1 / 3) and sorghum (2 / 3)
malts were added to 500 ml of heated porridge. The
porridge contained 14% solids and was a result of
mixing 30 g each of maize meal and sorghum malt
with 500 ml water followed by boiling the mixture
for 10 min. The mix was fermented at 458C for 16 h.
The pH and acidity of laboratory produced mahewu
were 3.29 and 0.50% (calculated as lactic acid),
respectively. This compares well with a pH of about
3.5 and titratable acidity of 0.40.5% recorded for
the South African traditionally fermented mahewu
(Schweigart and Fellingham, 1963; Holzapfel, 1991;
Steinkraus, 1996).
Very few studies have been done to isolate and
characterise the microorganisms responsible for fer-
menting the traditionally fermented mahewu in
 T.H. Gadaga et al. / International Journal of Food Microbiology 53 (1999) 1 11
Zimbabwe. The predominant microorganisms in the
spontaneous fermentation of the South African
mahewu belong to Lactococcus ( Lact.) lactis subsp.
lactis (Steinkraus, 1996). Schweigart et al. (1960)
used a starter culture of either Lactobacillus ( Lb.)
delbrueckii or Lb. bulgaricus to produce mahewu at
458C. This reduced the fermentation time from 36 to
3 h.
Simango and Rukure (1991,1992) worked on the
microbial safety of traditionally fermented mahewu.
They showed that the mahewu produced in
Zimbabwean homes had bactericidal and / or bac-
teriostatic properties against strains belonging to the
genera Aeromonas, Salmonella and Shigella as well
as strains of Campylobacter jejuni and en-
teropathogenic Escherichia coli. These observations
suggest that traditional fermented mahewu is an
unlikely vehicle for the transmission of enteric
pathogens (Simango and Rukure, 1991,1992).
Industrial production of mahewu has met with
some success in South Africa and Zimbabwe (Van
Noort and Spence, 1976; Mutasa and Ayebo, 1993).
A variety of powdered concentrated forms of
mahewu, which can be mixed with water to either
produce a beverage, which can be consumed instant-
ly, or be left to ferment for several hours at room
temperature, can be purchased from retail outlets in
Zimbabwe. These powders are usually fortified with
minerals, vitamins and soy protein (Mutasa and
Ayebo, 1993). The varieties of commercial mahewu
only serve as substitutes as their taste is usually
different and perceived to be inferior to that of
traditionally fermented mahewu. More work needs to
be done to elucidate the microflora responsible for
naturally fermenting mahewu and to develop them
into starter cultures in order to industrially produce
mahewu which more closely resembles the tradition-
al product.
Tobwa is another non-alcoholic cereal-based
beverage, which is very similar to mahewu but has
not been previously documented. Like mahewu, it is
made by mashing left over sadza into small pieces
and mixing it with water to form a slurry, then
leaving the mixture to ferment overnight. The only
difference with mahewu is that no malt is added to
the fermentation thus making the process a totally
lactic acid fermentation. Tobwa is usually drunk by
those people whose religion does not allow them to
drink beverages to which malt has been added.
Mangisi is a sweet-sour beverage made from the
3
natural fermentation of millet mash (Zvauya et al.,
1997). The preparation varies in the different regions
of Zimbabwe. In one variation, finger millet is
malted then milled and the flour mixed with water.
The mixture is slowly heated for 80 min to almost
boiling. The resulting product is the mash (mas-
vusvu) which is cooled, diluted, strained and allowed
to stand for some hours during which spontaneous
fermentation takes place to give mangisi (Zvauya et
al., 1997). The microorganisms responsible for fer-
mentation are thought to come from the utensils,
fermentation vessel and to include those organisms
from the malt flour that survive cooking.
Another variation involves malting the finger
millet, milling, mixing the flour with water and
boiling the mixture for 12 h. The masvusvu is
cooled, diluted and allowed to stand overnight. On
the second day more malt flour is added and the
mixture left to ferment until early on the third day
when the coarse solids are strained off and the
fermenting mixture returned to the fermentation
vessel. The mangisi is ready for consumption later
on the same morning of the third day (Benhura and
Chingombe, 1989). Although no work has been done
to characterize this variety of mangisi, it is likely to
contain more alcohol than the variety described by
Zvauya et al. (1997) because of the addition of extra
malt to the brew on the second day which serves as
an additional source of inoculum and also the longer
fermentation time.
Zvauya et al. (1997) carried out laboratory studies
on the microbiological and biochemical changes
which occur during the production of manaisi.
Counts of aerobic mesophilic bacteria and of lactic
acid bacteria as well as those of yeasts and moulds
increased during 8 h of fermentation. The four
groups of microorganisms produced organic acids,
ethanol, carbon dioxide, and other volatile flavour
compounds, which gave the characteristic flavour
and taste to the final product. The laboratory-pre-
pared mangisi had a final pH of 3.98, titratable
acidity of 0.67% and lactic acid concentration of
4.10 g / l. Although the microorganisms found during
fermentation were enumerated, no attempt was made
to isolate and characterize them or to determine the
levels of ethanol and other organic acids which they
may produce during the fermentation. Mangisi is a
product with potential for scaling-up and industriali-
zation. However, further studies are required to attain
this goal.
4 T.H. Gadaga et al. / International Journal of Food Microbiology 53 (1999) 1 11
2.3. Alcoholic beverages
Chikokivana is a 1-day brew produced using a
commercial yeast starter culture. Maize meal and
millet malt are mixed with water after which yeast is
added (Madovi, 1981). The mixture is left to ferment
for 24 h at ambient temperature in earthenware pots
or metallic drums. The brew is then strained to give
the final product. Although the brewing of
chikokiyana uses the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae
as a starter culture, the process has not been studied
and the product analysed to ascertain its alcohol
content and presence of any other metabolic products
of the yeast.
2.3.1. Doro
In Zimbabwe, bulrush and finger millet malts are
preferred for the traditional brewing process although
sorghum malt and sprouted maize are sometimes
used for producing alcoholic beverages (Benhura and
Chingombe, 1989). The traditional brew is known as
doro, hwahwa, mhamba or uthwala in the different
regions of the country. These are generic names
describing the same or similar products, which vary
in the details of the brewing process. Holzapfel
(1991) erroneously used the term zezuru for this
product.
Doro is brewed for important social and cultural
gatherings as well as for generating income. Exam-
ples of the social gatherings include when neigh-
bouring households come to help with tasks such as
weeding and reaping of crops; weddings; celebra-
tions of success; and traditional religious ceremonies
such as praying for rain and communicating with
ancestors (Madovi, 1981; Benhura and Chingombe,
1989). Madovi (1981) and Benhura and Chingombe
(1989) have described different methods of prepar-
ing doro. Briefly the brewing process described by
Benhura and Chingombe (1989) involves preparing
masvusvu in the same way as is done for mangisi.
The masvusvu is cooled, diluted in clay pots and left
to sour at ambient temperature for about 2 days. On
the third day, the soured product (mhanga) is boiled
for 35 h, reducing the original volume by a quarter
in the process. The boiled mhanga is allowed to
stand overnight after which more malt flour is added.
Typically, the amount of malt added is about half the
amount used at the beginning of the brewing process.
On the sixth day some masvusvu, two to three times
more than the amount cooked on the first day, is
prepared and allowed to cool. Meanwhile, a small
portion of the mhanga is strained and kept separ-
ately. The strainings (masese), the rest of the un-
strained mhanga and the fresh portion of cooled
masvusvu are all mixed together with water to give
biti. The mixture is left to ferment for about 2 h and
the resulting product which is called madirwa is then
strained, mixed with the previously strained mhanga
and left to ferment overnight. The doro is served in
an active fermenting state the following morning.
The fermentation process takes 57 days depending
on ambient temperature.
Madovi (1981) described a process where the
ground cereal meal is dispersed in water and allowed
to simmer to a thin porridge. The porridge is allowed
to cool to room temperature, mixed with malt meal
and left to ferment for a few days. This is then boiled
for approximately 1 h, cooled to room temperature
and more malt is added. The brew is again left to
ferment for a few days after which a boiled and
cooled slurry of coarsely ground malt is added. The
mix is left for approximately 1 h then filtered
through a coarse cloth filter or wire sieve. The doro
is left to mature overnight before consumption.
Ethanol is thought to be the main alcohol (about 4%
v / v) present although methanol, butanol and other
alcohols are also found in doro (Madovi, 1981).
Another variation is found in parts of Matebele-
land where uthwala (the Ndebele generic name for
doro) is usually prepared in 3 days. Sorghum malt
and maize meal from germinated maize grains are
mixed with boiling water to form a slurry, which is
left to ferment overnight. This mixture is boiled on
the second day to obtain a thin gruel, more malt is
added and the mixture is allowed to ferment over-
night. The product is then strained ready to drink on
the third day. This variety of doro /uthwala has not
been previously documented.
Although no work has been done on the biochemi-
cal and microbiological properties of doro, it is
perceived to be nutritionally superior to watery clear
beer. This is because it is colloidal, thick, with some
starch, protein, B-group vitamins, minerals, yeast
cells and alcohol-tolerant bacteria (Madovi, 1981;
Holzapfel, 1991). Because of this perception, em-
ployers used to supply sorghum beer as part of
rations to indigenous labourers in the mines and
towns in South Africa and the then Central African
 T.H. Gadaga et al. / International Journal of Food Microbiology 53 (1999) 1 11
Federation (now Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi)
during the 1950s (Schwartz, 1956). In order to meet
this demand, the South African Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR) was tasked with
developing the brewing of sorghum beer to an
industrial scale in 1954 (Van der Walt, 1956;
Haggblade and Holzapfel, 1989). This led to the
development of the industrially produced (opaque)
sorghum beer that is now well described and in-
dustrialised in South Africa, Botswana and
Zimbabwe (Schwartz, 1956; Van der Walt, 1956;
Holzapfel, 1991; Steinkraus, 1996). The industrial
process partly employs the traditional technology of
spontaneous lactic acid fermentation and combines it
with the use of a yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
starter culture for alcoholic fermentation. The com-
mercialized varieties of sorghum beer have various
commercial brands in Zimbabwe such as chibuku,
thabani, rufaro, simba, and go-beer.
Although these industrial sorghum beers are quite
popular, they have not replaced traditionally fer-
mented doro in the rural areas. The microorganisms
responsible for the fermentation of doro are poorly
studied and thought to include wild yeasts from the
malt; and yeasts and bacteria from the beer pots
passed from previous brews. Madovi (1981) pro-
posed that if yeast starter cultures were added to the
brew, the process could take less time than the
current 57 days. There is, therefore, a need to
isolate, identify and characterize the microorganisms
involved in the traditional fermentation to allow for
the formulation of starter cultures. That way the
fermentation could be carried out under controlled
conditions and produce a doro whose quality could
be more readily controlled and monitored. It is also
necessary to carry out studies to extend the shelf life
of doro as it is an actively fermenting product.
Kachasu (also known as tototo or nipa) is a
traditionally fermented, highly intoxicating distilled
alcoholic spirit. It is usually brewed using maize
meal but bulrush or finger millet meal, various fruits
and banana peels may be used as alternative sources
of carbohydrate. The carbohydrate source is added to
warm water in a pot with a hole drilled on the side,
which is used later during the distillation of the
spirit. The mixture is stirred into a slurry and
allowed to simmer for a few minutes before the pot
is removed from the fire. Sugar and yeast are added
after the slurry has been cooled to ambient tempera-
5
ture. The hole in the pot is sealed with clay and the
mixture allowed to ferment for 47 days at ambient
temperature (Brett et al., 1992). At the end of the
fermentation, the seal on the hole is broken and a
narrow pipe connected. The pipe transverses a water-
jacket containing cold water, which acts as a con-
denser. The fermented brew is distilled over a small
fire and the clear distillate is collected from the end
of the pipe into bottles. The alcohol content of the
kachasu can range from 941% (Brett et al., 1992).
The selling and consumption of kachasu in
Zimbabwe has been illegal since 1971 because the
spirit is alleged to be toxic as its drinking has been
associated with ill health and cases of sudden death
(Brett et al., 1992). Toxicity is attributed to several
co-generic alcohols such as isoamyl alcohol, iso-
butanol, and methanol. Other organic compounds,
which have been identified in kachasu include
acetaldehyde, acetone, ethylacetate, and furfurals
(Brett et al., 1992).
Kachasu is comparable to waragi, a Ugandan
traditionally produced spirit whose production has
been commercialised by having small brewers sell
their traditionally produced waraai to a large dis-
tillery. The distillery then triple distils it to produce a
high quality bottled commercial product with up to
40% ethanol (v / v) (Mwesigye and Okurut, 1995). A
similar scheme could be introduced to upgrade and
control the quality of kachasu and to produce a safer
and regulated distilled spirit.
2.4. Porridges
Mutwiwa or mudzvurwa is a sour maize meal
which can be used to produce sour sadza (Simango,
1997). Dried maize grains are sprinkled with a little
water, pounded with a pestle and mortar to remove
their husks, then sun-dried and winnowed. The
dehulled grains are washed, steeped in clean water
and left to ferment until gas production ceases
(Simango, 1997; Mawadza et al., 1999). Lactic acid
bacteria, aerobic mesophilic bacteria, yeasts and
moulds proliferate during the spontaneous fermen-
tation of mutwiwa (Mawadza et al., 1999). The
fermentation time can be shortened by back-slop-
ping, which involves retaining a small amount of
fermented dehulled maize and adding it to a new
batch of dehulled maize. The fermented dehulled
maize is then either wet milled by pounding, win-
6 T.H. Gadaga et al. / International Journal of Food Microbiology 53 (1999) 1 11
nowed and the fine meal sun-dried (Mawadza et al.,
1999) or dried and hammer-milled into maize meal
(Simango, 1997). The product, mutwiwa, is then
used to prepare thin porridge or sadza, which has an
improved lactic acid taste.
Mawadza et al. (1999) isolated two strains of
Pediococcus pentosaceus from traditionally fer-
mented mutwiwa and employed them as starter
cultures for preparing mutwiwa. They compared the
rates of fermenting maize to mutwiwa when it
occurred spontaneously, due to back-slopping and
after addition of their starter cultures. Increased rates
of fermentation with corresponding faster decreases
in pH were observed after back-slopping and with
the use of starter cultures than when the maize was
allowed to ferment spontaneously. The work was
rather limited and needs to be pursued further for it
to have a significant impact on improving the process
and product.
Ilambazi lokubilisa is a fermented thin sour por-
ridge, which is similar to porridge produced from
mutwiwa although in this case the maize is fer-
mented after milling. It is consumed widely in
Zimbabwe and used as a weaning food (Simango,
1997). Maize meal is thoroughly mixed with a little
amount of water and allowed to ferment in a closed
vessel for about 24 days. The fermented meal is
then used to make ilambazi lokubilisa /sour porridge
(Simango, 1997). Ilambazi lokubilisa has been
shown to be bactericidal to strains of enteric patho-
gens belonging to the genera Aeromonas, Campylo-
bacter and Salmonella and bacteriostatic to strains of
Shigella and E. coli (Simango and Rukure, 1992). Its
inhibitory properties were shown to be due to a
combination of many substances including lactic and
acetic acids (Simango, 1995). These properties make
ilambazi lokubilisa a safe readily available weaning
food, which should be promoted. Therefore, the
microbiology of its fermentation and how it differs
from that of mutwiwa need to be studied so that the
technology of its production can be improved.
3. Fermented wild fruits products
Makumbi is the generic name for beverages made
from wild fruits (Gomez, 1989). In general, over
10% of recorded major food plants of Zimbabwe can
be fermented into some type of beer or wine
(Okagbue, 1995). Thus the improvement of the
technologies for fermenting makumbi could benefit
rural communities as they could be involved at
several stages during the production of the different
wild fruit beverages.
Marula wine or beer is traditionally prepared by
spontaneously fermenting a mash obtained from the
fruits of the marula plant (Scleroecarya caffra,
mapfura /umkumbi). The ripe fruits are washed /
cleaned and the skins removed. The fleshy stones are
soaked in cold water for about 3 days, then removed
and the juice allowed to ferment for 2 days. It is then
filtered to give a wine which, with slight improve-
ments to the technologies could result in a lovely
sparkling wine with a rich flavour (Madovi, 1981).
Alternatively, the ripe fruits are left to soak in cold
water or pounded to remove the skins and stones.
The pulp is mixed with an equal volume of water in
a pot, left to ferment overnight and is ready for
drinking the next day (Tredgold, 1986). The pot may
be sealed and left to ferment for 3 days, after which
a gummy scum is skimmed off and the highly
intoxicating beer drunk on the fourth day (Tredgold,
1986).
Both fermentative and non-fermentative yeasts
have been isolated from the marula fruits (Okagbue,
1995). The role of these yeasts in the production of
marula wine / beer has however not been elucidated.
It is possible that an acceptable product based on this
natural flora could be developed. Production of a
marula alcoholic beverage on an industrial commer-
cial scale has been achieved in South Africa and a
commercial wild fruit cocktail, amarula, is now
available on the market in Zimbabwe. It is not clear
whether this is the same product as marula liqueur
described by Tredgold (1986), which is produced by
steeping slashed ripe marula fruits in brandy and
adding syrup to taste.
Mudetemwa is an alcoholic beverage prepared
from the fruits of the sand apple (Parinari curatel-
lifolia; muhacha). The fruits are pounded and the
juice extracted by squeezing by hand. The juice is
boiled, allowed to stand overnight, boiled again,
allowed to cool and then drunk as beer (Tredgold,
1986). Alternatively, the boiled juice is left to
ferment further and the container is covered and
sealed with damp clay on the fourth day. An opening
is then made on the side of the container so that
when it is boiled, vapour ensuing from the opening
 T.H. Gadaga et al. / International Journal of Food Microbiology 53 (1999) 1 11
becomes condensed into a potent spirit, mudetemwa
(Tredgold, 1986). Muhacha fruits are abundant in
summer and their fermentation has potential for
development of different makumbi products on an
industrial scale.
Murara /ilala wine is another alcoholic beverage
prepared from the sap of the murara /ilala tree
(Hvphaene benguellensis). The sap is collected by
tapping the tree trunk and is fermented into a wine,
which tastes like flat ginger beer and is hardly
intoxicating (Tredgold, 1986; Okagbue, 1995). The
wine can be distilled (10 l being distilled to 1 l) to a
very potent spirit, uchema (Tredgold, 1986). The
steps in the preparation of these beverages and the
microbiology and biochemistry of the processes have
not been fully studied and documented.
The ripe fruits of the buffalo thorn (Ziziphus
mauritiana, musau) are crushed, soaked for some
hours in water and allowed to ferment. The fer-
mented liquid called masau may be distilled to make
a potent spirit (Tredgold, 1986). Studies are under-
way at the Zimbabwe Scientific and Industrial Re-
search and Development Centre, to improve the
technologies for producing masau at industrial scale.
Fruits of Uapaca kirkiana (mushuku /muzhanje)
are pounded to break the skins and extract the seeds.
The pulp is mixed with cold water and left to
ferment until the water turns opaque or grey. The
liquid is then used to make a thin porridge by mixing
with ground maize (Tredgold, 1986). Alternatively
the pulp can be left to ferment into a sweet wine
called mutandavira (Tredgold, 1986). This again is a
wild fruit, which is seasonally abundant with a
potential for producing marketable fermented
makumbi products at industrial scale.
Mutandabota is a thin fermented slurry made from
the juice of monkey orange (Strychnos spinosa,
mutamba). The fermentation of this juice has not yet
been described.
Other wild fruits whose juices are known to be
fermented into some alcoholic beverages include
donkey berries (Grewia monticola; mutongoro /um-
tewa; G. flavescens, mubhubhunu /ubhuzu), monkey
fingers (Popowia obovata, munyani /umkozombo),
torchwood (Balanites aegyptiaca, nyahoko), bird
plum (Berchemia discolor, munyii /umcaga), milk
plum (Bequaertiodendron magalismontanum,
muhorongwa / umhlautshwa), monkey pod (Cassia
petersiana, muremberembe), jackal berry (Diospyros
7
mespiliformis, mushenje / umdlawuzo), granite gar-
cinia (Garcinia huillensis, mutunduru), wild plum
(Harpephyllum caffrum), indaba tree (Pappea capen-
sis, chitununu /uzagogwane), nana berry (Rhus
tenuinervis, mudzambuya /umkungu) and water berry
(Syzygium cordatum, mukute /umdoni) (Tredgold,
1986). These makumbi products can also be im-
proved through microbiological and other associated
research (Okagbue, 1995).
4. Fermented milk
Traditional naturally fermented milk is known as
mukaka wakakora or zifa (Shona) or amasi
(Ndebele) (Mutukumira, 1995; Mutukumira et al.,
1995). A soured cottage cheese-like product is called
hodzeko, mukaka wakakodzekwa or mukaka
wemahwe (Madovi, 1981). The names sometimes
vary with region or may be used as generic names,
for example, Mutukumira (1995) used mukaka
wakakodzekwa for mukaka wakakora. For brevity,
the term amasi will be used throughout this review
to refer to the traditional plain naturally fermented
milk.
Most of the rural population in Zimbabwe still
spontaneously ferment raw milk to amasi (Feresu
and Muzondo, 1989; Mutukumira, 1995). Amasi has
however been substituted in urban areas by lacto, an
industrially fermented milk. During lacto production,
milk is standardised, pasteurised at 928C for 20 min,
cooled to 228C and inoculated with 1.2% mesophilic
starter cultures similar to those employed to produce
filmjolk, a Scandinavian fermented milk. The milk is
immediately packaged into sachets, and left to
ferment at ambient temperature for 18 h, and then
the lacto is stored at refrigeration temperatures until
sold (Feresu and Muzondo, 1989). Until recently,
lacto had enjoyed a monopoly, but in the past decade
other fermented milks such as kumusha and mayo
have been introduced onto the market.
4.1. Amasi
More work has been carried out on amasi than any
other fermented product in Zimbabwe and as a
result, there have been several reviews on these
studies (Feresu, 1992; Mutukumira et al., 1995;
Okagbue, 1995; Tamime and Marshall, 1997). Amasi
8 T.H. Gadaga et al. / International Journal of Food Microbiology 53 (1999) 1 11
is produced by leaving fresh raw bovine milk to
ferment naturally at ambient temperature in earthen-
ware pots or any other suitable containers (Feresu
and Muzondo, 1989; Feresu, 1992; Mutukumira et
al., 1995). The microorganisms inherent in the milk,
the container and the surrounding air are assumed to
ferment the milk within 13 days depending on the
ambient temperature (Feresu and Muzondo,
1989,1990; Mutukumira et al., 1995; Simango,
1997). It is common practice to sometimes speed up
the fermentation by back-slopping fresh milk with
remains of a previous batch of sour milk (Oliver,
1971).
Feresu and Muzondo (1989) investigated the
effects of pasteurisation and the container used
during natural fermentation of milk at ambient
temperature on the total microbial counts, the counts
of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), the amount of lactic
acid produced and the acceptability of the fermented
milk by a sensory panel. They further compared
these parameters with those observed for lacto. The
total counts, numbers of LAB and lactic acid pro-
duced were similar for amasi and lacto but the amasi
was significantly more acceptable to a panel than
lacto. Earthenware pots were better containers for
fermenting amasi than glass containers and may still
have a place in milk fermentation in the home
(Feresu and Muzondo, 1989).
A further study by Feresu and Muzondo (1990)
identified the predominant LAB isolated from amasi
as belonging to Lactobacillus helveticus, Lb. plan-
tarum, Lb. delbrueckii subsp. lactis, Lb. paracasei
subsp. paracasei and Lb. paracasei subsp. pseudo-
plantarum. The types of LAB isolated in this study
were limited as MRS agar, which is known to be
selective for the genus Lactobacillus, was the only
isolation medium used (Mutukumira, 1996). Despite
this observation, however, four different strains of
Lactococcus lactis, were isolated from lacto using
the same medium. This might indicate that MRS
medium may allow growth of strains of Lactococcus
when high numbers are present in the inoculum.
To assess the risk of the occurrence of pathogens
in amasi, and to establish measures for safe manu-
facture and storage of the product, Feresu and Nyati
(1990) and Dalu and Feresu (1996), respectively,
determined the behaviour of pathogenic E. coli and
Listeria monocytogenes during fermentation of
amasi at ambient temperature for 24 h and its storage
at ambient and refrigeration temperatures for 4 days.
Lacto was treated similarly for comparison. Lacto
was more inhibitory to E. coli than amasi at both
ambient and refrigeration temperatures and higher
numbers of E. coli survived when the amasi was
stored at ambient temperature than refrigeration
temperature (Feresu and Nyati, 1990). Although L.
monocytogenes grew only marginally during fermen-
tation of both products, . 10 2 cells / ml could still be
detected in both products at the end of the fermen-
tation period. In contrast to E. coli however, larger
numbers of L. monocytogenes survived at refrigera-
tion temperature than at ambient temperature (Dalu
and Feresu, 1996). The challenge studies showed
that current practices of naturally fermenting milk
are of public health concern because if milk is
contaminated with E. coli, and possibly other enteric
pathogens during milking or fermentation; or milk
from a mastitic cow infected with L. monocytogenes
is used for production of amasi the pathogens could
multiply to infective doses and / or retain relatively
high numbers during storage of the fermented prod-
uct at both ambient and refrigeration temperatures
(Feresu and Nyati, 1990; Dalu and Feresu, 1996).
The studies also suggested that the differences in
acceptability of amasi and lacto and in their inhibi-
tion of pathogens might be due to the types of
microorganisms involved in the two fermentations
(Feresu and Muzondo, 1989, 1990; Feresu and Nyati,
1990; Feresu, 1992; Dalu and Feresu, 1996).
Mutukumira (1996) focused his studies on amasi
produced on a larger scale by a small-holder farmer
milk collection centre, the Nharira / Lancashire Milk
Centre. The centre is part of the Dairy Development
Programme initiated in Zimbabwe in 1983, where a
group of small-holder dairy farmers are set up in a
dairy scheme and sell milk to a central collection
centre with refrigeration facilities. At the centre most
milk is sold raw, and excess milk is naturally soured
at ambient temperatures in churns for periods up to
48 h. The curd is then carefully scooped out using a
perforated metallic plate, leaving the whey in the
churn. It is then mixed and is ready for sale, or if the
firmness is unacceptable or the viscosity too low,
cream from another vessel is added, the product
mixed and then sold (Mutukumira, 1995; Mutuku-
mira et al., 1996a).
Mutukumira (1996) carried out systematic studies
in which he looked at how the milk is produced and
 T.H. Gadaga et al. / International Journal of Food Microbiology 53 (1999) 1 11
handled by the farmers in the Nharira / Lancashire
Scheme (Mutukumira et al., 1996a); the chemical
and microbiological quality of the raw milk
(Mutukumira et al., 1996b); the isolation and charac-
terisation of the LAB predominant in the amasi
(Mutukumira, 1996), the potential of some of these
isolates for development as starter cultures (Mutuku-
mira, 1996; Narvhus et al. 1998) and the chemical
and microbial quality of the amasi (Mutukumira,
1995). The chemical quality of the raw milk was
poor and variable with more than half of the ten
batches of milk studied not meeting the Zimbabwean
regulated minimum standards. The pH values and
concentration of titratable acid suggested that some
of the raw milk had started to sour before delivery to
the milk centre as inefficient transport systems were
used to deliver the milk. The total counts in the
majority of the raw milk were low but the coliform
counts were very high suggesting poor hygiene
standards during milk handling (Mutukumira et al.,
1996b).
The chemical composition of the amasi produced
from this poor quality raw milk was inconsistent as
the milk was not standardised and since its process-
ing involved whey removal and in some cases
addition of cream (Mutukumira, 1995). The mi-
crobiological quality of the amasi was also poor and
variable as the milk was not pasteurised (Mutuku-
mira, 1995). The product variation, presence of high
numbers of coliforms and the observed low product
yield due to whey drainage clearly indicated the need
for improvement to the current process. One way
doing this would be through the development of
starter cultures.
To this end, Mutukumira (1996) isolated 200
lactic acid bacterial strains from the amasi and
identified them as belonging to the genera Lac-
tococcus, Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc and Enterococ-
cus. Twenty one representative strains were further
identified to species level as Lact. lactis subsp. lactis,
Lact. lactis subsp. lactis biovar diacetylactis, Lb.
paracasei subsp. paracasei, Lb. plantarum, Lb.
acidophilus, Leuc. mesenteroides subsp. mesen-
teroides, Ent. faecum and Ent. faecalis. Representa-
tive strains for the genera Lactococcus, Lactobacillus
and Leuconostoc were further studied for their
coagulation of milk, lowering of pH and production
of volatile organic compounds. A strain belonging to
Lact. lactis subsp. lactis biovar diacetylactis termed
9
strain Cl was found to coagulate milk within 18 h at
258C and to produce adequate levels of diacetyl,
acetaldehyde and lactic acid. The amasi produced by
this strain was judged the most highly acceptable
product although it had a slight malty flavour
(Mutukumira, 1996). Further tests were carried out
in which the strain Cl was combined with a strain of
Lb. plantarum, and with a strain of Leuc. mesen-
teroides subsp. mesenteroides. The amasi produced
by single strain Cl was still the most preferred by a
sensory panel.
More work has been done to improve the amasi
from strain Cl using either enrichment of the milk
with 2.5% (w / v) skim milk or by dry matter
ultrafiltration then incubating the milk at 22, 30 or
378C (Narvhus et al., 1998). In this study however, a
different code name INF-DM1 was used for strain
Cl. Both methods markedly improved the viscosity
of the amasi, which was judged to be good and
acceptable irrespective of incubation temperature.
The study however recommended use of skimmed
milk powder since milk powder is cheap, readily
available, stable and can easily be used in a rural
setting (Narvhus et al., 1998). Strain Cl had further
desirable characteristics as it was inhibitory to E. coli
a common contaminant of dairy products (Mutuku-
mira, 1996).
From this review, it appears as though there will
be a single starter culture for the production of a
fermented milk whose characteristics are nearer to
the traditional amasi in the near future. There is
however, need for more work. A Norwegian panel
tested the acceptability of the amasi and more
extensive acceptability tests need to be carried out in
Zimbabwe. There is also need to test how scaling-up
will affect the properties of the fermented product.
The range of microorganisms studied in amasi so far
may not be exhaustive as yeasts and coliforms may
have a role in the fermentation process. The role of
yeasts in traditional fermented milk is therefore
currently being studied. In addition, it might be
necessary to determine the contribution of coliforms
to the sensory properties of amasi, although they are
usually undesirable in foods as some of them have
been associated with food-borne illnesses. When
these studies are completed, there might be need to
further test combinations of strain Cl with the other
promising microorganisms as single starter cultures
are known to be prone to failure due to bac-
10 T.H. Gadaga et al. / International Journal of Food Microbiology 53 (1999) 1 11
teriophage infection. This might also lead to the
production of different varieties of amasi.
Little work has been done on the production of
hodzeko, a cottage cheese-like product whose fer-
mentation involves pooling fermented milk from
three successive days from which whey and cream
has been removed (Madovi, 1981). Further develop-
ment of this product would also increase the types of
traditional dairy products on the market.
5. Conclusion
Several fermented foods are produced at the
household level in Zimbabwe. However, with the
exception of amasi, limited work has been done to
study these foods with a view to upgrading their
traditional technologies. The current industrially
produced foods and beverages are only simulations
of the traditional products as either different sub-
strates such as sorghum malt are used instead of
millet malt (chibuku) or starter cultures developed
elsewhere are used for the fermentation (lacto) or
unfamiliar ingredients such soy protein (mahewu) are
added. These factors may influence the sensory
properties of the product. The microbiology and
biochemistry of the traditionally fermented products
need to be fully understood before the predominant
microorganisms in these fermentations are isolated
and used in the development of starter cultures.
These, together with improved processing and use of
good quality raw materials for fermentation could be
used in upgrading the traditional technologies. Fer-
mented products prepared in laboratory simulations
then need to be compared with those produced in the
homes. This way the variations in the traditional
fermentation processes could be incorporated in the
development of a large variety of novel industrially
fermented products.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Norwegian
Universities Committee for Development Research
and Education (NUFU), Project 26 / 96, through the
Department of Food Science, Agricultural University
of Norway and the University of Zimbabwe for
financial assistance.
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