Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 562568

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Overview of wind energy in the world and assessment of current wind

energy policies in Turkey
Yusuf Alper Kaplan
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Anadolu University, Eskiehir, Turkey

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This article aims to show that wind energy resource isn't efciently used in Turkey and how the using of
Received 5 September 2013 wind energy potential is improved is discussed. Some general information for about political structure
Received in revised form and the lack of support mechanism of Turkey are given. For that purpose, a comparison between some
24 July 2014
developed countries and Turkey is included in this article. Turkey is a country which has wind energy
Accepted 2 November 2014
potential on land and sea more than many European countries but the value of installed wind power
plants is less than these countries. There is no power generation from offshore wind turbines in Turkey
Keywords: whereas it is surrounded on three sides by seas. The 2023 target which is about the renewable energy
Renewable energy generation of Turkey is the 30%. Many developed countries identify long-term plans and implement the
Wind energy
policies depend on these plans to exploit wind energy potential more efciently. In this study, literature
Wind energy policies
screening is adopted. According to ndings obtained from the comparison between developed countries
and Turkey, it is concluded that although Turkey has a higher potential then a lot of developed countries
regarding wind energy, expected efciency cannot be obtained due to the lack of a national renewable
energy policy and the fact that wind energy is not promoted by incentives. Energy planning and
management are necessary to promote wind energy which has a vital importance for the development
and future of Turkey.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
2. The importance of using the renewable energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
2.1. The Advantages of wind energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
2.2. The concept of the Producing wind energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3. The general state of wind energy in the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.1. The use of wind energy in the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.2. The use of wind energy in the EU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
3.3. Wind energy policies of foremost countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
4. The general state of wind energy in Turkey. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
4.1. The use of wind energy in the Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
4.2. Current Turkish legislation on wind energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
4.3. Expectations of wind energy sector for Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568

1. Introduction

Nowadays, the need of energy has been increasing day by day

with the population growth and the advancements of technology.
Hence, the search of new energy resources becomes very impor-
E-mail address: yakaplan@anadolu.edu.tr tant subject for the entire world [1]. Energy is the most important

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.11.027
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Y.A. Kaplan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 562568
factor which affects economic structure of a country. As is known,
energy is seen as not only the internal dynamics of the countries
but also a strategic case which affects International Relations,
including political as well as military conicts. Energy is also
primary element of economic and social development in the
world. The most important cause of today's wars is the desire to
dominate energy resources. Countries effectively harnessed differ-
ent energy resources to become major economic powers. They are
also powerful political player, thanks to the economic power.
Currently, wind energy is seen as a positive alternative to fossil
fuels and also a way to assist the expansion of local economies in
future. The world will use renewable energy instead of using fossil
fuels in order to meet the demands of the world's energy [2].
The industrialization in Turkey is recently developing which
respect to the developed countries. At the same time, the increasing
amount of per capita energy consumption, which is a measure of
development, reveals the importance of energy. Turkey's primary
energy demand is increasing with a rate of 45% per year and the
growth rate of electrical energy demand is 8%. These rapid growths
cause signicant energy gap between demand and supply for the next
1020 years. Turkey imported 72% of current energy sources to meet
energy demand considering the current situation. Domestic energy
sources in Turkey are highly under-utilized resources.. Turkey elec-
tricity generation by primary sources is shown in Table 1 [3]. This
situation reveals the importance of efcient and effective use of
renewable energy resources. Turkey needs to show their interest in,
and support for clean renewable energy technologies to reduce our
dependence on fossil fuels. In this context, unlike fossil fuels, wind
power energy is clean and sustainable energy and it also does not
pollute the environment. Therefore, it is denitely a front runner
among all alternate energy sources.
Owing to the unstable condition of energy system and the lack of
renewable energy policies in Turkey, existing wind energy potential
has not been efciently used. Although wind energy potential of
Turkey is 48.000 MW, installed wind power is 2959 MW until 2014.
Current policies in wind energy are examined in this study while
evaluating capacities of available installed wind power in Turkey and
some of the developed countries in the world. As a result, the
strategies that affect energy policies in Turkey are discussed in this
study in order to support using wind energy.
Recently, Turkey implements signicant changes within energy
sector similar to other developed countries. Energy producers
must provide the criteria for efciency and continuity of energy.
The national energy network must support private initiatives. It
also facilitates new partnerships between the public and private
sector at national and international level in order to achieve a
reliable and efcient service.
2. The importance of using the renewable energy
The importance of the renewable energy resources is better
appeared while considering the limited duration of use of fossil fuel
Table 1
Turkey electricity generation by primary sources.
Sources Generation (GWh)
Natural gas 98.144
Hydraulic 51.796
Lignite 35.942
Coal 19.104
Wind 2.916
Liquid fuels 2.180
Others 1.126
Total 211.209
563
resources to meet a large portion of World energy demand and the
damages of fossil fuel resources to the environment. Countries which
cannot meet their energy demand have to apply external dependent
policies. Expenses of energy consumption in a country seriously
affect its economy. In this case, renewable energy in the World is a
substantial research topic and it speeds up its improvement day by
day. Especially, Europe is the pioneer of using renewable energy
source instead of using fossil fuels. Along with the advancement of
technology the using of renewable energy has increased and the
power quality of these sources improved. After the technological
improvements and growth rate of energy demand, the interest of
wind energy has increased for all countries. The conversion systems
of wind turbines increase seriously in electrical power generation. As
a result of concerning the power quality of the electric systems
sensitivity of consumers has increased to growing interest. The
importance of the renewable energy resources is realized while
considering the limited duration of the use of fossil fuel resources
that damages the environment. Nowadays, the need of energy has
been increasing daily with the population growth and the advance-
ments of technology. Hence, the search of new energy resources
becomes very important subject for the entire world. Countries,
which cannot meet their energy demand, are strongly dependent on
external policies and market forces. Expenses of energy consumption
in a country greatly affect its economy. In this case, renewable energy
is a substantial research topic in the world and its technology
improves progressively. Especially, Europe is the pioneer of using
renewable energy source instead of using fossil fuels [2].
2.1. The Advantages of wind energy
The environmental issues are the greenhouse effect and atmo-
spheric pollution problems caused by the fossil fuel. Also, the
sources of fossil fuel reserves are limited; nding solutions to
realize harmony development among energy, economic and envir-
onmental is an inevitable responsibility for modern people [4]. It is
a useful attempt to replace fossil energy, with the help of wind
solar hybrid power generation system. Thereby, avoiding the
environmental problems caused by burning of fossil. Based on
relevant matching program, we get quantication energy environ-
mental benets of promotion wind solar hybrid power generation
system. Based on the electrical load, the total annual electricity
consumption of one kWh gives out 4 kg of annual emission of
fumes and residues which causes the pollution. By using renew-
able energy sources these hazards can be reduced [5].
Some of the advantages of wind energy are as follows:
 Wind energy is easily available around the world. Thus, there is
no dependence to any country in wind energy production. The
answer to the globe's question of energy in the face of the
rising fossil fuels prices is wind energy.
 Wind Turbines are generally installed on rural areas. Thus, the
economies of rural communities can be revitalized by means of
wind energy. This causes the diversication of rural economies
by providing new types of income.
 There is no need to use fossil fuel while generating electrical
energy in wind turbines unlike the other types of electrical
generation. Wind is a native fuel that it is not necessary to be
mined or transported.
 The prices of electricity that is generated from fossil fuels can
change signicantly owing to the high costs of mining and
transportation. On the contrary, wind energy does not include
these costs due to the fact that wind is always stable and free.
 Wind energy sector creates jobs for both industry and rural
economies. Especially, wind energy projects provide new short
and long term jobs in rural communities in the area of
manufacturing, transportation, and project construction.
564 Y.A. Kaplan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 562568
 Wind energy doesn't pollute the air since it does not use fossil
fuel as its energy source. Harmful particulate emissions, which
contribute to global climate change, are greatly produced with
other sources of electricity generation whereas wind energy is
pollution free.
 Wind energy preserves the land and environment because
agriculture and animal husbandry can be easily dealt with near
the area where the wind turbines are installed.
Although there are lots of advantageous of wind energy, it has a
small number of disadvantageous. One of them is that the wind is
unreliable in many areas where the speed of wind is sometimes
too low to support a wind turbine. The other disadvantages of the
wind turbines is to cause noise pollution near its construction
area. Sometimes, the wind turbines, which are installed in the
route of bird migration, may kill birds [2].
2.2. The concept of the Producing wind energy
The wind resource varies temporally and geographically. This
property of wind resource is one of the most signicant character-
istics. The variability of wind continues in very large scales in
space and time. Wind energy changes with the cube of the wind
speed. The purpose of the wind turbines is to exploit the wind
speed efciently. This is seen as most important design parameter
of wind turbines. There are two types of wind turbines based upon
the direction of the axis that turbine rotates around a horizontal or
vertical direction. Most commonly turbine rotates around a
horizontal axis. Wind turbines are installed on onshore or off-
shore. Each of them has unique design characteristics. Wind
turbines may also be used in hybrid systems. For example, wind
turbines together with a solar collector forms an efcient hybrid
systems in order to extract energy from the wind and also from
the sunlight.
The factors which affect the economy of wind energy are the
average wind speed or the amount of energy production, the cost
of wind turbines, the foundations and investment costs, turbine
life, operating and maintenance. The correct location selection of
the wind power generation has the critical importance in terms of
economic feasibility due to the fact that electricity production
tightly depends on wind conditions.
Wind turbines are installed onshore or offshore where the
wind resource is more appropriate and better. Offshore winds are
higher in velocity and more reliable and consistent which makes it
attractive. Capacity factors which affect the wind power are also
much higher at sea. A lot of prime land based locations have been
exhausted, so the next place to look for wind is off-shore.
Fig. 1. Installed wind power capacity in the world.
However, there are some logistical and design challenges such as
the high cost of installing sub-sea cables to connect to the grid
along with the stringent environmental conditions. These chal-
lenges can be solved with technological development.
3. The general state of wind energy in the world
3.1. The use of wind energy in the world
There are three major markets for global wind power genera-
tion eld. These are in Europe, USA and China. Fig. 1 shows the
installed wind power capacity in the world from 2004 to 2013. It is
seen the gure that the world's total installed capacity was
238.126 GW with more than 20% growth rate in the annual market
at the end of 2011. More than 45 GW of new wind power capacity
was installed around the world in 2012, bringing the total installed
capacity up to 283.194 GW. This represents a year-on-year growth
of 18.9%. At the end of 2013, wind power installed capacity
reached 318.105 GW in the world. The total installed wind power
capacity increased nearly 35 GW in 2013 [6,7]. This gure shows
that there is a very large and growing global demand for
emissions-free wind power almost everywhere in the world. The
wind industry sector also creates many new jobs; nearly half a
million people are now employed in this industry, and this
number will increase year by year. China was the world's largest
market in 2013, has more than doubled in three years its capacity
from 44.733 GW in 2010 to 91.412 GW and slipped the past USA to
become the world's rst largest wind power market by a very
narrow margin. USA increased wind energy capacity from
40.298 GW in 2010 to 61.091 GW in 2013. The one of the leading
countries in terms of installed wind power is India which reached
the 20.150 GW installed capacity in 2013. India aims to reduce its
dependence on coal and to narrow the country's power decit; the
Indian government announced plans for a Green Energy Corridor
project to address grid integration and availability issues for
renewables based electricity generation. In 2013, China led the
global market again by adding 16 GW of new wind capacity in last
year, and cemented its place as the leading wind market with a
total of 91.412 GW installed as of the end of the year [7].
3.2. The use of wind energy in the EU
The installed wind power in Europe increases a signicant rate
each year which is shown in Fig. 2. The total wind energy capacity of
the Europe reaches the 121.5 GW in last year, of which 117 GW is in
the European Union. Germany remains the EU country with the
 Y.A. Kaplan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 562568 565

largest installed capacity, followed by Spain, the UK, Italy and France.
Germany was again the largest market in 2013 adding nearly 3GW of
new capacity. The EU continues to be world's one of the leaders in
total installed wind energy capacity, and one of the strongest regions
for new development. Fig. 2 show that EU increased capacity to
106.454 GW by adding nearly 12GW of new installed capacity in
2012. At the end of 2013, nearly 11 GW new wind power installed
and the total capacity reached 117.289 GW in the EU [7].
Europe has certain target to cut greenhouse gas emissions. In 2020,
230 GW of wind energy in Europe will avoid the emission of 333
million tonnes of CO2 per year. Europe needs to reduce its greenhouse
gas emissions by 30% by 2020 compared to 1990 levels to boost eco-
nomic growth, maintain its technology leadership and keep climate
change in check. Because of the recession EU has already reached 17%.
EU's current target - a 20% cut - has become easy to meet: Wind
energy is already tackling climate change: Wind power in the EU
avoided the emission of 106 million tonnes (Mt) of CO2 in 2009 [8].
3.3. Wind energy policies of foremost countries
It is clearly seen that renewable energy sources can facilitate
economic and social development in all country in the World. All
countries should develop new public policies which should be well
designed and put in practice in order to promote the use of
renewable energy sources. As a result of different political and
economic situations, the governments have taken different poli-
cies to encourage the investment and sale of wind power. Wind
energy policy focuses that some important categories which
includes research and development organizations, commercial
generators and producers. The aim is to provide incentives for
require production and installation of wind turbines or facilitate
the appropriate location of wind turbines. A number of developed,
transition countries and developing countries have already
adopted some type of policy to promote renewable power gen-
eration are given in Table 2 [9].
All of the developed countries have succeeded in effectively
expanding the usage of wind energy. China focuses on signicantly
economic policies which guarantee sales of wind power produced
by investors to power grid companies. These policies free renew-
able companies from concerns about limitations of market. Since
2011, all new projects must rst be included in the project
development plan announced by the National Energy Administration
(NEA) and undergo approval before starting construction, whereas
previously quite a number of projects had started without the
relevant permissions fully in place. This allows the NEA to get a
sense of the total volume of the projects to be permitted, while

Fig. 2. Installed wind power capacity in the EU.

Table 2
Renewable energy incentives in selected world countries.

Renewable energy promotion Country

policies

Feed-in tariff
Renewable portfolio standards
Capital subsides, grants or
rebates
Investment excise or tax credit
State tax, energy tax or VAT
reduction
Tradable renewable energy
certicates
Energy production payments or
Tax credit
Net metering
Public investment, loans or
nancing
Public competitive bidding
Austria, Canada, Cyprus, Czech, Czech Rep., Estonia, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Japan, Korea, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Portugal, Slovak Rep., Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United States, Ukraine, Algeria,
Argentina, Brazil, China, Costa Rika, India, Indonesia, Nicaragua, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey, Kenya, Ecuador, Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia,
Macedonia, Uganda
Australia, Belgium, Canada, Italy, Korea, Poland, Sweden, United States, China, India, Thailand, Chile
Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Cyprus, Czech Rep., Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Korea, Japan, Lithuania,
Luxemburg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States, Argentina
Cambodia, China, India, Thailand, Turkey
Australia, Belgium, Canada, Czech Rep., France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal,
Slovak Rep., Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United States, China, Guatemala, India, Mexico, Nicaragua, Philippines
Canada, Czech Rep., Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Korea, Malta, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, United Kingdom, United
States, China, Guatemala, India, Philippines
Australia, Austria, Belgium, Czech Rep., Denmark, Finland, France, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, United
States
Finland, Netherlands, Sweden, United States, Argentina
Belgium, Czech Rep., Denmark, Italy, Japan, United States, Mexico, Thailand
Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Hungary, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, New Zealand, Poland, Slovak Rep., Spain, United States, Brazil,
China, India, Philippines
Canada, France, Ireland, Norway, Poland, United States, China, India
566 Y.A. Kaplan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 562568
previously the local governments had authority to approve small
projects, making it impossible to predict overall volume of projects
[7]. US concentrate on investment policies in the eld of renewable
energy. One of these policies is especially the tax credit systems that
cover up to 30% of total eligible expenditures [10]. Concrete signs that
US policymakers understand wind power's value to the nation
continued as 2013 got under way. In his State of the Union Address,
US President Barack Obama called for a doubling of renewable
energy by 2020 as a means of creating good manufacturing and
construction jobs, and reducing harmful greenhouse gas emissions
[7]. Through this mission the Indian government aims to have a
generating capacity of 100 GW of wind power installed by 2022, from
the present 20 GW. Developed countries in EU have used effective
policies for about using the renewable energy. For example Germany
has used a long-term protective tariff policy for wind power and
other renewable energy investors. Britain and the United States took
a main renewable energy quota policy. In addition, a public benets
fund was established to support the development of wind power. As
a nancing mechanism, fund setting has been adopted in many
countries in the renewable energy sector. The Netherlands uses green
power transactions to support the wind power development [11].
4. The general state of wind energy in Turkey
4.1. The use of wind energy in the Turkey
In Turkey, electricity is mostly produced in thermal power
plants (TPPs) by consuming coal, lignite, natural gas, fuel oil. The
production of electricity from renewable has small amount [12].
Turkey is one of the richest countries in terms of wind energy
potential. It is possible to make economic investment of wind
energy at 48.000 MW in power in Turkey. Because the annual
average speed of wind is greater than 7.5 m/s. According to the
Turkey wind energy potential atlas prepared in 2007, at least
Table 3
Technical wind energy potential by regions in Turkey.
Region Wind power potential Percentage
Marmara 43.917 38.5
Aegean 26.150 22.9
Black Sea 14.312 12.5
Mediterranean 11.214 9.8
Central Anatolia 10.904 9.6
South-eastern Anatolia 4703 4.1
Eastern Anatolia 4974 2.6
Fig. 3. Installed wind power capacity in Turkey.
48.000 MW wind power is available in the regions where the
annual wind speed is 7 m/s or over in Turkey. Furthermore, the
regions where the annual wind speed is 8.5 m/s or over has at
least 5.000 MW available wind power. We can say that Turkey has
8.000 MW available wind energy which is very efciently and
40.000 MW available wind energy which is at a moderate level [2].
Turkey's wind energy potential is primarily focused in Marmara,
Aegean and Mediterranean regions from higher to lower is shown
in Table 3, respectively [13].
Wind Energy investments in Europe seem to be very low before
2006. However, it can be seen that these investments signicantly
increased after 2006. A signicant similar trend on wind energy
investments has been recently started in Turkey. Fig. 3 shows that
the total installed wind power capacity of Turkey year by year. In
2011, wind power capacity is increased with an amount of
477 MW and total installed wind power capacity is 1806 MW. In
2012, 506 MW of new wind power installed and total installed
wind power has reached 2312 MW. Turkey added 647 MW of new
wind power in 2013 for a total capacity of 2959 MW.Turkey's
installed capacity has grown by nearly 500 MW per year since
2010 and the national transmission company expects annual
installations to reach 1,000 MW per year from 2013 onward.
Turkey's best wind resources are located particularly in the
Balkesir, zmir and Manisa provinces. As of the end of 2012, the
Marmara region has the highest installed wind capacity with a
total of 923.65 MW, followed by Aegean region with 857 MW
and the Mediterranean region with 384.50 MW [7]. Turkey is
surrounded by seas on three sides and it has 3500 km coastline.
Particularly, the wind is wind is a continuous and very regular
in Aegean and Marmara coastline. Nevertheless, there is no
serious investment and production for offshore wind energy
production.
Table 4
Minimum price of renewable electricity in some
European countries (Eurocent/kWh).
Country Price (Eurocent/kWh)
Netherlands 9.69.9
France 8.4
Austria 7.8
Portugal 7.57.9
Greece 6.4
Spain 6.37.5
Germany 6.28.5
Turkey 5.05.5
 Y.A. Kaplan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 562568
4.2. Current Turkish legislation on wind energy
Energy policy in Turkey is often discussed in certain platforms.
Some of the reasons are as follows. At rst, Turkey does not keep
up with the developments in the eld of energy at international
level. Energy system is not established well and also not stable in
Turkey. In addition, energy policies have some weaknesses and
deciencies in Turkey such as lack of adequate supporting
mechanism for renewable energy sector. The strategies of energy
management change with every new government. The universities
and other R&D institutions are not integrated enough in the
decisions and programs taken for energy system. All of them
cause energy system to become unbalanced. However, some of
additional policy measures have made renewable energy produc-
tion increase in recent years in Turkey.
Minimum price system is used many developed countries
which requires an electricity utility to purchase a portion of its
electricity requirement, called as green energy, at a minimum
price dened. Legally dened minimum prices change according
to the country; some of these prices can be seen in Table 4 [14].
Energy policies in Turkey include fundamental objectives as
followings:
 Energy and its safety in Turkey should be provided in a cost-
effective and sustainable way while investigating the environ-
mental effects.
 The economic importance of Turkey in regional and global
energy trade should be increased.
 The current situation in energy efciency should be improved.
Increasing the use of renewable energy resources, reducing the
dependence on energy imports and ensuring the security of
supply are important elements of national energy policy in Turkey.
To this end, some acts and regulations are made in Turkey.
Some important acts and regulations are as follows:
In 2005, Turkey has installed a law on the use for the purpose of
generating electrical energy from renewable energy resources.
The law aims to improve the use of generating electrical energy
from renewable energy resources. These resources are also
brought into the economy in a reliable, economic and high-
quality manner with this law. Increasing diversication of energy
resources, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, assessing the
waste, and keeping the environment safe are the other aims of
this law. Lastly, this law enables the manufacturing sector to
develop in order to realize of these objectives.
Energy efciency law was made in 2007 to ensure the efcient
use of energy, waste prevention, relieving the burden of energy
costs on the economy, protection of the environment and
increasing the efciency on the use of energy sources. In
addition to this, the regulation related with this law was made
in 2008 in order to increase the productivity on energy
resources and energy use.
In 2010, a law was made in order to support the production and
the use of renewable energy. The law changed another law of
the purpose of generating electrical energy from renewable
energy resources [15]. Law was amended by Law Regarding the
Amendment in the Law of Utilization of Renewable Energy
Resources for the Purpose of Generating Electricity (Law no:
6094) in December 2010. Within this law, principles of Wind
Power Plant Supporting Mechanism such as price, time and
payments were determined. The new Law changed the feed-in
tariffs for each renewable energy sources. Moreover, General
Directorate of Electrical Power Resources Survey and Develop-
ment Administration (EIEI) was repealed. Instead of this
567
institution, General Directorate of Renewable Energy (YEGM)
was established in November, 2011[16].
Investment incentive Licensing
(i) Installed capacity of 500 kW is exempted from licensing and
setting up a company.
(ii) Only 1% of licensing cost is paid by corporate entities applied
to get a license and these entities do not pay annual licensing
cost for the rst eight years.
(iii) Priority is ensured for system connection.
Land appropriation
(i) Real properties either regarded as forest or private property of
Treasury are leased or right of easement or usage permits are
given to such properties
(ii) 85% of discount is given to rent, right of easement and usage
permits and Forest Villagers Development Revenue, Foresta-
tion and Erosion Control Revenues are not demanded during
the rst 10 years.
In addition to the feed-in tariff, the Turkish government
provides other measures to promote wind energy development,
notably priority access to grid, facilitation and discounts for
obtaining leases and authorization to use state owned land. Also,
most restrictions on foreign investment in the Turkish power
sector have been lifted. The electricity market regulation has been
revised and will take effect on April 2013. The electricity business
is largely in the hands of the state owned Electricity Generation
Company EUA and its afliates. A transition to a competitive
electricity market is needed in order to attract private sector
investments to help meet demand growth of an average 69%
per year, and also to reduce electricity prices [7].
4.3. Expectations of wind energy sector for Turkey
Complicated and slow administrative procedures are the great-
est obstacle to wind development in Turkey. Moreover, grid
capacity is an area of concern to be able to connect the 11 GW of
new wind installations currently planned. The Turkish Wind
Energy Association has set a target of reaching 5 GW in 2015. To
ensure that these targets are met the transmission system opera-
tor has announced investments in grid reinforcements between
2013 and 2020 [7].
There are many points that affect the future of wind industry.
The economic factor is the most important one among them.
Furthermore, the other factors and its affects are specied below:
 Government supports for national energy plans and
renewable energy
 The growth of the market and the industry's current dynamics
 Wind resource assessment and how to use this
 Assessment the developments in the similar markets with
previous structure
 Specic information on major projects
 Growing number of contracts of major energy companies and
national network
Overall, it seems that under well designed public policies, the
potential for developing renewable sources of energy to facilitate
development in developing countries may be considerable [17].
Many of the factors given above are now positive in the wind
industry. There is a strong political support in terms of both energy
security and carbon reduction measures. Wind energy offers
solutions against the global crisis such as energy crisis, nancial
crisis and environmental crisis with the features of local, reliable,
affordable and clean source. However, at this point, it is difcult to
predict short-term effects of the difculty in nding credit on
investments in wind energy. Besides, relatively small projects in a
568 Y.A. Kaplan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 43 (2015) 562568
stable political framework are less affected rather than more risky
investments in the countries with unstable political framework
because of the difculty of nding credit such as large offshore
wind energy stations [18].
Although a wind farm owner/operator cannot change para-
meters such as the incident wind speed, understanding how wind
farm efciency changes as a function of these parameters is critical
to: wind farm design and nancing; accurate short-term forecast-
ing of power production. Further understanding of the physical
controls on wind turbine wakes facilitates assessment and devel-
opment of wind turbine wake and wind farm models [19].
5. Conclusions
The rapid growth in wind turbines installation due to the
increase in energy demand had led to a growing demand for
better politic structure as well as modeling. Comprehensive over-
view of the current situation of wind power in Turkey and the
World is given by evaluating installed wind power with current
data. This study also evaluates the political conditions of Turkey by
looking at the current installed wind energy power in Turkey and
some developed countries. It is seen the truth that Turkey does not
take advantage of wind potential adequately as inferred from the
data given in this study. Using current potential and providing
renewable energy resources to enter the market are possible only
with laws and regulations which supports suitable mechanism for
renewable energy.
Current status of renewable energy potential is evaluated for
Turkey and the World in this study. When renewable energy
support policies are compared to other countries (USA, China, EU
countries), it can be said that Turkey has just regulatory policies
such feed-in tariff and biofuel obligations. Although other support
tools such as scal incentives (capital subsidy, grant or rebate,
energy production payment) and public nances (public invest-
ment loans or grants and competitive public bidding) are widely
used to support renewable energy in those countries, these
devices have not been employed in Turkey yet. The problems
and bottlenecks encountered are also given to determine the
solutions. In this context, nding economic source should be
researched and suitable wind sources are also determined with
current technology. Since Turkey is surrounded on three sides by
seas, feasibility of offshore wind turbines for Turkey's seas should be
investigated in detail and related research should be encouraged in
order to deploy these systems. Local supports should be given
together with required tax exemptions. Granting long-term xed-
price guarantees should be on the agenda of the government.
References
[1] Bongiorno M, Thiringer T. A generic DFIG Model for Voltage Dip Ride-Through
Analysis. IEEE T Energ Conver 2013;28(1):7685.
[2] Kaplan YA, San I. Current situation of wind energy in the world and Turkey,
green energy conference-VI (IGEC-VI). Turkey: Eskisehir; 2011.
[3] apika M, Ylmaz AO, avusoglu I. Present situation and potential role of
renewable energy in Turkey. Renew Energ 2012;46:113.
[4] Gabbasa M, Sopian K, Yaakob Z, Zonooz M, Fudholi A, Asim N. Review of the
energy supply status for sustainable development in the Organization of
Islamic Conference. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2013;28:1828.
[5] Maheshwari M, Chandrasekaran RS, Babu D. Optimization of electrical power
using solar and wind energy systems, Proceedings of 7th international
conference on intelligent systems and control (ISCO 2013), 2012.
[6] GWEC (Global Wind Energy Council), Global wnd 2011 report, March, 2012.
[7] GWEC (Global Wind Energy Council), Global wnd 2012 report, April, 2013.
[8] EWEA (European Wind Energy Association), Wind in power 2010 European
statistics, February, 2011.
[9] Simsek HA, Simsek N. Recent incentives for renewable energy in Turkey. Energ
Policy 2013;63:52130.
[10] Chen X, Lee,W. Wind generation development in the US and China, North
American Power Symposium, NAPS2010, Arlington, Texas, USA, 2010.
[11] Yang X, Z. Qian Z. The research of investment and nancing of wind power,
The 2nd world non-grid-connected wind power and energy conference,
Nanjing, China, 2010.
[12] Kaya D, Kl F. Renewable energies and their subsidies in Turkey and some EU
countries-Germany as a special example. J. Int. Environ Appl Sci 2012;7(1):
114127.
[13] Baris K, Kucukali S. Availibility of renewable energy sources in Turkey: Current
situation, potential, government policies and the EU perspective. (42). Energ
Policy 2012;42:37791.
[14] Erdodu E. On the wind energy in Turkey. Renew Sustain Energ Rev
2009;13:136171.
[15] Republic of Turkey Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Available on
August 2013, http://www.enerji.gov.tr/index.php?dil=en.
[16] Blk G. Renewable energy: Policy issues and economic implications in Turkey
international. J Energ Econ Policy 2013;3(2):15367.
[17] Xintao X, Junzi X. Evaluation of potential for developing renewable sources of
energy to facilitate development in developing countries, In: Asia-Pacic
power and energy engineering conference, APPEEC2010, Chengdu, China;
2010.
[18] Altuntaolu Z. The developments of wind energy in Turkey and the world, In:
Rges 2 energy symposium, Samsun, Turkey; 2009.
[19] Barthelmie RJ, Hansen KS, Pryor SC. Meteorological controls on wind turbine
wakes. Proc IEEE 2013;101(4):10109.