‘Organizational Linkages: Understanding tho Productivity Paradox (1984) pth np edioperoneDO09049043hra 184 Hl copy 1884, 2060 Te Ral Academy of Seles al ihis ese 164 + _Rosger , pasrenaro The design unit is also a system in itself. An important part of its inputs is the outputs produced by the individual. This is shown in the figure by the line going from the outputs of the individuals to the in- puts of the design unit. These and other inputs are processed by the design unit, which produces outputs in the form of designs for the prod- uct. ‘The design unit is also a subsystem in the production division. The outputs of the design unit are combined with the outputs of the manu- facturing unit to be inputs to the production division. Finally, there is the entire organization as a system. One major source ofits inputs is, the outputs of the production division. Thus, the organization can be considered as a series of rolated systems from the individual to the en- tire organization. The outputs of the more molecular subsystems be- come inputs for the next-level system. ‘To return to the definition, a linkage occurs when the outputs of one subsystem are combined with the outputs of another subsystem into the outputs of broader organizational units. In the example, a linkage occurs when the outputs of the individuals must be combined to produce the inputs the design unit uses to produce a new product, design. Another linkage occurs when the outputs of the design unit ‘must be combined with those of the manufacturing unit to produce a product of sufficient quality to meet customer needs. Finally, a linkage occurs when the outputs of the production division must be combined, with outputs of other parts of the organization to form the outputs of the total organizational system. It is important to recognize that this definition indicates that what is combined in a linkage is the oufpus of a subsystem. Itis the outputs that are combined with other subsystems’ outputs to generate broader organizational outputs. The refrigerator is made by combining com- pprossors with electric motors and painted panels. Itis not outputs relative to inputs (efficiency) or outputs related to expectations (effectiveness) that are being combined in the linkage. While one might measure effi- cieney, effectiveness, or one of the other aspects of performance dis- cussed in Chapter 6 and aggregate it across organizational levels, that is a measure of organizational functioning, not what is being combined across a linkage. In order to understand why the productivity paradox occurs, the paradox must be decomposed. In order to decompose it, the factors that could produce it must be examined. Many of the factors that could produce it have been discussed in earlier chapters. In Chapter 8, for example, Goodman and his colleagues identified a series of intra- and intertask factors that could produce the paradox, My approach in this chapter is to break down the possible factors