A D V A NC E D CO URSE

AL GE B RA V
.

BY

W E B S TE R W E L L S , S B
. .

PR OF E S S O R O F M AT H E M A T I C S I N T H E M A S S A C H U S E TT S
I NS T IT U T E OF TE CH N L O OGY

S
B O TO N, U S A . . .

D . C . H E ATH co .
,
P U BL I S H E R S

1 904
 C O P Y R IG H T , 1 904 ,

BY W E B S TE R WE L L S .
 PREFACE

IN p epar ri n g the p re s e nt w
o r k , th e au th o r h as e n d ea v or e d

to me et th e n e e d s o f Co lle g e s an d S i e nti S h o o ls o f th e c c c
hi gh e s t r an k .

Th e d e v e lo me n t p of th e su bj e c t follo ws i n th e mai n th e
au th o r s

C o lle g e Alg e b ra ; but nu merou s i mp r ov e me nts h a v e
been i n tro d u c e d .

Atte n ti on i s es p e ci ally
w in g i n v i te d to th e f ollo
1 Th d e el p m n t f th f u n d m n t l la w s f Alge b a f o
. e v o e o e a e a o r r

th p o s i ti
e n d n g ti
ve int g
a th e p o s i ti e an d n e g ati e
e a ve e e r, v v

f a c ti n
r ond e,
i n Ch a p s I nd II
a z ro , . a .

I n th ab o v e t e tme n t th e au th
e h a s f o llo w e d t a c e ta i n
r a ,
or o r

e xt n t Th Nu n b
e S y t m f A lgeb
e 7by P fe s H B F i n e ;
er ~

s e o ra, ro s or . .

wh h a o e y c u te u sly p e mi tt d thi
s v r ou s e o f hi s t e ati s e
r o r e s r .

2 Th e d e e lo p me n t o f th e p i n c i p le s
. v f e qu i a l n f r o v e ce o

e q u ati n a n d s y te m
o s, f e qu ati n b th lin e s nd f hi gh
s o o s, o ar a o er

d e gr e e s ; se e 1 1 61 23 , 1 8 2, 233- 6, 396, 4 4 2, 4 7 0 , 4 7 7 , an d

478 .

3 . Th e p r omi n e n e gi v e n to g ra hi a l r e c p c p r e s e n ta ti o n .

In Ch ap XI V , th e s tu d en t le ar n s h o w to
. o b tai n th e g r ap h s
of li n e ar e qu ati o n s wi th two u n k n o wn nu mb e r s , an d o f li n ea r
ex p r e s si o n s w ith n u nk n o e o w n n u mb e r . He a ls o le a rn s h o w
to re p re s e nt g p h i c ally th
ra e s o luti o n o f a s y s te m of two li n e a r
e q u ati on s , i n v o lv i n g two u nk n o wn n u mb e r s , an d s e e s h ow i nd e
te r mi n ate an d in c o n s i s te n t s y stems a r e r e p r e s e n te d g ra h i p c ally .

Th e gr ap hi c al r e p r e s e n ta ti o n o f q u a d r a ti c e xp r e s s i o n s , w i th
o n e u nk n o n w n um e r , b i s tak e n up 4 6 5 ; a n d , i n 4 67 , th e
in

g a
r ph i c a l r e p r e s e nta ti o n o f e q u al a n d i ma gi n ar r oo ts y .

2 51 7 6 3
iv PRE F A C E

Th e p r i n c i p le s are f ur th e r d e v elo p e d f o r si mu ltan e ou s qu a d

r a ti c s , i n 4 82 a nd 4 83 ; an d for e xp re s si o n s of a ny d e g re e ,
w i th on e u n k n ow n n u mb e r , i n 744 an d 745 .

At th e en d of Ch a p . XV III ,
th e s tu d e n t i s ta u gh t th e gr a p hi
cal r e p r e s e n ta ti o n o f th e f un d a me n ta l la w s o f Alg e r a f o r p u r e b
ima gi n a r y an d c o mp le x n um b er s .

I n Ch a p . XXXV II ,
th e g ra ph i c al re p r e se n ta ti o n i s gi v e n o f
D e r i v ati v e s of Mu lti p le R o o ts o f S tu r m s

T h eo re m an d o f a D i s c o n ti nu o u s F un c ti o n
4 . I n Ch a p . V I I , th er e ar e g i v e n th e R e mai n d e r a nd F a cto r
T he o re ms , an d th e p r i n i le s cp o f S mme tr y y .

5 . In Ch a p V III w ill b e f o un d y meth o d o f f a t in g

ev er c or

wh i h c can b e d on e a d v a n ta g e o us ly by i n p c ti n i n clu d i n g
s e o ,

c
fa to ri n g of s y mm e tr i c al e xp r e s si n o I n th i s c h p te i s lso
s . a r a

g i v e n S o lu ti on of E q u ati on s by F a c to ri ng
6 . In th e e a rli e r p
XI th e p u pil i s sh wn
o r ti o n s of C h ap .
,
o

th at a dd i ti on al s olu ti on s a i nt d u c d by multi p ly i n g a re ro e

f a c ti on l e qu ati o n by an e xp e s i n w h i ch i s n t th e L C M
r a r s o o . . .

o f th g i n d n mi n t s ; a n d i s s h o w n h o w s uch a d di ti on l
e ve e o a or a

s o luti on s a disc e d re ov r e .

7 . In 2 64 an d 2 65, th e s tu d e n t i s taugh t h o w to n d th e

value s of ex p r e s s i on s taki n g th e i n d e te r mi n ate f o r ms

83 ,

0 x 00 an d co co

8 . All w ork c om n g i u n d er th e h e ad of th e B i n o mi al Theo

re m fo r p o s iti v e i n te gr al ex p o n e n ts i s tak en up i n th e ch a pte r

on In vo lu ti o n .

9 . p
I n d e v e lo i n g th e p r i n i p le s c of E v oluti on, a ll r o o ts ar e

r e s tr i c te d to th e i r p r i n i p al v a lu e s c .

10 . I n th e e xa mp le s 3 9 8 , th e p u p i l i s taught to
of re e j ct
all s olu ti on s w c h i h d o n o t s ati s f th e g iv e n e q uati on, y wh e n
th e ro o ts h ave p
th e i r ri n c i p al v a lu e s .

11 . Th e d e v elo p ment of th e th e o r y of th e Ir ra ti o n al Num

b e r, an d c
i ts g ra ph i al r e p r es e n tati o n 3 99
12 . p
Th e d e v e lo me n t o f th e f un d a me ntal la w s of Alg eb ra

f o r P ur e Imag in a y r and Co mp le x Numb e r s (Ch a p X V I I I).

,
 P RE F A C E

13 . Th e us e of th e g e n e ra l for m i n the
th e o r y of q u a d r ati c e q u ati o n s 4 54
14 . Th e d i s cu s s i on of th e maxi ma an d mi n i ma v alu e s of

q u a d r a ti c e xp r e s s i o n s

15 c h ap te n Con e g e n cy an d Di e gency of S e i e s
. Th e r o v r v r r

( p
C h a XX V I )
1 6 I n Ch ap XXV III i s g i e n E ule s p oof o f th e B i n m
. .

. . i al v r r o

T h e e m f o any R ti naljxpgn ent

or ,
r a o .

17 . Th e s o lu ti o n o f lo g a r i th mi c e qu a ti o n s

18 . Th e p ro o f of th e f o rmula f o r th e nu mb e r of pe r mu ta
ti o n s of n d i e r e n t thi n g s, tak e n 7
'

at a ti me
19 . c
Th e h ap te r o n heor of T y Numb e r s (Ch a p . XXXV ) .

20 I n th e c h p te on D t mi n ants th e d ou ble-su fx n ota

a r e er ,

ti o n IS u s e d o n ly i n d e mo n st ati o n s whi c h wo uld n o t o th e w i e

r r s

be c o mplete .

E ac h d e mon strati on of a g e n e r al p r i n c i ple i s p e c e de d byr

an i llu s tr ati o n sh o wi n g th e tr uth of th e p in c i ple f o a d e te

r r r

mi nan t o f th e th i r d o rd er .

Multi pli c a ti o n of d e te r mi n an ts i s tak e n up o nl y f o r d e te r

mi n ants of th e s e c on d an d th i r d ord ers .

21 . In Ch ap . XXXV II will b e foun d S y mmet i c al F un cti on s r

of th e R o o ts a sh te p o f f D e c a te s Rorule r ro o -
s r

i mp r o v e d me th o ds f o r n d i n g li m i ts to th e r o o ts

7 39, th e d e mo n s tra ti o n of two th e o r e ms use d i n th e

p ro of of S tu r m
s Th e o r e m an d a dis c u s s i on of C on
t in u o u s F un ti o n s c
22 . XXXV III c ntai n s th e s luti on of Cubi c E qua
Ch a p . o o

ti n by T i g n me t y i n C a d an s I e d u c i b le C a s e
o s r o o r ,
r

rr

n i mp i n f Ne w t n s M th d f

l
a s o, a ed di u ro v d t
sc ss o o o e o or e er

mi n i n g i n c mme n u abl oto

(5 s r e ro s

Th e x a mp l s n d p b l m h
e b en s e l c te d w i th g e at
e a ro e s a ve e e r

c e an d i n c lu d m n y a i ti n t foun d i n th e Coll g e
ar , e a v r e es o e

Alg b ; n
e rax a mp l i d u pli a te
o e f a ny i n th e C olle ge
e s a c o

Alg b a
e r .

Th e man u s i p t w d i n th e m o t c a e ful man n e by

cr as re a s r r

P r o fe s s o r G e o r g e D O ld s , . of Amh e r s t Co lle ge , wh o o ffe r e d

 PRE FA CE
many s ugg e s ti on s ; th e s e h a v e adde d mate ri ally to th e v alue

of th e w o rk .

Th e au tho r would be un d e r g r ea t ob li gati n t any on e wh o

o s o

w i ll b i n g
r to h i s a tte n ti o n an y e rr r o wh i ch m y b e f un d i n
a o

th e b o ok .

WE BS TE R WE L L S .

BO S TO N ,
1 904 .
 C O NTENTS

DE F I N ITI N N TATI N P ITI E INT E G ER

O S . O O . OS V S

R ATI NA L NU MB ER
O S

A D ITI N AN D S U BT R A TI N OF AL G E B R A I E RE I N
D O C O C XP SS O S .

P A RE NTH E E S S

MUL TI L I ATI N OF AL G E B R AI E RE I N
P C O C XP SS O S

DIV I I N OF AL G EB R AI E RE I N
S O C XP SS O S

I NT G R A L L IN E A R E QU ATI N
E O S

S E IA L M E TH D IN MUL T I L I ATI N AN D I)
P C O N S P C O IV IS O

FA T R ING
C O

H I GHE T C MM N F A T R
S O L W E T C MM N MUL TI LE
O C O . O S O O P

FR A TI NC O S

FR A TI NA L A N D L IT ER A L E QU ATI N
C O O S

S IM UL TAN E U L IN E A R E QU ATI N
O S O S

D I U I N OF L IN E A R E QU ATI N
SC SS O O S

GR A HI A L R E RE E NTATI N
P C P S O

IN LU TI N AN D E LU T I N
VO O VO O

IN EQU A L ITI E S

S UR D THE R
S . OF E N E N T O Y XP O S

AN D C M LE NU MB ER
'

P UR E IM N AG I A R Y. O P X S

Q U A D R ATI E QU ATI N C O S

E QU ATI N L E D L I E QU A D R ATI
O S SO V K CS

S IM UL TAN E U Q U A D R ATI E QU ATI N

O S C O S

I N D E T ER M NAT E L N E A R E QU AT N
I I IO S

R ATI AN D P R R I N
O O PO T O

V A R IATI N O

P R G RE I N
O SS O S

C N
O N AN D D I ER G E N OF S ER I E
CY CY S
Q
R GE V

vi i
 C ON TE N TS

UN D E T ER MIN E D C O E FF I C I E NT S
T H E B IN O M IA L T H E O RE M

L O GA R ITHM S

C O M P O U N D IN T ERE S T A N D A NN U ITI E S
P ER M U TATI O N S A N D C O MBINATI O N S

P R O BABI L IT Y

C O NTIN UE D FR A C TI O N S
S U MMATI O N O F S ER I E S
T H E O R Y O F NU MB ER S

DE T ER M INA N T S
T H E O R Y O F E QU ATI O N S
S O LU TI O N O F H IGH ER E QU ATI O N S

CA U C HY S

P R OO F THAT E ER
V Y E QU ATI O N H AS A RO O T
 AL GEBR A

I . D E F INITIO NS NO TA TIO N
. . P O S ITIV E
INTE G E R S

1 I n Alg eb ra, th e o e r ati o n s o f Ar i th me ti

. p ca re a b ri d g e d an d

g e n e r ali z e d m e a n s by
o f S y mb ols .

MBOL S R E PRE S E N TING N UMBE RS

SY

2 . Th e s y mb ls u s u ally e mp l y e d to
o p s e n t n u mb e rs o re re ar e

th e Ar a b i c Nu mera ls ,
an d th e L etters of the A lp ha b e t .

Th e me r a ls d e n o te k n o w n or d e te rmi n ate numb e r s

nu .

Th e le tte r s d e n o te n u mb e rs w h i c h m ay h a v e a n y v alue s
w h ate ve r, o r n u mb e rs w h o s e v alue s ar e to b e d eter mi ne d .

Nu mb e rs o cc upy i n g si mila r r e lati on s i n th e sa me i n v e s ti ga

ti on a re o fte n re
p r e s e n te d by th e me le tter , d i s ti n gu i s h e d
sa

by d i e re n t a ccen ts ; as a
'
,
a
"
, a

r ea d a p r i me,

a seco n d ,

a thi r d , e tc .

They may a ls o b e d i s ti n gu i s h e d by d i ffe r en t s u b s cr ip t nu m

b ers ; a s a l, a 2, a 3, r e a d

a s u b o n e, a sub two , a s ub thr ee,
e tc .

S YMB OL S R E PR E S E NTING OPE R ATIONS

3 . Th e S i g n of Addi ti on i s e a d p lu ,
r

s .

Th e S i gn of S ub tra ct i on, is rea d

mi nus .

Th e S i g n of M
ulti pli cati on, x , i s r e ad ti me s ,
i nto ,
or

mu ltip li e d b y .

A p o i n t i s s o me ti me s u s e d i n ste a d o f th e S i gn x; thu s,
2 5 3 4 s i gn i e s 2 x 3 x 4 .

Th e S i g n of Di v i s i on, i s re a d d i vi ded by .

J
1
)
)
2 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

S YMBOL S OF REL ATION

4 . Th e S i g n of E quali ty , is r ea d

e qu a ls , or

is equa l to .

Th e S i gn is so me time s us e d for the wo rd s

i s no t e qua l to .

Th e S i gns of nequali ty , an d I s tan d fo r

i s grea ter
tha n

a nd

i s les s tha n,

r e s p e ti v e l c y .

Th e s i gn s 39 a nd st a r e so me ti me s us ed fo r th e word s
i s n ot g re a ter

tha n an d is less th a n , r es p e c ti ve ly

no t .

S YMBOL S OF ABBRE V IA TION

5 Th e S i g ns
. of Aggregati on, th e p a r entheses th e b ra ckets

j
,
th e b r a ce s
f
,
an d th e v i n cu lu m indi c a te th at w hat
is e n c lo s e d by th e m i s to b e ta k e n as a wh o le .

Th e S i g n of D educti on ,
i s re a d
ther ef o r e or

hen ce .

Th e S i g n of Conti nuati on, m ,

is re ad a nd s o on .

TH E P O S ITIV E INTE GER

6 . B y th e mb e r o f th i n g s i n a g r o u p , we me an th at attri
nu

bu t e o f th e g r o u
p w h i c h r e ma i n s u n c h a n g e d h o w e v e r th e gr o u p

may b e c h a n g e d , p r o v i d e d n o thi n g i s d i vi d e d i n to tw o o r
mo r e thi n g s , a n d th at two o r mo re thi n g s a r e n o t me r g e d i n to
a s i n g le thi n g .

T h a t i s , th e nu mb e r Of th i n g s i n a gpriosui n d e p end ent of

th e i r ch ar a ct e r, o f th e o r de r in w hi c h th e may b e y a rr a n g e d ,

an d of th e way i n whi c h. th e y may b e a s so c i at ed in s ma lle r

gr o u p s .

7 . Th e nu mb e rs thi n g s i n two g r o up s a r e
of sa id to b e e qu a l

wh e n f o r ev e r y thi n g i n e i th e r g r ou p th e r e i s a thi n g i n th e
o th e r .

8 . Th e num er of b thi n g s i n on e g r ou p is s a id to b e gr ea ter

tha n th e n u m b er in a n o th e r , o r th e
group nu mb e r i n the s e c on d

b
les s tha n th e n u m e r i n th e r s t, w h e n fo r e v e r th i n g i n th e y
s e c o n d g r ou
p t h e r e i s a thi n g i n th e r st,
b u t n o t o n e i n th e

s e c o n d fo r e v e r
y t h in
g i n th e r s t
 P O S ITIV E IN TE GE RS 3

9 . Th e Pos i ti v e I nteg er .

We d e n e a p o s i ti ve i n teger as th e nu mb e r of thi ng s i n a

g r o u p .

Ap o s i tive i nte ge r i s a ls o c alle d a wh o le numb er .

To e n s u re g e n e r a li t y i n the r e s ults, we re p re se nt n u mb er s by
le tte rs .

I n th e

re ma i n d e r of th e p r e s e nt c h apte r, th e le tte r s a, b, c,

e tc .
,
w ill b e u n d e r s to o d a s r e p r e s e nti n
g p o s i ti v e i n te g e r s .

10 . If a and b s ta n d f o r th e n u m e rsb in a ny two gr o u s p

(
t h a t i s ,
f o r a ny two p o s i ti ve i n te ge r s ), we u se th e sta te me nt

a =b

to s i gn i f y th at th e nu mb e r s a r e e qu a l

Th e s ta te me nt a b is c a lle d a n E quati on .

Agai n, we use th e s ta te me n ts
a b, an d a b

to s i g ni f y th a t th e nu mb e r i n th e r s t g r o u p i s gr e ate r or les s ,
r e s p e c ti v e l y ,
th a n th e n u mb e r i n th e s e co n d
Th e s e s tate me n ts are c a lle d I nequ ali ti es .

ADDITION OF POS ITIV E INTE GE RS

11 . L e t two or mo re g ro u p s c o n ta i n a , b, c, thi n gs , re sp e c

ti v e ly .

I f th e s e con d g p b ro u
e j
o i n e d to th e r s t, w e r e r e s e n t th e p
nu mb e r i n th e r e s u ltin g g r o up a b by .

If to th e latte r g r o u p th e thi rd g r o up b e o i n e d , w e r e p r e j
s ent th e nu mb e r i n th e r e s u lti n g g ro u
p by a +b + c ; an d

so on .

Af te r all th e gr ou p s h a v e b e en un i te d in a s i ngle g r o u p, th e
nu mb e r i n th e latte r g r o u p i s e xp r e s s e d

T hi s r e s u lt is c all d e th e S um of th e p o s i ti v e i n te g e r s a, b, c,

e tc .

Th e o p e r ati o n of n d i n g th e su m is c alle d Additi on .

 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN AL G E B R A
12 . Th e Commuta ti v e a nd A s s oci at i v e La w s f or Additi on .

Ad di ti o n of p o s i ti ve i n te g e r s i s su bj e ct to th e f o ll w in g la w s
o

I . The Commuta ti ve L aw .

To a dd b to a i s th e sa me as to a dd a to b .

E xp re s s e d i n s y mb o ls ,

a + b = b + a

II . T he Associ a ti ve L aw .

To add th e su m of b an d c to a i s th e sa me as to a dd b to a

and th e n ad d c to th e r e s u lt .

E x p re s s e d i n s y mb o ls ,

To i nd i c ate th e a d di ti o n o f b c, it must b e e nc los e d i n p a r enth es es

5)

Th e Co mmutati v e an d As s o c i ati v e L a w s f ollo w f ro m 6;

f o r th e mb e r o f thi n g s
nu i n th e s u m-g r ou p i s i n d e pe n d e n t o f
th e o r d e r i n wh i c h th e y may b e a rr a n g e d, a n d o f th e way in
w hi ch th ey may b e a ss o ci ate d i n s malle r gr o up s .

Th e C o mmuta ti ve an d A s s o c iative L a ws e vi d e ntly h old for th e su m of

any nu mb er of p o s i ti ve i n te ge r s .

M UL TIPL IC ATION OF POS ITIV E INTEGER S

1 3 F i n di n g th e s u m f b p o s i ti e i n te g s e a c h e qu al to a
. o v er , ,

i s c alle d mu ltip lyi ng a by b .

Th e e s ult i s e xp e s s e d
r x b o s i mply b ; th u s
r a ,
r a ,

ab = a + a + to b te r ms .

Th e S i gn o f mu lti pli ca ti on i s u s ua lly o mi tte d in A lg b e r a , e xc e p t b e twe en

A rab i c numera ls .

W e c all a Multipli cand an d b th e Multipli e

th e ,
r .

If ab be mu lti p li d by a n th e p o i ti e i n t g
e o r s v e e r , c, th e r e s u lt

is e xpr e s s e d a b c ; an d s o on .

If a ny n u mb e r of p o s i ti v e i n te ge r s b e multi p li e d to g e th e r,
th e r e s u lt is c alle d th e i r P r oduct .

Th e o pe rati on o f n d i ng th e p r oduct i s c alled Multi pli cati on .

 O I I
P S T VE IN TE G ERS 5

14 . Th e Commutati ve, As s oc i ati v e, and Di s t ri b uti v e L a w s f or

Multi pli cati on .

Multi p li c ati o n o f p o s i ti v e i n te g e r s i s su bj e c t to the f ollo win g

la ws
I. The Co mmuta ti ve L aw .

To mu lti p l y by b a i s th e sa me as to multi p ly b by a .

E x pr e s s e d i n s y mb o ls , ab ba .

II . The A ss o c i a ti ve L aw .

y by th p du c t f b by i th e s me as to
To multi p l a e ro o c, s a

multi p ly by b an d th n mul ti p ly th
a ,
ult by e e re s c .

E xp e e d i n s y mb ls
r ss
( )
b b o ,
a c a c .

III Th D i t i b uti L a w
. e s r ve .

T mu lti ply
o by th e s um o f b n d i s th e same as to multi
a a c

l
p y a by b a n d th n by,
a nd dd th e e
s ults a c, a e r .

E xp e s s d i n s y mb ls a (
r e b c
) ab ac o ,
.

15 . Pro of of th e Commutati v e L aw .

L e t th e r e b e , i n th e g ur e, a un i ts i n e ac h r o w, a n d b ro w s .

W e may n d th e e n ti r e n u m e r o f b un i ts by a n a r ow
multi p ly i n g th e n umb er i n e ac h r o w, a , by th e
.

1 1 1 1
n u mb e r o f r o w s , b .

1 1 1 1
T hus , th e enti re numbe r o f un its i s a b .

1 1 1 1
We may also nd th e e ntir e n umb e r by multi
p ly i n g th e n u m b e r i n e a c h v e r ti c a l c o lu mn, b , by

th e nu mbe r o f c o lumn s , a .
b ro ws .

Thu s, th e e n ti r e n umb e r o f un i ts i s b a .

Th r
e e fore , ab ba .

16 . Proof of th e A s s oci ati v e L aw .

By the d e n i ti o n of 1 3,
ab c = ab ab to 6 te r ms

( a a to b te r ms) (
a a to b te rms)
to 0 te r m s

d +a to b c te r ms ,
by th e A s oc i ti e L a w fo s a v r Ad di ti on 1 2)
a
(
b c
)
,
by th e d n i ti o n f 1 3 e o .
6 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
17 Proof of th e Di s tri b uti v e L aw .

B y th e d e n i ti o n of 1 3,

a
(+
b c
) = a + a + to (+
b c ) te r ms

(
-
l a a to b te r ms) (d +a to c te r ms)
by c
th e A s s o i a ti v e L aw f o r Ad d i ti o n 1 2)
ab a c, by th e d e n i ti on of 13 .

18 . We w i ll n ew sh ow th a t th e Co mmu tati ve an d As s o c i a
ti v e L a ws f o r Multi p li c ati o n h old fo r th e p ro d u t c of a ny

nu mb e r of p o s i ti v e i n te g e r s .

We w ill st p r rov e th e C o m mu tati v e L aw f or th e p r od u c t of

three p o s i ti v e i n te g e r s , a, b, an d 0 .

By 14, II , abc = a
( )
b c
( )
cb a , by 14, I ,

cb a

I n lik e ma nn e r, we m ay p r ov e a b c e q u al to th e p r o du ct o f a,

b , an d c i n an y o th e r o r d e r .

19 . We wi ll n o w p r o ve th e As s o c i ati v e L a w fo r th e p r o d u c t
of f o u r p o s i ti v e i nte g e r s , a, b, c, a n d d .

By 1 4, I ,
a
( )
b cd
( )
b ed a ( )
b e d a a
()
b c d 1 8)

(
a bc
)d 14, II ) a b cd .

By c o n ti n u i n g th e f o r e go i n g, th e C o mmu ta ti v e and A s so i ac
ti ve L a w s ma y b e p r o v e d f o r th e p r o d uc t of a ny nu mbe r of

p o s i ti v e i n te g e r s .

Th e D i t ib
s r uti ve L aw fo r M ultip li cati o n h old s fo r th e su m of an y

n umb e r o f p o s i tive i nte ge rs , as is e vid e n t f r om th e n a tur e o f th e d e mon

s trati o n in 17 .

B
S U TR A CTION OF
OS ITIV E INTE GERS P

2 0 W d e n e S ub t cti on a s th p o c e s
. e f n d i n g n e f
ra e r s o o o

tw o
p s i ti e i o
n t g (
th e R
v e m i n d e ) w h e n
e th i ers u m (th e a r , e r s

Mi nuend) an d th e th e p o si ti e i nte ge (the S ub trahend) a e

o r v r r

g i v e n .

Th u s ,b t ac ti on i s th e i nv e s e f ad d ition
su r r o .

2 1 Th e e mai nd e w h e n b i s s ub t ac te d from a
. r r, r ,
is p
e x re s s e d

a b .
 P O S I TI V E IN TE G E RS 7

S in ce , by th e d e n i ti o n 20 , th e su m o f th e
of re ma i n d e r
an d th e s ub t h ra e n d e q u a ls th e mi n u e n d , we h a v e

( a ()
1

22 . If th e n a = b .

F o r i f th e b
n u m e r s o f u n i ts i n th e su ms a c an d b c are

e q u al, th e r e s u lt o f su btr ac ti n g th e u n i ts in c fr o m ea ch su m
w ill b e th e sa me ; th at i s , a b .

23 . It f o llo ws , p re c i ly a
se s In 2 2, th a t

If th e n a >b .

If th e n a <b .

24 . R ules for S ub tracti on .

Th e f o llo win g r u le s , to g e th e r w i th th e la ws Of 12 an d 14,

ar e s u f i e n t,c if s ui ta b ly c o mb i n e d , to d e te r mi n e th e
\
r e s u lt o f

a n y o p e r ati o n w i th p o s i ti v e i n te g e rs , i n v o lv in g y
o nl a dd i ti on ,

su b t ac ti on
r , an d multi p li c a ti o n :
b a
O) a -
GH 4
9 a

c b
@) a b c a

a b +
@) 0 aw 4 a a

@) a + b b a

($ 7 a
a a

w) a + b c a c +b

() (
7 a b c
) ab ac .

25 . Pr oof s of th e R ules f or S ub tra cti on .

P r o of of
I f we I)
'

a dd 0 , an d th e n b to a b c, o r 1 2, ,
i f we a dd

b, an d th e n 0, Or 1 2, II ) ,
i f we add b c, th e r e s ult is a .

Tha t i s , a b a .

R e ga r di n g a as th e mi n u e n d , b + c as th e su b t ah en d
r , an d

a b c as th e re mai n d e r, we h a v e
a b c .
8 AD V AN CE D C O URS E IN A L G E B R A
P ro of of
By a c b = a

b
a a by a)
P ro of of
a b + e = a

a
(
b c
) c + c, by

( c
a b ) .

a +b
a + b b = a

a +b c

+( II)
a b c
)+ c c

a +(
b -c
), by
P r o of of
B y 1 2, I ,
a + b c =b+ a c
)
,
by
c
( a
)
c + b +b .

P r o of of
B y 21 , ab ac

a
(b
)
c + ac a c
( ,
1 4 I II =
) (b
a -c
) by
,

I t i s i mp o rta nt to o bs e rv e tha t th e r e s u lts o f 24 a re s i mp ly

fo rmal c o n s e q u e n ce s o f 1 2, 1 4 , 2 1 , an d 22 ; th e mu s t fo llo y w
f ro m th e s e w h a te ver me an i n g i s atta c h e d to th e s m ols, a , b , y b
c, an d

26 . E q u a ti o n s ()
2 an d g 24 , S h o w th at a s e t of su b tr a c
ti o n s , o r o f a d d i ti on s a n d s u b t ac ti ons
r , ca n be p e rf or me d in an y

o rd e r .

E q ua ti on (
4 ) sh o w s th at a dd i ti on i s th e i nv e r s e o f su bt a cti on
r .

E q u a ti o n s an d wi th 1 2, II , g i v e c omple te
ass o ci a ti v e la ws fo r a ddi ti o n a n d su bt a r c ti on .

E q u a ti on w ith 14, III ,

i
g ve a c omplete d i s tr i buti v e
W f o r mu lti p li c a ti o n .
 P O S ITIV E IN TE G E R S 9

DIV IS ION OF P OS ITIV E INTE GE RS

27 . We d e n e Di v i s i on o f p o s i ti v e i n te g e r s as th e p ro ce s s of

n d i n g o n e of two p o s i ti v e i n te g e r s ( th e Quoti ent) w h i c, h wh

en

multi p li e d by a n o th e r p o s i ti v e i n te g e r (th e D i v i s or i
), g v e s a
th i r d p o s i ti v e i nte ge r (th e Di v i d end
)
.

T h us ,
d i v i s i o n i s th e i n v e r s e of multi p li c a ti on .

28 . Th e q u oti e n t wh en a i s di vi d e d by b is e x p r e ss e d a b,
a

b
S in c e by th e
,
d eni ti o n of 2 7 , th e p r o du t c of th e q uo ti e nt
by th e d i vi s or g i v e s th e d i v id e n d , we h a ve

b = a .

29 . If ac b e, th e n a b .

F or , i f te rms, mu s t
h av e a =b .

30 . R ules for Di v i s i on
. .

a c ac
()
1
b d bd

For by 1 4, I an d II

Als o,

Th e n, by 29 ,

C be
d

F or by s 28 ,
10 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E BR A
d a d
A1S O ) bY (1 ) 2
9 c

bC d b 0

B ut by 28,

Whe n c e ,
by 2 9,

F ro m (
A) and ( ),
B by 29

ad + bc
3 a q _
() +
b d bd
For by 14, I II, ,
an d III ,

e
b
d

ad b e, by 28,
ad - be
A13 0 ,
Z
b l
bd ad b e, by 28,

ad be
F ro m (
C) an d ( ),
D by 2 9 ,
g + g
b d bd

a 2 ad bc
() b
4
d bd
T hi s i s p r o v e d i n th e sa me man ne r as

Th e r e s ults o f mp ly f o r mal c o n s e q u e n c e s o f
30 are S i 14
24 , 28 , an d 2 9 ; a n d mu s t f o llo w f r o m th e s e wh a te v e r me a n i n g

i s a tta c h e d to th e s y mb o ls a , b , c, a b , and 9 ,

31 . If ad : b c, th e n -b d = b

by I II 9
Th e n , I4 , an d
3
Th e n, by 29 ,
a

C
;

0 Q
 R A T IONA L N UMB E RS

II . R A TIO NA L NU M B E R S

32 Th e p ro o f s i n 2 5 h o ld o n l
. h e n th e r e s ult o f e v e r yw y
c b
i n d i ate d s u tra c ti o n i s a p o s i ti ve i n teger ; f o r th e la s o f 12 w
an d 1 4 h ave o nl yb een p ro v e d f o r th e ca se in w hi c h a ll th e
le tte r s i n vo lv e d r ep r e s e nt p os i ti v e i n te g e r s .

A r e s u lt li k e (1 ) h a s ,
at p r e s e nt, no mea n i ng un le s s b + c

is ; a and i n th e re ma i n d e r of th e w o rk we s h o u ld be co m
p e lle d to li mi t ever y su b t c ti
ra on to c s
a es wh e re i t wa s a r i th

me ti c a lly p o s s i b le .

U n le s s , th e n , su bt a r c ti o n i s to b e ver y much r e s tr i c te d ,
we
mu s t c on s id e r th e c a se s wh e re th e s ub t a h n d
r e e q u a ls , or is
g r e a te r th a n , th e mi n u e n d ; th i s le a d s to th e i n tr o d u c ti o n i n to

Alge b ra o f Z er o a n d th e Nega ti ve Nu mb er .

S YMBOL IC E QU ATIONS
33 . Th e e q u ati o n 21, i s n o t a n e qu ati o n a s d e n ed i n
1 0, u nle s s a a n d b are p o s i ti ve i n te g e r s , and a b .

B ut i f w e a gre e to d e n e a n e q u a ti o n a s s i mp ly a s ta te me nt
tha t two symb o ls , o r co mb in a ti o ns of symb o ls a r e of s u ch a cha r ,

a cte r tha t o n e ma y b e s u b s ti tu te d f o r the o th e r i n a ny op e r a ti o n ,

th e n 2 1 , may b e a n e q u ati on w h ate v e r th e v a lue s o f

a and b .

I n thi s s y mb li c o d e ni ti o n o f a n e q u ati o n , it i s unn e c e s s a r y

th a t th e r e s h o uld be a ny r e al th i n g s to whi c h th e s y mb o ls

c o r re s
p o n d .

We S h all atta c h th i s me a n i n g to ever y e q u a ti o n th r o u gh o u t

th e re m ai n d e r of th e w o rk whi ch doe s not e x p re s s th e e q u a li t y
of two p o s i ti v e i n te g e r s .

34 . S y mb oli c S ub tracti on .

I f we r e gard e q u a ti o n 21 , as d e n i n g a b , wha te ver

the va lu es o f a a nd b , w e h a v e i n th i s wa y a sy mb o li c d e n i ti o n
of su bt r a c ti o n wh i c h h o ld s un i v e r s a ll y .
12 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
T hi s d e n e s su bt a
r c ti o n i n te r ms of sy mb oli c a d di ti o n fo r
th e S i gn c an n ot i n d i c a te nu me r i c a l a d di ti o n, u n le s s th e
s y mb ol whi c h i t c n n t
s o ec s ar e p o s i ti ve i n te ge r s .

It i s p fe c tly lo gi c l t
er a o d e n e an o pe r a ti on by me an s of

an e qu ati o n .

Z ER O AND TH E NE GATIV E INTE GER

35 . I n d e te r mi n i n g th e d e n i ti o n s a n d r u le s o f o pe r ati o n o f

zer o a n d th e n ega ti v e i nteger, we mak e th e a s su mp ti o n th at th e

r es ults o f 1 2, 1 4 , 2 2 , and 23 h o ld f o r th e s e s y mb o ls .

If all th e le tte r s d o n ot r e p r e s e nt
p o s i ti ve i n te g e r s , th e
r e s u lts of 1 2, 1 4 , 22 , an d 23 ar e r e g ar d e d as s y mb oli c
s tate ments .

36 . S in c e th e r e s ults o f 24 are s i mply fo rma l c on se qu en c e s

of 1 2, 1 4 , an d bt a ti on i t follo ws
22, a nd th e d e n i ti o n of su r c ,

f omr 3 5 th at th e y h ld f th a b o v e s y mb l o or e o s .

If th e su lts f re24 d n t h a e a p i ti e i n te g al i n te
o o o v os v r r

erta ti n th y a e
o e g a d e d as s y mb o li c
e r ta te m
r e nts r s
p ,
.

I n th i s wa y th e y b e c m d e ni ti n s f y mb oli c a dd i ti on o e o o s ,

s ub t a c ti o n an d mu lti p li c ati o n a n d th e i
r ,
e lati o n s ,
r r .

37 . Z er o .

E v e r y le tte r i n 3 7 to 4 2 , i n clus i ve , will b e un d ers to o d a s r ep r es enti ng

a p os i ti ve i nteg er .

P utti n g b a, in 28 , we h av e

(a ()
1

y mb ol a
Th e sif i s an y p o s i ti v e i nte ge a, a r, is re p r e s e n te d

by th e s y mb l 0 c alle d z o ,
er o .

T hen (1 ) b o me s 0 ec a a . 2
()
S in c e th e C mmutati e L aw f o v or 1 2) i s a s su me d
to h o ld i f e i th e r le tte r e q u a ls 0 we may w r i te e q ua

Ag ai n , by d e n i ti o n , a 0 me an s a s y mb ol s uch th at whe n
0 is a dd e d to it, th e su m is a .

T h at i s , ( a 0) 0 a .
 R A TIONA L N UMB E RS 13

Th e n, by a O a .

Aga i n by th e d e n i ti o n o f 0
, ,

b = ab
a
) ab ,
b y 24 ,

O, by d e n i ti o n .
()
5
We c a n u se 24 , i n th e a b ove p r o of f o r we k n o w fro m 3 6 th a t
i t h o ld s , e ve n i f th e r es u lt d o es n ot h av e a p o s iti ve i nte g ra l i nte rp r e tati o n .

From by th e C o mmu ta ti v e L aw f or Mu lti p li c ati on ,

OX Ct 0 .
()
6

38 . Th e Neg ati v e I ntege r .

L e t b b e g re a te r th a n

a ; a nd s u pp o s e b a d, whe re d is
a p o s i ti v e i n te g e r .

T h n by th d e ni ti
e ,
e on o f s u bt r ac ti o n
,
b a d .

T h e n b = ,
a a -a d
,
by 24 ,

0 d, by th e d e n i ti on of 0 .

We c a n use 24 , i n th e a b ov e , fo r we k n o w th a t i t h o ld s , even if
th e r es ult does n ot h av e a p os i ti ve i n tegr a l i n te rp re ta ti o n .

We th e n d e ne a b , if b is a, as b e i n g e qu a l to 0 d .

It i s u s ua l to w r i te d i n s tea d of O d .

Th u s , 0 d d .
()
1

Th e s y mb ol d is c all ed a Negati v e I nteg er ; i n c o n tr a d i s

c
ti n ti o n , th e p o s iti v e i n te g e r d may b e w r i tte n d .

39 . Th e signs + . an d wh e n u sed i n th e a bo ve mann e r,

a re no lo n g e r s i gn s of o p e r a ti o n ; th e y a re c alle d s i gn s of

Aecti o n, Qu a li ty, Opp o s i ti o n

'

or .

If n o S i gn 1 8 w r i tte n , th e S i gn is u n d e r s to o d .

4 0 . R ules for Addi ti on ,

S ub tra cti on, a nd Multi pli cati on, i nv olv
i ng Negati v e I ntege rs .

b =
()
1 a + ( ) a b .

F o r, by th e d e n i ti o n of 38,

a + ( b
,
by 24 ,

a b, n
by 37 ,
14 AD V A NC E D C O UR S E IN A L G EB R A
a + ( b
) =
b
a + ( ) a + (
0 b) -a
+ 0 b
O a

0
( a -b
)
,
b y 24 ,

a b) = a (
O b =
) a

()
4

b
) -a
+ b = b a .

b) a b) a O+ b a +b 0
a
+ b, by 37,
_b

P utti n g b f o r a in ()
1 an d we ha ve
() +
5 b (
()
6
b
()
7

()
8 a ( b) ab .

By 37 , O z a O= a
[ b by
ab a ( b ), by 1 4, III .

T h en ,
a b l a b ab a b) .

W h en c e ,
by 22 , ab a b) .

()
9 b )a z ab ba .

Thi s f ollo w f s ro m (8 ) b y 14, I .

( )
1 0 a
) x O 0 .

F or , by th e d e n i ti o n of 0,

(_ X0 : b b
l :y 24 :
a
) Ci
) b

ab
) ab
),
by
0, by
( )
1 1 0 x a
) = 0 .

T hi s f o llo w s fro m (
1 0) b y 14, I .
 R A TIO NAL N UMB E R S 15

( )
1 2 a
) b) z ab .

b
By a
) )l ,
by
a b
) + ) ( a b ), by 14, III ,

ab + a
)( b ), b y ()
9
T h e n by ab + ab ab a
) b) .

T h n by e 2 2, a b a
)( )
b .

41 . If b i s > a,

Then ,

Th e n by 23 , a > b .
()
1
In li k e ma nn e r , i f b i s < a, a is b .

Th e s e m a y b e r e g a r d e d as d e n i n g g r e ate r and le s s i n e q u ali t y

In ne g a ti v e i n teg e rs .

42 . If a an d b a re p o s i ti v e i nte g e r s ,
a < a +b; o r, by 37 ,
Th e n , by 23 , O b .

Th en, b b b 0, by 37 , an d 4 0,
W h e n c e, by 23, b 0 .

YMBOL IC DIV IS ION

S

43 . I t i s i mp o r t n t to b e
a th a t th o s r ve e r e s u lt o f 29 d o e s
n ot h old wh en c 0; f by 3 7
or xO ,
a b x 0, w h en a an d

b a r e n ot e q u a l .

I t fo llo w s f r o m th i s th a t th e p r o o f s i n 30 an d 31 d o n ot

h o ld i f or d = 0 .

44 . S y mb oli c Di v i s i on . Th e Fracti on .

Th e p r o o f s i n 3 0 a n d 3 1 h old o n l h en th e r e sult o f y w
ev e r y
i n d i c ate d d i v i s i o n i s a p o s i ti ve i n teger .

A r e sult lik e th a t o f 30, h a s , a t p r e se nt, n o me an i n g

a c ac
u n le s s a nd are p o s i ti v e I n te g e r s .

b d bd
C
w h at
B ut i f we r e ga r d e q u a ti o n 28 , as d e n i n g
i ,

e ve r th e v a lu e s o f a a n d b , p r o vid e d b i s n ot 0 we hav e
a sy mb o li c d e n i ti o n o f d i v i s i o n , w h i c h h o ld s un i v e r s a ll y .
16 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN AL G E B R A

Th e s y mb ol
C1
_
_ w ith th e a b o ve m e a n in g o f a an d b, is c alle d
b
a Fra cti on .

Th e sy mb o ls
3 a nd
8 a r e c o n s id e r e d i n C h ap X . III .

If a an d b are p o s i ti v e I n te g e r s , a nd
g is n ot a p o s i ti v e

i n te g e r, is called a P os i ti v e Fra cti on, an d a Negati v e

Fr acti on .

45 . We mak e th e a s su mp ti on th at th e

r e s ults o f 1 2, 1 4 ,

an d 2 2 h old f o r th e s y mb ol as d en e d i n 44 ; wh n c e
e ,
it

f ollo ws th at th e r e s ults o f 24 h o ld f o r th e s y mbo l

We a ls o a s su me th at th e r e s u lt o f 2 9 h old s fo r all th e sy m
b ols c o n s i d e r e d i n th e p r e s e nt

c h ap te r , p r o vi d e d b is not 0 .

46 . S i n c e th e r e s u lts o f 30 an d 31 a r e si mply f o rmal c o n

s e qu en c s f e o 1 4 , 24 , an d 29 , an d th e d e n i ti o n of d i vi s i o n,
i t fo ll w s f m
o ro 4 5 th at th e y h old p,
r o vi d e d b an d
0, d a r e n ot

e ven i f th e r e s u lts do n ot hav e a p o s i ti v e i n te g r a l i n te r

p r e ta ti o n .

I n th i s wa y , th e r e s u lts o f 30 b ce o m e d e n i ti o n s o f a dd i ti o n ,

bt c ti mu lti p li c a ti o n , y mb 6
su ra o n, an d d i v i s i o n , f o r th e s ol
;
47 . S i n c e th e r e s u lts o f 1 2, 1 4 , 2 2, an d 24 h old f or an y

of th e sy mb ols c on s i d e r e d
i n th e p r e s e n t Ch ap te r 3 5 , 3 6,
th e r e s u lts o f 3 7 an d 4 0 h o ld f o r a ny of th e s e s y mb
; f oo ls
r

th e ya re si mp ly f o r ma l c o n s e q u e n c e s of 1 2, 1 4 , 22 , an d 24 ,
an d th e d e n i ti on o f s u b tr a cti o n .

48 . Sin ce th e s y mb oli c d e n i ti on of d i v i si on 4 4 ) h o ld s
for an
y v a lu e s o f th e le tte r s i n v o lv e d , we h av e

b) a .

Ag ai n, 4 0 , h o ld s w h e n we r e p la e a c by 47)

Then ,
g b a ,
 R A TIONA L NUMB E R S 17

:
F r om A
() an d ( ),
B by 29 , whi ch is s up p o s e d to h old fo r
th e s y mb ol b

a 2

0
()

An d by s 4 0, ( )
D

F r o m (C)
"
a
an d ( ),
D
;
I
()
2

Also, b) ()
E

An d b y S 4 0, b) (?
F

F r om (
E ) and (
F),
I; Z ()
3

r e s ults th e le tte r s,
Th e and ()
3 h o ld f o r any v alu e s o f

p r ovi d e d b is n ot 0 .

49 . Con si d e r th e e qu ati o n a b 0;

wh e er a an d b may b e p o s i ti v e i n te g e r s, o r a ny o f th e s ymb ols

co n s i d ere d in p
th e r e s e n t h ap ter c .

By 37 whate ver th e v alu e o f c,

0 ac ac .

P utti n g ab f o r 0 , we h av e

ab ac a c, o r a (
b 0
) ac, by 1 4 , II I .

Th en by 29, i f a is n ot 0 m
( p a
cor e

b + c = c, o r b = 0

Th e r e fo r e , e i th er a 0, o r e ls e b O
.

50 I t i s a d v a n ta g e ou s , a t th i s p o i nt, to
. c on si d e r th e n atu r e

o f th e a r g ume n t w
h i c h h a s e e n d e v e lop e d b .
18 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
I n Ch a p ,
w e
. dIe n e d th e p o s i ti v e i n te g e r , a n d th e o p er a
ti o n s b
o f Add i ti o n , S u tr a c ti o n , M u lti p li c a ti on , an d D i v i s i o n

w i th p o s i ti v e w
i n te g e r s ; a n d w e s h o e d h o w th e fun d a me n ta l
l ws f
a o w
1 2 , 1 4 , 22 , a n d 2 9 f o llo e d f r o m th e d e n i ti o n s o f
A d d i ti o n an d Mu lti p li c a ti o n , an d th e r e s u lts of 24 and 30
f r o m th e a b ove g e n e r al la w s, an d th e d e n i ti o n s of b
S u tr ac ti on
an d D i vi s i o n .

I n Ch ap . II ,
med th e f un d a me n tal la w s of
we a ssu 1 2, 1 4 ,
22, a n d 29 , a n d th e s y mb o li c d e n i ti o n s o f S u b tr ac ti o n a n d
D i v i s i o n , to h o ld u n i v e r s ally ; a n d fr o m th e s e a s s umpti o n s , w e
d e r i ve d th e d e n i ti o n s o f z e r o , th e n e g a ti ve i n te g e r , a n d th e
p o s i ti ve an d n e g a ti v e c
f ra ti o n , an d th e r ule s f o r th e i r o p e ra

ti o n, th e a ssu mp ti o n s b i n g j ust
e s uf c i e nt to d e te rmi n e th e s e
me an i n g s w i th ou t a mb i gui ty .

51 . R ati onal Numb ers .

c
In th e p r e s e n t h a p te r , w e h av e on s i d e r e d f o ur s y m ols c b
z e r o , th e n e g a ti v e i n te g e r , a n d th e p o s i ti v e a nd n e g a ti v e f r ac

ti o n w bj
h i c h a r e s u ec t to th e s a me r ule s a s p o s i ti v e i n te ge r s .

Th e resu lt of ev e y
r o p e r a ti o n i n v olvi n g y
o nl a dd i ti o n , su b

tr a c ti o n , mu lti pli c a ti o n , an d d i v i s io n wh e th e r p e rfor me d on

p o s i ti v e i nte g e r s , or on th e s y mb o ls th e ms e lve s can be ex

p re s s e d e i th e r as a p o s i ti v e i n te g e r, o r as on e of th e s y mbol s .

F o r th i s rea so n
,
we s h all r e g a r d th e s e s y mb o ls a s n u mb er s ;
and we s h a ll te r m th e e n ti r e s y s te m o f p o s i ti v e an d n e g ati ve

i n te g e r s , an d p o s i ti v e a n d n e g a ti ve f r ac ti o n s , R a ti o na l Nu mb er s .

Z e ro , th e n e g a ti v e i n te g e r , an d th e p o s i ti v e and n e g ati v e

fr ac ti o n , ar e e s s e n ti a ll y a r ti ci a l n u mb e r s , i n c o n tra s t to th e
n a tur a l n u mb e r s (p o s iti v e i n te g e r s ) c on sid e re d i n Ch a p . I .

I t mu s t b e c le arl y un d e r s to o d th a t th e y are si mp ly symb o ls

f o r th e r e s u lts o f o p e r a ti o n s o n a c tu a l g r o u p s o f thi n g s , whi ch

o mp a r e
c a nn o t be e xp r e s s e d i n p o s i ti v e i n te g e r s .
(
C
We S h all us e th e te r m p os i ti ve n umb er , i n C h ap s . II to XV II ,
i n c lus i ve ,
to d e n o te a p o s i ti ve i nteg e r o r a p os i ti ve f r a cti o n ; a n d th e te r m neg a ti ve
nu mb er to d e n o te a n eg a ti ve i nteg e r o r a n eg a ti ve f r a cti o n Th e te r m .

n u mb er , wi th o ut a j
q ua li fy i n g a d e c ti ve , wi ll b e u n d e rs to o d a s s ign ify i ng

a p o s i ti ve o r n eg a ti ve i n teg er , or a p os i ti ve o r n eg a ti ve f ra cti o n .
 R A TIONA L N UMB E R S 19

E ve ry le tte r wi ll b e u n d e rs to o d a s r e p r e s e n ti ng a p o s i tiv e o r n e g a ti ve

inte g e r , or a p os i ti ve o r n e g a tiv e f ra c ti o n , u nle ss th e c o n tra r y is s tate d .

52 . I t i s i mp o r ta n t to o b s e rve th a t th e r e s u lts of 24 an d

30, and all th e r e s ults of C h ap . II ,

f o llo w f r o m th e fu n d a
me nta l la w s of 1 2, 1 4 , 2 2, 23 , a nd 29 , an d th e s y mb oli c

d e n i ti o n s of su b t c ti
ra on an d di v i s i on , e n tir e ly i r resp ecti ve o f
whether o r no the symb o ls ha ve
mer i ca l mea n i ng a n y nu .

Thu s , all th e r e s u lts o f th e te xt h o ld f o r an y s y mb o ls whi c h

s ati s fy th e f un d a me n ta l la w s , n o ma tte r wh a t th e i r me a n i n g .

53 . Th e a b s o lu te v a lu e o f a nu m e r b i s th e nu mb e r tak e n
i n d e p e n d e n tl y of th e S ign a ffe c ti n g it .

T hu s, th e ab s o lu te v alu e o f 3 is 3 .

54 . T he r e s u lts o f 4 2 h o ld wh en b is an
y p o s i ti v e n u mb e r .

H e n c e , z e ro i s les s tha n a ny p o s i tive nu mb er, a n d a ny n ega ti ve

nu mb e r i s les s tha n z ero .

5 . Ag a i n, by 4 7 , th e r e s ult 41, a ls o h o ld s wh e n a

an d b ar e p o s i ti v e f r ac ti o n s .

H e n c e , of two n ega ti ve nu mb ers, tha t i s the gr ea ter wh i ch ha s

the s ma ller a b s o lu te va lue .

56 . w c
An y two ma gn i tud e s hi h a r e Opp o s i te to e ac h o th e r may
b e r e p r e s e n te d by p
o s i ti v e a n d n e g a ti v e n u m e r s , i n Alg e ra b b .

T h u s , i n n a n c i a l tr a n s ac ti o n s , we may r e p r e s e n t a s s e ts by
th e S i gn an d lia b i li ti es b y th e S i g n th u s , th e s ta te me nt
th a t ma n s
a

a s s e ts a r e $ 1 0 0 , me a n s th at h e h a s li a i li ti e s b
to th e a m o un t o f $ 1 0 0 .

A ga i n, we may r e p r e s e n t moti o n a lo n g a s tr a i gh t li n e i n a

c e r ta i n d i re c ti o n b y th e S i gn an d i n th e o pp o s i te d i r e cti o n
'

b y th e S i gn an d s o on .

57 . Grap h i ca l R ep res ent ati on of P os i t i v e a nd Ne g ati v e Numb ers .

8 7 6 -5 4 _3 _2 -1 0 + 1 +2 +3 +4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8

0 A B U B E E G ] !
Th e e nti r e s e ri e s o f p o s i ti ve a n d n e g a ti v e b
nu m e r s m ay b e
re
p r e s e n te d by th e a b o v e s c a le , i n wh i c h th e di v i s i o n s a re o n e

u n i t i n le n g th .
20 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
D i s ta n c es me a s u r e d to th e r i gh t of 0 re
p r e s e nt
p o s i ti v e

nu mb e r s , an d to th e le f t of 0, n e g a ti v e .

E v e r y p o s i ti v e o r n e g ati v e f r ac ti o n i ll b e r e p re s e n te d w by
th e d i s tan c e f r o m O to a oint p
e t e e n two c o n s ec u ti v e s c ale b w
ma rk s .

T hu s, th e nu mb e r 33 7 T w i ll b e r e p r e se nte d by th e d i s tan c e
fr o m 0 to a p o i n t two-thi r d s th e way f ro m C to D ' '

58 . If an
y nu mb e r , p o s i ti v e o r n e g ati v e , b e d e n o te d by th e

s y mb ol a , a will r e p r e s e n t a nu mb e r of th e sa me a b lu te
so

v a lu e , b ut o pp o s i te S i g n .

I t f o llo w s f r o m thi s th at a
) a nd a
) s ign i f y n um
b e rs of th e sa me a b s olu te v a lu e a s a , and o f th e sa me S i g n,

an d O p p o si te S i g n, r e sp e cti v el y .

Th at i s, a
) a, an d a
) a .
()
1

S i milar l y ,
a
) a, an d a
) a . 2
()
F r om (1 ) an d

a
>= an d

DE FINITIONS
59 . Ad d i ti n S ub t a c ti n Multi p li c ti on a n d D i i s i n
o ,
r o ,
a ,
v o of

an y a lg b i n u mb s
e ra c e e xp s s e d i n th e s a m man n e
er ar as re e r in
1 1 , 1 3, 2 0, an d 28 .

F or e xa mp le , 2 a b s i gn i e s 2 x a x b .

60 . If a nu mb e r b e multi pli e d by i ts elf an y

nu m e r b of

ti me s , th e p r o d uc t i s c a lle d a Power of th e nu mb e r .

An E xp onent i s a nu mb e r w r i tte n at th e r i gh t o f, a n d a b ov e
a n o th e r n u mb e r , to i n d i c ate w h at p o w e r o f th e la tte r i s to b e
tak e n ; thu s ,
2
a r e ad a s qu a r e, or a s ec o n d o we r d e n o te s a X a
, p , ;
s
r ea d

a c u b e, thi r d p o we r, d e n o te s x

a , or a a a >
<a ;

re ad

a , a f o u r th
,
or a f o u r th p o wer , d e n o te s a X a x a x a ;
an d s o o n .

If n o e xp o n en t is ex p r e s se d , th e fi r s t p w o er is understood .
 R A TIONA L N UMB E RS 21

T hu s ,
a i s th e sa me as a

.

61 Algeb
. ra i c E xp res s i ons .

An Alg eb ra i c E xp re ss i on, or s i mp ly an E xp re s s i on, i s a nu mb e r

e xp r e s s e d in a lg e b ra i c s y mb o ls ; a s,

x
2
2, a ,
or 2 3 ab +5 .

A M onomi l a ,
or Term, i s an e xp r e s s i o n wh o se p a r ts are n ot
m
se p a t d by th
ra e e s ign s or as 2 x
2
,
3 a b, 5, or
n
A m mi l i
ono a s so me times c a lle d a s i mp le exp re s s i o n .

2 x
2
,
3 a b , an d 5 a re c alle d th e te r ms of . th e e xp r e s s i o n

2m 2
3 ab 5 .

A Pos i ti v e Term i s o ne p r e c ed e d by a p lus S i gn ; a s 5 a .

F o r thi s r ea s o n th e S i gn is o f te n c a lle d th e p osi ti ve s i gn .

If 11 6 S i g n is e xp r e s s e d , th e te r m i s un d e r s too d to b e p o s i ti v e ;
th u s , 2 x i s th e 2
sa me as 2 (P .

A Neg ati v e Term i s on e p re c e d e d by a mi nu s S i gn as 3 ab .

F o r th i s th e s i gn is o fte n c a lle d th e n ega ti v e s i gn

r ea s o n

it can ne v e r be o mi tte d b e f o r e a n e g a ti v e te r m .

A P oly nomi al i s a n e xp r e s s i o n c on s i s ti n g of mo r e th an o ne

te r m ; a s a + b , o r 2 x2
3 ay 5y 2 '
.

Ap oly n o mi al Is als o '

c alle d a mu lti n omi a l, o r a co mp o und e xp r es s i on .

A B i nomi al i s a p o ly n o mi al o f two te r ms ; a s a b .

A Tri nomi al i s a p oly n o mi al o f thr ee te r ms ; a s a b c .

62 . Th e Numeri cal V alue of an e x p re s s i o n i s th e r e s u lt

o btai n e d by su b s ti tu ti n g p a r ti c ula r c
n u me r i al v alu e s f o r th e
le tte r s i n v o lv e d i n i t, an d p e r fo r mi n g th e o p e r a ti o n s i nd i c ate d .

Th u s , if : 4, b and d : 2, th e n u me r i c al value of

6 c
4 a +
b

63 . A mo n o mi al i s said to b e r a ti o n a l a n d i n tegr a l wh en it
IS e i the r a n u m be r e xp r e s s e d i n Ar a i c b nu me r a ls , or a s i n gle

le tte r wi th u n it y f o r i ts e xp o n e n t, o r th e p r o d uc t o f two or

mo r e s u ch nu mbe r s or le tte r s .
22 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
It i s a ls o sai d to b e r a ti o n a l a n d i n te g r a l wh e n it c an be
re d u e d c to e i th e r o f th e a b ove f o r ms .

Th u s , 3 a
2
b 3
,
b e i n g e q u i v ale nt to 3 a a b b b , is r a ti o n a l

a nd i nte gr a l .

A p ly n
o o mi a l i s said to b e r a ti o n al a n d i n te g r a l whe n e ac h

te r m i s
i
2
r a ti o n a l a n d i n te g r al ; as 2 (13 ab 0
3
.

64 . If a te r m h a s a li te ral p orti o n h i ch on s i s ts o f a w c s i n gle

le tte r w i th un i t y for p
i ts e x o n e nt, th e te r m i s s a i d to b e of th e
rst d egree .

Th e d egr ee of an y r a ti o n al a n d i n tegral mo no mi al 63) i s

th e nu mb e r of te r ms of . th e r s t d e g re e wh i c h a re mu lti p li e d
to g e th e r to f o rm i ts li te r a l p o r ti o n .

Th u s , 2 a i s f i rs t d e g rof
e e ; 5
th e
a b ,
o f th e se co n d d e g r e e ;
3 u
z 3
b ,
b e i n g e qu i v a le n t to 3 a a b b b , i s o f th e f th d e g r e e e tc .

Th e d e g ree o f a r a ti o n a l a n d i n te gr a l mo n o mi al e q ua ls th e
s u m o f th e e xp o n e n ts o f th e le tte r s i n v o lv e d i n i t .

T hus ,
"
ab c is
4
of th e e ighth d e g re e .

Th e d e g ree o f a r a ti o n a l and i n te gr al p olyno mi al i s th e

d e g re e o f i ts te r m of h i gh e s t d e g r e e .

2 2
Th u s , 2 a b 3 c d i s o f th e th i r d d e g re e .

65 . Homog eneous Te rms are te r ms of th e sa me d e g re e .

T hu s , a
4
,
3b 3
c, a n d 5 wy 2 2
a re h o mo g e n e o u s .

A p oly n omi al i s s ai d to b e h o mo g e ne o u s when i ts te rms ar e

h o mo ge n eo us as a
3
30 2
6 4 acyz .

66 . An Axi om i s a s elf-e i d ent t uth v r .

The f o llo w i n g a e a s su me d a s a xi o msr

1 . Anymb e r equa ls i tself

nu

2 . n u mb er equ a ls the s u m of a ll i ts p a rts

An y .

3 A ny n umb er i s gr ea ter tha n a ny of i ts p a r ts

. .

4 .Two n umb ers whi ch a re e q ua l to the s a me n umb er, o r to

e qu a l n u mb e rs , a r e e u a l
q .

5 If f o r a ny numb e r i n a n exp res s i on a n equa l numb er b e

.

sub s ti tuted, the va lue of the exp r ess i o n i s not cha nged .
 ADDI TIO N 23

III . A D D ITI O N A ND S U B TR A C TIO N O F

A L GE B R A I C E X P R E S S I O NS . PA R E NTH E S E S
67 . Additi on of Po s i ti v e a nd Neg ati v e Numb ers .

If a an d b re
p r e s e n t an
y p o s i ti v e n u mb e r s ,
b = b
a + ( ) a ; ()
1

fo r by 4 7 ,
th e r e s u lt 4 0, a ls o h o ld s wh en e i th e r a or b
is a p o s i ti ve c
f r a ti o n .

If b i s > a, a b = (
b

f o r th e r e s ult o f 38 als o h o ld s whe n e i th e r a or b is a p o s i ti v e

f ra c ti o n
Th e n, a + b) (
b a )
.
()
2

F r o m (1 ) and we h av e th e f o llo wi ng r ule

To p os i tive a nd a n ega ti ve n umb er , s u b tr a ct the s ma ller

a dd a

a b s o lu te va lu e 5 3 ) f r o m the gr ea ter , a n d p la ce b ef o r e the r e s u lt

the s i gn o f the nu mb er ha vi ng the gr ea te r a b s o lu te v a lu e .

Th a s. 5 A+ < 3 .

68 . Addi ti on of Negati v e Numb ers .

If a an d b re p re s e n t
p o s i ti v e nu mb e r s, we h av e by 4 0,

We th e n h av e th e f o llo wi n g r u le

To a dd two n ega ti ve n umb er s , a d d the i r a b solute va lu es, a n d

p ut a n ega ti ve s ign b ef o r e the r es u lt .

T hu s ,
3 1g .

69 . Addi ti on of M ono mi als .

Th e su m of a an d b is a b ; an d by 40, th e su m of a

an d b is a b
; h e n c e,

m m ls is ecte d by them wi th
'

The a dd i ti o n of o n o i a e un i ting

thei r resp ecti ve s igns .

21 AD V AN CE D C O URS E IN A L G E B R A
T hu s ,
th e su m of a, b
,
c ,
d an d
,
-e is
b c d e
a + .

S in c e th e C o mmu ta ti v e L a w f o r A d d i ti o n h old s f o r any

r a ti o n a l n u mb e r s 47 th e te r ms may b e u n i te d in a ny

o r d e r, p r o vi de d e a c h h a s i ts p r o pe r S i gn .

70 . D eni ti ons . I f two or mo r e n um b multi p li e d

e rs are

to g e th e r, e a ch o f th e m, or th e p r o duc t o f an
y n u mbe r o f th e m ,

is c a lle d a F a ctor o f th e p roduct .

Th u s , a, b, c, a b , a c, a n d be ar e f a c to rs of th e p ro d u ct abc .

71 . If a nu mb e r b e e xp r e s s e d a s th e p r o d u t c of c
two fa to r s,
e ac h is c a lle d th e Coefci ent of th e o th e r .

Th u s i n 2 a b, 2 i s th e c o e ffi c i e n t o f a b ; 2 a of b; a of 2 b; e tc .

72 . If one f a to rc of a p ro d u ct is e x p re s s e d i n Ar a b i c
nu mer a ls, and th e o th e r in le tte rs, th e f o r me r i s l
c al e d th e
n u mer i ca l lc i en t of th e latte r

co e .

Thu s in 2 ab, 2 i s th e c
n u me r i a l c o e f c i e n t o f a b .

If n o nu me r i c a l c o e fc i e n t i s ex p re s s e d , th e co ef c i ent un i t y
is u n d e r s to o d .

Th u s , a i s th e sa me as 1 a .

By 4 7 , th e r e s u lt 4 0, a ls o h old s whe n b is a p o s i ti ve

f ra c ti on .

2
Th a t i s , 3 a i s th e p ro du t c of 3 a n d a , an d ab i s th e
5
p rodu c t o f an d a b .

Th en , 3 i s th e n u mer i ca l c oeici en t o f a in 3 a, an d
2
i s th e nu me r i c a l c oef c i e n t of a b in
g ab .

Th u s , i n a n e gati v e te rm th e nu me r i c al c o efc i ent

i n c lu d e s th e si
gn .

73 . S i mi la r or L i k e Te rms a re th o s e whi ch e i th e r do n ot

d i ffe r a t a ll, o r d i ff e r on l y i n th e i r nu me r i c a l co e f c i e nts ; as

2 r
e
z
y an d 7 g .

Di s s i milar or Unli k e Terms a re th o s e whi c h ar e n ot s i mi la r ;

as 3 y an d 3 xy
2
.
 ADDI TIO N 25

74 . Additi on of S i mi la r Terms .

1 . F in d th e su m of 5 a and 3 a .

S i nc e th e D i s tr i buti ve L aw fo r M ulti p li c a ti o n 14 III )

h o ld s f o r an y r a ti o n a l n u mb e r s we h a v e

2 . F i n d th e su m of 5 a an d 3 a .

B y 7 2, 5 a + ( 3 )a ,

[ 5 a I II )

2 a . 7)

3 . F i n d th e su m of 5 a an d 3 a .

2 a . 67 )

4 . F i n d th e S um of 5 a an d 3 a .

3
>
J a = s e .

T he r e for e , to a dd two si mi la r ter ms , nd the su m of the i r

nu mer i ca l co ei c i en ts 6 7 , 68 , a n d ai a; to the r es u lt the

co mmo n letter s .

5 . F i n d th e su m of 2 a, a, 3 a, 12 a, an d 6 a .

S in c e th e a dd i ti o n s may b e p e r f o r me d i n a n y o rd e r, we may
ad d th e p o s i ti v e te r ms r s t, a n d th e n th e n e ga ti v e te r ms , an d
n a lly mb i n e th e s e two r e s ults
co .

Th e s um o f 2 a , 3 a , a n d 6 a i s 1 1 a .

Th e s u m o f a a n d 1 2 a i s 1 3 a
. .

H e n c e , th e r e q ui r e d s u m i s 1 1 a 13 a
) ,
or 2 a .

6 . Add 3 (a b ), 2 (a -b
) ,
a b ,
6( ) and -4
(a b
).

Th e sum o f 3 (a b ) a n d -b
) i s 9(a b
) 6(
a .

su m o f 2 a b nd 4 (a b 6 a b
Th e ( ) a
) i s ( ) .

T h en , th e r e s u lt is [ 9 (a b ), or 3 (
a b) .

75 . I f th e te r ms ar e n o t a ll s i milar , w e may om i n e th e c b
si mi la r te rms , and u n i te th e o th e r s w ith th e i r r e s p e ti v e c
s i gn s

E at . R e q ui re d the su m o f l2 a, 3y 5 a, 8 90 ,

an d 3 x .
26 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
Th e su m o f 1 2 a an d 5 a i s 7 a .

Th e s u m o f 5 w, 8 d , a n d 3 90 i s 0 ; f o r th e r e s ult,

40 , h o ld s f o r a n y v a lu e o f b
H en ce ,
th e r e qu i r e d s u m is 7 a 3y .

76 . A p o ly n o mi a l i s s ai d to b e a r r a nged a c c or di n g to th e
d es c e n d i ng p o w e r s o f any le tte r, wh en th e te rm c o n ta i n i n g th e
h i g he s t p o e r w of th a t le tter i s p l c
a d t e rs ,
th a t h a v i n g th e n e xt

lo we r i mme d i a te l y afte r
,
a n d s o on .

Th u s ,
l-3 oc y 2
3
:
0 y -
2- 2
l 3 ay
3 '
4y 4

is arran g e d a cc or d i n g to th e d e s c en din g p w e o r s of 90 .

Th e te r m 4 y4 , wh i c h d o e s n o t i nv olve a a t a ll, i s r e g a rd e d as co n tai n

:
i ng th e lo we s t p o we r o f a i n th e a b o ve e xp re ss i o n .

A p ol yn o mi al i s s ai d to b e a r ra ng e d a cc o rd i ng to th e a sc en d

i ng p o w e r s o f a ny le tte r , wh en th e te r m c o n ta i n i n g th e lo w e st
p o w e r of th a t le tte r i s p la c e d r s t, th a t h av i ng th e n e xt h i gh e r
y
i m me d i ate l a f te r, a n d s o o n .

Thu s, w +3 4
x
3
y
2 ce y + 3 2 2
wy 3
4y 4

is a rr a n g e d a c o r d i n g c to th e a s c e n d i ng p o we rs o f
y .

77 . A d di t i on of P oly nomi a ls .

It f ll w
o o s f ro m 1 2, II ,
and 24 , th a t th e a ddi ti o n o f

o l
p y on mi als i s e ffe c te d by u n i ti n g th e i r te rms w i th th e i r
r e s p e c ti v e s i gn s .

1 . R e q u i r e d th e su m of
6 a 7 w2 3 x 2a
2
+3y
3
and 2w 2 a mn .
, ,

We set th e e xp r e s s i o n s do wn one un d e rn e ath th e oth e r ,

si milar te rms b e ing i n th e sa me v e rti c al c o lu mn .

We th e n n d th e su m of th e te rm s i n e a ch c olumn , and

w r i te th e r e s u lts w i th th e i r re s
pe cti ve S i gn s ; th u s ,

6 a 7 M

a + 2
3 a 2
2 3
w +3y ~
 ADDI TION . SU B TR A C TION 27

2 . Ad d 4 w 3w 2
1 1 + 5 92 , 1 2 93 2
7 8 cc
3
15 :
c, an d
3 2
14 + 6 x + 10 x 9 x .

It i s c on ve n i e n t to a r ran g e e ac h e xp r e s s i o n i n d es cen d ing

po we rs of a : 7 6) thu s,

5 3
x 3 2
90 + 4 90 11
8 w + 12 x 15 c
3
7 2
:
3 2
6x 9 w + 1 0 w+ 1 4
cc 4 .

3 . Ad d 9(
a + b)

4(
c + a
)
9(
a + b
) 8 (b + c
)
3 (b + e
)

4(
a b) 11 (
b c
) 3(
c a
)
.

a 1
4 Ad d +
b
- c an d a b - c

a +
_ b c

g b + o

E AM

SU BTR A CTION
78 . S ub tract i on of Monomi als .

By 4 7 th e r e s u lt 4 0 , h old s f o r an y v alu e s o f a an d b .

H enc e , to s u b tr a c t a mo n o mi a l, we cha nge i ts s i gn a n d a d d the

r es ult to the mi nu en d .

1 . b
S u tra c t 5 a f ro m 2 a .

C h an gi n g th e S i gn o f th e su b t ah en d
r ,
a n d a dd i n g th e r e s u lt

to th e mi n u e n d , w e h a v e
2 a 5 a
) = 3 a
28 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
2 . Su bt c t
ra -2 a f ro m 5 a .

5 a

3 . Su bt a c t 5
r a fr om 2 a .
'

2a 5 a ~
7 a .

4 . b
S u tr a t c 5 a f ro m -2 a .

2 a 5 a
) =

5 . Fr om 23 a tak e th e su m of 1 9 a and i 5 a .

It i s c on v e n i e n t to cha nge the s i gn o f ea ch exp re s s i on whi ch is

to b e s u b tr a cte d , a n d th e n a dd th e r e s ults .

We th e n h av e 23 a 19 a +5 a, or 37 a .

79 . S ub t racti on of Poly nomi als .

an d 24 , h old f o r an y va lu e s o f the le tte r s

By 3 6, ()
1 .

H nc e e, to s u b tr a c t a
p m i a l,
we c h
o ly n o
a ng e the s i gn of e a ch o f
i ts ter ms , a n d a d d the r es u lt to the mi n u en d .

1 . b c
S u tr a t 7b 9 b a 8 b f om 5
z
a
2 3
r a
3
2 a
z
b 4 ab
2

It i s c n n i ent t pla e th s ub t ah end

o ve o c mi nu en d ,
e r un d e r th e
s o th a t s i mi la r te r ms s h all b e i n th e s a me v e r ti c al c o lu mn .

W e th e n c h an g e th e S i g n o f e a c h te rm o f the su b tr ah en d,
a n d a d d th e r e s ult to th e mi n u e n d ; th u s ,

5 3
2 2
b - 4 a b 2
a a 4
9 2
b 7 a b 2 - 8 b 3
a l l
5 a
3
+7 a
?
b 3 ab 8 b 3z
.

Th e s tu d e nt s h o u ld p e r fo r m me nta lly th e o p e r ati on o f ch a n g i n g th e

S ig n o f e a c h te r m o f th e s ub tr a h e n d .

2 . b
S u tra t th e c su m of 9 x
2
8w x
3
an d 5 m 2
a :f ro m
6 7 x 4
We c h an g e th e s i gn o f e ac h ex p re ss i on whi ch i s to b e s ub

c
tr a te d, an d a dd th e r e s u lts .

6 2
3
7 x 4
3 2
x 9x + 8 x
2
x 90 5
5 ar
3
8 a :
2 9 .
 SU B TR A C TION . P A R E N T HE S E S 29

bt
'

80 . By 7 8, su ract n i g + a i s th e sa me th i n g as a dd i n g

a , an d s u bt ac ti ng
r a th e sa me thi n g a s a d di ng a .

T hat i s ,
a ) a
)
,
an d a
) a
) .

In th es e r es ults , th e s ign s wi thi n th e p a r e n th es es a r e s ig n s o f a ffec ti o n

and wi th o u t s ig n s o f op er a ti o n
th ose .

C o mp ar i n g th e r es ults wi th th o s e o f 5 8 , wh e r e a ll th e s ig ns a r e s ign s o f
a ff e c ti o n , we s e e th a t th e s ign s an d wh e n u se d a s s i gn s o f a ffe c ti o n ,
a r e s ub j
e c t to
q
th e sa me la ws as wh e n u s e d a s s ign s o f o p e r a ti o n .

Th us th e me an i ng a ttach e d to th e S i gn s a nd in 39 , is c o ns is tent

wi th th ei r mean i ng as s y mb ols o f op e r ati o n .

PAR E NTHE S E S
81 . R emov al of Par enth es es .

I t f o llo ws f ro m 1 2, II ,
an d 24 , th at

P a r en thes es p r eced ed b y a s i gn ma y b e re moved wi thout

cha ngi ng the s ign s of the terms en clo s e d .

Ag ai n, i t follo w s f r om 24 , ()
1 an d th at

P a r en thes es p r eced ed b y a s i gn ma y b e re mo ved if the s ig n

of e a ch te rm e nclo s ed b e cha nge d , f r o m to o r f r om to

Th e a b o v e ru les a pp ly e q ua lly to th e re mo val of th e b ra ck e ts , b r a c es ,

o r vi nc u lu m
It s h ou ld b e n o ti c e d , i n th e case o f th e latte r , th at th e S i gn a p p ar e n tly

p re x e d to th e r s t te rm u n d e r ne ath i s i n r e a li ty p r e xe d to th e vi n c ulum .

b a r e e q u iva len t to d a
Thu s , a b a nd a ( a b ) a n ( b ),
r e sp ec ti vely .

P a re nth e s e s o fte n enclo s e o th e r s ; i n th i s case th e ym ay be

re mo v e d i n su cc essio n by th e r u le s of 81 .

B e g in n e r s s h ould re mov e mme n c i ng wi th th e i nner

one at a ti me , co

mo s t p a i r b u t a fte r a li ttle p r a c ti c e th e y s h o uld b e a b le to re mo ve s e ve ra l

s i gn s o f a ggr e g a ti o n a t o n e o p e ra tio n i n whi c h c as e th e y s h o uld c o mme n c e
,

with th e o u te r mos t p a i r .

E m S i mplif
. y 4 x 2 x x

We re mo v e th e i
v n cu u l m r s t, th e n th e pa r e n th e s e s , a nd

n ally th e b c
ra es.
30 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
4 2 -a
x c
v c
v
)
4 x -2 cc

-4 a : {3 2
'

a

w
4 w 3 m+ 2 fe + m a z 4 m a .

82 . In s ert i on of P arenth e s es .

To e nclo s e te rm s i n pa r e n th e se s , we tak e th e c on v e r se o f th e
r ule s o f 81 .

A ny nu mb er of ter ms ma y b e en clo sed i n p a r en thes es p r eced ed

by a s i gn , wi tho u t cha ng i ng the i r s i gn s .

A ny nu mb er of ter ms ma y b e e n clo s ed i n p a re nthes es p r eced ed

by a s ign , if the s i gn o f ea ch ter m b e cha nge d , f r om to
or f ro m to

Ex . c
E n lo s e th e la st th r e e te rms of a b c d e in
p a r e n th e s e s p e ced
r ed by a s i gn .

R e su lt, b -c
a + d e
) .

EXERC S E I I
1 . A dd s (e + b ) , 4 (x - y) , 3 (r y) , 7 (x y), and

2 . A d d 7 m2 2 p 8 n 3
, 5 n 3 m 2
, and 3 a y 4 m 2
+2 n 3
.

3 . Add a 9 1 2 a 2 a 2 an d 6 a2
,
10 a
3

+ 11 a l3 .

4 . A d d l 4 (x y) 1 7 (y z ), 4 (y z ) 1 9 (z x) , a nd 7 (z a )

7 6 l
5 . A dd 33
5
g,
1
x + 3l +
2
2 , a nd x 21 4 z - .

2 4 4 5 8 7 2
6 . S ub tr a c t th e su m of 8 (m n ) a nd 1b (m n ) fr o m 1 9 (m n ) .

7 . S ub tra c t 3 b 6 d 1 0 0 +7 a fro m 4 d + l2 a l3 c 9 b .

8 . S ub tra c t 4 1 x3 2x 2
1 3 f r o m 1 5 x3 it 18 .

7 5-m
3 3 2 1
9 S ub tra c t m m
a
p ro p n
g g g g
. .

10 . S ub trac t th e su m of 9 2
g/ + 6 z
2
a nd 2 93 2
+ 8y
? -1 1 z
.
2
fr om
7 2
33 3 2 5 z2
y
11 . F ro m th e s u m of 2 a + 3 b 4 c a nd 3b +4 e - 5d s ub tract th e
su m of 5 c 6d 7 a a nd
 P A R EN TH E S E S 31

S imp li fy th e follo wing

m n m] }
12 . 9 [ 6

2 a
+ ( 6b 4 b

14 . 7x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x

15 . 5 n [ 8 n 6 n
+ 7 n

a 8 5 6 2
16 . 4 [ a 7 a ( a ~
a + 3) a a

12 -4 7 x 5 6 x 9
17 . x y y y} y)

18 . E n c lo s e th e la st th re e te r ms of a b c d ei n p a re n th es e s
p r e ce d e d b y a s i g n , a n d i n th e re s ult e n clos e th e las t two te r ms i n
p a re nth es e s i n b r a ck e ts p r e c e d e d b y a s ign .
 O
[ AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN AL GE B R A

IV . M U L TIP L IC A TIO N OF A L GE B R AIC

E X PR E S S IO NS

83 . Th e R ule of S i gns .

Th e r e s ults an d 4 0 , h old w hen a an d b ar e

a ny p o s i ti v e nu mb e r s .

F r o m th e s e we may s ta te
r e s u lts w ha t is c alle d th e R ule of

S i gn s i n mu lti p li c ati on , a s f ollo s w

The p r o d uct o f two terms f
o li ke s i gn i s p os i ti ve ; the p r od u ct

f
o two ter ms of u n li ke s i gn is n ega ti ve .

84 . We h av e by 4 0,
a
> 0
x 6
) x - c
>
abc ;
a X d b
) b) 0
) d) a bc
} x ), y
a b cd ; e tc .

T h at i s th e p duct of th e e n gati
,
ro r e ve te rms i s n e g ati v e ; th e

p rod u c t o f f ou n e g ti e te m i s p s i ti
r a v r s o ve ; an d so on .

In g e n e r al, the p ro d u ct of a ny n umb er of ter ms i s p o s i ti ve o r

n ega ti ve a cco r d i ng a s the numb er of n ega ti ve terms i s eve n o r o dd .

85 . Th e I nd ex L aw

L et it b e re
q u i r e d to multi p ly a
3
by a
2
.

B y 60 ,
2
a nd a a >
<a .

Wh e n c e , d
3
>
<a
2
a x a a a X a z a
5
.

We w i ll n ow c o n si d e r th e ge n e r a l c a se .

L et i t b e r e qui r e d to multi p l a m
y by wh e a
"
,
re m a n d n a re

a ny p os iti v e i nte ge r s .

We h av e a
"

a x a x to m fa ctor s ,
an d, a
"
a x a x to n f a to rs c .

T hen ,
a
"

x a

a a x to m n f a c tors a
m
 M UL TI PL I C A TION 33

H en c e ,
the exp o ne n t o le tter i n the p r o d uct i s equa l to i ts
f a

exp o n e n t i n the mu ltip lica n d p lus i ts exp o n en t i n the mu ltip li er .

T hi s i s c alle d th e I n d ex L aw f or M ultip li ca ti o n .

A si mila r r e s u lt h o ld s f o r th e p r odu ct of th r e e or mor e

p o we s o f th e
r sa me lette r .

T h us ,
a
3
x a

x a
s
a
s+ 4 + s
a

.

86 . Multip li cati on of Monomi als .

1 . L et it b e r e qu i r e d to multi p ly 7 a by 2b .

B y 7 2, 2b = (
Th n e ,

T h e n by th e C o mmu ta ti v e L aw for Multi p li c ati on

7 a 2b
) = 7 x 2
) x a x b l4 ab

2 . R e qu i r e d th e p r od uct o f 2 a
2
b 3
,
6 ab 5
,
and 7 a o

.

2 3 5 i
2 a b ) x 6 ab x 7 d e
)
2 3 5
2) a b x 6 ab x 7 )a o

84 a
3
b s
c, by 8 4 and 85 .

We th e n h av e th e f ollo w i n g r ule f o r th e p r o du ct of any

nu m e r o f b mon o mi als

To the p rodu ct of the numer i ca l co e f

c ien ts 7 2, 84 , 85)
a n n e x the letter s ; gi v i ng f to ea ch a n e xp on en t e qu a l to the su m
of i ts e xp o n ents i n the f a cto rs .

3 . Multi ply 5 a
3
b by 8 ab 3
.

5 a
3
b) x 8 ab
3
) 40 a
33 1
b 1 +3
40 d b .

4 . F i n d th e p ro d u ct of 4 n 2
,
3n 5
,
an d 2
n .

2 5
x 2n 4
24 2+s+ 4
24
4 n 3 n
) n n .

5 . Multi ply x
'
by 7 x
, m b e ing a p o s i ti ve i n te ge r .

m) X
m
7 m m+ 6

6 . Multi p ly 6 (m n
)
4
by 7 (m n
)
3
.

m
6( -n
)
4
34 AD V AN CE D CO UR S E IN A L G E B R A
87 . Multi pli c ati on of P oly nomi als b y Monomi l a s .

By 1 4 III , ,
an d 24 , we h a v e th f ll w i n g
e o o r ule fo r th e

p ro d u c t o f a p o l yn o mi a l by a mon o mi a l

M ultip ly ea ch ter m of the mu ltip li ca n d b y the mu ltip li er, a nd

a dd the p a rti a l p r o d ucts .

Ex . Multi ply 2x 2
5 x +7 by 8 3
x .

(2x 2
5 x + 7) 8 x
3
)
2 8 3 5x 8 3
( )
2 x ) ) ) x 8 3
x x x x )
1 6 x5
+ 40 x
56 x 3
.

Th e s tud e n t s h o uld e n d e avo r to p ut d o wn th e n al re s ult in

o p e r a ti o n .

88 . Multi pli c at i on of P oly nomi als b y Poly nomi als .

By th e D i s tr i b u ti ve L aw for M u lti p li c ati o n

(a + b) x x d

an d a s i mila r r e s u lt h o ld s wh ate ver th e nu mb e r of te r ms i n

th e multi p li c a n d or mu lti p li e r .

We th e n h a v e th e f o llo w i ng r u le

M u ltip ly ea c h ter m o f the mu ltip li ca n d b y ea ch term of the

mu ltip li er , a nd ad d the p a rti a l p r o d u cts .

1 . Mu lti ply S a 4 b by 2 a 5 b .

In c
a c o r d an e c wi th th e r ule , we mu lti p l y 3 a 4 b by 2 a,

an d th e n by 5 b, th e p a r ti a l p r o d uc ts
a n d a dd .

A c o n v e n i e n t a r r a n g e me n t o f th e o rk i s w s h o wn b el wo ,

si mi lar te r ms b ein g i n th e sa me v e r ti c al c o lu mn .

3 a 4 b

2 a 5b
2
6 a 8 ab

1 5 ab + 20 b
2

6 a
2 23 ab + 20 b
2
.
 M UL TI PL I C A TION 35

Th e work may b e ver ifi ed b y p e rfo r mi ng th e e xa mp le with th e mu lti

p li ca n d a n d multi p li er i n te r c h a nge d .

2 . Multi ply 4 ax
2
+ a
3 8 3
x 2 2
a x by 2 x + a .

It i s c on ven i ent to multi p li c a n d a n d multi p li e r

a rr an g e th e
i n th e sa me o r d e r o f p o w e r s o f s o me c o mmo n le tte r 7 and

w rite th e p arti a l p ro d uc ts i n th e s a me o rd e r .

Ar ra n gi ng th e ex p r e s s i on s a c c ordi n g to th e d e s c en din g p o we rs

of a , we h a v e
a
3 - 2 a 2x
+4 ax
2 8 x3

a +2 x

a
2 a x
3 4 a 2x2 - 8 a x3

2 a x 4
3
a x
Z
2 8 d x3 16 x
4

4
a 16 x .

I f th e multip li c a nd a nd multi pli e r a r e a r ra n ge d in o rder o f

po w e r s o f a c e r ta i n w i th lit l
le tte r, er a
c o e f c i e n ts , th e O p e ra ti on
may so me ti me s b e a b i d ge d by th e u e
r s of p a re n th e s e s .

3 . M ulti p ly x
2
ax bx ab by x a .

By 87 , ax bx c an be w r i tte n
(a b )x .

(
2
x a + )
b x ab

x a

(
3 2
x a + b )x a bx
2 2
d x + a b
2 2
x
3
a x + a b

x m
x + n

x
2
mx
x
i mn
2
m mn
x + ( + )
n x .

It i s c o n ve n i e n t to w r i te th e c o e f c i en t of x i n parenth e s e s ,
wh en ad d i n g th e te r m s mx an d n x,
36 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
89 . Homog enei ty .

'

If th e mu lti p li c a n d mu lti pli e r a r e ho mogeneo us (5

an d

th e p ro d uc t w i ll a ls o b e h o mo ge n e ou s, an d i ts d e g r e e e q ua l to
th e s u m o f th e d e g r e e s o f th e mu ltip li c a n d a n d mu lti p li e r .

F o r if e a c h te r m o f th e multi p li c an d i s o f th e mth d e gr e e
a n d e ac h te r m o f th e mu lti p li e r o f th e n th d e g re e , e ac h

te rm o f th e p r o d u c t w ill b e o f th e ( m n)th d e gr e e
Th e mp le s i n 8 8 a r e i n s tan c e s of th e ab o ve la w ; th us i n
e xa E x 2,.

th e multi p lic a n d , multi p li er , a nd p r o d uc t a r e h omoge n e ous , a nd of th e

th i rd , rs t, a n d fo ur th d e gr e es , r esp e c ti ve ly .

Th e s tu d e n t s h o uld al w ay s w h e n p
,
o ss i bl e , ap p ly th e p r i n

yt cy b ic w
.

c i p le s o f h o mo g e n e i t o te s t th e a cc u r a o f a lg e ra o rk .

Th u s , i f two h o mo g e n e o u s ex p b e mu lti p li e d to ge th e r,
r e s s i on s

an d th e p r o d u t c ob tai n e d i s n o t h o mog e n e ou s, i t i s e v i d e nt th at

th e wo rk i s n ot c o e ct
rr .

90 . Multipli c ati on b y Detach ed Coefci ents .

I n n d i n g th e p ro d u ct of two w h i c h a e a an ge d
e xp r e s s i o n s r rr

c
a c or d i n g to th e sa me o der o f p ow e s
r f s o me c o mmo n l tt r o e e r,

th e o p e r a ti o n may b e a b i d ge d by w i ti n g o n ly th e nu meri
r l
r ca

coe ci ents o f th e te rms .

1 . Multiply 3 x
2
+5 x 4 by 2x 7 2
x +1 .

3 + 5 4
2 7 + 1
8
21

3 + 5 4
6 11 -4 .

We w th at th e e xp on e nt o f x i n th e st te m i s 4
kn o r r .

Th n th e p o d u c t i s 6 x
e , r 11 x 40 x 33 x 4 4 3 2
.

If th e t m i n l i n g a n y p o w e b e w an ti n g i t may
er vo v r ,

s upp li d w i th th
e c fc i ent 0 e oe .

2 Mu lti p ly 4
.
+6 x 7 x by 2
a
3 3x a
2 3
a
2 2
.

I n th i s a s th te m i n l i n g x i n the mu lti p li c and a n

2
c e e r vo v a

th e te rm i n ol i n g x i n th e multi p li e are w anti ng

v v a r .
 M UL T IPL IC A TION 37

6 7
3
-1 4

0 14

We k no w that th e p ro c
du t i s h o mo g en e o u s
th e e xp o n e n t o f a in th e r s t te r m i s 5 .

Th en , th e p r o d u c t i s 8 a
5
14 2
a x
3
18 ax

21 5
x

3 . F i n d th e v alu e o f (
2 x 3) (
3 x 5) (
6x

2 3
3 5
6 9
1
+ o 15
6 1 15
6 1

36 6 90
6 1 + 15
3 91 x
R e s ult, 36 x + 15 .

91 . By 83 ,
b
) a b)

d
) x ( (t b .

H nc e e, i n th e i n d i c a te d p r od u ct of two mo n o mi a l e xp r e s s i o n s ,
the s i gn s o f b o th exp r es s i o n s ma y b e cha n ge d wi tho u t a lte r i ng the

p ro d u c t ; b ut if the s i gn f e i the r o n e be cha nged , the the

o s i gn o f
p ro d u c t wi ll b e c ha nged .

Th e a b ov e i s tr u e f o r th e p r od u ct of a mon o mi al a n d a p lyo

n o mi a l, o r o f tw o
p o l n o m i a ls y .

If e i th e r i on i s
exp r e s s -
M
a mu st b e tak e n , on

c
n u t

h an gi n g i ts si gn, to Q
o f ea ch o f i ts ter ms .

For b y 81 , - a
( a
+ b 0 .

T hu s , ( a b )(
c d ) m ay b e w r i tte n i n th e f o rms

b d c
(
b a
)(
d c) , (b a )( o or
(
a
)( ) .
38 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN AL G EB R A
I n lik e man n e r i t may b e s h o wn th at, i n th e i n di c ated p r o du c t

of mo r e th a n two e xp r e s s i o n s , the si
gn s o f a ny ev e n n u mb er of
ma y
.

the m be cha nge d wi tho ut a lter i ng the p ro d u c t; b ut if the s i gn s

f
o a ny odd n u mb er of them b e cha nged , the s ign of the p r o d u ct wi ll
be c ha ng ed

Thu s (a ,
b) (
c d) (
e f) may b e w r i tten i n th e f o rms
6

<a b
<
>d c
><
f e
> ,

d
(b d
)( c
) (f e
) ,

(
b a
)( d c
) (f e
)
, e tc .

EXERC S E 2 I
M ultip ly th e followi ng

1 . x 3 6 x2 + 1 2 x 8 a nd x2 +4 x +4 .

2 . n 5 n2 + 2 + u 3 a nd
'

5 n + n2 10 .

3 3 (a + b ) (a 2
b )+ 2 a nd 4 (a + b )2 b ) 5 .

m 2 "-5 m 5 3 -
" 2m-1 3 2 27 1
4 4 x3 +
y 5x + y 7 a nd 3 x y 7 90 11

x 2
m n ) x mn a nd x
5 ( p .

6 . x 2
+ ax bx ab a nd a +b .

7 . a
3
+ 3 -5 a
4 6 a 2 a
2
and 6 +2 a
2 c t .

8 . ma + my nx ny a nd mx my + nx ny .

9 . 2 03 3 31, 3 x + 2 y , 2 x + 3 y, a nd 3 96 2
31 .

10 . x + a, x + b, a nd 113 6 .

11 .
g m2 m 1 a nd l m2 + l m _ .

3 4 2 3 9

12 . x3 an d x2 (c - d) x cd .

13 . a + b + c, a b + c, a nd a + b c .

S i mp lify th e fo llo wi ng

5y
14 .
[3 x (
15 2 m (m
.
(
2
16 .
[2 x + (3 x
17 .
(a [a
 DIV I S ION 39

V . DIV I S IO N O F A L GE B R A IC E X P R E S S IO NS

In th e p r e s e nt ch ap te r, we s h all c o ns i d e r th os e c a s e s o n ly i n wh i ch th e
D i vi d e n d , D
iv is o r , a n d Qu oti e nt a r e r a tio n al a n d in teg ra l
In s u c h c as es , th e d ivi s i on is s a id to b e exa ct, a n d th e d i vi d e n d is s ai d
to b e d ivis i b le b y th e d ivis or .

92 . The R eci proc al o f a nu mb e r i s 1 di vi d e d by th at numb e r .

Th u s , th e r ec i p c al o f
ro a is 1
a

93 . We h av e a x1 a .

R e gar di n g a as th e q u o ti e n t, 1 as th e d i v i s o r, an d a a s th e
d i vi d e nd , we h av e
a

94 . B y 30 1
() i

9 x 1
b 1 b b

H enc e, to d ivid e b y a numb er i s the sa me thi ng a s to multip ly

b y i ts r e cip r oca l

95 . Th e Commutati v e L aw for Di v i s i on .

By 94 , e ver y ope r a ti o n i n D i vi s i o n c an be ex p re s s e d a s a n

O p e rati o n in Mu lti p li c ati o n .

T hus ,
if a i s to b e di vi d e d by b, c, m ,
in su cce ssi on , th e
r e s u lt is
1

1

d x X X m .

b 6

w s f om thi s by 1 4 I th at i f a numb e
I t f ollo r , , , r i s to b e
d i i d d by an y nu mb e
v e f nu mb e s i n ucc e s s i o n th e
r o r s , di vi s i o ns
can b e p e fo me d i n a n y o d e
r r r r .

T hi s i s th e C mmuta ti e L w f D i i i n
o v a or v s o .

It may b e e xp e s s e d a s f o llo w s
r

- i-c
i-b - a -
=( -c -b
(
a
) m z
) z m
, etc .

96 . By 1 4 , I, I I , b ( ) ac
40 AD V AN CE D CO UR S E IN A L G E B R A

T h en by s 31 ,
gg Z ()
1

Th a t i s , a f a cto r c o mmon to the d i vi de nd and di vi s or ca n be

re mo ved , or ca n celled .

P uttin g b 1 , in we have
ac a
:a
r 93
c 1

T h at i s ,
if a num b er b e b o th mu ltip li e d a n d d i v i d e d b y a n o th er,

the va lu e of the f o rmer will n ot b e cha ng e d .

97 . Th e R ule of S i g ns .

Fr o m th e r e s u lts an d 4 8 , we may state the

R ule of S i gns i n D i v i s i o n, as f o llo ws :
The qu o ti en t of two ter ms of li ke s i gn i s p os i ti ve ; the quo ti en t
of two ter ms of u n li ke s i gn is n ega ti ve .

98 . Th e I ndex L aw for Di v i s i on .

s
L e t it b e r e qui r ed to d i vi de a by a .

5
a a X a x a x a x a
By 60 ,

C an c ellin g th e c o mm on c
f a to r a x a
(5 we h av e
5
a
2
=a xa x a z w .

We w ill n ow c on si d e r th e g e n e r a l c ase
by a w he re
'

L et i t b e re q ui r e d to d i v i de a

,
m and n a re any

p o s i ti ve i n te g er s s uc h th a t m is n .

We h a ve ,

Ca nc elling th e commo n c
fa to r a x a xa x to n c
fa tor s ,
m
m n fa ctors
a
a x a xa x m to
n
a

T h en , th e f
e xp on e n t o le tte r i n th
ae qu o ti e n t i s e qu a l to i ts

exp o n en t in the d i vi d end , mi nu s i ts exp on en t i n the d i vi s or .

T hi s i c alle d th e
s I ndex L a w for D i vi sion .
 DIV I SION 41

99 . Di v i s i o n of Monomi als .

2
re d to d i v id e b by 7 t
1 . L et it b e re
q u i a a .

By 8 6, 2 2
7 a 7 x a

C an c elli ng th e co mmo n f a c to r s 7 an d a ,
2
we h a ve
2
14 a b
2 X b 2 b .

2
7 a

We th e n h a v e th e f o llo wi ng r u le f o r th e qu o ti e nt of two
m o n o mi a ls
To the qu o ti en t of the n umer i ca l c oe i c i en ts a nn ex the letters ,
i i n to e a ch a n exp o n en t equ a l to i ts exp o n en t i n the d i vi d en d
g v g
mi n u s i ts exp o n en t i n the d i vi s o r, a n d o mi tting a ny letter ha v ing
the s a me exp o n en t i n the d i vi d en d a n d d i vi s or .

3 2 4 3
2 . D i v id e 5 4 a
5
b c by 9 a b .

5 3 2
54 [
1
0

g1
6 a
5 2
c 6 ac

.

3
a 3

3 . D iv i de 2 x
zm
yn

by x
m
y
n 5
z ; m, n , an d r b e in g p o si ti ve

i n te ge r s , an d r 5 .

4 . D i vi d e 35 (a b) 7
by 7 ( a

35 (a = 5 (a b 3
4 ) .

7 ( a b)

100 . Di v i s i on of P oly nomi als b y Monomi als .

By 9 4 ,
d 1
d
( +
b c
)

a
14
a
1
3 b y l 4 , III, an d 24 ,

b c
,
bY 9 4 .

a a a

H en c e , to d i vi d e a p o ly n o mi a l b y a mo n omi a l, we d i vid e ea ch

ter m f
o the d i vi d en d b y the d i v i s o r , a nd a d d the r es u lts .

T hi s 18 called th e D i s tr i b uti ve
k w M ar D ivi s i on .
42 AD V AN C E D CO UR S E IN A L G E B R A
1 . D ivi d e 9 6 d e
i
12 a
3
bc 3
by 3 a
2
.

2
z 4 3 3
9 a b 6 a c 12 a bc 9 6 d e
i
12 a
3
bc 3

_ 3 a2 3 a
2 _
_3 a 2 _ 3 a2
3 b2 + 2 a c
2 4 a bc
3
.

Th e s tud e n t s h ou ld e n d e a vo r to p u t d o wn th e r e s u lt in o n e o p e r ati o n .

2 . D i v i de 3 5 (x y)
5
20 ( x y)
4
by 5 (x y)
3
.

x-- 5 _ 20
(
4
35 i y x +y

1 01 . Di v i s i on of Poly nomi als b y P oly nomi als .

Ex . L et it b e r e q ui r e d to d i v i d e 1 2 10 x
3
11 x 21 x
2
by
2 4 3 x

Arr an g i n g th e e x p r e s s i o ns a c o r d i n g c to th e d e s c e n d i n g p o e r s w
of x 7 we ar e to n d an e xp re s s i o n h i c h, w
h e n multi p li e d w
by 2x 3x 2

4, w i ll p ro d u c 10 xi 2 _ l1
e 21 h x + 12 .

It i s e vi d en t th at th e te r m c o n ta i n i n g th e h i gh e s t p o e r o f w
x i n th e p r o d u c t i s th e p r o d u c t o f th e te r ms c o n ta i n i n g th e
w
h i gh e s t p o e r s o f x i n th e mu lti p li a n d mu lti p li e r c an d .

Th e r e f o r e , 1 0 x
3
i s th e p ro d u c t o f 2 x a n d th e te rm c o n ta i n i n g
2

th e hi gh e st p o we r o f x i n th e q u o ti e nt .

c
W h e n c e , th e te rm o nta i n i n g th e h i gh e s t p o we r of x i n th e
q u o ti e n t i s l 0 x
3
d i v i d e d 2 x2
,
o r 5 x by .

M ulti p ly i n g th e d i v i s o r by 5 x, w e h av e th e p r o d u c t 1 0 x 3

1 5 x2 20 x; wh i c h w h ,
en su bt c ra te d fr o m th e di v i d e n d, le av e s
th e re ma i n d e r 6x 2
9 x 12 .

T hi s re ma i n d e r mu st b e th e p r o du c t o f th e d i v i s o r by th e
r e st o f th e qu o ti e n t ; th e r e fo r e , to o ta i n th e n e x t term b of th e

q u oti e n t,
w e r e g a r d 6 x
2
9 x 1 2 a s a n e w d i v i d e nd .

D i v i d i n g th e te r m c o n tai n i n g th e h i gh e s t p o e r o f x, 6x, w 2

b y th e te rm c o n ta i n i n
g t h e w
h i g h e s t p o e r of x i n th e d i v i s o r,
bt
'

we th e s e c o n d te r m th e q u o ti e n t
2
2 x ,
o ain 3 as of .

Mu lti p ly i n g th e di v i s o r by 3 , we h av e th e r o d u t p c 6x 2

9x 12 w hi ch, wh en s ub t r a c te d f ro m th e s e c on d d i v id e n d ,

le av e s no re ma i n d e r .

H en c e , 5 x 3 i s th e r e qui r e d qu o ti e n t .
 DIV I S ION 43

It i s cu s to mary to a r ran g e th e w or k as fo llo ws

l0 x 3
21 x2
1 1 x -f- 1 2 2x 3 2
x 4 , D i v i s or .

3 2
l0 x 15 x 20 x 5 x 3, Quo ti en t .

2
6x + ,
9 x + 12
Th e e xa mp le migh t h a ve b e e n s o lve d by arr a ngi ng th e d ivi d e nd and

di vis o r ac c o rd i ng to a s c end i ng p o we rs of x .

1 02 . Fr om 1 0 1 , we d e ri v e th e f o llo win g r u le

Ar r a nge the d i vi d end a nd d i vi sor i n the sa me o r d er o f p o wers

of so me co mmon letter .

D ivi d e the r st ter m o f the d i vi d en d b y the f t ter m

i r s
f
o the
d i vi so r, a nd wr i te the r es ult a s the firs t te rm of the quo ti en t .

M ultip ly the whole d i vi s o r b y the r s t ter m of the qu o ti en t, a nd

s u b tr a ct the p r o d u ct f r o m the d i v i d en d .

If ther e b e a re ma i n d e r, r ega r d it as a n ew d i vi d en d , a nd

p r o ceed a s b efor e ; a r ra n g i n g the re ma i n d er i n the sa me o r d er o f

p o wer s a s the d i v i d en d a nd d i vi s o r .

1 . D i v id e 9 ab
2
+ a
3
9b 3
5 a
2
b by 3 b 2
+ a 2
2 ab .

cc o
'

Arr an g i n g a r di n g to th e d e s c e n d i n g p o we r s of a ,

a
i 5 a
2
b
i9 ab
z -9 b3

a
- 2 a
2
b + 3 a b 2
a 3 b
2 2
3 (1 1) 6 d b
3 a
2
b + 6 ab
2 9 b3

In th e a b o ve e x a mp le , th e la s t te r m o f th e s e c o n d d i vid e nd i s omitte d ,
as i t i s me re ly a re p e ti ti o n o f th e te r m d ir e c tly a b o ve .

T he wo rk ma y b e ver i e d b y mu ltip ly i ng th e q uotie nt b y th e d ivi so r,

whic h S h ould o f c o urs e g i ve th e d i v i d e n d .

2 . D i vi d e 4 -9 x -28 x2 by
Arran g i n g a cc o rd i n g to th e as c e n d i n g p o we r s of x,

4 2
28 x + 9 x
4 3 x2

4 -
{fL 8 x 6x 2

8 x 22 x2
+ 9 x
4

8x 16 x2

l 2 x3
2 3 4
6 x l2 x l 9 x
--

2 3 --
6x 12 x l 9 x4
44 AD V AN C E D C O URS E IN A L G E B R A
bc
3 D i vi d e (
3
. x + a +b ca
) x -a b c by x +a .

3 b c cd ) x -a b c
x + (a +b
x
3
+ ax
2
x
2
+ (b c)x b c
b
( c x
)
2

b cx
b cx a b c

1 03 . It i s ev i d ent fr o m 8 9 th at, if th e d i v i d e n d and di v i s o r

ar e w
ho mogen eo us , th e q u o ti e nt i ll a ls o b e h o mo g e n e o us , a n d i ts
d e gre e e qual to th e d e g re e o f th e di vi de n d mi n u s th e d e gre e of
th e d i v i s o r .

1 04 . Di vi s i on b y Detach ed Coefci ents .

I n n d i n g th e q u o ti e nt o f two exp r e s s i o n s w h i ch a r e a r ra n g e d ,

a c c o rd i n g to th e s a me o r d e r o f p w s fs o er o o me co mmo n le tte r,

th e o pe may b e
i
r a t on r a b i d ge d by w i ti n g r o nl y th e nu meri ca l
co e i ci en ts o f th e te rms .

I f th e te r m i n v o lv i ng any p ow e r is w antin g ,
it may b e su p

pli e d w i th th e c oefc i ent 0 .

Ex . D i vi d e 6 x + 2 6
x
5 30 b y 3 x i i
t --x
2
6 .

9 + 30 6
1 2

15 5 0 30

T hen th e qu o ti en t is 2 x 3
3x 5 .

mb er,

1 05 . By 37 , if a is a n y nu

0 Xa 0 .

R e g ar d i n g 0 as th e q uo ti e n t, a as th e di vi s o r, an d 0 as th e
d i vi de n d, we h av e
0
0
a
 DI V I S ION 45

EXE RC S E 3 I
Di vid e th e f ollo wing

? x 5
+ 37 x 2 ~
7 0 x + 50 b y och -2 93 + 1 0 .

s
s 6 06 y)
2
7 (x y) 2 0 b y 3 (a : y) + 4 .

3 1 2 gil t 2
by ab
+ 1 2 2
+ b ab b + and q b e ing p os i ti ve i nteger s
a P 1 ?
s a a p
-
.

s a
s b5 5 a
4
b +5 ab 4
+ 10 a
3b 2 10 a
2 3
b by a il b3 3 a
2
b +3 ab
2

e .
,
6 n5 + 25 n4 7 n3 8 l n2 3 n + 2 8 3
by 2 n + 5 n2 -8 n 7 .

s 2 3 x2 5 x4 1 2 + 1 2 x5 + 8 x 1 4 x 3
b y x 2 + 3 x2 .

s l 6 (a + b )4 -8 1 b y 2 (a + b ) - 3 .

a 8 x6 4 x5 2 x4 -
I-1 5 x3
+ 3 x2
5 x 1 5 b y 4 x3
x 3 .

ma 3
+ b 3 ca
+3 abc by a + b c

m
.

4 9 1 2 3 l
4 2 m 3 2
by - m 2 m
l

p
+ 7 ~

e 4 16 3 2 4

11 .
8 + x3 - l 2 x .

12 . a 6 6 a n
4 z
- 2 4
I 9a n m
4 n6 by a 3 2 2
a n an + 2 2
n 3
.

13 . x3
(a b + )
c x -
(a b
2 x2 -
(
a b )x ab .

- b c x a b c b y
14 . x3 + (a ab + ac ) ~
x + c .

15 . by

16 . x3 6 abc b y x 3 b .

17 .
(2 m + 1 0 mn)
2 x2
+ (8 m 2 9 mn 15 n 2
) x l2
(
mn 9 n )
2 by
2 mx 3 n

18 . x4 5 b + 2 x2 8
) ( a 1 5 b ) x 1 O b by
3x+ 2
46 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L GE B R A

VI . INTE GR A L L INE A R E QU ATIO NS

1 06 . Th e F i rs t M emb er O f a n e q u ati o n i s th e e xp re s s i o n to
th e le ft Of th e S i gn Of e q u a li t y , an d th e S eco n d M ember th e
e xp r e s s i o n to th e r i gh t o f th at S i gn .

T hu s , i n 2 x 3 3 x 5 , th e rs t me m be r is 2 x 3 an d

th e me mb e r 3 x 5
s e c ond .

An y te r m o f e i th e r me mb e r o f a n e q u ati o n is c alle d a ter m

of th e e q u ati o n .

The s i d es O f a n e q u a ti o n a r e i ts two me m b ers .

1 07 . An I denti c al E quati on, or I d enti ty , i s a n e qu ati o n wh o s e

me mb e r s a re th e sa me , or b eco me th e sa me a f te r a ll th e i n di
c a te d O p e rati o n s h av e b een p e r f o r me d ; a s,

or b2 .

Th e S ign 5 ,
r ead

i s i d e n ti ca lly e qua l to , i s fre que ntly u se d :
i n p lac e
Of th e S i gn o f e q uali ty in an i d e n tity .

It i s e v i d en t th a t, In a n i d e n ti t y i n v o lv i n g le tte r s , th e me m
be rs a r e e u a l
q wh ate v e r v a lu e s a r e g i v e n to th e le tte r s , p r o v i d e d
th e sa me v a lu e
i s g iv e n to th e s ame le tte r w
h e r ev e r i t oc urs c .

c
All e qu ati o n s o n s i d e re d u p to th e p r e s e nt ti me h av e b e en

c
i de n ti al e qu ati o n s .

1 08 . An e qu a ti o n is s a id to b e sa ti s ed by a s e t o f v a lu e s o f

ce r tai n lette r s i n v o lv e d i n i t wh e n ,
o n s u b s ti tuti n g th e v a lu e O f

ea ch le tte r i n p la e c of th e le tte r wh e rev e r it o cc u r s, th e e qu a

ti o n b ce o me s i d e n ti c al .

Th u s , th e e q u a ti o n x y 5 is s ati s e d by th e s e t O f v a lue s

x 8, y 3 ; f o r, on s u b s ti tu ti n g 8 f o r x, a n d 3 f o r y, th e e q ua

ti o n bec o me s
8 3 5, or 5 5, which i s i d en ti c al .

1 09 . An E quati on of Cond i ti on i s an e q u ati o n i n vo lv i n g one

or mo r e lette r s , c a lle d Unk now n Numb ers , w hi ch is s ati s e d

o nl y by p a ti c ular r v alu e s , o r s e ts O f v a lu e s O f
,
th e s e le tte r s .
 IN TE G R A L L IN E A R EQU A TION S 47

T hus ,
th e e qu a ti o n x 2 5 is sa ti s e d by th e v a lu e x : 3;
b ut n Ot by th e v a lue x 5 .

A ga i n, th e e q u ati o n x y 7 is sati s e d by th e s e t o f v alu e s

x = 4 , y = 3 ; b ut n o t by th e s e t o f v a lu e s x = 6, y = 9 .

An e q u ati o n o f c on d i ti on is u s u a ll y c a lle d a n e qu a ti o n .

Any le tte r i n a n e q u ati o n o f c o n d i ti o n m ay r e p r es e n t a n

u n k n o w n n u mb e r ; b ut i t i s u s u a l to r e p r e s e n t u n k n o w n n u m

b e by th
rs e las t le tte r s of th e a lp h a b et .

110 . Any le tte r, or se t o f le tte r s , wh i ch s a ti s e s a n e q u a ti o n

is c a lle d a S oluti on of th e e q u a ti o n .

I f th e e q u ati o n c o n ta i n s b ut o n e u nkn o wn nu mb e r i ts s o lu

ti o n s a re c a lle d R oot s .

A s o lu ti o n is ve r i w h
ede n ,
on su b s ti tu ti n g th e v a lu e s o f th e
un k n o wn mber s , a n d p e r f o rmi n g th e o p e r a ti o n s i n d i cate d ,
nu

th e e qu a ti o n b e c o me s i d e n ti c a l .

T o s o lve a n e qu a ti o n , o r a s y s te m o f e qu ati o n s, i s to n d i ts
s oluti o n s .

111 A Numeri ca l E quati on i s o n e i n

. h i h all th e k n o w c wn
b
n u m e r s a r e r e p re s e n te d Ar a i nu me r a ls ; a s , by bc
2 x

A L i teral E quati on i s on e in whi c h so me o r a ll o f th e kn o wn

b
n um e r s a r e r e p r e s e n te d b y le tte rs ; a s,

3 x + a =5 x Z b

An Integr al E quati on i s one ea ch of wh ose me mbe r s i s a

r a ti on a l a n d i n te g r a l e x pr e s s i o n a s,

5 2 -
4 x y I 1 .

112 . If a r ati o n a l a n d i n te g r a l mo n o mi al 6 3 ) i n v o lv e s a

ce rta i n le tte r, i ts d egre e wi th r esp e ct to i t i s d e n o te d b y i ts

e x p o n e nt .

If i t i n v o lv e s two le tte r s , i ts d egre e wi th r esp ec t to them i s

d e n o te d b y th e s u m o f th e i r e x p o n e n ts ; e tc .

T hu 2 b x y s, a
4 2 3
is of th e s eco n d d e gr e e w i th re s
p e c t to x, an d

o f th fth w i th
e re s
p ec t to x an d y .
48 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
1 13 . If an i n te g ra l e qu a ti o n 111) c o n tai n s on e or mo r e
unkn o w n nu mb e rs , th e d egr e e of th e e q u ati o n i s th e d e gre e of

i ts te rm of hi gh e s t d e g re e .

Th us ,
if x a n d y r e p r e s e n t u n k no wn nu mb e rs,

ax by c, is a n e q ua ti o n O f th e fi rs t d e gr e e ;
a n e q u a ti o n o f
2
it 4 x 2, th e se co n d d e g re e ;

n a n e q u a ti o n o f
2
2 x 3 5, th e thi r d d e g r e e ; e tc .

A L i near E quati on i s an e q u ati o n o f th e r st d e g r ee .

114 . T wo e q u a ti o n s , e ach i n v o lv i n g one or mo r e un k no wn

n um b e r s , ar e s a i d to b e E qui v alent wh en e ve r y s o luti o n o f th e
r s t i s a s olu ti o n of th e se c on d ,
and ever y s o lu ti on of the
s e c o n d a s o lu ti o n o f th e r st .

115 . Th e f ollo wing a r e o f u se in s olv i n g e qu ati o n s

1 . If the me n u mb er (o r equa l
sa numb ers ) b e a d d ed to equ a l

nu mb e rs , the s u ms wi ll b e equ a l .

2 . If the mb er (o r e qua l n u mb ers ) b e

sa me nu s u b tr a cted fr om
e qua l nu mb e r s , the r e mai n d ers w i ll b e e qu a l .

Th e s e f o llo w f r o m 2 2 .

3 . If e qua l nu mb er s b e multip li ed b y the sa me nu mb er (or

e qu a l nu mb e rs), the p ro d u cts w i ll b e equ a l
4 . If equ a l n u mb er s b e d i v i d ed b y the s a me nu mb er (or equ a l

nu mb ers), the qu o ti en ts wi ll b e e qu a l, p r o vid ed the d i v i s o r is n ot 0 .

T h i s follo ws f ro m 2 9 ; c o mp ar e 4 3 .

PR INCIPL E S U S E D IN S O L V ING INTE GR AL E QU ATIONS

1 1 6 A d d i t i on
. .

If the sa me e xp re s s i o n be a d d ed to b o th memb ers of a n e qu a ti o n ,

the r es ulti ng e qu a ti o n will b e e qu i va len t to the rs t .

C o n s i d e r, f o r e xa mp le , th e e q u a ti o n

A B .

To p r o v e th at th e e q u ati o n

A C
B 0,
wh e re C is an
y ex
p i
re s s on , is e q u i v a le n t to
 IN TE G R A L L IN E A R EQU A TION S 49

An y s o lu ti o n o f wh e n su b s ti tu te d f o r the u nk n o w n n um
b er s,make s A i d e n ti c a lly e qu al to B
I t th en ma k e s A O i d e n ti c ally e qu a l to B O 1 1 5,
Th en i t i , s a s o luti o n o f

Aga i n , a n y s o lu ti o n o f w h e n sub sti tute d fo r th e un k n o wn

nu mb e r s , mak e s A O i d e n ti c a lly e qu a l to B C .

I t th e n mak e s A i d e n ti c a lly e q u al to B 1 1 5,
Th en it i s a s olu ti o n o f

Th e refo r e, ()
1 a nd (2) a re e q u i v ale n t .

Th e a b o ve d e mo n s tr a ti o n p r o ves th a t if th e s a me e xp r es s i o n b e s u b
tr a cted f ro m b o th me mb ers of a n e q ua ti o n , the r es ulti ng equ a ti o n wi ll b e
e qu i v a le nt to th e rs t .

117 . Trans p os i ng Terms .

C o n s i d e r th e e q u a ti o n x a b 0 .

Ad d i n g a an d b to b o th me mb e r s w e h av e th e
e q ui va le n t e qu a ti o n

x + a b a
+ b = c a +h
O r, x c a +b .

In th i s case ,
th e te r ms a and b a r e s a id to b e tra nsp o s ed
fro m the r s t me m be r to th e s econd .

H en c e, if a ny te r m b e tr a nsp o s ed f ro m on e memb er of a n e qu d

ti o n to the other b y cha ng in g i ts si n

g , the re s u lti ng e qu a ti o n wi ll b e
e qui va lent to the rs t .

If th e sa me te rm a pp e ars i n b o th me mb ers o f a n e qu ati o n a ffec te d wi th

th e sa me S ign , it may b e c an c e lle d .

1 18 . C o n s id e r th e e q uati o n

a x b c .

T ra n s p o si n g e a ch te r m, w e h a v e th e e qu i v ale n t e qu ati on

b + c d
+ x, o r x a = c b;

whi h i s th
c e sa me as
()
1 w i th th e s i gn o f e v e r y te r m c h an ge d .

H e nc e f , i the s i gn s o f a ll the ter ms o f a n e qu a ti on b e cha nged ,

the r es u lti n
g equa ti o n wi ll b e e qu i va le n t to the fi rs t .
50 AD V AN C E D C O U RS E IN A L G E B R A
119 . Multipli c ati on .

If the memb er s f
o a n e qu a ti o n be mu ltip li ed b y the sa me e xp r es ~

s i on, whi ch i s n o t zer o , a n d d o es n ot i n v o lve the un kn o wn n u mb ers ,

the r es u lti ng equ a ti o n wi ll b e e qu i va le n t to the rs t.

C on s id e r th e e q u a ti o n A B .
()
1

To p rov e th at th e e q u a ti o n

A x 0 =B x Q m)
wh e re O is n o t z er o , a n d do e s n ot i n v o lve th e un k n o wn nu m
b s er ,
is e q u i v a le n t to

An y s o lu ti o n o f wh e n su b s ti tu te d fo r th e un k n o w n n um
b ma k e s A i d e n ti c
e r s, e q u a l to B ally .

It th e n mak e s A x 0 i d e nti c ally e q u al to B x C

1 1 5,
Th en i t i s a s o luti o n o f ()
2
Ag ai n , a ny s o lu ti o n o f wh e n su b stitut d f th e un kn o wn e or

nu m b mak e s A x O i d e
er s, n ti c lly aq al t B x C
u e o

.

It th e n mak e s A i d e n ti c a lly e qu a l t B 115 o ,

T he n it i s a s lu ti on o f o

T h efo e (1 ) and (2) a

er r , r e e u i v alen t
q .

Th e r e as o n wh y th e a b o ve d oes not h old f or th e multip li er z ero i s , th at

th e p ri nc i p le of 1 1 5 , 4 , is r e s tr i c te d to c ases wh e re th e d ivi s o r i s n ot z ero .

1 20 . Th e c
y f
n e e s si t or li mi ti n g th e p r i n c i p le o f 1 1 9 to
case s wh e re th mu lti p li
e er d o e s n o t i n vo lv e th e u nk n o n nu m w
b er s i s th at, i f 0 c ntai n o s th e u nk n o wn nu mb e r s , th e e qu a ti o n

A x O = B x C is '
s ati s e d by c e r ta i n va lu e s of th e un k n o wn
n um e r s b wh i ch ma k e C : 0 .

B ut th e s e v a lu e s do n ot, i n g e n e r al, s ati s f y A: B .

C o n s i d e r, f o r e xa mp le , th e e qu a ti o n

13 2 3 x 4 .
()
1
No w th e e qu ati o n

4
< ><
w + 2 w >( a
o ()
2

w hi c h is o btai n ed f ro m (
1) by mu lti p ly i n g b oth me mb e r s by
x 1, is s ati s e d b y th e v a lu e x 1 , w hi c h d o e s n o t s ati s f y
Th en ()
1 an d ()
2 a r e n o t e q u i v ale n t .
 IN TE G R A L L IN E A R E QU A TION S 51

It f o llo w s f r o m thi s th at i t i s n e v e r a llo wa bl

e to multi p ly
b o th me mb e rs o f a n i n te gr a l e q u a ti o n by an e xp re s s i o n whi c h
i n v o lv e s th e un k n o w n n u mb e rs ; f o r i n th i s way a d d i ti o n a l

s o luti o n s are i ntr o du c e d .

1 21 . Clea ri ng of F ra cti ons .

C o n s i d e r th e e qu a ti o n

2 5 5 9

3 4 6 8

Multi p lyi n g e a ch te r m by 24 ,
th e lo w e st c omm on mu lti p le of

th e d e n o mi n a to r s w e h a v e th e e q ui v a le n t e q u a ti o n

l6 x 30 = 20 x 27 ,

wh e re th e d e n o mi n ato rs hav e b e en r e mo v e d .

R e mo vin g th e f rac ti o n s fr o m an e q u a tio n by multip li c a ti o n is c alle d

c le a r i ng the e q u a ti o n o f f ra c ti o ns

1 22 . Di v i s i on .

If the memb er s of a n e qu a ti o n b e d i v id e d b y the s a me exp res

s i on , wh i ch i s n o t zer o , a n d
. d o es n o t i n v o lve the u n kn o wn n u m

b ers , the r es u lti ng e qu a ti o n wi ll b e e qu i va lent to the fi rs t .

C o n s i d e r th e e q u ati o n A B .
()
1

To p r o v e th a t th e e q ua ti o n

()
2

wh ere O is n o t z e ro , an d d oe s n ot i n v olv e th e u nk n o wn nu m

b ers, is e qu i v a le n t to

An y s o luti o n o f wh en s ub titute d f s or th e u nk n o w n n um
be rs, mak e s A i d e n ti c a lly e q u l t B a o .

I t th e n mak e s A 0 i d n ti ally e q u al t
e c o B 0 1 1 5,
Th en it i s a s olu ti o n o f

Ag ai n , an y s o lu ti o n o f wh e n su b s ti tut ed f o r the u nk n o wn

b
n u m e rs , mak e s A O id e n ti c a lly e qu al to B C
.

I t th e n mak e s A i d e n ti c a lly e qu a l to B .

Th n it i
e s a s o lu ti o n o f

T h e fo e re r ,
()
1 an d ()
2 a r e e q u i v ale n t .
52 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
1 23 . Th e c
n e e ss i ty f o r li mi ti n g th e p r i n c i p le o f 1 22 to
c ases w h e r e th e d i v i s o r d o e s n o t i n v o lv e th e un k n o wn nu m
b e rs i s th a t, i f O

c o n tai n s th e un k n o w n n u mb e s th r , e s o lu ti o n

of A=B c o n ta i n s c e r ta i n nu mb e r s whi c h d o n t i n o , g e n e r a l,

s a ti s fy A O:B 0 .

C o n s i d e r, fo r e xa mple , th e e q u a ti o n

4 l
( x + 2) (
x
)( x ) .
()
1

Als o th e e q u a ti o n 2 3
x x 4, ()
2

whi ch is o bt a i ne d f ro m (1 ) by d i i d i n g b th me mb e s by x 1
v o r .

No w e qu ati o n
()
1 i s sa ti e d by th
s a lu e x : 1 w hi c h d oe s
e v ,

n o t s a ti s f y
Then ()
1 an d ()
2 a r e n o t e q u i v a le n t .

I t f o llo w s f ro m thi s th a t i t is n e v e r a llo w bl

a e to d i vide b oth
me mb e r s of an i n te g ra l e q u a ti o n by an e xp r e s s i o n whi ch i n
v o lv es th e u n k n o wn nu mb e rs ; fo r i n th i s way s o lu ti on s a re

lo s t .

S OL UTION OF INTE GR AL L INE AR E QU ATIONS

1 24 . To s o lve a n e q u a ti o n c o n ta i n i n g o n e u n k n o wn nu mb e r,
we p u t i t i n to a c
su c e s s i o n o f f o r ms , w hi c h le a d n a ll y to a

w
k n o le d ge o f th e r o o t o r r o o ts .

T hi s p r o c es s i s c alle d tra n sf o r mi ng th e e q uati o n .

If e ve r yt r a n s fo r ma ti o n i s e ffec te d by m e an s o f the p ri n c i ple s

of 1 1 6 to 1 22 , th e su cc e s s i v e e q u a ti o n s w ill h a th s ame ve e

ro o ts a s th e g i v e n e q u ati o n , a n d n o s o lu ti o n s w i ll b e i n t o d u c e d r

nor lo s t .

EXAM P L ES

1 25 . 1 . S o lv e th e e qu ati o n

5 x 7 = 3 x +L

T ra n s p o s i n g 3 x to th e r s t me mb e r , an d 7 to c
se on d

5 x

U ni ti ng S i mi lar te rms , 2 x 8 .
 IN T EG R A L L IN E A R EQU A TION S 53

Div i di n g b oth me mb e s by r 2
:
(I 4 .

To ver f t
iy eh r es ult, p ut x 4 i n th e g i ve n e qua ti o n .

Th u s , 20 7 12 1 whi c h i s i d e nti cal .

2 . S olv e th e e q u a ti o n

7
w a a 1
6 3 5 4

Cle ar i ng of fr ac ti o ns by multi ply i ng ea ch te r m by 60 , th e

L C
. . M . of 6, 3 , 5 , an d 4 , we h ave

70 x 1 00 = 36 x 15 .

T n sp osin g 36 x
ra to th e r s t me mb e r, an d 1 00 to th e
s e c n d an d u n i ti n g
o ,
si mila r te r ms ,

34 x = 85

D i vi d i n g by 34 ,
22 g
3 . S o lv e th e e qu a tio n

4
(
5 x ) .

Ex p an d i n g ,
x 12 x2
62 (
7 31 x 12 x ) 2

62 7 3 1 l2 2
+ x x

C an c elli ng the 12 x te r ms
2
an d tr a n s p o si n g ,

l1 x 31 x = 62 7 15 .

U n i ti n g te r ms, 20 x 40 .

Di v i d i n g by 20 , x 2 .

T o exp and a n a lg e b r a i c e xp re ss i o n is to p e rfo rm th e o p e ra ti ons i nd i c a te d .

4 . S olv e th e e q u ati o n

. 2 x . 001 . 03 x . 113 x . 0 1 61 .

T r an s p o s i n g ,

. 2 x . 03 x . 1 13 x . 0 1 61 . 00 1 .

U n i ti n g te r ms , 057 x . 0 17 1 .

Di vid i n g by 0 5 7 .
,
x . 3 .

F ro m th e b a o ve e xa mp le s , w e h a v e th e f o llo win g ule f r or

s o lv i n g a n i nte g ral li n e a r e q u a ti o n w i th o ne unk n w n n u mb o er

54 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G EB RA
Clea r the equ a ti o n of f r a c ti on s , if a ny, b y multip ly i ng ea ch ter m
b y the L C M of th e d en o mi n a tors of the f r a cti on a l co e
. . . i c i en ts .

R e move the p a r e nthes es , if a ny .

Tr a nsp o s e the u n kn own te r ms to the f i rs t memb er, a nd the

kn o wn to the s eco n d ; ca n ce lli ng a ny ter m wh ich ha s the sa me
coe i c i e n t i n b ome mb er s
th .

U ni te s i mi la r ter ms , a n d d i vi d e b o th memb ers b y the co e i

c i e n t
of the un kn o wn n u mb er .

Th e s tud e n t s h o uld e n d e avo r to a pp ly mo re th an o ne p ri nc ip le a t o ne

o p e ra ti o n .

He wi ll als o nd i t e xce lle n t p rac ti c e to ve rify h is s o luti o ns .

EXE RC S E I 4
S olve th e fo llo wmg

2 4 38
1 . x + x
5 3 15

2 . . 05 x 50 4 .

4 (x + 1 4 ) 4 (3 x 7 x
3 .
(
5 7 7 1
4 x x
i E
'

s 4s

5 .
(5 4 x) = 1 .

6 . x x . 86 )
x 2 x
7 .
(1 + 3 x) 2
) ) (3
-5 2x 2 2x
s . 6 (x ) ) .

9 (3 9x x 1
( )(3 - 8
) = 4 5 x2 38
'

. x x .

- x
10 .
( x + 4) 3
(
11
1 7
0
_3 3 x)

7
. .

1 2

1
12 w -
o 4 x4
5
2

PR OB L EM S INV OL V ING INTE GR AL L INE AR E QU ATIONS

W ITH O NE U NKNOWN NU MB E R

1 26 F o th
. lu ti n f a p o ble m by a lge b ai c me tho ds n o
r e so o o r r

g en e r al rule c a n b e g i v e n .

w
Th e fo llo i n g s ug g e sti o n s will b e found of s e rvi ce
 IN TE G R A L L IN E A R E QU A TION S 55

1 . R e p r e s e n t th e u nk n o wn n u mb o er, r on e of th e un k n o wn
nu mb e r s if th e r e a re s e v e r a l by x
,
.

2 . E ve r y p ro bl me c o n ta in xp li c i tly
s, e or c y ju
i mp li i tl ,
st a s

ma ny d i s ti nct s ta te men ts as ther e a r e un k no wn nu mb e rs i n volved .

U se all b ut one of th e s e to ex p re s s th e o th e r un k n o wn nu m
b ers i n te rm s of x .

3 . U s e th e re mai n i n g s ta te me n t to f o r m an e q u ati on .

IL L U S TR A TIV E PR OB L E M S
1 27 . 1 . D i v i d e 4 5 i n to two p arts su ch th at th e le ss pa rt

S h all be on e-
f o ur th th e g r e a te r .

H e re th e re are two u nk no wn nu mb e rs th e gr eate r p art and th e le s s .

In a c c o rd a n c e with th e rs t s ugge s ti on o f 1 2 6 , we r e p re se n t th e

gr eate r p ar t b y x .

Th e r s t s ta te me n t of th e p rob le m i s , i mp li c i tly
Th e m o f th e gre a te r p a rt
su an d th e less i s 4 5 .

The s e c o n d s ta te me n t i s :

Th e le s s p a rt i s o ne-fo u rth th e gre a ter .

In acc o rd a n c e w i th th e s e co nd s ugge s ti o n o f 1 26 , we u se th e s e co nd
s ta te me nt to e xp re s s th e le ss p a r t i n te r ms o f x .

T h u s , th e le s s p ar t is r e p r es e nte d by lx .

4
We n o w, in a cco rd a n c e with th e thi rd s ugg es ti o n , us e th e firs t s ta te

ment to form a n e q uati o n .

T hus , x
i x 45 .

C lea ri ng of fracti o ns , 4x x 1 80 .

U n i ti ng te r ms , 5x 1 80 .

Di vi di ng b y 5, x 3 6 , th e gr e ate r p art .

Th e n ,
i x 9 , th e le ss p ar t .

2 . A i s 3 ti me s a s old a s B, an d 8 yea r s a go h e was 7 ti me s

a s O ld . R e qu i r e d th e i r a g e s at p r e se n t .

L et mb e r o f
'

x nu y e a rs i n B s a ge .

Th en , 39 : numb er o f y ea rs in A
s a ge .

Al so , x 8 nu mb e r of y e ars i n B

s age 8 y e ars a go ,

a nd 3x 8 nu mb er of y e ars i n A

s age 8 y e ars ago .
56 A DV AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
B ut A
s a ge 8 y ears ag o wa s 7 ti me s B
s a ge 8 y e a rs ag o .

Wh ence ,
3 x 8 : 7 (x

E xpa n d i ng, 3x u
8 z 7x 56 .

Tr a n sp o s ing , A
4x z 48 .

Di vi di n g by 4, x th e n iI mb

e r of y e ars i n B s


age .

Th e n , 3x z 3 6 , th e nu mb e r o f y e a rs i n A

s a ge .

It mu s t b e c a re fully b orn e i n mi nd th a t x c a n o nly r e p r es e nt a n

a b s tr a c t n umb er .

Th u s , i n E x 2 ,
w e d.o not sa y
le t x r epr e se n t B s a g e ,
b ut
le t x
r ep r e s e n t th e n u mb er of y e a r s i n B s a ge

.

3 . A su m of m on e y ,
moun ti ng to
a c on si sts o f 1 08
c o i ns ,
a ll d i mes and cents ; h ow ma n y a r e the r e o f e a c h k i n d ?

L et x th e n u mb e r of d i mes .

Th e n , 10 8 x th e n u mb e r o f ce nts .

A lso , th e x d i mes a re worth 1 0 56 c ents .

B ut th e e n ti re s u m a moun ts to 4 32 c e n ts .

Wh e n ce , 10 x 1 08 x 4 32 .

Tr a n s p os i ng , 9x 324 .

Wh e nce ,
x 36, th e nu mb er o f d imes ;
and 1 08 x z 72 ,
th e nu mb e r o f c e n ts .

4 . At w h at b e tw
ti me e en 3 an d 4
o c lo ck ar e th e h a n d s of

a w atc h Opp os i te to e a c h o th e r ?
L et x mi nu te-S p ac es p ass e d o v er b y th e mi nu te -h a nd
th e n u mb er o f
fr o m 3 o c lock to th e r e q u i re d time

.

T h e n s i n c e th e hour-h and i s 1 5 minu te -sp a ce s i n a d va n c e o f th e mi nute

h a nd a t 3 o c lo c k , x 15 -30 , o r x 4 5 wi ll r ep r e s e n t th e nu mb e r o f
mi nute-sp ac e s p ass e d o ver b y th e h o ur -h a nd .

B ut th e min ute -ha n d mo ves 1 2 ti me s a s fas t a s th e h our-h an d .

Th e n , x 1 2 (x 4 5)

12 x . 1
540 .

T r a n s p o s i ng , 11 x z 54 0 .

Wh enc e , x 49 111 .

Th e n , th e req ui r e d ti me i s 49 11T minu tes after 3

o clo c k .
 IN TE G R A L L IN E A R E QU A TION S 57

5 . T wo p e r so n s , A a n d B , 63 mi le s a p a r t, s ta r t a t th e s a me
ti me , a n d tr a v e l to wa r d s e a c h o th e r A tr a v e ls a t th e r a te o f .

4 mi le s an h o u r, an d B at th e r a te o f 3 mile s an h o ur . H ow
fa r w ill each h a ve tr a v e lle d w h e n th e y me e t
L et
4 x nu mb e r of miles th a tAt ra ve ls .

mi le s th a tB t
Th e n , x
j
n un oe r o f ra ve ls .

B y th e c o n d i ti o n s
@ x 3 x
y;
(

[ i t

Th e n , 4x z 36 , nu mb e r o f miles th at At ra v e ls

an d 3x 27 nu mb e r o f mi le s th a t B t r a ve ls .

It is o fte n a d va n tag e o us , as i n E x 5 , to . re p re s e nt th e unk n o wn n u m

b er b y so me multip le o f x, i ns te a d o f b y x i ts elf :

EXERC S E 5 I
1 . Di vi d e 6 6 i n to two p a rts su ch th a t Qth e gr e a te r s h a ll e x c e e d
7
th e less b y 2 1 .

B
o ld
2
.
. In 9 y e a rs , wi ll b e
W hat a r e th e i r ag es 2 as O ld a s A and 1 2 y e ar s a go h e was
2
( et x
L re p res e n t nu mb er o f y e ars i n A

s a ge 1 2 y e a rs a go .
)
3 . Di vid e1 9 7 i n to two p a r ts s u c h th at th e s malle r s h a ll b e c o n ta i ne d

i n th e g e a te r 5 ti me s , wi th a r e ma i n d e r 2 3
r .

4 . A ft Aer h as tra ve lle d 7 h o u rs at th e rate o f 1 0 mi le s i n 3 h o urs ,

B s e ts o u t to o ve r ta k e h i m, tr a ve lli ng at th e ra te o f 9 mile s i n 2 h o u rs .

H o w far will e a c h h ave trave lle d wh e n B o ve r tak e s A

5 . A t wh a t ti me b e twe e n 8 and 9

o c loc k a r e th e h a nd s of a wa tc h
to ge th e r

6 . Fi nd fo u r c o n se c uti ve O d d n u mb e rs such th a t th e p r o d uc t o f th e
rs t a nd th i r d s h a ll b e less th an th e p ro d uc t o f th e s e c o n d a n d fo ur th
b y 86 .

7 . A su m o f mo n e y , a mo unti ng to c o n s i s ts of is2 b ills ,

2 5 -cent

p ie c e s , a nd 5 -c e n t p i e c e s . Th e r e a re 13 mo r e 5-c en t p i e c e s th a n $ 2 b ills ,
and

e a ch
g as man y 5 -c e n t p ieces as 2 5-c e nt p i e c es . H o w man y are th e re of

8 . A t wh a t ti me s b e twe e n 4 a nd 5

o clo ck are th e h a nd s of a watch at
r igh t a n gles to ea ch o th e r
 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
9 . Aw
ma n s e lls h a lf a n e gg mo re th a n h a lf h e r e ggs
o S h e th e n s e lls .

h a lf a n e gg mo re th a n h a lf h e r r e ma i ni n g e g gs A th i r d ti me s h e d o e s th e
.

s a me , a n d n o w h a s 3 e g gs le ft H o w ma ny h a d s h e a t rs t
.

10 . At ra i n le a ves A f or B , 2 1 0 mile s d is ta n t, tra ve lli ng at th e r ate o f

28 mile s a n h o ur . A ft er i t h as b e e n g o n e 1 h o ur a n d 1 5 min u tes , a n o th e r

tra i n s ta rts fr o m B fo r A , tr a ve lli ng a t th e r a te o f 22 mile s a n h our H o w .

ma ny mi le s fr o m B will th e y mee t

11 . A man p uts a c e rta i n s u m in a s a vi ngs b a nk p ay i n g 4 % i n tere s t .

A t th e e nd y ea r h e d e p o s i ts th e
of a i n te r e s t, r ec e i vi ng i n te r es t o n th e
e n ti re a mo u n t A t th e e n d o f a s e c o n d y e ar a n d a thi r d y e a r h e d o e s th e
.

sa me , a nd n o w h as 3 i n th e b a n k W h at wa s h is o rig i n a l d ep os i t
.

12 . Af ox is p u rs ue d b y a h o un d , a n d h a s a s ta r t o f 7 7 o f h e r o wn
le ap s . Th e f o x ma k e s 5 le a ps wh i le th e h o un d mak e s 4 b u t th e h ou n d
i n 5 le a p s g o es a s fa r a s th e fo x i n 9 . H o w ma n y le a p s d o e s e ach mak e
b e fo r e th e h o u nd c a tc h es th e fo x

13 . A c lo c k has an h o ur-h a n d , a mi n ute -h a n d , and a s e c ond -h a n d , a ll

tu rn i ng o n th e s a me c e n tr e At 1 2 Ho w

. o c lo c k a ll th e h a n d s p o i n t at 12 .

ma ny s e c o nd s will i t b e b e fo r e th e h o u r-h a n d i s b e twe e n th e o th e r two

h a nd s a nd e q u ally d i s tan t f r o m th e m

Af re i g h t tra in trave ls f ro m A to B at th e ra te o f 12 miles an h o ur .

A ft er it h as b e e n go n e h o u rs , a n e xp r es s tra i n leave s A fo r B , trav e l

li ng a t th e r a te o f 4 5 mi le s a n h o ur , a n d r e ac h e s B 1 h o u r a n d 5 mi nute s
a h e a d o f th e fr e i gh t . F
i n d th e d i s ta n c e f ro m A to B a n d th e ti me tak e n
b y th e e xp r e s s tr a i n .

15 . A me r c h a nt i n cr eas e s h is c a p i ta l eac h y ea r by o ne -thi rd , a n d at

th e e n d o f e a ch s e ts a s i d e 3 1 3 50 fo r A t th e e nd o f th r e e

y e ar e xp en s e s .

M
5
y e a rs , a f te r s e tti n g a s i d e h is e xp e n s es , h e n d s th a t h e h a s
- of h is
10 8
o ri gi n a l c ap i ta l Wh a t was his o rig i nal c ap i ta l ?
.
 / S PE C IA L M E T H OD S 59
V

V II . S P E C IA L M E TH O D S IN M U L TIP L IC A TI O N
A ND DIV IS I O N

1 28 . Any P o we r of a Power .

R e qu i r e d th e v a lu e o f whe re m an d n a r e any p o siti ve

i n te g e r s .

We have, a
"

x a
m
to n fa c to r s 60 )
m+ m+ to n te rms mu
a a .

1 29 . Any P ow er of a P roduct .

R e q ui r e d th e v a lu e of (
abc wh e re n is a ny p o s i ti v e

i n te ge r .
.

We h av e , (
a bc m )

( a bc
(a bc to n c
f a to r s

(
a x a x to n c
f a to r s ) (
b x b x to n f a c to r s )

a
n
b n
c
n
O 0 O

1 30 . Any Power of a Monomi al .

Q
(
3
1 . R e q u i r e d th e v a lu e o f 5 a b) .

We hav e , (
5 a
2
b) 3
5 a
2
b x 5 a
g
b x 5 a
2
b 1 25 d b
.

2 . R e qu i re d th e v a lu e o f m) 4

We h av e , m) 4
m) x m) x m) x m)
3 3
3 . R e q ui r e d th e v a lu e o f 3 n ) .

We h a v e ,
3n 3 3
) 3 n
3
) 3 n
3
) 3 n
3
) 27 77
9
.

F ro m 1 28 an d 1 29 , an d th e a b
mp le s , we h a v e th e
o ve e xa

fo llo wi n g r ule fo r r ai si n g a r a ti o n a l a n d i n te g r a l mo n o mi a l

6 3 ) to a ny p o we w h r o se e xp on e nt is a p o s i ti v e i n te g e r :
R a i se the a b s o lu te va lue o f the nu mer ic a l co e i ci en t to the
r e qu i r e dp o we r , a nd mu ltip ly the exp o n en t o f e a ch le tter b y the
e xp o n e n t of the r e u i r e d wer
q p o .

G i ve to eve ry p o we r of a p o s iti ve te r m, a nd to e ve ry ev en p o wer

of a n ega ti ve te r m, the p o s i ti ve s ig n a n d to e ve ry o d d
p o wer of
a n ega ti ve ter m the n ega ti ve s ig n .
60 A DV AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
1 31 . S quare of a B i nomi al .

We n d by a c tu al multi pli c ati o n ,

()
1
b = 2
(
2 2
a
) a -
ab I b
()
2

Th at i s ,
The s qua r e f
o the S um of two n umb ers e qu a ls the sq u a r e o f
the fi r s t, p lu s twi ce the p r o d u ct of the fi r s t b y the s eco n d , p lu s the
s qu a r e o f the s ec ond .

The s qu a r e o f the d i er en c e o f two n u mb er s e qu a ls the s qu a re

of the f ,
i r s t mi n u s twi ce the p r o d u c t o f the f i r s t b y th e s ec o n d ,

p lus the s qu a r e o f the s ec o n d .

I n th e re mai nd e r o f th e b o o k , we s h a ll, fo r th e s ak e o f b r e vi ty , us e th e

e xp re ss i o n
th e d iffer e n c e o f a a nd b
to d e n o te th e re ma i nd er o b ta i ned

by s ub tr a c ti ng b f rom a .

1 . S qu a re 3 a
2
2b .

By (3 a
2
2 b) 2
z:(3 a
? 2
) 2 (
3 a
?
) 2
( )b ( )
2 b 2

4 Q ?
9 a 12 a b 4 b

If th e rs t te r m of th e b i n o mia l i s n e g a ti ve , i t S h o uld b e e n c lo s e d ,

n e g a ti ve S i g n a n d a ll, i n p a re nth es es , b e fo r e a p p ly i ng th e r ule .

2 S q u a re 4 x3
.
+9 .

4 r + 9>
- 4 x3
)
2
+ 2 4 x3
) by 1
()
16 6
72 x3
x + 81 .

1 32 . P roduct of th e S um a nd D iffe re nce of Tw o Numb ers .

We n d by a c tu a l mu lti p li c ati o n ,
- b) a
Q bQ .

Tha t i s , the p r o d uct m d ie ren ce f two n u mb e rs

o f the su a nd o

e qu a ls the d i

e r e n ce f
o thei r s qu a r e s .

1 . M ulti ply 6 3
l 5 b by 6
a - a -5 b 3

B y th e r u le ,

5
( b 3 2
) = 36 a
2 25 b 6 .
 S PE C IA L M E T H OD S 51

M ulti p ly - x2
+4 by x2 4 .

w2 4
l
m
(x )
2 2 4 2 ==x4 -1 6 .

3 . E xp an d (
a + b c) (a
To exp a nd a n a lg e b ra ic e xp ress i o n is to p e r fo rm th e o pe r a ti o n s i nd i
c a te d .

c
B y 8 2, ( a + b c
)( d - b
( )]
a
2
(
b
) by
2
c , th e ru l e,

-a 2 b 2 2 b z
~
c( + c
)
= a
2
b2 + 2
.
bc c
z
.

4 . E xpa n d (x .
-
y

yl

(x + Z ) f
z
2

- 2 2
x +2 xz + z y .

1 33 . Product of Two B i n mial

o s havi ng th e S ame Fi rs t
We n d by c tu al multi p li
a ca ti o n

T h at i s ,

The p r o d u ctf o m e f i r s t te r m
two b in omi a ls ha v i ng thee qu a ls sa

the s qu a re of the f i r s t te r m p lu s th e a lge b r a i c s u m of the s ec o n d

,

te r ms mu ltip li ed b y the f irs t te rm p lu s the p r o d uct of the s eco n d ,

te r ms .

1 . M ulti p ly x 5 by x +3 .

B y th e a b o v e r u le , th e i s th e
c o e f ci e n t o f x su m of 5 an d

+ 3, or 2 a n d th e la s t te r m i s th e p r od uc t Of 5 and + 3,
,

or 15 .

W h e n ce 2 1 5
(
x x .

2 . Multi p ly x 5 by x -3 .

Th e i s th e s um o f 5 a n d
c o e f c i e n t of x 3, or 8
, a nd

th e la s t te r m i s th e p r o d uc t o f 5 an d 3 , or 1 5 .

W he nc e , (
x 5) (
x 3) zx 2
8 x 15 .
62 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
3 . Mu ltip ly ab 4 by ab 7 .

B y th e r ule , ( ab 4 )(
ab 7) a
z 2
b 3 ab 28 .

4 . Multi ply m + n + 6 by m+n +8 .

+ 6] + 8]
m
( n
)
2
14 m
( n
) 48 .

134 . S quare of a P oly nomi al .

(
2 2
By I

I
"
611

I

2

I 2

1 002

We a ls o h a ve ,

(061 "
I
2 a
il : "
I
"
62
) 3
1
2

_ (d l "
I2

61
1

I
as
) X as 3
2

2 2
611 2 1 2 2 (1 2

I2
'
a 1a 3+ 2 a 2a 3

z
()
2 2
al a2 a, 2 a la 2 2 a 1a 3 2 a 2a 3 . 2

Th e r e s ults
()
1 a nd
()
2 are in a cc o r d an c e wi th th e fo llo wi ng
la w :
The s qu a r e o f ap o lyn o mi a l e qu a ls the s u m of the s qua r es
f i t m l twi ce th e p ro d u ct of ea ch te rm b y e a ch of the

o ts e r s , p u s

f o ll o wi n g te r m s .

We w i ll n ow p rov e th a t th i s la w h o ld s f o r th e s q u a re o f a n y

p o l n y
o mi a l .

A s s ume th a t th e law h old s f o r th e s q u ar e o f a p o ly no mi al o f

777. te rm s , w h e r e m i s a n y p o s i ti v e i n te g e r ; th a t i s,
2
(b s -
l
14 7 3 + + a m1 + am
)
+ a m)
2

I am +2 1 ( 61 2 +
+2 a i m s
-
I

am
)

I2

uml am

2
Th e n , (al a, a, am am 1
+ )
[( l
d 2

I

am
)

I

ma
y
(t
a at

z(
c. a n . on e by <)
1
2
mi d
?
oh 062 an a

+2 ai < a2 + + am + a mn
>
"
I 2

I
'
I "
a nt -
I
a m+ 1 ) +2 a m m a b
l-l y
- ()
3
 S PE C IA L M E T H OD S 63

T hi s e s ult i s i n acc d an c w i th th e b l w
r or e a o ve a .

H n c i f th l w h ld f th qu
e e, e a f p ly
o n mi a ls f m or e s are o a o o o

t ms w h
er ,
m i n e re
y p s i ti e i n t g si t a l
a h ld f o th v e e r, so o s or e

squ e
ar f p l y nOo mi la f m o 1 t m a o er s .

B ut w k n o w th t th e l w h ld s f
e th a q u a f p y l
a n o or e s re o a o o

mi a l o f th r e e te rm s, an d th e r e fo r e i t h o ld s f o r th e s quar e of a

p o l y
n omi a l o f f ou r te r ms ; an d S i n c e i t h o ld s f or th e s q ua r e o f
a p o ly n o mi a l o f f o u r te r ms , i t a ls o h o ld s f o r th e s q u a r e o f a

p o lyn o mi al o f v e te rms ; a n d s o o n .

H ence, th e la w h o ld s f o r th e s q ua r e o f a n
y p o l n o y mi a l .

Th e a b o ve me th o d of p r o o f is k n o wn as Ma th ema ti ca l I nd uc ti o n .

2 -3 x
Ex . E xpan d (
2 x

In ac c o r d a n c e w i th th e la w, we h av e

x
2
(
2 3 x

3 x 5
)( )
l 2 x 20 x 3 2

+ 30 x

4 x l 2 x3

1 35 . Cub e of a B i nomi al.

We nd by a c tu a l mu lti p li c ati o n,
2 2
(
3 3
a b) 3
a 3 a b 3 ab b , 1
()
2 2 3
( ()
3 3
a b) a 3 a b 3 ab b . 2
T h at i s,

The cu b e of the su m of two nu mb ers e qu a ls the cub e o f the

fi r s t, p lu s th r ee ti me s th e s qu a r e of th e f i r s t ti me s the s e c o n d , p lu s

thr ee ti mes the fir s t ti mes the s qu a r e of the s eco nd , p lus the c ub e
of the s eco n d .

The cu b e of the d if e r e n ce of two nu mb e r s e qu a ls the cu b e

of the f t,
i r s mi n us thr ee ti mes the s qua r e o f the fi r s t ti me s the

s ec o n d , p lu s thr ee ti mes th e f i r s t ti me s th e s qu a re o f the s eco n d ,

mi n us the c ub e o f the s eco nd .

64 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
1 . F i n d th e c ub e . of a 2b .

By (a + 2 b
) i 3 . .
c
8
3 a
2
( )
2 b 3 a ( )
2 b 2
( )
2 t a

- 3 2 z 3
a +6 a b + 12 ab +8 b .

2 . F i n d th e c ub e of 2x 3 .
5y 2
.

(2 ) 2 3
3
By x 5y
3( ( 313
2 f 2 8
(
2 90
3
9 2 996 05 i )
3( 2 99
3
)( 9
5 3 5
8 9 60 xs f 3 4 1 25 y 6
x y + 1 50 x y .

1 36 . Cub e of a Poly nomi al

B y s 1 35 , ta as ? x 071
3
062
3
3 071 062
2
3 ai m }
.

We a ls o h av e ,( al a2 a3
)
3

[(
s
a n)
a l I a
d

? 2 3
(I I a s
)
I 3 (1
6"

i

6
9 63

I '
63

2 2 3 2
i 3 i 6
3
(1 1 3 6 1 62

I3

6 16 2

I
62
61 6 3
6 1 6 26 3

2 2 8
"
I 3
62 63 3 3 26 3 63

2 2 2
I3 I3
3 3 3
61 052 (1 3 3 v
i 3 6 1 63 "
6 2 61

062 6 3

()
2
2 2
3 3 6 1 3 2
6 3 052 6 a ra sa s'

Th e r e su lts
()
1 an d ()
2 a re i n a cc o r danc e wi th th e f o llo w i n g
la w :
The cu b e o f a p o lyn o mi a l equa ls the su m of the cu b es of i ts
ter ms , p lus thr ee ti mes the p ro d u ct o f the s qu a r e f
o ea ch ter m
by e a ch o f the o ther ter ms , p lus six ti mes the p r o d u ct o f eve ry

thr e e d i e r ent te r ms .

We w i ll now
p r o ve by M a thema ti ca l I n d uc ti o n (
se e

th a t th i s la w h o ld s f o r th e cub e of an
y p o l n o y mi al .

A s s ume th a t the law ho ld s f o r th e u e o f a p o l c b yn o mi al o f m

te rms , w
h e r e m i s any p o s i ti v e i n te g e r ; th a t i s ,

( I + a m2 + am

3
+ am

2
+3 a2 ( + a
a13 +

I 6 "
6 1 6 26 3 4

I 6

a m 2a m 1 am '
 S PE C IA L M E T HOD S 65

T he n ,

3
a2 + as + + a m+ 1
1
: 8
m "
i

a m- 1
'

+ af m
)

3(
ai a 2 + a3 + + Gm_1 +

Th e n , by ()
3 an d 1 34 ,

(al 2 + (1 3 + am l am + ma
y
3 3 3
a1 + a2 + + am

+ a m 2
+2 a a2l + +2 a1 am

+2 a 2a 3 + +2 a 2a m +

<+
2
+3 a1 a2

i

6 am

T hi s r e s u lt i s in ac c o r d a n c e wi th th b e a ov e la w .

Hn e ce, i f th e la w h o ld s f o r th e c u b o f e a p y
o l n o mi a l of m
ter ms , wh ere m i s an y p o s i ti v e i n te g e r, i t also h o ld s f o r th e
cu b e of a
p o ly n o mi al of m 1 te r m s .

B u t we k n o w th at th e la w h o ld s f er th e b
cu e o f a p o y
l n o mi a l
of th r e e te r ms , an d th e re f o r e i t ho lds fo r th e
"

c ub e of a p o ly
n o mi a l o f f o u r te r m s ; an d sinc e i t h o ld s fo r th e c ub e of, a

p o l y
n o mi a l o f f ou r te r ms , i t a ls o h o ld s fo r th e cu b e of a p o ly
n o mi a l o f v e te r m s a n d s o o n
.

; .

H e n c e, th e la w h o ld s f o r th e cu b e o f any p o l no y mi a l.

Ex . E xp a n d (
2 a
? 2
x 2 x
66 AD V AN C E D C O URS E IN A L GEBR A
In a c c o rd a n c e w i th th e b a ove la w, w e h a v e

+2w
2
(
3

2 x 9c

(
3 -3
w) +
'
3 2
x
) x + 2 w )
+3( x2 3
)
+3( 3 2 2 x3
)( m + 2 x)
2

m>
< >
2 3

3
>
96 3
27 12 x8 7 6 7
+ 24 x 36 x + 6 5 4
8 x
+8 x x +6 9w
'
a a

+ 24 w l2 x4
5
36 2
w+ 54 x 27 x2 3
+ 54 w 2 4 m 6

36 x 4 -
7 2 w f 36 x
5 - 3
+ J

8 50
9 12 x
8
+ 30 a3
7
61 w + 6
6 6 rc 935
w+ 4
98 m 3
63 x
2

+ 54 w
E XE RC IS E 6

W rite b y i ns p ec ti o n th e v a lu e s o f th e fo llo wing

z 3 5 c4 4
1 .
(6 a z
3
) 2 . 4 ab ) 3 . 3 x3yz 2 )5 .

4 .
(3 7 x 2 2
) . 7 . 6 my 11 as
?
)
5 .
(2 a
3 5 b 2
c)
2
. 8 .
(8 a? 9W W ; p an d q b e i ng
6 . m 4
n6 p o s i ti ve i nte ge r s .

W r i te b y i n s p e c tio n th e va lu e s o f th e f o llo wi ng

(
2 2
9 . 5 a + 1 2 3
b c ) (5 a 1 2 b 3c ) .

10 . 10 W i
n 13 x 5
)( 10 m4 n 13
m m " m b e i ng p o s iti ve i n te ger s
11 .
( a (
a x3
) a n d 77. .

E xp a n d th e fo llo win g

b -c
12 .
( a ) . 14 .

4 2
) (a
2
13 .
y 15 .
(a +5 a

16 .

(m m2 uz ) (m mn
4
17 . 5 2 72
4 4
5 2 2 2 n 4
) .

W r i te b y i ns p ec ti o n th e va lu e s o f th e f o llo wi ng

18 .
(x 2 ) (x 22 .
(mn l 1 )(mn
19 .
(: a 5 ) (a : 23 .
(a
2b 3 C3
) (a b
z
8
3
20 .
(x 4 ) (x 2
24 .
( a b 5 ) (a b
21 .
l5 a ) . 25 .
(m+ y
 S PECI A L M E T H OD S 67

E xp a n d th e f o llo wi ng

26 .
(3 x 2 5 a : 28 .
(2 x3 3 x2 x
b 0 -d 2 4 3 4
27 (a ) 29 (a + 8 a a
2
'

. .

W ri te b y i nsp e c ti o n th e v a lue s o f th e f o llo wi n g

y
3 3
30 .
( a 3 b . 32 .
(3 a b 2 C ) .

31 .
(7 x 4
x 3 3
) 33 .
(5 ma: 2
4 ny 3 s
) .

E xp a n d th e f o llo wi ng

(
2
34 .
( a a 36 . a b c d )3 .

2 4 x+ 3 3 3 3 4 x2
35 .
(2 x ) 37 .
( x
S i mp lify th e fo llo wi ng
2 3
2
(3 (a; (x
2 2
38 .
(3 a 5 b) a 5 b) . 41 . 1)
2
39 .
) (x 42 .
(x + y
3
40 .
(2 x) (2 x) (4 43 .
(a b c ) (d b c 3
) .

-z 2
44 .
) .

c
45 .
) .

(m ) (m 3 (m )(m 3 (m ) (m
3 3 2
46 . n n ) u n ) n

1 37 . We n d by a c tu a l d ivi sion
2 2
a b b
a .
()
1 a + b .
()
2

Th a t i s ,

If the d i f e r e nc e
f f m b e r s boe d i vthe
i d ed b y thes qua r es o two nu

s u m of the n u mb e r s , the q u o ti e n t i s the d iffer e nce o h u mb er s

f t e n .

If the d i e r e n ce of th e s q u a r e s of two nu mb e rs b e d i vi d e d b y the

d i e r en ce of the nu mb er s , th e q u o ti en t i s the s um of the nu mb e rs .

Ex . D i vi d e 25 y 2 4
z 9 by 5 yz 2
3 .

2 z
By 1 3 0 , 25 y z i s th e s q uar e o f 5 yz .

2
5 yz + 3

1 38 . W e n d by a c tu a l d i v i s i o n,
3 s 3 3
(1 b Z a b
()

2
a ab
+b . 1
a b
68 AD V AN C E D C O U RS E IN A L G E B R A
T h at i s

If the m of the c u b es of two n u mb e r s b e d i vi d e d b y the s u m

su

f
o the n u mb er s , the q u o ti e n t i s th e s q ua r e of th e r s t n u mb e r ,

mi n u s the p r o d uct of the rs t b y the s e c o nd , p lu s the s qu a re o f the

s eco n d n u mb e r .

If the d iffer en ce of the cu b es of two n u mb ers b e d i v id e d b y the

d ef e r e n ce of the n umb e r s , the q u o ti en t i s the s qu a r e of the rs t
nu mb er, p lus the p ro d uct of the rs t b y the s ec o n d , p lu s the s qu a r e

of the s e co n d n u mb er .

E a) . D iv id e 2 7 a
3
b 3
by 3 a b .

ub
3
By 1 30 , 2 7 a i s th e c e of 3 a .

3 3
by g
g
2 2
Th e n , 9 d 3 a b 5 .

i a .

1 39 . Th e R ema i nder Th eor em .

L et i t b e r e q u i re d to d i v id e 2 0
3
7 x
2
10 a; 3 by : 2 a .

7 w2 x
3
2 r + 10 3 2
2 93
3
4 90
2
2 a
2
3 w+ 4

6 x

4 a:
4 a; 8
5

Th e d i v i s i o n i s n o t e xa ct
,
and th e r e is a n al r e mai n d e r 5 .

No w i f we su b s ti tu te 2 fo r a:
i d th e d i vid e n d , w e h a v e

2 x2 7 3
2 + 1 0 x 2 3,
2
wh i ch e qu a ls 5 .

Thi s e xe mp li e s th e f o llo w i n g la w :
If a ny r a ti o n a l i n tegr a l p o lyn o mi a l, i n vo lvi ng as, be not d i vi s i b le
by a : a, ma i nd e r of the d i v i s i on e qua ls
the re the r es u lt o b ta i n e d

by s u b s ti tu ti n
g f
a o r a: i n th e g i ve n p y
o l n o mi a l .

Th e a b o ve is c a lle d The R e ma i n d er Theor em .

To p ro ve th e th e o r e m, le t D b e any r ati o n a l i nte gr al p lyo

n o mi al, i n v o lv i n g m, n ot d i vi s i leb by a: a .
 S PE C I A L M ET H ODS 69

L e t th e d i v i s i o n b e c a r r i e d o u t u n til a r e ma i n d e r i s o btai n e d
wh i ch does n o t c o n ta i n a) .

L et Q d e n o te th e q u o ti e n t,
a n d R t h e r e ma i n d e r .

S i n c e th e d i v i d e n d e q u a ls th e p r od u c t o f the d i v i so r and

u ti e n t lu s t h e r e mai n d e r , w e h a v e
q o , p

Q( oc a
) R D .

Su b s ti tu te i n th i s e q u a ti o n a for 13.

The te rm Q( a3 a
) b eco me s z e ro ; and s i n c e
.
R do e s n ot c on

ta i n at , it is n o t c h a n ge d , wh a te ve r v a lue i s g i v en to ac .

Th e n , R m ust e ual
q th e r e s u lt o b ta i n e d by
s u s ti tuti n g b a

fo r a:
in I) .

1 40 . Th e Fa ctor Th eor em .

If a ny r a ti o n a l i n tegr a l p o lyn o mi a l, i n vo lvi ng cc, b ecome s z er o

whe n : a i s p u t e qu a l to a , the p o lyn o mi a l ha s at a a s a f a c to r .

F o by r 1 39 ,
th e re ma i nd e r o bt ai ne d by d i v i d i n g th e p o l y
n o mi a l by a: a is ze r o .

141 . I t fo llo ws f ro m 1 4 0 th a t
If a ny r a ti o n a l i n teg r a l p o lyn o mi a l, i nvo lving c
c, b ecomes ze r o

whe n a :
i p u t equ
s al to a, the p o lyn o mi a l ha s a : a as a f a ctor .

142 . We w i ll n ow p r o ve th a t, i f n is a ny p o s i ti v e i n te g er,
I . a

b
is a lwa ys d i v i s i b le b y a b
'

II . a

b
i s d i v i s i b le b y a b if n is e ven .

III . a
"
b
i s d i vi s i b le b y a b if n is odd .

"
IV . a

b i s d i vi si b le b y n ei ther a b n or a b if n is even .

" " "

s ti tu te d for in b th e r e s u lt is b b 0

a a , ,
or .

1 4 0, a
"
b
h as a b as a fa to r c .

If b be su b s ti tute d fo r a in a
b
,
th e r es u lt is b)
b ;

or
,
sin e n c is e ve n , b
b
,
or 0 .

Th e n b y 14 1, a
n b " ha s a b as a f a to r c .
70 A DV ANCE D C O U R S E IN AL GE B R A
P roof of III .

If b be ub s ti tu te d fo r in b th e r e s ult is "

s a a , b ;
o r, s in c e n is o dd , b "
b "
,
or 0 .

Th e n , a

b
has a b as a f a to rc .

P ro of f
o IV .

If b or b be su b s titute d fo r a in a
"
b
,
th e r e s u lts a r e

b) "
b "
or b "
b
,
r e s p e c ti v e l y .

S i nc e n is e v e n , n e i th e r o f th e s e i s zer o .

Th e n , n e i th e r a b b is f a c to r of a b

no r a a

1 43 . We n d by a c tu al d i vi si o n

4 _ 4

2
a a
3 a
2
b + ab 3
b , 2

a +
4 4
a b o

5 5

is
a 4
3 2 2 -a b 3
a b + a b +b ,
a

a
5 b5
e tc
a b

I n th e se r e s ults , we o b s e rve th e fo llo wi n g l w a s

I . Th e exp o ne n t o f a i n the rs t ter m of the q u o ti e n t i s les s b y

1 tha n i ts exp o nen t i n the d i vi d en d , a nd d ecr ea s es b y 1 i n ea ch

s u cc ee d i ng ter m .

II . The e xp o n e nt o f b i n the s ec o n d ter m of the qu o ti ent i s 1 ,

a nd i n c rea s es b y 1 i n ea c h s u c ce ed i n g ter m .

III . If the d i v i s o r i s a b, a ll the terms f o the q uo ti e n t are

os i ti ve ; if the d i vi s or i s a + b , the terms of the quo ti e nt

p a re

a lter n a te ly p os i ti ve a n d n ega ti ve .

144 . we w ill p now rove, by M a the ma ti ca l I nd ucti o n, th at the

la w s of 1 4 3 ho ld u ni v e r s a lly .

" "
b
A s s u me th e la ws to h o ld f o r
a

b
whe re n is an y p o s i ti v e
a
i n te ge r .
 S PE C IA L M E T HOD S 71

nl 2 3 2 n l
a a
rt
6 a
n
b + H .
b

"+ 1
a
n
b a
n
b b
a b

a b

_
_a n1 rt 2 n 3 i t -l
by
<
2
n
b a a b a b H .
b )
,
1
()
rt 1 2 2
b 6 + +6
n 7;
+
rt
a a a

T hi s r e s u lt i s in a c c ord an c e w i th th e la w s of 143 .

H e n c e , i f th e la w s h o ld f o rth e q u o ti e n t of . th e d i ffe r e n ce of

two li k e p o w ers of a and b d i v id e d by a b , th e y a ls o h old f o r

th e q u o ti e n t of th e d i ffe r e n c e of th e n e xt h i gh e r p o w er s of a

an d b d i vi d e d by a b .

B ut we k n o w th yh a
5
b 5

th e r e fo re th e y
at th e o ld for and
a b
6 6 6 6
b b
h o ld f o r
a
an d S i n c e th e y h o ld f o r
a
th e y h old f or
a b a b
a
" b 7
an d so o n .

a b
_
H nc w
Z wh
a
e e, th e la s h o ld f o r ere n is any p os i ti v e
a
i n te g e r .

P utti n g b f or b i n we h a v e

a b)

" " 1
(

If is b) b
an d by b

A
n e ven, ,

n
b

Wh e nc e
a " 1 z n3 ? l
n
b b b n

a a ti .
,
a b

l
If is o dd , b)
b
an d b n

n ,
.

a
n
b n 2
3
()
3
2
Wh e nc e ,
a b Gi
n
b
a b

E q u a ti o n s ()
2 and ()
3 are in a cc or d an c e w i th th e la w s of

143 .
 2 A DV A N C E D C O UR S E IN AL GE B R A
rt bu
H nce e ,
th e la ws h o ld f o r
a
wh e re n is a ny e v e n p o si
a +b
+ b

ti ve i n te g e r, and f or
a
wh e re n is an y o dd p o siti ve
a + b
i nte g e r .

1 45 . 1 . D ivi de a
7
a by a b .

a
7 _ 7

Z
6 5 2 2 5 6
tab
3 3
By 1 4 3, a a b a b a b ab b
a
2 . D i v i d e 1 6 93 4
81 by 2 w 3 .

By 1 30, 1 6 90 4
z 2 m
( y .

16 x 4
81
T h en ,
2 w
( )
3
2
( )
c
c 3 2
( )
2 w 3 2
3 3

8w 3 1 2 oc + 1 8 m 2 7
2
.

Th e a b solute va lue o f a n y te r m a fte r th e rs t, i n e q u a tio n s

a nd of 1 44 , ma y b e ob ta in e d b y d i vid i ng th e a b s o lute va lu e o f th e

p r e c e d i n g te r m b y a , a nd multi p ly ing th e re s ult b y b .

Th is would b e th e s h o r te s t me th o d i f th e numb e r s i nvo lve d we r e la rg e .

EXERC S E 7 I
Write b y i nsp e c ti on th e va lu e s o f th e f ollo win g

6 a + 7 6 mn2 + 7 p3

4 54
7 . 12 .

11 m3 8 y2 z a b
" 3
1 m 5 5
8 13
mn
.

l
.
,

8 m6 1 6
9 14
x
.

m2
.

2 1
6
1 25 a 2 7 x3 a 7 x7
10 15
:
. .

2
5 a 3 at a a

146 . S y mmetry .

An e xp r e s si o n c o n ta i n i n g two mo re le tte r s i s s a i d to b e
or

sy mmetr i ca l w i th re s p e c t to an y two o f th e m, w h e n th e y c an

b e i nte r c h a n g e d w i th o ut alte r i n g th e v alu e o f th e e x p r e s s i on .

Th u s , a b c is sy mme tr i cal with r es pe ct to a a nd b for , on i nte r

c h an gi n g th es e letters , th e e xp r e ss i o n b e c o mes b a c .
 S PE C IA L M ET H OD S 73

An e x p r e ss i o n c on tai n i n g th r e e mo r e le tte r s i s s a i d to b e
or

s y mme tr i c a l w i th r e s p ec t to th e m w h e n i t i s s y m me tr i c a l w i th
re s p e ct t o an
y two of th e m .

Th us , ab bc ca is sy mme tr i cal wi th r e s p e ct to th e le tte rs a, b, and

c fo r if a a nd b b e i n te rch an ge d , th e e xp r ess i o n b e c o me s b a ac cb ,

wh i c h is e qu a l to a b bc ca .

A n d , i n lik e ma nn e r , a b bc ca i s sy mme tri cal wi th r e s p e ct to b a nd

c, a n d wi th r e s p ec t to c an d a .

1 47 . Cy clos y mmetry .

An e xp re ss i o n c o n ta i n i n g n le tte r s , a, b, c, m m , ,
n, is s ai d

to b e cy clo-sy mme tr i ca l w i th re s p e ct to th e m w h e n , i f a i s s u b
s ti tu te d for b , b f o r c, m , m f o r n, a n d n f or a , th e v a lu e o f th e
e xp r e s s i o n is n ot c h a n ge d .

Th e a bo ve is ca lle d a cycli ca l i nter c h a n g e of le tte r s .

Th us , ( a b ) (b c )( c a ) is c y clo -s y mme tr ical with r es p ect to a, b,

a nd c fo r if a is s ub s ti tu te d f o r b , b fo r c, and c fo r a, it b ec o me s
( 0 a )( a b )(b c ) ,
-
whi c h b y th e C o mmu ta tive L a w f o r M ultip li c a ti o n

is e qu a l to (a b ) (b c )( c a ) .

1 48 . E v er y e xp r e s s i o n wh i h i s s ymmet i c al w i th e sp t t
c r r ec o

a set of le tte r s i s a ls o c y l sy mme t i l w ith sp t t th m

c o- r ca re ec o e .

F or sin c e an
y two le tte r s c an b e i nte r c h a n ge d wi th o u t alte r

i n g th e v a lu e o f th e e xp r e s s i on , th e c o n d i ti o n for cyc l o -s
y m
me try wi ll b e s ati s e d .

B ut i t i s n ot n e c e s s a r il yt ru e th a t an e xp r e s s i o n w h i ch is
cy y mm t i c l w i th
c lo -s e r a r e sp e ct to a set of le tte r s i s a ls o sy m
me t i c al w i th e s p e t t
r r c o th e m for i t d o e s n ot f o llo w th a t a ny

two le tte r s c an b e i nte r h a n g e d c w ith o ut a lte r i n g th e v a lu e o f

th e e xp r e s s i on .

1 49 . I t f o llo ws f ro m 146 an d 1 4 7 th a t, i f two e x p re s s i o n s

ar e s y mm
cal cyc l -sy mme t i l th e su lt b t i n d by
e tr i or e r ca , e r s o a e

ad d i n g s ub t c ti n g mu lti p ly i n g
,
rad i i d i n g th m a ,
e sp ,
or v e re , r ec

ti e ly s y mm t i c l
v ,
cyc lo- y mme t i al
e r a or s r c .

1 50 App li c ti n. a o s .

Th p i n i p le f y mme try i s of ten u se ful i n ab i d gi n g al e

c e o
r s
g r

brai e op erati ons .

74 AD V AN C E D C OURSE IN AL GE B R A
3
1 . E xp an d ( a b + c
) .

We h av e ,
Thi s e xp r e s s i o n is s y mmet i c l w i th r a re s p e ct to a, b, a nd c

an d o f th e th i r d d e gr ee .

Th e re ar e th r e e p o s s i le t es b yp of te rms of th e thi r d d e g r e e
in a, b, an d 0 ; te r ms li k e a
3
,
te r ms li k e a
2
b, a n d te rms lik e a b c .

It i s e v id e n t th a t a
s
h a s th e c oef c i e n t 1 ; a n d s o, by sy m
metry , b 3
an d o
s
h a v e th e c
o e f c i en t 1 .

It i s e vi d en t th a t a
2
b h a s th e c oef c i e n t 3 an d s o, by sy m
me tr y , h a v e b a , b c, c , c a , an d a c
2 z 2 2
.

L e t m d e n o te th e c o e fc i e n t o f a b c .

Th en , ( a b c
)
3

a
3
'
+ b
3 3
c 3 ( a
g
b b
2
a b
2
c c 2
0 a a c
2
) ma b o .

To d e te r mi n e m, we o b s e r ve th at th e a bo ve e qu a ti o n h old s
fo r a ll v a lue s o f a , b, an d c .

We ma y th e r e fo r e le t a b c z :1 .

The n , an d m= 6 .

W h en c e (a , ) b c
3

2 2 2 2 2 2
a
3
b +0 +3(
3 3
a b b a b 0 + c b 0 a a o
) + 6 a bc .

Th e a b o ve re s ultmay b e wr i tte n i n a mo r e c o mp ac t f o rm b y r e p r e s e nt
i n g th e s u m o f te rms o f th e s a me typ e b y th e s y mb ol 2 re a d s i g ma .

3 3 z
T hu s , (2 a ) Z a 3 Z a b 6 abc .

2 . E xpan d (: ya -z ae 2
) + ( z xL-
y y .

Thi s e xp r e s s i o n is s y mmet i c r al w ith res

p e ct to cc, y, a n d z,

and of th e s e c ond d e gr e e .

b
Th e p o s si le t p e s o f te rms o f th e y se o n dc d e gr ee i n c
c, y,
an d

a r e te r ms li k e 90 , a n d te rm s lik e try
2
z .

It i s e v i d e n t, by th e la w of 1 3 4 , th at 12
2
h a s th e c oefc i en t
3; an d so, mme try , h av e y a n d
by sy
2
z
2
.

L et m d e n o te th e c o e fc i e n t o f my .

Th e n , (
cc y
-z : y)
a - 2

3(
ac + y
2 2
z
?
) m(xy + yz zoo
).

To d e te r mi n e m, p u t as y z 1 .

The n , + 3 m, o r m 2 .
 S PE C IA L ME T H OD S 75

W h enc e, (w ~

y
z x y)
2

-
3(
a : 2 -
y
2
z
?
) 2(
xy

3 . Ex p a nd
c 3
+ (b +
3
) ) (
3
c a + c + a b) .

Th e e x p re s s i o n is s y mmet i r c al wi th res p cte to a, b, a n d c,

an d O f th e th i r d d e gr e e .

Th e p o ss i le t b
e s o f te r ms yp ar e te r m s li k e a
3
,
te r ms lik e a

z
b,
an d te r ms li k e abc .

It i s by th e l w o f
e v i d e n t, a 1 3 6, th at a
s
h a s th e c oef c i e n t
2; an d s o, by sy mm t y h a e r ,
ve b 3
and 0
3
.

Als o, by 1 36 b ,
a
2
h a s th e
c o e f c i en t 3 + 3 + 3 3, or 6;
and so, by sy mm t y e r ,
ha ve b 2
a, b g
c,
2 z 2
c b , o a , an d a c .

Ag a i n , a bc h a s th e c o ef c i e n t 6 6 6 6, or 12 .

When c e,
b
( b c
-c 3 3
) (
3
) (
3
a a +b c a
) b)

(
3
2 a + b +
3
c
3
) +
2
c a + a c
2
) 12 a bc .

EXE RC IS E 8

1 . In th e e xp an s i o n o f a n e xp r ess i o n whi c h i s sy mmetr i c al wi th r e

.
S p ec t to a , b , an d 0 , wh at a re th e p os s i b le typ e s o f te r ms O f th e f o ur th
d e gre e of th e fth d e gr e e of th e s i x th d egre e
2 . If o ne te rm o f a n e xp r ess io n whi c h i s s y m me tri c al wi th r es p e c t to
a, b, a nd c , is (2 a b ) c ( b
2 c a ) ,
W h a t a re th e o th e rs
3 . Is th e e xp r e s s i o n a( b c )
2 b (c a )
2
c a ( b) 2
sy mme tr ic al
wi th resp e ct to a , b , a nd c
4 . Is th e e xp r e ss i o n y
2 3
) (y
2
z
?
) 3
( z
2
x2 3 s
) y mme tr i ca l
wi th r e sp e c t to a
t, y, and z ?

E xp a n d th e f o llo wi ng b y th e sy mme tr ic al me th od
5 . 6 .

(m+ y
2
y)

7
3 b 3 3
4 b 2
8 .
(2 a c ) a .

- tc
- - -- d
-d 2
9 .
( l tc
a b l i + a b)
c 2
) .

10 .

b - b 3
11 . c a ) .

x
12 .
(m+ y
z ) (y + z ) ( z + x y) .

13 .
[x
2
+ y
2
z
?
+ 2 (my + yz an )?
c a
14 .
(
a + b ) (b + c ) (a + o
76 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A

V III . F A C TO R ING

1 51 . To Factor an alg e b i c e xp e s s n i s to nd two o

ra r io
l
r

mo re e xp r e s s i o n s w hi ch, wh en multi p li e d togeth e sh all p o r, r

d uc e th e gi v e n e xp r e s s i on .

1 52 I n th e p r e s e n t c h a te r we on s i d e r
. p c on l y th e s ep ar ti o n a

o f r a ti o n a l a n d i n te g ra l e x p r e s s i on s w i th i n te g l n u ra

me r i c a l c oe fc i ent s, i n to f a to r s c of th e sa me f o r m .

1 53 . A Common Fa ctor of two or mo r e ex p re s s i on s is an

ex p re ssion whi c h w ill e xa c tly d i vi d e ea ch of th e m .

FACTOR IN G
1 54 I t i s n o t alw ay s p
. i b le t f c to an e x p e s s i n ; th e e
oss o a r r o r

a e
r ,
h ow c e tai n f ms w h i c h an alw y s b e f ct ed ;
e v e r, r or c a a or

th e s e wi ll b e c n s i d e d i n th p e s e nt t
o ti s re e r re a e .

1 55 C A E I . Wh n the t m f the xp e i n h e a c m
S . e er s o e r ss o av o

mon f a cto r .

1 . F a to r 1 4c ab
4
35 a
3
b z
.

c
E a h te r m c ontai n s th e m n omi al f a cto o r 7 ab
2
.

i n by 7 b we h 2 2
D iv i d i n g th e x p e re s s o a
2
,
av e 2b 5 a

T h en ,
14 ab

35 d b 2
7 ab
2
(
2 b 2
5 a
2
) .

2 . F ac to r
Th e te r ms h a v e th e co mmo n b i n omi al fac to r 2m 3 .

D i v i d i n g th e e xp r e s s i o n by 2 m 3 , w e h av e x
2
y
a
.

Th e n ,

3 . F a tor c ( a b ) m + (b a
) n .

b
B y 81 , b a (
a ) .

T h en , (
a b
) m( a b n
)
-
b) (m n)
( a .

4 . F a tor c 5 a ( x
y)
3 a
 F A CT O R ING 77

5 a x
( y)
y)
5 3 x
a (
5 x y 3 y)
a (2 x 8 y)
2a
( x 4 y) .

We may als o so lve E x 3 b y wri ti n g th e rs t te rm i n th e form

.

(b a )m .

b m + (b a ) n = (b ) -a
)m
T hu s , (a ) a n (b
(b a )(n m) .

Th i s a gr e es wi th 9 1 ; for , b y 9 1 , th e s ign s o f two fa c to r s o f a

p rod uct ma y b e c h a n g ed wi th o u t alte ri n g th e v alue o f th e e xp r es s i o n .

We may th us h ave mo r e th an o n e fo rm fo r th e fa c tors o f a n e xp re s s i o n .

1 56 . Th e te r ms of a p o l n oy
mi a l may s o me ti me s b e s o a r
r an g e d as to sho w a c o mmon p oly n o mi a l fa cto r ; an d the
e xp r e s s i o n c an th e n b e f a to r e d c as in 1 55 .

1 . F a to r c ab ay bx xy .

By 1 55 , ab a xy = (
( -
y)
+ b x y a b y )+ x b .

Th e te r ms n o w h av e th e co mmo n f a cto r b y .

Wh e n c e ,
ab ay bx xy ( a + x
)(b y) .

2 . F a to r c + 2 a a3 3 2
a 6 .

Th e th i r d te r m e i n g b n e g a ti v e , it i s c o n v e ni ent to en cl ose

th e la s t two te r ms i n p a r e n th e se s p r e c e d e d by a S i gn .

T hu s ,
a
3
+ 2 a 3a z

z
( d

EXE RC S E 9 I
F a c to r th e followi ng

2
1 . 3 . x 2
( y
5 z )
2 .
(m 4 . 4 x (a b c ) 5
y (b + o a
) .

5 .
( a b ) (m 2
)
xz ( a b ) (m2 yz ) .

n 3
(m 2 m (m i m m 2
( )

3
6 .
) 4
n) I n

7 9 6 10 a + 27 a
2 45 a8
,
. .

8 . m +6m
- 4 3 7 m 4 2 . 10 . 20 a b 2 8 ad 5 bc
+ 7 cd .

11 . dx ay + az b x + b y b z .

12 . 3 a m 0 a n + 4 b m 8 b n -I- c m 2 c n .

13 . ax + ay as bx os .
78 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
1 57 . If an e xp r e s s i on wh e n r ai s e d to th e n th p o w er
( n b e in g
a p o s i ti ve i n te g e r) i s e qu a l to a n o th e r e xp r e s s i o n , th e r s t
e x p r e s s i on is s aid to b e an n th R oot of th e se c ond .

Thu s, if a
"
b, a is an n th r o o t O f b .

1 58 . Th e R ad i cal S i g n, hen r i tte n w w b ef or e an ex p res

s io n , i n d i c a te s s o me r o ot o f th e e xp r e s s i o n .

T hu s, x/a

i n d i c a te s a s e co n d , o r s qu a r e r o o t o f a
4

3
x/a
9
i n di c ate s a th d ir ,
o r cu b e r o o t O f a
9

i n d i c a t s an n th
" ?" 2"
V a e r o ot of a e tc
; .

Th e i n d ex o f a r o ot i s th e num b er w r i tte n ov e r th e rad i al c

S i gn to i n d i c a te wh at r o o t O f th e e x p r e s s i on i s ta k e n .

If no i n dex i s e x p re s s e d , th e i n d e x 2 i s un d e r s to o d .

An e ven r o o t is one wh ose i nd e x i s an ev e n n u mb e r ; an od d

root is o ne wh o se i n dex i s a n O dd n u mb e r .

1 59 . A r ati o n a l a n d i n te g r al e xp r e s s i o n is s ai d to b e a p f
er e ct

s qu a r e, a p e r ect c u b e, o r ,
f i n g e n e ra l, a p erf ect n th p ower , h en w
i t h a s, r e sp e c ti y
v el , a r a ti o n al a n d i n te g r a l s u a r e ,
q u e , o r n th c b
roo t .

1 60 . S in ce (
2 a
2
b) 3
8 a
6 3
b a cu b e r oo t of 8 a
6
b 3

g
is 2 a b .

Ag a i n , sin ce m
( )
2 4
m, 8
a f ou r th root of m is m
8 2
.

It i s e v i den t f r o m thi s th a t e ve r yp os i ti ve te rm, whi ch is a

p e r f e c t n th
p o we r ,
ha s a p os i ti ve n th r o o t .

We s h a ll c all thi s i ts p r i n c ip a l n th r o ot .

We a ls o h av e m) m2 4 8 so th a t a n o th e r f ou rth ro ot o f m 8 is m 2

It i s e vid e n t fr o m th e a b o ve th a t e ve ry p o s iti ve te rm wh i c h i s a p e rf e c t
n th p o we r , h a s , if n i s e ve n , i n a d di ti on to its p o s iti ve nth r o o t, a n eg a ti ve

n th r o o t o f th e s a me a b s o lute va lu e .

In th e p r e s e n t c h a p te r , o n ly th e p r i n c ip a l n th ro o t will b e c o ns id er e d .

1 61 . S i nc e 3 x
3 3
) 27 x
9
a cu be r o ot of 27 x
9

3
is 3 x .

It i s e v id e n t f r o m thi s th at eve r y n eg a ti v e te r m, wh i c h is a

pe ct n th p
rfe o we r , has a n eg a ti ve n th r o o t .

We h ll c S a a ll thi s i ts p ri nc ip a l n th r o ot .
 FA C T O R ING 79

1 62 . It w i ll b e sh o wn 7 5 6 ) th at a nu mb e r h a s two d i ffe r
e n t s qu a r e r o o ts , thr ee d i ffe r e n t c ub e r o o ts
,
and, i n g e n e r al,
n d i ffe r e n t n th r oo ts .

It w i ll b e un d e r s to o d th r o u g h ou t th e re mai n d e r of th e wo k r ,

u n le s s th e c o n tr a r y is spe c i e d , th a t w he n we s p eak o f the n th

r oot of a te r m, we me an th e p r i n c ip a l n th ro ot .

1 63 . L et n be a p o s i ti ve i n te ge r , and a and b two e qu a l

pe rf e c t n th
p o w e rs ; th e n ,
by A x . 5, 6 6,

T h at i s , if two p erf ect n th p o we rs a re e qu a l, the i r p r i ncip a l

n th r o o ts a r e e qu a l .

1 64 . Any R oot of a Pow er .

R e qu i re d th e v a lu e O f V
"
a
m
,
wh e re m a n d n a r e a ny p o s i ti v e

i n te g e r s .

m m"
By 1 28 , a
)

a .

Th e n , by 1 57 , Va
a
m
.

1 65 . Any R oot of a Pr oduct .

L et n be
p a o s i ti v e i n te g e r , an d a, b, c, n o

,
nu mb e r s w h i ch
a re p e rf e c t n th
p o w ers .

By 1 57 ,
Als o ,
"

(Q/Z i { Vb x { 75 x m ) "
x x x
a bc m ,
by 1 57 .

Th e n, by 1 63 , V
"
abc ~ ~
{ 7d X Q/b X VC x
f or e ach O f th e s e e xp r e s s i o n s i s th e n th r o o t o f a b c

T h is si mp ly me a ns th a t th e p ri n c ip a l n th ro o t of a p r o d uc t i s e q u al to
th e p r o d u c t of th e p ri n c i p al nth r o o ts o f th e f ac tors .

1 66 . Any R oot of a M on o mi al .

F r om 1 6 0 , 1 6 1 , 1 64 , and 1 65 , we h a ve th e f o llo w i ng
f o r n di n g th e p r i n c i p a l r o o t
r u le Of a r a ti o n a l a n d i nte g r a l
mon o mi al, wh i c h i s a p e r f ec t p o er
,
w of th e sa me d e gr e e as th e
i nd ex Of th e re
q u i r e d r oo t
80 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L GE B R A
E xtr a ct the re qu i r e d r o o t o f th e a b s o lute va lu e o f the n u mer i ca l
co e i c i en t,
a nd d i vi d e the exp on en t o f ea ch le tter b y the i n d ex of
the r equ i r ed ro o t .

G i ve to e very eve n r o o t o f a p os i ti ve term the p o s i tive s i gn , a n d

to e ve ry o d d r o o t o f a ny term the s ign of the term i ts elf .

1 . R e qu i r e d th e c u be r oo t o f 64 x
6
.

By t h e r u le ,

2 . R e q ui r e d th e fo u r th r oo t O f 81 mn i 12

3 . R e qu i r e d th e fth r o ot o f 32 a
1 5 lf
b c i

1 67 . It f ollo ws fr o m 1 3 1 th at a r ati on al an d i nte gral tr i

n o mi a l is a p e r fe c t s u ar e
q wh en i ts r s t an d th i r d te rms a re

p e rf e c t S qu a r e s, a n d
p o s i ti v e ,
a n d i ts se o n dc te r m p lu s or minu s
twi c e th e p r o du c t o f th e i r s q u a r e r o o ts .

T hu s 4 x ,
2
1 2 xy 2
9 y is a p e r f e ct s qu a re .

1 68 . To n d th e s qu ar e r o o t o f a tri n o mial p e rf e c t s qu a re ,

we re v ers e th e r u le s o f 1 31

E xtr a ct the s qu a r e r oo ts 1 6 6) f
o the rst a nd thi r d ter ms ,
a n d co n n ect the r e s u lts b y the s ig n o f the s e c o nd term .

2 2 4
1 . F i n d th e s qu ar e r o o t o f 4 x 1 2 xy + 9 y .

B y th e rule ,

The e xp re ss i o n may b e written i n th e fo rm

x ?
) 2( 2 x>< 3 3a m ;
whi c h s h o ws th a t 2 x) 3y z
) , or 2x 2
3 y , i s als o a s q u ar e ro o t .

B ut th e rs t form i s si mp le r , a nd wi ll b e use d i n th e e xamp le s o f th e

p r e sen t c h ap ter .

2 . Fi n d th e s q u a r e r o ot o f m 2
2 mn + n 2
.

W e may wri te th e e xp r e s s i o n i n th e fo rm n 2 2 mn m2 ; i n whi c h

c ase , b y th e ru le , th e s q ua r e r oo t is n m .
 F A CTO R IN G 81

1 69 . CA S E II . When the exp res s io n is a tr i no mi a l p erf e ct

s qu a r e .

1 . c
F a to r 2 5 a
2
40 ab
3
16 b 6
.

By 1 6 8, th e s q u ar e r o o t o f th e ex p re s si on is 5 a +4 b
3
.

Th en , 25 a
2
40 ab
3
+1 6 b
6
(
5 a 4 b 3 2
) .

2 . F a cto r m 4
4 mn 2 2
4 n

.

By 1 6 8 , th e s qu ar e r o o t o f th e ex p r e s s i on is e i th e r m 2
2u z
,

or 2 n
2
m 2
.

Th en , m4
4 mn z 2
4 n
4
m
(
2
2 n
2 2
,)o r
(
2 n
2
m )? l
C
( o m
pa re

3 . F a to r c x
2
(y 2
) (y ) x z z
2
.

We h ave x
2
2 x( y
z
) (y z
)
2

[ w (y z
)l
2
= (w

[( z z
2
y ) )
fv

4 . F a to r c 9 a
4
6a 2
1 .

9 a
4
6a 1 = z

EXE RC S E IO I
Fi nd b y i n sp e c ti o n th e valu e s o f th e fo llo wi ng

1 . 1 25 m9 n3 . 2 . t he x8y16 .

F ac to r th e follo wi n g

4 . 81 m 2
144 m 64 . 7 . 1 21 a
i

m 2 2 20 a
2
b 2
mn 100 b 4 2
n .

2 6 x (y 2
5 . 49 n6 16 8 3 4
n x 1 44 x8
. 8 . 9x z ) + (y z ) .

25 60 2 2 5 (a b) 2 40 ( 16 2
6 . a
2 ax 36 x . 9 .
+ a b ) c + C .

2
10 .
(a
2
b) 4 (a b ) (a b ) + 4 (a b)

y) ( 3 0+ 20
2
11 20
2 1 2 00 x

170 . CA S E III . When the exp r es s i on i s i n the f orm

By 1 34 , th i s e xp r e s s i o n i s th e s qu re O f +b
a a 0 .

2 2
Ex . F ac to r 9 33 + y + 4 2
z 6 xy 1 2 xz + 4 yz .

We c an w r i te th e e xp r e s s i o n i n th e f o r m

9 x 6 xy 2
+y
2
82 A D V AN C ED C O URS E IN AL GE BR A
O r, by 1 55 a nd 1 69 ,
3
( x y)
2 4 e(3 x
T h i s e xp r e s s i on
(3 x i s th e
y) 2 z s qua r e o f .

T hu s 9 x ,
2 2
+y + 4 z
2
6 xy
1 2 xz + y4 z = (
3 x
y
By 9 1 , we may p ut th e r e s ult i n th e fo rm 3x y 2 z )
2

F ac to r th e f ollo wi n g
EXERC S E I II
1 . a
2
+ b + 2
c 2
+2 ab 2 ac 2 bc .

2 . 1 + 25 m 2
+ 36 n 2 10 m + 1 2 n 60 mn .

3 . a
2
+ 8 1 b 2
+ l 6 18 ab 8 a + 72 b .

9 36 m 2
+ 64 n 2
+ x 2
+ 96 mn 12 mx l 6 ux .

3
9 16 a
4
+ 9 4
b + 81 c4 24 a
2
b 2 72 2 2
a c + 54 b
2 2
c .

S 2 5 x6 + 4 9 y1 0 + sc c 8 - 7 0 x8y5 + 6 0 x8 z 4 L-s4 yse 4 .

1 71 CA S E I V Wh en the eap r ess i o n i s the d i

'

. . er en ce

p e rfec t s qu a r es .

By 1 3 2, a
2
b 2
= b).

H en ce ,
to o b tai n th e f c to a r s, we re v e rs e th e r ule o f 1 32
E xtra ct the s qu a re roo t of the rs t s qu a r e, a n d o f the s e co n d

s qu a r e ; a dd the r es u lts f or on e f a c to r, a nd s u b tr a ct the s econ d

r es u lt f ro m the rs t f or the o ther .

z 4
1 . F ac to r 3 6 a b 49 c .

6 3
Th e s q ua r e r o o t o f 36 a
2
b is 6 a b 2
,
a nd o f 49 c is 7 6

T he n ,
36 a
l
l) 4
49
c (
6 ab
z
7 ab
z
7

2 . F a to rc 2
( x 3
y
2
)
( y) x
2
.

B y th e 2 - 2
r u le , 2
( x 3 y) ( y)
x

3 v
[(
2 x y) ( fv
)]
3 m 3
(2 w u+ r)(
2 f
v y x+v
)

< m 4
y>
< i >
- 2
3 w

A p oly n o mi al of mo r e th an two te r ms ma y so me ti mes b e

e xp r e s s e d a s th e d i ffe re n c e of two p e r f ec t s qua re s, a nd f a c tor e d
by th e r ule o f Ca s e I V .
 FA C T O R ING 83

3 . c
F a to r 2 mn m 2
1
Th e r st, c la s t te r ms may b e g r o up e d to ge th e r i n
s e on d , a n d

th e orde r m + 2 mn + n ;
2 2
hi h e x re s s i o n, w c
1 68 , i s th e p by
s qu are o f m n .

T h us ,
2 mu + m 2 1

m
( + n
)
2 1

4 . F ac to r 1 2 y + x 2
9y 2
4 .

12 y + x
2
9 y
4
2
= x
2
9 y + 12 y 2 4
x2 2
(9 y
x2 3
( y by 1 6 8,
w 2)J Iw
I + 3
( y (3 y l

x 3 2)(
( + y x

EXE RC S E I2 I
F ac tor th e f ollo wi ng

1 1 96 mx 4 12 28 9 n 6 10
.
y .

36 2
2 . a (2 a

3 . m 7 x)2 n 4 y)2 .

9 4 a -5 b 2
4 . 4 (8 a + 3 b)
z
( )
a
2
+ b
z c2 +2 ab .
,

x2 2 2 z z2
y y
6 np
I- 16 m 2 9 E n 2
p
ni 2
'

2 mn + n 2 x2 + 2 x 2
y y .

l6 a
2 8 ab + b
2 c2 1 0 cd 2 5 d2 .

10 . 2 8 xy 36 z 2
+ 4 9 y + 60
2
z

172 . CAS E V . When the exp r es s i o n i s i n the f orm

m 4
ax
2
y
2
y
4

C e r ta i n tr i n o mi als of the a b o ve f o r m may b e f a c tor e d by

e xp r e s s i n g th e m as th e d i ffe r e n c e c
o f two p e r f e t s qu a r e s , a n d

th e n e mploy i n g 17 1 .

1 . F a to r c a
4
a
2
b 2
b 4
84 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

By 1 67 , tr i n o mi al i s f t Sq u a re i f i ts r s t and la st

a a p e r e c

te r ms ar e p e rf e ct s q ua re s an d
p o s i ti v e, an d i ts c
s e on d te r m p lus
or mi n u s t wic th e p r o d u t o f th e i r s qu ar e r o o ts
e c .

Th e g i v e n e xp r e s s i o n c a n b e ma d e a p e r f e t s ua r e
q c by a d di n g
a b to i ts s e c o n d te r m ;
t 2
an d th i s b e d on e i f we s ub t ac t

c an r

a
2
b f r o m th e
2
r e s u lt .

T hu s ,
a

a
2
b 2
b
(a
4
2 a
i 2
b b
) a
z 2
b

(
a
2
b 2 2
)
2
b 2
,
by
(a
2
b 2
ab
)(a
2
b 2
ab
) ,
by 17 1,

(
2 2
a ab b )(a
2
ab
2
b ) .

2 . F a to r 9 c x
4
37 x
2
4 .

Th e e xp r e s s i o n will b e a p e r fe c t s q ua re i f i ts s e on dc te rm i s
2
12 x .

Thu s ,
9 w 4 12 2
x + 4) 25 x2

- 2
( (
2
3 x 5 ) x

x
2 2
(
3 x +5 2)(
3x 5 x

Th e e xp r e ss i on may als o -
b e fa ctor e d as f ollo ws

9x - 4
37 x2 4 4 1 2 x2 + 4 ) -4 9 x2
(9 x
2
(3 x
2
(7 x)
(3 x + 7
2 x + )(
2 3x 2
7 x + 2) .

S eve r al e xp r ess i ons i n th e fo llo wi ng s et may b e fac tore d i n two d i ffe rent
wa y s .

Th e fa c to ri n g of tr i n o mi als of th e fo r m x4 ax z 2
y y

, wh en th e
fa c tors i n vo lve s ur d s , will b e c o n s id e r e d in 4 59 .

EXE RC S E I3 I
F ac to r th e f ollo wi ng

1 . x 4
+5 x2
+9 . 5 . 9 x4
+6 x2 2
y + 49 y
4
.

2 . a 4 21 a
2
b z 36 b 4 . 6 . 16 a
4 81 a
2
+1 6 .

3 . 4 3 3 x2 + 4 x4 . 7 . 6 4 + 64 m + 2 25 m4
4 . 25 m 4 6 mu 2 z
M . 8 . 49 a 4 1 27 a x
2 2 8 10 34 .

F a c to r e a c h o f th e f ollo wi ng i n two d i ffe re n t way s

9 . x4 1 7 x2 16 . 11 . 16 m 4 10 4 m 2
x2 2 5 x4 .

10 . 9 1 48 a
2
64 a
4
. 12 . 36 a
4 97 a
2
m 2 36 m4
.
 F AC FO RI NG 85
'

1 73 . CA S E V I . When the e xp r es s i o n is in the f or m

2
x ax b .

If, th e n , a tr i n o mi a l i s i n th e f o r m x 2
ax b, a n d a an d b
are, res
p e c ti v e l y ,
th em an d p r o d u c t o f t wo n u mb e r s ,
su th e
f ac to r s a re x p lu s one n u mb e r a n d x p lu s th e oth er .

Th e nu mb e r s may b e fou nd by c
i n sp e ti o n .

2
1 . F ac to r x 14 x 45 .

We n d t wo nu mb e s w h o se r su m is 1 4 an d p r o du ct 45 .

B y i n s p e c ti o n , we d e te r mi n e th at th e s e nu mb e r s ar e 9 and 5 .

W hen c e ,
x
2
14 x 45 (x 9)(
x

2 . F a c to r x
2
5 x 4 .

We n d two nu mb e r s wh o s e su m is 5 p o du c t 4
an d r .

S i n c e th e su m is n e g ati v e , an d th e p d uct p o i ti e
ro s v , th e
nu mber s mu s t b o th be n e g a ti v e .

By c
i n s p e ti o n , we d e te r mi n e th at th e nu mb e r s are 4

and 1 .

When ce ,
x
2 4
)( x

3 . Fac to r x
2
6x 16 .

W e n d two mb e r s wh m is 6 an d d ct 16
'

nu o se su p r o u .

S in ce th e su m i s p o s i ti ve ,
an d th e p r o d u c t n e g a ti v e , th e
n um e r s b mu s t b e of O pp o s i te S i gn ; a n d th e o s i ti vpe n u m e r b
mu st h a v e th e gr ea te r a bs olu te v alu e .

B y i n s pe ti on , c we d e te rmi n e th at th e b
n um e r s are 8
an d 2 .

Wh e n c e ,
x
2
6 x 16 (x 8 )(
x

4 . F ac to r x 4
abx
2
42 a
2
b 2
.

We fi n d two nu m b er s wh o se su m is 1 an d p r o d u ct 42 .

Th e mb e r s mu s t b e o f o pp o s i te S i gn, a n d th e
nu n e g a ti v e

n u mb e r mus t h a v e th e g re a te r a b s o lu te v a lu e .

B y i n s p ec ti o n , we d e te rmi n e th a t th e n u mb e r s are 7

r ? 2

( )(
2
42 a e x 7 ab x 6 ab
) .
86 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G EB R A
5 . c
F a to r 1 2a 99 a
2
.

W e n d two n um e r s b wh os e su m is 2 an d p r o d u ct 99 .

c
B y i n s p e ti on , we d e te r mi ne th a t th e nu m e r s b a re 11
an d 9 .

W h en c e , l +2 a 9 a ) .

I f th e x
2
te rm i s n e ga ti v e , th e e n ti r e e x p r e ss i o n s h o u ld be
e n c lo s e d i n p a r e n th e se s p r e c e d e d by a S i gn .

6 . c
F a to r 24 5 x x
2

We h a ve , 24 + 5 x x =
2
(
2
x 5 x 24 )

<
w

(
S

In c as e th e nu mb e r s a re la rge , we may p r o c ee d as follo ws

R e q ui r e d th e mb e rs Wh o s e
nu su m is 26 a nd pro du ct 1 92 .

O ne of th e n u mb e rs mu s t b e and th e ot he r
Ta k i n g i n o rd e r , b e g inn i ng w i th th e fa c to r s 1 x 1 9 2 , all p oss ib le

of fa c to rs of 1 92 of wh i c h o n e i s a n d th e o th e r we h a ve
p a i rs ,

+ 1 x 1 92 .

+ 2 x 96 .

+3 x 64 .

+4 x 48 .

+ 6 x 32 .

S i nce th e su m of 6 a nd 32 i s 26 , th e y are th e numb e rs r e qui red .

EXERC S E I
F ac to r th e follo wmg

2 2 8 (a
1 . x 2
+ 1 8 x + 56 .
( a x) x) 1 92 .

2 . x2 + 1 6 x 57 . 95 1 4 x4 it s .

3 . a
2 10 a 75 . 1 05 8 m a
m 6
.

21 2 1 36 xy2 68 1132314
4 .
y
4
y + 104 . .

5 . 77 4 x 2
x . x 6 1 7 x yz 3
72 y 2 2 4
z .

6 . 84 + 5 n n2 . a
2 6 ab 91 b 2 .

7 . 1 + 17 m + 70 m 2
. a
2
32 a mu 1 1 2 m2 n2 .

8 . l + 5 ab 1 4 a 2b 2 . x4 y4 7 a2 :
s 170 22 .

9 .
(x
y)
2 I5 x
( y)
16 . x 2
(2 m + 3 n )x + 6 mn .

10 (m n 2+ 21
) (m ) 13 0 xz (a b )x ab
'

. n . .
 F A C T O RI NG 87

174 . CA S E V I I . When the e xp r ess i o n i s i n the f or m

2
ax bx 0 .

If a is a p e r f e ct s qu a r e , a n d b i s d i v i s i le b by V 5, we may
c
fa to r th e ex p re s s o n i d i r e tlc y by the me th o d of 1 73 .

1 . c
F a to r 9 x
2
18 x 5 .

We h av e 9x ,
2
)
x
2
x ) + 5 .

W e n d two nu mb e r s wh o s e su m is 6, an d p ro d u ct 5 .

Th e nu mb e r s ar e 5 and 1 .

T h en ,
9 x
2 5 3x
)(
If b i s n ot d i v i s i ble by or if a is n ot a p c t s qu
e r fe are , we
mu lti p ly an d d i v i d e th e e xp r e ss i o n by a, wh i ch by 9 6
, ,
d oe s
n otch an ge i ts alue v .

2 F a ct
. 6 x + 5 x 4 or
2
.

Multi p ly in g n d d i i d i n g th e a v ex p r e s s i on by 6, we h a v e

33 4 - 3 0 93
2
24 (
2
_4 36 6 x
) + 5(6 x
) 24
2
2
6 x +5 x .

3 6
Th e nu mb e r s are 8 an d 3 .

Th 6 2
2 x3
D i v i d i n g th e r s t f a to r c by 2 , an d th e c
s e on d by 3 ,
we h av e
6 x
2
+5 x 4 =
l
k

In c e tai n c ase s the c oe fc i e nt o f x may b e made

r ,
2
a pe rf e ct
s q ua r e by mu lti p ly n g by a n umb e le s s th an i tse lf
i r .

2
3 . F a c to r 8 x 2 6 xy 15 y 2
.

Multi p ly i n g a nd di vi d i n g by 2 , we h av e

2
88 AD V ANCE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
4 . Fa to r c 2+5x 3x2
.

2+5 x 3 x
2
= -
(
3 x 5 2
x 2
)

(
2 x )(1 3 x ) .

EXE RC S E IS I
F a c to r th e f o llo wi ng

1 . 4 x2 + 28 x + 4 5 . 8 . 7 + 7x
2 49 x2
.

2 . 6x +x 2
2 . 9 . 6 x l 5 x2 .

3 . 25 x 2 5 2
mx 6 m 2
. 10 . 5 +9 n2 1 8 n4 .

4 . 1 0 x 39 x + 1 4
2
. 11 .
2
2 1 x + 2 3 xy 6
+ y
2
.

5 . 1 2 x2 11 x 2 . 12 . 18 x 2 27 abx 35 a b 2 2
.

6 . so a x22 23 ax 6 . 13 . 7 (a b) 2 3 3 0 (a L b + 8 i .

7 . 36 x2 + 1 2 x 3 5 . 14 .
7 .

15 . 1 4 (m n 2 ) 39 a (m n ) 10 a
2

(a d
2
16 . a cx b c)x bd .

175 . It i s n ot p o s s i ble to facto r e ve r y e xp re s s i on o f th e f orm

x
2
ax +b by th e me th o d of 173 .

T hus ,
le t i t b e r e qu i r e d to f a to r x c 2
18 x 35 .

We h a v e to n d two n um e r s b wh o se su m i s 18 , an d p ro d u ct
Th e on l y p ai rs o f p ositiv e i nte gr al facto s o f 3 5 a r re 7 an d 5,
an d 35 an d 1 ; a n d i n n e i th e c a s e i s th e s u m 1 8 r .

I n Ch a p . XIX will b e gi ve n a g n e l meth o d fo e ra r c

f a to ri ng
th e f o r m
2
a n y e xp r e s s i o n o f ax bx c .

176 . CA S E V III . When the exp r es si on is the cu b e o f a

b i n o mi a l .

Ex . c
F a to r 8 a
3
36 a
z 2
b 54 ab
4
27 b
.

W e mus t sh o w th a t th e ex p e ssi o n i s i n th e fo m o f th e cub e

r r

of a b in o mi al, as o bt ai n e d by th e ule o f 1 35 and n d i ts

r ,

c ube r o ot .
 F A C TO RING 89

We can w r i te th e ex p r e s s i o n a s f o llo w s

2 ? ? 2
(
2 a
)
3
a
) (
3 b ) a 3
)( b ) (3 b 2 3
)
Th i s sh o w th at s it i s a p e r fec t c ub e ,
an d th at i ts c ub e ro ot
2
is 2 a 3 b .

2 2 4 6 2 3
Th e n , 8 s
36 b 54 ab 27 b 2
( 3 b )

a a a .

EXE RC S E I6 I
F acto r th e f ollo wmg

1 .

2 . 8 l2 a + 6 a
2 a3

3 . 1

4 . 64 n 3 48 n 2
I l2 n 1 .

8 3 36 z
54 z 27 b3
5 . a a b ab .

g 3 2 2 2
6 . 27 a b 1 08 a b c 14 4 abc 64 C3 .

1 25 x 3 60 0 x y 2
7 . 9 60 xy2 5 1 2 y3 .

8 . 2 16 m 6
7 56 m 4
x3 8 82 m 2 6
x 34 3 x 9
.

177 . CA S E IX . When the exp res s i o n i s the su m o r d ifferen ce

of two p erf ect c u b es .

By 1 3 8 , th e m o r d i ffe r e n c e o f two p e r fe c t cu b e s i s
su

d i v i s i le b by th e s u m o r d i ffe r e n c e , r e s p e c ti v ely , o f th e i r c u b e

r o o ts .

In e i th e r c ase th e q u o ti e n t may b e o b tai n e d by the ru le s of

1 38 .

6 9 3
1 . F a c tor x 27 y z .

By 1 66 , th e cu b e r o ot o f x
6
is x
2
, an d of 27 y z i s 3 y 9 3 s
e .

2
Th e n on e f ac to r i s x 3 y a .

6 i 3 2 3
D i vi d i n g x 27 y z by x 3y z, th e qu o ti e n t i s
4 2 3 6 2
x 3 x y z 9y z

Th en, x
6
27 y 9 3
z
( x
2
3y s
z )( x
4
3 xy 2 3
z 9 f
yz ) .

6 6
2 . F ac to r a b
"
O n e f acto r i s a
2
b .

D i v i d i ng a
s
b 6
by a
2
b 2
,
th e qu o ti e nt i s a
4
a
z 2
b b 4

T h en ,
6
a. b 6
( a
2
b ?
)( a
4
a
z 2
b
90 AD V A NC E D CO UR S E IN AL GE B R A
3 . F a to r c ( x a
)
s
( x a
)
3

m
<+ a > (
3
x o
r
a w 2
(w ) ( 6
01
a2 x
2 2
( x + a + 2 ax + a
)
2 2
2 a
(
3 x a
) .

1 78 . CA S E X . When the e xp r es s i o n i s the su m or d if e r en ce

f
o two equ a l od d p o we r s o f two n u mb ers .

By 1 4 2 , th e su m or di ffe r e n c e Of two e q u al o dd p o we rs of

two nu mb e r s i s d i v i s i b le by th e su m or d i ffe re n c e, re s p e c ti v e l , y
Of th e n umb e r s .

Th e q u o ti e n t ma y b e O b tai n ed by law s of 143 .

Ex . F a to r c a
5
32 b 5
.

5
( )
5
By 1 30, 32 b 2 b .

Th e n , by 1 4 2, on e f a to r i s c a 2b .

D i vi di n g a 5
32 b 5
by a 2 b , th e q u o ti e n t i s

( )
4 2
( b) ( )
3 2 4
( )
3
a a 2 b a 2 a 2 b 2 b

Wh e n c e ,

a
5
+ 32 b =
5 2 a
3
b + 4a 2
b 2 8 ab
3
+ 1 6 a) .

EXERC S E I7 I
F a c tor th e fo llo wmg

1 . 8 m 3
n 3
. 3 . a
6
64 . 5 . 7 29 a
3
b3 5 12 c3 d 3

2 . x y 3 3
1 25 23 . 4 . 2 16 a
3
m 6
34 3 n 9
. 6 . m 3
(m n )
3
.

3
7 .
y)
3 . 9 .
(2 a + x )
b 3 8 b3 4 3
8 . 2 7 (a ) 10 .
(5 x y)
5 5
11 . x5 y
5
14 . 1 x 7
. 17 . 32 a b .

12 . a
5 1 . 15 . m 9 n9 . 18 , 24 3 x 5
y
5
.

13 . a
7
b 7
. 16 . a
9
1 . 19 . m l4 1 28

1 0 24 5 5 24 3 10
20 . a b 0 .

1 79 . By a p p li a ti o n o f c th e r u le s a lr ea d y gi ven, an e x p r e s s i on

may o f te n be r e s o lv e d i n to mo r e th a n two f a c to r s .

I f th e te rms of th e e xpr e s s i on hav e a co mmo n f a c to r, th e

me th o d of 1 55 s h o u ld a lw a y s be a pp li e d r st .
 FA C TO R ING 91

1 . c
F a to r 2 a x s 2
8 a xy

.

(
3 2 2 2 ?
By 1 55, 2 ax y 8 a xy 2 a xy x 4y )

2 F ac to r a
e _ be
By 171, a

b :
e
( a
3
b 3
)( a
3
b )
3
.

Wh e n c e ,
by 177,
6
a

3 F a c tor x SB
.
y .

137 45 1 7 1 , g 4
x y )

y0

y)

4 . c m + n)
F a to r 3 ( 2 m
2( 2 n2
) .

m+
3( n
)
2 -2 m
(
2
) -n

m
( > m
n i3 < + n
) 2 m
( vi
2m
+ 2 n)

5 . F a to rc a
( a 1
) -b
(b
1) a b2
(
2
a a b (b z a +b
-a 2 b 2 -a
+ b
b
-b
>
< a
>

( a

EXE RC S E IS I
F a c to r th e follo wmg

1 . x4 62 5 . 10 .
(1 6 m 2 n ? 2
) 64 ni n 2 2
.

1 5 3 s
a nd
2 7 8 3
2 . a 1 . 11 . 2 a x a x 2 a x 8 .

3 . m16 l . 12 . 9 2 2
a 0 16 a
2
d2 3 6 b 2c2 + 64 b 2 d2 .

4 . x5 2 6 x3 27 . 13 . xl4 2 x7 + 1 .

2 2 2 6
5 .
(a 4 ab b ?
) (a 2 b ?
) 14 . 7 29 n .

z 3 9 3
x6 5
x2y3

12 6x 4 3
6 . 18 x 9x . 15 . a b a y .

7 . 81 m 4 2 56 n g
. 16 . 4 8 x3 y 2 2 2
5 xy 1 40 xy 3 .

4
a 4
1
8 . x1 4 17 . 16 a7 72 a6 10 8 a
s 54 a .

6 3 3
(m+ n)
4
9 . x 16 x y 64 y . 18 .
92 A DV AN C E D O
C UR S E I N AL GE B R A
19 . R e s olve a
9 5 1 2 i n to th re e fac to rs b y th e me th o d o f 177 .

20 . a
2 m 2
a m . 22 . n1 0 1 0 24 .

21 .
(x 2 4 x) 2
3 7 (x 2 4 x) + 1 60 . 23 . m 3
m x 3
x .

2 2 z z
a% 4 b 2 c2 z
24 9 d 6
3 b d
' '

. a .

25 .
(m n )( as y
?
) ( x ti o n?

26 .
(x 6 (x 9 (x

27 . a 2 4 b2 a 2 b .

28 .
(m n ) (m 2
x 2
) (m x) (m 2
n 2
) .

s b 3x3 2 1 6

2 ? 2 3 3 3 3 a 8
29 .
(c 2 4
+ y c ) 16 31 . a b 27 a y t g
/ .

30 .
(x
2 9 x)2 4 (x2 9 x) 140 . 32 .
(2 x2
x 2
.

33 .
(m2
in )
? 2 (m2 m) (m 1 ) + (m

34 . 64 a x
3 3
+ 8 a
3 8x 3 1 . 36 .
(x + 2 y) 3 x x2 4 2
( y ) .

2 3
35 .
(4 a
2
b 2 36 b 37 .
(1 x ) (l 3
x . )
38 .
15

39 . a
4 43 . m S m 5
+ 32 m 32 3
.

40 .
( x3 +y
3
) 44 . a( c) a b (b c) .

41 .
(a
3 8 m) 3
a (a 2 m) ? 45 . m (m + p ) n (n p )
2 2
.

5
a b5
9 8
42 . 18 a b 22 a
3
b 3
8 . 46 . x 8 x 6
x 8 .

47 .
(7
2 m 3
(3 m x) (9 m 2 12 mx x 2
) .

2 24 4 2 1 44 2
48 .
(4 a a( a 9) a .

49 . m9 m6 64 m3 64 .

50 .
(x
2
y
2
)
8 4 xy 2 2
(x 2
y
2
) .

5 4 3 2 z 3 4 5
51 . a a b a b u b ab b
2
52 . 8
( n
3
n +4 n

1 80 . Fa ctori ng b y S ubs ti tuti on .

3 2
1 . F ac to r x 7 x + l0 x + 6 .

p b e come s 0 wh en x i s put e qual to

'

By 1 4 0 , i f th e ex re s si on

th e n x is a f act
'

a, a or .

Th e p o s i ti v e a n d n e ga ti v e i n te g ra l fa to r s c of 6 are 1 , 2 , 3 , 6,
1 , 2, 3 , a nd 6 .

It i s b e st t o tr y th e nu mb e r s i n th e i r or de r o f a b s olute mag
n i tu d e .

If x 1 , th e e xp r e s s 1 o u b c me 1 e o s 7 10 6 .

If x 1 , th e e xp r e s s o i n b c o me s e 1 7 10 6 .
 F A C TO R ING 93

If x 2, th e b c m s 8 2 8 20 6
e xp r e s s i o n e o e .

If x 2 th e e x p e s i n b e o me s
,
8 28 r 20 s o c 6 .

If x 3 th e xp s s i n b e o me s 2 7
,
e 63 re 30 6 o c ,
or 0 .

Thi s h w s th at x s o 3 i a f a c to s r.

D i i di n g th e e xp
v s i on by x 3 th e q uo ti e nt i s x
re s ,
2
4 x

Theu x ,
3 3 x 4 x
)(
2

2 P . e th at i s a fa c to o f
ro v a r

(
a + b c )( ab bc + ca
)
P utti n g a 0 , th e ex p re ss i on b ecome s
(
b c ) b e b(
b )
c c, o r 0
_
_
.

T hen by , 1 4 0, a is a c
fa to r of th e ex p r es si on.

3 . P r o v e th at m n is a fa to r c of

"
m 4
4 mn s
2 mn 2
5 mn 3
2n
.

P utti n g m n, we h a v e
4
n

4 n
4
2n 5 n
4
or 0 .

T hen ,
m n is a fa tor c .

EXERC S E I9 I
F a c tor th e follo wing

1 . x + 3
4 x2
+ 7 x -12 . 4 . x3

2 . x4 5 . x3 18 x + 8 .

3 . x3 x2 l 1 x 10 . 6 . x3 5 x2 8 x --
I 48 .

3 2
7 . x4 + 8 x + 1 3 x 1 3 x 4 .

3 2
8 . 2 x4 7 x + l ox 14 x + 1 2 .

Fi nd , with out ac tu al d i vi s i o n ,

9 . Wh e th e r x 3 i s a fa ctor o f x3 6 x2 l3 x 1 2 .

10 . Wh e th er x 2 s a fa c to r o f x
i 3 7x 2 6 .

11 . W h e th er x i s a fa c to r o f x (y z )2 y (z x)2 z (x y)2 .

12 . W h e th e r a i s a fa c to r o f a 3 (b c)3 b 3 (c a )3 c3 (a b )3
13 . Wh e th e r x y i s a f ac to r o f (x y) 3
(y z )3
(z x)3
.

14 . W h e th e r m n i s a fa c to r o f m (m 2 n )3 n (2 m n )3 .

15 . Wh e th e r a b c i s a fa c to r o f
 4 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
1 81 . Factori ng of S y mmetri cal E xp res s i ons .

Th e me th o d of 1 80 i s a d v a n ta g e o us i n th e f a to ri n g c of s y m
metr i c al e xp r e s s i o n s . 1 4 6,

1 . F a to r c
(
2 2
( b( ( (
2 2 2 2
a b c
) c a
) c a ( b) a b c
) b c a
) c d b)
.

Th e y mmet i c al wi th e s p e c t to b an d
e xp r e s s i o n is s r r a, , c .

B i n g f th thi d d e g e th e n ly li te al f c t s w hi c h i t
e o e r re ,
o r a or

c an h a e th e f th e ty p e
v e ar ; th e orf th e typ e a + b ; o
e o a r e r

a b nd fa t o f th
c, a s c nd d g
a e c or e e o e re .

P utti n g 0 th e e x p s i on b c o me s
a ,
re s e

2 2 2 z
bc cb b 0 c b, or 0 .

Th e n , by 1 40, a is a fa to r ; c an d , by s ymmet y r ,
b an d c

a re c
f a to r s .

Th e e xp r e s s i o n , b ei ng o f th e thi rd d e g re e , c an h a ve n o o th e r

c
lite ral f a to r ; b ut i t may h a v e a n umer i ca l f a to r c .

L e t th e g i v e n e x r e s s i o n ma b c p .

To d e te r mi n e m, le t a b c 1 .

T h en ,
-2 2 2 = m, or m= 6 .

Wh e n c e ,
th e g i v e n ex p r e ss i o n 6 abc .

2 . c x (y ) y (z x)
F a to r 2
( x z y ) 3 x yz
2
z
2
.

Th e e x p s s i n i s y mme t i c a l w ith e s p e c t t x y and z

re o s r r o , ,
.

The n ly li t o l f ac t w h i c h i t c an h a e
e ra o rsth f th e v a re re e o

typ e x ; th e o f th e typ e x + y ; o x + y + z an d a f ac to of
re r ,
r

th e s e c on d d e g e e r .

I t i s e i de n t th at n e i th e x y n o z i s a f a c to
v r , ,
r r .

P u tti n g x e qu a l t y t h x p e s s i o n
o b e c o m e s e e r

y z
) 37 6 y) : 3 i z
2 z
,

wh i h i s n t 0
c o .

Th n x e y i s
, n o t a f a c to ; a n d by s y mm e t y n e i th e yr z ,
r ,
r

n orz xi f a c to s a r .

P u tti n g x e q u a l t y z th e e x p e s
o s i o n b e c o m e s ,
r

y
3
My ) 3
z
3

2
+ 3 yz +
2 33 3
3 yz z 3 z2 = 0
y z z y z y .

Th e n , x y z is a fa to r c .
 FA C T O R ING 95

Th e o th e r c
f a to r mu s t b e of th e s ec o n d d e g re e ; a n d , as it is
s y mmet i c al w i th r re s
p e c t to x, y, an d z, i t mu s t b e of th e f o rm

m (x 2
y
2
z
2
) ,
or n
(
xy yz xx ).

Th e r s t of th e s e c ann o t be a f a c to r ; f o r, if i t we r e , th e r e
w o u ld b e te r ms i n v o lv i n g x
3
,
3
y , an d z
3
i n th e gi v e n e xp r e s s i o n .

Th e n, th e g i v e n e x p r e s s i o n n
( x y ( xy + yz xx ) .

To d e te rmi n e n , le t x : 1 , y 1, an d z 0 .

Th en , 1 + 1 = 2 n, an d n =1 .

Th e n, th e gi ve n e xp r e s s i o n ( x y 2
)( xy yz xx ).

3 . F a c to r ab ( a b) bc (
b c
) ea (c a ) .

Th e e xp r e s s i o n is cyc l - y mme t i c
o s r al w ith r es p ect to a, b,
an d c .

It i s e v id e nt th a t n e i th e r a , b, n or c is a f a to rc .

Th e e xp r e s s i o n bc e o me s 0 wh en a i s p ut e qu a l to b .

Th e n, a b is a c
f a to r ; an d , by y mmet y s r ,
b c an d c a

ar e f ac to r s .

Th e e xp r e s s i o n c an have no o th e r liter al f a tor, b ut may c

h av e a c
nu me r i a l o n e .

L e t th e gi v e n e xp r e ss i o n m (a b )(b c )( c a
).

To d e te r mi n e m, le t a 2, b 1, and c 0 .

Th e n , 2 2 m, a n d m : 1 .

Th e n, th e g i v e n ex p re s si on
( a b)(
b c
)( c a
)
.

EXERC S E 2 0 I
c
F a to r th e f o llo w in g
1 .

2 .
c2 (a
3 .

4 .
4 abc .

2 b
5 . a (b ) .

6 .

7 .

8 .

9 .
( x y z ) (xy yz + z x) xyz .

10 .
(
x x 3
> .

b
(b
11 s
. a
) .
96 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

S OL U TION O F E QU ATIONS BY F ACTO R ING

1 82 . Co n s i d e r th e e qu ati o n

A xB x Ox m 0; a)
wh e A, B , C, m , ar e i n te gra l e x p r e s si o n s w hi c h i nvolv e the

re

un k n o w n n u mb e rs .

B y 4 9 , if A x B x O x 0 , s ome one o f the fa c to r s A,

B , O, m , mu s t e q ual 0 .

We ob tai n i n th i s wa y a s er i e s o f e q ua ti on s

A = O, B = 0 , ()
2

We w i ll n o w Sho w th at th e s e a r e e qu i v a le nt 1 14)
Any s o lu ti on o f ()
1 mak e s A x B x C x

i d e n ti c ally e qu al

to 0 .

I t th e n mak es at le a s t one o f c
th e f a to r s A, B , C, i d e nti
c ally e qual to 0; an d h en ce s a ti s e s at lea s t on e o f th e e q ua

ti o n s
Ag a i n , an y s o lu ti o n o f a n y O f th e e q u a ti on s ()
2 mak es A X
ce
'

B x l m i d e n ti c a lly e q ua l to 0 ; an d hen
s a ti S e s

Then , ()
1 an d ()
2 ar e e q u i v a le n t .

I t follo ws f ro m th e a b o ve th a t th e e qu ati on

A xB x m 0
may b e s olv e d by p la c in g th e c
f a to r s of th e r s t me mb e r se pa
r a te l e q u al to z e ro , a n d s o lv i n g th e r e s u lti n g e q u a ti o n s
y .

1 . S olv e th e e q u ati o n 2x 2
x 0 .

c
F a to ri ng th e rs t me m be r, th e e q uati o n b ec ome s
x (
2 x 1 )= 0

c
P la i n g th e f a to r s c se pa r ate l y e qu al to 0 ,

x 0

an d 2 x 1 = 0, or x 1
2
2
2 . S olv e th e e q u ati o n x
3
4 x x 4

c
F a to ri n g th e r s t m e m b er 1 5 6,

( x+ 4) (
x
2
or 1) (
x
 F A C TO R ING 97

T he n ,
x+ 4 = 0, or x

x+ 1 = 0, or x

an d (1) or x = 1 .

3 . S olv e th e e qu ati o n (
2 x (
x
(x

c
F a to r i n g th e s e on d c me mb e r , we h a v e
2
[( x )J [(
w (
w l
)(
x 2 x]
2x 3 2 2 2
(
) x 2 (
x + 1 x +3x 2 +x 4 x + 4)
2
(
2 x 3 )(x

Th en th e g i v e n e q u a ti o n c a n be w r i tte n

3
) [( (
2
2
( x 2 x x

O r, 2 x 3) ( 2 12 x + 9 2
( 4 x ~
x +3 x

O r, (
2 x 3 ) (3 x
2

D i v i d i ng b o th me mb e by 3 rs ,

2
= 3 l
(
2 x 3 )(
x 3 x + 2) 0 ,
or
(
2 x )(
x
)(
x

T h en ,
2 w 3 = O; 0r x

t

x 01

and x

Th e ab ove e xa mp le s i llu s tr a te th e p r in c ip le 7 1 5) th at th e d e gre e

1 13) o f a n e q u a ti o n i n volvi n g o n e u nk n o wn n u mb e r i nd i c ate s th e nu m
b er of i ts r o o ts ; th us , an e quati on o f th e th i rd d e g re e h as th r e e r oo ts of

th e fo ur th d e gr e e , f ou r r oo ts ; e tc It s h o uld b e o b se r ve d th at th e r o o ts
.

i
a r e n o t n e c ess ar ily u ne qu a l ; th us , th e e q u a t o n x
2 2x 1 0 may b e
writte n (
x 1 )(x 1) 0, a nd th e re fo re th e two r oo ts are 1 an d 1 .

EXE RC S E 2 l I
S olve th e follo wing e qu ati o n s

1 .
4
5 x + 35 x3 =0 . x4 1 8 x3 + 32 x2 =0 .

2 . 3 x3 1 0 8 123 2 0 .

3 . 4
(x 3 ) (4 x 2 5 ) = 0
2 . lo x2 7 x

4 . x2 + 23 x 1 5 x2 + x
2 - 1 2 x3
5 . x +4x 0 .

6 . x 2 1 7 x 1 10 = O . x2 a x + bx ab z o .

7 (5 x + ) (x
1 2 22 x + 121) 0
'

. .
,
98 AD V A NC E D C O UR S E IN AL GE B R A
15 . x 2 cx 8 x + l 6
2 c _ 16 . x + m x 5
322
m3
x 15 m5 : 0 .

2 3x
17 .
( x
4

18 . 27 x + 1 8 x 3 x
3 2

19 3 6 x 2
. x + x

20 . 4 2x
3 13 x2
x +
4 2 3 3
21 .
(x (x 22 .
(x ) + 8 x

23 . x 4
2
(x
2 l ) (x2 3
24 .
(x (x
3
25 .
(2 x + l )
3 8
26 .
(x 1 2
)(x )

1 83 . I t f o llo w s f ro m 140 a nd 1 8 2 th at

If the rst memb er of the equ a ti o n

A =0

is a r a ti o n a l a nd i n tegr a l p o lyn o mi a l i n vo lvi ng the u n kn o wn

nu mb er x, a n d d i vi s i b le b y x a , the e q ua ti o n ha s a a s a r o ot .

Fo r by 1 4 0 , th e r s t me m be r h as x a as a c
fa to r .

If A i s d i vi s i b le b y ax b , th e e q u a ti o n h as 9 a s a r o ot .

Ex . F i nd wh eth e r
'

s a r oo t o f th e e q uati on

D i v i d i n g th e r s t me m be r b y3 x 2, th e qu o ti e nt i s 3
x 2x
2

'

+3 x + 1 ; th e n, s a root .

F i nd wh e th e r
EXERC S E 2 2 I
1 . 4 is a r o o t o f x3 x2

2 .

g
- is a ro o t o f 6x + 3

3 is a ro o t O f 4 x3 l1 x2 l4 x

4 . 5 is a ro ot o f 4 x4 + 2 2 x3 + 9 x2 8 x 1 5 z 0 .

5 is a r o ot o f 1 5 x4 1 7 x3 + 7 x2

6 3 i s a r o ot o f 9 x4 + 6x
2 3 8x2
11 x
 H IGHE S T C OMMON FA C TO R 99

IX . H IGH E S T C O MM O N F A C TO R . L O W E ST
C O MM O N M U L TIP L E

H IGHE S T C OMMON FACTOR

In th e p res e nt c h a p te r , we c o n s i d e r o nly ra ti o n al an d i nte gr al e xp re s
s i o ns w i th i n te gra l n ume r i c a l c o e fc i e n ts .

1 84 Th e H i g h e s t Common F a ctor (H C F ) o f two

. . . . or mo r e
e x p r e s s i on s i s th e i r c
o mmo n fa to r o f hi ghes t d eg ree c
or if s e ve ral c o mm on f a c to r s are o f e q u a ll
h i gh d e g r e e , i t i s y
b
'

th e on e h a v i n g th e n ii me r i ca l c o e fc i e n t o f g r e ate s t a s o lu te
v alue i n its te r m Of hi g h e s t d e gr e e

Th e r e a re a lwa y s two fo r ms o f th e high e s t c o mmo n fac to r , o n e o f

wh i c h i s th e neg a ti ve o f th e o th e r .

2 2
Th us , i n th e e xp r es s i o n s a ab a nd b a b , e i th e r a b or b a

wi ll e xac tly d i vid e e a c h e xp re s s i o n .

1 85 . Two e xp r e s s i o n s a re s ai d to b e p ri me to e a ch o t er h
w hen un i t y i s th e i r hi gh e s t co mmo n f a c to r .

I n d e te r mi n i n g th e h i gh e s t c o mmo n f a c to r o f e xp r e s s i o n s , it
is c o n v e n i e n t to d i s ti n g u i s h tw o c a s e s .

1 86 . CA S E I Wh . en the exp r ess i o ns a r e mo n o mi a ls , or p y

o l
no mi a ls whi ch ca n be r ea d i ly f a cto r e d b y i n sp e cti o n .

R e q i r e d th e H C F f
? 4 3 2
and 98
3
1 Of 42 b 70 b b d
.

u . . a ,
a c, a .

Th e H . C F . . of 4 2, 7 0 , an d 9 8 1s 14 .

It i s b y i n s e ti o n th a t th e
e v id e n t p c e xp r e s s i o n o f hi ghe s t
d e g re e w h i c h wi ll e x a c tly d i v i d e a b , a c
3 2
, a nd a
4
b d 3 2
,
is a
z
b .

T h e n , th e H C F . . . of th e g i v e n e xp r e s s i o ns is 1 4 a
2
h.

It w ill b e o b s e r ve d , i n th e a b o v e r e s u lt, th a t the ex pon ent of

e a ch le tte r i s the lo wes t exp o n e n t wi th whi ch i t o ccu rs i n a ny of the

g i ve n e xp r es s i o n s .

2 . R e q ui r e d th e H C F . . . Of

4 2

z "
2 2
5 x y 45 x y an d 10 x
i
y 40 x
y 2 10 xy .
1 00 A DV AN CE D C O UR S E IN AL GE BR A
By 1 5 5, 1 7 1 , an d 1 7 3,
5 4 2 2
(
2
xy 45 x y = 5 x y x 9)

an d 10 xy
3 z
+ 40 xy
2 2
21 0 xy
2
= 1 0 xy 2
( x
2
+4 x 21 )

Th e H . C F . . of th e nu me r i c a l c o e ffi c i e nts 5 a nd 10 is 5 .

It i s e vi d e nt b y i n s p e c ti o n th a t th e H . C F . . of th e li te r a l
po rti o n s o f th e p
e x re s s i o n s is xy (
x

T hen ,
th e H . C F . . of th e g i v e n e x p r e s s i on s i s 5 xy (
x

EXERC S E 2 3 I
F ind th e high es t co mmo n fa c to r o f .

1 64 x + 2 7 y3 3 16 x 2 2
9 y , a n d 1 6 x2 + 24 xy + 9 y2
.
, .

2 . 2x 3 12 x2
+ 16 x, 3 x4 3 x3 36 x 2
and 5 x5
+ 5 x4 -
1 0 0 x

3
, .

3 1 25 m 3 8 10 m 2
+ m 2, a nd 25 m
2 20 m+4
,
.
.

4 . a
4 3 a2 28 , a
4 16
, and

5 . 2 x3 + x2 6 x 3 , 6 x2 + 1 9 x + 8 , a nd

6 2 7 x3 y3 , 2 4 3 x5 5 and 1 2 x2 2 5 xy + 7 312
.
y , .

7 a + b + c
2 2 2 2 ab + 2 ac 2 bc a
2
+ b 2 c 2 2 ab, and
.
,

Q b 2 c2
a + 2 bc .

s . 27 a
3
+ 1 35 a
2
c + 2 25 abs + 1 2 5 b 3
,
3 a
2
+ 2 ai 2
5b , a nd

3 ac 6 ad + 5 bo -l0 b d .

9 . 4 x4 + 1 1 x2 + 2 5 , 2 x3 9 x2 + 1 4 x - 1 5 , and 2 x + x x + 10
3 2
.

1 87 . CA S E II . When the e xp ress i o ns ar e p olyn omi a ls whi ch

ca n n o t be r ea di ly f a ctored b y i n sp e cti o n .

L et A B b e two p o l n o mi a ls , a rr an ge d a o r d i ng to th e
an d y cc
w
d e s c e n d i n g p o e r s o f s o me o mmo n lette r , a n d le t th e e xp o ne n t c
io f th a t lette r i n th e r st te rm o f A b e n o t lo e r th an i ts e x w
p o n e n t i n th e r st te r m of B .

S u pp o s e th at, wh en A i s d ivi d e d by B ,
th e qu o ti e nt i s p , an d

th e re ma i n d e r (7 .

We w ill p r o v e th at th e H . C F
. . of B a nd O i s th e sa me as

th e H . C F . . of A an d B .

Th e O p erati on of d i v i s i on i s s h o wn as follo ws
 H IG H E S T C OMMON FA C T O R 1 01

B)A (p
p B

0
W e w i ll r st p r ov e th at e ver yc o mmon fa c to r o f B an d
"
O is
a co mmo n f a c tor o f A an d B .

L et F b e any c ommon fac to r o f B an d O an d let

B = bF , a nd C = cF .
()
1

S in c e th e d i v i d e n d i s e q ua l to th e p r o d u t c of th e q u o ti e n t
an d th e di v i so r , p lu s th e r e ma i n d e r , w e h a v e

A p B 0 .
()
2

Su b sti tuti ng in (2) th e v a lu e s o f B and C fr o m

()
3

It i s e v i d ent fr om (
1 ) and (
3 ) th a t F i s a c o mmo n fa c tor of

A and B .

We w ill n e xt p r o v e th a t e ve r y c o mmon f a ct or of A a nd B is
a c o mmon f a c to r of B an d

L et F b e
any c o mm on f a to rc of A an d B ; a nd le t

A mF
, an d B nF
'
.
()
4

Fro m 0 :A
p B

mF
p nF
'
F '
m
( p n) .
()
5

F r om ()
4 an d F is
a c o mmon fac to r o f B an d C.

I t fo llo w s f r o m th e a b ove th at th e H . C F . . of B and O is

th e sa me as th e H C F . . . of A an d B .

1 88 . L e t A, B , a nd

0 h av e th e sa me me a n i n g s as in 1 87
S up p o s e th at wh en B i s d i v id e d by O, th e q u o ti en t i s q, a n d
th e re mai n d e r D ; th a t w h en 0 is d i vi d e d by
D , th e q u oti e n t i s
r, an d mai n d er E , an d s o o n ; a n d th at we n ally a r r i v e
th e re

at a r e ma i n d e r H, w h i c h e x ac tly d i v i d e s th e r e c e d i n d i i
.
p g v

s or G .

By 1 8 7 , th e H me a s th e
. C F . . of O
'
an d D i s th e sa H . C F
. .

o f B a n d 0 ; th e H C F o f D a n d E i s th e s a me as th e
. . . . C F
. .

o f O an d D ; a nd s o o n .
 1 02 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
H en c e th e H . C F . . of G an d H i s th e sa me

as th e H . C F . .

Of A and B .

B ut s i n ce H e xa c tly di vi d e s G, H i s i ts e lf th e H . C F
. . of G
an d II .

The r e fo r e , H i s th e H . C F . . of A an d B .

We d e r i v e f r o m th e ab ove th e f o llo wi n g r u le fo r th e H . C F . .

of two p o l yn mi als A
o ,
an d B, a rr a n g e d a cc o rdi ng to th e d e
s c en d i n g p o we s f s m
r o o e co mmo n le tte r, th e e xp o n e n t o f th at
lette r i n th e r s t te r m of A b ei ng n ot lo we r th an i ts ex p on en t
i n th e r s t ter m Of B :
'

D i vid e A b y B .

If ther e b e a r ema i n de r d i vi d e the d ivi s or b y i t; a nd con ti n u e

thus to ma ke the r ema i n d er the d i vi s or , a n d the p r ecedi ng d i vi sor
the d i vi d e nd , u n ti l there i s n o re ma i n d er .

The la s t d i vi s o r i s the H . C F . . r equ i r ed .

No te 1 . It i s i mp or tan t to k e e p th e work th r o ugh o ut i n d esc e nd i n g

p o we rs o f s o me c o mmo n le tte r ; a n d e a c h d i vis i o n s h ou ld b e c o n ti n ue d
u n til th e e xp o n e n t o f thi s le tte r i n th e rs t te r m o f th e re ma in d er i s le s s

than i ts e xp o n e n t i n th e r s t te r m of th e d i vi s o r .

No te 2 If th e te r ms o f on e o f th e e xp r ess i o n s h a ve a c o mmo n fac

tor whi c h i s mmo n f ac tor o f th e te r ms o f th e o th er , i t ma y b e
n ot a c o

r e mo v e d fo r i t can e v id e ntly f o r m n o p a r t o f th e h i gh e s t c o mmo n fa c tor .

In lik e ma n n e r , we ma y d i vi d e a ny r e ma i nd e r b y a f a ctor wh i ch i s no t a
fa c tor of th e p r e c e d in g d i vi s o r .

No te 3 . If th e rs t te r m of th e d ivi d e n d , o r of an y r e ma i nd e r , is n o t
d i vis ib le b y th e rs t te r m O f th e d ivi s o r , i t may b e ma d e s o b y multip ly
i n g th e d ivi d e n d o r r emai n d e r b y a n y te r m wh i ch i s not a fac tor of th e
d ivi s o r .

No t e 4 . If th e rs t term o f an y r e ma i n d e r i s n eg a ti ve , th e S ign o f

e ac h te r m of th e re ma i nd er may b e c h ange d .
(S e e n o te to

No t e 5 .If th e g i ve n e xp r e ss i o n s h a ve a c o mmo n fa c to r wh i c h c an
be s e en b y i ns p e c ti o n , r e mo ve i t, a nd nd th e H C o f th e re s ultin g . . F .

e xp r e s s i o ns .

Th e r e s ult, multi p li e d b y th e co mmon fac to r , will b e th e H C . . F . of

th e g iv e n e xp re ss i o n s .

N o te 6 . Th e o p e r ati o n o f d i vis i on may u su ally b e a b rid ge d b y th e

u se o f d e ta c h e d c o e fc i e n ts
 H IG HE S T C OMMO N FA C TO R 1 03

1 R e q u i re d th e H C F
. . . . Of

6 a
3
+7 a
2
b 3 ab
2
an d 4 a
3
b +8 a
2
b 2 3 ab 9 b 3
.

We remo v e th e fa c to r a fr o m th e r s t ex p r es si on
, a n d th e
c
f a to r No te
b f ro m th e s e c o n d (
We th e n n d th e H C F o f . . .

6 2
7 ab 2 3
3 b an d 4 a + 8 2
b -3 a b 2 9 b 3
a + a .

Sin ce 4 a
3
is n ot d i v i s i le b by 6 a
2
,
we mu lti l py th e c
s e on d

ex p r e s s ion by 3 N
( o te

4 3 2 2 3
a +8 a b 3 ab 9 b

6 z
+ 7 ab 2
3 b )1 2 3 Q
b 9 z
(
3
a a + 24 a ab 27 b 2 a
3
z 2
12 a + 14 a b 6 ab

g 2
10 a b 3 a b 27 b 3

ce 1 0 a b
-

S in 2
is n ot di v i s i bl by e 6 a
2
,
w e mu lti pl thi s y re mai n
d er by 3 .

2
6 a 7 ab 3 b )3 0 2
,
a
2
b 9 ab
2
81 b (
5b ?

2 2 3
30 a b 35 ab 15 b
2 3
44 ab 66 b

D i vidi n g th e re ma i n d e r by 22 b 2
N
( o te s 2,

2 a + 3 b )6 a
2
+ 7 ab 2
3b (3 a b
2
6a + 9 ab

2 ab

2 ab 3 b2

T hen ,
2a 3 b i s th e H . C F . . r e qu i r e d .

2 . R e qu i r e d th e H . C F . . of

2x 3x3
4
x
2
+ x. a n d 6 x
4 x
3
+3 x
2
2 x .

R e mo v i n g th e c o mmo n f a c to r x N
( o te an d u si n g De
ta c h e d Co e f i e n ts , c
2 3 1 + 3
6 9 3 + 3
8 + 6 5
1 04 AD V AN C E D C O U RS E IN A L G E B R A
2 3
4
12 4+
8 + 6 5
18 + 1 + 4

72 + 9
-7 2

2 9)5 s 2 9
2 1

2 i )s + 6
s 4
10 5
10 5
Th e la st d i v i so r i s 2 x 1 .

Mu lti p ly i n g th i s by x, th e H . C F. . of th e g i v e n e xpr e s s i on s

is x (
2 x

1 89 . Th e H . C F . . Of th r e e e xp r e s s i o n s may b e f oun d as

f o llo w s

L e t A, B , an d C b e th e e xp r es s i o n s .

L et G b e th e H C F . . . of A an d B ; th e n , e v e r y c ommon
-

c
f a to r of G an d C is
mmo n
a co f a c to r o f A, B , an d 0 .

B ut s in c e ever y c ommon fa c to r of tw o e xpre s si o n s exa c tly

H CF
di vi d e s th e i r . . . ev er y c o mmo n f a c to r of A, B ,
an d C i al a c mm n f c t
s so o o a or O f G a nd O .

W h en c e th e H C F f G , . . . o a nd C i s th e H . C F . . Of A, B ,
an d 0 .

H en c e , to nd the H . C F . . o f thr ee e xp r es s i o n s , nd the H . C F

. .

o f two of them, a n d the n of th i s r e s u lt a n d the thi r d exp r es s i o n .

We p r o e c
e d in a si mila r man n er to nd th e H . C F
. . o f a ny

b
num e r o f exp r e s s i o n s .

EX ER C S E 2 4 I
Fi nd th e hi gh e s t co mmo n f a c to r of
1 . 4 x +4 x 2 3 an d 6 x + l 1 x x 6
3 2
.
 L OW E S T COMMON M UL T IPL E 1 05

2 . 6 a
8 1 7 a2b ; 7 a b 2 + 4 63 a nd 12 a
3 -1 3 a 2 b
+ 21 ai 2 - e h3

3 . 9 x4 2 l x3 + 48 x2 2 4 x a nd 1 5 x 2 5 x + 2 5 x2 5 5 x + 30
3 4
.

4 . 6 a4 + a
3
+ 5 a
2
+ 7 a 3 and 8 a
4 6 a 3 + 7 a 2 9 .

5 . 6 x5 + x4 + 3 x3 6 x2 4 x an d 1 2 x5 + 8 x4 3 x3 l 0 x2 4 x

6 . 8 x2 6 x 3 5 , l o x3 2 7 x2 x + 1 5 , and 6 x3 1 3 x2 1 3 x +

7 . 6 a
3 8 a
3 18 a
2
b l7 a b 2 3
3b , a nd

6 u3
+ 23 a
2
b 6 a b 8 b 32
.

OW E S T COMMON MU L TIPL E L

1 90 A Common Multi p le f tw o mo e e x p e si o n s i s an
. o o r r r s

e xp es s i n w h i c h i s e x c tly d i i i b l by
r o a ch f th m a v s e e o e .

1 9 1 Th L o w e t Common Multi p l (
. e L C M ) f tw o mo s e . . . o o r re

e xp s i ons i
re th i c mm n multi p l
s s f l w t d g ; e rif o o e o o es e r ee or

mm n multi p l f q u lly l w d g e i t i s th e

s e v er a l co a o es re o e a o e re ,

i n g th n um i c l c o fc i n t f le st a b s o lu t
'

o ne h av e alu in er a e e o a e v e

i ts te r m of h i gh e s t d e gr e e .

Th er e are alwa y s two fo r ms o f th e lo wes t c o mmon multiple , one of

whi ch i s th e n eg a ti ve o f th e o th e r ; th us , i n th e C xp r e s s i o n s a
2 ab

an d b 2
a b , e i th e r ab ( a b) or ab (b a ) is e x ac tly di vi s i b le b y e a ch

e xp r e ss i o n .

In d e te rmi n i n g th e lo w e st c o mmo n mu lti ple o f e xp r e ss i o n s ,

it i s c on v en i en t to d i s ti n gu i s h two c a se s .

1 92 . CA S E I . When the exp r es s i o ns a re mon omi a ls , or p o ly

no mi a ls wh ich ca n be r e a d i ly f a cto r e d b y i n sp ecti o n .

1 . R e q ui re d th e L C . . M . Of 36 d 3
x, 60 a
2
y
2
, an d 84 cx
3

Th e L C . . M . of 3 6, 60 , an d 8 4 i s 1 2 60 .

It is e v i d e nt by i n s p e c ti o n th a t th e e xpr e s s i o n of lo we s t
d e g re e whi ch is e xa c tl y d i v i s i le b by d x, a
3
y
2
,
2
, a n d cx
3
is a cx
3 3
y
2
.

T h n th e ,
e L C . . M . of th e g i v e n e x p r e s s i o n s i s 1 26 0 a cx
3 3
y
2
.

I t w i ll b e o b se r ve d , i n th e a b o v e r e s u lt, th a t the exp on ent o f

e a ch
lette r i s the hi ghest exp o n e nt wi th whi ch it o ccur s in a ny of

the gi ven exp r es s i o n s .

2 . R eq ui r e d th e L C . . M . of

x
2
+ x - 6, x2
4 x + 4, an d x
3 9 x .
1 06 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
2
B y 1 7 3, x + x

2
B y 1 69 , x

x
3
By 1 71, 9 x x x
( + 3 ) (x
It i s e v i d e nt by i n sp e c ti o n th a t th e L C . . M . of th e s e e xp r e s

s i on s is x x ( ( x 3) (
x

EXERC S E 2 5 I
Fi n d th e lowe s t co mmo n multip le of :
1 . x 2 35 , a n d x2 3 x 7O .

4
2 . 27 a 4
+ 64 a, 18 a

3 . 6x + 7 x2 5, 1 0 x 9 x + 2,
2 a na 8 x 1 2 x2 + 6 x
3 1 .

4 . 3 ac + ad 6 b c 2 bd ac 4 ad 2 bc
, + 8 b d , a n d 3 c
2 1 1 c d 4 d2
.

5 a +
. 4 b 2 9 c
3 4 z
ab, a
2 4
b 2 9

. c 2
+ 1 2 b c, an d

a
2
+ 4 b 2
+ 9 c
2 4 a b 6 ac + 12 b c .

6 . 8 m 3 - n3 4
, m 2 4 mn + n
2
,
an d 16 m 4
+4 m 2
n2
+n 4 .

7 .
-1 9 x 30 a n d x3
,

1 93 . CA S E II . When the exp res s i o n s a r e p o lyn o mi a ls whi ch

c a nn o t be r ea d i ly f a cto r e d b y i n sp ecti o n .

L et A an d B be a ny two e x p r e s s i on s .

L e t F b e th e i r H . C F . .
,
and M th e i r L C . . M .
; an d s u p p ose

th a t A = a F , an d B 01 7 .

T h en ,
A xB a bF
z
.
()
1

S i n c e F i s th e H . C F . . of A an d B, a an d b h av e no c o mmon
c
fa to r s ; w h en c th e, e L C . . M . o f a F an d bF is a bF

.

T h at i s , M a bF .

Multi ply i n g e a ch of th e s e e q u als by F ,

we h av e
F x M a bF
z
.
()
2
Fr o m (
1 ) an d A XB F x M A
( x 4 ,
. 6 6)

T h at i s, the p ro d u ct o f two exp r es s i o n s i s equ a l to the p r o d u ct

of th i H e r . C F
. . a nd L C;. M .

194 . I t f ollo ws fr o m 1 93 th at, to n d th e L C . . M . of two

ex p r e s s i on s ,

D i vi d e thei r p r o d u ct b y thei r hi ghes t co mmo n f a cto r .

 L OWE S T CO MMON M UL TI PL E 107

O r, d ivi d e o ne o f the exp r es s i o n s b y thei r hi ghes t co mmo n f a ctor ,

a nd m u ltip ly the qu o ti en t b y the o th er exp res s i o n '

Ex . R e qu i r e d th e L C . . M . Of

-8 x
'
l 2
2 3 s 2
x y + 7 y an d x 9 xy + 23 xy l5 y .

B y th e r ule o f 1 8 8 , th e H . C F . . of th e gi v e n e xp r e s s i o n s is
x y .

D i v i di n g x
2
8 xy 7 y x
2
by y, th e q u o ti e n t i s x 7 y .

Th e n , th e L C . . M . o f th e g i v e n e xp r e s s i o n s i s

(x 7 y x
)(
3 9 x
y + 2 3 xy
2
15 y32

) .

1 95 . I t fo llo ws f ro m 1 93 th a t, i f two e x p r e s si on s a r e p ri me
to ea ch o th e r th e i r p r o du ct i s th e i r L C . . M .

1 96 . Th e L . C M . . of th r e e ex p r e s si o n s may b e f o u n d as

f o llo ws
L e t A, B , an d G b e th e e xp r e s s i o n s .

L et M b e th e L C ; M o f A a n d B ; th e n e v e r y c ommo n mul
. .

ti p le o f M a n d O i s a c o mmo n mu lti p le o f A , B a n d 0 ,
.

B ut s i n c e ev e r y mm n mu lti p l f
co o e O two e xpr e s si o n s is ex

a c tl y d i v i s i le b by th i L C M y
e r . . . e ver co mmo n mu lti ple of A,
B, an d C is
a ls o a c o mmo n mu lti p le of M and G .

Wh e n c e, th e L . C M . . of M an d G i s th e L C M . . . of A, B ,

H en c e, to nd the L . C M . . o f thr e e exp r ess i o n s , n d the L . C M . .

of two f
o the m, a nd then f
o thi s r es u lt a n d the th i r d exp re s s i on .

We p c e ed i n a S i mila
ro r ma n n e r to n d th e L C M . . . O f an
y
nu mb e f e x p e s s i on s
r o r .

EXE RC S E 2 6 I
Fi nd th e lo we st co mmon multi ple of

2
1 . 8x 6x 9 a d 6x
2n 3 7 x 7x +6 .

2 6 3 2
b 11 ab
2 6 b3 and 6 3 5 a2b 8 a b 2 +3b 8
. a + a a

3 . 8 x 22 x2 6 x
3
and 8 x6 + 6
5
x l1 x 2 3 4
x3 5 x2 .

4 . x4 2 x3 2 x2 + 7 x 6 and x4 4 x3 + x 2
+ 7 x 2 .

5 4 a + 4 a 4 3 a + 20 ,
.
3 2 4 a
3
+ 20 a
2
+ 13 a -1 2
, a nd

4 a 3 + 1 2 a 2 3 l a 60 .

6 . 6 x2 7 x 3, 4 x3 4 x2 + 3 x 9 , and 4 x3 l 2 x2 x + l 5 .
1 08 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L GE B R A

X . F R A C TIO NS

1 97 . In th e fra ti o n c th e d i v i d e n d a is c alle d th e nu mera

to r, and th e di v i s o r b th e d en o mi n a tor .

Th e s y mb o l is O fte n us e d to r ep r e s e n t a fr a c ti o n ; th u s , a b s i gn i e s

Th e n um e r ato r a n d d e n o mi n ato r a r e c alle d th e terms Of th e

c
f ra ti o n .

19 8 A r a tiona lf r a ctio n i s a frac ti on wh o s e te r ms

. ar e r ati on a l

an d i n te gra l

A mon o mi a l i s s ai d to b e r a ti on a l when i t i s a r ati on a l a n d

i n te g r a l e xp r e s s i o n , o r a r a ti o n al f cti n
ra o .

A p ly n
o o mi al i s s ai d to b e rati o n al w h e n e a h c of i ts te rms i s
r a ti o n a l .

2 ii

1 99 . B y s 9 6,

T hat i s ,
if the ter ms o f
f a r a cti o n b e b oth multip li ed b y the sa me
exp r es si o n , the va lu e of the f r a c ti o n i s n ot cha nged .

0 ac a
200
776
.

5 5
6

T h at i s, i f the ter ms o f
f a r a cti o n b e b oth d i vi d ed b y the sa me
exp r e s si o n, the v a lu e of the f ra cti o n i s n o t cha nged .

+ 0
0 + 0
0
20 48
b -b
+b

Th at i s, f
i the s i gn s o f b o th ter ms o f a f r a cti o n b e cha nged , the
e i the r
s i gn b ef o r e the f r a cti on is n o t cha nged ; b u t if th e s i g n o
f
one be cha ng ed , the si n b ef o r e the f r a c ti o n i s cha ng ed
g .

If e i th e r te r m i s a p o l yn o mi al, car e mu s t b e tak e n , on c h a n g

i n g i ts s i g n, to c h an g e th e s i gn o f ea c h of i ts ter ms .
 F R AC TION S 1 09

_
Thu
2 by ch a n g n g th b
a
s, th e f ra c ti on ,
i e s i gn s of o th
C
I
a n b e w i tte n
a
nu me r ato r a n d d e no mi na to r, c r
; c

20 2 . I t f o llo w s f ro m 91 an d 20 1 th a t

If e i ther ter m o f a f r a c ti o n i s the i n di ca ted p r o d u c t of two o r

mor e exp r ess i o n s , the s ig ns f
o a ny ev e n n u mb er of them ma y b e

c ha n ge d wi tho u t ch a ng i ng th e s ign b ef o r e the f r a ctio n ; b ut if the

s ign s o f a ny od d n u mb er of them b e cha n ged , the s ign b ef ore the

f ra cti o ni s cha ng e d .

a b
Thu s , th e f ra ti o n c d
may b e w r i tte n

( 0
)( e f)
a b b a
7 6 50 .

D
RE U C TI ON OF FR A CTIONS
20 3 . R educti on of a Fra cti on t o i ts L o we st Terms .

A r a ti o n a l f r a c ti o n 1 9 8) i s s ai d to b e in i ts lo wes t ter ms
wh en i ts nu m e r ato r and d e n o mi nato r a re p meri to ea ch o th e r

20 4 . CA S E I . When the n umer a to r a n d d eno mi n a tor ca n b e

r e a d i ly f a cto r e d b y i n sp ecti o n .

By 20 0, d i v i d i n g b o th te rms of a f ra ti o n c by th e sa me ex

p re s s i on , o r c a n c e lli n g co mmo n f ac to r s i n th e nu me r ato r an d

d e n omi n ato r , d o e s n o t a lte r th e v a lu e o f th e f r ac ti o n .

We th e n h av e th e f o llo win g ru le

R es o lve b oth nu mer a to r a n d d en o mi n a to r i n to the i r f a ctors,

a nd a nc e l a ll tha t a r e co mmo n to b o th
p
.

4 2
24
1 . R ed u ce 23 3
to i ts lo w e st te r ms .

40 a c

We h av e 7
24 a

b 2
ox 2 3
X 3 x a

b 2
cx
2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 3
40 a b c d 2 x5 x a b 0 d
110 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
Ca n c ellin g th e c o mm on f a c tor 2 x 3
a
2
b 2
c, we h a ve
4 2 2
24 a b 6x 3 a x

40 5 cd 3

3
x 27
2 . R e du ce to i ts lo w e st te r ms .

Z x S

By 177 an d 1 7 3,

x
3
27 x
2 x (
2
x 3 x x +l

b
2 2
a

2 a2 a
b )
By 20 2, th e S ign s of th e te r ms of th e f a to r s c of th e nu me r a

to r c an be c h an g e d wi th o ut a lte r i n g th e v a lue of th e f r a ti o n ; c
and i n th i s wa y th e r s t f ac to r o f th e n ume ra to r b e c o me s th e
s a me a s th e s e c o n d f a c to r o f th e d e n o mi n a to r .

b 2
a
2 a
) b + a

If all th e fa cto rs o f th e nu me ra tor a re c an c e lle d , 1 re mai ns to f o rm a

nu me r a tor .

If a ll th e fac to rs o f th e d e n o mi n a to r a re c an celle d , i t i s a c ase o f e xa c t

d i vi s i o n .

20 5 . CA S E II When
. the nu mera tor a nd d eno mi n a tor ca nn o t

be r e a d i ly f a cto r ed b y i nsp ecti on .

By 1 8 4 , th e H C F . . . Of two e xp r e s s i o n s i s th e i r c omm on

c
f a tor of h i g h e s t d e g r e e , h av i n g th e n u me r i c al c o e fc i n te of

g r e a te s t a bs o lu te v a lu e i n i ts te r m o f h i gh e s t d e g r e e .

W e th e n h av e th e f o llo

wi n g r u le

D ivi d e b o th nu mera to r a nd d e n o mi n a tor b y the i r H . C F

. .

6
Ex . R e du ce 2
to i ts lo we st te r ms .

2 a a 3

B y th e r ule O f 1 8 8 , th e H . C F . . of 6 a
3
11 a
2
+7 a 6 a nd
z
2a a 3 i8 2 a 3 .
 F R A C TION S 111

D i v i d i ng 6 a
s
11 a
2
7 a 6 by 2 a 3 , th e q u o ti e nt i s
2
3 a a 2 .

D iv idi n g 2 a
2
a 3 by 2 a 3 , th e q u o ti e n t i s a 1 .

3 ll z 6 3 2 a
Then 6 a a + 7 a a +2
,
a 3
2
2 a

20 6 . R educti on of a Fracti on to an Integr al or Mixed E xp res

s i on .

A Mi xed E xp res s i on i s a p o l n y
o mi al c o n s i s ti n g O f a r a ti o n a l

and i n te g r a l e xp r e s s i o n to g e th e r wi th on e or mo r e
r a ti o n a l f rac ti o n s ea ch of wh i ch h a s le tte r s i n i ts
d e n o mi n a to r wh en i n i ts lo w est te r ms
1 2 x
T h us ,
a + 3 , a n d g y
are mi x e d e xp r e s s i o n s .

c 3 x y
2
6 x 15 x 2
1 . R ed u c e to a mi xe d e xp r e s s i on .

3 x

B y th e D i s tr i b uti ve L a w f o r D i vi s i o n
2 2
6 x + 15 x -2 6 x 15 x 2 2
+ 2x+5
3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x

A fra c ti on wh o se d e n o mi n ato r i s a p o ly mi al
n o may b e re

d u c e d to an i n te g r al or mi x e d e x p r e s si o n by th e o p e r a ti o n o f

d i v i s i o n , i f th e d e g r e e 64 ) of th e nu me r a to r i s not le s s th a n
th at o f th e d e n o mi n a to r .

l2 x 8 x2 3 -5
2 . R e du ce +4 x
to a mi x e d ex p r e s si on .

2
4 x + 3
2
4 x + 3 )1 2 x 2 5 2 3
8 x + 4 x
(3 x
3
12 x +9 x

8 x
2 -5 x

8 x
2
6
5 x
+ l
S i nc e th e d i v i d e n d i s e qu al to th e p r o d u t c of th e d i vi s o r an d

q uo ti e n t, p lu s th e re ma i n d e r , we h a v e

12 x 8x2 3
+4 x
 12 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN AL GE BRA
T h en by th e D i
'

,
s tr i b uti v e L aw fo r D i vi s i on ,

12 x 8 x2 3 -5
+4 x 5 x + 1
2 2 2
4 x +3 4 x +3 4 x +3
5
3 x 2 x + 1
+ 2
4 x +3
Th en , a re ma i n d e r of lo w er d e g r e e th an th e d i v i s o r may b e
w r i tte n o v er th e d i v i s o r i n th e f o r m O f a f r ac ti o n , a n d th e
r e s u lt a d d e d to th e qu o ti e n t .

I f th e r s t te r m of th e nu me r a to r i s n e g a ti ve , a s i n E x 2, i t .

is u s u al to cha nge the s i gn of ea ch te r m of the nu me r a to r , c h an

g
i n g th e s i gn b e fore th e f r a ti o n c
12 2 5 x 1
Th
4 a + 3 4 a +8

20 7 . R ed ucti on of Fra cti ons t o th ei r L o we st Common D enomi

nator .

To r e du ce c
f r a ti on s to th e i r L owes t Common Denomi nator

(
L C D . . .
) i s to e xp r e s s th e m a s e q u i v a le n t f r a c ti o n s , h a v i n g f o r
th e i r co mmon d e n o mi n a to r th e L C . . M . of th e g i v e n d e n o mi
n ato r s .

4 cd 3 m 5 n
Ex . R e du c e
2 3 2 an d
3
to th e i r lo w e st c omm on
3 a b 2 ab 4 a b
d e n o mm ato r
.

Th e L C . . M . of 3 a
2
b 3
,
2 ab
z
,
an d 4 d b is 1 2 d b 3
1 9 2)
B y 1 99 , i f the te r ms o f a f r a c ti on b e o th mu lti p li e d b by
th e s a m e e xp r e s s i o n , th e v a lu e o f th e fr a c ti o n i s n ot c h a n g e d .

4 cd 3 m
M ulti p l i n g oth te rms O f y b
4 a , o th te r ms o f
2
by b
2 3
3 a b 2 ab
5
by 6 u
z
b, and b o th te rm s of by 3 b 2
,
w e h av e
4 a

bm
2
16 a cd 18 a
Q
15 b n
an d

3 3
12 a
3
b 3
1 2 wb g
12 a b

w ill b e n th t th t m o f e a h f ac ti
It e s e a e er s c r on are multi
p li d by ea n x p i n w h i h i O b t i n d by e re ss o ,
c s a e d i v i di ng th e
L C D by th d n mi n t
. . f th i s f a ti n
. e e o a or o r c o .

W he n c e the f ll wi n g rule o o .
 FR CT A ION S 118

F i n d the L C . . M . o f the gi ven d en o mi n a tors .

M u ltip ly b o th ter ms f
o ea ch f r a cti o nb y th e qu o ti en t o b ta i n ed
b y d i vi d i ng the L C D b y the . . . d e no mi n a tor of th i s f r a cti o n .

B efo re ap p ly i n g th e r u le, e a c h f c ti ra on s h o u ld be re du ed c to
i ts lo w e st te r ms .

ADDITION AND SU B TR ACTION OF FR ACTIONS

b + c b C b
"
208 .
,
an d
a a a a

We th e n h av e th e fo llo wi n g r u le s :
To a dd two r a ti o n a l mmo n d en o mi f r a cti o ns whi ch ha ve a co

n a to r , a dd the i r n u mer a tor s , a n d ma ke the r es u lt the n u mer a to r

of a f r a cti o n who s e d en o mi n a to r i s the co mmo n d en o mi n a tor .

To s u b tr a ct f two r a ti o na lm mo n d e r a c ti o ns whi ch ha ve a co

n o mi n a tor, s u b tra ct the n umer a to r of the s ub tra hen d f r o m the

n u me ra to r of the mi n u e n d , a nd ma ke the r es u lt the n u mera tor of

a f r a cti o n who s e d e n o mi n a tor i s th e c o mmo n d e n o mi n a tor .

I f th e fr ac ti o n s h a v e n ot a mmo n d e n o mi n a tor , i t fo llo w s

co

fr om 30 , ()
3 and th a t th e y may b e a dd e d , o r s ub trac te d ,
by e d u ci n g th m t
r e o e q u i v a le n t f r a c ti o n s h a v i n g th e i r lo w est

c mmon d n mi t
o e o n a or an d th e n u sing th e a b o v e r ule s .

Th e n a l r e s u lt s h o u ld be r e d uce d to i ts lo w e s t te r ms .

3 5
y b + 6 b
c
20 9 . 1 . S i mp li f 3
4 a a

Th e L C D i s 1 2
. . . c a n

M ulti p ly i n g th e te r ms Of th e r s t fr a cti on by 3 b 2
, and th e
te r ms of th e s ec on d by 2 a, we h a v e
g g
3 c 5d 9 b c 10 ad 9 b c + 10 ad
2
+ 3 2 3
+ 2 3
4 a b 6 ab 12 a b 12 a b 12

If a fr a c ti o n wh o s e mi al i s p re c e d e d
nu me r a to r i s a p ly n
o o

by a s i g n , i t i s c o n v e n i e nt to e n c lo s e th e nu me r ato r i n

p a r e n th e s e s
p r ec e d e d b
y a S i g n ,
a s s h o w n i n th e la s t t e r m
o f th e n u me r a to r i n e q u a ti o n A , o f E x 2 ; i f th i s i s n o t d o n e ,
( ) .

c ar e mu s t b e ta k e n to cha nge th e s i g n of e a ch te rm of the nu

mera tor b e fo r e c o mb i n i n g i t w i th the o th e r n u me rator s .

114 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
x +1 x 2 2 x
2
+ x 1 3
2 S i mp lif y +
x 3
.

2
x+ 5 x +2 x 15
S in ce x
2
+2 x ( x th e L . C D
. . is
x
2
x +2 15 .

Mu lti ply i n g th e te r ms of th e r s t f r a c ti on by x 3, an d th e
te r ms of th e se c on d by x 5 , we h a v e

x
2
2 x + 13
x
2
+2 x + 15 x
2
+ 2 x 15 x
2
+2 x 15
2 2
x 13
( x + ) A
()
2
x +2 x -15

x 2 x 2 x9 -x
2 10 + l3
x
2
x +2 15
0
O<
1 0 5)
x
2
x +2 15
p b le

In c e r ta i n c a s e s , th e p r i n c i le s o f 201 an d 20 2 en a us

to c h an g e th e f or m o f a f r ac ti o n to one w hi ch i s mo r e con

v e n i en t f o r th e p u rp o s e s o f a dd i ti o n o r s u b t a c ti o n
r .

3 2b + a
3 0 S i mp l1 fy + 0

a b 2 2
b a

Ch an g i n g th e s i gn s o f th e te r ms i n th e s e on dc d e n o mi n ato r,
at th e sa me ti me c han gi ng th e s i gn b e fo r e th e fr a ti on c
we h a v e , 3 2 b a

a b a
i
b?
2
Th e L C D i s now a
2
. . . b .

T h e n, _
_
a -b a
z b2 a
1 b2r

3 a + 3 b 2 b a 2 a +b
a
2 b2 a
2 b2

1 1 1
4 S i mp lif y
wt w z
.

iv z
( r
) 0 0 6 2
9 ( z
)(
By 2 0 2 , we c h an g e th e s i gn of th e f a to r y c x i n th e
s e c on d d e n o mi n a to r , at th e sa me ti me c h an gi n g th e s i gn b e fo r e

c
th e f r a ti o n ; an d w e ch an ge th e s i gn s o f both c
fa to r s of th e
thi rd d e n o mi n a to r .
 F R A C TION S 115

Th e ex p r e ss i on th e n b c omes
e

Th e L C D . . . is n ow
(x y) (
x 2
) (y 2
) th e n th e r e s u lt

w Z
( y) (
w Z
)( y )
( y) (
w w x ) (v z
)
2

(x y) ( x z
) ( x y) ( x z
) (y z
) (x
w z
)
3 x _5
5 . S i mp lif y 2 x 3

3 x 5 5
2 x 3 (
2 x (
3 x
)
x+ l x +1
2x x 3 3 x
2
+5 2 x
2
4 x +2
x +l x +l
1 1 2 4
6 . S i mp li f y 2 4
.

1 x l + x 1 + x l +x

We r s t a d d th e r s t tw o f r ac ti o n s ; to th e r e s ult we a dd th e
th i r d f r ac ti o n , an d to th i s r e s u lt th e f ou rth f r a c ti o n .

1
1 x 1 x2
( )
2
1 x x
1 F x1
)
2 2 2
x 1

4 -x4
4 ) 8
1 x
4
1 + x
x
) 1 x
8

1 1 1
7 . S i mp li f y 2
a a +2
W e r st c o mb i n e th e r s t two f r a c ti on s , th e n th e last two,
an d th e n ad d th e s e r e s u lts .

1
a 1 - a
+ 1 1) a
2 1

1
2 +2 -2 2 4
a a
) a
116 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

2 4 2a 2 8+4 a 2 -4 6 a 12
2

2 1 2 4 2 2 4 5 2
a a (
a 1 )(
a 4) a a +4

M U L TIPL I C ATION OF F R A CTION S

21 0 . By 30 w h a e th f ll w i n g u l f
,
e v e o o r e or th e p r o d u t c
Of tw o f r a c ti o n s

M u ltip ly the nu me ra tors toge ther f o r the n u mera to r o f the

p ro d u ct, a n d the d en o mi na tor s f o r i ts d en o mi n a to r .

C a
21 1 . B y 21 0 9x

c 1
1
.
X
b 5 1 5
D iv i di n g b o th n u me r ato r an d d e n o mi n ato r by c

a a
x c 2
b b + a

F rom (
1 ) an d we h a v e th e f ollo wi n g r ule f o r multi p l in g y
a c
f ra ti o n by a r a ti o n al a n d i n te g r al e xp r e s s i o n :
If p oss i b le, d i vi d e the d enomi n a to r of the f ra cti o n b y the
exp r es s i on ; o ther wi s e, mu ltip ly the n u me ra to r b y the e xp r es s i o n .

21 2 . C o mmon f a c to r s i n th e me r a to r s a n d d e nomi n ato r s nu

s h o u ld b e c an c e lle d b e f o r e p e r f o r mi n g th e multi p li c a ti o n .

M i x e d e xp r e s s i o n s S h o u ld b e e xp r e s s e d i n a f ra c ti on al fo rm
20 9 ) bef o r e a pp l y in g th e r ule s .

3 1 3
10 3 b

x
Multi p ly by
a y
1 . ,

z 3 2
9 bx 4 a y
10 a
3
y 3 b 3
x 2 X 5 x3 x a
3
b 4 1
x y 5b 3
x
?
x 3 z 2 2 2 2
9 bx 4 d y 3 x 2 X a
3
bx y 6y
Th e f a to r s c c an c e lle d a r e 2, 3 , a ,
3
b, x
2
,
an d y .

mm
2
x 2 x x 4

x
2
+2x 9
m+ x 6
>
<
4

cd +$ x 2x 6 _x+ 4 9
m+ x 6
x X
4
 FR A C TION S 117

Th e f a to r s c c an c e lle d a r e x 2, x 2, x 3, an d x 3 .

2 2
b
M ultl p ly
bi Tb by
3 . a b .

z ?

v
D i i di n g th e d e n o mi n a tor by a b , we h av e
2 ? 2 2
a +b a +b
a
2 2
X (a b
a b

m
4 . Multi p ly by m n .

m n

Multi p ly i n g th e n u me r ato r by m n, we h ave

m m 2
mn
m n m n

DIV IS ION OF F R ACTIONS

21 3 . By 30 , we h a e th e f oll w i n g u le
v o r

To d i vid e o ne f r a cti o n by a no ther , multip ly the di vi d end b y the

d i vi s o r i n ver ted .

21 4 By 21 3 C 9 x 1 a
b b c be

D i v i d in g b oth nume r a to r a n d d e n o mi n ato r by c

a a c
2
()
b b

F ro m (1 ) an d we h av e th e fo llo w in g r ule f or d i v id ing a

f ra c ti o n by a r a ti o n a l a n d in te gra l e xp r e s s i o n :
If p o s s i b le, d ivi d e th e n u me r a to r of the f r a cti o n b y the exp r es
s ion o the r wi s e, mu ltip ly th e n u me r a to r b y the exp res s i on .

2 2 3
6 b 9 b
21 5 . 1 . D 1 V Ide
a
3 4
by a
2 7
5 x y 10 x y
2 2 3 2 1 7 3
6 b 9 b 6 b xy 4 y
We a a a
h ave ,

3 4 2 7 3 2 3 2
5 x y 10 x y 5 x y 9 a b 3 52
Mi x e d e xp r e s s i o n s s h o u ld be e x p re s se d in a f rac ti o rial fo r m
2 09 ) b e f o r e a p pl y i n g th e r u les .

2x 3 3 x
2
13
2 . D i vi d e 2 by 3 .

x 1
118 AD V A NC E D C O UR S E IN AL GE B R A

2 x + 2 2x +3 3 x 3
2
3 x
2
+ 13

m 3 n3
3 . D i vi d e by m n .

m +
2
n
2

D i v i d i n g th e nu me r a to r by m n, we h av e
m3 n3 m + mn +
1
n
2

m2

2

2 2
4 D i v id e
1 by
. a +b .

a 5
Multi p ly i n g th e d en o mi n ato r by a b , w e h a ve

I f th e nu me r ator an d d e n o mi n ato r of th e d i v i s o r ar e e x a ctly

c on tai n ed i n th e me r ato r a n d d e n o mi n ato r, r e s p e cti ve , o
nu ly f
th e d i v i d e n d , i t f o llo w s f r o m 21 0 th a t the n u mera to r of the
m b h m f h d d d

q u o ti e n t a y b e o t a i n ed b y d i v i d i n g t e nu e r a to r o t e i v i e n

b y the n u me r a to r of the d i vi s o r ; a nd the d en o mi n a to r of the

q u o ti e n t b y d i v i d i n g the d en o m i n a tor of th e d i vi d e n d b y th e

d en o mi n a to r of the d i vi s o r .

i 2
9 x -4 3 x +2y
5 . D i vi d e
2
y
2
by .

x y x y

We h a v e,
2 2
(0 y

1
21 6 . B y s 21 3, . .

0
H enc e ,
the r ecip ro ca l o f a f ra cti o n i s the fr a cti on i nverted .

OM PL E X FR A CTIONS
C

21 7 A Complex F cti on i s a f c ti n h avi ng

. ra ra o on e or more
fr ac ti on s i n e ith e o r b oth o f i ts te ms
r r .
 F R A C TION S 119

It i s si mp ly a c as e i n d iv i s i o n of c
f r a ti o n s ; i ts n u me r ato r
b e i n g th e d i v i d e n d, an d i ts d e n o mi n a to r th e di v i s o r .

21 8 . 1 . S i mp li f y
b

a a ad

bd bd
b E
c c

d d

It i s o f te n a d v a n ta g e o u s to mpli fy a c o mp le x fr a c ti o n
si by
multi p ly i n g i ts n u me r ato r a n d d e n o mi n ato r by th e L C M . . . of

the i r d e n o mi n ato r s

a a

2 S i mp li f y a b a b
2
.

b
a a + b
Th e L C . . M . of a +b and a b is b) .

Multi p ly i n g b o th te r ms by (a b )(
a b ), we h av e
b 2
ab
z
a (
a +b ) d ( a
) a + a + ab 2 ab

b) ab +b +
2
a
2 ab a
2
+b
2

In mp le s lik e th e a b o v e , i t i s
e xa b e st to b e g n by s impli fy ing
i

th e lowes t c o mp le x f r a c ti o n th u s,

1 1 x 1 x 1
x x +1 + x 2 x +1
x 1

EXERC S E 2 7 I
R e d uc e to th e ir lo we s t te r ms b y f a c tor in g

8 x3 1 25
2
1

2 x3 + x2 l 5 x x2 2
9y +z 2 as

21 x l0 x 2

(x2 2 x 63
) 1 5 xy 2 0 x 2 1 y + 2 8
1 20 ADV A N CED C O UR SE IN A L G E BR A
,

- 3 3
0 3 4 28 a b + 2 7 b
5 6 2 x3 5 2
x x+ 6
4
9a 2
bz 2 7 3 6 x + 54 x2 8 x3
'

R e d u c e to th e i r lo wes t te r ms b y n d i ng the H C . . F .

lo x2 7 x 6 6 x3 x 1 1 x + 6
9 .

4 x3 4
x2
5x 1 9 x3 1 8 x2 + 1 1 x 2
2 6
'

4 a
3
+ 13 a
2
b 4 a b b 3

8 a 2
+ 14 ab 15 52 2 23
3 7 :
t 16 x 2
y 5
+ y8

R e d uc e e ac h o f th e follo wi n g to a mi x e d e xp r e s s i o n

9 x4 2 x3 20 m +
5 n5
12
mn 5
.

3 2
12 x 3 95

S i mp lify th e fo llo wi ng
3x y
14 . 19 .

x2 2 y

3 3
a + 64 b 4 b
15 .

3 64 b 3
x ( ) 20
a

16 . 21 .

2 mx
17 (2 m 3 x) 22
4 m2
.

m
.

4 x+5 m 2 n n2

5 x+ 7
18 3 00 +4 23 .

2 5 x2 4
.

2x 3 25 x2 2 0 x + 4

ao 6 ad - 7 ab
2 10 2
+ b
24
ad 6 b c 2 bd - 3 a b -b2
2
3 ac + 10 a r

2 1 1
4 a 1 l x 1 + x *

2 a + 5 1 1
3 a 2 1 x 2
1 + x2

3 m + 1 m- 4 3 m2 2 m 4

+
8 m . - 1 5 -2 m 6 m2 17 m + 5

1 1 1 1
2 3 4 5
2x 3y 3x 2g 29
x 4
.

+ x+ 3 x 3 x+ 4
4 x2 9 y2 9 x2 4 y2

x+ 4 x +4
2 4
3 a 3 a 6 a 12 a
31 .
+
a +b a

m 2
m 2 2 mn 3
32
mn -
.

m Q I- nfz i
m + mn +
2
n2
 F R A CTION S 1 21

a x a
3
x 3

d + x a
3
+ x 3
4x 1 3x+ 1
x x3 2
l0 x 9 x 9
'

3
a a 6x l 7 x+ 1 2 2
+ 3 3
a + x a +x

b c c a
+
a b ) (a
( c ) (b c )(b a ) (c
3 3 5 n2 5 n2

+
2n+ 1 1 2 n 8 u3 + 1 1 8 n3

1 1
+ )2 l 2 1
( r 1 (y ) x + l v
1 1

(
x 1 ) (y (
90 1)

2 a 1 2 a + l 6 a 1 8
+
a 2 - a2 16
( 4

a +2 a(2 a) 4 a a )

( Y
H
( l
l - 2 +
x z
U
.
Z x l x + l
z 2
) e
(
r
W

o
2 (x3 _ x2 19 x + 36 )
+
3 x 2 ) (x 3 ) (
2 x (x x 4)
1 22 A DV A NC E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

XI . F R A C TI O NA L A ND L ITE R A L E QU A TIO NS

INV O L V ING L INE A R E QU A TI O N S

21 9 . S u p p o s e th a t a n e q ua ti on , wi th o n e u nk n o wn nu mb e r,

x, h a s fr a ti o n a l c term s .

T ra n s
p o s e a ll ter m s t o m emb er
th e r s t .

L e t th e term s i n th e r t mem b er b th n
s e e a dd e d , u s i ng fo r a

c o mmo n d e n o mi n a to r th e L C M .
, . of the g i v e n d e n o mi n a to r s ;
and le t th e r e s u lti n
g f r a c ti o n b e re e
d u c d to i ts lo e s t e w s t rm
Th e e qu a ti o n w i ll th e n b e i n th e f o r m

0 ; ()
1

whe re A an d B a re r a ti o n al a n d i n te gra l e xp r e s s i o n s h h
w ic
h av e n o c o mmo n c
f a to r .

If B c o n ta i n s x, th e gi ve n e qu ati o n is c alle d a Fra cti onal

E quati on .

By 11 7, ()
1 i s e qu i v a le n t 1 1 4 ) to th e g i v e n e q u ati o n .

h ri n c ip le s d e mo n s tr a te d i n 1 16 to 1 1 9 , i n c lus i ve , an d 1 22 ,
(T e p
h o ld f o r fra c tio n al e q ua ti o ns ) .

E q ua ti o n ()
1 ma
y b e clea r ed of f r a cti o n s 1 21 ) by mu ltip ly
i ng b o th me mb s er byB , g i v i n g th e e q uati o n

A O .
()
2

We will n ow p ro v e e
q u ati on
()
2 e q u i v a le n t to

An y
c lly qu l t 0
a e
s o lu ti o n o f

a o .
wh e n su b sti tute d f o r x, mak e s
is i d e n ti

The n i t mu t m k , s a e A i d e n ti c ally e qu al to O
The n i t i lu ti , s a so on of

Ag a i n , a n y s o lu ti o n o f wh e n su b s ti tuted for x, mak e s A

i d e n ti c a lly e qua l to 0 .

No w B c a n n o t e q u al 0 fo r th i s v alue of x ; f o r i f A a n d B
be ca me O f or th e s a me v a lue o f x, s a y so a, th eyw o u ld h a v e

x a a s a c o mmo n f a c to r wh i ch i s i mp o s s i b le b y 219 .
 F R A C TION AL / A ND L IT E R A L E QUAT IO NS

123

H e nc e , an y s o lu ti o n o f wh en su b s ti tute d for x, ma k e s
i d e n ti c all y e qual to O
T hen ,
it is a s o lu ti o n o f

T he r e fo r e ,
()
1 an d ()
2 a r e e qu i v ale n t .

22 0 . c
A f r a ti o n a l e q u ati o n may b e c le a r e d of f ra c ti o n s by
mu lti p ly i n g b o th me mb e r s
by a ny co mmo n mu lti p le of th e
d e n o mi n a to r s ; b u t i n th i s way a dd i ti o n a l s o lu ti o n s a r e i n tr o
d u c e d , a n d th e r e s u lti n g e q u ati o n i s n o t e q u i va le n t to th e r s t .

C on s id e r, f o r e xa mp le , th e e q ua ti o n

1
1 .

l +x l
M ulti p ly i ng b o th me mb e r s by 1 x
2
,
th e L . C M
. . of th e g i v e n
d e n o mi n a to r s, w e h a v e

1 x x= 1 2
x, or x
2 2x= 0 .

c
F a to ri n g th e r s t me m b e r,

x x ( an d x =0 or 2

I f, h o w e v e r, we mu lti ply b o th m e mb e r s of th e g i v e n e qu a

ti o n by (
1 x
)(
1 we h a v e

1 4 x
2
1
( + x )(
1 - x2
) .

T hen ,
1 x2 x x2 =l + x x
2 3
x , or x
3
x
2
2x =0 .

F a ctor i n g th e r s t me m b e r,

2 ) = O, a nd x
O, 1, or 2

Th i s g i v e s th e a dd i ti o n al s o lu ti o n x 1 ; and i t ma y b e
ve r i e d by b
s u s ti tu ti o n th a t thi s d o e s not s a ti s f y th e g i ve n
e q u ati o n .

2 21 . I f b o th me m b er s o f a f ra c ti o n al e qu ati o n b e mu lti p li e d
by any co mmo n mu lti p le o f th e d e n o mi n a to r s , th e a d d i ti o n al

r o o ts , if any , i ntro d u c e d mu s t s a ti s fy th e e q u ati o n f o r me d by

e qu a ti n g th i s co mmo n mu lti p le to 0 .

Th u s, i n 22 0 , th e a d d i ti o n a l s o lu ti o n 1 s ati s e s th e e q u a
ti o n 2
(
1 x l
)( x ) o .
1 24 A DV A N C ED C O UR S E IN A L G E B RA
If, the n , we j
r e e ct a ll s o luti o n s which s a ti s f y th e e q ua ti o n

f o r me d by e q u ati n g th e co mmo n multi p le to 0 , we s h all r e ta i n

th e c o r r e c t s o lu ti o n s .

2 22 w f m 21 9 th a t i f ll th te m f a fr
. I t f o llo s ro ,
a e r s o ac

ti n l e q u ti n w i th
o a n u n k n w n n u mb e
a o b t n p d to e o r e ra s o se o

th t m mb
e rs; a n d ll t e m s i n t
erh s t m mb b dd d a er e r e er e a e

ti n e d u c d t i t l w t t m;
,

a n d th ulti n g f e re s r ac n d th o r e o s o es er s a e

nu me r ato r of thi s f ra c ti o n b e e q u a te d to O, th e r e s ulti n g e u a

q
ti o n i s e q u i v a le n t to th e r s t .

B u t i n mo s t case s th e a bo ve is n ot th e s h o rte s t me th od of

s o lu ti o n .

By 220 and 22 1 , we ma y multi p l th e me m e r s o f th e y b

g i v en e q ua ti o n by th e L C M o f th e gi v e n d e n o mi n ato r s ; a n d
. . .

i f we j
r e e c t all s o lu ti o n s whi y th e qu
c h s a ti s f e a ti o n fo rme d by
e q u a ti n g th e L C . . M . to 0 , o n ly th e c e t o rr c s o lu ti o n s w ill be
r e ta i n e d .

22 3 . We may n o w g i ve a r ule fo r s o lv i n g a n y c
fr a ti o n a l e q u a
ti o n , le a d i n g to a li ne a r e q ua ti o n w i th o n e u n k no wn n u mb e r

Clea r the equ a ti on of f ra cti o ns b y multip ly i ng e a ch te r m b y the

L C M of the g i ve n d en o mi n a to rs
. . . .

Tr a n sp os e th e unkn o wn ter ms to the r s t me mb e r, a nd the

kn o wn te r ms to the s e co n d .

Uni te the si mi la r te r ms , a nd d i vi d e b o th memb e rs b y the co e i

c i en t o f the unkn o wn n u mb er .

2 5 2
1 S o lv e th e e q u a ti o n
4
.

x -2 x+ 2 x
2

M ulti ply i n g ch te r m by 2 4 , the L C M of the gi v en

'

ea x . . .

d e n o mi n a to r s , we h a v e

OI , '

T r a n s p o s i n g, a n d u n i ti n g te r ms ,
-3 x = - 1 2 a n d

S in c e 4 d o e s n o t s a ti s f y th e e q u a ti o n x
2
4 0 , i t i s th e c or

r e c t s o lu ti o n
 F R A C TIONA L AND I
L TE R AL EQU A TI ON S 1 25

If th e d e n o mi n a to r s are p a r tl y mo no mi al and p a rt l y po ly
n o mi a l, it is o f te n a d v a n ta g e o u s to '
c
c le a r of f r a ti o n s at r s t
pa r ti a ll y;
multi p ly i n g e ac h te r m of th e e quati on by th e L C . . M .

o f th e mo n o mi a l d e n o mi n ato r s .

2 . S o lv e th e e q u a ti o n

6 x + 1 2 x 4 2 413 1
15 7 93 16 5

Mu lti p ly i n g e a ch te r m by 1 5 , th e L C . . M . of 15 an d 5,

30 x 60
6 x 1 6x 3
7 x 16

T r a n s p o s i n g , a n d u n i ti n g te r ms ,
30 x 60
4
7 x 16

Cle a r i n g of f r ac ti o n s , 28 x 64 30 x 60 .

T he n ,
an d x = 2 .

2 doe s n o t s a ti s f y th e e qu a ti o n 7 x 16 O, and i s th e r e
f o r e th e c o rr e c t r o o t .

If a ny f r a c ti o n a l te rm s i n th e e q u a ti o n h a v e th e sa me d e
n o mi n ato r, th e y s h o u ld be co mb i n e d bef ore cl a e rin
g of fra c
ti o n s .

at 1
3 . S o lve th e e q u a ti o n
2 2
x 1 x 1

T ra n s
p o s i n g th e te r m
2
to th e r s t me mb e r , an d c o m
x 1

b i n in g i t w ith th e te r m
13
w e h av e

C le a ri n g of c
f ra ti o n s , 1 x 1 0 , Or x O .

0 d oes n o t s a ti s f y th e e qu a ti o n x 1 O, an d i s th e c o rr e ct
r oo t .

I f we s o lve th e g i ve n e q u a ti o n b y multi p ly i ng b o th me mb e rs by x 2 1,

x -(
we h a ve x2 + 1 : 1 =0
xQ ,
or x x2 .
1 26 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
F a c tori ng th e rs t me mb e r ,
x(l x) =0 ; an d x = O Or 1 .

NO W th e valu e x 1 s a ti s e s th e e q u a ti o n x 2
1 0 th e n i t mus t b e
j
re e c te d , a n d th e o n ly s o lut io n is x O.

2 5 3 4
4 . S o lv e th e e q u ati o n
x +8 x +9 x + 10 x +6
Ad d i n g th e f r a c ti o n s i n ea ch me mb e r , we h a ve
7 x 58 7 x 58

S in ce 7 x + 58 i s a c
f a to r of ea ch memb e r, we ma y p lac e it
e qua l to zer o

58
Th e n , 7 x 58 O, or x
7
Th e re ma i n i n g r o ot i s give n by
1 1

( x + 8 ) (x + 9 ) (x + l 0 )(
x +

a:
w
( ( + <
1 0>w

x 12 .

n or 12 s a tis e s th e e qua ti o n

(x 8 ) (x 9 ) (x l 0 ) (x 0 .

2
2 x 1 x x
5 . S o1ve th e e q u a tI o n +
2x 3 x
2
+ 4
D i vi d i n g e a c h nu me r a to r b y i ts c o r r e s p on d i n g d e n o mi n ator,
we can w r i te th e e q u a ti o n i n th e fo r m
2 _ x + 4 2 x + 4
1 + +1 2,
.

or
2 x 3 x
2
+4 2 x 3 x
2
+4
Cle ari n g of f r ac ti o n s ,
2 2 2 x2
x +8
wh e n c e ,
x =4 .

EXE RC S E 2 8 I
S olve th e follo win g
8 513 11 7 x+4 3x

12 x 5 3x+4 4 93 5
1 2
9 12 8 21 9 x+ 3 7
 F R A C TIONA L AND I
L TE R AL E QU A TION S 1 27

2 x 2 3 x + 4 2 x l
9
'

4 9 5 4 2 x + 3 3x 2

3x 1 _5 x + 4
_2 6
1 x + 2 x 3

x 5 x +8 3 + x

2x 1 5x+ 6 23 x2 1 0
7
+
3x+ 5 7 2x 6 1 h a

3 5 2 4
+ x + l 2
'

xL 9 16 J x + l2
+ 3 2x 1 1 .

O
6x J2

2 x& 16 S EL + 6 x + 1 2

x 3 x +4 _ 8x+ 2
'
+ 1
x + 1 x 2 x

2 1 7 1
+ x 2
'

2 x d 3x+ 2 6 2

8 3 10 5
_3
'

x x + 7 x 9 x + 2
5 1 10 4
3x 4

2x 1 6x + 5 4 x+ 1

x + 1 x + 4 x + 2 x + 3
+ +
x 2
'

x 1 x 4 x 3

x+ 2 x 3 x + 4
' 3
x

7 x + 10 xW S

+ x 6 b x+ 8
2 x + 5
x l x 7 5 x 7 x
+ + +

'

x 2 x 4 x 6 x 8

2 24 . Pr ob lems i nv olv i ng Fra cti onal E quati ons , lea d i ng t o L i near

E quat i ons w i th w n Numb e
one Unk no r .

1 . A c an d a pi c
o f w k i n 8 d y whi h B c a n p
e e o or a s, c e r fo r m
in 10 da y s . In h w man y d y c n i t b d n by b th w
o a s a e o e o o rk in g

to g e th e r

L et x nu mb er o f d ays r e q u i re d .

1
Th e n , th e p a rt b o th c a n d o in '

o ne d ay .

x
1 28 ADV AN C E D C O URS E IN A L G EBRA

Al so, th e p a r t A c an do in one da y ,
8
1
a nd the p ar t B c an do in o ne d ay .

10

1 -1 1
By th e c on d i ti o ns ,
8 10 x

9x 40 .

Wh e n c e , x z nu mb e r of d ay s re q uir e d .

2 . Th e s e on dc d i git o f a nu mb e r c
ex eeds th e rs t by 2; a nd

if th e num er b b e di vi d e d by th e su m of i ts d i gi ts, th e q u o ti e nt
is 4 S
} . F i n d th e n um e r b .

L et x r the r s t d ig it .

Th e n , x 2 th e s e cond d ig it,

a nd 2x 2 z :th e su m of th e d igits .

Th e nu mb e r i ts elf e q u als 1 0 ti me s th e rs t d igi t, p lus th e s e con d th e n ,

l0 x (x or 11 x 2 t th e n umb e r .

11 x 2 34
B y th e c o nd i ti o n s ,
2x 2 7

77 x + 1 4 : 68 x+ 68 .

9 x 54 .

Wh e n ce , x 6 .

Th e n , th e n umb e r is 68 .

EXERC S E 2 9 I
1 . Th e d e n o mi n a to r of a f r a c ti o n e xc ee d s twi c e th e nume rato r b y 4 ;
and if th e nu me r ato r b e i ncr e a s e d b y 1 4 , and th e d e n o mi n ator d e c re as e d

b y 9 , th e v a lu e o f th e frac ti o n i s z . Fi nd th e fr a cti o n .

3
2 . A c an do a piece of wo rk i n Bl h o ur s , B i n 3 3 h o urs , an d C i n 3;
h o urs . In h o w ma n y h o urs c an it b e d one b y a ll wo rk i n g to ge th e r ?
3 . Th e se c o nd d i gi t o f a nu mb e r of two gu res e xc ee d s the rst b y 5
a nd if th e nu mb e r, i n c re a s e d b y 1 , b e d i vi d e d b y th e s um o f the d ig its

i n c rea s e d b y 2 , th e q u o ti e nt i s 3 . F
i nd th e nu mb e r .

4 . Th e nu mera to r o f a f ra c ti o n e x ce e d s th e d e n o mi n ato r b y 5 . If th e
nume r a to r b e d e c re a s e d b y 9, a nd the d e n o mi n a to r i n c r e a s e d b y 6,
th e su m of th e r es ulti ng fr a c ti o n a n d the gi v e n f r a c ti o n i s 2 . Fi nd

th e fra cti o n .
 F R AC TIONA L AND L TE R I AL E QU A TIO NS 1 29

5 . A tank h as th r e e tap s . B y th e r s t i t c an b e lle d i n 3 h o u rs 1 0

min u tes , b y th e s e c on d it can lle d i n 4 h ou rs 4 5 mi nu te s , a nd b y th e
b e

th i rd i t c an be e mp ti e d i n 3 h o u r s 4 8 mi nu te s H o w ma n y h o u rs wi ll i t
.

ta k e to ll i t i f all th e tap s ar e o p e n

6 . Af re i gh t tr a i n r un smiles a n h o ur le s s th an
6 a p as s e n g e r tr a i n It .

r un s 80 mi les i n th e s a me ti me tha t th e p a s se nge r tra i n ru ns 1 12 mi les .

Fi n d th e r a te o f e ac h tra i n .

7 T h e d ig its o f a n u mb e r a r e th r e e c o n s ec utive n umb e rs , o f wh i c h th e

.

middle d igi t i s th e g re ates t, an d th e rs t d ig it th e le as t If th e nu mb er b e .

2
3 F
3
d i vi d e d b y th e s um o f i ts d ig i ts , the q uo tie nt is i nd th e nu mb e r . .

8 . A ma n wa lks 1 3 } mile s , a nd re tur n s in an h o u r le s s ti me b y a

c a rr i a g e , wh o s e r a te i s

ti mes as gr e at as hi s r a te o f wa lk i ng i nd . F
h is r a te of walk ing .

9 . A v e ss e l r un s a t th e r a te o f 113 mile s an h o ur . I t ta k e s j us t as

lon g to r un 23 mi les u p s tr e a m a s 47 mile s d o wn s tr ea m . Fi nd th e r a te

of th e s tr e a m .

10 . A c an do a p i e ce of w o rk in tw o -
th i r d s as man y d ay s as B ,
a nd B
c an d o i t i n f o ur-fth s ma ny d a y s
as as 0 . T o ge th e r th e y can d o th e
w o rk i n 3 I7I d a y s . In h o w ma n y d a y s ca n e ac h a lo ne d o th e wo r k

11 T h e rs t d ig it o f a n u mb e r o f th re e gu re s i s th re e -fo urth s th e
.

s ec o n d , a n d e x c e e d s th e thi rd d ig i t b y 2 I f th e numb er b e d i vi d e d b y .

th e su m o f i ts d i g i ts , th e q u o ti e n t i s 3 8 i n d th e nu mb er . F .

12 . A and B to g e th e r ca n do ap i e c e o f work i n 5 } d ay s , an d C 1 B
to g e th e r i n d ay s , a nd C an d A to ge th e r i n 5 3d ay s I n h o w ma ny d ay s .

c an it b e d o ne b y e a ch work i ng a lo ne

2 25 . L i tera l E quati ons , lea di ng to L i near E quati ons wi th one

Unk no wn Numb e r .

2 2
x x 2b a b
Ex . S o lv e th e e q u ati o n
2 2
x a x a x a

Mu lti p ly i n g ea ch te rm by x 4
2
a

,

=
(
2 2
x x + a
) a
) a + b ,

2 2
x + a x ( x +2 b x dx

x
2
+ ax x i '

2 ax 2 bx = a 2 -2 a b + b 2

F a c to ri n g b oth me mb e rs, 2 x a ( b) ( a b )?

(a
2
b
D i vi ding by 2 ( a 5h x
2(
a b) 2
1 30 AD V AN C ED C O URS E IN A L GE B R A

d oes n o t s a ti s fy 2 2
th e i
e q at o
u n x a 0 , i t is th e c o rre c t

EXE RC S E 3 0 I
S olve th e f ollo wi ng

2
1 .
(x 2 a b)

bx z
+ b
2 2 b
( )

e a x a
2 .
.

3 2
b b

a a

5 2 6 m
3 .

5x+ 2 m 4 x 3 m 20 x
2
7 mx 6m2

4 x+ 3 4 x 5
'

n n

x + 2 n 3n x x

nx 6 n 2

b )3 x
5 .
(x + a (
a bx b

2 z '

dx
'

6 a + h
x b x a

7
d x b x c bd x + b y w wL
q
+ +
a a m
a b
8
a
'

x x b x c

x 1
9
x 2
4 a
2
2 a

a 4 a
2

x a x + a 2 dx -
I1 9 a2
10
x + 2 a x 3 a x 2 ax - 6 a
2

1 1 7 3
11 .

x 2 a 6x+ a 3x 8 a 2x 3 a

4 x x 4 x x
.

x 4 n x + n x + 4 n x +3 n

m+ n 2 m m n
m In x m
'

x +m * n x n

a b a b

x 2 b x 2 a x a b

a3 2 2 ax
I5 a
2

a 2 a x 3 a
2

x + a x+ b
x a x b x + a + b
x+ n x 2 n x + 6 n x + 3 n

x n x + 2 n x 6 n x 3 n
 F R A C TIONA L A ND L TE R I AL E QU A T ION S 1 31

226 P rob lems i nv olv i ng L i tera l E quati ons , lea di ng to L i near

.

E quat i ons w
i th one Unk no n Numb er w .

P ro b . D i vi d e i n to t wo p a rts
a s uch th a t m ti me s th e r s t
s h a ll e x e e d n c ti me s th e se o n d c by b .

L et x th e rs t p ar t .

Th e n , a x th e s e con d p art .

B y th e c o n d i ti o ns , mx n a ( x) b .

x
72 + b th e r st p art .

m+ n

+ b m+ an b
x =a _ an a an

m+ n m+ n

a m b
,
th e o th e r p art .
()
2
m+ n

Th e re s ults can be us e d as f o rmu lce for s o lvi ng a n y p r ob le m of th e

a b o ve fo r m .

T h u s , le t i t b e r e q u i re d to d i vi d e 2 5 i n to two p a rts s uch th at 4 ti me s th e

rs t s h all e xc e e d 3 ti mes th e se c o n d b y 37 .

H e re , a z 25 , m z4 , n :3 ,
z and b 37 .

S ub s tituti ng th e s e v a lu es in ()
1 a nd

th e r s t p a rt
,
25 x 3 37 75 37 1 12
7 7 7
25 X 4 37 1 00 37 63
a nd th e s e c o n d p a rt
7 7 7

EXER C lS E 3 l

1 . Di vi d e a i nto two p a r ts wh o s e qu o ti e n t s h all b e m .

2 . T wo me n , A a nd B , a mile s a p a r t , s e t o ut a t th e s a me ti me , a n d
tra ve l to w a r d s e a c h o th e r . At r a ve ls a t th e ra te of m mile s an h o ur , a nd

B at th e ra te o f n mi le s an h our . H o w fa r wi ll e a c h h a ve tra ve lle d wh e n

th e y me e t
3 . Di vi d e a
i n to th r e e p a rts s uch th a t th e rs t s h all be o ne -mth th e
second , a nd o n e -nth th e th i r d .

4 . If A c an do a p i e c e o f wo r k i n a h o u rs , i n b h o urs , C i n B 0 h o urs ,
and D i n d h o ur s , h o w ma ny h o urs will i t tak e to d o th e work if a ll work
to ge the r
1 32 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
5 . Wha t p ri n c ip al at r pe r c ent i nte re s t wi ll a mo un t to a d ollars i n
t y ea rs

6 In h o w many y e a r s will p d o llars amo unt to d o llar s at r c ent

. a p er
i n te r e s t

7 . Di vid e a i n to two p ar ts s uc h th at o ne sh all b e m ti me s as much

a b o ve b a s th e o th er lac k s o f c .

8 . Ag r oc e r mi x es ap o und s o f c o ffe e wo rth m c e nts a p o u n d , b p o un d s

wo r th n c e n ts a p o u n d , a n d c p o un d s w o r th 19 ce n ts a p o un d i n d th e c o st . F
p e r p o un d of th e mi xtur e .

9 . Aw as m ti me s as o ld as B a y e ar s ag o , a n d wi ll b e n ti me s as o ld

as Bi n b y e a rs . Fi n d th e i r a g es a t p r e s e nt .

10 . If A a nd B c an do a p ie ce of wo rk i n a d ay s , B m
d C ia b d ay s , n

and A a nd C in 0 d ay s , h o w ma ny d ay s will i t tak e e a c h w o i k i ng a lo n e

'

2 27 . A li nea r e qu a ti o n co n ta i n i ng b ut o ne un kn o wn n u mb er
c a nn o t ha ve mo r e tha n on e r o o t .

E v er y li n a qu ti n e r e a o c o n ta i n i n g b ut o n e unk n o wn n umb e r,

c an b e e d u c e d to th e f o
r r m
x a .

If p o s s i ble ,
le t th i s e qu ati o n h a v e two d i ffe r e nt ro o ts , r l an d r g .

T h n by e ,
1 1 0,

an d r2 a .

W h e n c e, r, 7, A
( ir 4 , s
.

B ut th i s i s i m p os s i ble , c e by hy p oth e i s r an d r a e di f
sin s , 1 , r

f e r e n t ; h en c e , a li n e a r e q ua ti on c n ta i n i n g b u t o n e u n kn o wn
o .

nu mb e r c an n o t h a ve mo re th an o ne r oo t
r
.
 S IM UL T AN E O US L IN E A R EQU AT ION S 1 33

X II . S IM U L TA NE O U S L INE A R E QU A TIO NS

C ONTAINING TW O OR M OR E UN KNOWN NU MBE RS

22 8 . An e quati o n c on taining two
more unkn own nu mb e r s
01

is s a ti s e d by an i d n i te l
qe y g re a t number of s e ts o f v alue s o f

th e s e nu mb er s .

C o n s i d e r , fo r exa mp le , th e e qu a ti o n x jy
5
P u tti n g x 1 , we h a v e 1 y z 5, or y 4 .

P utti n g x 2 , we h a ve 2 y 5, o r y 3; e tc .

T hu s th e e quati on i s s a ti s e d b y th e s e ts o f va lu e s

x 1, y 4,

an d x 2, y 3

an d th i s co ul d be e xtend e d i n d e n i te l y , f or We may g i ve to x
a n y nu me r i c al valu e wh a te v e r .

An e
q u a ti o n w hi c h h a s an in d nitely e
gr e at nu mb er o f s olu

ti o n s i s c alle d an I nd ete mi n te E qu ti on
r a a .

2 29 . Co n s i d e r th e e qua ti o n s

2x 2y 10 . 2
()
By 1 1 9, e q uati o n ()
2 i s e qu i v a le n t to
H e nc e , e ve r y so lu ti o n o f 1
() i s a s o lutio n o f a nd e ve r y
s o lu ti o n o f ()
2 i s a s olu ti on o f

Aga i n , c ons i d er th e e qu ati o n s

93 y 5a ()
3
x y 3 . 4
()
E qu ati o n ()
3 i s s ati se d b y th e s e t of val ue s x 4, y 1 ;
a s also is e q u ati o n

B ut ()
4 i s n o t s a ti s e d by ever y s o luti on of n or is ()
3
s ati s e d by ever y s o lu ti o n o f

Th u s , ()
3 an d (4 ) a r e n o t e q u i va le n t .

If two e qu ati o n s , c o n ta i n i n g two or mo re un k n o wn numb e rs ,

ar e n o t e q u i va le n t, th e ya re c a lle d Ind epen d ent .

1 34 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G EB R A
23 0 . C on s i d e r th e e qu ati on s

I 13 y 5, ()
1

l x + y = 6
It i s e v i d e n tl y i mp o s i b le to n d s a s e t o f v a lue s o f x a n d
.

y
wh i c h s h a ll s a ti fy b oth (1 ) a n d
s

T wo e q uati o n s w hi c h e xpr e s s i n c omp a ti le b la ti n s b e tw e e n

re o

th e un kn o w n nu mb e rs i n vo lv e d ar e c alle d I ncon i tent s s .

I f th e y e xp r es s p os s i bl e r e la ti o n s b e tw e n th e u n k n o w n
e

nu mb e r s , th e y ar e c a lle d Cons i s tent .

231 . A s y
m o f e qu a ti on s i s
s te c all d S i mult neous wh n e a
e a e ch

c on ta i n s two o r mor e u nk n o wn n u mb s a n d e e y e q u a ti
er ,
v r on

o f th e s y s te m i s s a ti s e d by the sa me s e t o r s ets o f v alu e s o f

th e u n k n o w n n u mb e r s .

A S oluti on y t m f s imultan e us e qu ti ns i s a e t f
of a s s e o o a o s o

v a lu f th e u n k n wn nu mb e s w hi c h
es o o ti s e e y qu ati n r sa s e v r e o

o f th e y s te m
s .

2 3 2 T w s y s te ms f e q u ti n s i n l i n g tw o m
. o o un a o ,
vo v o r or e

k n wn n u mb e
o a e s ai d t rs b , q u
r i l n t w h e n e y s o luoti n e e va e ver o

o f e i th e s y s t m i s a s o lu ti o n o f th e o th e
r e r .

PR INCIPL E S U SE D IN SOL V ING S IM U L TANE OU S

E QU ATION S

2 33 . I ff or a ny e qua ti
on o f a s y s te m a n e qu i va le nt equ a ti o n be

p u t, the r es ulti ng sys te m i s equi va lent to the rs t .

A B,
L et

be e qu ati o n s i n v olv in g two or more u nk n o wn n um e r sb ; and

E F an e q uati o n e q u i v ale n t to
To p r o v e th e s y stem o f e qu ati on s
A B,
E = E
e qu i v a le n t to th e r s t s y stem .

Sin ce ev er y s oluti o n o f 1
() i s a ls o a s o luti on of y
e ve r

s o lu ti o n o f th e r s t s y s te m is a s oluti o n o f the c
s e on d .
 S IM U L T ANE O U S L IN E A R E QU A TION S 1 35

An d sin ec ev er y luti n f
so o o ()
2 i s a s o lu ti o n of e ver y
s o lu ti o n o f th e se c on d y st m i s e s a s o lu ti o n o f th e r s t
Th e re f o r e , th e tw ytm
o s s e s a r e e q ui v a le nt

I n li k e man n e r , th e th e o r e m may b e p r o v e d f o r a s y st e m of
b
a n y nu m e r o f e q u a ti o n s .

234 . If f o r e i ther e qu a ti o n ,m of two, we p u t a n e qua

in a s ys te

ti o n whos e r s t a n d s eco n d memb er s a r e the s u ms , o r d if er e n c es ,

r e sp ecti ve ly , of the g i ve n r s t a n d s eco n d memb er s , the r es u lti ng

s ys te m w ill b e e qu i va le nt to the r s t .

A B,
L et
C D,
be e q u a ti o n s i n v o lv i n g two or mo r e u nk n o wn numbe rs .

To p r o ve th e s y s te m o f e q u ati o n s
A B,
A+ O= B + E
e q u i v ale n t to th e r s t s y s te m .

Any s o lu ti o n o f th e r s t s y s te m, w h en su b s titute d fo r th e
u n k n o wn n u mb e r s , mak e s A e qu al to B , an d 0 e qu a l to D .

It th e n mak e s A 0 e q u al to B D 1 1 5,
Th e n i t i s a s o lu ti o n o f th e c
se o n d s ytm s e .

Aga i n , a n y s o lu ti o n o f th e se c on d s y s te m mak e s A e qual to

B, and A C '
e q u al to B D .

I t th e n m ak e s 0 e qu al to D 1 1 5,
Th e n i t i s a s o luti o n o f th e r s t s y s tem .

Th e re fo re , th e two s y st e ms a r e e q ui v ale n t .

In li k e man n e r, th e rs t s y s te m i s e q u i v ale nt to th e s y stem

A B,
A 0 B D .

23 5 . It may b e p ro v e d , a s in 234 , th at i f th e e quati on s

()
1
i n v olv e two or mor e u nk n o wn b
nu m e rs , an d a ny e qu ati o n be
r e p la c e d by an e qu ati o n wh o se r s t me mb e r i s th e sum o f a ny
of th e gi ve n r s t me mb e r s , a n d s e c o n d me mb e r th e s u m o f th e

c o rr e s p o n d i n g s e c o n d me mb e r s , th e r e s ulti n g s y ste m wi ll be
e q ui vale nt to th e r st .
1 36 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L GE B RA
Th e a bo ve is a ls o th e c as e i f th e S i gn s f b th me mb ers i n o o ,

a ny of th e e q u ati o n s b e c h an g d f m t
e ro o

F or e xa mp le , a ny e q u a ti o n m y b e p la d by th e e qu ati on
a re ce

A+ O E = B +D F .

2 36 . If a ny e qu a ti o n o f a s y s te m be s o lved f or o ne of the
u n kn o wn nu mb ers , a n d the va lu e f o un d b e s ub s ti tu te d f or thi s
un kn own n u mb er i n e a ch of the o the r equ a ti o ns, the r es u lti ng s ys

tem wi ll b e equi va len t to the r s t .

L et
3 . ()
1
D, ()
2

be e qu ati o n s i n v olvi n g two un k n o wn nu mb e s x an d y r , .

L e t E b e th e v a lu e of x o bt i n d by s l i n g
a e an d o v let
F : G b e th e e q u ati on o bt ain e d by s u b sti tuti n g E f o x i n r

To p ro v e th e s y ste m O f e
q u a ti o ns

x E, ()
3
F : G,

e q u i v ale n t to the r s t s y ste m .

We w th at (3 ) i s
kno e qu i v ale n t to he n ce ,
a n y s olu ti o n

o f th e s t y s te m s a s
r s i o lu ti o n o f
(3 )
Agai n, an
y s o lu ti o n o f th e r s t s y st e m mak e s E i d en ti c ally
e qu a l to x , a n d a ls o mak e s 0 e
q ual to D
Th en i t mu s t mak e th e e x p r e s s i on o btain ed by pu tti ng E f or

x, in 0 , e q u al to th e exp re s s i o n O b tai n e d by p utti n g E f x i n or ,

D ; th at i s , i t mak e s F e qu al to G .

T
h e n , a ny so lu ti o n o f th e r s t s y s tem is a ls o a Soluti o n of

th e se c on d .

Ag a i n , m c e (3 ) i s e qu i v ale n t to
s any s o lu ti on of th e
se c on d s y s te m i s a s o luti o n o f

Als o , a n y s o lu ti o n o f th e s e c on d s y ste m mak e s x i d en ti cally

e qu al to E , an d als o mak e s F e q u al to G .

Th e n i t mu s t ma k e th e e x p re s s i o n o bt ai n e d by p u tti n g x f or

E , in F, e q u al to th e e x p re s s i o n o bt a in e d by p utti n g x f or E,
i n G ; th a t i s , i t mak e s G e q ual to D .

T
h e n , a ny s oluti on o f th e s e c o n d s y s te m i s a lso a s o lu ti o n o f

th e r s t .
 S IM UL TAN E O US L IN E A R E QU A TI O N S 1 37

Th e r e f o r e , th e tw o s y s te ms a r e e q u i v a le n t .

I n lik e ma nn e r , th e th e o r e m may b e p r o v e d f o r a s y s te m of
b
a n y n um e r o f e q ua ti o n s , i n vo lv i n g a n y n u m e r o f b un k n o wn
nu mb e r s .

23 7 . An y e qu ati o n i n v o lvi n g two u nk n o wn nu mbe r s, x and

y,
c an be re du c ed to th e f o r m ax by c .

I f we h a ve two i n d e p e n d e n t si multa n e o u s e q u ati o n s of th e

f or m ax + by c, th e y may b e c o mb i n e d i n su ch a way as to
fo rm a s i n g le e q u a ti o n i n v o lv i n g b ut o n e u nk n o wn nu m e r b .

Th is , gp e ra ti o n i s c alle d E li mi nati on .

The r e ar e th r e e p i n c i p a l me th o d s
r f o e li mi n ati o n .

IMINATION BY ADDITION B ACTION

:
I . EL O R S U TR .

1
23 8 . 1 . S olve th e e q u ati o n s
2 $3
M ulti ply i n g (1 ) by 4 , 20 x 12y 76 .
()
3
Multi p ly i n g (2) by 3, 21 x 12y 6 .
()
4
Ad d i n g (
3) an d 41 x 82 . 5
()
W h e nc e, x 2 .
()
6
Su b stitutin g x 2 in 10 3y 19 .
(7
W h e nc e ,
3y 9, or y 3 . 8
()
Th e a b o ve is an e xa mp le o f e li mi n ati o n by a d d i ti o n .

(Th e p r i n c i p le s d e mo n s tr a te d i n 1 16 to 1 1 9 , i n clus i ve , and l 22 ,

h old fo r e q u ati o n s w i th mor e th a n o n e u n k n o wn n u mb e r ) .

e q u i v a le n t an d () o
2
By 1 19, e qu a ti o n ()
1 i s to t

Th e n , b y two a pp lic a ti o n s of 2 33 , th e g i ve n s y s te m is e qu i va le n t to

th e Sy s te m (3 ) a n d
By 2 34 , th e s y s te m (3) a n d (4 ) i s e qui vale n t to th e s y s te m (3 ) a nd
B y 1 22 , e qu a ti o n (6 ) i s e qu i va le nt to a n d the n b y 2 33 , th e

s y s te m (3 ) a n d (5 ) i s e q u ivale n t to th e s y s te m (8 ) a n d o r to th e s y s

te m (1 ) a n d
B y 2 36 th e , s y s te m (1 ) an d (6 ) i s e qu i va le n t to th e sy s te m (6) a nd

(7 ) wh i c h b y 2 33 i s e q u iv a le n t to th e s y s te m (6 ) an d

Thu s , th e g i ve n s y s te m is e q u i v a le n t to th e s y s te m (6 ) a nd (8 ) a nd

r m th e
S i n c e n o s o lu ti o ns a re i ntro d u c e d n or los t, ()
6 a nd ()
8 fo c orre ct

s oluti on .
1 38 AD V AN C E D CO URS E IN A L G E B R A
15 x 8y 1

2 . S o lve th e e q ua ti o n s
10 x 7 y 24 .

M ulti p ly i n g (1 ) by 2, 30 x 16 y 2 .

Mu lti p ly i n g (2) by 3 , 30 x 21 y 72 .

b c
4 ) fr o m
S u tra ti n g ( 37 y 74, an d y 2 .

S ub s ti tuti n g y 2 in 15 x 16 1 .

W h en c e ,
15 x 1 5, an d x 1 .

Th e a b o ve is an e x a mp le o f eli mi n ati o n by s u b tra cti o n .

We s p eak o f a dd i ng a s y s te m of e q u a ti o n s wh e n we mea n p la c i ng th e
m of rs t me mb ers m o f th e m mb
'

su th e e q u al to th e su s e c o nd e e rs .

Ab b r ev i ati o n s o f th i s k i n d are fr e q u e nt i n A lg e b ra ; thu s we s p ea k o f

multip ly i ng a n e q u atio n wh e n we me an multi ply i ng e a ch o f i ts te r ms .

F r o m th e a bo v e e xa mp le s , we h av e th e follo w i n g r ule
*

If mu ltip ly the g iven equ a ti o ns b y s uch n u mb ers a s

n e c es s a r y,

wi ll ma ke the coelc i en ts of o n e of the un k no wn n umb e rs i n the

res ulting e qu a ti o n s of equ a l a b s o lu te va lu e .

A dd o r s u b tr a ct the r es ulti ng equ a ti o n s a cc o r d i ng a s the co e l

c i e n ts o f eq u a l a b s o lu te va lu e a r e o f un li k e o r li ke s ign .

If t h e c oe fc i e n ts wh i c h are to b e mad e o f e q u a l a b s o lute v a lue a re

p ri me to e a ch oth e r , eac h may

multip lie r fo r th e o th e r
be u s e d as the

e q ua ti o n b ut if th e y a re n o t p ri me to e a ch o th e r s uc h multip li e rs sh o uld ,

b e u s e d a s will p ro d u c e th e i r lo west co mmo n mu ltip le .

Th us i n E x 1 , to mak e th e c oe fc i e n ts o f y o f e q ual ab s o lute va lue ,

,
.

we multi p ly (1 ) b y 4 a n d (2 ) b y 3 ; b ut i n E x 2 , to mak e th e c o e fc i e n ts .

o f x o f e qu al a b s o lu te v a lue , s i n c e th e L C M o f 1 0 an d 1 5 i s 30 , we mul
. . .

ti p ly (1 ) b y 2 a nd () by 3
2 .

II . EL IMINATION BY B I
S U S T TU T ION
7 x 15

23 9 . Ex . S o lv e th e e qu ati o n s
8y 5 x 17

T r an s
p o s i n g 5 x in 8y 5x 17 .

5 x 17
Wh e nc e , y
g
5 x 17
Su b sti tutin g i n 7 x 9 15 .
 S IM UL TAN E O US '
L IN E A R E QU A TION S 1 39

Cle ar i n g of fr
ac ti on s ,
56 x 9(
5 x 17) 1 20 .

O} ,
5 6 a) 45 t
. i 5s 2 1 20 .

U n i tin g te rms, 11 x 33 .

Wh e nc e, 50 3 ()
5
15 17
b stituti n g x
"

Su s in y 4 .
()
6
8
By 2 36 , th e g i ve n sy s te m o f e qu ati o n s i s e qui vale n t to th e s y s te m (3 )
an d (4 ) o r, si nc e (4 ) i s e qui va le n t to to th e s y s te m (3 ) a nd

By 23 6 , th e s y s te m (3 ) an d () s
5 i e q u i va le n t to th e s y s te m (5 ) a nd

wh e n c e , th e gi ven s y s te m i s e q u i vale n t to th e s y s te m (5 ) an d

'

F ro m th e a bo v e e xa mp le, we h a v e th e fo llo w i n g r ule :

F rom f o ne o the gi ven equa ti o n s nd the va lue o f on e o f the
un kn o wn n umb ers i n terms of the o ther, a n d s u b s ti tute thi s va lue
i n p lace of tha t n umb er i n the o ther e qua ti o n .

III . EL I MINATION BY C OM PARIS ON

2 F 16
z Z
.

24 0 . Ex . S olv e th e e q u ati o n s
3 5 .

T r an s
p o s i n g 5 y in 2 x 5y 16 .

5 y 16
Wh e n c e

x
5
.

T r an s p o s i n g 7 y in 3 x 5 7 y .

5 _7 y
Whe n c e , x .

3
5 y - 16 5 7 y
E qu ati n g v alu e s o f x,
2 3
C le ari n g of c
fra ti on s, 15 y 48 10 14 y .

Tr a n s p o si n g, 29 y 58 .

W h en c e, y 2 .
()
6
10 16
b sti tuti n g y
Su 2 in x
g 3 .
(7

By 23 3 , th e g i ve n s y s te m o f e q ua ti o n s is e qui vale nt to th e sy s te m (3 )
a nd (4 ) o r , s in c e , b y A x 4 , .
66 , ()
4 i s e qu i va le n t to to th e s y s te m

(3 ) a nd
140 AD V AN C E D C O URS E IN A L G EBR A
B ut (5 ) is e qu i va le n t to ()
6 so th at th e gi ve n sy s te m is e q ui v ale nt to
th e s y s te m (3 ) and

By 2 3 6 , th e s y s te m (3 ) a nd (6 ) i s e qu i vale nt to th e s y s te m (6 )
a nd

F r o m th e a bo v e e xa mp le , we h av e th e follow i n g r ule

F ro m e a ch of the gi ven equ a ti o n s , nd the va lu e o f the sa me

un kn o wn n u mb er i n ter ms f
o the o ther , a nd p la ce thes e va lu es

equ a l to e a ch o ther .

24 1 . If th e g i v e n e q u ati o n s a r e n ot i n th e f o rm ax by 0,

th e y S h o uld r s t b e r edu ced to th i s f o rm, wh e n th e y may b e

s o lv e d by e i th e r me th o d o f e li mi n a ti o n .

In s o lvi n g c
f ra ti o n al si mu lta n e ou s e q u ati o n s , we a re b
li a le
to g e t r e s ults whi n o t s ati s f
th e gi ve n e quati on s
ch do y .

By 22 1 , we mu s t r e e t an y s o luti on j c
hi c h s ati s e s th e w
e qu a ti o n o tai n e d b by
e q u ati n g to z e r o th e L C M of . . .

g i v e n d e n o mi n a to r s .

24 2 . 1 . S olve th e e qu ati o n s

7 3
1
x +3 y + 4
2 13
x (y ) y(
x .
()
2

Multi plyi n g e ac h te r m o f (
1) by (x 3 )(
y 4)
7 y 3 19
7 y + 28 3 x or x .
()
3
F r om
xy 2 x x + 5 1 3, or 5y 2 x 13
()
4
y y .

Multi ply i n g (3 ) by 2, 14 y 6 x 38 .
()
5
Mu lti p ly i n g (4 ) by 3, 15 y 6 x 39 .
()
6
b 5 ) fr o m
S u trac ti n g ( y = 1 .

S ub s ti tu ti ng in 5 2 x 13 .

Wh e n c e ,
2 x 8, or x = 4 .

S inc e x and y 1 do n ot s ati sfy th e e qu a ti o n (x 3 ) (y 4) O,

th e s oluti o n x 4, y l is c o rr e c t

x +3y
2 . S olv e th e e q u ati o n s 1 1
F 5
 S IM UL TAN E O US '

L IN E A R E QU A TION S 141

Multi p ly i n g ea ch t er m o f (2) by (x 2) (
y

y
3
+ x 2 _ or x
+5 .

Su b s ti tutin g i n 2 x 3 x 15 1 3, or x 2 .

S u b ti tuti n g i n
s y 2 5 3 .

S in c e x 2 a nd y 3 s a tis fy th e e q ua ti o n (x 2 ) (y 3) O, th e
so lu ti o n mus t b e j
r e e c te d .

Th e a b o v e s o luti o n s a ti s e s th e rs t gi ve n e qu a ti o n , b ut n o t th e s ec o n d
i t i s i mp oss ib le to n d a s o lu ti o n whi ch wi ll s a ti s fy b o th g i ve n e qu a ti o n s .

In s o lv i n g li te r a l si mu ltan e o us li n e a r e q u ati o n s , th e me th o d
of e li mi n a ti o n by a dd i ti on or su bt ac ti o n
r is u su all y to b e
r e fe r re d
p .

ax 6y c 1
3 . S olv e th e e qu ati o n s
()
' ' '
d x by c . 2

Mu lti p ly i n g (1 ) by b ab x
'
bb y
'
b
'
c .

Mu lti p ly i n g (2) by b, a
'
bx bb y
'
bc '
.

b
S u tr a ti n g, c (
ab
'
a
'
b )x b

c bc
'
.

' '
b c bc
Whenc e ,
'
ab a b
Multi p lyi n g (1 ) by a
'
, da x
'
a
'
by ca
'
.

Mu lti p ly i n g (2 ) by a, d a x
'
ab

y c a
'
.

b 3 ) fr o m
S u tr a cti n g ( (
ab
'
a
'
b )y c a
'
ca

'
c a ca
W h e nc e , y '
ab a b
Ce rta i n e q u ati o n s in whi ch th e u nk n o wn nu mb e r s occu r in
th e d e n o mi n ato r s f r a c ti o n s ma y b e
of read il y s o lv e d w i th out

p re v i o u s l y c le a r i n g o f f r a ti o n s c .

10 9
x y
4 . S olv e th e e qu a ti o n s
s 15
a : v
5? 4
Multi p ly i n g (1 ) b y 5,
a ;
2
; ;
4
Mu lti p ly i n g (2) by s,
0
142 AD V AN CE D CO UR S E IN A L G E B R A
74
Add i n g, 37
23

Wh e nc e, 7 4 = 37 x, an d x =2 .

9
Su b s titu tin g 8 .

9
Wh e n c e, 3, an d y
y

EXERC S E 3 2 I
S o lve th e f o llo wi n g

08 x 9y 04 8 l
(
. . . x + y
3x . 35 y . 478 .
x y 10
5 4
5 7 29 3x + 8 6x 1
| 4 2y + 3
3x y 9 L v
3 5 9
+ 3x 4 y 11
x 4 y 8
.

2 5
2x 3 y 4 x+ 6 y
4 3
i x + 5 y+ 1

5x+ 2y 7 y 3x 39 b
+
2 5 m 5

y) = 2 d
cx + :n
n2 m = m n
.

( y) l y

b a

x a b + b
( y a

n 3 24
1
a
y + b 2x+ y x 4 y

m
1
7 w
y + b
4
a (2 x + y x y

w+ 3 4 y + 5
[
%
x 2 x+ 3
 SI M UL TAN E O U S L IN E A R EQU A TION S 143

S IMU L TANE OU S L INE AR E QU ATIONS C ONTAINING MOR E

TH AN TW O U NKNO W N N U MB ER S

24 3 . I f w e h a v e thr ee i n d e p e n d e n t mu lta n e ou s e qu a ti o n s ,
si

c o n ta i n i n g three u n k n o w n n u mb e r s , w e may c o mb i n e a n y two

of th e m by one o f th e m e th o d s o f e li mi n a ti o n e xp la i n e d i n

2 38 to 2 4 0 , so as to o bt a i n a s i n gle e q u ati o n

c ont ai n in g on l y
two u nk n o wn n u m b ers .

W e m ay th e n co mbi ne th e re mai n i n g e q u ati on w i th e i th e r

of th e o th e r tw o , btai n
an d o an o th e r e q u a ti o n c o n ta i n i n g th e
sa me two un k no wn n umb s er .

By s o lv i n g th e two e q u a ti on s c o n ta i n i n g two u nk n o wn n u m
b e rs, b
we ma y O ta i n th e i r v a lu e s ; an d su b s ti tu ti n g th e m i n
e i th e r o f th e g i v e n e q u a ti o n s , th e v a lue of th e re ma i n i n g
w
un k n o n n u m e r may b e f o u n d b .

We
p m l
r oc e e d
i a r m in
a n n e r w
a Sih e n th e n u m b e r o f e q u a

ti on s a n d o f un k n o w n n umb e r s i s g r e a te r th a n th re e .

Th e me th o d o f e li mi n ati o n by a d d i ti o n o r s u b tr a c ti o n i s u s u
a ll y th e In o s t c o n v e n i e n t .

If a ny e qu ati o n i s fra c ti o n al, we j

S h o uld r e e c t a ny s o luti o n wh i c h i
sat s

e s th e e q u a ti o n o b ta in e d b y e q u a ti ng to z er o th e L . C . M . of th e g i ve n
d e n o mi n a tors
6x 4y 7 z 17 .
()
1

1 . S o lv e th e e q u ati o n s 9 98 7 y 1 6z 29 ()
2
l0 x 5y 23 .
()
3

Multi p ly i n g (1 ) by 3 1 8 x 1 2 y 21 z 51 .
()
4
M ulti p ly i n g (2) by 2 l8 x 14y 32 z 58 .
()
5

S ub tr a c ti h g, 2y+11 z 7 .
()
6

Multi ply i n g ()
1 by 5 30 x 20 y 3 5 z 85 .
()
7
Mu lti ply i n g ()
3 by 3 3 0 x 15y 92 : 69 .
()
8
b
S u tr a c ti n g ()
7 f r o m 5 y + 26 z 1 6 .
()
9
Mu lti ply i n g ()
6 by 5 1 0 y + 55 z 3 5 .
( )
1 0
Mu lti p ly i n g ()
9 by 2 ,
32 .
( )
1 1

Su bt acti n g r ,
3s 3, or z 1 .
( )
1 2

S u b ti tu ti n g i n
s 2y 11 7, or y : 2 .
( )
1 3

S ub ti tu ti n g i n (1 )
s 6 x 8 7 l7 a 0 1 93

z3 '
(1 4
>
1 44 AD V AN CE D C O URS E IN A L G E B R A
By 1 19 a nd 2 3 3 , th e g i ve n s y s te m o f e qu a ti o n s i s e qu i va le nt to th e
s y s te m a nd ( 5 ) wh i c h , b y 2 3 5 , i s e qu i va len t to th e s y s te m
and or to th e s y s te m a nd

i e qu i va le n t a nd (3 ) t 8
() th a t th e g i ve n s y s te m
B ut ()
I s to o so

is e q ui vale nt to th e s y s te m a nd th i s , b y 2 35 , i s e q ui v a

le nt to th e s y s te m an d or to th e s y s te m an d

B u t th e s y s te m a nd (9 ) i s e q u ivale n t to th e s y s te m
an d whi c h , b y 2 35 , i s e q ui vale nt to th e sy s te m a nd

T
12
he s y s te m a nd ( )
1 2 i s e q u i va le n t to th e s y s te m
wh i c h , b y two a p p li ca ti o ns o f 2 36 , i s e q ui va le n t to th e
and ( )
1 2 sy s

te m an d

In c e r ta i n c ase s th e s o lu tio n may b e a b by

ri d g e d a id of t he
-

ar ti c e wh i c h is e mp lo y e d i n th e f o llo w i n g e xamp le .

u x y 6
x y z 7
2 . S olv e th e e qu a ti on s
y z u 8

Ad di n g ,
Wh e nc e , u +x+y+ z = 10 .

b c 2 ) fr o m
S u tra ti n g ( u 3 .

S ub t ti n g
r ac
()
3 f ro m
()
5 x : 2 .

S u b t c ti n g
ra
()
4 f rom
()
5 y 1 .

S u b t a ti n g
r c
()
1 f ro m 5
() z 4 .

EXERC S E 3 3 I
S olve th e follo wi ng

5x+ 4 z
y
1 3 55 5 6 by --
21 55 I os
x 3y + 8z os --
I ax

x
y _y z 7
3 4 3

2 .
y z z x
3

e + x x y Q
2 5 10
 Si muL TA NE o US L INE AR EQ U T A ION S
3x y 4 z ~

u + 3 x 2y z 5 2
2 u x y + 3 z 2 x 3 4 y
z
_ x

u + x +3y ~
2 z

3 u 2 x + y+ z

l + l+ l a
z
.

x y

y z u

l + 1 + 1 =u
z u x

x y z
x

=9 a + b
x +y+ z

9 .

Mn + my + d w= L
b i o

z
c + a

PR OB L E M S INV OL V ING S IM UL TANE OU S L INE AR E QU A

TION S WITH TW O O R MOR E U NKNOWN NU MBE RS

24 4 . In p b
s olv i n g
l e ms w h e e tw ro m le tt r o or or e er s ar e

u se d t oe p e s e n t un k n o wn n u mb
r r w mu st o bta i n e r s, e fr o m
th e con d i ti n f th e p b le m
o s o m ny i n d p n d nt qu
ro as a e e e e a ti o n s

229 ) as ther e a r e un kn o wn numb er s to b e d e ter mi n e d .

1 . If 3 b e ad d e d to b oth nu me r ato r an d d e n o mi n ato r of

a c
f ra ti o n , i ts v a lu e is 3;
7 7 an d if 2 b e su bt
rac te d fr o m b oth
n ume r a to r a n d d en o mi n ato r, i ts v a lu e is d h f a c ti o n
y ; n t e r .

L et x th e n ume r ato r ,

and
y th e d e n o mi n ato r .

x 3 2
B y th e c o n d itio n s , ,

y 3 3

x - 2 1
and
2 2
y

S o lvin g th es e e q ua ti o n s , x 7, y 12 wh e nc e , th e fra cti on 18

146 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
2 . A c w re c an r o w 1 0 mile s i n 5 0 mi n ute s d o wn s tr e a m, an d

1 2 mile s i n an h ou r an d a h a lf a g a i n st th e s tr e a m . F i n d th e
r a te i n mi le s p e r h o u r of th e cu r r e n t, a n d of th e c w inre s ti ll

w ate r .

L et x nu mb e r o f mi le s an h o ur of th e c r e w i n s ti ll wa te r ,

an d y nu mb e r o f mile s an h ou r of th e c u rre n t .

T h en , x y nu mb e r o f mi les an h o ur of th e c re w d o wn s tr e a m,

a nd x y numb e r o f mi les an h o ur of th e c r e w u p s tr e a m .

Th e n umb e r o f mile s an h o ur r o we d b y th e cr e w is e q ua l to th e d is
ta n c e i n mile s d ivid e d b y th e time i n h o u rs .

Th e n , x + y : 10
g
an d 93
y 2 12
g
S o lvi ng th ese e qu a ti o n s , x 10 , y 2 .

3 . Th e su m of th e th re e d i gi ts o f a nu mb e r i s 1 3 I f th e .

nu mb e r , d e c r e a s e d by 8, b e d iv id e d by th e s u m o f i ts s e c o n d
an d th i r d d i gi ts , th e q u o ti e n t i s 2 5 ; a nd if 99 b e ad d e d to th e
nu mb e r, th e d i gi ts wi ll b e i nv e rte d . F i n d th e nu mb e r .

L et x th e rs t d ig it,
y th e s e c on d ,

a nd z th e thir d .

Th e n , 100 x 10 y z th e numb er ,

an d 1 00 z 10 y x th e n umb e r with its d igi ts i nverte d .

B y th e c o n di ti o n s o f th e p r o b le m ,
(13 y z 13,

and I 1 00 x lO y z 99 10 y + x .

S olvi ng th es e e q ua ti o n s , x 2, y 8, z 3; an d th e numb er i s 2 8 3 .

EXERC S E 3 4 I
1 . If 3 b e a dd e d to th e nu me r a to r of a c e r ta i n fracti o n , and 7 s ub

tra cte d fr o m th e d e n o mi n ato r , i ts v alue

2
is

mm
; a nd if 1 b e s ub trac te d fr o m
2
F i nd th e
th e n u me r ato r , a n d 7 ad d e d to th e d e n o a to r , i ts value IS
5
f ra c ti o n .

2 . Fi nd two nu mb e rs s u c h th a t o n e s h all b e n ti me s a s mu ch gr e ate r

th a n-a as th e o th e r i s le s s th a n a an d th e q uo ti e n t o f th e i r s u m b y th e i r

d i ffe r e nc e e q u al to b .
 S IM UL T AN E O US L IN E A R E QU A TION S 147

3 If th e g re ate r o f two n umb e rs b e d i vid e d b y th e le s s the q u o tie n t

.
,

is 1 , a n d th e r e ma i nd e r 6 A n d if th e g re a te r , i n c re a s e d b y 1 4 , b e d ivi d e d
.

b y th e less , d imi n i s h e d b y 4 , th e q u o ti e n t i s 5 , a n d th e r e ma i n d e r 4 i nd . F
th e nu mb e rs .

4 . A su m o f mo ne y at s i mp le i nte r e s t a mo u nte d to i n 7 y e ars ,

a nd to i n 12 y ea rs . Fi nd th e p ri nc ip al and th e r a te .

5 . A c e rta i n n u mb e r of two d ig i ts e x ce e d s th re e ti mes th e s um o f i ts

d ig i ts b y 4 If th e d ig its b e i n v e rte d , th e s u m o f th e res ulti ng numb e r

.

a nd th e g i ve n n u mb e r e xc e e d s th r e e t i me s th e gi ve n n u mb e r b y 2 i nd . F
th e n umb e r .

6 . Am an i nve s ts a c e r ta i n s u m o f mon e y a t a c e rta i n r a te o f i nte res t .

I f th e p ri nc ip a l h ad b e e n $ 1 2 0 0 gr e a te r , a n d th e r a te o n e p e r ce n t g r e a te r ,
h i s i n c o me wo uld h a ve b e e n i n c r e a s e d b y 8 1 1 8 If th e p r i nc ip a l h a d b e e n .

$ 3 200 g rea te r , and th e r a te two p e r c e n t gr e a te r , h i s i n c o me wo u ld h av e

b ee n i n c re a s e d b y $3 1 2 . Wh at s um d id h e i n ve s t, a nd a t wh a t r a te

7 . The mid dle mb e r o f th r e e

d ig i t o f
g u r es i
a nu
s o n e -h alf th e su m o f
th e o th e r two d ig i ts If th e nu mb e r b e d i vi d e d b y th e s u m o f i ts d ig i ts
.
,

th e q u o ti e n t is 20 a n d th e r e ma i nd e r 9
, a n d if 59 4 b e a d d e d to th e nu m

b e r , th e d igi ts will b e i n ve r te d i nd th e numb e r . F .

8 . A c r e w ro w 1 6 % mi le s
mile s d own s tr e a m i n 9
u p s tre a m an d 18
h o urs Th e y th e n r o w 2 1 mile s u p s tre a m a nd 1 9 % m i les d o wn s tr e a m i n
.

1 1 h o urs F
in d th e r a te i n mile s a n h o u r o f th e s tr e a m, a n d o f th e c re w
wt
.

in s ti ll a er .

4
9 . A dB an ca n do a p i ece of wo rk i n 515
12
.
h o u rs , A and C in
1
.

9
h o urs ,

A a nd D in h ours , an d B an d C in 1

9
h o urs . H o w man y h o urs will i t
7
tak e e ach a lo n e to d o th e wo rk

10 . A an d B r un a ra c e o f 2 8 0 fe e t . Th e rs t b e a t, A gi ve s B a s ta r t

of 7 0 fe e t, a n d n e i th e r w ins th e ra ce . Th e s e co nd h e a t, A gi ve s B a s ta r t

of 3 5 fe e t, an d b e a ts hi m b y 6 se c o n d s . H o w ma ny fee t c a n e ac h r u n in
a s e co n d

11 . A B , , C, a nd
p lay D a t c a rd s . Aft B er h as wo n o n e -h alf o f A
s

mo ne y , C -
o n e th i rd o f B s ,

D o n e -fo ur th o f C s , and

A o ne - fth of D
s,

t h e y h av e e a c h $1 0 , e x ce p t B w h o h as 83 1 6 . H o w mu ch h a d e ach at

r st ?
12 . Th e f ore -wh ee l o f a c arr i a g e mak es a r e v o luti o n s mor e th a n th e
h in d -wh e e l i n tr a ve llin g b fe e t . If th e c irc u mfe r e n c e of th e f o re -wh e e l
we r e i n c re as e d b y o n e -mth , a n d th e c i rc u mf e re n c e o f th e h ind -wh e e l b y
o ne -n th , th e fo r e -wh e e l wo u ld ma k e (5 r e v o lu ti o ns mo re th a n th e h i n d

wh e e l i n tr a velli ng d fe e t . Fi nd th e c irc u mfe re n ce o f e ac h wh e e l .

148 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
13 . The su m o f th e fo u r d ig i ts of a nu mb e r is 14 . Th e su m o f th e las t
th r e e d i g its e xc e e d s t wi c e th e r s t b y 2 T wi c e th e s u m o f th e s ec o nd
.

a nd th i rd d ig i ts e xc e e d s th r e e ti mes th e s um o f th e rs t a nd f o ur th b y 3 .

A n d if 2 7 2 7 b e s ub tr a c te d f r o m th e n umb e r , th e d ig i ts wi ll b e i nve r te d .

Fi nd th e n umb e r .

14 . A a nd B r un a ra c e fr o m P to Q a nd b ac k ; th e d is ta nc e fro m P
to Q b e in g 1 0 8 y a rd s . T h e rs t h e a t, A r e ac h e s Q rs t a n d me e ts
, on B
h is r e tur n a t a p o in t 1 2 y a r d s f r o m Q
Th e s e c o n d h e a t, i n c r e a s e s h is
. A
s p e e d b y 2 y a rd s at s e c o n d , a n d B
b y 1 y a r d a se c o n d ; a n d n ow A
mee ts B
1 8 y a r d s f ro m H o w man y y ard s c a n e ac h r un i n a s e co n d
Q .

15 . A tr a i n r un ni n g f ro m A to B ,
me e ts with a n a cc i d e n t whic h d e
la y s i t a h o u rs . It th e n p r o c e e d s a t a r a te o n enth les s th a n i ts fo r me r
r a te , a n d a rr i ves at B b h o urs la te .H a d th e a c c i d e n t o cc urre d 0 mile s

n ea r e r B ,
th e tr a i n wo uld h a ve b een d h o u rs la te . Fi nd th e ra te of th e
tr a in b e fo re th e a cc i d e n t, a nd th e d is ta nc e to B f r o m th e p o i n t of

d e te n ti o n .

16 . Am an b uy s 60 sh ar es o f s to ck , p a r t p ay i ng d ivid e n d s at th e rate o f

3 3 p e r c e n t, a n d th e r e ma in d e r a t th e r a te o f p er c e n t . If th e rs t
p art h a d p a id d ivi d e n d s a t th e ra te o f 4 %p e r c e n t, a n d th e o th e r a t th e

3 3 p e r c e n t, th e to ta l a n n u a l i n c o me wo uld h a ve b
r a te o f een $ 1 2 le ss .

H o w ma ny s h are s o f e a c h k i n d d i d h e b uy
 DI S C U SS IO N 0 ? L IN E A R E QUA TION S 14 9

X III . D IS C U S S IO N O F L INE A R E QU A TIO NS

V AR IAB L E S AND L IMITS

24 5 . A va r i a b le n u mb er, or si mp ly a va r i a b le, is a nu mb e r
w h i c h may a s s u m e , u n d e r th e c o n d i ti o n s i m o s e d u p o n i t, a n p
y
i n d e ni te l g re at n u m e r o f d i ffe r e n t v a lu e s b .

b w c
A co ns ta n t i s a n u m e r hi h r e mai n s u n h an g e d th r o ugh o u t c
th e me d i s c u s s i o n
sa .

A li mi t o f a v a r i ab le i s
c on stan t nu mb e th d iff e n a r, e er ce

b tw n wh i c h n d th a i bl m y b e ma d le th n n y
e ee a e v r a e a e ss a a

a s s i g n d n u mbe h w e s mall w i th u t
e r, o b mi n g
ev r ,
o e ve r ec o zer o .

I n th ow d s li mi t f a a i able i s a x d nu mb wh i h
er or ,
a o v r e er c

th e i b le app a c he s i n d e n i tely n e a
v ar a ro b ut n e e a tu lly r, v r c a

re ac h s e .

2 4 6 It i s e i d n t th a t th e d i e e n c e b e tw e e n
. v e i a bl r a v ar e

a n d i ts li mi t i a a i a b le whi c h a pp oa c h e s th e li mi t e
s v r r z ro .

247 . I nterp reta t i on of

i f

0
C o n si d e r th e s er i e s o f c
f ra ti o n s

a e .

a

3 . 3 . 03 . 00 3

wh e e a h d en o mi nato a fte th e st i s one-te nth of the p e

re . c r r r r

c e di n g d n mi n to e o a r .

I t i e i d n t th a t by u fc i n tly c n ti nu i n g th e s e i e s th e
s v e ,
s e o .
r ,

d n mi n t
e o m yb m d l a or th n a n y a s i g n d n u mb
a e a h w e e ss a s e e r, o

e ve r s ma ll, an d th e v a lu e ofth e f ra c ti o n g r e ate r th a n a ny

as s i g n e d n u m e r, b ho we ve r g re a t .

In o th e r wo rd s , if the nu mer a to r of a f ra cti o n re ma i n s con sta n t,

whi le the d e n o mi n a to r ap p r o a c h es the li mi t 0 , the va lu e o f the

f r a c tio n i ncr ea s es wi tho u t li mi t .

It i s cu s to ma ry to e xp r e s s thi s p r i n c i p le as f o llo ws
a
. 2 00 .

0
1 50 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E BR A
Th e sy mb o l 00 is c a lle d I nni ty ; it si mp ly s tan d s fo r th at whi c h i s
g re a te r th a n any n u mb e r , h o we ve r gre a t .

24 8 . I nterp retati on of
0
6
2

C on s i d e r th e s e ri e s o f f ra ti o n s c
a a a a

wh e re e a c h d e n o mi n a to r a f te r th e r st i s te n ti me s th e p re c e d
i n g d e n o mi n ato r .

It i s e v id e n t th a t, by
s u f c i e n tl y c on ti n ui n g th e s e ri e s , th e
d e n o mi n a to r may b e ma de g r ea te r th an a n y a s s i g n e d n u m e r , b
h o we ve r g r e a t, a n d th e v a lu e o f th e fr ac ti o n le s s th a n a ny
a s si gn e d nu mb e r, h o w e v e r s mall .

In o th e r w or d s,

If the nu me ra to r o f a f ra cti o n re ma i ns co n s ta nt , wh i le the

d e no mi n a to r i ncr e a s es wi tho u t li mi t, the va lu e of t h e f r a cti o n

app ro a ches the li mi t 0 .

It i s c u st o ma r y to ex p re s s th i s p r i n i p le c as f ollo ws
a
o .

00

It mus t b e cle a rly un d e r s to o d th a t n o li ter a l mea ni ng c an be a tta ch e d

to s u ch r e s ults as
a a
oo a nd 0
00
0

f o r th e r e ca n b e n o s uch thi ng as d i v is i o n , unless th e d i vis or i s a ni te

nu mb e r .

If s uc h fo r ms o ccu r in math e ma ti c al inve s tigati ons , th e y must b e in

te rp r e te d a s i n 24 7 an d 24 8 .

24 9 . I nt erp r etati on of
8 .

By 4 4, 9 si gn i e s a nu mb er w h i c h w h en ,
multi pli ed by 0 ,
()
g es 0
i v .

B ut by 37 and 4 0 , if a ny nu mb er b e multi pli e d by 0 , th e

r e s u lt is 0 .

H en c e,
3 may b e a ny n u mb e r w hatev er .
 DI S C US S ION or L IN E A R E QU A TION S 1 51

F or th i s r e a s on th e fr a ti onc
8 is c alle d Indete min r at e .

2 50 . A Fun ti c on o f a nu mb e r i s a ny e x r e s s i o n
p whi c h c on

ta i n s th e n u mb er .

T hu s, th e e xp re s s i on 2 x
2
3 ax 5 a
2
is a c
f un ti o n Of x .

25 1 . Functi on Notati on .

A f un c ti o n of x is o f te n r e p r e s e n te d by the sy mb l f (x) o read

f -
f un c ti o n o f x,

o r s i m p l y f -
x .

I f, i n a ny i n v e s ti g ati o n f(x) s tan d s f

,
or a ce r ta i n fun ti on c of

x, th e n ,w h at e v e r v a lu e a m y h a f() a ve , a re
p r e s e n ts th e r e s ult

o b tai n e d by s ub s ti tuti n g a f or x i n th e g i ve n fun ti o n c .

T hu s i f ,
2 th e n
,

-
3
3 2 2
) ; e tc .

F un cti o ns o f x a re a ls o r e p re s e nte d b y th e sy mb o ls F ( x), 915 x () , e tc .

TH E TH E OR E M OF L IMITS
25 2 . If two f un ctio n s of the sa me va r i a b le a r e s o r ela ted tha t,

as the va r i a b le c ha ng e s i ts v a lue , they a re e qu a l f o r ever y va lu e

whi ch the va r ia b le ca n assu me, a nd ea ch app ro a ches a ce rta in

li mi t, then the two li mi ts a r e e qu a l .

L et y an d z be f u n c ti on s o f a c e r ta i n v a r i a bl e, x ; an d le t th e m
be e q u al for e v e ry v a lu e wh i ch th e v ari a ble x c an a s su me , an d

a pp r oa ch th e li mi ts y
an d
'
z , re s
p e cti v e ly .

T o p r ov e th a t y z
'
.

L et y y = m,

a nd z
' -e z u .

T h en , m a nd n a r e v a ri a bl es wh i c h can b e ma d e le s s th an
an y a s s i gn e d nu mb er , h o w e v e r s mall
Th en , m n is e i th e r z e r o , o r e ls e a v a ri a bl wh i c h
e c an be
ma d e le s s th a n a ny a s s i g n e d n umb e r , h o we v e r s mall .

B ut m
-
n y

y
z

z y

z

; f o r ,
by h yp othe si s, y

an d z a re e qu al .

S in ce y '
z

is n o t a v ar i ab le ,
m n is n o t a v ar i a b le .

an d h e n c e =
Th e n , m n is O, i ts e qual, y

z

is 0, or y

z .
1 52 AD V AN CE D C O URS E IN A L GE B R A
PR OPOS ITIONS IN RE GAR D TO L IMITS
25 3 . The limi t m of a co ns ta n t a n d a va r i a b le i s the
o f the su

s u m of the co n s ta n t a n d th e li mi t of th e va r i a b le .

L e t a b e a c o n s tan t, a n d x a v a ri a b le w h o s e li mi t i s x

x c a n b e ma d e le s s th a n an y a s s i g n e d n u mb e r,

Th e n , x
h o w e v e r s ma ll
W h e n c e , (x a ) (x a ), w h i ch e qu als x x, c an b e ma d e
'

le s s th an a ny a s s i g n e d n u mbe r , h o w e v e r s mall .

a i s th e li m i t o f x

Th e n , x a .

25 4 . The li mit f the

o su m of a ny n i t e nu mb er of var i a b les is
the su m of thei r li mi ts .

L et x,
y, z, be v ar i a ble s wh o s e li mi ts ar e
'
x, y
'
,
z
'
,
r e s p ec ti v e l y .

Th e n , x
-x
, y

y, z

z, m ,
can b e ma d e le s s th an a ny

a s s i gn e d n u mb e r, h ow e ve r s mall .

W h en c e, ( CU + (y

y) (z
'
z
)

ca n b e ma d e le s s th an a ny a s s i g n e d n u mb e r, h o w e v e r s mall .

Th e n, x

+y +

z

+ i s th e li mi t of x +y + z ()
1

25 5 . Any tw o c o r r e s p o n d i ng p o s i ti ve s i gn s, in 25 4 ,
may b e c h an g e d to n e ga ti v e .

T hu s, x

y

z

i s th e li mi t of x
y+ z

256 . T he limi t O f the p ro d u ct of a c o n s ta n t a n d a va r i a b le is

the multip li ed b y the li mi t of the va r ia b le
co n s ta n t .

L e t a , x, a n d x h av e th e s a me m e an i n g a s i n

25 3 .

a x, c a n b e ma d e le s s th an a ny a s si gn e d

Th e n, a ( x
)
x , or a x

n u mb e r , h o w e v e r s mall .

Wh e n c e , a x i s th e li mi t o f a x

.

25 7 . The li mi t o f the p r o d uct of a ny n u mb er of va r i a b les i s the

p r o d u c t o f the i r li mi ts .

L et x,
y, , be z, m
s v a ri a ble
, y , , h av i n g th e li mi ts x

z
m ,

y x : l, y m
-
r e s p ec ti v e l ; a n d le t x y ,
z z n ,

Th e n , l, m, n, ,
c a n b e m a d e le
o n
s s th an a n y a s s i g n e d nu m be r,

ho we ve r s mall .
 DI SC US S ION OF L
'

IN E A R E QU A T ION S
No w ,
x
'
y z

xyz te r ms I n v o lvi n l
g , m, n,

te r m s i n v o lv i n g l, m,
' m
Th e n , x y z xyz m
n,
()
1
Th e sec o nd me mb e r o f (1 ) c a n b e ma d e le s s th a n a n y a s s i gn e d

nu m e r , b h o w e ve r s ma ll .

The n , i s th e li mi t

x y z o f xyz

2 58 . L et n be a p o s i ti v e i n te ge r, a nd x a v ar i a bl e h av i n g th e
li mi t x

; th e n ,
li mi t of x

li mi t of x xx x x x to n f ac to r s
x

x x
'
x x

x to n f ac tor s , by 25 7 ,

(li mi t of

2 59 . T he li mi t O f the qu o ti en t of two va r i a b les i s the quo ti en t

of thei r li mi ts , if the d i vi s o r b e n o t z er o .

L et x an d y be v ar i a bl es h a v i n g th e li mi ts x

an d y

,
r e s p e c

tiv e ly ; th a t y i s
'
a n d s u pp o s e n ot z er o .

L et x
'z
y = m; l an d
y = y
'
m .

I ' '
m -m " ()
1
y y y y if y
S i nc e l an d m c an b e ma d e le s s th a n an y a s s i g n e d nu mb e r,
ho w ev e r s ma ll me r a to r o f thi s f r ac ti o n c a n b e
th e nu

ma d e le ss th a n an y a s s i gn e d n umb e r, h o w e v e r s ma ll .

Als o, th e d e n o mi n a to r c a n b e ma d e to d i ffe r f r o m y by le s s
'2

th an a n y a s si gn e d n u mb e r , h o we v e r s ma ll;
Th e n , th e f ra c ti on (1 ) c an b e mad e le ss th an an y a ss i gn ed
n u mb e r, h o w e v e r s mall .

$
;
W h en c e , 7
i s th e li mi t of
Z
INTER PR E TATION OF N E GATIV E R E S U L TS
2 60 . A p b le m i roi d to b I mp i b le w h n i ts c o nd i ti
s sa e os s e ons

c ann o t be s a ti s e d .

It i s s ai d to b e I ndet mi n er ate wh en th e nu mb er of i ts s olu.

ti o ns i s i n d e n i te ly g a t re .
1 54 ~
AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
261 . 1 . Th e le n gth of a e ld i s 1 0 r o d s , an d i ts b r e a d th 8
ro d s ; h o w ma n y r od s mu st b e a dd e d to th e b re a d th s o th at th e
a r e a ma b e 6 0 s q u ar e r od s
y
L et x nu mb e r o f ro d s to b e a d d ed .

B y th e c o nd i ti o n s , 1 0 (8 x ) 60 .

Th e n 80 10 x 60 , or x 2 .

By 7 8, a d d i ng 2 ro d s me thi ng a s s ub tra cti ng 2 ro d s

i s th e
sa .

He n c e , 2 ro d s mus t b e s u b tra c te d f r o m th e b r e a d th i n O r d e r th a t th e

a re a may b e 60 s q u ar e r o d s .

The a b o ve p r o b le m i s i mp o s s ib le a r i th me ti c ally ; for th e a r e a o f th e

e ld i s atp re s e n t 8 0 s qu a re r o d s ; a nd i t i s i mp o ss i b le to mak e i t 60
s qua r e r o d s b y a d d i ng a n y thi n g to th e b r e a d th .

If we s h o uld mo d i fy th e p r o b le m so as to r ea d

Th e le ngth of a e ld i s 1 0 r o d s , a nd i ts b re a d th 8 ro d s how many

r od s mus t b e s u b tr a c ted fro m th e b r e a d th so th at th e a re a may b e 60
s q ua r e ro d s

a nd le t x d e n o te th e nu mb e r o f ro d s to b e su b tra c e d , t we S h o uld n d x 2 .

A ls o , if we h a d s olve d th e gi ve n p r o b le m b y le tti ng x d e n ote th e n um

b er o f ro d s to b e s u b tra c ted , we s h o uld h a ve f o und x 2 .

2 . A is 35 yea rs o f ag e , a n d B 2 0 ; i t i s r e qu i re d to d ete r
mi n e th e e p o c h at whi ch A
s

a g e i s twi c e a s g r e a t a s B s

L et us s up p o s e th at th e r e q u i re d e p oc h is x y e a rs a f te r th e p r es e n t
d a te .

B y th e c o n d iti o ns , 35 x z 2 (20 x ) .

Th e n , 5 .

By 56 , 5 y e a rs a f ter i s th e sa me th i ng as 5 y e ars b ef ore th e p r e s e n t

d a te .

Th e r e fo r e , th e r e q ui re d e p oc h i s 5 y e a rs b e fo re th e p rese nt d ate .

If we h a d s up p os e d th e r e qu i r e d e p o c h to b e x y e ars b ef o r e th e p re s e nt
d a te , we S h o uld h a ve fo u n d x z 5 .

F r o m th e d i s c ussi on of th e a bo ve p o ble ms
r ,
w e i n fer th at a.

n e g a ti v e r e s ult may b e O bt ai n e d :
1 c n s e quen c e f th f a t th at th e p oble m i s a i thmeti
. In o o
'
e c r r

c lly i mp s s i b le
a o .

2 I n c on s qu e n
. f w ng h i b etwe e n tw p s s i ble
e ce o a ro c o ce o o

h y p th s e a s t th n tu
o e f th e u nk n w n n u mb
s o e a re o o er .
 DI S CUS S ION OF L IN E A R EQU A TION S 1 55

I n th e r s t c a se, it i s u s u all y p o i ble ss to f o r m a n a n a lo g o u s

p ro bl e m, wh ose c o n di ti o n s are s a ti s e d b y th e a b s o lute v alu e

o f th e b uti n g t th u k n w n n umb e
n e g a ti v e r e s u lt, by a ttr i o e n o r

a q u ali ty th pp i t f t h
e ot w hi h hosd b n t
e o t i b u t e d t i t
a c a ee a r o .

I n e i th e c s a p s i ti r u lt m y b
a e, b t in d by att i but
o ve re s a e o a e r

i n g t th e u n k n w n nu m b
o q u aoli ty t h O pp i t f th t w h i
er a h e os e o a c

h d b e n tt i b u t d t i t ; n d th
a e a r q u t
ei n o w i n g t t ah e e a ons a s er o e

n ew n d i ti n
co may b d i d f m th
o s ld q u a ti n by
e e r ve ro e o e o s

c h n g i n g th S i g n f th u n k n wn n u mb e w h
a e o e it u o r e re ver occ rs .

S i mi la n id ti n
r h ld i n p b le m i n l i n g t w
co s era o s o ro s vo v o or

m or e un k n w n n u m b s o er .

A n g ati e s ult s m ti m s i n d i c ate s th at th e p

e ve r o bl m i
e e ro e s

i mp s si ble o .

3 I f 1 1 ti m s th e n u mb
. f pe n in t in h u er o e rs o s a c er a o se,

in cre ase d by 1 8 b d i i d d by 4 th ,
u lt
e q u a l
v t w i ce t h e ,
e res e s e

n mbu i nc er d by 3 ; n d th nu mb
rease e er .

L et x 1 :th e nu mb e r .

11 x 18
B y th e c o n d i ti o n s , 2x 3 .

Wh enc e ,
1 1 x 4~ 1 8 z 8 x + 12 , and x .

Th e n e g ati ve r e s ult sh o ws th a t th e p r o b le m is i mp o ss ib le .

2 62 . A p r o le m ma yb a ls o b e i mp o s s i le wh e n th e b s o lu ti o n

i s f r a c ti o n al, o r z e ro .

1 . A ma n h a s two k i n d s of mo n e y
; di m e s a n d c e n ts . The
to tal nu m e r b of c ow s Is 23 , a n d th e i r v a lu e 3 7 c e n ts . H ow
ma n y h a s h e of e ach ?
L et x nu mb e r of d i me s .

Th e n , 23 x numb e r o f c e n ts .

Th e x d i me s ar e wo rth 1 0 x c e n ts th e n , b y th e c o n d i tions ,

14
lo x + 2 3 x 2 37 ; a u d it
9
Th e fra cti o n al r e s ult S h o ws th a t th ep rob le m i s i mp o s s ib le .

2 . Th e d e n o mi n a to r of a f r a c ti o n e xc e e d s th e n u me r ato r by
6; an d if 2 b e ad ded to th e nu me rato r , the v a lu e o f th e f r a ti o n c
is F i n d th e f r a c ti o n .
1 56 A DVA NCE D C O UR S E IN A L G EB R A
L et x th e nu me ra tor .

Th e n , th e d e n o mi n ator

x 6 .

x 2 1
B y th e c on d iti o ns ,
x 6 3

Wh en c e ,

Th e r e s u lt S h o ws th at th e p r ob le m is i mp o s s i b le .

TH E PR OBL E M OF TH E ,
O
C U R E RS I
2 63 . Th e d is c us s i on Of th e f ollo wi ng p ro bl m e s e rv e s to
f ur th e r i llu s tr ate th e i n te r p r e ta ti on o f n e g ati v e a n d z e r o r e s ults ,

b e si de s f u rn i s hi n g an i n te r p r e ta ti o n of i n n i te an d i n d e te rmi
n a te r e s ults .

Th e P rob lem of th e Couri er s . T wo c o u ri er s , A an d B, ar e

tra v e lli n g alo n g th e sa me r oa d i n th e sa me d i r e c ti o n , R R

,
at

th e r a te s of m
mi le s an h o u r , r e s p ecti v e ly
an d n I f a t a ny . .

ti me , s ay 1 2 O c lo c k , A i s a t P , a n d B i s a mi le s b e y o n d h i m

at Q ,
a f te r h o w m a n y h o u r s ,
a n d h o w m a n y m i le s b e y o n d P ,

are th e y to g e th e r

L et A an d B me et x h ou r s a fte r 12 O
clo ck , an d y mi le s

by e ond P .

Th e y w ill th en m et y e a mile s by e on d Q .

S i n c e A t a ls mx mi le s r ve ,
an d B nx mi le s , i n x h our s, we
h av e mx,
31
y
a nx

S olvi n g th e s e e q u ati o n s , we o bt ain

a a m
x ,
an d y
m n m n

We w i ll n o w d i c us s th e s s e r e s u lts un d e r d i ffe r e n t h yp othe s es .

1 . m n .

I n th i s c as e , th e v a lu e s o f x a n d y a re p os i ti ve .

Th i s me a n s th at the c o urie r s me e t at so me ti me after 1 2, at

s o me p o i n t to th e r i ht of P
g .
 DI S C US S ION OF L '

IN E A R E QU A TIONS 1 57

T h is a gre e s w ith y
th e h p o th e s i s ma d e ; f o r i f m i s g r e a te r
th a n n, A is tr a v e lli n g f a s te r th a n B ; a n d h e m u s t o ve r tak e
him at s o me p o i nt by
e o n d th e i r

p
o s i ti o n s a t 1 2 o c lo k c .

2 . m< n .

I n thi s case , th e v a lu e s o f x a n d y a r e n e a ti ve
g .

Th i s me an s th a t th e c o uri e r s met at so me ti m e b ef o r e 1 2, at

so me p o i n t to th e lef t o f P .

T hi s a gre e s w i th y
th e h p o th e s i s ma d e ; f o r i f m i s le s s th a n
n, A wy
i s tra v e lli n g m o r e s lo l th an B ; a n d th e mu s t h a v e y
b een b
to g e th e r e f o r e 1 2 O lo c k, an d

e f o re th e co u ld h av e b y c
c
a d v an e d a s f ar as P .

3 .

I n thi s c as e, x 0 an d y 0 .

Thi s me a n s th at th e tr a v e lle rs ar e to ge th e r at 12 o cloc k

, at

th e p o i nt P .

Th i s a g re e s wi th y
th e h p o th e s i s mad e ; f o r if a 0, an d m
a n d n a r e un e q u a l, th e c o ur i e r s are to g e th e r at 12 O c lo ck

,
an d

ar e tr a v e lli n g a t u n e q u a l r ate s ; an d th e y c o u ld n o t h av e be en

to g e th e r be f o re 1 2, and w ill n ot b e to g e th e r a f te r w ards .

4 . m n , a n d a n o t e qu a l to 0 .

I n thi s c as e , th e v alu e s o f x a n d y ta k e th e f o r m 9, a n d ar e
0
in ni t e

No d e ni te v a lu e s c an be a s s i gn e d to x and y, an d th e p obr

le m i s i m p o s si ble .

Th i s a gre e s w i th y
th e h p o th e s i s ma d e ; f o r i f m n, a n d a

is n o t z e ro , th e c ouri e r s a re a mi le s a p a r t at 12 O c lo ck

,
an d a re

tr a v e lli n g at th e sa me r a te ; an d th e yn e ver c o uld h av e b een,

and n ev er w i ll b e t o g e th e r .

Th e r e f o r e , an i nn i te r es u lt i nd ica tes tha t the p r o b lem i s i m

p o s s i b le .

In th i s c ase , a s m n a p p ro a c h e s th e li mi t 0 , th e va lue s o f x a n d y
i ncre a s e wi th o u t li mi t .

Th a t i s , as th e d i ffe r e nc e of th e r a tes of th e c o uri e rs a p p ro a c h e s th e

li mi t 0 , b o th th e n u mb e r Of h o u rs a f te r 12
o c lo c k , a nd th e nu mb e r o f
mile s b e y o n d P , wh e n A a nd B a re to ge th e r , i n c r e as e wi th o ut li mi t .
1 58 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
5 . m n, a n d a = 0 .

In thi s ca s e ,
th e v a lu e s o f x an d y ta k e th e f o r m 9 , an d a r e
O
i nd etermi n a te
T hi s mea n s th a t any v a lu e Of x wh at e ve r , w ith th e co rr e

s p o n d i n g v a lu e o f y i s
,
a s oluti o n o f th e p ro le m b .

T hi s a gr e e s w i th y
th e h p oth e s i s m a d e ; f o r i f m n , an d

a 0 , th e c o ur i e r s

a r e to g e th e r a t 1 2 o c lo k , a n d tra v e lli n
g at c
th e sa me r a te ; an d th e y alwa ys h a ve been ,
and way s w ill
al

b e to ge th e r .

Th us ,
an i n d eter mi na te r e s u lt i nd i ca tes tha t the nu mb er of so lu~

ti o ns i s i n d eni tely g rea t .

EXERC S E 3 5 I
I nte rp re t th e ne g ative re s ults , a n d mo d ify th e e n un c i ati o n a c c o r d ingly ,
i n th e f ollo wi ng

1 . I f th e le ng th of a e ld i s 1 2 r o d s , an d i ts wi d th 9 rod s ,h ow many
r o ds mus t b e s ub trac te d fro m th e wid th s o th a t th e a rea may b e 1 4 4 s quare
r ods ?
2 . Ai 44 y e ars o f
s age , a n d B 12 y e ars ; h ow man y y e ars a go was A
th r ee ti me s a s O ld as B
3 . A
s a ss e ts a re d oub le th os e of B . Wh e n Ah as ga i ne d $2 50 , and B
3 1 70, A

s a s s e ts a r e ve ti mes th os e Of B Fi
. nd th e a s s e ts o f e ac h .

4 . A c i s te r n h as two p ip es . Wh e n b oth ar e Op en , i t i s lle d i n 7 %

h o urs ; a n d th e r s t p i p e a lo n e
c a n ll i t i n 3 h ours . Ho w ma ny h o urs
d o es th e s e c o n d p i p e tak e to ll i t
5 . A a nd B a re tra ve lli n g d u e e as t a t th e r ates o f 4 %a nd 3 % mi les an

h ou r , r e sp ec tive ly . At n o on , A is 5 miles d u e e as t o f B . Ho w many

mile s to th e e a s t o f A
s p os i ti o n a t n oo n will h e o ve rta k e B
6 . A h as 3 7 2 0 , a nd B 3 300 A ft A h
. er as g a i n e d a c ertai n s um, an d
Bh as g a i ne d two-th i rd s th i s s u m A h th,
as re e ti mes a s muc h mon ey as B .

H o w mu c h d id e ach ga i n

In e a ch o f th e f o llo w
i g n , i nte rpr e t th e soluti o n

7 . mb e r o f a p p le a n d p e a r tr e es i n a n or ch ard i s 23 ; a nd s e ve n
Th e nu

ti me s th e nu mb e r O f a pp le tr e es p lus twi c e th e n u mb e r O f p ea r tr e es e qu als

.

82 . H o w many a re th e r e o f e a ch k i n d P

8 . Th e nu mb e r o f s i lve r c o i n s in a p ur s e e x c e e d s th e numb er of gold

c o in s by 3 . A n d ve ti me s th e n u mb e r o f s i lve r c o i ns e xce e d s th r e e ti me s
th e n umb e r of go ld c o in s by 3 . H o w many are th e re o f ea ch ki n d
 DI S CU SS ION OF L IN E A R E QU A T ION S 1 59

9 . Th e nu me ra to r O f a fra c ti o n i s f o ur ti me s th e d e n o mi n ator ; a n d i f
th e nume r a to r b e d i mi n i s h e d b y 9 , a n d th e d e n o min a to r b y 1 5 , th e value

of th e f rac tio n i s
2 Fi nd th e f ra c ti on .

10 . Ai s a y ea rs o ld , a n d Bby e a rs . Aft er how many y e ars will Ab e

n ti mes a s o ld as B
Di s cuss th e s o luti o n i n th e ca s e s wh e n n 1 and a is n o t e q u al to b,
a nd wh e n n 1 a nd a b .

11 . Wh a t nu mb er mus t b e ad d ed to b oth te r ms o f th e fra c ti o n 9 to

b
mak e it e q ua l
5 ?

Di s c us s th e s o luti o n i n th e c ases wh e n
(l

b s
C
and c is n o t e q ua l to (II,

; Z
Z
wh e n 0 d a nd
g is n o t e q ua l to
5 , and wh e n c d a nd

12 . T wo c o ur i e rs , A and B , ar e tra ve lli ng alo n g th e sa me r o ad , i n th e

i n th e sa me d i re c ti o n , a t th e ra te s o f m
an d
"
m mile s an h ou r , r es p e c

ti ve ly . Bp a s s e s a c e r ta in p o i nt n h o urs a fte r A . H o w ma ny h o u r s a fte r

Bp ass e s th i s p o in t will h e o ve rta k e A

D mi ne f o r wh a t va lu e s o f th e le tte rs th e s o luti o n i s p o s itiv e , n e ga
e te r

tive , z e ro , i mp o ss ib le , a n d i nd e ter mi n a te , a n d d is c uss th e s o lu ti o n i n e a c h

case .

13 . T he c i rcu mfe r e nc eo f th e f o r e -
wh e e l o f a c a rr i a ge is a f e et, a nd o f

th e h i n d -w h e e l b f e e t . H o w f a r will th e c a r r i a ge h a ve tra ve lle d wh e n th e

fo re -
wh e e l h a s mad e n r e vo lu ti o n s mor e th a n th e hi nd -wh e e l

Di sc us s th e s oluti o n i n th e f ollo wi ng c a s e s

=0 , =b , n =0
'

1 . n a a nd b un e q u al . 2 . a n n o t e qu al to z e ro . 3 . uz b, .

I ND E TER MINA TE FOR M S

0
2 64 The i n d ete rmi n ate f o r m d oe s n o t al way s re p r e se nt
0
.

a f r ac ti o n whi ch may h a v e a n y v a lu e w h ate ver .

1
T ak e mp le , th e f ra c ti o n
233;
,
fo r e xa
2

If x a, c
the f ra ti o n tak e s th e f o r m
3
.

D i v i d i ng b o th n u me rato r and d e n o mi n ato r by x a,

2 2
x a x +a
x dx
2
x

whi ch hold s so lo n g as a :
d o e s n o t e qua l a 1 1 5,
1 60 AD V AN CE D C O U RS E IN AL G E BR A

Th e s e on d c me mb e r o f (1 ) a pp r oa ch e s th e li mi t 2 wh e n x

a pp r o a ch e s th e li mi t a .

T he n x
2
d

a pp r o a ch e s th e li mi t 2 w h en x app roa c he s the

, 9
x

-a x
li mi t
.

a .

x2 _2
We c all th e li mi t app r o a c he d b y th e fra cti on wh e n x ap
x ax
2

p ro a c h es th e li mi t a, th e va lu e of the f r a cti o n wh e n x a .

In any si mi la r c as e we ,
d i vi d e b oth ter ms o f th e fra c ti o n b y th e e x

p re ss i o n whi c h mak es e ac h te rm va n i s h , an d nd th e li mi t ap p roac h e d b y

th e r e s ult .

In th e p r ob le m of 2 64 , th e r e s ult
8wa s ob ta i n e d i n co n se que n c e o f

two i nd ep e nd e nt hyp o thes es , o ne c a us i n g th e nu me ra tor to v ani sh ,

an d th e o th e r th e d e n o mi n ator ; an d i n a n y s i milar c as e we s h o uld nd

th e r es ult 9 su s c ep ti b le of th e sa me i nter p r e ta ti on .

0
B u t i n th e ab o v e e x a mp le , th e r e s ult
8 is ob tai ne d i n c o ns e que nce o f

th e sa me hyp o th es i s c a us i n g b oth nu mer a to r an d d e n omi n a to r to va ni sh .

2 65 . Th e Indete min r ate Forms

2
2

, 0 x 00 , a nd co

1 . TO n d th e li mi t a pp r oa ch e d by th e fr a ti o n c
wh en x i s i n d e n i tel y i nc re a s e d .

D iv i d in g e ac h te r m of th e fr a ti on c by 96, we h av e '

lim 1 +2 x a? 0 4-2
x oo 3+5 x x Cp l5
(U

li m
We u se th e n o ta ti o n fo r th e wo rd s
the li mi t wh e n x i s i n
x i

Ii m
d e ni te ly I nc re ase d o f,

a nd th e n o ta ti o n fo r th e wo rd s
th e
x a
li mit as x a pp r oa c h es a of .

In th e a b o ve e xa mp le , th e fra c ti o n ta k e s th e i n d e termi n a te fo rm 93
00
wh e n x 1 8 In d e n i te ly I nc re a se d .

In a ny s i milar c ase , we d i vi d e b o th n u me r a to r an d d e no mi na tor of th e

fra cti o n b y th e h igh es t p o wer of x .
 DIS C US S ION OF L IN E A R E QU A TION S 1 61

2 . F i n d th e v alu e o f th e e xp r e s s i o n (
x
3
8 1 wh en
x 2 .

Th e e x p r e s s i on tak e s th e i n d e te r mi n a te f o rm 0 x 00 wh e n
:
(I 2 .

We h av e

2x
_2 + 4)
xi 58 +

In a ny s i milar c as e , we si mp lify th e e xp r e s s i o n as mu ch as p os s ib le
b e fo r e n d i n g th e li mi t .

2 x
3 . F i n d th e va lu e o f wh en x 1 .

l x 1 -x ~

Th e ex p r e s s i on ta k e s th e i n d e te rmi n a te f o r m co 00 wh en

x 1 .

Now ,

EXERC S E 3 6 I
Fi nd th e values o f th e fo llo wi n g

1 wh e n x z i
x2 2 x - 8
.

4 + 5x 3x2
2 wh e n In d e n itely i n cr e ase d .

7 x+ 4
.

8x 2x 3
2 3
3 wh e n x Wh e n 1

.

2
2
1 x 25 x -
I 12 4

x3 2
+ x + 27 x + 2 7
9 12
wh e n x =2
3 8
'

x 1 8 42
x + 81 x 2 x

3
4 x + 2x + 2x+ 1 2 x3 3 x2 + 3 x 2

8 + 1 7x+6

9 .
(2 x2 5 x wh en x =3 .
1 62 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E .
IN AL GE BR A

DIS CU S S ION OF TH E S OL U TION OF A S Y S TE M OF

S IM U L TA NE O U S L INE A R E QU A TION S

2 66 . A s y s te m of mu lta n e o u s e q u a ti o n s i s s aid to b e Inde

si

termi nat e wh en th e n um b e r O f s o luti o n s i s i n d e n i te ly g r e a t .

26 7 . An y s y
m o f two s i mu lta n e ous li n e a r eq u ati o n s , i n
s te

v o lv i n g two u n k n o w n n u mb e r s , c a n b e r e d u ce d to th e f o r m

If
I b ly

2 CI ) 1
()
290 b ay 2 C2 5 2
()
whe e r a], b l, cl , a ,, b, , an d c, , may h av e a ny n u me ri ca l v alue s

wh ta e ve r , e x c e p t th a t dl , b l, a 2, a n d b2 cann o t be zer o .

By E x 3, . 2 4 2, th e s o luti o n o f th e a b ov e s y s te m is

a lb2 a gb 1 a lb 2 a 2b 1

Th e s e fr ac ti on s h a v e d e n i te v alu e s a s lo n g as alb2 do es n ot

e q u al a zb l .

We w i ll n o w di s c u s s th e v a lu e s o f x a n d y wh e n
a l bg a 2b 1 . A
()
()
1 I f b zc1 b l og is n ot z e r o , x i s i nn i te

Fro m (
A), 993 2 ()
B
5 1

cl cl l b z
Th
6 b zcl ) C
()
}
e n ; Cza r Ci a z 0 2651
bl
( z
b l c

S i nc e n e i th e r d l, b l, n or b l ez b 2c1 i s z e r o, eza l cl a g is n ot

z e ro .

W he nc e , y i s a ls o i n n i te .

By a i d o f e q u a ti o n
()
B ,
th e g i ven e qu a ti o n ()
2 can be wi tten
r

w
bl
x -
I b zy z cg, or a 1x + b 1y (
al
i
92
;

by multip ly i n g e ac h te rm by 21 .

be
Th u s , th e g i ve n e qu a ti o n s ar e i n cons i s ten t ; f o r , by we
h a v e a lx by cl .
 DIS CU S S ION OF L IN E AR E QU A TION S 1 63

H en c e ,
in ni t e res ults s ho w tha t the gi ven e q ua ti o n s a r e i nco n

()
2 I f b ye1 b l c2 i s z e r o, x tak e s th e fo r m
8 , an d may h av e

any v a lue wh a te v e r f o r i n th i s ca se w e h av e two i n d e

p e n d e n t h y p o th e s e s , on e c aus in g th e nu me r a to r to b c om
e e z e ro ,

an d th e o th e r th e d e n o mi n ato r .
(C o m p a r e

I n th i s ca se, by ( ),
C 0 2a 1 cl a 2 is a ls o z e ro ; so th at y i s
i n d e te rmi n a te .

F r o m th e e qu at ion s b zc1 b log 0 a n d cza 1 c1 a 2 0 , we h av e

b2
b l og
an d a 2 = 9i
c
,
CI 01

T h en the gi v e n e q u a ti o n ()
2 c an be w r i tte n

a Ic, b c2
= + bi y =


x + ai x
: y cg, or ci i
(1 1

wh i ch i s th e sa me as

We th u s h av e a s i n g le e q u ati o n to d e te rmi ne two unk n o wn

nu mbe rs .

H enc e ,
i n d eter mi n a te r es ults s ho w tha t the gi ven e qua ti o n s a re

n ot i nd ep end en t .

S i milar c o n s i d e r a ti o n s h o ld fo r an y s y mu ltan e o u s
s te m of Si

li n e a r e q u ati o n s , i n v o lv i n g mo r e th a n tw o u nk n o wn nu mb e r s .

2 68 . We w ill i llu str ate th e p r i nc i p le s o f 2 67 by an e xamp le .

C on si d e r th e s y st e m O f e q u a ti o n s
1 517 "
I b ly I
" "
Cl z d

!
b

233

I b e? I
'
0 22 d z,

a s

I b ay I
"
0 32 513

S o lv i n g , we n d

d 1 b 20 3 d 1 b 3 c2 I d 2b 3c l
'
d 2b l c3 I d 3b lc2

d sb zci
1 620 3 I b sc z 002 630 1 a eb i cs

I
a ab lCZ (1 3 620 1

w i th r e s u lts o f s i mila r f o r m f o r y an d 2 .

We w ill n ow u se e q u a ti o n ()
1 as a f or mu la fo r nd in g
v a lu e o f x i n th e fo llo wi ng y ste m o f e qu ati on s
s .
1 64 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
3 x 2 x z 5
2 x 3
+ y 2 z 1

x 5y+3 z 6

H ere , a1 = 3, b 1 7 1
7
- , b 2 = 3, 62

Su b stituti n g th e s e v alu e s in we h av e
45 18 0

27 3 0

an d th e sa me r e s ult w ill b efo u n d f o r y a n d z .

Th e i n d e te r mi n ate r e s ults S h o w
th at th e g i ve n e q u a ti o n s a r e

not i n d e p en d en t th i s may b e s e en by b o s e r v i ng th at
th e r s t e q u ati o n i s the su m o f the c
s e o n d and th i r d .

I n th i s c as e , x may h a ve a ny v alue wh atever .

We wi ll n ow a pp ly f o r mula ()
1 to th e f o llo w ing sy ste m
2 x 5
+ y 3 z 8,
x 4 y + 2 z 3,
3 x + z 2
y
H e re , 01 3 d = 8
, 1 ,
b2 _4 ,

a3 = 3, c3 = 1 , d3 = 2 .

Su b stitutin g th e s e v a lu e s in w e h av e

32 1 6 26
84 -3 6 0

a nd th e me r e s ult w ill b e fou n d fo r y an d z

sa .

Th e i n n i te r e s u lts s h o w th a t th e g i v e n e q uati o n s a r e i n c o n
s i s te n t th i s may b e s e e n by o b s e r v i n g th a t th e s u m
o f th e r s t two e u a ti o n s g i v e s 3 x
q y z 1 1 ,
w hi le t h e th i r d
r e q ui r e s th a t 3 x y 7. s h o u ld e q u a l 2 .

269 . Numb er of S olut i ons of a S y s tem of S i multaneous L inear

E quati ons .

I f we h av e a s y m o f m i n de p e n d e n t a n d c on s i ste n t S i mul
s te

ta n e o u s li n ea r e q u ati o n s , i n v o lv i n g m u n k n o wn n u mb e r s , we

may e li mi n a te m 1 o f th e unk n o w n nu mb e r s , an d o b tai n a

si n gle li n ear e
qu a ti on i n v olv i n g o ne u nk no w n numb e r.
 DIS C US S ION OF L IN E A R E QU A TION S 1 65

By 227 , th e latte r h a s o n e solu ti o n .

Wh e nc e ,
th e g i v e n s y s te m o f e q u ati o n s h as o n e s oluti on .

An d , i n ge n e ral, a sy s te m of i n d ep e nd en t a n d co n s i s ten t li n ea r
e qu a ti o ns has a s ing le s o luti on when the nu mb er of equ a ti o n s is
the sa me as the n umb er f o u n kn own nu mb ers .

If we h av e a s y s te m of m i n d e p e n d e n t li n e ar e q u ati on s ,
i n v o lv i n g m + n un k n o wn n u mb e r s , we may e li mi n ate m 1

o f th e u n k n o n w nu mb e r s , and o bt
ain a s i n g le li n e a r e qu ati o n

i n v olv i n g th e re ma i ni n g n 1 wn n u mb e s
u nk n o r .

By 2 2 8 , th e latte r h a s an i n d e n i te ly g e at nu mb r f s olu er o

ti o n s ; an d h e n c e th e gi v e n s y ste m h as a n i n d e n i te ly g e a t r

nu mbe r o f s o luti on s .

An d, i n g en e r a l, a s ys te m of i n d ep en d ent li n ea r equa ti o n s ha s
an i nd e n i t ly g e r ea t nu mb er of s o luti o n s when the nu mb er of equa
ti d ns i s les s tha n the n u mb er of un k no wn numb er s .

I f we h a v e y s tem f m n i n d p en d nt li nea e quati n s

a s o e e r o ,

inv o l i n g m un k n w n n u mb s w m y n d a t f alu s
'

v o er ,
e a se o v e

of th e unk n w n n u mb e s w h i c h w i ll s ati s fy a ny m o f th e
o r

e q u ati o n s .

B ut thi s s e t o f v alu e s w i ll n ot s ati s fy the re maini ng n e qua

ti on s ; an d hen c e th e i
g ev n s y s te m h a s n o s lu ti o n o .

An d, i n g e n e ral, a s ys tem of i n d ep en d en t li n ea r equ a ti o n s ha s

no s o luti o n when the n u mb er of e qu a ti o ns i s gr ea ter tha n th e

nu mb er of unkn o wn n u mb ers .
1 66 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

XIV . GR A P HIC A L R E P RE S E NTA TIO N

27 0 . l C -
R ectangu ar o ordi nates of a Poi nt .

L et XX
an d YY b e
s tr ai g h t c
li n es , i n te r s e ti n g a t r i gh t

a n gle s a t O ; O Y b e i n g a o v e , an d O Y e lo , b ,
e n OX i s

b w XX w h

h o r i zon tal a n d e xte n d s to th e ri gh t, a n d O X to th e le ft, o f 0

.

L et P l b e an y p o i n t i n th e p lan e
.
of XX
a nd YY ,
and d ra w
li n e P IM p e r pe n d i c u la r to XX
Th e n , O M an d MP 1 a r e c a lle d th e or di n a tes o f
r ecta ngu la r co -
'

P I ; OM i s c alle d th e a b s c i s s a , a nd J li P 1 th e or d i n a te .

Th e li n e s XX
and YY
are c alle d th e a xi s o f X an d a xis of
Y, re s p e c ti v e ly ; an d O th e o r i g in .

We e xp r e s s c
th e f a t th at th e a b s c i s s a of a p oi n t i s b, an d i ts
o rd i n ate a , by sa y i n g th at f ,
or th e p o i n t i n q ue s ti o n , x b and

y = a o r, mo r e c on c i ly wese , s p e a k o f th e p o i n t a s th e p o i nt

(,
b )
a w h e e th e r s t t m i n
r p a n th s s i
er u n d e re e e s r s too d to b e
th e ab s c i ss a a n d th e s e c o n d te m th e
,
d i n a te r or .

27 1 . L et M an d N be p o i nt s on OX a nd OX
,
re s p ec ti y
v el ,

su c h th at OM ON b ; an d d ra w li n e s P 1 P4 an d P 2P, thr o ugh

M and N, re s p e c ti vel y p e p en d i c ula
,
r r to XX
,
mak i n g
 G R A PH I C A L R E PR E S E N TA TION 1 67

T he n e a ch f th e p i n ts P P P an d P w i ll hav e i ts
,
o o I, 2, 3, 4

a b s c i s s a e q ua l t b a n d i ts d i n ate e q ual t
o ,
or o a .

To i d th i s a mb i g uity a b s c i a s m e a s u d t th e ri ght f
a vo ,
ss re o o

O a re c n si d e e d an d t th e l f t
o r nd d i n at s mea s u d
o e ,
a or e re

a b o ve XX a e n s i d e e d

r an d b l w
co r e o ,

T he n th e c o- d in at s o f th e p in ts w i ll b e a s follo w s
or e o

b b)
P I7 ()
b a
) ; 2)
P )
a
) ; 37
P ( T
a
) i P 4, ()
b
a
)
'

It is und e rs to o d , i n th e ab o v e c o n ve n ti o n re s p e c ti n g s igns , th a t the

fi g ure is so p la ced th a t O X i s h ori z o nta l, a nd exte n ds to th e r i g ht o f 0 .

If a p o i n t li e s u p on XX
,
i ts o r d i n a te is z er o ; and i f i t li e s
u p on YY , i ts
a bs c i s sa is ze ro .

Th e c o-
o r d i n ate s O f th e o ri gi n ar e (,
0

27 2 . Plotti ng P i nts o .

To p lot a o i nt p w
h e n i ts c o-o rdi na te s ar e g i v e n , lay o ff th e
a bc
s i s s a to th e r i gh t o r le f t o f 0 , a c co r d i n g a s i t i s or

an d th e n d r a w a p e p e n d i cul e qu l i n le n gth t
r ar , a o th e o r d i n a te ,

a bo e o
v r b el w XX c d i n g a th e d in t i
o

ac or s or a e s or

T hu s ,
to plo t th e p o i nt 3, lay o ff 3 un i ts to th e le ft of

0 u p on XX '
, a n d th e n e r e t a c p e p e n di cula
r r 2 u n i ts i n le n gth
b
a o ve XX '
.

GR APH OF A LI NE AR E QU ATION INV OL V IN G TW O

U NKNO W N NU MB E RS

27 3 . C o n s i d e r th e e q u a ti o n y x 2 .

If we gi v e a ny n ume r i c al v al e h to x, we may , by ai d o f th e
r e la ti o n y x 2 , al u late c c a c o rr e s p on di n g v a lu e for y .

If A
( )
If x = 1, y = 3 ()
B
If x = 2, y = 4 . 0
()
If x = 3, y = 5 .
()
D
H e -1
, i = i ()
E x

If x 2, ( )
F
If x - 3
, y
1 ; e tc .
(G)
1 68 A V D A NCE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B RA
No w le t th e s e be r e ga r d e d a s th e c o
o r d i n a te s o f p oi nts ; an d

le t th e p o i n ts
b e p lo tte d , a s e xp lai n e d i n 27 2 .

whi ch
c
'

Th e y w i ll b e f o un d to li e o n a c e r ta i n li n e , G D, is
c alle d th e Gra p h o f th e g i v e n e qu ati o n .

By a s su mi ng fra cti o n al value s for x, we may o b tai n inte r me d i a te p o i nts

of th e gr ap h .

27 4 . We
w y s n d th at a li ne a quati n i n l i n g
s ha ll al a r e o ,
vo v

two unk n w n n umb e s h a s a s t a i gh t li n e f o a g ap h ; thi s

o r ,
r r r

m y b e p o e d a s f llo w s
a r v o

E v e y s u c h e qu ati on c an b e p u t i n th f o m y
r ax b e r .

W wi ll s t h w th t th e g ph f y
e r x is
S t a i gh t li n e
o a ra o a a s r .

Th e e q u a ti o n y ax is s ati s e d i f
x 0 an d y 0 ; h e n c e , th e g ra h p of

y = a x p a s se s th r o u gh 0 .

L e t A an d B b e an y o th e r two p o i n ts

on th e g ra h ; d r a p
w li n e OA n d O B ; s a

a ls o , li n e s A C a n d B D p e p e n di c ula to

r r

OX .

Sin c e A an d B are on th e g r ap h ,

AO = a x 0 0 , and BD = a OD .

AC Q
T h en , ,
c
s in e e a ch of th e s e e q u als a .

oo 0D
T h en ,
tr i an gle s OA O an d OB D
ar e S i mi la r ; an d OB c o in c i d e s
w ith OA .

Th ef er o r e, a ll p o i n ts i n th e gr a h p of y a x are in a s tr a i gh t

li n e p as s i n g th r o u gh 0 .

No w th e g r a p h of y = ax +b can be b tai n d f m th t
o e ro a of

y by i n c
ax reasing th e o r d i n a te o f e ac h p i n t f th g a p h
o o e r of

y x by b
a .

H n c e th e
e , g ra ph of y ax b is a s tr a i gh t li n e p a ra llel to
th e g r a p h of y ax .

It f o llo ws fr o m th e a b ove th at th e grap h s o f y z :a x b an d y ax c

a re p aralle l .
I

27 5 . A s trai gh t li n e i s d e te r mi n e d by a ny two of i ts po ints .

 G R A PH I C A L R E PR E S E N TA TION 1 69

Th e n , it i s
s uf c i e n t, wh en n d i ng th g p h f e ra o a li n e a r e qu a

ti o n i n v o lv i n g two u n k n wn n u mb e
o to n d tw rs , o of i ts p o i n ts ,
an d d ra w a s tr a i g h t li n e th r o u gh th e m .

Th e p o i n ts m o s t ea s il y d e te rmi n e d a re th o s e i n w hi ch th e
a h i n te r s e c ts th e a xe s
g p
r .

Fo r a ll p o i n ts on O X, y O ; h e n c e , to n d wh e re th e g r ap h
c u tsO X , p ut y 0 , a n d c alc u la te th e v a lu e O f x .

T o n d w
h e r e th e g r a p h c u ts O Y, p u t x : 0, an d c alc ulate

th e v a lu e o f y .

L et it be re
q u i r e d, for e xa mp le , to p lo t th e gr a h p of

7
2 x +3y z .

7
P ut y = 0 ; th e n 2 x 7 an d x
,

Th e n p lo t A On O X
5

u n i ts to th e X
le ft o f O .

7
P ut x= 0 ; th e n 3 y -7 a nd

, y

T h en p l t B OY,
g b w

o on u n i ts e lo 0 .

D a w th e s t
r r a i ght li n e AB ; thi s i s th e r e qu i r e d g a
r
p h .

Th e ab o ve me th o d c a nn o t, o f c o u rs e , be us e d fo r a s tra i gh t li n e p as s i ng
th r ough th e o ri g i n , n o r for th e e q u a ti o n s o f 276 .

27 6 . C o n s id e r th e e q u ati on y 5 .

T hi s mea n s th a t ev er y p o i nt i n th e
r
g pa h h a s i ts o r d i n a te e q u al to 5 .

Th e n th e g r a p h i s th e s tr ai gh t li n e AB ,

p a r a lle l to a XX
n d 5 u n i ts a o v e i t b .

I n li k e man n e r fth e g r ap h o f x = 3
th e str a i gh t li n e CD , p a r allel to YY ,

is
an d 3 u n i ts to th e left of it .

Th e grap h of y 0 i s th e a x is o f X, a nd th e grap h o f x 0 is th e axi s

of Y .

EXE RC S E 3 7 I
Plot th e graph s of th e follo wi ng

1 . 3 . x =2 . 5 . 2x =3 y . 7 . 16 x 27 y

2 . x 4 y =4 . 4 .
y
4 . 6 . x + y =0 . 8 . 8 x + 15 y =
1 70 AD V AN C E D C O URS E IN AL GE B R A

I NTE RS E CTION S OF GR A PH S
27 7 . C o n s i d e r th e e q u a ti o n s

3 x y 9 . A
( )
B
x 2y 4 . O
( )
D

L e t AB b e th e gr a p h of 3 x y
a n d CD th e g r a h o f x p 2y 4 .

L e t AB an d OD i n te r s e c t at E .

S in ce E li e s on e a ch g ra p h , i ts co

o rd i na e s t mu s t s a ti s f yb o th g i v e n e qua

ti o n s ; h e n ce ,
to n d th e c o -o r d i n ate s o f E , we s olv e th e giv e n
e q u a ti on s .

I n thi s ca s e, th e s olu ti o n is x -2
, y = 3 ; an d i t may b e
v eri e d i n th e gu r e th at th e s e a re th e c o o r d i n a te s of E .

H en c e , if the gr ap hs of a ny two li nea r equa ti o n s , wi th two

u n k n o wn nu mb e r s , i n ters e c t, the co -o r d i n a tes f
o the p o in t of i nter
s ecti o n f or ma so lu ti o n o f the s ys te m of e qua ti o ns r ep r es en te d -
by
the gr ap hs .

EXERC S E 3 8 I
V e rify th e p ri n c iple of 2 7 7 i n th e f ollo wi ng s y s te ms
5x 4 y :0 .

1 3
5
.

3x 2y . 7 x+6y

3x+7 y 5 9 x + 14 y

I
z .

8x+3y 18 . 3x 4 y z 22 .

27 8 . Grap h s of I ncons i s tent a nd I nd etermi nate L i near E qua

ti ons , wi th two Unk nown Numb ers .

Co n s i d er th e e qu ati o n s

6x 4y 7 . O
( )
D

Th e e qu a ti o n s c a n be w r i tten,

x {i 7
y x + 5
2 2 2 1
and i t wa s Sho wn in 2 7 4 th at th e g raphs
of two e qu a ti o n s o f th i s f o r m ar e ar a lle l p .
 G R A PHIC A L R E PR E S E N T A TION 171

Th e gi v e n e qu ati o n s ar e i n c on s i s ten t ; a n d we s h a ll a l a s w y
c
n d th at two i n o n s i s te n t e q u a ti o n s , i th two unk n o wn n um w
b e r s , a r e r e re se n te d
p by p a r a lle l
g ra
p h s .

Aga i n , c on s i de r th e e q u ati o n s

x 2 = 5
y .

x 4 = 10
y .

In th i s c as e ,
th e gr ap h s c oin cid e .

Th e g i v e n e qu ati o n s a r e n o t i n d ep en d en t ;
an d i n a n y si mi la r c ase, we s h o uld n d
th at th e g r a h s p w e re c o in c i d e nt .

27 9 . Graph i cal R ep res entati on of L i near E xp res s i ons i nv olvi ng

one Unk nown Numb er .

Con s i d e r th e e xp r es s i o n 3 x 5 .

P ut y = 3 x + 5 ; an d le t th e g ra ph of

th i s e q ua ti o n b e f o un d as in 5 .

5
P utti n g y 0, x th e n th e g r a ph
3
c uts XX
3

u n i ts to th e le ft of 0 .

P utti n g x 0, y 5; th e n th e g r ap h
c ut s YY 5
un i ts a b ove 0 .

p
Th e g ra h i s th e s tr a i gh t li n e A B .

It was S h o wn in 2 7 4 th a t th e gr a p h of a lin ea r e qua ti o n , with two

un k n o wn numb e rs , is a s tra igh t li n e .

280 . Grap hi cal R epr es entati on of R oots

Co n s i d e r th e e q u ati o n a x b 0 .
()
1
To n d th e gr a p h o f th e r s t m e m e r , p u t y ax b ()
2 b .

b
Th e a s c i s s a o f the p o i n t i n wh i c h th i s gr a p h i n te r s e ts O X, c
mu s t, wh en su b s ti tu te d fo r x in ma k e y 0 .

Th en , i t mak e s th e r s t m e m b er of 1
() e q u a l to z er o , an d is
th e re fo r e a r o ot o f th e g i ve n e q u a ti o n .

H e n c e , the a b s ci s s a o f the p o i n t i n whi ch the gr ap h f o the fi r s t

memb er of a ny li n ea r e qu a ti o n , wi th o ne u nkn o wn n u mb er, i n ter

sects XX i s the ro ot o f the e qu a ti o n .
172 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
C ons id er, fo r e xa mp le , th e e qu a tio n 3x 5 0 .

Th e gr a p h of th e rs t me mb e r wa s fo u nd i n 279 .

Th i s i n te rs e c ts X X at
th e p o i n t A , wh ose ab s ci ssa is a nd th e

r oo t o f th e e qu a ti o n is
2
I
EXERC S E 3 9

V e r ify th e p rin c i p le s of 2 7 8 i n th e fou r fo llo wi ng ms

s y s te

3x+ 4 y 16 . 2x 7y
3
3x+ 4 y 1 6 . 4 x l4 y z 28 .

2x 5y = 0 . 5x+ 6 y = 15 .

6 x 15 y = 30 . 1 5 x + 18 y : 45 .

Plot th e grap h s o f th e rs t me mb ers of th e followi n g e qua ti ons ,

e a c h c as e ve r i fy th e p r in c ip le o f 2 80

5 . 2 x+ 7 =0 . 6 . 5 95
 IN V O L U TION AND EV O L U TION 1 73

XV . INV O L U TI O N A ND E V O L U TI O N

INV OL UTION
28 1 . I n oluti on
v i s th e p r oc es s o f r ai s i n g a n e xp r e s s i o n to
a ny po w wh s
er o e e xp o n e n t i s a p o s i ti v e i n te g e r .

We h a ve a lr e a d y i
g ven 1 30) a r u le fo r ra i s in
g a r a ti o n a l

and i n te g ral m o n o mi a l to a ny p o w e wh r o se ex p on e n t is a

p o s i ti v e i n te g e r .

28 2 . Any P o we r of a Fra cti on .

n
We h av e _
%% x x to n f ac tor s

a x a x to n c f a to r s a
n

b x b x to n fa c t b
ors

T he n , a f ra cti o n ma y b e ra i s ed to a ny p o wer whos e exp o n en t is

a p o s iti ve
i n teg e r b y r a i s i ng b o th nu me r a to r a n d d en o mi n a tor to

the r equ i r e d p ower , a n d d i vid i ng the fi r s t r es ult b y the s econ d .

5 20
2e 5
32 x
Ex .

24 3 y

TH E BINOMIA L THE ORE M

28 3 . A S eri es i s a s u cc e s i n o f te m
s o r s .

A Fi ni te S eri es i s o n e h a
v i n g a li mi te d n umb e r o f te r ms .

An Inni te S eri es i s o n e h a v i n g an un li mi te d numb e r o f te rms .

28 4 . In 131 an d 1 3 5 , we ga v e r ule s f o r n d i n g th e s qu are

or c u b e o f a ny b i n o mi al .

Th e B i nomi l Theo em i s
a r a f o r mu la by me an s of whi c h any

p o w e r o f ab in mi l m y b
o a a e e xp an d e d i nto a s e ri e s .

I n th e p r e s e n t c h a pte r , we s h a ll o n s i d e r th o s e c c as e s o nly i n
w h i c h th e e x p o n e nt i s a p o s i ti ve i n tege r .

285 . Proof of th e Th eor em fo r a P os iti v eI ntegr l Exp a onent .

The f o llo wi n g are o btai n ed by ac tu a l multi p li c ati o n .

1 74 AD V AN CE D O
C UR SE IN A L G E B R A "

- 2 2 2
( -
a I x ) a +2 ax +x ;

-
(
4
a tx ) e tc .

I n th e s e r e s u lts , we o bse r ve th e f o llo wi ng law s

1 . Th e nu m e r o f b te rms i s g r e a te r by 1 th an th e e xp o n e nt o f

th e b inomia l .

2 Th e xp o ne n t f
. i n th e t te m i s th e sa m a th
e o a rs r e s e

e xp n e n t
o f th e b i n o mi al a n d d c e s e s by 1 i n e a c h s u cc e d
o ,
e r a e

i n g te r m .

3 . p o n en t o f x i n th e s e c on d te m i s 1 an d inc e as e s
Th e ex r , r

by 1 i n a h u c e d i n g te m
e c s c e r .

4 Th e . e f ci n t f th e s t te m i s 1 an d th e c e fci en t f
co e o r r , o o

th s e c o n d t m i s th
e x p n nt er f th b i n mi a l e e o e O e o .

5 I f th e
. e f i n t f n y te m b e m ulti p li d by th
co c e xp n e nt
o a r e e e o

of ai n th at t m n d th e ult d i i d d by th
er ,
a xp n n t o f x res v e e e o e

i n th e te m i n c s d by 1 th q u ti e n t wi ll b e th e c fc i n t
'

r re a e ,
e o oe e

o f th e n e xt f o ll w i n g te m o r .

We w i ll n w p by Math emati c al I nd u c ti n (N te 1 34 )

o rove o o ,

th a t th s e la w s h ld f
e a n y p s i ti i nte g a l p o w e
o f +x or o ve r r o a .

A um th e la w s t h old f o (
ss e a wh e e n i s any p s iti ve
o r r o

i nte ge r .

Then n-l Z (

L l)
( g
2 2
) ()
1

x

,
a x a na a x

L et P , Q ,
an d R d e n ote th e c o ef c ie n ts of th e te r ms i n v o lv
i ng +1
,
and res p e c ti vel , y i n th e c
s e on d

me mb e r o f th u s ,
"
(
l
)
n'
a x a na x

n r r I -
l- r 2 r 4-
Pa w r
Qa
n
w r l
Ra n
m 2

Mu lti p ly i n g b o th me mb e r s by a x, we h av e
r r-
I-I l
(
"
w) u +1 n+1
na x Qa
n
w Ra n r
x
r +2
~

a. a

r l r +2
+ a x
n
+ Pa n
x +
1
( l )a
a n x
- n r l
( Q + (Q+ R )a
+l r +2
1 + )a
3
l
u r
w r
x + ()
3
 IN V O L U TION AND E V O LU TION 1 75

Thi s r e s ult is in ac c o r d an e c w ith th e s e co n d , thi r d , an d f o ur th

la ws .

S in ce th e fth la w i s a ss u me d to h o ld w ith re s
p e ct to th e
c
s e o nd me mb e r of we S h all h av e

Q _ P ( n r )

T he r e fo r e ,

Q+ R r +2 r + 2 n r

P + Q Q(n + 1 ) r +2
n r n r

Wh en c e ,

B ut n r i s th e ex p on e n t o f a i n th a t te rm o f (
3) wh ose coef
ci e nt i s P + Q, a n d r 2 i s th e e x p o n e n t o f x i n c re ase d by 1 .

T
he r e f o re , th e fth la w h o ld s i th r e s p e t to w c
H en c e, i f th e law s h o ld f o r any p o we r of a x wh ose ex po
n ent is a p o s i ti ve i nte g e r , th e y a ls o h old f o r a p o w e r wh o se

e xp o n e n ti s g re a te r by 1 .

B ut th e la s h av e w b ee n s h o wn to h ld f ( o or a x
)
4
,
an d hen ce
th e yh o ld f or (a x
)
5
; an d S i n c e th y h ld f e o or (
a x
)
5
,
th e y
h old f o r ( a an d s o o n .

H e nc e ,
th e y h o ld w h e n th e ex p n ent i a ny p o iti i n t ge
o s s ve e r .

By ai d of th e fth law, th e c e f i nts f th e ucc s i e

o c e o s e s v

te r ms a f te r th e se ond,c i n th e s e o n d m mb
c of may b e
e er

r e a di l y fou n d ; thu s ,
-1
"" {i t
t
)a "
(
z
)
n
x x x

a a na
l 5

Thi s r e su lt is c alle d th e B i n o mi a l T h e or e m .

In p lac e of th e d e n o mi n a to r s 1 2, 1 -2 3, e tc i t is c us to mary to

m
.
,

w r i te lg , I3 , e tc . Th e sy mb o l ,
re a d

f a cto r i a l n ,

s ign i e s th e p ro d uc t
of th e n a tura l n u mb e rs fr o m 1 to n i n c lus i ve .
176 AD V AN C E D C O URS E IN A L G E B R A
28 6 . In ex p a n d i n g e xp r e s s i o n s b y th e B i n o mi a l The ore m, i t
is c o nv e n i e n t to O b ta i n th e e xp o n e n ts and
c o e f c i e n ts of th e
te r ms by ai d o f th e la w s of 28 5 , whi ch h a ve been p ro ved to
h o ld f o r a ny p o s i ti v e i n te g ra l ex p o n e n t .

1 . Ex p an d ( a x
)
5
.

Th e e xp o n e n t o f a i n th e r s t te r m i s 5 , an d de c r ea se s by 1
in ea ch s uc c e e d i n g te r m .

Th e e x po ne n t o f x i n th e se c on d te r m i s 1 , an d i n c r e a se s by
1 I n e ac h s ucc e di ng te m e r .

Th e c oe fc i e n t O f th e s t t m i s 1 ; r er of th e c
s e o n d, 5 .

Mu lti p ly i n g 5 th c fc i n t f th
,
e oe e o e s ec o n d te r m,by 4 th e ,

e xp on e n t o f a i n th at te r m, an d di v i d i n g th e re sult by th e

e xp on e n t o f x i n c re a s e d by 1 ,
or 2, we h av e 1 0 as th e e fc i nt co e

of th e th i r d te r m ; an d s o on .

1 ;

Th e n, (a x )
5
a
5
5 a x
4
10 g
a x
2
10 3
d x 5dx + 4

x
5
.

I t will b e o b s e rv e d th a t th e c o efc i e nts of te r ms e q u ally dis ta n t fr om

th e ends o f th e e x p a n s i o n a r e e qu a l th is la w wi ll b e p r o v e d i n 2 88 .

Thu s th e
c o e f c i e n ts o f th e latte r h alf o f a n e xp a n s i o n may b e wr itte n
out fro m th e rs t h a lf .

I f th e c
s e on d te r m of th e bi n o mi al i s n ega ti ve, it s h o u ld be
en cl o s e d , n e g ati v e S i g n a n d a ll, i n p a r e n th e s e s e for e a p l in g b py
th e la ws ; in re d u c in g ca ,
re mu s t b e tak e n to a p l th e p r i n i py c
p le s of 1 30 .

2 . Ex p an d (1 x
)
6

< 1 wr = [ 1
er
-1 5 x
) -1 5 o
1 4 -l- 20
,
-1 3 -x
)
3

-x 4 x 5 -x 6
) +6 o
1 ) I )
6x 45 6
+ 15
2
3
1 + 15 x 20 x x 6x + x .

A
.

If th e rs t te rm of th e b i n omi a l i s a nu mb e r e xp r e s s e d in r ab ic

nu me r als i t is c o n ve n i e n t to wr i te th e e xp o n e nts a t rs t wi th o u t r e due

ti o n th e r e s ult s h o u ld a f te r wa r d s b e r e d uc e d to i ts si mp le s t f o rm .

If e i th e r te r m of th e b in o mi al h a s a c
o e f c i e n t o r e xp o n e n t

o th e r th an un i t y it , s h o uld be en clo s e d in p a r e n th e s e s b e fo r e

a pp l y i ng th e la w s .
 IN V O L UTIO N AND EV L UT O N O I 177

3 . 3m
E xp an d ( 2
2 n
3 4
) .

(
3 m 2
2 m) 2
(
2

(
3 m) 2 4
s m)(
4 ( 2 2 3
A
)
3
6(
3 m ) (2
2 2
m 2

4(
3 m ) (2 n ) 2
( )
2 n
3 3 3 4

81 m 8
21 6 m n
6 3
2 1 6 mm 96 m n
6 9
16 n

.

A p oly n o mi a l may b e e xp r e s s e d a s a bi n o mi a l, an d rai s e d to

any p o s i ti v e i n te g ral p o w e by r c
s u c es si ve a pp li c ati ons of th e
B i n o mi al The o re m .

B ut f o r c se on d or th i r d p o we r s, th e meth od s of 1 34 an d

1 36 a r e s h o rte r .

4 . E xp a n d ( ar 2 x

2 4
<
w 2 w >
2

I
(
2
+ 4(
4 3
)(
2 2
x 2 x
) x 2 x 2) 6(
x 2

H er 2 w
><
x8 8 7
24 x 6 5 4
x + 32 x + 16 x

8 6 6 x
(
5 4
)
3
x x + 12 8 x

4 32( 2 -2 x
+ 24 (
x x
) + 1 6
x8 8 x7 6 5
56 x4
+ 16 x + 16 x

28 7 . To fin d the r th or g e n er a l ter m in the exp a n s i o n of (a

Th e f ollo wi ng la ws h o ld fo r a ny te r m i n the ex p an s i o n o f

in e qu ati o n 285

1 . Th e ex p o ne n t of x i s le s s by 1 th a n th e n um e r O f b th e
te r m .

2 . Th e e x po n e n t O f a mi nu s th e e xp o n e n t o f x
is n .

3 . Th e la s t fa to r c o f th e n u me r a to r i s g r ea te r by 1 th a n th e

e xp o ne n t o f a .

4 . Th e la s t f a to r c of th e d e n o mi n ato r i s th e sa me as th e
e xp o n e n t o f x .

Th e r e f o r e , i n th e rth te r m, th e e xp o n e n t o f x w ill b e r 1 .

Th e e x p o n e nt o f a w i ll b e n (r or n r 1 .

Th e la s t f a c to r of th e n u me ra to r wi ll b e n r 2 .

Th e la st f a to r c of th e d e n o mi n a to r wi ll b e r 1 .
178 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
H en c e, th e rth te rm

1 -2 -3 -(r -1
()
1
)
I n n d i n g a ny te r m o f a n e xp an s i o n , it i s c o n v e ni e n t to o btai n
th e c
o e f c i e n t a n d e xp o n e n ts o f th e te r ms by th e ab o ve laws .

Ex . F i n d th e 8 th te r m of
(
3 a b 5 n
) .

We h av e , (
3 a b 5 ll
) a
)
Th e e xp o n e n t o f N) i s 8 1, or 7 .

Th e e xp o n e n t o f ( )
3 a i s 1 1 7, or 4 .

T h e r s t f a to r c Of th e nu me ra tor i s 1 1 , an d th e la st fa to r c
4 1, or 5 .

Th e la s t f a to r c of th e d e n omi n ato r i s 7 .

11 -1 0 9 -8 -7
Th e n th 6 8 th te m b
o
4 6 7
3 )
'

81
330 ( a

) 11 35
) 2 67 3 0 3 3 36
.

If th e s eco n d te rm of th e b i n o mi a l i s n e ga ti ve , i t s h o uld be e n clo s e d ,

S ig n a n d a ll, i n p ar e n th e ses b e fo r e a p p ly i ng th e la ws .

If e i th e r te rm o f th e b i n o mia l h as a c o e fc i e nt o r e xp o n e nt o th er th a n
u n i ty , i t S h o u ld b e e nclo s e d i n p are n th eses b e fo re a pp ly i ng th e la ws .

28 8 . M ulti p ly i n g b oth te
ms o f the c o e fc i e n t, i n
r 28 7
by th e p ro d u ct o f the n atura l numb e rs fr o m 1 to n r +1
i n c lu s i ve , th e c o efc i e nt o f th e r th te r m b e c o me s

l x1 -2 (u r
I r u o
+ 1)

To n d th e c oe fc i e n t of th e rth te r m f ro m the en d , whi ch

sin ec th e nu mb e r of te r ms i s n 1 ; i s th e [ n (r 2)] th f ro m
th e b e g i nn i n g , we p ut i n th e a o v e f o r mula n b r 2 fo r r .

Th e n , th e c o e fc i e n t o f th e r th te r m f r o m th e e n d i s

H en c e , i n the exp a n s i o n o f the co ef ci e nts o f terms

equi d i s ta n t f rom the en d s of the e xp a n s i o n a r e equa l .
 IN V O L U TION AND EV O L U TION 179

"
28 9 . Prop ert i es of Coefci ents i n th e E xp ans i on of ( a x)
1 . P utti n g i n 28 5, a :1 an d x 1 , w e h a ve

n u
( 1
+1
L 2

T ha t i s ,
the su m of the coe i c i en ts ,
i n the e xp a n s i o n o f
e qua l to

II . P utti n g In a 1 an d x 1 , we h av e

I
_3

L2 Q
T hat i s, the su m of the co e i ci en ts f
o th e o dd ter ms i s equa l to
the su m of the co e f
f i ci e n ts of the eve n ter ms .

29 0 . Th e Greate s t Coefci e nt i n th e E x pa ns i on of (a
By 2 8 7 , th e c o e f i c ent o f .
th e ( r 1 )th te r m, i n th e e xp a n

sio n o f (a is

L:
7

T hi s i s btai ne d by multi p ly i n g
o th e c oe fc i ent of th e r th

i
n u
te m by
r or

Th e latte r ex p re s si on de c r e a s e s as r in c re a s e s .

It i s e v i d ent th at th e c
s u c e ss i v e c
o e f c i e n ts , c o mme n ci n g
w ith th e rs t te rm, wi ll i n c r ea s e nu me r i c ally so lon g as

n r +1

is > 1 .

I . p
S u p o se n e ven ; an d le t u = 2 m, wh e re m is a p o siti ve
i n te g e r .

n +1 2m 1
Th e n ,
r
be c o me s
r

7
'
1 80 AD V AN C ED C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
2 m r + 1 m
If r = m + 1, b c e o me s ,
and is < 1
m+ 1
.

T he n ,
th e g r e a te s t c
oe f c i e nt will b e wh e n r m 1 .

A s th e mb e r O f
nu te r ms i n th e ex p an si o n is 2 m 1 , i t f ol
lo ws th a t th e mi d d le te r m h a s th e g r e a te s t coef cien t .

II . S up po s e n O dd ; an d le t n 2m 1, wh e re m is a p o s i
ti v e i n te g e r .

2m 7 +2
Th b c me s
e n, e o
2
If r z m, an d is > 1 .

m
2 m +2 b
211
3
r
If r m + 1, eco me s ,
and e q u als 1 .

2 m +2 m
If r m + 2,
r
bec o me s an d is < 1 .

r m+2
Th er e w ill th en b e two te r ms h a v i ng th e gr e ate st co ef c i e n t ;
tho s e wh e re r m 1 a nd r m 2 .

EXE RC S E 4 0 I
E xp an d th e fo llo wi ng
2 3
5
)
a b 5.
1 . 4 . a b
2 C3

2 6

f)
3 7 n4 7
.
5 .
(x 30 .

ny

m 4

)
2 5 2
2

I
5 2 6 5

(w )
a x n
y s
)
2
6 1 + 95 +
m
.

e n

E xp an d th e follo wi ng to ve te rms

(m
2 2
10 .
(
x y)
9 . 11 .
(ab 12 .

E xp a n d th e f ollo wi ng

13 .
(2 x
2
x (2 x 2
+ x

14 .
(4 a
2 3 ab b 2 3
) .
(1
3 x
2
15 .
(1 3 x +2 x 2
)
4
. .
(x
Fi n d th e

19 . 8 th term of (a 20 . l 0 th te rm of (1
 IN V O L UTION AND EV O L U TION 1 81

9 th te rm of (
a
2 23 . 7 th te r m o f (x
2
2y 3
)
12

Y
3 b M id d l
(
a
5th ter m of .
24 . e te r m of m2
b 2 a 3
16

(
n
Te rm mvolvmg x l4
m x4
x
-
13

(
1
Term i nv olvi ng x11 i n 2 x2
3
3x

EV OL U TION
29 1 . E v oluti on i s th e p oce ss
r of n di ng a n y r o ot 1 57 ) of

an e x p r e s s i o n .

We s h a ll c o n s i d e r i n th e p r e s e nt ch ap te r th o s e c a s es o nly i n wh ich b o th
th e e x p re s s i o n a n d its r o o t a re r ati o n al

We h a ve a lr e ad y g i v e n f o r n di n g th e p r in i al
1 6 6) a r ule cp
r o ot o f a r a ti o n al a n d i n te g r al mo n o mi a l, h i c h i s a p e rfec t w
p ow er of th e sa me d e gr e e as th e i n d e x of th e r e qu i r e d r o o t .

29 2 . If m an d n ar e p o si ti ve i nte g e r s, we h av e, by 1 64 ,

{ 7 67 55
a

.

W h e n c e, by { /(a y / n
t
1 57 n n
(i t a
y
u

T hi s me th o d i s p re fe ra ble to th at of 1 66, if th e ex p r e s s i on

whose ro ot i s to b e f o un d i s a p o w e r of a n u mb e r wh i ch i s a pe r

f ee t p o we r of th e sa me d e gr e e as th e i n d e x of th e ro ot .

293 . Any R oot of a Fra cti on .

L et n be a p o s i ti v e i n te ge r, an d a an d 6 nu mb er s w h i ch
p e rf e c t n th
p o we rs .

V I) Xb =
.

B y 1 6 5, X

D i vi d in g bo th me mb e s by r { 7 b,
1 82 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
T h en t n d ,
o a ny r o o t o f a c
f r a ti on , e ach of wh o se te r ms i s
a p e fe c t p o w e
r r of th e sa me d e gr e e as th e i n d e x of th e r e qu i re d
r o o t, extra ct the r e qu i r e d r o o t o f b o th nu mera tor a nd d eno mi na tor,
a nd d ivi d e the r s t r es u lt b y the s eco n d

Ex .

9
64 c

S QU AR E R OOT OF A POL YNOM IAL

0

29 4 . In 1 68 , w e g av e a r ule f o r n d i n g th e s q u a re r o o t o f

a tr i n o mi a l p e rf e c t s qu ar e ; an d , in 1 7 O, of an e x p r es s i o n o f

th e f o r m

whi ch c o uld b e s e en by in s p ec ti n to b e a p e fe ct s quare

,
o ,
r .

We w i ll n w n i d th me th o d of n di ng the s qua e
o co s er e r r oo t

o f a n y p ly n mi al p e f c t q u a e
o o r e s r .

L et A B b e r ati o n al a n d i nte gr al e xp re s s i on s
an d

a n d s u pp o s e th e m to b e arr an g e d i n th e s a m e o rd e r of p o we r s

o f s o me c o mmo n le tte r , x .

L e t th e e x p o n e n t o f x i n th e las t te rm o f A b e g r ea te r , o r
le s s , th an i ts e x p o n e n t i n th e r s t te rm o f B , acc o r d i n g a s
A an d B a r e a rr an g e d i n d e s ce nd i n g , o r as c e ndi n g, p o w e rs
of x .

By 1 3 1 ,

W hen c e, A
( B) 2
A 2
2 AB B 2
.

I f th e ex p re s s i o n 2 A B + B b e a rr an g e d i n th e s a me
2
o rd e r

of p o we rs o f x as A a n d B , i ts r s t te rm mu s t b e t i w ce th e

p r o d u c t o f th e r s t te rm of A an d th e r s t te r m o f B .

H e n c e , th e r s t te r m of B may b e o ta i n e d b by d i v i d i n g th e
fi r s t te rm of 2 AB B 2
by w t i c e th e r s t ter m of A .

rs t te r m A, d is cus s i on , we

B y th e e xp r e ss i o n

of i n th e a b o ve

me an th e su m o f a ll th e te rms o f A c o nta i n in g th e
.
high es t, or lowe s t,
p o we r of x, a ccord i ng as A is a r ran ge d i n d e s c e n d i ng , or as c e nd ing ,

p o we rs o f 90 .

Thus , if A ax4 b x4 0 x3, th e rst term o f A is (

a b )x .
 IN V O L U TION AND EV O L UTION 1 83

A simi la r mea n ing i s a ttac h e d to th e e xp re ss i on s

las t te rm of A,

an d

rs t te rm o f B
.

29 5 . We w ill n o w c o n si d e r an e xa mp le .

R e q ui r e d th e s q u a re r o o t o f

24 x 12 x
' 3

Ar ra n gi n g th e e xp r e s s i o n a c o rd i n g c to th e d e s c en din g p w e s o r

of x, we ar e to n d an e xp r e s s i o n w hi ch, w h en s qua d w i ll re ,

p ro d uc e 4 3 2
4 x 12 x 7 x + 24 x+ 16 .

It is e v i d e nt fro m 1 34 th at th e r s t te r m of th e e xp r e s s i on

i s th e s q uar e o f th e te rm c o n ta i n i n g th e h i g h e s t p o we r of x in
th e s qu ar e r o o t .

H en c e, th e te r m o
c o n ta i n i n g th e hi gh e s t p we o r of x i n th e
s qu a r e r o o tmu s t b e th e s q u are or 2 x
4
r o ot o f 4 x ,
2
.

D e n o ti n g th e te r m o f th e r o o t alr e ad y f o un d by A , an d th e
r e ma i n d e r o f th e r o o t
,
a rr a n g e d i n d e s c e n di n g p o w e r s o f x,

by B , we h a ve

A
( + B )
Z A =42
x
1 2 x 7 x 3 i -24:x
+ 16 -
( )
2 x
2 2

- 1 2 x3
, ()
1

By 29 4 , th e r s t te rm of B may b e o bt ai n e d by di v i d i n g
th e rs t te r m o f 12 x
3
,
by tw i ce A, or 4 x
2
; th a t i s ,
th e

rs t te r m o f B i s 3 x .

H en c e , th e r st two te r ms of th e r oot a r e 2 x
2
3 x .

D e n o ti n g th i s e xp r e s s i o n by A '
,
an d th e re ma i n d e r of th e
r o o t, a r r a n g e d in d es c en din g p o w e r s o f x, by B '
,
we h ave
"
A
4 x -1 2 7 -- 24 x -1 6 -3 x 2
)
3 2
913 90 l
'

3 4 3 2
(
4 1 2 x)
4
+ 24 x + 1 6 9
2
4 x l2 x 7 x x x +

()
2

By 29 4 , th e r s t te r m of B

may b e o b tai ne d by di v i di n g
th e rs t te rm of 1 6 x2
,
by tw i ce th e r s t te r m o f A '
,

r s t te r m -4
2
or 4 x ; th at i s , th e of B
'
is .

H enc e , th e r s t thr e e te rms of th e ro o t are 2x 2

3x 4 .
1 84 A DV AN C E D C O URS E IN A L G E BR A
D e no ti n g thi s by A
e xp r e s s i o n
"
, a nd th e re ma i n d e r of the
sc n d in g p w by "
r o o t, a r r a n g e d in de e o e r s o f x, B ,
we h a ve

4 33
4
1 2 gri m -7 x2 -
J -2 4 x
f + l6 3x
- 3 2 3 2
( x
4 4
4 x 12 x 7 x + 24 x+ 1 6 4 12 x 7 x + 24 x+ 1 6
)
0 .

Hen c e ,
th e r e q u i r e d s qu ar e r o o t is 2 x
2
3 x 4 .

L e t th e la s t te rm A be 0
29 6 . of .

T h e n , A = A + C, 0 2
'
an d .

The re f o r e ,

-A
Z
= (A + B ) 2 A 2 2 AO '
0 2

A 2 A
( + G)C
'
] 2 .

I n li ke ma n n e r, i f C d e n o te s th e la s t te r m
of

A "2
A 2
= A
[( _Am A 0
( 9 ;
r 2
( + ] 2 '
0 1
'
B ) B )
an d s o o n .

Th at i s, any r e ma i n d e r a f te r th e r s t may b e o b ta i n ed by
s ub t r a c ti n
g f r o m th e r e e d i n g r e ma i n d e r p c a n e xp r e s s i o n wh i c h
is fo r me d by
d ou li n g th e p a rt o f th e b r o ot y f un d
a lr ea d o ,

a dd i n g to i t th e n e xt te r m of th e r o o t, a nd multi p ly i n g th e
r e s ul t by th i s te r m .

Th e e xp r e s s i o ns 2 A , 2 A, e tc .
,
a re c a lle d tr i a l-d i vi s ors , a n d 2 A C,
2A
'
C
, e tc .
, co mp le te d i vi s o rs .

29 7 . It i s c ust mar y to a r r an g e th e w o r k
o as f o llo ws ,
th e co m
p e te d i v i so r s
l a n d r e ma i n d e r s b e i n g f o r me d by th e r ule o f 29 6

4 x
l2 x3
7 x + 24 2
x
2
3 x 4
x + 16 | 2

1 st R em .

4 x
2 6 x 4 2d R e m .

To av o i d n ee d le s s r e p e titi o n , th e la s t th r e e te rms of th e rs t re mai n

and th e las t two te r ms of th e s e c o nd ,
'

ma y b e o mi tte d .
 IN V O L UTION AND E V O L U T ION 1 85

We th e n h a v e th e f o llo wi n g r u le f or e x tr a c ti ng th e s qu are

r o ot o f a p o l yn o mi a l p e r fe c t s q ua r e :
Ar ra nge the exp r e s s i o n a cco r d i ng to the p o wer s o f so me letter .

E xtr a ct the s qu a r e r o o t o f the f i r s t te rm wr i te the res u lt

as the fi rs t te rm o f the ro o t, a nd s u b tr a ct i ts s qu a r e f ro m the g i ven

exp r e s s i o n , a r r a ng i ng the re ma i n d er i n the sa me o rd er o f p o wer s
as the g i ve n e xp r e s s i o n .

D iv i d e the rs t ter m f
o the re ma i n d er b y twi ce the r s t ter m of
the r o o t, a n d a dd the qu o ti e nt to the p a r t of th e r o o t a lre a d y f o un d ,

a n d a ls o to the tr i a l-d iv i s o r .

M u ltip ly the co mp le te
d i v i s or b y the ter m of the r o o t la s t o b ta i n e d ,

a n d s u b tr a ct the p r o d u ct f r o m th e r e ma i n d er

If o the r ter ms re ma i n, p r o ceed b ef o r e, d o u b li ng the p a rt

as o f
the r o o t a lrea d y f o und f or the n ext tr i a l-d i vi s o r .

If th e e xp r es s i o n h a d b ee n wr i tte n

l6 + 2 4 x 7 x2 1 2 x3 + 4 x4 ,

th e s q ua r e root wo uld h a v e b e e n ob ta in e d i n th e f orm 4 3x 2 x2 ,

wh i c h i s th e n e ga ti ve o f 2 x2 3x 4 .

2 98 . W i th th e n o tati o n o f 2 96,

2A 2A 2 C .

I n li k e ma n n e r, 2 A
2A '
2 C ;
and so on .

Th at i s, a ny tr i a l-d i vi s o r , af te r the r s t, is e qu a l to the p r e ce d

r i ng co mp lete d ivis or wi th i ts la st term d ou b led .

S QU AR E R OOT OF '

AN AR ITHM E TIC AL N U MB ER
Th e te rm
nu mb er ,

i n th e fo llo wi ng d i s c u ss i on , s ig ni es an i nte gr a l
or d e c i ma l p e r fe c t s q u a r e , e x p re s s e d in A ra b i c n u me ra ls .

29 9 . Th e s qu ar e r o o t o f 1 00 i s 1 0 ; of 1 0 0 00 i s 1 0 0 ; e tc .

H e n c e , th e s qua r e r oo t of a nu m b er b tw
e ee n 1 a nd 1 00 i s
b e twe e n 1 and 1 0 ; th e s q ua re r o o t o f a nu m e r b b e tw e en 1 00
and 1 0 0 00 i s b e twe e n 1 0 a n d 1 0 0 ; e tc .

Th a t i s , th e s q u are root o f an i n te ge r of one or two d i gi ts

c on t ai n s o ne d i gi t ; th e s qu a re roo t o f an i nte g e r of thre e or

f o ur di gi ts c o nta i n s two d i gi ts ; e tc .
1 86 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
He nce , b e p la ced o ve r eve ry s eco n d d i g i t of a n in teger,
if a p o i n t
b eg i n n i ng a t the un i ts p la ce, the n umb er of p o i n ts s ho ws the n u mb er

of d ig its i n i ts s qu a r e ro o t .

300 . If a is an c
i nte g ra l p e rfe t s qu a r e , th e n
2
wh e re n is
10
a ny p o s i ti ve i nte g e r, i s a ls o a p e r fe c t s q u a r e .

mb e r w ho e d c
a
B ut ma l p a r t
,

is a nu s ec i o n ta i n s a n eve n

nu mb e r of d i g i ts , an d w h i ch d i ffe rs fr o m a onl
y i n the p o s i ti o n

of i ts d e c i ma l p o i n t .

H e nc e , p if
b e p la ce ad ov e o in t
r ever y s e c o n d d i g i t of a n y
n u mb er , b eg i nn i ng a t the u n i ts

p la ce a n d e x t e n d i n g i n e i the r .

d i r e cti o n, the n umb e r of p o i n ts s ho ws the n u mb er of d igi ts i n i ts

s qua r e ro o t .

30 1 . L et a, b, an d c r e p re s e n t p o sit ive i n te g e rs .

We h ave,
--c
f
2
a - b
( l l a

2 a 2 a 2 a

T hat i s , i f the re ma i n d e r o bt ai ne d by su b t a c ti n g
r a
2
f ro m

(a b c
2
) b e d i v ide d by 2 th e q u o ti e n t i s g re a te r th a n b
a, .

I n lik e ma n n e r , i f th e r e ma i n d e r o ta i n e d b s u tr a ti n g by b c a
2

fr o m ( a
2
b ) b e di v i d e d by 2 a ,
th e q u o ti e n t i s g re a te r th a n b
'

30 2 . We w i ll n o w c o n s i d e r a n e xa mple .

R e q ui r e d th e s q ua r e r o o t o f 1 07 19 07 6 .

P o i n ti n g th e nu mb e r i n ac c o rd an c w ith
e th e r ule o f 2 99
we n d th a t th e r e are f o u r d i g i ts i n i ts s quare r oot .

S i n c e th e b nu m e r is b etw een 9 0 00 00 0 a nd 1 60 0 0 00 0 , th e
s qu a r e r oo t i s b e tw e en 3 0 00 a nd 4 0 00 .

T h a t i s , th e r s t d i g i t of th e r o ot is 3 .

L et a r e p re s e nt th e nu mb e r 3 0 0 0 ; b th e c
s e on d d i gi t of th e
r o o t, mu lti p li e d by 1 00 ; a nd c th e n um b er c o n s i s ti n g of th e

la s t two d i g i ts of th e r oo t i n th e i r ord e r .

The n, a b c r e p r e s e n ts th e r oo t ; n ow
 IN V O L U TION AND EV O L UTION 1 87

By 3 0 1 , th i s i s gr e a te r th an b
H nc
e e , b i s a mu lti p le o f 1 00 le s s th an

As s u me , th e n , b 200 .

T hen ,
r sth e
t tw o d i g i ts o f th e r o o t w o u ld b e 3 2 .

L e t a r e p r e s e n t th e nu mb e r 3 20 0 ; b th e th i r d d i gi t o f th e
'

r o o t, mu lti p li e d by 1 0 ; a n d c th e la s t d i g i t o f th e r oo t

Th e n, a

b
0

re
p r e s e n ts th e r oot ; n ow

74 .

6 4 00

By 3 0 1 , th i s i s g r e a te r th an b .

H nc
e e , b i s a mu lti p le o f 1 0 le s s th an

As s ume , th e n, b = 7 0
.

Th en , th e r s t thr ee d i g i ts o f th e r o o t w o u ld b e 3 2 7 .

r e p r e s e n t th e n u m b e r 3 2 7 0 , a n d b
L et " th e la s t d i git
a of

th e roo t .

Th en , a

b
re p r e s e n ts th e r oo t n o w,

n
(
a by a
rr
1 0 7 1 90 7 6 1 0 69 2 900 2 61 7 6
4
2 "
a 654 0 654 0

By 30 1 , thi s i s gr eate r th an b
assu me , th e n , b
4 .

S in c e (3 27 1 0 7 1 90 7 6 , th e re q u i r e d s q u a r e r o o t i s 3 27 4 .

30 3 . We h av e with th e n o tati o n o f 3 0 2,
2 2 2
a (a b + c
) (a + b)
2 2 2
(
a +b a ab b
a2
]
S i mi larl y
a
(
2

Th at i s, a ny re mai n d e r a fte r r s t may b e o b tai n e d by

th e
s ub t
r a c ti n g f r o m th e p r e c e d i n g r e m a i n d e r a n u mb e r w hi c h

b
i s f o rme d b y d o u li n g th e p a rt o f th e r o o t a lr e ad y bt i n d
o a e ,

a d d i n g to i t th e n e xt r o o t d i g i t f o llo ed a s ma n w by y c i ph e s s r a

th e re a re d i g i ts i n th e re ma i n d e r o f th e r o o t, a n d mu lti p ly i n g
th e r e s u lt by th e l a tte r n u mb e r .

Th e nu mb ers r e p r ese n te d by 2. a, 2 a

,
e tc .
, a re c alle d tri a l-d i vi s o rs ,
a nd th o s e r ep r e s e n te d by 2 a b, 2 a

b
, e tc .
, co mp lete d i v is or s .
1 88 A DV AN CE D O
C U R S E IN A L G E BR A
30 4 . Th e w o rk of th e e xa mp le 3 0 2 may b e a r r an g e d
of

as f o llo w s, th e co mp le te d i vi s o r s a n d r e ma i n d e r s be i n g f o r me d

by th e r ule O f 303

2
a 9 0 00 0 00
l s t Co m p . D iv .
,
6

2 d Co mp D i v . .
,

3 d C o mp D i v . .
,
65 4 0

O mi tti n g th e ci ph e rs f o r th e s ak e o f b y
r ev i t ,
an d c on d e n s mg
th e o pe r ati o n , it w ill s tan d as f ollo ws
1 07 19 07 6 3 27 4

We th e n h a v e th e f o llo wi n g r u le fo r e xtr a cting th e s qu a r e

r o ot o f a n i n te gr al p e rf e t c s q u ar e

S ep a ra te the nu mb er i n to p er io ds b y p o i n ti ng e very s e co n d d ig i t,

b egi nn i ng wi th the p la ce un i ts .

F i n d t h e g r ea te s t s q u a r e i n the lef t-ha n d p e r i o d , a nd wr i te i ts

s qua r e r o o t a s th e
r s t d i g i t of the r oo t; s u b tr a c t the s qu a r e of the

r s t r o o t-d i g it f ro m the lef t-ha n d p er i o d , a nd to the res u lt a nn e x

the n ext p er i o d .

D ivi d e thi s re ma i n d er, o mi tti ng the la s t d i gi t, b y twi ce the p a r t

the the qu o ti en t to the r o o t, a n d
of r oo t a lr e a d y f o u n d , a n d a n n ex

a ls o to the tr i a l-d i v i s or .

M u ltip ly the mp le te d i vi s or b y the r o o t-d ig i t la s t o b ta in ed ,

co a nd

s u b tr a ct the p r o d u ct f r o m th e r e ma i n d e r .
 IN V O L UTION AND EV O L U T ION 1 89

If o the r p er i o d s re ma in , p ro ceed asb ef o r e , d o u b li ng the p a rt

of the ro o t a lrea d y f o un d f or the n ext tr i a l-d i v i s o r .

N o te 1 . It so me time s h a p p e ns th a t, on multip ly ing a co mp le te d i vis or

b y th e d ig it o f th e r o o t las t O b ta i ne d , th e p ro d u c t i s gr e a te r th a n th e
r e ma i n d e r I n s uc h a c a s e , th e d ig i t o f th e r o o t las t O b ta i ne d i s to o gr e a t,
.

and o n e le s s mus t b e s u b s ti tute d fo r i t .

N o te 2 . If a n y ro o t-
d igit i s O, a n ne x O to th e tri a l-d i vi so r , an d an n e x

to th e re ma i nd e r th e n e xt p e ri o d .

30 5 wi ll n
. We ow sh o wh ow to O b ta i n th e s qu a r e r o o t O f a

nu mb whi ch i s n
er ot i n te gr al .

R e q ui re d th e s qu a re r o o t o f

293)

Th e wo rk may be '

a r r a n ge d a s f o llo ws
4 0 4 49 024

S in c e 1 4 i s n o t c o nta in e d i n 4 , we write 0 as th e s e c o nd r o o t-d ig i t , in

th e a b o ve e xa mp le w e th e n a nn ex 0 to th e tr i a l-di vi s o r 1 4 , a n d a nn e x t o

th e re ma i nd e r th e n e xt p eriod , 9 0 .

H e nc e , if a ny n u mb e r b e p o i n te d i n a c c or d a n c e w i th th e r u le

Of 300 , the r u le O f 3 0 4 m a b e a li e d t o th e r e s u lt, an d

y pp
th e d e c i mal p o i n t i n s e r te d i n i ts p r o p e r p o s i ti o n i n th e ro o t .

306 . Afte r u + i d i gi ts o f th e s q uare r o ot of an i n te g ral

p e rf e c t s qu a r e h av e e e n f o u n db by th e r u le Of 30 4 , n mo r e
m a y b e O b ta i n e d by s i mp le di v i s i o n on l y ,
s u pp o s i n g 2 n 1 to
b e th e wh o le n u mb e r .

F o r le t a re
p r e s e nt th e i n te g e r wh o se r s t n+ 1 d i g i ts a r e
th e r s t n 1 d i g i ts of th e r oo t i n th e i r o r d e r, a n d w h o s e la s t

n di g i ts ar e c i ph e r s ; and le t b re
p re s e nt th e i n te g er c o n s i s ti n g

Of th e las t n d i g i ts of th e ro ot in th e i r o r d er .

Th e n , a b re
p r e s e n ts th e r o ot .
1 90 AD VA N C E D C OUR S E IN A L GE B R A
We h av e , ( a b) 2
a
2
2 ab b 2

W hen ce ,
2 a 2 a

T h at i s, (
a + b)
2 2
a , di v i d e d by 2 a, w i ll g i v e th e las t n
2
b
d i gi ts Of th e r o o t, in c r ea s e d by o

fZ a
2

We w i ll n o w p rov e th a t
5 a
i s le s s th an
5 so th a t, by neg

le c ti n g th e re mai n d e r ari s i ng f r o m th e d i v i s i o n, we O b ta i n th e
pa rt O f th e roo t r e qui re d .

y
B y h p o th e s i s , b c o n ta i n s n d i g its .

T h e n , b c a nn o t c o n ta i n m o re th a n 2 n d i g its
2
.

c
B ut a o n ta i n s 2 n 1 di gi ts .

2 2

5
b
He nc e ,
i s le s s th an 1 ; a nd th e r e fo r e i s le s s th a n
a 5 a

I f , th e n , the ( +n 1 )th r e ma i n d e r b e d i v i d e d t i c e th e by w
p a rt o f th e r o o t a lr e a d y
fo u n d , th e r e ma i n i n g n d i g i ts Of th e
ro ot may b e b
O tai n e d .

The me th o d ap p li e s to th e s q ua re r o o t o f a n y nu mb e r .

Ex . R e qu i r e d th e s q u ar e ro o t O f 63 8 8 7 61 7 6 .

63 8 3 76 17 6

35 23
3 0 31

We O b tai n th e r st th r e e d i g i ts of th e ro o t by th e o r d i n a ry

me th o d , and th e o th e r two by th e me th o d Of 3 0 6 ; th a t i s ,
b y d i v i d i n g th e thi r d re ma i n d e r , by twi c e th e p a rt o f

th e r o o t a lr e a d y O bt ai n e d , o r

Th e r e qu i re d r o ot is . 0 7 6, or
 INV O L UTION AND EV O L U TION 1 91

CU E R B OOT OF A POL YNOMIAL

30 7 . In 1 7 6, we g a v e a me th o d fo r n d i ng th e cube ro o t

o f a ny e x p r e s s i o n O f th e f o r m

a
3 2 2
or 3 a b +3 ab b 3
.

We wi ll n o w c o n s i d e r th e me th o d of n di n g th e cu b e ro o t o f

a ny p o l noy mi a l p e rfe c t cu be .

L et A an d B h a ve th e sa me mea n i n g s as in 294 .

By 1 35 , A
( A 3
3A B Q
3 AE 2
B 3
.

Wh e nc e ,
A
( B) 3
A 3
3A B Q
3 AB 2
B 3
.

I f th e e xp re s s i o n 3AB 2
3 AB 2
B be 3
a r r a n ge d i n th e sa me
o rd e r o f p o we rs o f x a s A and B , i ts r s t te r m mu s t b e th re e
ti me s th e p r o d uc t of th e s q u a re O f th e r s t te r m of A a nd th e
r s t te r m O f B .

Hen c e,r s t te r m o f B may b e Ob ta i n e d by d i vi d i n g th e

th e
rs t te r m o f 3 A B
3 AB + B by th r ee ti me s th e s qu a re O f
2 3

th e r s t te r m o f A .

3 08 . We w i ll n o w c o n i d e s r a n e xa mp le .

R e qu i r e d th ub oo t O f
e c e r

3 5 6
40 x 6x 64 + x 96 x .

Ar ran gi n g th e e xp r e s s i o n a c o r d i n g c to th e d e s c e nd i n g p o we s
r

O f x, we a re to n d an e xp r e s s i o n whi ch, wh en cu b ed, will

p rod u e c x
6
6 x
5
+ 40 x
3
96 x - 64 .

It i s e v id en t f ro m 1 36 th a t th e r s t te r m Of th e e xp r e s s i o n

i s th e c ub e Of th e te r m c o n ta i n i n g th e hi gh e s t p o w er of x i n th e
c ub e ro o t .

H e n c e , th e te r m c o n ta i n i n g th e h i gh e s t p o we r o f x i n th e c ub e
r o ot mu s t b e th e c ub e r o ot o f x

,
or x

.

D e n o ti n g th e te r m of th e r o o t a re a l d y f ou n d by A , a nd th e
re mai n d e r Of th e r oo t, a rr a n g e d i n d e s c e n d i n g p o we rs o f x, by
B , we h a v e

A A3 =
x 9 6 x 64
( ()
3 5 3 7 3
+ B ) x 6 x + 40 x

6 x
5
+ 40 x
3 - 96 x 64 .
1 92 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
By 3 0 7 , th e r s t te r m of B may b e O tai n ed b
d i v i d in g by
th e r s t te r m Of 6x, 5
by th r e e ti me s th e s qu a r e O f A, o r
3 x
4
; th a t i s , t h e r s t te rm Of B is 2 x .

H en ce , th e rs t tw o te r ms of th e r o o t are x
2
2 x .

by A mai n d e r

D e n o ti n g th i s e xp re s s i o n ,
an d th e re of th e
r o o t, a r r a n g e d i n des c e n d in g p o w e r s O f x, by B
,
we h a v e
3
(A '
B ) A 13

x6 6 5
40 x 96 x 3 - x2 3
x + 64 ( 2 x
)
6 6 3
x
6
(
5
+ 40
4
x x x 96 64 x 6 x
5
+ 12x
3
8x)
1 2 x + 4 8 x 9 6 x 64
4 3
.
()
2

T h e n, th e r s t te r m Of B may b e O ta i n e d
'
b
d i v i d i n g th e by
r s t te rm o f 1 2 x , by 4
th r e e ti me s th e s qu a r e o f th e r s t
te r m O f A , o r 3 x ; th a t i s , th e r s t te r m o f B i s
4
4 .

H e n c e , th e r s t th r e e te r ms o f th e r o o t a re x2
2x 4 .

D e n o ti n g th i s e xp r e s s i o n b y A
,
an d th e re ma i n d er of th e
r oo t, ar r a n ge d in des c en d i n g p we
o r s o f x, by B
,
we h av e
3
A
(
ll
B ) A 113

x -9 6 x - x2
(
6 5 3
6 x + 40 x 64 2x

Hence ,
th e r e qu i r e d c ub e r oo t is x
2
2x 4 .

3 09 . L e t th e la s t te rm of A be

Th e n, A
A O; wh enc e ,

A
(
'
B
3
) A = (A

3
B) 3
A 3
3A 0 2
3 AO
2
C 3

A
[( B) 3
A 3
] (
3 A 2
3 AO + O
2
)C .

I n lik e mann e r, i f C d e n o te s th e la s t te rm A

Of ,

3 _ AB (
3 A l2
+3A C
I H
O
Z
C N
B 9 ] ) ;
and s o on .

T ha t i s, a ny re ma i n d e r a f te r th e rs t ma y b e o b tai n ed by
su bt a c tin g f
r ro m th e p r e c e d i n g re ma i n d e r a n e xp r e s s i o n wh i c h
is f m d by
or e a dd i n g to g e th e r th r e e ti m es th e s q ua r e of th e

p a r t O f th e r o o t a lr ea d
y f o u n d , th r e e ti me s th e p r o d u c t O f th e

p a rt o f th e r o o t a lr e a d y fo un d b y th e n e xt te r m O f th e r o o t,
and th e s q u a re of th e n e xt te r m of th e r o o t, a n d multi p ly i n g
th e su m b y th e latter
.
te r m .
 IN V O L UTION AND EV O L UTION 1 93

Th e e xp r e s s i o n s SA Z
,
3 A2 , e tc .
, a re c a lle d tr i a l-d i vi s o rs , a n d S A Z

3 AO 0 2
,
3A
2 3A O
e tc .
, co mp lete d i v i s ors .

31 0 . W e a rr a n g e th e w o rk a s f ollo w s, th e c o mp le te d i vi s o r s
an d th e re mai n d e rs b e i ng f o r me d by th e r u le O f 30 9
6
x v- 6 5-
x 1 40 x
3
96 x x
2
2x 4

x
4 3 2
3 l2 x + 12 x

4 3
3 x l2 x

Th e las t th re e te r ms o f th e r s t re ma in d e r , and th e las t two te rms o f

th e s e c o n d , may b e o mi tte d .

We th e n h av e th e f o llo wi n g ule fo r r e xtr a cti ng th e c ub e r oot

of a p o l n o y mi al p e rf e c t c ube :
Ar r a n ge the exp r es s i o n a ccor d i ng to the p o wers o f so me letter .

E xtra ct the cu b e r o ot o f the fi rs t ter m,

wr i te the r es u lt a s the
rst ter m of the ro o t, a n d s u b tr a c t i ts f ro m the gi ve n exp r es
c ub e

s i on a rra n g i ng the re ma in d er i n the s a me o rd er of p o wers a s the

g i ve n exp r ess i o n .

D ivi d e the rs t ter m of the re ma i nd er b y thr ee ti mes the s qua r e

of the r st te r m of the ro o t, a n d wr i te the res ult a s the n ext te r m

of the r oot .

Add to the tr i a l-d i v i s o r three ti me s the p r o d uc t of the ter m o f

the ro o t la s t o b ta in e d b y the p a r t o f the r oo t p r ev i o us ly f o un d , a nd
the s qu a r e o f the ter m of the r oo t la s t o b ta i n e d .

M ultip ly the co mp lete d i vis or b y the ter m of the root la s t ob

ta i ned , a n d s u b tr ac t the r es u lt f r om the re ma in d er .

If o ther ter ms re ma i n , p r o ceed as b ef or e, ta k i ng thr ee times the

s qu a r e o f the p a r t f
o the r o o t a lr ea d y f o un d f o r the n ext tri a l
d i v i s or .

31 1 . W i th th e n otati o n O f 309 ,
6 AO -
l
1 94 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E

IN AL GE B R A
I n lik e man n e r ,
3A 2
= 3 A
Q
+SA O +

A O
(
3 + 2 etc
'

Tha t i s , if the la s t te r m of the exp r ess i o n wh i ch i s a d d ed to a ny

tr i a l-
d i vi s o r b e d o u b le d , the r es u lt, a dd ed to the co r r esp o n d i ng

co mp lete d i vi s o r, wi ll gi ve the next tr i a l-d ivi s o r .

Th us , i n th e e xa mp le Of 3 1 0 , i f we ad d to th e rs t co mp lete d i vis o r
3 x4 6 x3 4x 2
,
th e e xp re ss io n 6x 3
8x 2
,
th e r e s ult, 3 x4 1 2 x3 + 1 2 x2 ,
is th e n e xt tr i al-
d i vis o r .

CU E R B OOT OF AN AR ITHMETICAL NU MB ER
Th e te rm
nu mb er ,

i n th e fo llo w in g d is c us s i on , s ig n i e s a p os iti ve
i nte g ral o r d e c ima l p e rfe c t c u b e , e xp r ess e d in A rab i c nu me r a ls .

312 . Th e c ube r o ot o f 1 000 i s 1 0 ; Of 1 000 000 i s 1 0 0 ; e tc .

H en c e, th e ubc e r oot O f a nu mb e r b e tw e e n 1 an d 1 000 i s b e

tw e n 1 e an d 1 0 ; th e c u e r o o t o f a b nu m er b b etw e en 1 0 00 a nd

1 0 0000 0 i s b w e t e e n 1 0 a n d 1 0 0 ; e tc .

T h at i s , th e cub e r o ot o f an i n te ge r of on e, tw o , or th r e e
d igit c s on ta i n s o n e d i g i t ; th e cu b e r o ot o f an i nte g e r of fo u r,
v e , or s i x di g i ts c o nta i n s two d i g i ts ; e tc .

H e nc e , p o i n t b e p la ced o ver every thi r d d ig i t of a n i n teger,

if a

b eg i n n i ng a t the u n i ts p la ce, the n umb er of p o i nts s ho ws the n um

b e r of d ig i ts i n i ts c ub e r o o t .

31 3 . If a is c ub e the n
an i n te g ral pe
w h e n i s a ny r fe c t ,
3"
er
10
p o t
si n t
i ve i
g s a l a
e p e f c t c
e r, 1u b e so r e .

a
But i s a nu mb e th e n u mb e
3n
f d i gi ts i n w h os e d e c i mal
r, r O
10

p a t
r i d i iss i b le by v 3 n d w h i h d i ffe s f o m
,
a a n ly i n th e c r r o

p o s i t i o n O f i ts d e c i ma l p o i n t .

T h e r e f o re , i f p a o in t
b e p la ced o ver e ve r y thi r d d ig i t o f a ny

nu mb e r ,
b eg i n n i ng a t the un i ts p la ce a nd exten d i ng in e i ther

d ir ecti o n , the nu mb e r of p o i n ts s h o ws the n umb er of d i gi ts i n i ts

c u b e r o ot .

31 4 . L et a, b, a n d c r e r e se n t
p p o s i ti ve i n te ge r s .
 IN V O L U TION AND EV O L U TION 1 95

T h en M M

,
3 a
(+
b c
z
3 a 3 a
2

Th at i s , i f th e re mai n d e r O b tai n e d by su bt r a c ti n
g a
3
fr o m
(a b c
3
) b e d i vi d e d by 3 a
2
,
th e q u o ti e n t i s g r e a te r th a n b .

S i mi la r l y ,
i f th e re mai n d e r O bta i n e d by su bt cti n g
ra a
3
from

( a
3
b ) b e di v id e d by 3 a
2
,
th e q u o ti e n t i s g re a te r th a n b .

31 5 . We w i ll n o w c o n s i d e r an e xa mple .

R e q ui r e d th e c ub e ro ot O f 97 4 54 9 14 5 6 .

P o i n ti n g th e nu mb e r i n c
a c o r d a nc e wi th th e r u le Of 3 1 2,
w e n d th a t th e re a re f o ur d i gi ts i n i ts c u e b ro o t .

S i n c e th e nu mb e r b w
i s e t e e n 8 0 0 0 0 000 00 an d 2 7 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 ,
th e cu b e r oo t is b twe
e en 20 0 0 an d 30 0 0 .

Th a t i s , th e r s t di g i t o f th e r o o t i s 2 .

L e t a r e p re s e n t th e n u m e r 2 0 00 ; b th e b se c on d d i gi t Of th e
r o o t, m u lti pli e d by 1 0 0 ; and c b
th e n u m e r c o n s i s ti n g o f th e

la s t tw o d i g its of th e r o ot i n th e i r ord er .

T
hen, a b 6 r e p r e s e n ts th e r o ot ; n o w,

3 3
b 9 7 4 5 4 9 1 4 56 8 0 0 0 00 0000
( a c
) a
2
3 at 1 20 0 0 0 0 0

1 7 4 54 9 1 4 56
1 45 + . 0

1 20 0 0 0 00

By 3 1 4 , th i s i s gr e a te r th a n b .

H en c e , b i s a multi p le o f 1 0 0 le s s th a n

As s u me , th e n , b 1 00 .

Th e n , th e r st two d i g its of th e r o ot w o uld b e 21 .

L e t a r e p r e s e nt th e n um

be
2 1 0 0 ; b th e th i r d d i g i t
r

Of th e
ro ot mu lti p li e d by
1 0 ; a n d c th e la s t d i g i t o f th e r o ot .

Th e n , a b c r e p re s e n ts th e r o o t ; n o w,

3
( a b c
) a 9 7 4 5 4 9 14 5 6 9 2 6 1 0 0 00 0 0
'2
3 a 1 3 23 0 00 0
19 6 AD V A NCE D C O U RS E IN AL GE BR A

By 3 1 4 , thi s i s gr e a te r th a n b .

H e n c e , b i s a mu lti p le o f 1 0 le ss th an

A s s u me , th e n , b

x 30 .

Th e n , th e r s t th r e e d i g i ts of th e ro ot w o u ld b e 21 3 .

L et a re
p r e s e nt th e nu mb e r 2 1 3 0 , an d b
th e la st d i gi t Of

th e r oot .

Th e n , a

b
re p r e s e n ts th e r o ot ; n o w,

"3 3
t a b ) a 9 7 45 4 9 1 4 5 6 9 663 5 97 0 00
2
3 a 1 3 61 0 7 0 0
81 894 4 56
6
1 3 61 0 7 0 0

a s s um e , th e n , b

By 3 1 4 , thi s i s g r e ate r th an b 6 .

Th e n, s i n e c
9 7 4 5 4 9 1 4 5 6, th e r e qu i r e d u c be r oot is
21 36 .

31 6 . We h av e w i th th e n o tati o n Of 3 1 5,
3
( ) (
'
a +b + c a

a3 -3 a 2b 3 ab 2
b 3

3
]
S i mi larl y ,

( a
n
b 3
) a b '
a
12
+3 b
l
.

T h t i s any main d e fte th e st m y b e btain d by

a ,
re r a r r a O e

s u b t a c ti n g f
r m th p e c di n g mai n d e a numb w h i h i
ro e r e re r er c s

f m d by t k i n g th
or e ti m s th a qu f th p a t f thre e t e e s a re o e r O e ro o

al e a d y O bt i n e d a d d i n g t i t th e e ti m th p d u ct o f th
'

r a ,
o r es e ro e

p t
ar o f t h t a l d y O beta i n e d by
ro o t h n x t t-d i i t f l
re ag e e roo o

l w d by
o e man y i p h er s
as th e a e di g i ts i n thc mai n d as er r e re er

o f th t p lu s th e s qu a
e ro o ,
f th latte nu mb e a n d multi ply re o e r r,

In g th e s u lt by th e latt
e r n u mb e er r.

The nu mb e rs r e p r es e n te d by 3 a
2
,
3 a

2
,
e tc .
, a r e c alle d tr i a l-d i vi s or s ,
and th os e r e p r e s e n te d by 3 a
2 3 ab b 2
, 3 a

2 3 a

b b
2
, e tc .
, co m
p lete d i vi s ors .

31 7 . Th e w ork o f th e e xa mp le 3 1 5 may b e a rr a n ge d
Of as

f o llo ws ,
th e comp lete di v i so rs an d re mai nd e r s ei n g f o rme d b by
th e rule o f 316 .
 IN V O L U TION AND EV O L U TION 1 97

97 4 54 9 14 5 6
a
3 =:8 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0
1 7 4 54 9 1 4 5 6

l s t Co m
. p . D iv .
,
1 26 1
1 32

2d Co m p . D iv .
,
1 34 1 9 9 0 0 4 025 9 7 000
1 3 61 0 7 0 8 1 89 44 5 6
3 834

3 d Co m p . D iv , 1 364 90 7 8 1 8 9 4 4 56

C on d e n s i n g th e O pe r ati on , it w ill st an d f ollo ws

97 4 54 9 14 5 6
8

1 34 1 9 9 4 0 25 9 7
1 361 0 7 0 8 1 894 4 56

81 89 4 4 56

We th e n h av e th e f o llo wi n g r ule fo r e xtr a ctin g th e c ub e r o ot

O f an i n te g ra l p e r fe c t cub : e

S ep a r a te the nu mb er i n to p e r i o d s b y p o in ti ng every th ir d d i gi t,

b egi nn i ng wi th the u n i ts p la c e .
1 98 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
F i nd the gr ea tes t c u b e i n the lef t-ha n d p er i o d , a n d wr i te i ts cu b e
r o o t a s the
r s t d i gi t of the r o o t; s u b tra ct the c u b e of the rs t r o ot
d ig it f ro m the lef t-ha n d p er io d , a nd to the r e s ult a n n e x the n ext

p er iod .

D i v i d e thi s re ma i n d er b y three times the s qu a r e of the p a r t of

the r o o t a lr ea d y f o un d , wi th two c ip her s a nn exed , a nd wr i te the
qu o ti e n t as the n ext d i g i t o f the r o ot .

A dd to the tr i a l-d i vi so r thr ee ti mes the p ro d u ct o f the la s t r oo t

d i g it b y the p a r t of the r o ot p r e vi o u s ly f o un d , wi th on e c ip her

a n n e xe d , a n d the s qu a r e o f th e la s t r o o t-d ig i t .

M ultip ly the mp le te
b y the d ig it of the
co d i vi s o r r o ot la s t
o b ta i n e d , a n d s u b tr ac t the p ro d uct f r o m the r e ma i nd e r .

If o ther p m
er io d s
a i n, p
re
ro cee d a s b e fo re , ta k i ng thr e e ti mes

the s qu a r e of th e p a rt of the r o o t a lr ea d y f o un d , wi th two c ip her s

a n nexed , f or the n ext tr i a l-d i vi s o r .

N o te 1, 30 4 , a p p li e s wi th e qu a l f o r c e to th e ab o ve rule .

If a n y r o o t-d i g it i s O, an n ex t wo c i p h e rs to th e tr i al-d i vi s or , a n d ann ex

to th e re ma i nd e r th e n e xt p e ri o d .

31 8 . W i th th e n o ta ti o n Of 3 1 5,
3 a
'z
=3 (a b) = 3
2
a
2
+ 6 ab + 3 b
2

I n li k e ma nn e r,
2
2
2 '2
3 a 3 a 3 a b b (
3 a b 2b ); e tc .

T h at i s , if the fi rs t n u mb e r a nd the d o ub le o f the s eco n d n u mb er

r e qu i r ed to co mp lete a ny tr i a l-d i vi s or be a dd e d to the co mp lete
d i vi s o r , the r e s u lt, wi th two c ip he rs a nn exed , wi ll g i ve the n e xt

tr i a l-
d i v i so r .

31 9 . w i ll n o w sh w h w
We o o to O b tai n th e cu b e r oo t o f a

n u mb w hi ch i n t i nte g al
er s o r .

R q u i d th
e ub re t f 107 e c e ro o O 4 1 8 24 .

1 0 7 3 7 4 1 8 24
We
3
li a xe ,
1 0 00 00 0
1 0 24
293
100
The w o rk may b e a r ra n g e d a s fo llo ws
 IN V O L U T ION A ND E V O L U TION 1 99

10 7 3 7 4 18 24

3 0000 7 37 4 1
60 0
4
3 0 60 4 61 20 8
600 1 25 3 3 8 24
8
3 1 21 20 0
1 224 0
16
3 1 33 4 5 6 1 253 3824

H e r e th e s ec o nd r o o t-d ig i t i s 0 ; we th e n a nn e x two c iph e rs to th e

tri a l-d i vi s o r 30 0 , a nd a nn e x to th e r e ma i n d e r th e n e xt p e ri o d , 7 4 1 .

Th e s e c o nd tr i a l-d i vis o r i s fo rme d b y th e r ule o f 3 18 .

Ad d i n g to th e c o mp le te d i vi s o r 3 06 0 4 th e rs t n u mb e r , 6 00 , a nd twi c e
th e s e c ond nu mb e r 8 ,,
re q uire d to co mp le te th e tr i a l-d i vi s o r 300 0 0 , we
h a ve 3 1 2 1 2 a n n e xi ng two c iph e rs to th is , th e r e s ult i s 3 12 12 0 0 .

H ncee ,
if a n y nu mb e r b e p o i n te d i n a cc o r d a n c e w i th th e r ule
Of 3 1 3 , th e r u le O f 3 1 7 ma y b e a pp li e d to th e r e s ult, a n d

th e d e c i ma l p o i n t i n s e r te d i n i ts p ro
p e r
p o s i ti o n i n th e ro ot .

3 20 . Af te r n 2 d i g i ts of th e cu b e r o ot of a n i n te g ra l p e r
fect cu b e h a ve b e e n fo u n d by th e r u le o f 31 7 , n mo r e ma y b e
o bt ai n e d by di v i s i o n , su p p o s i n g 2 n 2 to b e th e wh o le n u mb e r .

F o r le t a re
p re s e nt th e i n te g e r wh o se rs t n 2 d i g i ts a r e
th e r s t n 2 d i g i ts Of th e r o ot i n th e i r o rd e r , an d w
h o s e la s t
n d i g i ts are c i ph e rs , an d b th e i n te g e r c o n s i s ti n g o f th e la s t n

d i g i ts Of th e r oot i n th e i r o rd e r ; th e n ,
a +b r e p re s e nts th e r o ot.

We h ave , (a b) 3
a
3
3 a
2
b 3 ab
2
b 3
.

Wh e nc e , ?
3 a
2
a 3 a

Th a t i s ,( a d i
+ b)
3
vi de d b a3
y 3
,
a
"
, w ill g i v e th e la s t n
2 3
b b
_
d i gi ts o f th e r o o t, i n c re a s e d b y + z
a 3 a
y
B y h p o th e s i s, b c o n ta i n s n d i g i ts .

Th e n , b 2
c ann o t c o n ta i n m o r e th a n 2 n d i gi ts :
200 A DV A NCED CO URS E IN A L GE BRA
2
b
B ut a c o n ta i n s 2 n 2 d i g i ts ; an d h en ce i s le s s th an
a
2
3 2
9 1
A g ai n , i
S a
-
2
_
% x
3 61
; an d S i n ec
a
;
i s less th a n
I0
a n d

b 3
is als o les s th a n
1
le s s th a n 1 , 2
3 a

2 3
b b
T he re f o r e , -
2
i s le s s tha n
a 3 a

I f, th e n , th e ( n 2)th re ma in d e r b e d i vi d ed by th r e e ti me s
th e s qu are O f th e p a r t o f th e r o o t alr e a d y f oun d , th e re mai ni n g
n d i g i ts o f th e r o o t may b e o ta i n e d b .

Th e me th o d a p p li e s to th e c ub e r o o t o f a n y n u mb e r .

Ex . R e qu i re d th e cub e r oo t of 1 4 52 64 8 8 65 3 1 1 0 64 .

1 4 52 64 8 8 65 3 1 1 064

30 0 4 52
30
1
33 1 33 1
30 1 21 6 4 8
2
3 630 0
9 90

3 7 29 9 1 1 1 89 7
9 90 9 7 5 1 8 65
18
3 83 0 7 00
67 8 0

383 7 4 8 4 7 6 7 4 9 68

67 8 0
8

1 9 22 1 3 6 0
1 54 7 6 1 3 1
 IN V O L U TION AND EV O L U TION 20 1

We o b ta i n th e r s t f o ur d i g i ts Of th e ro ot by th e o rd i nar y
me th o d, a nd th e o th e r two by
3 20 ; th a t i s , d i v i d i n g th e by

f o urth re ma i n d e r , 20 7 6 8 9 7 3 1 1 0 64 , by
th r e e ti me s th e s qu a r e
of th e p a r t of th e r o o t a lr e ad yf o und , o r 3 84 4 2 7 2 .

Th e r e q ui r e d r o o t is . 0 54 , or

ANY ROO T OF A PO L YNOM IAL

32 1 . L et A an d B h a v e th e sa me me an i ng as in 294 .

By 2 8 5, i f n is an
y p o s i ti v e i n te g e r ,
nA
" "
A
( B) A n l
B

Wh e nc e , A
( B)
A
nA
" 1
B

I f th e ex p res si on n A n
l
B be a r r a n ge d i n th e same o r d e r
of p o we rs o f x a s A an d B , i ts r s t te r m mus t b e n ti me s th e
o d uc t i th p we r s t te rm o f A by
p r Of th e ( n
) o r Of th e th e
r st te rm Of B .

H en c e ,
th e r s t te r m o f B may b e O b tai n e d by d i v i d i n g th e
r s t te rm o f th e e xp r e s s i o n n A n
l
B by n ti me s th
e

e n
( 1 )th
p ow e r o f th e rs t te rm o f A .

3 22 . I t f o llo w
f ro m s 3 21 , e x a tl a s i n
s 295 a n d 3 08 , c y
y
th at th e n th r o o t o f a p o l n o mi a l, wh i c h i s a p e r fe t p o w e r o f c
th e nth d e g ree , may b e f o un d th e f o llo i n g ru le : by w
Ar ra nge the exp r es s io n a cco r d i n g to the p o wers of so me lette r .

E xtr a ct the n th r oo t o f the f i rs t te r m, a nd wr i te the r es u lt a s the

r st term of the r o o t ; s u b tr a ct f ro m the p o lyn omi a l i ts fi r s t te rm,

a nd a r r a nge the re ma i n d er i n the sa me o rd e r of p o wer s as the

g i ve n e xp r es s i o n .

D i v i d e the rs t ter m f
o the r ema i n d er b y n ti me s the (
n i )th

p o we r f
o the f i r s t te r m o f the r o o t, a nd wr i te the r es u lt a s the

s eco n d ter m o f the r o ot .

S u b tra ct f ro m the g iven p o lyn o mi a l the n thp o wer of the p a rt of

th e r oo t a lr ea d y f o und , a n d a r ra nge the r ema i n d er i n the s a me

o r d er o f p o we rs a s the g iven exp r e s s i o n .

If o ther ter ms rema i n , p r oceed a s b ef o re, d i vi d i n g the f irs t ter m

of the re ma i nd er b y n ti me s the (n 1 )th p o we r of the fi rs t te rm
of the r o ot ; a nd co n ti nu e i n thi s ma nn er unti l the re is no

re ma i nd er .
202 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
ANY R OOT OF AN AR ITH M E TIC AL NU MB ER
Th e te r m n umb e r , i n th e f o llo wi n g d i s c uss i o n , s ign i e s a p os i ti ve ,
i nte gr a l ord e c ima l, p e r f e c t p o we r o f th e d e gre e d e n o te d b y th e ind ex o f
th e r e qu i r e d r o o t, e xp r e s s e d i n A
ra b i c n u me r a ls .

3 23 . I t ma y b e p r o v e d , as in 2 9 9 , 3 0 0 , 3 1 2, an d 3 1 3 , th at
If pa b e oin t
p la ce d o ve r e ve r y n th d i g i t of a n y n u m b e r ,

b eg i nn i ng a t the u n i ts p la ce a n d exten d i ng i n e i the r d i r e cti o n, the
n u mb e r of p o i n ts s ho ws the n u mb e r of d i g i ts i n i ts n th r o o t .

3 24 . L et a, b, c, a n d n r e p r e s e n t p o s i ti v e i nte g e r s .

an a"
B y 28 5 , n - l
na

Th at i s , i f th e re mai n d e r O bt ain e d by
su
b tra c ti n g a
"
f ro m

(a b c
)
"
b e divi ded by n a
n "
,
th e q u o ti e n t i s g r e ate r th a n b .

I n li k e m an n e r , i f th e re ma i n d e r Ob ta i n e d by su bt r a c ti n g a
"

f ro m (
a
"
b ) b e d ivi de d by th e q uo ti e n t i s g r e a te r th a n b .

3 25 . It i s e v i d e n t, f ro m 3 23 and 3 24 , th a t th e n th r o o t o f

a p o s i ti ve i nte g r a l p e r f e c t n th p o e r may b e f o u n d w by a p ro c e s s

si milar to th a t e mp lo y e d i n 30 2 an d 3 1 5 .

Th e g e n e ra l r ule w i ll b e as f o llo w : s
0

P o i n t the nu mb er in a cco r d a n ce wi th the r ul e of 3 23 , a nd le t

the n umb e r of d ig i ts i n the r o ot be m .

F d i n th e gr ea e s p e f c t n t
t t r e h p o we r i n th e lef t-h a n d p e ri o d ,
a nd

wr i te i ts n th r o o t a s the r s t d ig i t of the r o ot .

R a i s e the p a r t of the r o o t a lr ea d y f o u n d , wi th m
'

1 c ip hers
a nn exe d , to the n th p o we r, a n d s u b tra ct the r e s u lt f r o m the g i ven

nu mb e r .

R a i s e the p a r t of the r o o t a lr ea d y f ou nd , wi th m - 1 c ip her s

a n n exe d , to the u i 1 th p o wer , a n d mu ltip ly th e r es u lt b y n
( ) .

D i v i d e the ma i n d er b y th i s n u mb e r
re .

If the qu o ti en t i s a nu mb er whos e i n tegr a l p a r t co n ta i n s m 1

d i g i ts wr i te i ts the o the r wi s e,
,
f i r s t d i g i t a s th e n ext d igi t o
f r oo t;

wr i te 0 as the n ext r o o t-d i gi t .

 IN V O L UTION AND E V O L UTIO N 20 8

R a i s e the p a rt of the r o o t a lr e a d y f o un d , wi th m 2 cip he rs

a nn exed , to the n th p o wer , a n d s u b tr a ct the r es ult f r o m the g i ven

nu mb er .

Th e a bo ve p o c es s i s to b e ep
r r e ate d un til t he r e is no

re ma i n d e r ; th e o n ly c h an g b e in g e th at, i n th e s uc c e s si ve

a pp li c ati o n s o f th e r ule , m 2, m 3, e tc .
, a re w r i tte n i n plac e
of m 1 i n th e f o ur th , s i xth , a n d s e v e n th p a r a g ra h s
p .

Th e r ule may b e u se d to nd th e nth r o o t o f a n y nu mb er .

E x F i n d th e
. cu b e r oot o f 3 4 550 4 1 5 593 .

I n th i s c ase ,
n 3 a nd m 4 .

3 4 55 04 1 55 9 3
3
30 0 0 27 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 x 3 00 0 2

3 20 0 3
3 2 7 6 8 0 0 0 00 0
3 x 3 20 0 2
30 7 2 0 000
3
w 50 +
24 1 5 5 9 3 (
3 25 0 3 4 3 281 25 0 0 0

3
3 25 7 3 4 5 5 0 4 1 55 9 3

H en c e ,
th e re
q u i red ro ot is
S o me of th e c ip h e rs ma y b e o mi tte d i n p ra c ti c e .

It so me time s h a p p e n s th a t, o nr a i s i ng th e p ar t o f th e ro o t a lr e a d y fo un d
to th e nth p o we r , th e r es ult i s g re a te r th a n th e g ive n nu mb e r ; i n s u c h a
ca s e , th e d ig i t of th e r o o t las t o b ta i n e d i s to o gr e a t, an d o n e les s mus t b e
s ub s ti tu te d for i t .

3 26 . L et m and n be p o siti ve i nte ge r s , a nd a a pe r fe c t p owe r

of th e d e gr e e mn .

By 1 57 ,

an d

R ai s i n g b o th me mb e rs o f (2) to th e n th p o we r,

a .

F r om (1 ) a n d by 1 63 ,

fo r e ach o f th e s e e xp r e s s i o n s i s th e mu th r o ot o f a .
204 AD V AN C ED C O U RS E I N A L GE BRA
T h at i s , the mnt h r oo t o f a 1 6 2) e qua ls the mth ro o t o f the
n th r oo t o f a .

Th e a b o ve is o n ly tr ue of p r i nc ip a l r o o ts .

It f ollo w s f r o m th e a b ov e th at th e f o u r th r oot of a p e rf e ct
p o we r of th e f o u rth d e g r e e e qu a ls th e s q u a r e r oo t o f th e s q ua r e

r o ot o f th e e xp r e s s i o n .

Th e s i xth r o o t o f a p e r f e c t p owe r of th e s i xth d e gr e e e qu a ls

th e c ub e r o ot o f th e s qu ar e r o o t o f th e e xp r e s s i on ; e tc .

I n li k e ma n n e r, i f m, n , an d p ar e p o s i ti v e i n te ge r s , and a

a pe rf e ct p o we r of th e d e g re e mnp ,

an d s o o n .

3 27 . L et m, n , an d r be po s i ti v e i n te g e r s, an d a a r ati o nal

nu m e r b wh ose mth p o w er i s p o s i ti v e i f n is e v en .

By 1 57 ,

R ai si n g b o th memb e rs to th e r th p owe r, w e h av e

(V a y
r
a

.

Als o ,

W
m
F r om (
1 ) an d E)
(
T ak in g th e n r th r oo t o f b o th me mb e rs

W
"
a
w
,
an d

Va
a
m
.

m
Th is me an s th at th e p ri n c ip a l nth r o o t o f a i s e q ual to the
ur th r o o t o f a m

h l h m f l ti i 1 63 1 64 1 6 5 2 9 2 2 9 3 3 26
(T e g e n e r a t e o r e s o e v o u o n ,
n , , , , , ,

a nd 3 2 7 , we r e th e r e p r o ve d o nly fo r p r i nc ip a l r o ots .

Th a t of 3 26 is o n ly tr u e f o r s u c h r o o ts .

Th e o th e rs a r e tru e f o r c e r ta i n v a lu es o f th e r o o ts wh i ch ar e not p ri n
c i p al roo ts ; tak e , f or e xa mple , th e e q ua ti o n

If n =2 , a = 4, it b e co mes V 4 9 = V4 x V9 .

T h e las t e q ua ti o n i s tr ue wh e n th e va lue 6 i s tak e n fo r V 4 x 9 , 2

f or , an d 3 fo r V9 a ls o , wh e n th e va lue 6 i s tak e n f or V4 x 9,

2 fo r V 4, an d 3 fo r V9 ) .
 IN V O L U TION AND EV O L U TION 20 5

E XE RC IS E 4 |

Fi nd th e va lue s o f th e fo llow i ng :
2 . i/(1 6 x8 12 5
y ) 3 . f/( 24 3 a
5
0 25
0 10 3
)
Fi nd b y i ns p ec ti o n th e valu e s o f th e f o llo win g

18 4
8 a 62 5
5
34 3 b 6 8 y
1 s

Fi nd th e s qu ar e r o o ts o f

7 . 49 a 4
+ 16 b 4
+ 14 a 3
b 8 a b 55
3
a
2
b 2 .

8 16 x + 9 y + 25 2 2
z 2 2 4 x 4 0 xz + 3 0 z
.
y y .

9 ,
x 4
L
3
+
2 90
+
4
3 6 4
9 y 3y 0
6 y 5 y2 25

10 . 4 x 2 31 x 4
+ 4
'
16 x .

11 . 9 9 7 2 9 64 . 12 . 13 . 0063 1 3 89 16 .

Fi nd th e c ub e r o o ts o f

14 . 27 x 6
2 7 x5y 99 x4 yz 71 5133 3
34 1 3 2 2 4
x y 48 {cg
/
5 64 y .

15
8 a
3 12 a
2 10 a
5 +
5 b 02 b3
+
b
.

2
b 8 b 3 a 3 a
2
27 a
3

16 . 12 x4 6 x8 4 5 x2 + 1 3 905 45 35 5
.

17 . 18 . 8 83 1 2 3 4 7 6 3 . 19 . . 53 7 7 64 4 7 5 9 68 .

20 . Fi n d th e f o ur th r o ot o f

16 x8 + 32 x - 72 x67 1 36 x5
+ 14 5 x4 + 20 4 x3 1 62 x 2 108 x + 8 1 .

21 . Fi nd th e s i xth ro o t o f

1 68 337
5
1 12 x + 1 00 x3 + 1 68 53 76 936

15 a8 1 00 x9 54 m l0 12 x 11 $
12
.

22 . Fi nd th e fth ro o t o f

32 m l0
8 x
0 9 24 0 a 8 3 6 0 x7 5 7 0 x6 56 1 x5 5 7 0 x4

3 60 x3 2 4 0 x2 80 x 32 .

23 . Fi nd th e fo u r th r o ot o f 8 8 8 7 3 1 4 9 4 56 .

24 . Fi n d th e s i x th ro o t o f . 0 0 9 2 2 98 1 22 7 5 33 57 4 4 .

25 . Fi nd th e fth ro o t o f 8 47
20 6 AD V AN C E D C O U RS E IN AL GE B R A

XV I . INE QU A L ITIE S

3 28 . An Inequali ty i s a s tate me n t th a t one of t wo e xp r e s

s io n s i s g r e a te r o r le s s th a n a n o th e r;
Th e F i r s t M emb er o f a n i n e qu ali t i s th e y e xpr es si on to th e
le ft of th e sign of i n e q u ali t y ,
an d th e S ec o n d M e mb er i s th e
e x p re s s i o n to th e r i gh t o f th a t s i gn

An y te r m o f e i th e r me mb e r o f an i n e q u ali t y is c a lle d a ter m

of th e i n e q u a li t y .

T wo mo r e i n e q u ali ti e s a re s a i d to s u b s i s t i n the s a me
or s en s e

wh e n th e rst me mb e r i s th e g r e ate r o r th e le s s i n b oth .

T h us, a b a n d c d s ub s i s t i n th e s ame s e n s e .

PR OPE R TIE S OF IN E QU AL ITIE S

3 29 . A n i n e qu a li ty wi ll co n ti n u e i n th e sa me s e ns e a f ter the

me n u mb er
sa ha s b e en a dd ed to , or s u b tr a cte d f ro m, b o th
me mb ers .

T h i s f o llo ws f ro m 23 , w hi ch is su pp osed to h o ld f o r a ll

v a lu e s o f th e le tte r s i n v o lv e d .

330 . I t f o llo w s f r o m 3 29 , th a t a te rm ma y b e tr a n sp o se d

f ro m on e memb e r of an i n eq ua li ty to the o the r by cha ng i ng i ts

s ig n .

I f th e sa me te r m app e ar s i n b o th me mb e rs o f an i n e qu ality a ffe c te d

w ith th e s a me s i g n , i t ma y b e c a n c e lle d .

3 31 . If the s ig ns o f a ll the ter ms f

o an i n equ a li ty b e cha nged ,

the si
g n o f i n e q ua li ty mu s t b e r evers e d .

For con s ide r th e i n e q u ali ty a b c d .

Tr a n s p o s i n g e ve r y te r m, d c b a .

Tha t i s , b a d c .

3 32 . L et a b be a p o s i ti v e n u mb e r .

Th en,
( a b) b b ; th a t i s , a .
b .

Ag ai n , le t a b be a n e g a ti v e n u m b er .

Th e n,
( a b) b b ; th at i s , a b .
 IN E Q UA L IT I E S 20 7

333 An i n equ a li ty wi ll co n ti n u e i n the s a me s e n s e af ter b o th

.

memb er s ha ve b e e n mu ltip li e d o r d i vi d ed b y the s a me p o s i ti ve

nu mb e r .

For c on s i d e r th e i n e q ua li t y a b .

By 33 2, a b is a p o s i ti ve n u mb e r .

H en c e, if m is a p o s i ti v e n u mb e r , each o f th e nu mb e r s
a b
m (a b
) an d
m
a b
ma mb a nd IS p o s i ti v e
m m
.

The re f o r e , ma mb , a n d g 3
m m
33 4 . I t f o llo ws fr o m 331 and 33 3 th a t if b o th memb er s f o

an i n equa li ty b e mu ltip li e d o r d i vi d ed b y the sa me n ega ti ve n um

b er, the s ign of i n equ a li ty mu s t b e r e ve r s e d .

335 . If mb er of i n e qu a li ti e s ,
a ny nu
g n the s a me
s u b s i s ti n i
s en s e , b e a dd e d me mb e r to memb er , th e r es u lti ng i n e qu a li ty wi ll

a ls o s u b s i s t i n the sa me s e n s e .

"
th e i ne q u ali ti e s
'
For co n si d e r a b, a b , a b ,

The n e a ch of th e nu mb e r s , a b
,
a
'
b
'
,
a
"
b
p o s i ti v e .

The r e for e , th e i r su m
a b + a
'
b +
'
a b "+
'
a + a + a

is a p o s i ti v e n u mb e r .

Wh e n c e '
b b
'
b "
,
a + a a

3 36 . I f two i n e q u a li ti es , su b s i s ti n g i n th e sa me s e n se , be
s u b tr a c te d me mb e r f ro m me mb e r , th e r e s u lti n g i n e q u a li t yd oes

n o t n e c e s s a r il y su b s i st i n th e s am e s e n s e .

Th u s , i f a b an d a
'
b
'
,
th e nu m b ers a b an d a
'
b '
ar e

p o s i ti v e .

B ut ( a b) (a
'
or i ts e qu al (
a a
'
) (
b may
b e p o s i ti v e , n e g a ti v e , o r z e ro ; an d h ence a a
'
ma y b e gre a te r

th an , le s s th a n , o r e q u al to b b .
 08 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
33 7 . If a >b an d a

b and e ach of th e nu mb e r s a, a '
,

b, b
'
i s p o s i ti v e , th e n
bb
, '
d a

F or sin e a c b, a

b
'
,
a , and b '
a re p o s i ti v e n u mb e r s, ea ch
Of th e nu mb e r s
(
v '
Ot a b ) an d b ( a b)
i s p o s i ti v e .

Th e n , an d

Th e n by 3 3 5, d a

ab
'
ab

bb

.

Wh en c e ,
d a
'
bb .

3 38 . I f w e h av e an y n u m er o f b i n e quali ti e s su b s i sti ng in
ac h
me ' ' "
an d e f th e
th e sa s e n s e, a s a >b a b, ,
a b ,
o

nu mb e rs a , a ,

a
" m ' " m
b, b , b , i s p os i ti v e , th e n
, , ,

aa
'
a
" , bb b
'

F or by 33 7 aa
'
bb
'
.

"
Als o, a b .

" "
Wh en c e , aa a bb b '

C on ti n u i n g the p r o c e s s wi th th e re ma i ni n g i n e qu ali ti e s , we
o b ta i n n all y aa
'
a
" bb b

33 9 . I t f o llo ws f ro m 33 8 th a t, i f a is b, an d a a n d b ar e

p o s i ti v e n u mb e r s, an d n a p o s i ti ve i n te g e r, th en
"
>b

a

34 0 . If n is a p o s i ti v e i n te ge r, an d a a nd b pe rfe ct n th

p o w ers s u c h th at a is b , th e n

{ 6 i /h .

F or , i f {7a we re { 7b ,
rai s i n g b o th me mb e r s to th e n th

p o w er , we s h o u ld h av e a b . 3 39 )
An d , i f { 7 5 Vb ,
a w o u ld be e qu a l to b .

B o th of th e s e c on clu s i on s are c o n tr a r y to th e hy p o th e s i s
th a t a is b .

H ence , { 75 { /b
i
.
 INE Q U L IT E S A I 20 9

34 1 . E xamp les .

1 . F i n d th e li mi t of x i n th e i n e qu ali t y
7 90 +5 .

Multi ply i n g b oth me mb e r s by 3 we h av e

2l a

T r an s p os i n g an d un i ti n g te r ms,
19 a : 38 .

D i v i di n g b oth me mb e r s by 19
a : 2 .

2 . F i n d th e li mi ts of a and y i n th e f o llo w ing

3 a : 2y 37 .

2 a; 3y 33 .

Multi ply (1 ) by 3, 9w 6y 111 .

M ulti p ly (2) by 2, 4 a: 6y 66 .

b
S u tr ac ti n g 5a : 4 5, an d a : 9 .

Mu lti ply (1 ) b y 2 , 6 a; 4 y 74 .

Mu lti p ly (2) by 3, 6 a : 9 y 99 .

b
S u tr ac ti n g, 5y 25 .

D ivi d e b oth me mb e r s by 5, y 5

3 . B e twee n w h at li mi ti n g v alu e s o f so is x
2
4 : 21
a

2
(13 4 x is < 2l i f 50
2 4 90 21 i s < 0

T h at i s ,
if ( 413 + 3 )(
x 7 ) is n e g ati v e .

No w (a 7 ) is n e g ati v e if a :
i s b e tw e e n 3 an d 7 .

Hen ce ,
2
2 4 90 i s < 21 i f a; is -3
, an d <7 .

4 . P r ov e th at i f a an d b ar e p os iti v e nu mb ers,
9 + Q< 2
b a

We h a ve (a
2
b ) ( 0 ; o r, a 2 2 ab +b ( 0
2
.

2 2
Tr a n s p o s i n g 2 a b, a b 5C 2 ab .

D i v i di n g ea c h te r m by a b,

a b
+ sc 2 .

b a
21 0 AD V AN C E D C O U RS E IN A L G E B R A .

5 . P r o v e th a t, i f a an d b a re u n e q ua l p o s i ti v e nu mb e r s ,
3 2
a b 3
a b a .

We h av e ( a o r, a
2 2 ab +b >0
2
.

2 2
Tr a n s p os i n g ab, a ab b ab .

M ulti ply i n g b o th me mb e r s by th e p o s i ti ve n u mb e r a b,
s 3 2 2
a b a b b a .

6 . P r o v e th at, if a,

b, an d c ar e un e q u al p o si tive numb e rs,

3
2(
a
3
b 0
3
) a
2
b b 2
a b
z
c c
2
b 2
c d a o
z
.

B y E x 5, . a
3
b 3
a
2
b b 2
a,

3 3 2 z
b 0 b c c b,
3 3 2 2
c + a >c a +a d

2(
a
3
b 3
c
3
) a
2
b a b 2
c db 4 2
c a a c
2
.

EXE RC S E 4 2 I
Fi nd th e li mi ts of a :
i n th e f ollo wi ng

5
1 .
( x
2 )(x
3x 3
2 .
(2 )(
3 .
( x 1 ) (x
2 if
4 . a
2
(x b (2 x 1) ab, a 2 b i s p o s i tive .

x m m+ n
5 +2 > if m a nd n are p os iti ve an d m n .

m
.

Fi n d th e limi ts :
o f a an d y i n th e follo wi ng
5 : 6y
a 45 .

6
:4y
.

3a 11 .

8 . Fi nd th e li mi ts o f at wh en
3 se 11 m, an d 5 x + 2 3 < 20 95 +3 .

9 . If 6 ti me s a c e r ta i n p os i ti ve i n te ge r , p lu s 1 4 , i s gre a te r th an 1 3
times th e i n te g e r , mi nu s 6 3 , a n d 1 7 ti me s th e i n te g e r , mi nu s 2 3 , i s gr e ate r
th a n 8 ti mes th e i n te g e r , p lus 3 1 , wh a t is th e i n te g e r
10 . If 7 times th e mb e r o f h o u s e s i n a c e r ta i n v illage , p lus 3 3 , i s
nu

less th a n 1 2 ti me s th e nu mb e r mi nu s 8 2 a n d 9 ti mes th e n u mb e r , mi n us
, ,

4 3 , i s le s s th a n 5 ti mes th e n u mb e r , p lus 6 1 , h o w ma n y h o us e s a r e th e r e
 IN E Q UA L I TIE S 21 1

11 . Af ar me r h a s a nu mb e r o f c o ws s uc h th a t 1 0 ti me s th e i r n u mb e r,

p lus 3 , i s le s s th a n 4 time s th e n u mb e r , p lu s 7 9 a nd 1 4 time s th e i r num

b e r , minus 9 7 , i s g re a te r th a n 6 ti me s th e nu mb er, mi nus 5 . H o w many

c o ws h as h e

12 . B e twe e n wh at limiti ng value s o f a :

i x s 2 3 a:4
13 . B e twe e n wh a t li mi tin g v alu e s o f xi s 2 x2 1 3 : 24
a

14 . B e twee n wh a t li mi ti ng va lu es o f a; i s 6 x2 19 : 10
a

Pr o ve th a t , fo r a ny v alu es o f x,

15 . 9 x2 + 2 5 ( 30 x . 16 . x x (

Pr o v e th a t, f o r a ny values o f a a n d b,

17 .
(4 a + 3 b ) (4 a 3 b ) ( 6 b (4 a 3 b) .

2
18 . a 4 4
b $C 2 ab (a ab

Pr o ve th a t, i f all th e le tte r s r e p r e s e n t u n e qu a l p os itive nu mb e rs ,

19 . d
a
a
2
b a b z
b3 > 2 ab (a b) .

2
20 . a
2
+ b +
2
c > ab bc + ca .

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 z 2
21 . a 0 b c c a a bc b ca 0 ab .

22 .
(a + b + c

2 2 2 z 2 2 6 abc
23 . a b ab b c bo c a ca .

24 .
( a
2
b2 c? )( x2 y
2 by 02 )
21 2 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L GE B R A

xvn . S U R Ds . THE O R Y O F E X P O NE NTS

34 2 . Meani ng of V2 .

It i s i m p o s si bl e to n d a r a ti o n al nu mb e r 51 ) wh se o

s q u a r e s h a ll e q u al 2 ; b u t we c an n d two r a ti o n al n umb e rs,

whi ch sh ll d i ff a c by er f ro m e a h o th e r
ig d le s s th an a n y ass ne

nu mb e h we r, s mall w h o s e s qu a e s s h all b e le s s an d g e a te
o ver ,
r ,
r r

th n 2 e p e c ti e ly
a ,
r s v .

F w i ti n g th s qu a e s o f th e c onse cutiv e i nte ge s 1 2 etc

or, r e r r , ,
.
,
2 2
we h a v e 1 1, 2 4, e tc .

H en c e ,
1 an d 2 are two nu mb e r s wh ic h differ by 1, an d

wh o s e s quar e s a r e le s s an d gr e ate r th an 2 , re s
p e c ti v e ly
.

Ag a i n ,
e tc .

H nce
e , an d a re two nu mb e r s w hi ch d iffe r by . 1, an d

wh o s e s q ua re s a r e le ss an d g r e a te r th an 2, res p c ti
e ve ly
.

Ag a i n , z e tc .

H en ce, an d ar e tw o n u m b e rs w h i ch d i ffe r by
an d w h o s e s qu ar e s a r e le s s an d g r e a te r th a n 2 , re s
p e c ti v e ly .

By
s u f c i e n tl y c o n ti n u i n g th e a b ove p ro c e s s, we c an n d two
n um be wh i ch sh ll diffe f m e a h th b y l th n ny
rs a r ro c o er ~
ess a a

ass i gn e d nu mb e h we s m all w h o s e s q u a e s s h ll b e le s
r, o ver ,
r a s

an d g e ate r th a n 2 s p c ti e ly
r ,
re e v .

3 4 3 Th e s u cc e s s i e n u mb
. i n th e i llu s t at n o f 3 4 2
v er s , . r io ,

wh s qu a e s e le s s th n 2 a 1
ose r ar tc ; n d th a ,
re ,
e . a e

n u mb s wh
er s qu a e s e g eate
o se th n 2 a e 2 r ar t r r a ,
r ,
e c .

If e a h s e i s b e c n ti nu d t
c r e te ms th e d i ff e n c e b e tw e e n
o e o r r ,
er

th e r th te r ms of th e two s er i e s is
1 0

1
10 r

whi ch c an b e ma d e le s s th a n a ny a s s i gn e d n u mb e r , h o w e v er
s ma ll, b y c i e n tly i n c r e as i n g r
s uf .

T h e r e fo re , th e r th te rms o f th e two s e r i e s a p p roach the sa me

li mit w h en r i s i n d enite ly i n c re a se d .
 S URDS . O
THE R Y O F E XP ON E N TS 21 3

T hi s li mi t i s tak e n as th e d e n i ti o n of V2 .

34 4 . I n ge n e ral, i f n i s a n y p o s i ti v e i n te g e r , an d a a r ati o n al

n um b er w c c w
h i h i s n o t a p e rf e t p o e r o f th e
n th d e g e re ,

a n d w h i c h i s p s i ti e i f n i s e n i t i s i mp os s i b le to n d a
o v ev ,

nu mbe wh e nth p o w e s h all q ual

r os r e a .

W e n n d h o w e e two ati on al n u mb e s whi ch s h all dif

ca ,
v r, r r

f e f m a h th
r ro by l s s th an any a i gn d n u mb e h o w
e c o er e ss e r,

e m ll w h os n th p o w e s s h all b e le ss an d g e ate th an
ve r s a ,
e r r r a,

r e p e c ti
s ly ve .

34 5 . If n and a h a ve th e me me an i n g
sa as in 34 4 , an d a l,

a 2, a 3, e tc .
,
is a s e ri e s o f r a ti o n al n umb e r s wh o s e n th po w e rs

a re le s s th an a, an d
'
a 2, a s, e tc
'
.
,
a s e r i e s o f r a ti o n a l n u m
b e s wh
r o s e n th p o w e r s ar e g r e a te r th a n a , s uch th a t a ,
'
al

1
, a 2
~ ag z . 1, . 01, e tc .
,
w e may sh o w , as in 34 3
th a t th e r th te r ms of th e tw o s er i e s a pp roa c h th e sa me li mi t
wh n e r i s i n d e n i te l y in c r e a se d .

T hi s li mi t i s ta k e n as th e de n i ti o n of { Vtt .

Th e e xp r e s s i o n { 75 is c all ed a S ur d .

Th e sy mb ol s i gni e s th e d ier ence of th e n umb ers b etween wh i ch

i t i s p lace d .

34 6 . I n th e i llu s tra ti on of 3 4 2, w e a ls o h av e 1,
4, e tc .

I t i s th e re f o re p o s si le to n d two b n ega ti ve rati o n al nu mb e r s ,

w c h i h s h all diffe r f r o m e a h o th e r c by le s s th a n a n y a s s i gn e d

n u mb e r, we
ho ve r s mall, w h o s e s qu a r e s s h all b e le s s an d g r ea te r

th an 2, re s p ti ec v el y .

T hi s is als o th e c as e w i th e v er y surd of th e f o r m { 7 a, wh en
n is ev en .

34 7 . i s p os i ti ve, a n d
If a dl ,
a 2, e tc .
,
an d e tc .
, b e tak e n
w i th p o s i ti v e s i gn s , we s h a ll c all th e li mi t a pp r oa ch by th e
ed

r th te r ms of th e two serie s of 34 5 , wh en r is i n d en i te ly
i n c r e as e d , th e p r inc ip a l n th ro ot o f a .

If a is n ega ti ve, we s h all c a ll th e n e g a ti v e li mit a p r o a ch e d p

by th e rt h te r ms of th e s e r i es , w h en r i s i n d e n i te l y inc re as e d ,

th e p ri n i p al c n th r o o t o f a .
214 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN AL GE B R A
OPE R ATION S INV O L V ING S URD S
348 . It is ne s y t d n Add i ti n an d Multi pli c a ti
c e s ar o e e o on ,

w h en an y o r a ll f th e numb o in l ed a e u d ers vo v r s r s .

L et n an d p b e p o s i ti v e i n te g e r s .

L et a be a r a ti o n al n um e r hi h b w c i s n ot a p e r f e ct powe r of

th e n th d e gr e e , i s p o s i ti v e i f n i s e v en
an d .

L et b b e a r a ti o n al n u m e r b
hi h i s n ot w c a p e r f e c t p ow e r of

th e p th d e gr e e , an d i s p o s i ti v e i f p i s e ve n .

L et a l, a 2, a, , m , b e a s e r i e s o f r ati on al nu mb er s wh o se

nth po w ers ar e le s s th a n a, an d m ,
a s er i e s

wh o s e n th p w o e r s are gr e a te r th a n a , su ch th at
l
1, ( >
l l l
a 1 ~ a1 a 2 ~ a2 1 .
r

L et b ,, b , , m ,
b, , m , be a s e r i e s o f r a ti o n al n u mb e rs wh ose

p th p o w e rs a re le s s th an b , an d b
'
2,
m ,
a s erie s

wh ose p th p o we r s a r e g r e a te r th a n b , su ch th a t
' -1
N bl 1; b 2
N b2 2
7
"
a
b r
N br )

Th en to a dd f/b to V a, i s to n d th e li mi t, when r i s i n de
n i te ly i ncr e ased, of a,

To mu ltip ly Q/a by f/b i s to n d th e li mi t, wh en r i s i nde

n i te ly in c r e a s e d, o f a , x b, .

34 9 . A me an in g si mi la r to th e a bo ve is a tta ch d to any e

e xp re s si o n, wh i ch b and is n o t a r a ti o n a l n u m e r, wh i c h i s th e

u lt o f
re s n
y n i te nau mb f th f ll wi ng Op a ti o n s pe er o e o o er r

f m d up n on e
or e m e ati n a l n u mb e s p o i d d th a t i n
o or or r o r , r v e ,

an y i n d i t d t th e n u mb
ca e und th e a di c a l s i gn i p i
roo , er er r s os

ti v e i f th e i n d e x of th e r o ot is e v en :
b c
A dd i ti o n ; S u tr a ti on ; Multi li c ati on ; D i vi s i on ; p r ai s i n g to
a n y p o s i ti v e i n te gr al p o e r ; e xtr a ti n g a n y r o o t w c .

35 0 . We w ill n ow sh o w h ow to p rov e th e la ws of 12 an d

14, wh e n an
y o r all o f th e le tte r s i n vo lve d r e pr e s e nt s ur d s .

L et it b e re
q u i re d, f or e xa mp le , to p r o v e th e C o mmutati v e
L aw for Mu lti pli c a ti o n 14) w i th r e s p e t to th e r odu t c p c
two s u r d s , { 7 a a n d { 7 b , w h e r e n , me
.

of p, a , and b h ave th e sa

me a ni n g s as in 34 8 .
 S UR DS . THE O RY O F E XP ON E N T S 21 5

O r, to p r o v e

Wi th th e n ota ti o n o f 34 8, { 7 d x \/b
p
i s th e li mi t, w h en r is
i n d e n i te ly i n c re a se d, of b, .

Als o , f/b x { 7 a i s th e li mi t, wh en r i s i n d e ni te l y inc rea s ed

,

of b, . x a, .

By 14, c
s i n e a , an d b, a r e r a ti o n a l n u mb er s ,
a, x b = b xa, , ,
.

Then ,
a, x b, . and b, x a , a re c
f u n ti o n s of r w hi c h a e e q ua l
r

for ever y p o s i ti v e i n te g r a l v a lu e of r ; an d , by 25 2 th i ,
e r

li mi ts wh en r i s i n d e n i te l y inc r e a s e d a r e e q ual .

H e nc e,

T his si mply me a ns th a t th e p r o d u c t o f th e p r i n c ip a l nth r oo t o f a

34 7 ) b y th e p r i n c ip a l p th r o o t o f b is e q u a l to th e p r o d u c t o f th e p r in ci
p al p th ro o t o f b b y th e p r i n c i p a l n th r o o t o f a .
(C o mp a re

A s i mi la r i n te r p r e ta ti o n mu s t b e g i ve n to e v e ry r e s u lt i n vo lvi n g s u rd s .

I n lik e ma n n e r, th e re ma i n i n g la w s of 12 an d 1 4 ma y b e

p r o ve d to h o ld, wh e n an
y o r a ll o f th e le tte r s i n v o lve d r e p r e
s e n t s ur d s .

35 1 . S i n c e th e re ma i n i n g r e s u lts o f Ch a p I , . an d th e r e s ults

i n Ch a p s . II to XV I , i n c lu s i v e , a re f or ma l c o n s e que nc e s o f th e
la w s of 12 an d 1 4 , i t f o llo w s th a t ever y s ta te me n t o r r ule ,

i n th e s e c h a p te r s , in r e g ar d to e x p re s s i o n s wh e re any le tte r
i n vo lve d re
p r e s e n ts a ny r a ti o n a l nu mbe r , h o ld s e qu a ll y wh en
th e le tte r re
p r e s e n ts a s ur d .

T hi s i s als o th e c as e wh e n th e le tte r rep rese nts any nu mb er of th e

form d es c ri b e d i n 34 9 .

APPR OXIMATE R OOTS

352 . An y one o f th s u c e i e n u mb e
e c ss v rs, i n th e e xa mple of

3 4 2, i s c alle d a n app r o xi ma te s qu a re r o o t o f 2 .

I n g e n e r a l, a ny on e o f th e n u m be r s a l , a 2, e tc , o r .
'
a 2, e tc , .

in 3 4 5 , i s c alle d a n app r oxi ma te n th r o o t o f a .

3 53 . Th e su cc e s si mb e r s, i n th e e x a mp le o f 34 2, w h o s e
v e nu

s qua r e s are le s s th an 2, may b e o b ta i n e d by r e ga r d i n g 2 a s a

p e rf e c t s qu a r e , a nd a p l
p y i ng th e r u le o f 30 4 .
 10 AD V AN CE D C O URS E IN A L G E B R A

28 1 4 00

2 8 24 1 1 90 0
1 1 29 6

Th e p oc e ss
r may b e c o n ti n u e d to a ny d e si r e d e xten t .

I n li k e ma n n e r th e r ule of3 1 7 may b e u s e d to n d an

a pp r o x i mate c ub oo t e r of a n um e r ( b
No te , 31 2) hi h i s n o t w c
a p e r fec t c u b ; an d th
e e r u le o f 3 25 may b e u s e d to n d a n
a pp r o x i mate n th r o o t o f a n u mb e r (N o te ,
3 2 3 ) h i h i w c
s n ot a

p e p w o f th e n th d e g e e
r fe c t o er r .

Th e c n s i d e ti n s i n o 3 0 6 a n d 3 20 a pply e qu a lly to a p
ra o

p oxi mate s qu a e a nd c ub e roots

r r .

35 4 T nd a n a pp o xi mate o t o f a f a c ti o n w h o se te ms
. o r r o r r

a re
p i ti e i n
ost g e xp e v
s s e d i n A aeb i c n u m
e rs l r w h se r e ra s , o

d n mi n t
e oi s a n d wh s n ume a to i s n o t
a or , p e f e c
o e t p o w e r r ,
a r r

o f th d g d n te d by th i n d e x o f th
e e re e e o
q u i e d o t w ee e re r r o ,

may d i i d e th q u i
v d pp x i ma t e
e re t f th eren u m e
a a to by
ro r oo o r r

th e r e qu i r e d r o o t o f th e d e n o mi n a to r
I f th e d e n o mi n a to r i s n ot a p e rf e c t p o w er of th e d e gr e e
d e n ote d by th e i n d e x of th e r e qu i r e d r o o t, th e f ra c ti o n s h o uld
be r e du c e d to an e qu i v a le n t c
f ra ti o n wh o se d e n o mi nator i s a

p e r fe c t
p o we r of thi s d e g re e .

Th u s , le t i t b e r e q ui r e d to n d th e s quare r oot o f a p p r o xi

ma tely, to f o u r d e c i ma l p la c e s .

3 6 V6
8 16 4
6 29 3 )

EXE RC S E 4 3 I
Fi nd th e a p p r oxi ma te valu e o f e a ch o f th e f o llo wi ng to ve d ec ima
l
plac e s :
1 . V6 . 3
. V S5 I
. .
 S UR DS . TH E ORY O F E XP ON E N T S 21 7

11 . <
7 7 . .

10 .

THE THE OR Y O F E XP ONE NTS

355 . In th e p r e e di n g p o rti o n s o f c e th w k or an ex p on e nt

has b een c
on s i d e r e d onl a s a p o s i ti ve i n te er
g y .

T hu s ,
if m i s a p o s i ti v e i n te g e r,

a
m
a x a x a x to m fa c tor s . 60 )

3 56 . We h av e p ro v e d th e f o llo win g r e s ults wh n

to h o ld e m
a nd n r e p r e s e nt p os iti ve i nte ge r s , a n d a an
y r a ti on al n u mb e r

m " m
a X a a
()
1
m"
a ()
2

35 7 . It i s c
y to e mpl y xp n nts whi ch
n e e s sar n tp i
o e o e a re o os

ti e i n t g
v e; a n d w
e rs n w p c e d t d en e tho s f m ro f x e o e o e or s o e

p o n e nt wh i c h a ti n l nu mb ere ra b ut n t p s i ti
o a i nt g r s, o o ve e e rs .

I n d e te mi n i n g w h t m n i n g t a s i g n t th e n e w f m
r a ea s o s o or s,

i t w ill b e n e n i e n t to h a e th m u c h th t th e a b o
co v v l w f e s a ve a or

multi p li c ati n s h ll h ld w ith s p c t t th e m

o a o re e o .

W h ll th f
e s a um q u t i
e re o r e a s s
a n 3 5 6 to h e eld w h t o , o , a

ever n u mb e i p s e
r n te dsby re f a
re ll ti n l lu e f m a, or ra o a va s o

a n d n i n c lu d i n g th e c a se wh e i th e m n is n d n d

, ; e re r or z ero a

w h at m an i n g mu st b e ttach e d in c ons equ en c e t f ti n l

e s a o ra c o a ,

n ega tive, a n d zer o e xp o n e n ts .

35 8 . Me a ni ng of a Fra cti onal E xp onent .

2
R e q ui r e d th e me a n i ng of a
q
,
wh e re p and q re p r e s e nt p o s i ti v e

i n te g e r s .

If 3 5 6, i s to h o ld f o r a ll r a ti o n al v alu e s of m and n,

we h a v e
1) p to q te r ms
a
3 x ;
a X

to q fa c to r s a q 9 = aP .
21 8 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
13

Th at i s , ( )
a q q
a t
.

29

Whe n c e by x/a
q
1 57 , a
a p
.

We s h a ll th e n d e n e b th eqth

a a
as e in g r o ot of ap .

f s }
For e xa mple , (it
i
{ Va/ ; 1
a Va 5
; a e tc .

We s h all th r o ugh o ut th e re main d er o f th e wo rk r e ga r d a ? as b e in g th e

q th ro o t of a
p r i nc ip a l

3 59 . Me ani ng of a Z ero E xp onent .

R e q ui r e d th e me a n i n g of a

.

if m i s mb e r
'

By 3 5 6, an y r a ti o n al nu

m 0 m+ o m
a x a a a

m
a
Wh e nc e, a
o
m
1 .

We s h a ll th e n d e n e a
o
as b e i n g e q ual to 1 .

3 60 . Me a ni ng of a Neg ati v e E xp onent .

R e qu i r e d th e me an i n g of a

,
whe re 3 r e p r e s e n ts a p o si ti ve

i n te g e r or a p o s i ti v e f r a c ti o n .

" o
By 3 5 6, a x a

a

a 1

1
Wh e nc e, a
"
8
a

We s h a ll th e n d e n e a as b ei n g e q ual t o 1 d iv i d e d by a

.

1
For e xa mple , 2
M .

a ,
,
a
2
a ? i
xy

36 1 . It f ollo ws fr o m 3 60 th at
An y f a cto r of the mera to r of a f ra cti o n ma y b e tra nsf err ed
nu

to the d en o mi n a to r, o r a ny f a cto r of the d en o mi na tor to the

nu me ra to r , if the s i n of i ts exp o nen t b e cha nged
g .

2 3
b
T hu s ,
a
4
may b e w r i tte n i n th e f o r ms
cd
3 2 3 l 2 4
b a b c a d
2 4 4 3
od d b

d c
 S UR DS . TH E ORY O F E XP ON E N TS 21 9

36 2 . We will n ow p r o ve th a t, w ith th e d e n i ti o n s of 3 58
an d 3 60 , e q u a ti o n 35 6, h o ld s f o r all r a ti o n a l v a lu e s o f m,
n, a n d a , r o v id e d th a t
m
an d a
"
a r e r a ti o n al n u mb e r s o r s ur d s

a
p .

It w i ll b e u n d e r s to o d th a t, i n a ll c
f r a ti o n a l ex p o n e n ts , th e
re s u lts a r e li mi te d to p r i ncip a l r o ots .

I . L et m an d n c
b e f r a ti o n s o f th e fo rm 22 a n d 31, r es p ec ti ve l y ,
q s

wh ere p, q, ,
r a n d 3 r e p r e s en t p o s i ti v e i n te g e r s .

p r

B y 3 5 8,

qr

_q 3

We h av e n ow p r ov e d th a t 3 5 6, h o ld s wh e n m an d n

re
p r e s e nt a n
y p o s i ti v e r ati o n a l n u mb e r s .

II . L et m be r a ti o n a l a n d p os i ti ve ,
a n d le t n q, wh e re q
is r a ti o n al, p o s i ti v e ,
a n d le s s th an m .

:
By 85 , or 3 62, I ,
a
m

q
x a ? W a
m

Wh e n ce ,
a
m "
? i a
m
x a

T h at i s ,
a
m
x a

?
a
mq

I n lik e ma nn e r th e la w may b e p r o v ed to h o ld wh e n n i s
r a ti o n al a n d
p o s i ti v e ,
a n d m p, h e r e p i s r a ti o n a l, p
o s i ti ve, w
and le s s th an n .

III . L et m b e r ati o n al a n d
p o s i ti v e ,
a n d le t n q, whe re q
is r a ti on a l, p o s i ti v e , a n d g r e a te r th a n m .

1 1
B y 6 3 61 , a
n
x a
q
(g 36 2 II ) a
r -a

ma q
,

m+ 9
a a

I n lik e ma n n e r, th e la w ma y b e p r o v e d to h o ld h en n i s w
r a ti o n a l a n d
p o s i ti v e ,
a n d m p ,
h e re
p i s r a ti o n a l,
o s i ti v e ,
w p
an d g r e ate r th a n n .
220 ADV ANC ED CO UR S E IN A L GE BR A
IV . L et m p, an d n q, w he re p an d q a r e r ati o n al

an d p o s i ti ve .

1 1 _p _q
T h e n, a x a

q
p q
85 , or 3 62, I) a
a a

H nce e ,
a
m
x a
"
a
m
fo r all r a ti o n al v alu e s o f m an d n .

F or ex a mp le , 2
x 5 z s 3

a a a a ;
5 7
a x a i = a f z a f
, e tc .

3 63 . We h av e f or a ll r ati o n al v alu e s o f a , m, an d n, p r ov i d e d

th a t a
m
an d a
"
a r e r a ti o n al n u mb e r s o r sur d s,

m " m
xa : 85, 3 62)


a a
m
W h e n c e,
a m "

a
n
a

af g
F or e xa mp le,
a

a }
'
s
a f
,
e tc .

2
a

3 64 We w ill now p rove th at e qu a ti o n 3 5 6, h old s fo r

a ll r a ti o n al v a lu e s o f a , m, a n d n, p ro v i d e d th at a
m
a nd ar e

r a ti o n a l n u mb e r s o r su r d s .

In a ll f r a c ti o n a l ex p o n e n ts , th e r e s u lts a re li mi te d to p ri nc 1
p a l r o o ts .

I L t n b e a p o s i ti v e i n te ge
. e r .

T h en ( )
m m
,
m
ax
m"
x a a a to n c
f a to r s
m
8 5 362) a .

II . L et n B, wh e re p an d q ar e p osi ti ve i nte g e r s .

Q
r "
LP
Th e n,
( a
m q
{ Va mp 364 , I) a

III . L et n s, wh e re s is i
r at o n a l a n d p o s i ti v e .

m 1
Th e n ( y

m
3 64 , I or II )
( )
s
a

H en c e , ( ) a
m "
a
m
for all r a ti o n al v alu e s o f m a nd n .

1
ple
1
x2
F or e x am , ( )
a z s
a 3
as ;
 S UR DS . TH E O R Y OF E XP ON E N TS 22 1

"
365 . To p r ove ( a bc a b

c f or a ll ra ti o n a l va lue s o
f
a, b, c, m , a n d n , p
ro vi d e d tha t a , b ,

c

,
m ,
a re r a ti o n a l n u mb ers
or s ur d s .

Th e th eore m was p rove d i n 1 2 9 for any p os i ti ve i nte gral value of n,

and in 16 5 fo r a ny valu e o f n of th e f orm 1 , wh er e m i s a p os iti ve

m
i nte ge r .

I wh e p osi tiv e i ntege

. L et n
5 ,
re p an d q ar e rs .

By 3 64 , [( a bc o ( abc - u
a P P
c
()
1
P P ?

By 1 29 , (ac 61.?
p 2
()
Fr o m (
1) an d

[( abc .

) q

P P ?

Wh e nc e , ( abc ~
) q = a qc q - o

Thi s me ans th a t th e p r in c i p al qth r o ot of

( abc -)?n
is e qua l to th e
p ro d uc t of th e p ri n c i p al qth r o o ts o f a P , b ?
, 6 10
,

II . L et n s, w he re s is r ati o n al a n d p o s itive .

1
T h en , ( abc m
)

( ab c
)
,
m

1
1 29 , or 365, I)
a
a
b s
c
s

-s -s -a
a b c

H en c e (a b c ,
m)
b
c f or all rati onal v alue s o f m an d n .

3 66 . E xa mples .

In th e f o llo wing e xa mp le s , e ve ry letter i s s up p osed to r e p r ese nt a

rati o nal n u mb e r s uc h th at e ve ry e xp ress i o n o f th e f o r m a

is a ra ti o n al

n u mb e r o r surd .

Th e v a lu e o f a nu mb e r a ffe cte d w ith f acti a r o n al e x o n e n t

p
ma y b e f o un d by s t r ,
if po s sibl e xt a c ti n g th
e, r e r o ot i n d i c ate d
by th e d n mi n e o a to r , a n d th e n r ai s i n g th e r e s u lt to th e powe r

i n d i c ated by th e nu me r ato r .

1 . F i n d th e v alu e o f

{ /(
i
29 2)
222 AD V AN CE D C O U RS E IN A L G E B R A }

i i i
i
2 . Multi ply a
f2 a 7

3a
'

by 2 4 a
'

6 a

a
i 2 a
3 27
3 a i

2 _4 a 6 a

2 d +4 a % Ga } l

4 a i s a t -H z
3
6 6 12 + 18 a

20 % +i8

a a .

-2 l z
3 . D iv i de 1 8 xy y
i
by 3 wy

1
+wi 2w i

y
.

18 2
23 % l i
2 1 l
xf
6 y 3 x y
'

xy x

x
'

y
18 xy

2 i
6 x i/

1
12
t
6 ci y
-1
11 ar t 6 x
" 1 2
y y
l
6x y

i

1
2 4
x y

9 3 x
"

i 6 x
"
1 2
y y
9 3 x
'

6 x

l 2
y y

It i s i mp orta nt to a r ra nge th e d i vid e n d , d ivi s or , a nd e ac h re mai nd e r

i n th e sa me o rd e r o f p o we rs o f s o me co mmo n le tte r .

by th e B i n omi a l T heo re m .

m i mi )?
"

E
i
5 e< i
er
!
m
(
5
5<
m 4
m ) m
10 ( m) ?
'

-
i i a
10 0 4
53 mr m
5( x r m
i
m?

m
' li
l 5m
'
3 %
-m + l 0 m i -
m % 10 m % m4
" "

i
? y
f
5m m s m
ay
5m g

10 s f 10 mg 5mi g

m .
 S UR DS . T HE O R Y OF E XP ON E N TS 223

EXERC S E 4 4 I
It will b e u nd ers to o d , i n th e follo wi ng s et of e xa mples , th at e very

le tte r us e d a s th e i nd e x o f a r o o t r e p re s e n ts a p os iti ve i n te g e r , a n d e ve ry
o th e r le tte r a r a ti o n a l n u mb e r , s uc h th at e ve ry e xp res s i o n o f th e form

a

or { 75 is a r ati o n a l nu mb e r o r s u rd .

E xp re s s wi th r a d ic al s ign s

i mi ni
ff
1 . a b . 2 . 3 . 6 .

E xp re ss wi th f rac ti o n a l e xp o n e nts

n . Viz4 0 55 176 . 8 . WE VE

E xp ress with p o s i ti ve e xp o n e nts

7 4
-
fb 3 4
' I "
m
9 x y 10 4 11 n 12 b n 9
'

. . . a . . iii . a c .

In ea c h o f th e fo llo wi ng , tra ns fe r a ll li te ral fa c tors fro m th e d e n o mi

n a to r to th e nu me ra to r

3 _%
a x3 2 m 5x 1
13 14 -3
3 17 4
b y%2 4 ygz i p

In e ac h o f th e follo wing , tra ns fer all li teral factors fro m th e nu mer ato r
to th e d e n o mi n ato r

- -
5
b g 2 %
m x%
x

a
17 .

1 g
z3
'

2
5 n y

Fi nd th e values o f th e follo wi ng
-7
21 .
(a f w . 23 .
(ace 13 .

5
9
-3 -9 7 11
22 .
( 6 ) 24 .
( 6

M ulti p ly th e fo llo wi ng

i 4 x%
_i 3 _
%
29 . x 5 + 6x by 2 2 + x
_
m %n -2
i

m m m
"

l 1 3 2 1 4 in n 6n 3
30 2 by 2
" "

n n
' '

s a %b % i ? ib i %
l
a tf

r

f
31 . 4 a b by 6 a 8 a 2 at

Di vi d e the follo wi ng

32 m 2
5 u 1 4 m 2 3 by m 4 n2 m 3n 2 m z

n
'

n
'

. .

_ }
g g 2 xy% 3 x y

'

2
x y 10 xy 9 by x y .

-
2 bi
% % %b % b y 3
34 . a b 26 2
a s
< I
224 AD V AN CE D CO UR S E IN A L G E B R A
(In th e f o llo wi ng te n e xa mple s , use th e rules o f C ha p V II . .
)
Fi nd th e v a lu e of

i 3 r i -2 8
5m n mn 2
(
z
35 .
(2 a z ) 36 . 8

i i -z
)( gwi i 7
-z
37 . 4
( gb 7 z 4 z ) .

i i
{ n

if i -l i
(a

z
38 .
(3 x 4 40 . b 2 (i a h y .

39 .
(a
'
2
b 3 2 a
3
b 41 .
(x
3
5 3x% 2

25 a
-6
49 mi 8 x2 27
42 43 44
_%
. . .

5 a

3 7 m% 2 x3 + 3 y

45 . F ac to r a 2 8 b
"
9 b y th e r ule o f 177 .

%b y
d

46 . F acto r a? a %b i +
'

b
"

th e rule o f

E xp an d th e follo wi ng b y th e Bi no mi al Th e orem
3 4
47 .
( a 1
3 b n
) .

2 V m5 }
f
h g h l
y
i 5
4s
( i .

Fi n d th e
i
ll/g
6 th term O f V ) 7 th term
(
17
51 . a . 52 . Of in

1 13

( W)
53 . 10 th te rm of 2 303

54 . Fi n d th e s quar e r o o t o f a %b
3 6 %
a b
'
2 5 o
"
1 12 a

g 4 a

gb .

55 . Fi nd th e c ub e r o o t o f

; _
i 4 t 44 x i % 54 8 4 : %
'

x 6 x 4. 21 x 63 x 27 B

S i mp li fy th e follo wing
P

56 .
w i
a l/e 60 . xP
-
or
-
q

2" 2"
x 1 x 1

x 2n
+ 1 gri m 1

a i --
I b 3 a
>
<
a
-
lv
a w :
}

a %+ 2 b%
.

a
l
g
2 b i

ci
g

e
- %
Ct b
I 6 b
 S UR DS . T HE O RY OF E XPON E N TS 225

RE DU CTION OF SUR DS
It will b e un d e rs to o d , in 3 6 7 to 3 9 8 , i n c lu s i ve , th at e ve ry le tte r us e d

as th e i nd ex o f a r o o t, r e p re s e nts a p o s itive i n te g e r , a nd e ve ry o th e r le tte r

a ra ti on al nu mb e r s u c h th a t ev e r y e xp res s i o n o f th e f o r m i /a i s a s u rd .

36 7 . If a s ur d /ct,
i s i n th e f o r m b Q whe r e a an d b a r e r ati o n al

e xp r e s s i o n s b is c alle d th e co e ici ent ,

an d n th e i nd ex ;
an d th e su r d is s ai d to b e of th e n th d e gr e e .

368 . A qua d r a ti c s ur d is a su r d o f th e se c ond d eg ree .

whi ch
.

36 9 . S i mi lar S urd s ar e s u rd s do n ot d i ffe r a t a ll, o r

d i e r o nl y in th e i r c
o e f c i e n ts ; as ax an d 3 \/a x
z 3 2

Di s s i milar S ur ds a re s ur d s w hi c h ar e n o t s i mi lar (

37 0 . R educti on of a S ur d to i t s S i mp le s t Form .

A s u rd is sa i d to b e i n i ts si mp les t f orm wh en th e e xp r e s s i o n

u nd e r th e r a d i c al s i g n is i
r at o n a l and i n te gr al is n ot a

pe rfe ct p o we r of th e d e g r e e d e n o te d by
a n y f a to r o f th e i n d e x c
of th e s u r d, a n d h a s n o f a to r c w c
hi h i s a p e r fe c t p o e r o f th e w
sa me d e gre e as th e s ur d .

371 . CA S E I . When the exp r ess i on un d er the ra d i ca l s i gn is

a p er ect p o wer o
f f the d egr ee d en o ted b y a f a c tor o f the i n d ex .

ce mp le st fo r m
6
Ex . R e du \/8 to i ts si .

We h av e,

37 2 . CA S E II . When the exp r ess i on un d er the r a d i ca l s ign is

ra ti on a l a n d i n tegr a l, a nd ha s a f a cto r whi ch i s a p f
er ec t p ower

of the sa me d egr ee as the s ur d .

1 . R ed u c e
3
V 5 4 to i ts s i mple s t fo rm .

We ha ve, { 7 1 = 0 27 x 2
7
5 x 1 65)
We c an u s
_ e 1 65 i n th e a b o ve ; for we k n o w b y 351 th at i t h old s
wh e n i7 a , V b , V 6 , a r e s ur d s .
22 6 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E . IN A L GE B RA
We th e n h a v e th e f o llo win g r u le

R e s o lve the exp r es s i o n un d er the r a d i c a l s i gn i n to two f a cto rs ,

the s ec o n d o f whi ch co n ta i n s n o f a cto r wh i ch i s a p e rf ect p o wer of

the sa me d egree as the s ur d .

E xtr a ct the r equ i r e d root o f the f i r s t f a cto r, a n d multip ly the

r e s u lt b y the i n d i ca ted r o ot o f the s eco n d .

I f th e e xp r e s s i o n u nd e r th e r a d i c a l s i gn h as a nu me r i c a l
f a c to r wh i ch c a n not be r e ad il y f ac to r e d by c
i n s p e ti o n , i t i s
c on v e n i ent to r e s olv e i t i n to i ts p r i me fa c t ors .

c mple st f o r m
3
3 . R edu e \/1 9 4 4 to i ts si .

3
V x x 3 3
x x 3 x

4 . R edu ce V 1 25 x 1 4 7 to i ts si mp le s t f o rm .

37 3 . CA S E II I . When the exp r ess i o n u n d er the r a d i ca l s ign

is a f r acti o n .

I n th i s c a s e, we mu ltip ly b o th te rms of the f r a cti o n b y s u ch a n

e xp r es s i o n a s wi ll ma ke the d en o mi n a to r a p f
e r e ct p o we r of the

sa me d egr ee as the s ur d , a n d th e n p r oc e e d as in 37 2 .

Ex . Rd c
e u e to i ts si mp le s t f o rm .

Multi p ly i n g b o th te r m s of th e f r a c ti o n by 2 a , we h av e

9 x2 a 9
X2 X
V 16 e4

374 . R educti on of S urd s of D iffe r ent De g r ees to S ur d s of th e

S ame D eg ree .

Ex . c e V 2 V 3 an d V5 t s u d s f th e m
R e du , ,
o r o sa e d e gr e e .

Th e lo w e t c mmo n mu lti p l o f 2 3
s nd 4 i s 1 2
o e , ,
a .

B y 6 3 27 ,

{ 73 1 .
 S UR DS . TH E O R Y OF E XP ON E N TS 22 7

We th e n h a v e th e f o llo w i ng r u le

M a ke the i n d ex o f ea ch s u r d the L . C M
. .
f
o the g i ve n i nd i ces ;

a n d ra i s e the exp r es si o n u n d e r ea ch r a d ica l s ign to a p o we r who s e

exp o n ent is o b ta i n ed b y d i v id i ng thi s L C . . M . b y the g iven i n d ex .

The r e la ti ve mag ni tud e o f s u rd s may b e d e te r i n e d b y m r e d uc i ng th e m,

if n ec e s sa ry , to s ur d s o f th e s a me d e gr e e .

3/8 1 V3 V5
l
Thus , s i nc e 7 64
R th at V2 .

ADDITION AND S OF S UR DS
37 5 . T dd os ub t a
a or r ct si mi la r s ur d s a d d o r s ub

trac t th e i r
c o e f c i e n ts , a n d mu lti p ly th e r e s u lt by th eir c ommon
s urd p art .

1 . R e q uir e d th e su m o f V 20 an d V
R e duc i n g ea ch s u r d to i ts si mple s t f o r m

V w+ V 4 5 = V 4 x 5 + V9 x 5 = 2V5 + 3V5 = 5V5

2 . S i mp li f y
1 9
x 2 x2
4 16

M U L TIPL IC A ION OF S UR DS
T_
Multi p ly V 6 b y V 1 5
"

37 6 . 1 . .

By 1 6 5, V6 V i5 = V6 x 15 = V 90 3 V IO .

2 . M u lti p ly V 2 a by V47 2
.

R e d uc i n g to s ur d s o f th e sa me d e gr e e

3 . Multi p ly V 5 by V5 .

V5 X V5 = V5 4

{75 2
(
g 3 2 7 ) = V2 5 .
2 28 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L GE B RA
We th e n h a v e th e fo llo wi ng r ule

To multip ly toge ther two or mor e s u r d s , r ed uce them, if n eces

s a ry, to s u rd s o f the s a me d egr ee .

J lIultip ly tog ether the exp ress i on s un d e r the r a d i ca l s ig n s, a n d

wri te the r es u lt u n d er the co mmon r a d i ca l s i gn .

Th e r e s ult s h o uld be re d uc e d to i ts si mp le s t fo rm .

4 . M ulti p ly 3V1 + s _ 4 Ve7; b y V 1 + x + 2 V x .

3Vi + x 4 V

8 x=3

37 7 . If a s ur d i s i n th e f o rm b V a, wh e r e a an d b a r e r a ti o nal
e x p re s s i o n s , th e c
c i e n t may b e i n tr o d u c e d u n d e r th e r a d i c a l
oef

S i gn by r a i s i n g i t to th e n th
p o w e r , a n d m u lti p ly i n g th e e x

p re s si on u n de r th e r a di c a l s i gn by th e r e s ult .

Ex . I nt r o du c e th e c o ef c i e n t o f 2 a V3 5 2
un d e r th e ra d i c al

W V3 x
S l gn
2 e VaE = V = V24

3
2
= \/8 a x 3 3
5
2 3
(1 58
2
.

37 8 . A r a ti o n a l e x p r e s s i o n may b e e xp r e s s e d i n th e f o r m of

a s u r d o f a ny d e g re e by r ai sin
g i t t o th e p o w e r d e n o te d th e by
i n d e x, an d w r i ti n g th e r e s u lt u n d e r th e c
o rr es o ndi n g r a di al p c
S i gn .

DIV IS ION O F S UR DS
37 9 . 1 . D ivi de VIO5 by V5 .

3
V4
B y s 29 3, 9 5
V8 1 3 V3 .

V5 5

We c an us e 2 9 3 i n th e a b ove ; for we kno w b y 35 1

wh e n V 5 a nd Vb a re s urd s .

2 . D i vid e V4 b y V 6 .
 S UR DS . TH E O RY OF E XPON E N TS 2 29

c
R e d u i n g to s ur d s o f th e sa me d e gre e 37 4 )

VI VP
3
3

We th e n h av e th e follo wi ng r u le

To d iv i d e two s urd s, r ed uce them, if n ecessa ry, to s ur d s o f the

sa me d egree .

D i vi d e the exp r ess i on un d er the r a d i ca l s ign i n the d i vi d end b y

the exp res s i o n u n d er the ra d i ca l s ign i n the d i vi s or, a n d wr i te the
r es u lt u n d er the common r a d i ca l s ign .

Th e r esult s h o uld be re d uc e d to i ts si mplest form .

6

V 10 b y V40

3 . D ivi d e .

VE V1 0 3

4 . D i vi d e V 6 2V3 by V3 .

V6 2V V6 2 V?

V3 V3 V3

I NV OL UTION A ND E V O L UTION O F S UR DS
38 0 . 1 . R ai s e VI2 to th e thi r d p o we r .

V12 3
12 % 364 ) 12 3 V 12 2 V3 .

2 . R ai se V2 to th e fourth p o w e
(
r .

3
V
( )2 4
(
2 5 4
2 V2 1
V1 6 .

Then , to r a i se a s ur d to an y p o w e w h o se r ex p o n e nt is a

p o siti ve i nte g e r ,

If p oss i b le , d i vid e the i nd ex of the su rd b y the exp on ent o f the

r equ i re d p o wer o therwi se, ra i s e the exp r ess i o n u n d er the r a d i ca l

s ign to the r equ i r ed p o wer .

3 . E xtra t th e c c ub e r o ot o f V2 7 x 3
.

x
) x
(
3
0
3 x
.
230 A DV ANC ED C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
4 . c
E xtra t th e f th ro ot of { 78 .

f
1
i f
( G 6 r3

T he n ,
to e xtr a c t an y r o ot o f a s u r d ,

If p os s i b le, e xtr a ct the r equ i r e d r oo t o f the exp r es s i on un d er the

ra d i ca l s i g n o the r wi s e, multip ly the i n d ex of the s ur d b y the i nd ex

of the r e qu i r ed r oo t .

If th e s ur d h as a c oe fc ie nt wh i ch i s p e r fe c t p o we r o f th e d e gre e
n ot a

d e n o te d b y th e i n d e x o f th e re qu ir e d r o o t, i t s h o u ld b e i n tr o d u c e d un d e r

th e r a d i c a l s ig n 3 7 7 ) b e fo re a p p ly i n g th e ru le .

Th us , { Va/972 ) x/ .

S PECIA L M E THOD S IN MU L TIPL ICATION

38 1 . Th e r u le s o f Ch ap V II s h o uld b e
. u se d to n d th e v alu e

of any p ro d uct wh i ch c o me s un d e r th e m .

1 . E xp an d (V 6 V 3 )?
By 1 31 , (V 6 W) ?
V
( )6 2
2 x/6 V5 M
( )
E ?

2 . E xp a n d (
4 { 7 5>
(4

B y s 1 3 2, (
4 { 75 m 7 5) 4 2
16 { 75 (g

S UR D FA CTORS
38 2 . Th e me th o d s of C h ap V I I I may b e
. e mp loy e d to
s e p ar a te an e xp r e s s i o n i n to s ur d f a to r s c .

1 . F a to r 2 \/x
c 6 x by th e m e th o d o f 1 55 .

2 x6 6 x 2x 6 6 (x/E
c
)
2
2 \/x (
1 si x/55) .

2 . F a to rc a b by th e meth o d o f 17 1 .

a b N) a
?
N a x/B x x/a x/b ) .

W e may als o fa c to r a b b y th e meth o d of 177 th u s ,

a b (Wa s
(
i
x/{i rat/5 (Vi m
( a
x/
i
i i xx/Z z
/ i
s

m W) .
 S UR DS . TH E O RY O F E XP ON E N TS 231

RE DU CTION OF A FR A CTION W HO S E D E NOMINATOR IS

NO T A R A TIONA L E X PR E S S ION T O AN E QU IV A L E NT
FR A CTION H AV ING A R A TIONAL D E NOMINATOR
3 83 C A S E I. Wh n th d n mi n t i m n mi l
. e e e o a or s a o o a .

Th d u ti o n m y b e e ffe c t d by multi p ly i n g b th te ms o f
e re c a e o r

th f c ti n by a s u d f th e s m d g e a th e d n mi n t
e ra o r o a e e r e s e o a o r,

h i n g un d
av i t a d i c al i g n s u c h n e xp e s s i o n a w i ll mak e
er s r s a r s

th e d n mi n at
e of th e e s u lti n g f a c ti n a ti o n al
or o r r o r .

5
E x R e d uc e
. to a n e qui ale n t f a c ti n h a i n g a ati on al v r o v r

d e n o mi n ato r .

Multi ply i n g bo th te by 3
r ms \/9 a , we h av e

5 5 3a m 5 x?
9
7

3
VS a w /{Wt
3
\/2 7 a
3 3 a

7
58 4 . CA S E II . When the d en o mi n a to r i s the su m f
o a

r
ati o na l e xp res s i o n a nd a q ua d r a ti c s u r d ,
or o f two qu a d ra ti c

s urd s .

5 _V?
1 . R e du ce to a n e qu i v ale n t c
f r a ti on h a vi n g a r ati on al

d e n o mi n a to r .
5 V?
Mu lti p ly i n g b o th te rms by 5 W ,
we h av e

_

27 2
25 2

2 . R ed uc e to an e q u i v a le n t c
f ra ti o n h a vi ng

a r ati o n al d e n o mi n ato r
_
.

Multi ply in g b o th te r ms by 2 \/Ct a b,

3 \/d 2 \/a b /E / b
g
s x z x a
)
2 x/d 3 \/a b (
Z V 3 V b
d a
)
-b 6 a b
} 6 b + 5 \/a z
ab
9 a b 9 b 5
4 a ( ) a

We th e n h av e th e f ollo wing ru le .
23 2 AD V AN CE D O
C UR S E IN A L G EB R A
M ultip ly both terms of the f ra cti on by the d en omin a tor wi th the
s ign b etween i ts ter ms r eve r s ed .

I f th e d e n o mi n a to r i s th e su m o f a r ati o n a l e x p re s s i o n a n d
two or mo re qu a d ra ti c s u rd s , or th e su m of th r e e or mo re
q u a d r a ti c s ur d s , th e f ra c ti o n may b e r e d u c e d to an e qu i v ale n t
c
f ra ti o n h a v i n g a r a ti o n a l d e n o mi n a to r by r e p ea te d a p li c a ti o n s
p
of th e a bo v e r u le .

"

4 + x/3

2
4 3

(+
4 V 3) 2
(3 + x /s

Multi p ly i ng b oth te r ms of th e latte r b y 6 4 V 3,

4 + /3 x/i
x 3 6f

_ 12

The mp le may al o be solv e d by mult i p ly i ng_b o th terms of th e

e xa
s
g i ve n fra c ti o n b y 4 VI , or by 4

38 5 . C AS E III . When the d e n omi n a tor i s the su m of a

r a ti o na l e xp res s i on a nd a s ur d f
o the nth d egr ee, o r of two

s ur d s o f the n th d egree .

1 . R edu ce 3
to an e q ui va le n t f rac ti o n h avi n g a r ati o nal
2 V3
d e n o mi n ato r .

We h av e , (a b )(
a
2
ab b ?
) a
s
b 3
.

T h en , (
2 (75) [2 2
23 3+ 1
2
3
35
( 3
3

T h en ,
i f we multip ly b o th te r m s of th e f ra ti o n c by
2 2
23 6+ ( WW ,

th e d e n o mi n ator wi ll b e c o me rat i o na l.
 S UR DS . TH E O RY O F E XP ON E N TS 233

1 2 2 -
1 4

2 + es 3
2 + 0
( ?3 11

1
2 . R edu c e to an e qui v alen t c
f ra ti o n h av in g a

r a ti o n a l d e n o mi n ator .

We have , (
a b )(
a +a b
3 2
ab
z
b 3
) a

b 4
.

Th e n h i f we mu lti l p y b oth te r ms of th e f r a c ti o n by
(W? (vo ws (ve n
i

th e d e n o mi n a to r w i ll b ec o me r a ti o n al ; th u s ,

( )? W
W i ) W
( EN52
/ 7

2
9 2
3
1 x 5

(i 7 5
4

1
{ 7 24 5 { 7 17 5 { 5 25
2
The me th o d of Ca s e III ca n b
e a p p li e d
_
to t c
h sa s wh e e e re

th e d e n o mi n ato r i s of th e f o r m {7a { 7 b, or Q/a {7b .

1
3 . R e du ce 3
to an e qu i v ale n t f r a c ti on h a v i n g a

r a ti o n al d e n o mi n a to r .

T h e lo wes t co mmon mu ltip le of the i nd i ces 3 a nd 2 is 6 .

Now, (a b )(
a
5
a

b a
3
b 2
a
2 3
b + ab 4
b 5
) a
6
b

.

Th e n, i f w e mu lti l p y b oth te r ms of th e f r ac ti o n by
(W? W
( OO )
/5 i7
( 51 V E)
?
($ 2
5 w
NW ,

th e d e n o mi n a to r w ill b ec o me r a ti o n a l .

M ulti ply i n g b o th te r ms by th e ab o ve e x p r e s s i on , w e h av e

x/B y
f
(

4 1 25

1 21
23 4 AD V AN CE D . C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A

4 . R e du c e to an e q u i v a le n t f r a c ti on h a v i n g a

r a ti on a l d e n o mi n ato r .

Th e lo w e st c o mmon mu lti p le of th e i n d i c e s i s 4 .

No w, (a b )(
a
3
a
2
b ab
2
b 3
) a
4
b
.

Multi p ly i n g b o th te rm s of th e fr a ti o n c by
we h a v e
( r
( r m) NW E S) ?
V?
( )


xx /Ej /Q V Vw)
4
V2
x/3 (x/Q / z /E QQ

{ Vs
i
'

v
( y (x/$
4
z

38 6 . Th e me th o d s of 3 83 to 3 8 5 a re o f te n a d v a n ta g e o u s

i n fi n d i n g th e a p p r o xi ma te v a lu e o f a c
f r a ti o n wh o se d e n omi
n a to r is n o t r a t i o n al .

1
Ex . F i n d th e a p p r ox i ma te v a lu e o f to th r ee p la c es

of d e c l mals .
2 V2

1
2 (
2 42 2

387 . I n li k e ma n n e r, a fr a c ti o n wh o se n u me r a to r is n ot

r ati o n a l ma y i n c e r ta i n c a s e s b e r e d uc e d to a n e q u i v a le n t fr a c
ti o n h a vi n g a r a ti o n a l n u me r a tor .

PR OPE R TIE S OF QU AD R ATI C S UR DS 3 68)

38 8 . A qu a d r a ti c s urd c a nn o t equa l the su m of a ra ti o na l

exp r es s i o n a nd a qu a d r a ti c s u rd .

F o r, i f p o s s i le , le t b \/ d b V b,
wh e re b is a r ati o n al e x p re s si o n , an d x/aa n d c q u a d r a ti c su rds .
 SU R DS . T HE O R Y OF E XP ON E N T S 23 5

S qu ar in g b oth me mb e rs
,
a b 2
2 b \/c c,

2 b \/c a b 2
c .

2
a b 0
W h enc e,

Th at i s, aqua d r ati c s ur d e q u a l to a r a ti o n al e xp r e ss i on .

B ut thi s i s i mp o s s i le ; b wh en c e , \/d c a nn o t e q u a l b

389 . If wher e a a nd 2
, a re ra ti o na l ex

p res s io n s , a nd b a nd x/d qua d r a ti c s u r d s, the n

a c, a nd

F o r, tra n s p o sing a , b c a

Th e n, c a = Q; f o r , by 3 8 8, a q u a d r a ti c s ur d c an n ot

e qu al a r a ti o n a l e x p r e s s i o n
p lu s a q u a
d r a ti c surd .

T he r e fo re
,
a c, a n d c o n s e qu e n tl y b

3 90 If Va wher e a, b, x, a nd y a re
_
.

r a ti o n a l e xp ress i o n s , a n d a g r e a te r tha n b , then

Va = x/x x/ y .

S qu a ri n g b o th me mb e r s of th e g i v e n e q u ati o n ,

Wh en c e ,
by 3 89, a x y,
an d

b
S u tr a c ti n g, a b x 2 n y .

c
E xtra ti n g th e s q u ar e r o o t o f b oth me mb ers,

391 . Th e p r e c e d in g p i
r n ci
p le s may b e u s e d to n d th e

s q u ar e ro ot of c e r ta i n e x p r e s s i on s w
h i c h a r e i n th e f o r m o f
th e su m of a r a ti o n a l e x
p r e s s i o n a nd a q u a d r a ti c s ur d .

Ex . F i nd th e s q uar e r o o t o f 13

Ass u me ,
 36 AD V AN C E D C O URSE IN AL GEB R A
Mu lti p ly (1 ) by V 1 69 1 60 x y .

Or, x y 3 .

S q u ar i n g

W h e nc e ,
by 3 8 9, x y 13 .

Add i ng (
3 ) an d 2x 1 6, or x 8 .

b c 3 ) f ro m
S u tra ti n g ( ,
2y 1 0, or y 5 .

S ub s ti tute in V 13 :
z
V5 V5 .

392 . p
E xa m le s li k e th at of 3 9 1 may b e s olve d by i n s p e c
ti o n , by p u tti n g th e g i v e n e xp r e s s i o n i n to th e f o r m of a tr i
n o mi a l p e r f e c t s q u a re as f o llo ws :
R ed u ce the s ur d ter m so tha t i ts co e lc i e n t ma y b e
S ep a r a te the r a ti o na l ter m i n to two p a r ts whos e p r o d uct sha ll b e
the exp r es s i o n u n d er the r a d i ca l s ign of the s ur d ter m .

E xtr act the s qu a r e roo t o f ea ch p a r t, a n d conn ect the r es ults by

the s i gn o f the sur d term

1 . E xtr a t th e c s q u ar e r oo t o f 8 + V 48 .

We h av e ,

We th e n s e p a r ate 8 i nto two p arts wh o s e p r od u ct i s 1 2 .

Th e pa rts a r e 6 an d 2 ; h en c e, w

2 . E xtra t th e c s q u ar e r o o t o f 22 3 V 32 .

We th e n se pa r a te 22 i n to two pa r ts wh o s e p r odu ct i s 7 2 .

Th e p a r ts ar e 18 an d 4 ; wh e n c e ,

39 3 . It i s so me ti me s p o s s i ble to n d, by th e me th o d s of

39 1 and 3 9 2 , th e s qu a r e r o o t o f a n e xp r e ss i o n w hi c h i s th e
su m o f two q u a d r a ti c s u rd s .

Ex . R e qu i r e d th e s qu a r e r o o t o f V 3 9 2 + V 3 60 .
 S UR DS . T HE ORY O F E XP ON E NTS 2 37

(V I S6

39 4 . I t may b e p r ov e d , a s in 39 0, th at i f V
whe r e a an d x a r e r ati o n a l e xp r e s s i o n s, an d x /b a nd x/y q ua d
ra ti o s u r d s th e n 3
\/a X) x V9 .

EXERC S E 4 5 I
R e d uc e each o f th e follo wi ng to i ts si mp les t fo rm

1 . { 7 17 1 s .
4
1 28 a
7
b 21
. 5 . f/Isb . 7 . 7 W 6 .

2 . m . 4 . WW . 6 . 8 . Veo x 10 8 x 1 2 0 .

9 . 96 a
8
b+ 2 4o 2 2
a b + 1 60 ab 3
. 10 .
W W .

12 .

6 be 2
13 .

V 8 x2 48 x 72

R ed uc e to surd s of th e sa me d egree

14 . x/S, Vi , and x/i 6 . 15 . {72 a
2
b, 6 b ac 5
, a nd {7 1 4 0 61 4 7 .

16 . A r r an ge in o rd e r o f magn i tud e V3,

ii
x/ 5 , a nd

S i mp lify th e f ollo wi ng

2 $g
3 3 )
17 . 0 v1 3 5 v62 6 . 18 . j
i
7

/
21
19 . 5 V27 4 9 V 1 50 xi x .

27 32

20 . 63 V 17 5 a
3 7
b ab
z
63 a
7
b 2 10 a
2
b 1 75 a b 3 .

l
(mn
m2

M ultip ly t e h fo llo wi ng

22 . 4 ab
? a nd { 78 4 3
b c .

24 . 5 \/m + n 8 \ /m n a nd 6 V m+ n 7 Vm n .

a nd
2 38 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
In th e f o llo wmg , i ntrod u ce th e c o e fci e nts und e r th e r a d i cal s igns

/
2

27 x4 yz 28 5 3 4
b
. . . a
y 5

w
l25 a
2 x2
a x
/ x 2
2 2
a ax
29
\ 2
.

- 2
a 2
+ x a l dx 3x (x
Di vi d e th e fo llo wi ng

42
3
7
31 . { 7 14 4 by { 7 12 32 . 14 ab
?
by x 7 a
3 2
b . 33 . by

3 3
36 . a ?
6 2
by Va b 2 2
a t8

S i mplify th e follo wi ng
5
37 . 39 . x y)
2
. 41 . a
5
b 10
) .

E xp an d th e f ollo wi ng b y th e ru le s o f C h ap V II .

43 . 2 x 6)
/ 2
.

44 . 4s . V 3 V5
2
45 .
y) . 49 .

46 .
(s ub 2 mm 50 .

51 .

52 . 53 .

F a c tor th e f ollo wi ng

54 . V2 55 x xf
.
2O 56 . ao -
l- a c V bd .

57 . F ac to r V 4 b y th e rule o f 171 .

58 . F ac to r a b b y th e me th o d o f 1 7 8 , tak ing x/d x/b fo r th e rs t

fac tor .

R e d uc e ea c h of th e follo wi ng to an e q ui vale n t frac ti o n h a vi ng a

ra ti o n al d e n o mi n a to r
6 a
2 1
59 .

5
v2 7 ab c
4 8

4 x/6
 S UR DS . TH E O RY O F E XP ON EN TS 2 39

Fi nd th e app ro xi mate va lue o f e ac h o f th e f ollo wi n g to ve p la ces

d e c i mals
5
71
3

E xtra c t th e s q u are o f e a ch o f th e fo llowin g

74 . 24 76 . 38 78 . V 34 3 x/i .

75 . 87 2 24 0 . 77 . 61 28 V 6 .

E xp an d b y th e Bi no mial Th e or e m
5 6
1 3 b
(
7 n a
82 ( x V yz ) 83 84
'

. . . .

n 2 7 x/b 3 \/d
Fi nd th e

85 . 5 th te rm of ( x
2 3 x6 )12 . 86 . 9 th te rm of
x

OL U TION OF E QU ATIONS INV O L V ING TH E U NKNO W N

S
N UMB ER S U ND E R R ADICAL S IGNS
395 T s l . an q uoti n i n l
o ve i n g th u n k n w nen u mb a o vo v e o ers

ti nd e ad i c l s i g n
r r we t n p e th t m
a o th t
s, u d t m ra s os e er s s a a s r er

may tan d a l n i n n m mb
s oa n d th n
e a i e b th m mb
o e s e e r, e r s o e er

t o ap w e f th s m d e g e
o r o th u d e a e r e as e s r .

I f s u d te ms s till
r m i n we e p t th e p a ti on
r re a ,
r ea o er .

3 96 . We w ill n o w p ro ve th at

If b e f an e qu a ti o n be r a i s ed to the sa me p os iti ve
Wi n t
'
o

egr a l r es u lti n g e qu a ti o n wi ll ha ve a ll the s o lu ti o n s

o f the gi ve n e qua ti o n, a n d , i n gen er a l, a d d i ti o n a l o n es .

Co ns i de r th e e q u a ti o n A B .
()
1

R aisi n g b o th me mb e r s to th e n th p o we r, n b ein g a p o s i ti v e

inte ge r, we h a v e "
A "
B "
,
or A
B 0 .
()
2

c
F a to ri n g th e r s t me m b er

A
( A
B)( 1
A n 2
B 0 ()
3

.
 40 ADV AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A .

By 1 8 2, ()
3 i s e q u i v a le n t t o th e e q u a ti o n s

A B = O, OI

A = B, an d
n -2 -1
~
1
+ A B + m
+ B
s
= O .

T hu s ,
eq u ati o n ()
2 h a s n o t o nl y th e so lu ti o n s o f b u t a lso
th e s olu ti on s o f
1 M '- 1
A ir
A E B O,

w h i ch ,
i n g en e ral, d o n o t s ati s f y
Ta k e, for e xa mple , th e e q ua ti o n

x 3 .
()
1

S quari ng b oth me mb er s , we h av e

x 2 z9 ,
01

x2 9 0 .
(2)
F a ctori ng the rs t me mb er , and pla c i n g th e f a bto rs s ep arate ly e qual to
0 we h a ve _3 ;
=0
'

x +3 ,
or x

an d x S :O , or

Thus , e q u a ti o n ()
2 h as th e r o ot 3, a nd , in a dd iti o n , th e roo t

397 . I t f o llo ws f ro m 3 96 th a t
~
a ll s oluti o n s o bt ai n e d by
r ai s i n g b o th m mbe e rs o f a n e q ua ti o n

to a ny p o s i ti ve i n te gr al

p o we r s h o uld be ve r i ed on l y s uc h a s s a ti s f y th e g i v e n e qu ati o n
'

s h o u ld be r e ta i n e d .

In ve ri f y in g s o lu ti o n s o f e qu ati o n s i n v olvi n g th
e unk n o wn
nu m e r s b un d e r r a d i c al s i gn s, it s h o uld be ca r e f ull y bo rn e

i n mi n d th a t on ly r i n c ip a l v a lu es Of the r o o ts a re -co n s i d er ed
p

398 . E xamples .

1 . S o lv e th e e q u ati o n m x

Tr an s p o s i n g x, x/x
2
5 x 1 .

S q ua r i n g b o th me mb e rs , 23
2
5 x
2
2 x 1 .

Tr a n s p o s i n g , 2 x 6; wh n c e e, x 3 .

P utting x z 3 , the g ive n rs t me mb e r b ec o mes

Th us , th e so luti o n x 3 s atis e s th e g ive n e qu ati o n

.
 S URDS . THE O RY o r Exp o NE NTs 24 1

Tra n s p o s mg m ,

S qu a r i n g ,

2 x + 6 = 4 9 14 V2 x 1 + 2 x

T r an s p o s i n g , 14 m 4 2, or m i 3 .

S q u a r i n g, 2 x 1 9; w hen c e ,
x 5 .

P utti ng x 5 , th e g ive n rs t me mb e r b e c o mes V9 V 16 3 4

Th us , th e so lu ti on x 5 i s corr ec t .

3
3 . S olv e th e e q u a ti o n V a; 6 V3 ,

Vx 6
Cle a ri n g of fr ac ti on s , x 6 Vx
?
6 x 3

T r an s p o s i n g ,
2
x 6 x 9 x .

2
S qu ar i n g, x 6 x 81 18 x x
2
.

T he n ,
12 x 81 ; wh e nc e , x

P utti n g x th e gi ve n rs t me mb e r b e c o mes

V 3 V 3
1
-
-
4 4 2 2

Th e se c o n d me mb e r b e c omes 2 V3 .

Th us , th e s o luti o n x d oes n o t s a ti s fy th e given e qu ati o n ; i n th is

c as e th e r e is n o s o luti o n

4 . S olv e th e e q u ati o n V 2 3 x +V1 +4 x = V3 + x .

S qu ari n g b oth me mb e r s ,
2 3 x+ 2 V2

Wh e nc e, 2 V2

V2
S qu a r i n g, (
2 3 x
)(
1 + 4 x
) = 0 .

S o lv i n g as in 1 82, 2 3 x :0 ,
or x

1 +4 x ; 0, or x

B l
oth va ue s s atis fy th e gi ve n e qu ati o n .
24 2 A DV AN C ED C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

EXE R C S E 4 6 I
S olve th e follo wi ng

1 . i x
/8 3

6 . x 2 a x/ x 7 . x/ x (

3 \/2 x /2 x
\

14 .
2
V x + 10 x =v4 x2
+ 17 x + 4 .

15 .

IRR ATI O NA L NU MB E R S
3 99 . C on s i d e r th e s e ri e s

'
a h a 1
()
and an) 27 aw 2
()
in w hi ch th e te r ms of ()
1 c o n ti n u all y d e c r e a s e, an d th e te rms
of ()
2 c o n ti n u a ll y in c re ase ; a nd le t a
'
,
a , app ro a ch th e li mi t
0, wh e n r i s i n d e n i te l y in c re a se d .

Th e n , an y e xp r e s s i o n wh i ch is n ot a r a ti o n a l n u mb er, and

wh i c h i s g r e a te r th a n th e te r ms o f a nd le s s th a n th e te r ms
of i s c a lle d a n rrati onal Numb er I .

Th e co mmo n li mi t o f th e 7 th te r ms of
()
1 a nd w h en i s r

i n d e n i tel y c in rease d, i s c o n si d e re d th e v a lu e of the abo e v

i r r a ti o n a l n u mb er .

A s u rd is one f o rm of i rr a tio n al nu mb e r .

mb e r s

R ati o n a l a nd i r rati o n al nu a r e c a lle d R eal Numb ers .
 S UR DS . TH E O R Y OF EXP ON E N TS 24 3

"2
400 . C o n s i d e r , fo r ex a mple , th e e x p r e s s i o n or
.

a
vg
li e s b etw ee n th e t wo s e ri e s m
( p
co a re

2
, ()
1
an d
l m
a , a ,
n
()
2

I f we re
p r e s e n t th e 7 th te r m of
()
2 by a ny
1
,
th e 7t h te r m
u+ 1

of 1
() w i ll b e co or
l .

T h en , th e d i e r e n c e
c
b twee n th e
e 7t h te r ms w ill b e
u +l n n 1

am
" 1 1 1
()
3
7
(1 10

No w, a lof

l
is al w ay s le s s th a n
1

An d , by 34 3, a pp r o a ch es th e li mi t or 1
whe n r i s i n d e n i te l y i n c re a s e d .

Th e r e fo r e , th e e xp r e s s i o n 3
() a pp roa ch e s th e li mi t 0 when r

i s i n d e n i te l y in c r e a se d .

H nc e e, a
i s th e li mi t of th e 7t h te r m o f e i th e r 1
() or

wh en x i s i n d e n i tel y in c re a se d .

A me an i n g s i mi la r to th e a b o ve w ill b e a tta ch e d to a ny fo rm
of i rr ati on a l e xp o n e n t .

401 . Th e d e n i ti o n s of Add i ti on an d M ulti p li c ati o n , gi v e n

in 3 4 8 , h o ld wh en a ny or a ll o f th e nu mb e r s i n v olv e d ar e

i rr ati o n al

40 2 . I t ma y b e s h o n, a s i n w 3 5 0 , th a t th e fun d am e n ta l
la w s of 1 2 a n d 1 4 h o ld h en w a n y of th e le tte r s i n v o lv e d
re
p re sent i rr ati o n a l n um e rs b .

Th e n , e ve r y s ta te me n t o r r u le , i n th e re mai n i n g p o r ti o n s of

Ch ap . I ,
or in C h ap s . II to XV I , i n clu s i v e , i n r e ga r d to
e x p re s s i o n s wh ere an y y le tte r i n v o lv e d re
p r e s e n ts an r a ti o n al

b
n u m e r, h o ld s a ls o wh e n th e le tte r r e p r e s e n ts a n y r e a l nu m e r b .

Als o , th e th e o r e ms o f 1 65 a n d 29 3 may b e p r o v e d to h o ld
wh en a ny o r all o f th e le tte r s a, b, 0 , e tc p .
,
re re s e nt i rr a ti o n al
nu m e r s b w hi ch a r e p o s i ti v e if n is e v e n ; a n d th e th e o r e m of

3 2 7 may b e p r o v e d to h o ld w h e n a i s a ny i rr ati o n al nu m b er

w w
h o s e mth p o e r i s p o s i ti v e i f n i s e ve n .
24 4 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN AL GEB RA
403 . We w ill n owp r ov e th a t e q ua ti o n
35 6 ,
h o ld s wh en

m is a p o s i ti ve r a ti o n a l nu mb e r , a n d n a s u r d of th e f o r m (7 5,
wh e r e p an d b h a v e th e s a me me a n i n g s a s i n 34 8 .

By 399, a
m
xa ?
is th e li mi t, wh en r i s i n d e n i te l y in
, whe me me an i n g
m
c re a s e d , o f a a
br
re b , h a s th e
. sa as in 34 8 .

mw
p o
A ls o, a is
0

th e li mi t
0 0

of a
m+b r
,
w h en x 18
0

i nde ni te ly
0

i nc re a s e d .

B u t s in c e m an d b, a r e r ati o n al,

m br
: m+ b r
a x a a 85 or

Th e n, a
m
x a
br
a nd a
m+ b r
a re c
f u n ti o n s of x whi c h ar e e q ual

for e v er y r a ti o n a l v a lu e o f r ; an d , by 252, th e i r li mi ts wh en
r i s i n d e n i te l y i nc r e a s e d a r e e u al
q .

1 p
mW
Hence ,
a
m
x a
a .

I n li k e mann e r, we may pr o v e

in ev er y c as e, not p r e v i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d, whe m, a n d
re a , n ar e

a ny r ea l n u mb e rs, p ro v i d e d a
m
and a
"
a re r e al n u mbe r s .

40 4 . I t may b e p r ov e d , a s in 4 0 3, th at
m
a mn
a

a

m mu
(
71.
a ,

1
m
a

an d (abc a
" "
b c

m ,

in e v er y c as e, n ot p re v i o u sl y c o n si d e r e d , wh e re a , b, c, m,
ep e b m
an d r e al n u m e r s, r o v id e d

71. r r s e nt any p a ,
a ,

c
"
, ar e rea l nu mb e r s .

405 . It f o llo ws f ro m 4 0 2 to 4 0 4 th a t e ve r y r e s ult in

3 67 to 398 i n c lu i s ve h o ld s wh e n a ny le tte r i n v o lve d, c pt
ex e

wh e n th e i n d e x of a r o o t, r e p r e s e n ts a ny i r rati o n al nu mb e r,

su c h th a t e ve r y ex p r e ss i on of th e fo rm i7 d is an i rra ti onal
nu mb er .
 S UR DS . TH E O RY O F E XP ON E N TS 24 5

GR AP HIC A L R E PR E S E NTATION OF IRR ATIONAL NU MBE RS

40 6 . I t wa s sho wn ,
in 3 4 3, th at V 2 wa s i n te r me d i ate in

v alue b etw een th e s e rie s

2, an d 1,

an d th at V2 i s th e li mi t of th e rth te r m of e i th e r s e ri e s

w he n x i s i n d e n i te l y in c r e ase d .

0 A AI Az P Bz B, B

L et A, A1 , A2, A , , b e th e p o i nts i n th e c
s a le o f 57 ,
c o r r e s p o n di n g to th e nu mbe r s 1 , m ; an d B , B 1,
B 2, m ,
B,, th e p o i n ts c o rre s p o n d in g to th e nu m e r s b 2,

Th e d i s tan c e b etw e en A ,
an d B, a pp r oa ches th e li mi t 0 ,
wh e n r i s i n d en i t ly i n c e as
e r ed ; th a t i s, an d OB ,
a pp r oa ch
th e sa me li mi t .

I f O P i s th i s li mi t, OP r e p r e s e n ts V2 .

I n li k e mann e r , a p o i n t e x i s ts wh o se d i stan ce fr o m O repre

s en ts any i rr ati on al n um e r b wh atev e r .

24 6 AD V AN C E D C O U RS E IN A L G EB R A

X V III . PU R E I M A G INA R Y A ND C O M PL E X
NU M B E R S
It wi ll b e un d e r s to o d , in 4 0 7 to 4 1 4 , i n clu s i ve , th at eve ry le tter
re p re s e n ts a p os i ti ve r e al n u mb e r

PURE IMAG INAR Y NUMBER S

407 . We d e n e wh
a, i s n y p o si ti
e re a a v e re al n u mb e r,
an d n an even p o s i ti v e i n te g e r, as an e xp r e s s i o n w h os e n th

p o we r e qu a ls a .

Th at i s, a
)
"
a .

Th e s y mb ol {7 a is c alle d a Pur e I mag i nary Numb er .

I t i s, of c o ur s e , i mp o s s i b le to n d a ny r e a l nu mb er w h ose
n th p o we r e q u a ls a
; b ut th e r e are ma n y a d v a n ta g e s in in
clud i n g i n th n umb - y st m f Alg b th
e er s e o e ra e r e s u lt o f any n i te
n u mb f th e O p e ati n s a dd i ti n s u b t
er o r tio ,
o m u lti p li c a ti o n,
rac on,

d i vi s i o n , i n v olu ti o n , an d e v o lu ti o n , w i th r a ti o n a l n u mb e r s .

Th e pu re i ma g i n a r y nu mb e r V 1 i s c alle d th e i magin a ry
un i t; it i s u s u a ll y re p r e s e n te d b y th e le tte r i .

OPER ATION S WITH PU R E IMAGINAR Y NU MB E RS

4 08 . I n d e r i v i n g th e r ule s fo r p oa ti o n s w i th
er p u i magi n a y re r

b
n um e r s , we s h a ll f ollo w th e m th d e mp loy e d i n Ch ap II ;
e o .

th at i s , we me tha t the f un d a menta l la ws of

s ha ll a s s u 1 2 and
1 4 ho ld f or s uch n u mb ers , a n d n d w h at m e a ni n g mu s t, i n c o n
s e q u e n c e , b e a tta c h e d to th e o p e r ati o n s C
( o mp a r e .

I t f o llo ws f r o m thi s th at e ver y s tate me nt or r ule i n th e

re mai ni n g pa r t of Ch ap . I ,
or i n Ch a p s . II to XV I , i n c lu s i v e ,
in re
g d
a r to e x p r e ss i o n s whe re an y le tte r i n v o lv e d re p r e s e n ts

a n y r a ti o n a l n u mb e r , h o ld s e q u ally w h e r e th e le tte r r ep r e s e n ts

a p ure i ma gi n ary n u mb e r (C o m p a re .

40 9 . T o p r o v e th at, i f a is a ny p o s i ti ve r e al nu mb er,

By (V
2
4 07 , a ) a .
 PURE IMAGINA R Y A ND C O M PL E X N UMB E R S 24 7

An d s i nc e th e r e s ult o f 1 29 h o ld s w he n an
y of th e le tte r s
a, b, c, re
p r e s e n ts a pu re i ma g i n a r y n u mb er

(V aV 1) 2

F ro m (
1) an d (V a
z
) z
(V aV
Th e n by 1 63,

410 . By

3V V 1 3 7 2)

3V

It i s e v i d en t f ro m thi s th at th e meth o d s of 3 7 2, 3 7 3, an d

3 7 7 h o ld f o r pu re i ma gi n a r y n u mb e rs .

411 . Powe rs of V 1 .

By 407, (V
Th e n ,

(f i r :
< >
2
xV 1>xi f

1 =

1 x
(V ) ( 1 ,
e tc .

I n g e n e ra l, i f n is a ny p o s i ti v e i n te g e r,

(E Y E
[ (V
w w


(V

i z - 1 = V
w

(V ?
W 2
( V i 1r x n
11 2
(V )
2 1 ;

(V
412 . Additi on a nd S ub tracti on .

Two p u re i ma gi n ar y nu mb e r s may b e added -

or su bt acte d
r

by th e me th o d o f 37 5 .

By 4 10,

(
2 + 6 )V 1 1 4 , 1 11) = 8 V 1 .
24 8 AD VAN C E D C O UR S E IN A L GEB RA
413 . Multi pli cati on .

Th e p r o d u c t of two or mo re p u r e i ma g in a ry n b um e r s may
b
b e o tai n e d by ai d of th e p ri nc i pl e s of
d
4 0 9 an 4 1 1 .

1 . Multi ply V T ? by V 1 ?

B y 4 0 9, V 7 52 x V 3 = V V

$1 4 ,
1 an d 11,

V6 1
>(i

2 . Multi p ly to ge th e r V Z B, V 1 6, an d VI E5 .

Vf 9 xV X VI 25 : 3 V 1 x V
4 T l x V
5 .1

60 ( V i 60 V 411) GOV
_
3 . M ulti p ly 2 V 2+ V 5 by V 2 3V 5 .

S in ce a ll th e r ule s of Ch a p . o
I V h ld fo r p ure i ma gi n a r y
n u m e r s,b we c an mu lti p ly as in 88 .

V i e 3V L

6V2 V5 (V 3 ( 5)

+ 1 5 = 11 + 5V

414 . Di v i s i on .

1 . D i vi d e 1
V 40 by V 5 .

By 4 0 9,
V 5 V5 V 1 ,

V5
S in ce th e ru le of 9 6 h o ld s f o r p ur e i ma gi n a r num y b e r s,

V 1 is c an c elle d i n th e s ame mann e r a s a r e a l f a to r c .

2 . D i v i de V 1 5 by V 3 .

By 411 ,
 PU R E IMAGINA R Y AND C OM PL E X N UMB E R S 24 9

3 . R ed u ce & 2 4
i to a n e q u i v ale n t c
f r a ti o n h a v mg
2V 3 3V 2
a r e al d e n o mi n ato r .

Th i s ma y b e e ffe te d c by mu lti p ly i ng b th to er ms of th e
f r ac ti o n by
th e d e n o mi n ato r w i th th e s i g n b tw e e en i ts te r ms
ch a n g ed .

Multi ply i n g b oth te r ms by 2 V 3 3V 2,

2V3 3V 2
w
( V ) 2 s 2
(
3 V 1T2 )
?
1 32 )

22
1 31 )
1 2 9 ( 2 )

_6 1 + 2V 6
30 5

EXE RC S E 4 7 I

In th e f ollowing e xa mp le s , e ve r y le tte r o c c urr i ng un d e r a ra d i c al s ign

is s upp o s e d to re p r e s e nt a p o s iti ve r e al nu mb er .

1 . W h a t is th e value of (V D
? of (V of (V
S i mpli fy th e follo wi ng

(V 3
6
5 V 9 + 2 V 25
2 .

2 . 4 . .

5 . 7 V 80 3 - 1 25 V 24 5 .

"

1
i
v

1
27 -
49
+
3 16 12

M ulti p ly th e follo wi n g

8 . V V3 41 a nd V 10 . V
VH S V I

VI E

11 .
, T7 , V and .

12 . 8 + 5 VZ 3 a nd 7 6V

13 . 6 Vf 7 5 m and 4 VT 7
'
3 VT

Di v id e th e fo llo wi ng

V z

15 . V 44i b y V 3 . 17 . V ~
224 b y - .
25 0 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G EBR A
E xp a n d th e f ollo wi n g b y th e r ules o f C h a p V II
.

20 .
(V
4 5V 22 .

NH
_
2 M ) .

21 .
(V T o V 23 .
(3 V T 2 s 2 V1 5 )2

24 .
(i 7
f
+V + V T 5

R e d uc e e a ch of th e fo llo wi ng to a n e q u i va le n t fra c ti o n h avi ng a r eal

d e n o mi n a tor

3 V 7 2V 5 + 7V -3 1
25 _
3 + VI 7 2 +3 V 2 V6

E xp a nd th e f ollo wi ng b y th e Bi no mi al Th e o re m
28 .
(V - 5 + 3V 29 .
( V a
V b)5 .

S i mp li fy th e fo llo wi ng
2 V5 + 3 V 6 2 V5 3 V? 6
'

3 6
30
5 4V- 5 7 + 2V_5 2 V 5 3 V 6 2 V 5 + 3 V 6

C OMPL E X NU MB ER S

It will b e un d e rs to o d , th r o ugh o ut th e re ma ind e r o f th e p re s e nt ch ap ter ,

th at e v e ry le tte r re p r e se nts a re a l n u mb e r .

415 . Th e e xp r e s s i o n a bi wh e re a an d b a r e any

r e al n u mb e r s wh a te v e r, is c a lle d a Comp lex Numb er .

In o pe r a ti o n s w i th co mp le x nu m e r s, b we s h all a s su me th e
la ws of 12 an d 1 4 to h o ld .

I t f ollo ws fr o m th i s th a t th e s tate me n t i n th e la st p a r a g r ap h

of 408 is e qu a ll ytu r e of c o mp le x n u mb e r s .

41 6 . Addi ti on ,
S ub tracti on, Multi pli cati on, a nd Di v i s i on of

Comp lex Numb ers .

1 . Ad d a + bi an d + di
c .

S i n c e th e la sw of 1 2 h old f o r co mp le x nu mbe r s,

a + o + by 1 2, II ,
and 14, III .

2 . b
S u tr a t c c d i fr o m a bi .

(a + b i) c di
d )i , b y l 2, an d 24 ,
a c + (b
 P UR E IMAGINA R Y A ND C OM PL E X N UMB E R S 251

3 . Mu lti p ly a bi by c di .

B y s 88 , (a bi) (c di) ac a di b ci bdi 2

ac bd ( ad b o)i , by 411 .

4 . E xp r e s s th e q u o ti e nt of a + bi by c + di as a c o mp le x
nu m e r b .

M ulti p ly i n g b oth n u me r a to r a n d d e n o mi n ato r by c d i, we

h av e 2
a bi a bi ( c di ac adi b oi b di

( di ) i ?
e di c d i )(
c c
2
d v

bc ad .

41 7 . I t fo llo ws f ro m 4 1 6 th a t th e r e s u lt o f a n
y n i te nu m
b er of a dd i ti o n s , su b t ti r ac mu lti p lion s, ca ti o n s , and d i v i s i o n s,
p e rfo r me d upon c o mp le x n u mb e i rs, s a co mp le x nu mb e r .

418 . B y th e d e n i ti o n Of 0,

i x0 i(
a a
) ia i a ( 24 , 0 .

I t f ollows f m th i s th t th c mpl x n u mb
ro a e o e er a bi b e c ome s
a r ea l n u mb e w h n b 8 0 r e 1 .

I t al b c m s pu e i m gi n y n u mb w h
so e o e a r a ar er en a is 0 .

Hn e b i c nn t e q u al 0 u n l
c e, a b th a o e ss o

a = 0, and b = 0 .

419 . If a bi c di , wher e a, b, c, a n d d a r e r e a l nu mb ers,

the n a c, a nd b d .

T ran s
p o s i n g th e te r m s of th e g i v e n e q u a ti o n , we h av e

a c + (b
T byh en , 4 1 8, a c = 0, an d b d =0 .

Wh enc e, a c, a n d b d .

4 20 . S quare R oot of a Comp lex Numb er .

We w i ll n ow
p r o ve th a t V u + b i w h e r e a a n d b a r e r e al,
,

c an be e xp r e s s e d i n th e f o r m V 53 + i V i , w h e re V xan d V
a r e r e al .
252 A DV A NCE D O
C UR S E IN A L G EBR A
S qu a ri n g b o th me mb er s of th e e qu a ti o n

we h av e a + bi = x +2i n
y .

T he n by 4 1 9, a x y,
an d bi = 2 i n .

b
c
S u tra ti n g, a bi x 2i V x? y .

E xt a c ti n g th e
r s qu a r e r o o ts o f b oth me mb e r s,

Multi p ly (1 ) by V a
2
b 2
x y .

A dd (
2) an d

b c
S u tr a t (2) f r o m Va 2
b 2
a 2 y, or g ,

It i s e vi d e n t f r o m th i s th at V5 an d V? a r e r e al .

4 21 . I t f o llo ws f ro m (1 ) a n d 4 2 0, th at

If a + b i : V x + i V 5 wher e ,
a, b, x, a nd y, ar e rea l nu m
b ers , then V a bi = V x i V y .

4 22 . Th e p e c edi n g p in c i pl
r r es may b e u s ed to n d
s qu a r e r o o t o f c mp l x n u mb e
a o e r .

1 . F i n d th e s qu a re r o o t o f 7 6V 2 .

As sume ,

T h en by 4 21 V 7 ,

Multi p ly i n g (1 ) by we h av e

S qu ari n g
Wh en c e by 4 1 9, x y = 7

Add (
3 ) an d 2 x = l 8, or x =9 .

b
S u tr a t ( c
4 ) fr o m 2 y = 4, or y = 2 .
 P UR E IMA GINA R Y AND C OM PL EX N UMB ER S 25 3

Su b sti tute i n V7 6V := V 9 2 V 2 .

Th e e xa mp le may a ls o b e s olve d b y th e me th o d of 392 .

We th e n s e p a r a te 7 i n to two p arts wh os e p r o du ct is 9 x

Th e p a rts ar e 9 an d 2 ; th e n , V 7 6 V 2 _V 9 V V 2 .

We may a ls o n d by th e ab q ve me th o d sth e s quar e r o ot o f an

e xp r e s s i o n o f th e f o r m a + V b, or a Vb ,
w h en a is n e gati v e .

2 . F i n d th e s qu a re r o ot o f 35 1 2V 6 .

We h av e V 35 + 1 2 V 6 = V V 35 2V 2 1 6 .

Se pa r ati n g 3 5 i nto two p a rts w ho se p ro d u c t i s 21 6 ,

V 35 + 1 2 V 6 = V 27
1V( 2 V 2 7 x 8 + 8)
_
- =
V 1
(V 7
2 8
V ) 3V 3

EXERC S E 4 8 I
E xtra c t th e s quare r o o ts o f th e follo wi ng :
3 . 38 BV 30 .

2 . 18 5V 28 .

4 23 . P utti n g a =0 an d b = 1 , in 4 20 , we h av e x:

Su b s tituti n g th e s e v alu e s i n we h a v e

1 +i
\/i

_ 1
(+ i
3V 2 .

V2 2

4 24 . Cub e R oot of a Comp lex Numb er .

We w i ll no w p r o ve th a t if Va + b i = c + d i, wh e re a, b, c
s
an d d a r e r e al, th en V a bi c di .

Cu i n g b b o th me mb e r s o f th e e qu ati on

we h av e , by 411 , a bi c
3
+3 c
2
di 3 cd 2
di 3
.

Th e n by 4 1 9, a O
3
3 cd z
,

and
2 3
bi 3 0 6127 d i .

b
S u tra tin g , c a bi C
3
3 c di 3 Cd ?
(W .
254 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G EB R A
c
E xtr a ti n g the c ub e r oo t o f b o th me mb e r s ,

Va bi c di .

4 25 . Th e c o mp le x n um er s b a bi an d a bi are c alle d
Conj
ugat e .

We h av e (a b i) x (a b i) a
2
b i 2 2
a
2
b 2
.

Als o, (
a b i) (a b i) 2 a .

H en c e ,
the su m a nd p r o d u ct of two j
c o n uga te c o mp lex numb ers
a r e r ea l .

I t wi ll b e s h o wn i n th e A pp en di x th a t a ny e ve n r oo t o f a

n e ga ti ve n umb e r , o r a n y ro o t o f a p u r e i ma gi nary or c o mple x nu mb e r ,

c an be e xp r es s e d a s a c o mp le x n u mb e r .

GR A PH I C A L R E PR E S E N TATION OF PUR E IMAGINAR Y AND

C OM PL E X NUMB E R S

4 26 . L et XX '
be a xe d s tra i g h t li n e , an d O a xe d p oint

i n th at li n e .

I t wa s sh o wn in 57 and 406
th a t a ny p o s i ti v e r e a l nu mb e r , a,
A
-a
O +a A
c o u ld be p re r e se n te d by th e d i s
ta n c e fr o m O to A , a u n i ts to th e r i gh t o f O i n O X ; a n d an y
'

n e ga ti v e r e al mb e r , by th e - c
d i s tan e fr o m O to A , '

nu a,

a un i ts to th e le f t of O i n OX '
.

4 27 . S in ce a i s th e sa me as a
) x i t f ollo w s fr o m
4 26 th a t th e p r o d u c t o f a 1 i s r e p r e se n te d by
tu rni ng by
th e li n e 0 A w
hi c h r e p r e s e n ts th e n u m e r a , th r o u g h tw o b
r i gh t a n gle s , in a c
d i r e ti o n o pp o s i te to th e mo ti o n o f th e h a n d s
o f a c lo c k .

W e may th e n r e g ar d 1 , i n the p ro d u t of c a ny r e a l n u mb e r
by 1, a s a n o p e r ato r w h i c h tu rn s th e li n e

w hi c h p re r e s e n ts

t he r s t f a c to r th r ou gh two r i gh t a n gle s , i n a d i e c ti o n O p p
r o s i te

to th e mo ti o n o f th e h a n d s o f a c lo c k .

4 28 . Graphi cal R epr es ent ati on of th e Im a g i nary Uni t .

B y th e d e n i ti o n of . 407, 1 = i x i .
 P UR E IMAGINA R Y AND C OM PL E X N UMB E R S 255

T he n s i n c e ,
on e mu lti p li c a ti on by i,
fo llo w d by ne a o th e r mu lti p li c a ti o n by i,
wh i ch
.

tu r n s th e li n e re
p r e s e n ts th e r s t
c
f a to r th ro ugh two r i gh t a n gle s , in a d i rc o
ti o n O p p o s ite to th e h a n d s of a cl o ck , we
my a re
g a r d mu lti p li c ati o n by i as tu rn i n g
th e li n e th ro u gh o ne ri gh t a n g le , i n th e
s a me d i re ti o n c .

T hu s ,
le t X XL ad '

Y Y b e xe d s tra i gh t

li n e s , i n te r s e c ti n g at r i gh t a n gle s at O, th e lette r s b ei ng

arr a n ge d a s i n th e g ur e o f 27 0 .

Th en, if + a b e r e p r e s e n te d by th e li n e OA, wh e re A is a

un i ts to th e r i gh t of O i n O X, ai may b e re
p r e s e n te d by
OB , an d a i by OB
'

,
wh e re B is a u n i ts a b ove, an d B

a

uni ts b e lo w, 0 , in YY '
.

Als o , i ma y b e r e p r e s e n te d by 0 0, and i by wh e re

O is
'
one u n i t a ov e , b an d 0 '
o n e un i t b e lo w , 0 , in Y Y
'
.

It will b e un d e r s to o d th r o ug h o u t th e re ma i n d e r of th e c h a p te r th a t,
in an y g ur e wh e r e th e li ne s X X
a nd Y1
o ccu r , th e y a re x e d s tra ig h t

lin es i n te rsec ti ng a t r i g h t a n gles a t 0 , th e le tte rs b e i ng a r r a n g e d a s i n th e

gu re of 2 7 0 ; th a t a ll p o s i ti ve o r n e g a ti v e r e al n u mb e rs a r e re p re
s e n te d b y li n e s to th e r igh t o r le ft o f 0 , r e s p ec ti ve ly , i n X X a n d a ll

p o s i ti ve o r n e g a t i ve p ur e i ma g i n a r y n u mb e rs b y li n es a b ove o r b e lo w 0,
r e s p e c ti ve ly , i n YY .

4 29 . Grap h i cal R ep res entati on of Complex Numb ers .

We w ill n ow Sho w h o w to re p r e

s e nt th e co mple x nu mb e r a bi .

L et a be re
p r e s e nte d by 0 A, to th e
ri gh t o f 0 if a i s p o si ti v e , to th e le ft
if a is n e g a ti v e .

L et b i b e re
p r e s e n te d by OB ab ,
ov e

0 if b i s p o s i ti v e , b el ow if b is
n e ga ti v e .

D r a w li n e A O e q u al a n d p a r a lle l to O B , on th e sa me s id e of

XX '
as OB , an d li n e 0 0 .

Th e n , 0 0 i s c o n s i d er e d th e r e s ult o f a dd i n g b i to a ; th a t i s,

00 re
p r e s e n t s a bi .
25 6 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
Th i s agre es with th e me th o d s alr e a d y g ive n f o r a d d i ng a re al o r p ur e
i mag i n ary nu mb e r , if e i th er a or b is z e ro .

Th e gu re th e c a s e wh e r e a an d b b oth p o s i ti ve

r e p r e s e n ts are if a i s
p o s i tive a n d b n e ga tiv e , 0 0 will li e b e twe e n 0 X a n d O Y i f a i s n e ga
ti ve , 0 0 will li e b e twe e n O Y a n d O X i f b i s p os i ti ve ,

a nd b etwe en O E
and OY if
b is n ega ti ve .

Incc o d n c e w ith 5 7 and 4 0 6 (a b i) may b e ep e

a r a , r r

n te d by li n e wh e 0 0 i s e qu al i n len gth to 0 0 an d
se er
,

d a wn i n th e O pp o s ite d i e c ti o n f o m 0
r r r .

4 3 0 Th m d ulus f a r e al p u e i ma gi n a y o c omp le x
. e o o ,
r r ,
r

nu mb e i s th e le n g th
r f th e li n e w hi ch e p s e n ts th e n umb
o r re er .

Th e gu m n t
ar i s th e a n g le b
e e tw e n th e li n e w hi h ep s n ts e c r re e

th e nu mb e n d 0 X me su e d f o m O K i n a d i
r a ,
c ti n O pp o si te
a r r re o

to th e moti n o f th e h an d s of a c l k
o oc .

i n th e gu r e o f 4 29 , A X O C th e
ar gu me n t of th e c omp le x n u m e r r e p r e s e n te d b
0 0 is by
me nt o f c mp lex mb e r by
'

an d th e ar gu th e o nu r e p r e s en te d 00 '

is
Th e mo dulus i s al w ay s ta k e n p o s i ti v e , an d th e a r gu me n t
may h av e v alue f r om 0

any to

Th e r e al n u mb e rs a a nd a h a ve th e mo d ulus a , a n d ar g u me nts 0

an d r e s p e c ti ve ly ; th e p ure i mag i n ar y n u mb e rs a t an d at h ave

th e mod ulus a , a n d a rgu men ts 9 0
and re s p e c tive ly .

2 2
4 31 . In th e gu re o f g 4 2 8 , 0 0 07 4 21 5 Va z
b ?

th a t i s, th e m o d ulu s o f the o mp le x c mb e r a b i is V a
nu b 2 2

th i s i s a ls o th e mod ulu s o f th e c o mp le x n umb e r s a b i , a + b i

an d a bi .

4 32 . Grap h i cal R ep res entati on of Additi on .

We w i ll n ow sh o w h o w to re pre se nt th e r e s u lt o f a dd i n g b
to a, wh e r e a an d b ar e a ny t wo r ea l, p u r e i ma g i n a r y ,
or c o m
p l x nu mb e
e rs .

L et a be re
p r e s e n te d by GA, an d b by 0B .

Dra w li n e A O e q u al a n d p a r a lle l to 0 B ,
on th e sa me s i d e o f 0 A as 0 B, and li n e 0 0 .

T hen , 0 0 is c on si d e r ed th e r e s u lt o f a d d

i n g b to th a t i s , 1111 8 0 0 r e s e n ts a b o
a ; re
p .
a A
 PUR E IMAGINA R Y AND C O MPL E X N UMB E RS 25 7

Th is a gre e s wi th th e meth o d of 4 29 , whi ch i s a s p e c i al c as e O f th e

a b ove .

I n li k e mann e r , th e m o f a ny n umb e r o f r e al, p ur e i ma g i

su

w ar y ,
or co mp le x n u mb er s may b e r e p re s e n te d by a s trai gh t

wn f m O
6
11 6 d ra ro .

4 33 . Grap h i cal R ep res ent ati on of S ub tra cti on .

L et a and b be a ny two r e al, p ur e i ma gi

B
n ar y ,
or c o mp le x nu mb e r s .

L et p a be re r e s e n te d by 0 A, an d b by
0 B ; a n d c o mp le te p ar alle lo g ra m O B A O .

B y 4 3 2, 0 A r e p r e s e n ts th e r e s ult O f
a d d i n g th e n u m e r r e p r e s e n te d b GE to by
th e n u m b er repr es e n te d by 00 .

Th at i s, i f b b e ad de d to th e nu mb e r
r e p r e s e n te d by 0 0 , th e su m is e q u al to
a ; h e n ce , a b is re p r e s e n te d by li n e 0 0 .

434 . Grap h i cal R epres entati on of Multi pli c ati on.

S inc e ai may b e w r i tte n th e p rodu ct o f +1

by ai is r e p r e s e n te d by tu rn i n
g th e li n e

0 A, w h i ch r e p r e se n ts th e nu m er b 1,
th r o u g h one r i gh t a n gle , in a d i r e c ti o n
o pp o s i te to th e mo ti o n of th e h an d s of a

c lo ck ,
m u l i
an d
t p ly i n g t h e r e s ult by a .

An d s i n c e a i ma y b e w r i tte n 1) x
ai ) , th e p r o d u t c of
+1 by
a i i s r e p re

s e n te d by a li n e e qu al i n le n g th to th at

w hi ch e p es e nts th e p d u ct f 1 by
r r ro o

a i b u t d a w n i n th e O p p i te d i e c ti n f o m 0
r os r o r
'

.
,

T hi s sugg es ts th e f llowi n g : o

Th e p o d u c t f any e l p u e i m g i n a y o c o mp l x n umb e
r o r a ,
r a r ,
r e r

by i may b e e p e s e n t d by tu n i n g th e li n e w hi h e p
a r r e r c r re

s n t th e nu mb
e s th u g h n i gh ter gl i n a di
ro ti n O p p o e r an e, r ec o o

s i te t th e m ti n f th e h an d s f a c lo c k a nd mu lti p ly i n g th
o o o o o ,
e

r e s u lt by a .
258 A V D AN CE D CO URS E 1N A L GEB R A
Th e p r o d u c t o f a n y r e al, p u r e i ma g i n a r , o r o mp le x n um e r y c b
by a i ma
y b e r e r e s e n te d p
a li n e e q u a l i n leby
n g th to th e

li n e w hi ch re
p r e s e n ts i ts p ro d u t c by + a i, b ut d r a wn i n th e
o pp o s i te d i re c ti on f ro m O .

4 35 . S in ce a b i ma y b e w
r i tte n 1) x (a b i ), th e p r o d
uct o f 1 by a p
b i i s r e r e s e n te d by
tu rn i n g th e li n e 0 A, w h i c h re
p r e s e n ts

th e nu mb e r 1 , th r o u g h an an g le

e q u al to th e a r gu me n t o f a +bi
in a c
d i r e ti o n mo ti o n
o p p o s i te to th e X'

A
o f t h e h a n d s o f a c lo c k , a n d mu lti

p lyi n g th e re s ult by th e mo dulus o f

a bi .

An d si n ec ( a b i ) may b e w r i tte n 1) x a b i ), th e
p ro du ct of 1 by ( a b i ) i s p re r e s e n te d by a li n e e qu al in
le n gth to th a t w hi c h r e p r e s e n ts th e p r o d u t c of +1 by a + b i,
b ut d r a w n i n th e c
O pp o s i te d i r e ti on f r o m 0 .

Thi s s u gg e s ts wi ng : th e f o llo
If a an d b a a ny l n u mb e s th e p d u c t f
re rea r ,
ro o a n y r e a l,

pu i ma g i n a y c mp l x n u mb by + b i m y be

or e er a re
re r ,
o a p e
r

s e n te d by tu n i n g th li n w hi h
r
p s n t
e th n u em b c re re e s e er th r o u gh
a n a n gle e q u al t o th e a mp li tu d e of a b i, in a d i r e c ti o n o pp o

s i te to th e mo ti o n o f th e h a n d s o f a c lo c k , a n d multi p ly i n g
th e r e s u lt b y th e mo d ulu s o f a bi .

Th e p r o d u c t o f a n y r e a l, p u r e i ma gi n a ry , o r c o mp le x n u mb e r
by (a b i ) may b e r e p re s en te d by a li n e e q ua l i n le n gth to
th e li n e whi ch r e p r e s e n ts i ts p r o d u t c by a + b i, b ut d r a wn in
th e o pp o s i te c
di r e ti o n fr o m 0 .

4 36 L et a an d b be a ny tw o r e a l, u re
.
p
i ma g i n a r y ,
or co mp le x nu mb e r s , re
p re

s e n te d by th e li n e s 0 A an d 0 B, r e s p ec

ti v e ly .

Th e r e s u lt of mu lti ply i n g a by b is X

r e p r e s e n te d by li n e 0 0 , wh e r e a n g le

X 0 0 i s th e s um o f a n gle s X OA an d

K O B , an d 0 0 : 0 A X 0B
 P U RE IMAGINA R Y AND C OM PL E X N UMB E RS 259

T h at i s ,
ab is p re by 0 0
r e s e n te d .

I n li k e ma nn th p
e r, d u c t f n y
e ro o a nu mb e r of r e a l,
p u re

i ma g i n ar y ,
or mple x n u mb e s may
co r be re
p r e s e n te d by a

s tr a i gh t li n e d wn f m 0
ra ro .

437 . Gr aph i cal R ep r e s entati on of Di v i s i on .

L et a an d b be a ny two r e a l, p u re i ma gi n ary , or c o mp le x
nu m e r sb .

L et a be re
p r e s e n te d by GA , an d b
by 0B .

D ra w li n e 0 0 , mak i n g A X 0 0

x X OA x X OB , and 00

T h e n , A X OA A X 0 0 + A X OB ,
an d 0 A = 0 0 x OB .

Wh e n c e ,
by 4 3 6, 0 A re
p r e s e n ts th e p r o d u c t of th e nu mb e r
r e p r e s e n te d by 00 by th e nu mb e r r e r e se n te d
p by 0B .

Th e n , 0 0 re
p r e s e n ts a n u mb e r w hi c h, wh en mu lti pli e d by b,

g i v e s a ; an d h ence 0 0 re
p r e s e n ts

Th e r e f o r e , th e q u o ti e nt o f a n y t wo rea , l p u r e i m a g i n ar , y or

c b
o mp le x n u m e r s c a n b e r e p r e s e n te d by a s tr a i gh t li n e d r a wn
f ro m 0 .

4 38 . Graph i c al R ep r es enta ti on of R oots .

L et a be an y r e a l,
p u re i m a g i n a ry , or co mp le x nu mb e r ,
r e p r e s e n te d by li n e 0 A .

1
D ra w li n e 0 B m a k i n g 4 X O B A X OA,
71

an d h a v i n g i ts le n g th e qu a l to th e n th r o ot

of th e mo d u lu s of a .

Th e n , A X OA n x A X OB , an d th e
mo d ulu s o f a i s th e nth p o w e r of th e le ngth
of 0B .

Th e n , by 4 3 6, 0 A re
p r e s e n ts th e n th p weo r of th e nu m er b
re r e s e n te d by 0B
p .

x/d
n
W h e n c e, 0B re
p r e s e n ts .
26 0 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
4 39 . It f ollo ws fr o m 4 3 2 , 43 3, 4 3 6, 4 3 7 , an d 4 3 8 th a t an y

nu mb e r w hi ch i s th e re su lt o f a ny n i te n umb e r o f th e fo llo w
i ng Op e r ati o n s p e me d u p o n o n e
r fo r o r mo r e r e al, p u r e i ma g m ar
y,
or mp le x
co n u mb e r s , ma b e r e r e s e n te d by a s tr a i gh t li n e
y p
d r a wn fr o m 0 :
b
A d d i ti o n ; S u tr a ti o n ; Multi p lic c ati on ; D i v i s i on ; r ai s i n g to
any p o w er wh o s e e xp o n e n t is a r ati o n al n u mb e r e x tr a ct
ing an
y root .

T hi s is a r
g pa h i c a l re p r e s e n ta ti on o f th e f a c t th at an y s uc h

nu mb er c an be e x p re s s e d i n th e f o r m a w
+ b i , h ere a and b
ar e
'

r e al nu mb e r s , e i th e r of w ch i h may b e z e r o (C o m are
. p
41 7 an d

We sh all li mi t o u rs elve s i n th e p r es e n t wo rk to nu mb e rs of th e a b ove

form .

Th e d is c us s i o n o f co mp lex exp o ne nts r e q ui r es a k n owle d ge o f H i gh e r

Tr i g o n o me try .
 Q UAD R A TI C E QU A TION S 261

X IX .
QU A D R ATIC E QU A TI O NS

440 . A Qua drati c E quati on i s a n e q u ati o n o f th e c

s e on d d e gre e
(5 w ith n e o mo e un k no wn n umb e s
o r r r .

I n th e p s e n t c h a p te we c o n s i d e o nly q uad
re r r r a ti c e q ua ti o n s

i n vo l i n g o n u n k n o wn n u mb e
v e r .

Th e p r in c ip le s d e mo ns tra te d i n 1 1 6 to 1 1 9 , i n clus i ve , a nd 1 22 , h old

fo r qu a d rati c e qu atio ns .

44 1 . B y tra n s p os in g a ll te rms to th e r s t me mb er, any

q u a d r a ti c e qu ati o n , i nv o lv i n g o ne u nk n o w n n umb e r, x, may b e

r e d uc e d to th e f o rm ?
ax + bx 0 2 0 .

If n e i th e r b n or c is z e ro , th i s i s c alle d a Complete Quad rati c

E quat i on .

AC o mp le te Quad ratic E qua ti o n is so meti mes c alle d an Ae cted Qua d

r a ti c E qua ti o n .

If e i th er o r b o th o f th e n um e r s b b an d c ar e z e r o , th e e qua

ti on i s c alle d an I nco mp le te Q u a d ra ti c E qu a ti o n .

An i n c o mple te qu a d r ati c e q u a ti o n o f the f o rm ax

c 0, i s
c a lle d a Pure Quadr ati c E quat i o n .

In 1 83 , we s h o we d h o w to s o lve q ua d r ati c e quati o ns o f th e f o rms

a x2
+ bx : 0 , ax
2
+ c = 0, x2
+ ax + b =0 , and

wh e n th e rs t me mb ers c ou ld b e re s olve d in to factors .

4 42 . Con si d e r th e e qu a ti o n

A =B 2
,

wh e re A is a r ati o n al a n d i nte g ral ex p r e ss i on i nv olv i ng th e

u nk n o wn nu mb e r s .

We may w r i te th e e qu a ti o n ,

A 2
or

By 1 82, the la tte r i s e q ui va le n t to th e s e t o f e q u ati o n s

A + B = 0, an d A E Z O
.
26 2 AD vANC E D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
O r, to th e e q u ati o n s A : + B, an d A B, w hi c h may b e
w r i tte n to g e th e r i n th e f o rm

A= i B
Th e S i gn j
g, c alle d th e d o ub le s ign, wh e n p rexe d to a nu mb er, ind i
c a te s th a t i t may be e i th e r or

Thu s , th e g i v e n e qu a ti o n i s e qu i v ale n t to an e q u a ti o n whi c h

is b
o ta i n e d by
e q u a ti n g th e p o s i ti v e s qu ar e r o ot o f th e rs t
me mb e r to j:th e s q ua r e r o o t o f the s e ond c .

PU R E QU ADR ATIC E QU ATIONS

44 3 . A p ur e q u a d r ati c e q u ati o n may b e s o lv e d by r e du cin g
i t, i f c
n e e s sa r y ,
to th e f o r m x = a , 2
a nd th e n e q u ati n g x to j; V d
2
5 $
1 . S o lv e th e e qu ati o n 3 x
2
7 35 .

Cle a ri n g of c
f r a ti o n s , 12 x 2
28 5 x
2
1 40 .

T r an s p o s i n g an d u n i ti n g te rms , 7 x
2
112 .

D i viding by 7, x
2

E qu ati n g x to i th e s qu ar e r o ot o f 1 6, x j:4 .

2 2
2 . S o lv e th e e q u ati o n 7 x 5 5 x 13 .

T ran s p o s i n g an d un i ti n g te r ms , 2x 2
8 .

2
O r, x 4 .

E q u ati n g x to I th e:
: s q u ar e r oot of 4, x j:
1 2 V Z I (

I n th i s c a se , b o th valu e s o f x a r e i ma g i n a ry 407 ) i t i s i mp oss i b le to

n d a r eal va lue o f x wh i c h will s a tis fy th e g i ve n e q u a ti o n .

EXE RC S E 4 9 I
S o lve th e fo llowi ng

1 . x 3 (x 4 34 . 2 .
(x (x 20 .

5x 2 2 2 2
3 .

6 16 12 12 8

4 .
6 ) (4 x

5 .
2 d ) (x
 Q UAD R A TI C E QU A TION S 263

3 x2 + 7 5 x2 + 3 4 9
2 - 10
6 . 0
7 14 35

( + 1 ) (x -2 3 ) (x 52
7 . 513 )( x .

C OM PL E TE QU AD R ATIC E QU ATIONS
44 4 . Fi rs t Meth od of Completi ng th e S quare .

B y tr an s p o si ng th e te r ms i n v o lv i n g x to th e r s t me mb e r ,
an d a ll o th e r te r m s to th e s e c on d , a nd th e n di v i di n g b o th me m
be rs by th e
coe f c ient o f x
2
,
a ny c o mp le te q u a dra ti c e qu ati on

c an be re du e d c to th e f o r m

x
2
+px =q .

A tr i n omi al i s a p e rf e c t s u a r e
q wh e n i ts r s t an d thi r d te r ms
ar e p e rfe c t s u a r e s an d
q p o s i ti v e ,
a n d i ts s ec o n d te r m p lus or

mi nu s w ic
t e th e p r o d u c t o f th e i r s qu a r e r oo ts
Th e n , th e s q u a r e r o o t o f th e th i r d te r m i s e qu al to th e c
s e on d

te r m di v id e d by twi c e th e s qu a r e r o o t o f th er s t .

H e nc e , th e s qu a r e r o o t o f th e e xp re s s i o n w hi ch mu st b e ad ded

to x 2
p x to mak e i t a pe rf e c t s q ua r e, is 2
,
or
1?
2x 2

Ad d i ng to b o th me mb e r s th e s qu ar e o f 13 , we h av e
2
2 2 2
4
w + p w+ f
2
i
a+
i

By 4 4 2, th i s i s e qu i v ale n t to an e qu ati o n whi ch btai ned

is o

by e qu ati n g th p o s i ti e v e s qu a r e r o ot o f th e rst memb e to i r

th e s qu a r e r oot O f th e c
s e ond .

Th e n , i t i s e qu i v ale n t to

x + 1
;

Add i ng to b o th me mb er s s uch an e xp r e s s i o n a s will mak e th e rs t

me mb e r a p e rfe ct tri n omi a l s qu a r e , i s c alle d C o mp leti ng the S qua r e .

445 . We d e ri v e f r o m 4 4 4 th e f ollo w ing r ule f or s olvi n g a

c omp lete quad r ati c e qu ati on .

264 AD V AN CED C O UR SE IN A L GE B R A
R ed uce the equa ti o n to the f orm x p x q
2
.

Comp lete the s qu a re, b y a d di ng to bo th memb ers the s qu a re o f

o ne-
ha l f the coe c i e nt o f x
.

E qu a te the p os i ti ve s qu a r e ro o t o f the f i r s t memb er to j; the

s qua r e r oot o f the s eco nd , a nd so lve the li nea r equa ti ons thus

f or med .

446 . 1 . S olv e the equati on 3 x

2
8x 4 .

8x 4
DIV Id mg by 3 x
2

3 3
Ad di ng to b oth me mb e rs th e s qu are o f
3 , we h av e

y _ 8 x 4 16 4
+
3 3 9 9

Equ ati n g th e p o siti v e s quare r o ot O f th e rs t me mbe r to j:

th e squ are root O f
g ,
4 2
3 3
4 4 2 2
Tran s po smg x 2 or
5 ,
3 5 3

If th e c oe fc i ent o f x 2
is n e g ati ve, th e s i gn o f e a ch te r m mu s t
be c h an g e d .

2
2 . S o lve th e e qua ti o n 9 x 21 x 10 .

13
D ivi di ng b y 9, a ?
3

Add in g to b oth me mb e rs th e s qu a r e o f

2 7 x 10 49 9
$

+
8 36

E q uati n g the p ositi v e 8 uar e root of th e rst memb e r to j:

th e sq u are r oo t o f 2 4
3
36 x+ Z w i
6 6

Wh en c e, x
g2 1
 Q UAD R A TIC E QU A TION S 26 5

447 . By 1 67 , 2
a x
2
+ bx w ill b e c ome a p e r fe ct t inomi al squa
r re

bx b
by a d d i ng to i t th e s q ua re o f 3
or
2 ax 2 a

H en ce ,
we may c o mp lete th e s q ua r e by a d d ing to b o th mem
b ers the s qu a r e o f the quoti en t o b ta i n ed b y d i vi d ing the coe ic ie nt

2
f
o x b y twi ce the s qua r e r oo t o f the co e i c i e n t of x .

T hi s is u s u a ll ya mo r e c o n v e n i e n t r ule th a nth at of 44 5,
wh en th e c i e nt o f
c o ef
2
x is a pe r fe c t s qu a re .

1 . S olv e th e e q u ati o n 9 x
2
5 x 4 .

Adding to b o th memb e rs th e s qu a r e o f
2 i 3
,

2 25 1 69
9 x 5 w+ 4 +
36 36

13
E xtra ti n g c s qua re ro ots , 3 x

5 13
The n i
6 6
4
D i vi di n g by 3 x 1 or
.

5

,

I f th e c o efc i ent of x i s 2
n ot a
o p e r fe c t s qua re , i t may b e
mad e s o by mu lti p li c a ti o n .

2 . S o lv e th e e qu ati o n 15 x 2 .

Multi plyi n g e a c h te r m by 2 ,
16 x
2
30 x 4 .

1 5
Ad d i ng to b oth memb e rs th e s qu a r e o f , or
2 X4 4

2 22 5 2 89
16 x 30 x 4
16 16

17
E xtr a ti n g c s quare roots , 4 x
I
.

T hen ,
2 66 AD VAN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E BR A

W he nc e, x 2 or 1 .

8
If th e c oefc i e nt o f x2 is n egative , th e s i gn of e ach te rm mus t b e
c h a nge d .

448 . S econd Meth od of co mpleti ng th e S quare .

E ve r y c o mple te q ua d r ati c e q u a ti o n can be r e d u ed c to th e

form ax
2
bx c 0, or ax
2
bx c

Multi p ly i ng b oth me mb e s by 4 r a, we h a v e

4 a x
2 2
+4 abx = 4 ac .

C o mp le ti n g th e s qu a r e by a d d ing to b o th memb er s th e
4 ab
s q ua r e of or b , we o btai n
<2
2 > a

4 2
a x
2
+4 a bx + b = b 4
2 2
ao .

E xtra ti ng c s q ua r e r o o ts , 2 ax b j:x/b 2
4 ac .

T r an s p o s i ng ,

4 ao
When c e ,
2 a

We d e ri v e f ro m th e a b o ve th e f ollo wi n g r ule fo r c omp leti ng

th e s q u a re

R ed u ce the equa ti o n to the f o rm

2
ax bx c 0 .

M u ltip ly b o th me mb ers b y f o ur times the co e i c i e n t f

o x
2
,
a nd

a dd to ea ch the s qu a r e o f the co e i ci en t f
o x i n the g i ven e qu a ti on .

Th e a d v a nta g e of th i s me th o d o ve r th e p e c e d in g
r is in
a vo i di n g

c
f ra ti o n s i n c o mple ti n g th e s q u ar e .

44 9 . 1 . S o lv e th e e qu a ti o n 2 x
2
7 x

Mu lti p ly i ng b o th me mb er s by 4 x 2, or 8,

Add i n g to bo th me mb e rs th e s qu a r e o f 7,

x
2 2
16 56 x +7
 Q U AD R A T I C EQU A TION S 267

E xtr a c ti n g s qu a r e r oo ts , 4 x 7 i5 .

4 x z 7 i 5 = 12 or 2 .

W he n ce, x 3 or
g .

If th e coe fc i ent o f
i n th e g i v e n e qu ati o n i s
x even , f rac ti on s
may b e a v o id e d , a n d th e r u le mo d i e d , a s f o llo w : s

M t ltip ly b o th memb ers b y the coe i c i e n t o f x

2
,
a nd a dd to e ac h
the s qu a re o f ha lf the coe i c i en t f
o x i n the g i ve n e qu a ti o n .

2 . S o lv e th e e q u a ti o n 15 x
2
28 x 32 .

M ulti p ly i n g b o th me mb e r s by 1 5, and a d din g to ea ch th e

s qu a r e o f 1 4 , we h a v e
2 2 2
15 513 x
) 14 4 80 1 96 67 6 .

E xtra ti n g c s q u a r e r o o ts , l5 x 14 j; 26 .

15 x 1 4 :
j 26 = 1 2 or 40 .

W h e n c e, x z or 9 .

5 3
Th e me th o d o f mp le ti ng
co th e s q u a r e e xe mp lie d i n th e p res e nt s ec ti o n

is c alle d th e H i ndo o M eth o d

EXERC S E 5 0 I
The follo wi n g may b e s o lve d by e i th e r of th e p rec e d i ng me th o d s ,
p re fe re n c e b e i n g g i ve n to th e o ne b es t a d a p te d to th e e xa mp le un d e r

c o n s i d e r ati o n .

1 . x2 8 . 4 x2 1 2 x z 23 .

2 . 3 x2 17 x = 9 .

3 . 5 x2 + 1 7 x = 12 . 10 .
2
36 x + 3 x =5 .

4 . 11 .

5 . 36 x 24 x
2 z 77 . 12 . 1 0 37 x z 30 x2 .

6 . 4 9 x2 + 21 x 13 .

7 . 6 + 23 x 1 8 x2 z o. 14 .
( + )
2 x l 3 3 86 .

15 .
14 .

16 .
1
) 49 .

17 .

18 (5 2 \/3) x 2 1 4 x/3)x 1 4 x/3

. 9 .
26 8 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
4 50 . S oluti on of Comp lete Quadrati c E quati ons b y Formula .

I t f ollo ws f ro m 4 4 8 th a t, i f

()
1

T hi s e sult may b e u se d a s a f mula f

r or or th e s olu ti o n o f an y

c o mplete quad ati c e qu ti o n i n th e fo m

r a r ax
2
bx c 0 .

1 . S olv e th e e q u a ti o n 2x 2
5 x 18 0 .

He re, a 2, b 5, an d c 18 ; su b s ti tuti ng th e s e v alue s

in we h a ve

9
2

2 . S o lv e th e equati o n 1 1 0 x
2
21 x

He re , a 1 1 0, b 21 , c 1 .

220

D i v i di ng b oth te r ms of

b

-
l:
:
2
()
2

T hi s is a c on v e n i e nt fo rmu la i n c ase th e c o efc ient o f x i n

th e gi v e n e qu ati o n is e ven .

3 . S o lve the e qu ati o n 5x 2

14 x 3 0 .

He r e, a 5, b 14, c 3 su b s ti tuti n g i n
7 :
i 8
z
1 . .
or 3 .

5 5

Partic ular a tte nti o n mus t b e pa id to th e s i g ns o f th e c oe fci e nts i n

ma ki ng th e s ub s tituti o n .

Th e s tu d e nt sh ould n o w wo rk th e e xa mp le s of E xerc i se 5 0
by fo r mula .
 Q UAD R A TI C E QU A TION S 2 69

4 51 . Fracti onal E quat i ons i nv olvi ng Qua drati cs .

In f rac ti o n a l e q u ati o n s h i h i n v o lv e quad ra ti s , we

s o lv i n g w c c
j c
r e e t an
y so l u ti on h i ch s a ti w
s e s th e e q ua ti o n o ta i n e d b by
e q u ati n g to z e r o th e L C M o f th e g i v e n d e n o mi n ato r s
. . .

3 2
1 . S o lv e th e e q u ati o n 1 .

x 6 x 5
Multi p ly i n g ea c h te r m by (x 6) (
x we h av e

3x 15 2 x + 12 = x2

2
O r, x 12 x

C o mp leti n g t h e s qu a r e , x
2
12 x 6 2
3 .

c
E xtra ti ng s qua r e r o o ts ,

Wh e n c e ,
x 6 3; V3 .

S inc e n e i th e r 6 n or 6 s ati s e s th e e qu ati o n

(x 6) (
x 5) 0, b o th r o o ts ma y b e r e ta i n e d .

1 x
2
+3 x 6
2 . S o lv e th e e qu a ti o n
2+ x 2 x x
2
4

1 1 2 -3 50 6
We may wr ite i t
93 4
2
x 2 x 2 x 4

Multi p ly i n g ea ch te r m by x
2
4,

x -6 .

O r, x
2
x 6 .

Multi ply i n g by 4 ,
an d a ddi n g
2
1 to b oth memb ers ,

2
4 x 4 x 1 25 .

E xtra ti n g c s qu ar e r o ots , 2x 1 j:5 .

T h en , 2x 6 .

W h en c e , x 2 or 3 .

c e 2 s ati se s th e quati
S in e on x
2
4 0 , i t mus t b e j c ted
re e ,

a n d th e o n ly so luti o n i x s 3 .

4 52 . L i teral E quati ons i nv olv i ng Quadrati cs .

In s o lv i n g li te ra l e q u a ti o n s w h i c h i n v o lv e co mple te quad
r a ti os , th e me tho d s of 449 a re u s u a ll y th e mo s t c o n v e n i e nt .
27 0 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
2
Ex . S o lve th e e q u ati o n a cx a dx b cx bd 0 .

We w r i te th e e q ua ti o n a cx
z
(
ad b c)x bd .

Mu lti p ly i ng by 4 a c, an d a d di n g (ad b e) to 2
b oth me mb e r s ,
2
4 a
z
c 2
4 ac ad ( b c)x ( ad b c)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4 a b cd a d 2 a b cd b c a d +2 a b cd b c .

E xtra ti n g c s qu ar e r o o ts ,

2 acx ( ad .

2 a cx = ad :(a d + b o) z
bc j 2 ad or 2 bc .

l
E b
W h e n c e, x or
C (I

If s e v e ra l te r ms c o n ta i n th e sa me p owe r o f x, th e c oefci e nt o f th a t

p o we r sh ould be e n close d i n p are nth es es , as s h o wn ab o ve .

Th e ab o ve e quati o n may b e s olve d mo re e as ily b y th e meth o d of 1 83 ;

th us , b y 1 56 , th e e quati o n ma y b e wr itte n

( ax + b ) (cx d) : 0
'

Th en, ax + b =0, or x

and cx d = 0, or x

S e veral e qu ati o ns i n E xe rc i se 5 1 may b e s o lved most e as i ly b y th e

meth o d of 1 83 .

As a ge n e ral ru le , litera l qu ad ra tics a re b es t s o lve d b y f or mula .

4 53 . E quati ons lead i ng to Qua drati cs , h av i ng th e Unk nown

Numb er und er R a di cal S i g ns .

In s o lv i n g e qu ati o n s of thi s ki n d , o nl y s o lu ti o n s wh i ch
s a ti s f y th e g i v e n e q u a ti o n s h o u ld be r e ta i n e d .

In v eri f y i ng s o lu ti on s , o n l y p r i n c ip a l va lu e s o f the r o ots a re

co ns i d er ed

1 . S o lv e th e e qu a ti o n m x
V5
I2
x

C le ari n g of c
f ra ti o n s , m +5 x 12 .

T r an s p o si ng , V 25 x
2
x 7 .

u ar i n
2
S
q g, 25 x
2
x 14 x 49 .
 Q UAD R A TI C EQU ATION S 27 1

2 2 24
O r, x + 14 x .

Multi ply ing by 2 ,

an d a d di n g
2
7 to b o th me mb e rs,

E xtra ti ng c s qua r e r oo ts , 2 x 7 i1 .

2 x 7 j:1 6 or

x 3 or 4 .

3 , th e gi ve n rs t me mb e r b eco me s

l 2 3 X 2 2
Th e s e co nd memb e r b e c omes
-
: 3 V2 .

Th e n , th e s oluti o n x 3 is co rre c t .

P utting x 4 , th e g i ve n rs t me mb e r b e co me s 1 4 .

Th e s ec o nd memb e r b e c o me s 1 2
4 .

V9
Th e n , th e s oluti o n x 4 is c o r r ec t .

2 . S o lv e th e e qu ati o n /
\ x

T ra n s p o s i ng x/x l, 1 .

S q u ar i n g , 3 x + 3 = 16 l+ x -1 .

T ra n s
p o s i n g, 8 x 1 12 2 x .

O r,

S qu a r i n g , 16 x 16 36 12 x
2
x .

2
O r, x 28 x

p
C o m le ti n g th e s qua r e ,

x
2 28 x + 1 4 2 = 1 4 4 .

c
E xtra ti n g s qu ar e ro o ts , x 14 j:1 2 .

Wh e n c e ,
x 14 j:12 26 or 2 .

Pu tti ng x 26 , th e g iv e n rs t me mb e r b eco me s 5 9, or 14 .

Th e n , th e s o luti o n x 26 is n o t c o r rec t .

P utti ng x 2 , th e g i ve n rs t me mb e r b e c o me s 1 3, or 4 .

Th e n , x 2 i s th e o nly c o r re c t s o lutio n .
27 2 AD V AN CE D C O URS E IN A L GE B R A

I
EXERC S E 5 I
S o lve th e follo wi ng

2x 5 7 x 21 14
1 .
.

3 4 x 9 4 x
15
5 13 1

6x 9 x2 18 16 .

3 4 x 85 3
3 .
+ 17
a x + 5 b
4 x 3 18 x 5b 3 a lo b

4 x 2
+2 mx _ 1 m 2
1 1 x2 17
18
5 x 2 ax
2 6 a
+9
x + 3 x 5 2 x 7 15

6 . x 2
+ ax + bx ab 19
l 7x w
4
.

-2
2 1 x
95 .
24 (x + 2) ac e

7 . x ( n ) n .

x - 2 x+ 4 7
20
6 x+ 5 4 x+ 4 _
'

8 x + 5 x 3 3
4 x3
'

x 3
x a x + a 5M
21
m nx mn m
2 2 z 3 3
9 x x n
x
x + xt
.

a a
.

10 . x 4 dx
2
lo x 40 a .

22 .

l0 x2 3 5 x2 + 6 6 x2 1
11
2
.

18 9 9 952 23

12 6x +4 ?
ax 15 bx = 10 ab
4
. .

a a
24

2x+ a 3x 4 a 3

8
25 .

x/3 x +4
1 1 14
26 . 32 .

x 3 x
2 2
x +4 x 1 5 x2

2 x+ l 3x 2 17
'

3x

1 1 1 l
34 .
+
a b +x a b x

(
1 1 1

4 4; 1

a +b x a
2 b2 3 2 3 x+ l

x
2
1 4 ab 1 1 _1 +
x

a
2 b2 x 4
2
3 (x + 2 ) 2

4 5 24
g
95 a

2
5 x

3 x 4 _4 9 x 1 23
2

i 2
x + 3
38

.

2 2 4 2
x + 5 2 x 1 2 x + 9 x 5
 Q UAD R ATI C E QU A TION S 27 3

5 7 8 x 1 3 x -l 6 4
2

2x+ 3 3x 4 & + x 12

3x 2a ax
2
x +4 a 30 a

2x 3 a 3x+ a 6 xL - 7 mw 3
a b 3 x +4 5+ 4x
45
x 1

x + a c x+ b c +x+ 1 xL l

3x + 4 x 12
46 _
2x 4 x 6
.

2
2 x2 2 x 1
?
8 27 2x 2
8x 47 . 06 0
2 2
0 x) 2
b d 2 2
(1 x ) 0 .

2x 3 n 3x+ n
39
+ .

3x+ n 2 x 3 n 3 Vx + 1 Vn + 1
1 1
49
x2 \/1 + x3

2
x

+4 _ x 5
x
_ x
+
x
=a
x + 4 x x 5 x

x a + b + b
V w+ a w : a b
x+a a a
+ + M . V& + bx
b
0

x a x+ a a b a

54 30 ab + 13 b
2
.
(x .

1 /
\ x
2
+ 1 1
55 /
2 \ l6 x2
l .

2b +
5& (a b +2 a c

x + 5 x 7 x + 9
'

2 x 4 8
'

x - 1 x x 3 x +6 x

6L (x + a 2
m W 2 a + bP=9
M by
m .
6 1 2 3
x +3 x 5 x + 7 x 9

I I I I
0
x + a a x + b b x b
.

mn + - 6 m mn 2
mn

? 3
(3 ) )
2
66 . n x ( 7 2 n x +2 3 n
2 z 0 .

x + 1 x + 3 _x + 2 x+ 4
67

x + 7 x + b x + 8 x+ 6
27 4 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
.
(8 a
2
+ 10 ab 1 6a 6 3 62 z o .

a b x l x 2 x 54 x
+ 70 + +
d x b x 2 x 3 x 5 x6

x +3
x + l +2 x + 3 x
+ +
x 2

x l x 3

( E)( i >
4 9 16
76 . x
( 5) x x

77 .
(x
2
+ 1 ) (a
2
b 2
l
-- b 2

THE OR Y OF QU AD R A TIC E QU ATIONS .

4 54 . A qua d ra ti c equa ti o n ca nn ot ha ve more tha n two d i

er ent

r o o ts .

E v er y q ua d r ati c e q uati on can be r e du e d c to th e for m

e
ax bx c 0 .

If p o ssi bl e, le t th i s e q u ati o n h a v e thr e e d iff e rent ro o ts ,

a n d r3 ; th e n , by 1 10,
2
a rl b r1 c 0,
2
a r, b r2 c 0,
2
an d a r3 b r3 c 0 .

b
S u tra ti ng (2) f r o m c
a r1(
2
r2
2
) b(
rl r2
) 0 .

(
a rl r2
)( r1
) r2 b(
rl r2
) 0,

r2 ( 0
(r1 ) a r1 a rz b) .

When c e ,
e i th e r r 1 r2 0, o r e ls e a rl a r2 b 0
B ut r1 -r
2 c a nn o t be z e ro , f o r, by h y p othe s i s , r , a n d r, ar e

d i ffe r e nt .

H ncee ,
a r1 a r2 b 0 .
 Q U AD R A TI C E QU A TIO NS 27 5

I n li k e manner, by su bt a cti ng
r
()
3 f r om w e h av e

a r1 a r3 b 0 .

b 5) from
S u tra tin g ( c a r2 a r3 0, o r r2 r3 . 0 .

B ut th i s i s i mp os s i le , f or , b by hyp o th e s i s , r2 and r3 are

di e re nt .

H enc e, a q ad r ati
u c e qu ati on c a nn o t h av e mo re th a n
d iffe r e n t r o o ts .

4 55 . S um and Product of R oots .

2
L et r1 a n d r , d e n o te th e r o o ts o f a x bx c 0 .

T h e n by ,
4 50 ,

b Vb ?
4 ac

2 a

Ad d i n g th e s e v alu e s , r1
b
a

Multi p ly i n g th e m to ge th e r,

2
4 a a

H e nc e ,
if a qua d r a ti c equa ti o n i s i n the f o rm d x
' 2
bx c 0,
the su m of the r o o ts e qua ls mi n u s the co e i c i en t o f x d i vi d ed

2
b y the co e c i en t o f x ,
and the p r o d u ct f o the r oo ts e qua ls the
i n d ep en d e nt ter m d i v i d ed b y the c o ec i e n t of x
2
.

1 . F ind by c
i n sp e ti on th e su m a nd p r o du ct o f th e r oo ts o f

3 x
2 7 x 15 = O .

Th e su m o f th e r o o ts is
g , an d th e i r p r o d u t c

2 . O ne r o ot o f th e e q u ati o n 6 x
2
31 x

th e o th e r .

Th e e qu a ti o n c a n be w r i tte n 6 x
2
31 x 35 0 .

1
T he n ,
th e su m o f th e r o o ts is
% ,
an d th e i r p r o du t c
3 1 z or 5 z
T hen ,
th e oth e r root is
,
th at i s ,
6 2 6 2
27 6 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN AL GEB R A

EXERC lS E 5 2

Fi nd b y i ns p e c tio n th e su m an d p ro d uc t o f th e ro o ts o f

1 . 5 . 4 x l 2 x4
z 3 .

2
2 . x 6 . 9 x

+ 3x
2
3 . x 7 .

4 . 3 x2 x 6 = O 8 . 6 a x2
+ 7 abx = 2 0 b 2

9 . O ne r o ot o f x2
+ 7 x = 98 is 7 ; nd th e o th e r .

10 O ne roo t o f 28 x 2
x 15 z0i s
5
n d th e o th e r
7
. .

11 . O e
n r o ot o f x2 i s 5 + 2 x/3 ; n d th e
o th e r .

12 . If r 1 an d 7 2 a r e th e r o o ts o f d x 2
bx c O, e xp ress th e fo llo wing
i n te r ms o f r 1 and r z
2 2
72 1 3
(a ) 2
(b ) (c) (d ) 3

r1 7 1 T2 . .
r1 r2 .

r i rz ri z

4 56 . Di s cus s i on of General S oluti on .

By 4 4 8, th e r oo ts o f a x
2
bx c =0 are

-b 4 ao
Tl
2 a

We w i ll now d i s cu s s th e se r e s ults fo r a ll p o ss i ble re al v a lue s

of a , b, and c .

2
I . b 4 ac p o s i ti ve .

I n th i s c as e ,
r , a n d r , a r e r e a l a n d un equ a l .

II . b 2 4 ac =0 .

I n th i s case ,
r , a n d r, a r e r ea l a n d equ a l .

I II . bz 4 a c n ega ti ve .

I n thi s c ase

,
r1 and r, a re i magi n a ry or co mp lex
(g
IV . b O.

I n th i s c as e , th e e qu ati o n tak e s th e fo rm

ax
2
+ c =0 ; whenc e , x= :
1

If a an d c a re o f unli ke S i g n, the r oots are real, e

qual i n '

a b so lute va lu e, an d unli ke i n si gn .
 Q UAD R A TI C EQU A TION S 27 7

If a an d c a r e o f li k e S i g n, b o th r o o ts a re i ma gi n a ry .

V . C 0 .

I n th i s c a se ,
th e e q ua ti o n tak e s th e f o r m

ax
2
+ bx = 0 ; w h nc e e, x = 0, or Q
a

H en c e , the r o ots a r e b oth r ea l, o n e be ing z ero .

VI . b = O, a n d c l
_ -
o .

I n thi s ca s e, th e e q u ati o n ta k e s th e f o r m a x = 0 2
.

Hen ce, b th
o r oo ts e u a l z e r o;
q
Th e r o o ts ar e b o th r a ti o n a l, o r b o th i r ra ti on a l, a cc o r d i ng a s

4 ac is
,
or is no t, a pe r f e c t s u a re
q .

Ex . D e te rmi n e by i n s pe cti on th e n atu re o f th e r o o ts o f

2
2 x 5 x 18 0 .

He re a = 2, b = 5 , c 18 ; an d b 2

S in ce - b 2
4 p o siti e th e oots a e re al an d un e qu al
ac is v ,
r r .

S i nc e b 2
4 a c i s a p e fe c t s qu a e b o th
r o ts a e a ti o n al r ,
ro r r .

EXE RC S E 5 3 I
D e te r mi ne b y i nsp ec ti on th e n a tur e o f th e r o o ts o f

1 . 6 x2
+ 7 x 6 . 1 6 x2 9 =O .

2 . 4 x2 x =0 . 7 . 9x 2 = 12 x + 1 .

8 .

4 . 4 x2 9 . 7 x2 + 3 x =0 .

5 . x 2 10 . 41 x 20 x 2 = 20 .

FACTORIN G
457 . Factori ng of Q uad rati c E xpre s s i ons .

A qua d ra tic exp res s i o n is a n e x p re ss ro n o f the f orm

2
ax bx c .

In 1 7 4 , we S ho wed h o w to fa c to r c e rta i n e xp r e s s i o n s o f thi s

f o rm b y i nsp ecti on ; we wi ll n o w d e r i ve a r ule fo r f a to r i ng c a ny

q u a d rati e x c
r e s si o n p .
27 8 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
We hav e,
b
_ x
ax
2
+ bx + c = a + +
a

910
+ 4
a

by 171 .
()
1
B ut by 4 50 , th e r oo ts o f d x
2
bx c O are

2 a 2 a 2 a

He nc e, to f a ctor qu a d r a ti c exp r ess i o n, p la ce i t equa l to

a zero,

a n d s o lve the equa ti o n thu s f o r me d .

2
Then the r equ i r ed f a ctor s a r e the co e i ci ent f
o x i n the gi ven
e xp res s i o n , x mi nus the rs t roo t, a nd x mi nus the seco nd .

2
1 . F a c to r 6 x +7 x 3 .

S o lv i n g th e e q u ati o n 6 x
2
7 x 3 0, by 4 50 ,

7 4 11 1
12 12 3

s
3
( x

Th e e xa mple may als o be s olve d by us i ng (1 ) as a f or mula .

2 . c
F a to r 4 13 x 12 x
2
.

S o lv i n g th e e q u ati o n 4 13 x 12 2
x 0 , we h av e
 Q U AD R A TI C E QU A TION S 27 9

Wh e n c e , 4 + 13 x 12 x2 12 x +

3 . F a cto r 2 x
2
3 xy 2y 2

We s o lve th e e qu a ti o n

2
+ 1 6 y
32
2
y
_4 8
By 4 50 , x
4

2y+2 or
4 4

2 x
2
3 xy 2y 7 2
x +4 y+6

2 [w

x
( 2y

4 58 . If th e
c o e f c i en t of x
2
is a p e r f ec t s q u ar e ,
i t i s p ref e r
a ble c
to f a to r th e e x p r e s si o n by c o mp le ti n g th e s qu ar e a s i n

447 an d th e n u sing 171 .

1 . c
F a to r 9 x
2
9 x 4 .

By 447, 9 x 2
9 x w i ll b e c ome a p e r f e ct s q ua r e by a ddi ng
to i t th e s qu a r e o f
2 x 3
, or
S ; th e n ,

9 2
x 9 x4 = 9 x
2 9 x+
280 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

T h en ,
9 x
2 9 x 4 x

I f th e x
2
te r m i s n e g ati v e , th e e n ti r e ex p i
r e ss o n s h ould be
en c los e d in pa re n the se s p c e d e d by a
re S i gn .

2 . c
F a to r 3 l 2 x 4 x2 .

3 12 x 4 x
2
=
(
4 x
2
+ 12 x 3)
9

1 2]

3 2 x
) .

In ce
c as e s rtai n , th e f a to r s c of a qu a d r a ti c e xp r e s s i on i nv olv e
c omp lex nu mb e s r .

3 . F a c to r x
2
4 x-
I 9 .

2
x

(
2 5)
T5
2
(
x )( x

EXERC S E 5 4 I
F a ctor th e f ollo wi n g b y th e meth o d of 4 57

1 . x2
+ 1 4 x + 33 . 10 . 8 x + 18 x 5
2
.

2 . x2 1 3 x + 40 . 11 .
2
6x + 7 x+2 .

3 . x x 42
2
. 12 . 12 x + 7 x 45
2 .

4 . 4 x2
+ 3 x 7 . 13 . 14 x 2 -2
23 xa + 3 a .

5 . 3 x l l x 20
2
. 14 . 2 4 x2 1 7 xy -
1-3
y
2.

6 .
2
2x + 9x+ 9 . 15 . 28 x2 mx - 2 m2
.

7 . 5 x2 36 x
I-36 . 16 . 5 2 6 x 24 x 2 .

8 . 9 8 x ix2 . 17 . 8 + 14 x 15 x2
.

9 . 20 + 1 9 x 6 x2 . 18 . 2 1 x2 + 2 3 xy2 + 6 y4 .

19 x
i
i x -6 2
.
y y
e
 Q U AD R A TIC EQU A TION S 28 1

20 . x2 3 xy 4 y2 + 6 x 4 y + 8 .

21 x 2
6 xy + 5 y 2
2x -2 3
.
y .

22 .

23 . 3 x + 7 xy 6 y 1 0 xz
2 2 8 yz + 8 z2.

24 . 2 7 y 7 x + 3 y2 + xy 4 x2 .

F a cto r th e f ollo wi ng b y th e me th od of 4 58

25 . 4 x l2 x 7
2
. 3o . 1 + 2 x x2 .

26 . 32 12 x 9x2
. 31 . l6 x2 16 x + 1 .

27 . 1 x + 56 x + 3 3
6 2 . 32 . 2 5 x2 2 5 x + 6 .

28 . 9 x2 + 2 4 x 2 . 33 . 36 x2 + 7 2 x + 2 9 .

29 . 4 x2 + 20 x + 1 9 . 34 . 1 1 + 1 0 x 2 5 x2 .

4 59 . We w ill now tak e up th e f a to r i ng c of e xp r e s s i o n s o f

th e f o r ms x + 4
ax
2
y +y
2 4
,
or x
4
+y,
4
wh e n c
th e f a to r s i n v o lv e
s ur d s .
(C o m pa re 17

1 . F a to r c a
4
2a b z i
25 b ".

t 2

4 2 2 2 2
a 2d b 25 b 4
( a 10 a b 25 b ) 8 a b

(
2
a 5

( a
2
56 2
56 2
abx /8)

Th e ab ove exp r e ss i o n may also b e e xp ress e d as th e p r o d uc t of two

fa cto rs i n volvi ng c o mp le x n umb ers .

2 . F a to r c x
4
+1 .

2 x
2

2
( 96

EXE RC S E 5 5 I
In e ach o f th e following , ob tai n two s e ts o f fa ctors , whe re this c an be
d on e wi th out b r i ngi ng i n i magi n ary nu mb e rs
1 . x4 7 x2 + 4 . 4 . 4 a4 + 6 a2 +9 .

2 . a 4
+b
4
. 5 . 36 x4 92 x2
+ 49 .

3 . 9 m 4 11 m + 2
1 . 6 . 25 m + 28 m n2 + 1 6 n4
4 2
.
28 2 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
4 60 . S oluti on of E quati ons b y Fa ct ori ng .

In we S ho w ed h o w to s o lv e e q u a ti o n s wh o s e s t me m r

be rs c o u ld be by i n p c ti
r e s o lv e d s e on i n to s t d e g e e fa ct s
r r or ,

and wh s o e s e c o n d me mb e s w e r er z ero .

W e w i ll no w tak e u p e q u a ti o n s wh ose r s t me mb e r s can be

r e s o lv e d i n to fa to r sc p a r tl y of th e r st an d p a tly of the s e c ond
r ,

o r e n ti r e l y of th e s e cond d e g re e .

3
1 . S o lv e th e e q ua ti o n x 1 0 .

F ac to r i n g th e r s t m e m b e r,
(x 1 )(
x
2
x 1) 0 .

T h en ,
x or x = 1 ;

a nd _O ;

w h e nc e by ,
4 50 ,

2 2
4
2 . S olv e th e e q u a ti o n x 1 0 .

B y E x 2, . 4 59

x \/2
2
S olvi n g x 1 0 , we h a v e

x \/2 0 , we h av e
2
S o lv i n g x 1

V2 i x/2 4 V2i x/i 2

2 2

EXE RC S E 5 6 I
S olve th e followin g e qu a ti o ns

1 . 3 x3 2 x2 + 15 x 2 . x4 4
+ x2 32 =O .

3 . x 3
5 . 27 x3
+ 8 =0 . 7 . 6 4 x3

4 . 3 x4 + 24 x = 0 . 6 . 16 x 81 _
_O
4
. 8 . x6 7 29 a 6 =0 .

x z -
I-2 x + 4 4
9
4
.

x2 2 x x 2
x (x2 4 a) 9 a
3 2 --
x l 2 a 2

11 . x4
+ 81 = 0 . 13 . 15 . x 8
2 56 a 8 =0 .

12 4 4 4
. x 14 . x 16 . 9 x
 Q U AD R A TI C E QU A TION S 28 3

461 . M axi ma a nd M i ni m a V alue s of Q ua drati c E x p res s i on s .

Th e g re ate s t o r le a s t v a lu e o f a q u a d r a ti c e x p r e s s i o n may
s o me ti me s b e f ou n d by
th e a rti e o f c o mp le ti n g th e s q u a r e c .

1 . F i n d th e m i n i mu m v a lu e o f x
2
5 x 7 .

We x +7 =
2
i
h av e 5 x x

S in ce is p o s i ti v e fo r e ve r y r e al v a lu e o f x
,
th e le a s t

v alu e o f
i is wh e n x 2 .

Thu s , th e mi n i mu m va lu e o f th e ex p r e ss i o n is

2 . F i n d th e maxi mu m v a lu e o f 4 3 x 2 x
2
.

We may w r i te the e xp r e s s i o n

4 4 2

Th e g r e ate s t v a lu e is wh en x

T hu s, th e g re ate s t v a lu e o f th e ex p r e ss i on is

EXERC S E 5 7 I
Fi nd th e maxi ma a nd min i ma values o f th e f ollo wi n g , a n d d e te rmin e
Wh i c h
1 . x2
+ 3 x 1 . 3 . 4 x2 8 x 5 . 5 . 3 x2 + 5 x + 4 .

2 . 6 8 x x2 . 4 . 3 +x x2
. 6 .
2 9 x 9 x2 .

7 . 6 x2 7 x + 3 . 8 .
7 + 2 x -5 x2 .

PR OB L E M S INV OL V ING QU ADR ATIC E QU ATIONS W ITH

.

O NE U NKNOW N NU MB E R

4 6 2 In s l i n g p b lem w h i h i n l
. o v q u d ti q
rou ti o n s c vo ve a ra c e a s,

th e rew ill u u lly b tw lu f th un k n wn n umb ; nly

s a e o va es o e o er o

th o s e lu h o u ld b
va t i n d wh i h
es s ti fy th e c n di ti o n s o f
e re a e c sa s o

th p b le m
e ro .

Th c n s i d a ti n s f
e o 2 6 1 a n d 262 h ld f
er oe q u ati n s o f
o o or o

an y d e gr e e .
284 AD V AN C E D COUR S E I N A L GE B R A
1 . A ma n s old a w tcha f o r $ 21 , a n d lo s t a s man p e r y c en t
as th e w atch c o st d o lla r s . F i n d th e o s t o f th e at h c w c .

L et x numb e r o f d o lla rs th e wa tch c ost .

Th e n , x th e p e r c ent of lo ss ,
2
a nd i L nu mb e r o f d ollars lost .

1 00 100
2
9
B y th e co n d iti o n s , x 21 .

100
S olvi ng , x z :3 0 or 70 .

Th e n , th e c os t o f th e w a tch was e i th e r 8 30 o r 8 7 0 f or e i th e r o f th es e
a n s we rs s a ti s e s th e c o n d iti o n s of th e p r ob le m .

2 . A far me r b o u gh t s o m e She ep f or 8 7 2 . I f h e h ad b o u gh t

6 mo r e f o r th e me mo n e y , th e y
sa w ould h av e c o st hi m 8 1
api e e c le s s . H o w man y d i d h e b uy
L et x nu mb er b ough t .

7 2
Th en , -
.
nu mb e r o f d ollar s p ai d f or on e ,
x
72
an d nu mb e r o f d o lla rs p a i d fo r one if th ere
x 6
h a d b een 6 mo re .

72 72
B y th e c on di ti o ns , 1 .

x x 6

S olving , x z 18 or 24 .

O nly th e p o s i ti ve value o f x is admis s ib le , fo r th e n ega tive value d oes

n o t s a ti s fy th e c o n d i ti o n s o f t h e p r o b le m .

Th e re fo r e , th e nu mb e r o f s h e e p was 1 8 .

If , i n th e e nun c i a ti o n o f th e p r ob le m, th e w o r d s
6 mor e h ad b e e n
c h a ng e d to
6 f e we r ,
and a p i e ce le ss

to ap ie ce more ,

we s h ould h ave fo un d th e a ns we r 24 .
(C omp are

EXERC S E 5 8 I
1 . W h at nu mb e r a dd e d to i ts r ec i p r ocal g i v es 2 4
2 . Di vi d e th e n umb er 2 4 i n to two p a rts s uc h th a t twi c e th e s qua re of
th e gr e a te r s h a ll e x c e e d 5 ti me s th e s qu a r e o f th e les s b y 4 5 .

3 . Fi n d th re e c o ns e c u ti ve nu mb er s s uch th at th e s um of th e i r s q u ar es

s h all b e 4 34 .

4 . Fi nd two nu mb e rs wh os e d i ffe r e n c e i s 7 , an d th e d iffer e n c e of

Wh ose c ub e s i s 1 26 7 .
 Q U AD R A TI C E QU A TION S 285

5 .
Fi nd ve c o ns ecuti ve numb e rs s u c h th a t th e q u o ti en t of th e rst
b y th e sec o n d , ad d e d to th e qu o ti e nt of th e fth b y th e fo urth , s ha ll
23
e qu al
12
6 .
Fi nd f 0 ur c o nse cuti ve nu mb er s s u ch th a t if th e: su m o f th e s qu ar es .

o f th e s e c o nd a nd f o u rth b e d ivid e d b y th e su m of th e s q ua r e s o f th e rst

1
a nd th i rd , th e q u o ti e n t sh a ll b e
%
'

7 . Th e a re a of a c e r tai n sq uare e ld e xc e e d s th at o f a n o th e r s q u ar e

eld b y 1 0 0 8 s q u a re y a r d s A n d t h e p e r i m e te r o
.
f t h e g re a te r e x ce e d s o n e

h alf th at o f th e s m a lle r b y 1 20 y a r d s i n d th e d i m e n s i o n s o f e a c h e ld
. F .

8 .
A fa s t tra i n run s 8 mile s an h o ur fas te r th a n a s lo w tra in , and tak e s

3 h ours les s to tra vel 2 8 8 mi le s . Fi nd th e r ates o f th e tr a i ns .

9 . Th e p er i me ter o f a r e ctan gular eld i s 1 84 f e e t, an d i ts ar ea 1920

s qu a r e fe et . Fi nd i ts d i me n s i on s .

10 .
A me rch ant s old g o od s fo r an d los t as many p er ce nt as

th e go o d s c o s t d olla rs . W h at was th e c os t

11 .
Am erc h an t s old two p i ec e s o f clo th o f d iffe re n t q uali ty for
th e p o o r e r c o n ta i n i n g 2 8 y a rd s H e r ec e i ve d f or th e n e r a s man y d o llar s
.

th ere we re d i th i d 7 d f th o o re r s old
a y a rd as y a r s n e p ec e ; a n y ar s o e p
fo r as much as 2 y ar d s of th e n e r . Fi nd th e v alue o f e a ch p i ece .

12 . Am e r c h a nt s o ld g o o d s for an d ga i n ed as man y p er c e nt

as th e g o od s c o s t d ollar s . W h at was th e c ost

13 . A h as ve-fou r th s a s mu ch mon e y as B Aft

. er gi ving A $6 , B
s

mo n ey i s e q ual to A

s multip li e d by a fra c ti o n wh o s e nu me r a to r i s 1 5 ,
and wh o s e d e n o mi na to r is th e nu mb er o f d ollar s A h ad at rs t . Ho w
much h ad e a ch at r s t
14 . A and B s e t o ut a t th e sa me ti me fr om p lac es 24 7 mi le s ap ar t,

an d trav el to wa rd s e a c h o th e r . A tra ve ls at th e ra te o f 9 miles an h o ur

a nd B
miles a n h o ur i s le s s b y 3 th an th e
s r a te in nu mb e r of h ours at th e
e n d o f wh i ch th e y me e t

i nd B s r ate . F .

15 . A ma n b uy s a c e r ta i n n u mb e r of sh ar es o f s to c k , p a y i n g f o r e a ch
as ma ny d ollars as h e b uy s s h ar e s . Af t er th e p r i ce h as a d va n c e d as ma n y

d i me s p e r s h a re a s h e h a s s h a r es ,
he s e lls , a n d g a i ns 8 H o w ma ny
sh are s d i d h e b uy

16Th e tw o d i gi ts o f a n umb e r d i ffe r b y 1

. and if th e s q u a re o f th e
n umb e r b e a d d e d to th e s q u a r e o f th e g i ve n n umb er wi th i ts d ig i ts re ve rse d ,

th e s um is 5 85 . Fi n d th e nu mb e r .

17 . A g i ve s $ 3 36, i n e q ual a moun ts , to a c erta in nu mb e r o f p e rs o n s .

B gi ves th e s a me s um, i n e q u a l a m o u nts , to 1 8 fe we r p e rs o n s , a n d g i ve s

to e ach 8 6 mo re th a n A . H o w much d o e s A gi ve to e ac h p e rs on
2 86 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L GE B R A
18 Th e tele gra ph p o les a lo n g a c e r ta i n r o a d a re a t e q ual i n te rvals
.
.

If th e i n te rval b e t we e n t he p o le s we re i n c re as e d b y 22 fe e t, th e re wo uld
b e 8 fe we r i n a mi le H o w ma n y a re th e r e i n a mi le
.

19 . Am e rch a n t b o u gh t a c a s k o f wi n e fo r 8 4 5 . H avi ng los t 3 g allo ns

b y le ak a ge , h e s e lls th e re ma i n d e r at 8 a g allo n a b o ve co s t, a n d ma k es
a p ro t o f 33 3; p e r 1
c en t on h is e n ti r e o utla y . H o w many gallo n s d id th e
c as k c o n ta i n

20 Th e me n i n a r eg i me nt can b e arra ng e d i n a c o lumn twi ce as lo ng

it wi d e If th e i r n u mb e r we r e 2 2 4 le ss , th e
as is .
y c o uld b e a rr a n g e d i n a
h o llo w s qu a re 4 d e e p , h a vi ng i n e a c h o uter s i d e o f th e s q ua r e as ma ny me n
as th e r e we r e i n th e le n gth o f th e c o lumn i nd the n umb er o f me n . F .

21 . Th e d e n o mi n ato r of a fra c ti o n e x ce e d s twi c e th e n ume ra to r b y 2 ,

and th e d i ffe re n c e b e t w ee n th e frac ti o n an d i ts r e c ip r o ca l is Fi nd

24
th e fra c ti on .

22 . Am a n s tar te d to walk 3 miles , i nte n d i n g to a rri ve at a c e rta i n

ti me . A ft er walk i ng a mile , h e was d e ta i ne d 10 mi nu tes , a n d was i n

c o n s e q ue n ce o b li ge d to wa lk th e re s t o f th e wa y a mile a n h o u r f a s te r

Wh a t wa s h is o r i gi n a l s p e e d

23 . A r e gi men t ,
in s o li d s q u a r e , h as 24 fe we r me n i n fro n t th an wh e n
in a h o llo w s q uar e 6 d e e p . H o w ma ny me n ar e th e re i n th e r e gi me n t
24 . A r e c ta n gular e ld i s s urr o un d e d by a f e n c e 1 60 fe e t lo n g . Th e
c ost o f th i s fe n ce , at 96 c e n ts a f o o t, wa s o n e -t e n th as man y d o llars as
th e r e a r e s q u are fe e t i n th e a re a o f th e eld . W h at a r e th e d i me n s i o n s

of th e eld
25 . A c re w c a n ro w d o wn s tr eam 1 8 mile s , a nd b a c k a ga i n , in 7 h ou rs .

Th e i r ra te u p m i s 1 %mile s
s tr ea an h o ur le s s th a n th e r a te o f th e s tr e a m .

Fi nd th e r a te o f th e s tr e a m, a n d of th e c r e w i n s till w ate r .

26 . A ma n p ut 8 500 0 i n a s avin gs -b a n k p ay i n g a c e rta i n rate o f i h

te r e s t . At th e e nd of a y e a r h e w i th d re w 8 7 5 , le a vi ng th e r e ma i n d e r a t
i n te r e s t . A t th e e n d o f a n o th e r y e a r , th e a mo un t d u e h i m was 8
Fi nd th e r a te o f i n te re s t .

27 . A s q u ar e g a rd e n h as a s q ua r e p lot o f gra s s a t i ts c e n tr e , s ur ro un d e d
by a p a th 4 fe e t i n w id th . Th e a r e a o f th e g a r d e n o uts i d e th e p a th e x

ce e d s b y 7 68 s qu a r e fe e t th e a r ea o f th e p ath ; and th e s id e o f th e g ard e n

i s les s b y 1 6 fe e t th an th r e e ti mes th e s id e o f th e p lo t . Fi nd th e d i me n
s i o n s o f th e g ard e n .

28 . A me rc h a n t h as a c a sk full of wi n e . H e d ra ws 6 g a llon s ,
o ut

and fi lls th e c a sk with w ate r . Ag ai n h e d r aws o u t 6 g allo ns , a n d lls

th e c as k wi th w a te r . Th e r e are n o w 2 5 g allo n s of p ur e wi n e i n th e c as k .

H o w many ga llo n s do es th e c a s k h o ld
 Q U AD R A TI C E QU A TION S 28 7

29 . A B ll an d se aq ua n ti ty o f c o r n f or 8 22 , A
s e lli n g 1 0 b ush e ls more

th a n B If A h d
. a s o ld as ma n y b us h e ls as B
d i d , h e wo uld h a ve re c e i ve d

88 whil i f B h d e a s o ld as ma n y b us h e ls as A d id ,
h e wo u ld h a ve r e ce i ve d

8 15 . Ho w ma ny b us he ls d id e a c h s e ll, a n d a t wh a t p r i c e
30 . T wo me n a re e mp loy e d to d o a c e rt a i n p i e c e o f w o rk . Th e rs t
re c e i ves 8 48 ; a nd th e s e co n d , wh o wo rk s 6 d a y s le s s , r e c e i ve s 8 27 If
.

th e s e c o n d h a d w o rk e d a ll th e ti me , a n d th e rs t 6 d a y s le ss , th e y would
h a ve r e c e i ve d e q ual a mounts . H o w ma ny d a y s d id e ac h wo rk , and at

wh a t wa ges
31 . A and B r un a r ou n d a c o ur se , s ta r ti n g fr o m th e sa me p o i n t, i n
O p p os i te d i r ec ti o n s . A re ac he s th e s ta rti n g -
p o int 4 mi nu tes , and B9
min ute s a fte r th e y ,
h ave me t o n th e r o a d If th e y c o nti nue to r un a t
.

th e s a me r a tes , i n h o w man y mi n utes wi ll th ey me e t at th e s ta rti n g

p o i nt ?
32 . A c a rri age-wh ee l, mfer e n c e , r e volve s i n a c e rtai n
15 fe e t i n c i rc u

nu mb e r o f se c o n d s If i t re volve d i n a ti me lo n g e r b y o n e s e c o n d th e
.
,

c a r ri age wo uld tr a ve l 1 44 0 0 f e e t less i n a n h o ur I n h o w many s e c o n d s .

d oes i t re vo lve

D IS CU S S ION O F PR OBL E M S INV OL V ING QU AD R ATIC

E QU A TION S W ITH O NE U NKNOWN N U MB ER

4 63 I nterp et ti on f Comp lex R e ult

. r a o s s .

P b L t it b u i d t d tw e a l n umb e s w h o s e o n o r r
ro .
q e e re re

s u m s h all b e 1 0 an d p o d u c t 2 6 ,
r .

L et x o n e nu mb er .

Th e n , 10 x th e o th e r .

B y th e co n d i ti o n s , x (1 0 x) 26 .

S olvi n g ,

We c o n clud e th at th e g i ven c on d i ti o n s c a n n ot b e s a tis ed , a nd th e

p rob le m i s i mp o s s i b le .

H en ce, i ma gi na ry or co mp lex r es u lts s ho w tha t the p r o b lem i s

i mp oss i b le .

4 64 . Th e Prob lem of th e L i ght s .

To nd upon th e li n e whi c h j
tw o li g h ts , A a n d B , th e
o in s

p o i n t e q u a ll y illu mi n a te d b y th e m ; i t e i n g g i v e n th a t th e b
i n te n s i t y of a li gh t, a t a c e r tai n d i s ta n e , e q u a ls i ts i n te n s ity c
at th e d i s tan c e 1 , divid e d by th e s q u a re o f th e gi v e n d i s ta n ce .
28 8 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G EB R A

"
0 A a

L et B be 0 un i ts to th e r i gh t o f A .

L et
'

a an d 5 d e n o te th e i nte n s i ti e s of A an d B, re s p e c ti y
v el ,

at th e d i s tan c e 1 .

L e t th e p oi n t o f e qual i llumi n ati on b e x uni ts to th e r ight

of A .

Then it w i ll b e e x u n i ts fr om B .

B y th e c o n d i ti on s o f b
th e p ro lem, th e in ten s i t y of A at th e

d i s tan ce x un i ts , is an d th e i n ten si t y of B at th e d i s ta n ce
b
a x u n i ts , is
2
(c 9
0
a
T h en , 2 2
x ( c x
)
_
c \/Cl c a
S olv i n g thi s e qu ati on , x
x/a x/b vat x/b

S in c e the r e ar e two li g hts, 0 mus t al wa y s b e po s i ti v e ; th e n,

n e i th e r a , b, n o r c c an e q u a l z e rt i.

Th e p oble m th en
r ad mi ts o f on l y th r ee y
d i er e nt h p o th e s e s

1 . a >b .

x/ct
I n th i s c ase ,
is 1, an d

T h en , th e r st v alu e o f x is c, a n d
3
T hu s ,
th e r s t p o i nt o f e qu al i llu mi n a ti o n i s at 0, b etw e en
th e li gh ts , an d n e a r e r B , th e le s se r li ght .

\/a
A g a i n, is 1 .

Th e n , th e s e co n d v alu e o f x is 0 .

T hu th e s e c n d p i n t f qu l i llu min ati on i s at C

s, o o o e a

,
i n AB
p oduc e d to th e i gh t f th e le s s e li ght
r ,
r o r .

2 . a <h .

x/E
c ase
5
t
In th i s ,
is , an d th e r s t va lu e o f x
Vi -
a Vt
 Q U AD R A TI C E QU A TION S 289

T h en , th e r s t p oi n t of e q u al i llu mi n a ti o n i s b e twe en th e
li g h ts , a n d n ear e r A, th e le ss e r li ght .

A gai n, th e c
se o n d v a lu e o f x i s n ega ti ve .

se c o n d p i llu mi n a ti o n i s "
Th e n , th e o i nt o f e qu al at O ,
in B A
p c
ro d u e d , to th e lef t of the le s se r li gh t .

3 . a b .

V6 1
In th i s c a se , , an d th e r st v a lu e of x
c

x/a \/b
2 2

T he n ,
th e r s t p o int of e qua l illu mi n ati on i s mi d way b etw een
th e li gh ts .

Agai n,
0 W I
00

Th e n ,
th e re i s n o c
s e on d p m t
o o f e q u a l i llumi n a ti o n i n AB ,

or AB pr o d uc e d .

In th i s c as e , as x/ E x/b a p p r o a ch es th e li mi t z e ro , th e s e c on d valu e

o f 95 i n c r eas es with o ut li mi t .

T h at i s , as th e d i ffe re n ce b e twe e n th e i nte n s i ti e s o f th e li gh ts ap p r oach e s

th e li mi t z e ro , th e d i sta n c e fro m A to th e s eco nd p o i nt o f e q ual i llumi na
ti on i n c r eas es wi th out limi t .

GR APHICAL NTATION OF QU ADRATIC E XPR E S

R E PR E S E
S ION S WITH O NE U NKNOWN NU MB ER

4 65 . Th e gr a p h f a qu d ati c e xp e s si o n wi th o n e u nk n o wn
o a r r ,

num e r ,b may b e f o un d as in 27 9 .

Ex Fi n d th e gr a p h
. of x
2
2x 3 .

P ut y = x
2
2x 3 .

If x= 0, y
3 . A
()
If x = 1, y
4 .
()
B
x=
If 2, y 3 .
()
O
If x= 3, y = 0 .
( )
D
If x= 4, y = 5 .
(E )
If x ()
F
If x 2
, y =5 .
(G)
The g ra h i s th e p curve GB E .
29 0 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
B y tak i n g o th e r v a lu e s fo r x, th e cu rve may b e tr a c e d b e y on d
E an d G .

It e xte n d s in e i th e r d i re ti o n to c an i n d e ni te l y g r e at di s
tan ce f ro m XX
T o d e te rmi n e th e lo wes t p o in t o f th e u r v e , we c mu s t k n o w
wh at n e g ati v e v alu e o f y h a s th e g re ate s t a s o lute b v a lu e ; th i s

ma y b e f o u n d a s i n 4 61 .

We h av e , x
2
.
2 x 3
(x 4 .

Th e latte r ex p r e s s i on h a s i ts n e g a ti v e v a lue o f g r eate st ab s o

lu te v a lu e when x 1, b e in g th e n e q u al to 4 .

Th en
,
th lo w e e st p oin t o f th e cu r ve h as th e c o-o r d i n ate s

(,
1 4) and i s th e r e f o r e th e p o i n t B .

466 Th e p r i n c i le o f
. p 280 h old s f o r th e g ra ph of th er s t
b
me m e r o f an y qu a dr a ti c e qu a ti o n , w
i th o n e un k n o wn n umb e r .

T hu s ,
th e a bo ve g p
r a h i n te r s e c ts XX tw i

ce ; o n c e at x = 3,
a n d on c 1 2 x
2
e at x an d th e r o ots o f th e e qu ati on x
;
a re 3 an d 1 .

4 67 . Grap h s of th e Fi rs t M emb e rs of Qua d rat i c E quati ons

h av i ng E qua l or Comp lex R oots .

2
1 . C o n s id e r th e e qu a ti on x

By 1 8 3 , th e two r o o ts a r e 2 a nd 2 .

To n d th e gr a h p of th e r s t me mb e r,
p u t y = ( x
'

If If

If If . e tc .

p
Th e gr a h i s th e ur v e AB C, hi c h c w
e xte n d s by
e o n d A a n d O to an i n d e n i te l y g r e a t d i stan c e

f m XX
ro
'
.

S i n c e y c ann p XX '
ot be n e g ati v e, th e gr a h i s ta ngen t to at

th e p i n t wh o s e
o c c-o r d i n a te s a r e
(,
2

It i s e v id e n t fr o m thi s th at, i f a q u a d r a ti c e q u a ti o n, w i th
o n e unk n o wn nu mb e r , h a s e qu al r o o ts , th e gr a p h of i ts r s t
me mb e r i s ta n g e nt to XX '
.
 Q UAD R A TI C EQU A TION S 291

2 . C on s i d e r the e q u ati o n

To n d th e g ra p h of th e r s t me mb e r,
p u t

If x

If x e tc .

T h e g r a ph i s th e c u rv e A B C, w h i ch
e xte n d s by
e o n d A a n d 0 to a n i n d e n i te l y g eat
r d i s tan c e
fr o m XX '
.

To n d th e p o i n t B , wh e re th e c urv e i s n e ar e st to XX
, we
h a ve
2
x + x +2

Th e latte r ex p re s si o n h a s i ts le as t v alu e , w h en x

Th e n , B h a s th e c o-o r d i n a te s

It i s e vi d en t f ro m th i s th at, i f a q u a d r a ti c e qu ati o n , w i th
o n e u nk n o wn n u mb e r, h as c mp lo e x r o o ts , th e g r a p h of i ts r s t
me mb e r d o e s not i n te r s e c t XX
.

Th e e q u ati o n a 2 x2 b 2
may b e wri tte n (a x
0 b ) (a x b): 0 .

Th e grap h of th e rs t me mb er i n th i s c a s e i s a p air o f s tr a igh t li n es

ZJ
p aralle l to YY ,
r e sp e c ti ve l y ,
9 to th e ri gh t a n d to th e le ft, of th a t
a
li ne .

EXE RC S E 5 9 I
Fi nd th e gr aph of th e rs t me mb e r o f e a ch o f th e f ollowing , d e te r mi n e
its lo we s t p o i n t, a n d ve r i fy th e p r i n c i p le s of 2 80 a nd 4 6 7 i n th e r e s ults

1 3
4 x2 + 7 x = 0 5

. x 3 . . .

2 . x2
+ x 4 . 8 x2 l 4 x 6 .

Fi n d th e g rap h s of th e rs t me mb e rs of th e f o llo wi n g , a n d v e r ify th e

p ri n c ip le of 2 8 0 i n th e r es ults

2
7 . x2
8 . 9x
2 92 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A

XX . E QU A TIO NS S O L V E D L IK E QU A D
R A TI O S

468 . E quati ons i n th e Q ua drati c Form .

An e q u ati o n i s S ai d to b e i n th e qu a d r a ti c f o r m wh e n i t is in
th e f o r m
hm
2n
aw 0,
u
c

wh e re n is an i nte g e r or c
f ra ti o n ; a s,

x
6
6x 3
16 O,
3
and x x 72

Su h c e q u ati o n s a r e r e a dil y s o lv e d by the me th o d s o f th e p re

c e d in g c h a p t er .

6
1 . S o lv e th e e q u a ti o n x 6 x
3
16 .

p
C o m le ti n g th e s qu a r e by th e r ule o f 4 4 5,
6
x

E xtr a ti n g c s q u a r e r o ots,
3
x 3 ;
l. j; 5 .

Then ,
x
3
= 3 ;t 5 = 8 0r 2 .

E xtr a ti ng c c ub e s
r oo t , x 2 or \/
3
2.

Th e re a re a ls o fo ur i mag i n ary r o ots , wh i c h may b e fou nd b y th e me th od

of 4 60 .

2 . S olv e th e e qu a ti o n 2x 3 x/x 27

S i n c e V 5 i s th e %
as x , th i s i s i n th e q ua dr ati c f or m
s a me .

Multi p ly in g by 8 , a n d a d d i n g 3 to b o th me mb e r s ,
2

E xtr a ti n g c s q u ar e r o o ts , 4 /
x x 3 j:1 5 .

T hen ,
4 \/x -3 t :l 5 = 1 2 0r 18 .

O r, 1 /5z = 3 or
g
-

But o nl y p r incip a l ro o ts a re c on s i de re d .
 E QU A TION S S O L V E D L IKE Q U AD R A TI CS 29 3

The r e fo r e , V5 . c ann ot b e n e g a ti v e , a n d th e o nl y s o lu ti o n is

x/x = 3, 0 1

In solvi n g a n e qu ati o n o f th e f orm

P 2
ax !
2
a ny va lue o f xq wh i ch is n ot a p rin c ip a l ro o t, s h o uld be j
re e cte d .
_
%
F or e xa mp le , if x 2, th e c o rr esp o nd i ng s olutio n sho uld be
j
re e c te d .

3 . S olv e th e e qu a ti o n 2 of ? 1 1 of ? 12 0 .

By f o rmula 4 5 0,

4 1 1 i V 1 2 1 96 11
x

In th is c ase , n e i th e r valu e is j
r e e c te d .

E xtra ti n g c s qu ar e r oo ts, x8
:2 or j:

R ai s i ng to thi rd po w er ,
j:8 or j;

Inverti n g ,

r
x i
or 1

To s olve a n e qu ati o n o f th e fo rm x4 a, rst e xtract th e ro ot corre

S po nd i ng to th e n ume rator of th e fr ac ti on a l e xp o n e nt , a n d a fte rwa r d s

ra ise to th e p o we r co rr esp o ndi ng to th e d e no min ator ; c are ful a tte ntio n

mus t b e given to a lgeb rai c s igns .

4 69 . An e qua ti o n ma y so meti me s b e s olv e d wi th r efe r e n ec

to a n exp r es s i on , by r e g ar d i n g it a s a s i n gle le tter .

S o lv e th e 4 3 (x 5)i 40
e q u a ti o n
( x .

p
Co m leti ng the s q u ar e ,

i
( n+ 5)

13
E xtra ti ng c s qua re r o o ts,
( x
g 2

T hen ,
5 .

2 2
294 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

We re e j ct th e v alu e
( x 5 th e o nl y s o luti o n is

(
x s .

E xtr a ti n g c c ub e r o o t,
(
x 2 .

R a i s i n g to f o urth p owe r, x 5 1 6, an d x 11 .

C e r ta i n e q u ati o n s o f th e f o u rth d e g r e e may b e s o lv e d by th e

r ule s f o r qu ad r ati cs .

4 2
2 . S o lv e th e e qu ati o n x 12 x
3
34 x 12 x 35 0 .

Th e e q u ati o n ma y b e w ri tte n

( x
4
+ 12
3
x + 36
2
x
) 2 x
2
l2 x = 35 .

(
2 2
O r, x +6 x
)
p
C o m leti n g th e s qu ar e ,

2 2
( x +6 x
)
E xtra ti n g c s qu a r e r o o ts , (
as
2
6 x ) 1 j; 6 .

Th e n , x
2
+6 x =7 or 5 .

C o mp le ti n g th e s qu a r e , x
2
6 x 9 16 or 4 .

E xtra c tin g s q u a r e r o o ts , x 3 or i 2 .

Then ,
. x _3 4 4 OI

_3 4 2 1, or 5 .

In s o lvi ng e q uati o n s lik e th e ab o ve , mp le te th e

th e . rs t s te p is to co

s q u a re wi th r e fe r e n c e to th e x a n d x te r ms 44 7 th e th i rd term o f
4 3
by
h
t e sq a eu r i s th e s q u a r e o f th e q u o ti e n t o b ta i n e d b y di vi d i n g th e x te rm
8

b y twi ce th e s q u a e o o t o t e x te rm
r r f h 4
.

3 . S olv e th e e qu a ti o n x
2
6 x 5 \/x 2
6 x 20 46 .

Ad d i n g 20 to b oth memb e rs ,

(
x 2
6 x + 2 0 ) + 5 \/x
2

p
C om le ti ng th e s q ua r e ,
"
2
5
6 x 20 ) x 20

c s q ua re r o ots , A/x
3
2
E xtra ti ng 6 x 20 +

T h en ,
 E QU A TION S S O L V E D L IK E Q U AD R A TI C S 295

Th e onl y s o lu ti on is
2
S q ua r i n g , x 6 x 20 36 .

p
Co m leti n g th e s qu a r e , x
2
6x 9 25 .

E xtr a ti n g c s qu a r e r o o ts , x 3 j:5, an d x 8 or 2 .

In s o lvi n g e q ua ti on s o f th e a b o ve fo r m, a d d s u ch a n e xp r e s s i on to b o th

memb e rs th at th e e xp re ss i o n with out th e r ad ic al s ign i n th e rst me mb er

may b e th e sa me as th at wi th i n , o r s ome mu ltip le o f i t .

4 . S o lv e th e e q u a ti o n 2 93
2
+5 x 2 x x/x l 5 x
2 -
3 12 .

Th e e qu a ti on ma y b e w r i tte n

b c
S u tra ti n g 3 fr o m b oth me mb e rs,

c
E xtr a ti n g s q uar e r o o ts , \ x / 2
5 x 3 x j; 3 .

O r,
S quari n g , 2
x + 5 x 3=x 1 6
2

T h en , x -
or 11 x= l 2, an d x = 12 or

N e i th e r y alue sati s es th e gi ve n e q ua ti o n .

2 2
x 3 x x 5
5 . S o lv e th e e qu a ti on
x 3 2
2 _3
p
Re r e s e nti n
g
2 2
by y , th e e q u ati on be c ome s
1 5
01
'
2 y +2 =5 y 2

5
1
S olvi n g th i s , y or 2 ; th at i s , -
2
T ak i ng rst v alue ,
2 x
2
6 x
2
x
.

OI ,
x
2
x 6 .

S olvi n g, x 2 or 3 .

T akin g s e c ond value , x

2
3 2 x
2
2x .

O r, a
s 2x 3 .

S olvi ng,
29 6 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

I
EXER C S E 6 0
S o lve th e fo llo win g

1 . x4 2 9 x2 1 00 . 9 . 6x z i l i /5
.

2 5
-s
+ 19
-3 _2 1 6 J Q

;
9
;


3
10 . x + 24 4 x 243 .

3 x + 1 0 3
x + 9 =0 3
11 2x
. '

4 i - 33 4 32
. sc 93 .
12 6
27 x + 4 x8 6 = 16
__
. .

3 i
32 x _33
5 . 64 + 63 x at
g

13 . ,

6 .

14 . l 6 xs 33 x4 243 z 0 .

5x 5
7 .
+ 7x
15 l 6 1 x5 + 5 32 x10
8
4 x%
.

8 .
'
21 0

3
x% 16 . 81 x I 30 8
2 2
17 .
( x + 3 x)
2
4 3 2
18 . x + 1 2 x + 14 x 1 32 x

19 .

2x x
2
3

21 .

22 . 8 x2 1 8 x2 .

23 . x 4 2 a x3

24 . 18 x
( 23 x
5 .

x2
+2 2 x 5 35
25 '

2 x 5 x2 +2 6

26 .

27 .

28 . 4 2
( x +2x
29 .

2 3x 6 2 x2 3 x
30 .
(2 x (
31 .

32 . x4 1 8 x3 + 1 09 x2

33 .

34 . 7( x3 8 (x3 1 .

35 .
(3 x x 22 .

36 .
E QU A TION S S O L V E D L IK E Q U AD R A TICS 29 7

x2 1 2 x
) -
+6 x

x4 2 8 3 190 2 - 84 x
+ x + x

22

2 5 (x + 1 )
-1
l 5 (x _2 .

2
)
2
.
(3 x a 4 x (3 x

5 x + 1 2x+2 8
2x+2
'

x2 x 5 x
2
+ 1 3

9 x(7 x) -9 \/x2 7 x 5 43 .

x 7 x 1
'
2
3x + x 2 5 4 2 5
'
+
4 x2 7 x 1 3 x + 2 x -5
2 2

9 x4 3 0 x3 1 85 x2 350 x + 1 1 7 6 0
'

.
29 8 A DV AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A

XX I . S IM U L TA NE O U S QU A D R ATIC
E QU A TI O NS

O n th e d o b le u s i g ns 4:a nd r
p .

If two or mo re d o ub le s ig n s a r e us e d in a n e q u a ti on , i t will b e un d er

s to o d th at th e e q ua ti o n can be re ad i n t wo wa y s rs t, r ea d i ng a ll th e
upp er s i g ns s e c o n d , r e a d i n g a ll th e lo wer s ig ns .

Th us , th e e q u ati o n a j:b i 0 c an b e re a d e i th e r

a + b = c, or a b c .

And th e e qua ti o n a j ; b x c can be re a d e i th e r

a +b c, or a b z c .

Th e sa me n o ta ti o n wi ll b e us e d i n th e c as e o f a s y s te m o f e quati ons ,

e ac h i nvo lvi n g d oub le s ign s .

Th us , th e e q uati o ns x } 2,
z; y i 3, c an be r e ad e i th e r

x =+2 , y : + 3, or x 2
,
y 3 .

And th e e q u ati o n s x j:2 y , q:3 , c an be r e ad e i th e r

x = + 2, y
3, or x

Th e p ri n c ip le s d e mo ns tr ate d i n 2 33 to 2 36, i n clus ive , h old for si mul

ta neo us e qu a ti o ns o f a n y d e g re e .

47 0 . Th e follo wi n g p r i n c pli e is of f r e q u e nt u se in s olv i n g

si mu ltan e ou s e qu a ti o n s o f hi gh e r d e gr e e th an the r s t
Th e s y stem o f e q uati on s
A xB =Q a)
O XD O, ()
2

wh e Aer ,
B, 0, an d D are r ati o n a l an d i nte gral ex p r e ss i o n s

whi h in
c v o lv e th e u n k n o wn nu mb e r s , i s e qu i v ale n t to th e
S y s te m s
A = O, A=O B = O,
an d <)
3
D=0 .

F or an y s o luti o n of ()
1 an d ()
2 mak e s A X B and 0 x I)
i de n ti c ally e qu a l to O .
 S IM UL T AN E O U S Q U AD R A TI C EQU A TION S 299

I t th e n ma k e s at le as t one c
f a to r of A x B a n d O x D i d e nti
c ally e qu al t o 0, and he n c e s a ti s e s s o me o n e o f th e s y s te ms

Ag ai n, any s o luti o n o f a ny on e of th e y s t ms (3 ) mak s

s e e

e i th e r A or B, and a ls o e i th e r 0 or D, id e nti c ally e q ual to 0 ;

and hen ce s a ti ses (1 ) a n d
T h en ,
th e sy s te m (
1 ) an d (
2) i s e qu i v a le n t to

Th e p ri nc ip le h old s for any nu mb e r o f e quati on s , with a ny n u mb e r o f

fa c to rs .

471 . T wo ce q u a ti o n s
de g ee 1 1 3 ) w i th tw
of th e s e on d r o

u n k n w n n umb e s w i ll g e n e ally p
o d u c e by e li mi n ti o n a n
r r ro ,
a ,

e q u a ti o n o f th e f u th d e g e e w i th n e u n k n o w n n u mb e
o r r o r .

Co n s i d e f o e xamp le th e qua ti n s
r, r ,
e o

Fr o m y a x
2
; su b s titutin g i n
2
x + a

an e qu ati on o f th e fo u r th d e gr e e i n x
.

Th e y g i e n a e th f e n ot s ufc i e nt f
me th o d s alr ea d v r ,
e re o r ,
or

th e luti n o f e
so y sy s te m f s i multan eou s quad ati c e qua
o ve r o r

ti o n s wi th two u nk n w n nu mb e s
,
o r .

I n c e tai n c a s e s h o w e
r th e s luti o n may b e e ec te d
,
v er, o .

4 7 2 CA S E I . Wh en h qua ti n i s i n the f rm
. ea c e o o

2 2
ax by c .

:
I n thi s c ase ,
e i th e r x
2
or y
2
c an be e li mi n ate d by additi on or
su bt acti on
r .

8;
6
iZ 11 1
1
l . S o lve th e e q ua ti o n s
t 1 2

Multi ply (1 ) by 3, 9 x
2
12 y 2
228 .

M ultip ly (2) by 4, 12 y 2
44 x 2
16 .

b
S u tra ti n g, c 53 x
2
21 2 .

O r, x
2
4 .

W h e n c e, x i2 .
30 0 AD V AN CE D CO UR SE IN A L GE B R A
Su b sti tuti ng x j; 2 in 12 4 y 2
76 .

T he n ,
2
y 16 .

Wh e n c e , y j; 4 .

Th e s o lu ti on is x= 2, y : i 4 ; or , x 2 y:
,

It follows , p r ec is ely as i n E x 1 , . 238 , th at th e gi ven s y s te m is e qui va

len t to th e s y ste m (3 ) a nd
Now (3) an d ()
4 may b e writte n

2
) =0, an d
(y + ) (y 4 )
4 =0 .

And b y 4 7 0 , th es e a re e qu i va le nt to

x + 2 = 0, x + 2 : 0,

a,

l il l y +4 = 0.
whi ch are th e sa me as

Th e me th o d o f e li mi n ati on by a d d iti o n o r su b t ac ti on may b e

r

u se d in o th e r e xa mple s .

2 4
2 . S o lv e the e qu ati on s
3 x y 47 .
()
1

Multi p ly (1 ) by 3 , 9 x
2
12 y = 141 .

Multi p ly (2) by 2, 14 x
2
12 y 66 .

Ad di ng, 23 2
x 20 7

T hen ,
2
x 9, an d x j; 3 .

S u b s ti tuti n g x = in 27 4 y 47 .

T hen ,
4 y 20 , an d y 5 .

I t i s p oss ib le to e li mi nate o ne unkn o wn n umb er ,

in e xa mp le s (1 ) and

b y s ub s ti tuti o n or by co mp a r is o n

EXERC S E 6 l I
S olve th e follo wi ng

3x +2y2 2 = 66 . 4 2 -
23 4 9 3
1
2 : 13 .

9 x2
+ 5y 2 = 1 89 . S ing 6 .

3x 5y2 1 16 .

7 x+ y
4 2 = 1 21 .

3 x 2 xy
2
z 24 .

4 x2 5 xy zz 46 .
 S IM UL TAN E O US Q UAD R ATI C E QU A TION S 30 1

2 x xy 3 y2
2 =0 . 2 x2 + 3 y2 = 67 x .

x2 2 y2 z l7 .

4x 2 2
y + 4 xy
3y =42
10
2 = (3 ab 3 b
.

2
)(
2
4 y x a ) . 2y xy +5y

3x+2y 3x 2y 41
+
11 ,
3x 2y 3x+2y 20

8 y2 + 3 x2 = 29 .

6x
( ~

2 y 2 4 (x
(5 x )

473 . CA S E II . When o ne eq ua ti o n is o f the s econd d egree,

a nd the o ther of the r st .

E q u ati o n s of may b e s olv e d

th i s k i n d by n din g th e valu e of
o ne o f th e u nk n o wn nu mb e r s i n te r ms of th e o th e r f r o m th e
r s t d e g re e e qu ati on , an d s u b sti tuti n g th i s v a lu e i n th e o th e r

e q u ati o n .

Ex . S olve th e e qu ati on s
2 x xy 6y .
()
1

7 "
x
F rom

y ()
3
2

S ub stituti n g i n Z x 6 ()
4

Cle ar i n g of c
fra ti on s, 4x 2
7 x+ x2
= 4 2 6x .

O r, ()
5

S o lvi n g , or

14

gg
5
Su b sti tuti ng i n y i .

3
15
Th e soluti o n is x 3, y 2; or, x
5
, y ()
6

By 2 36 , th e give n s y s te m is e qu i vale nt to (3 ) a nd 4
() o r , s i nce 4
()
is e q u i va le nt to (5 )
to th e s y s te m (3 ) a nd

No w (5 ) ca n b e wri tte n (x
,
x 14) 0 .

Th e n b y 4 7 0 th e s y s te m (3 ) a n d (5 ) i s e q u i vale nt
, ,
to th e sy s te ms
3 d d 3 d 5 1 4 0 h a t i s to
() a n x 3 0 , a n () a n x t ,
30 2 AD V AN CE D C O U RS E IN A L GE B R A

S olve th e fo llo wi n g
EXERC S E 6 2 I
2
(
13 3 37 .

13 2 y z :9 .

xy =2 a
2
+3 a

f4 x + y 3 x 6
36 y .

2 xy + x
I
.
'

x
xy 3y 5
x g 40
'

x
2 2
2 + 3
x y x
x y x m
x 2
2 2 4
y y -1
2 y+ 3x .

Z 2 :
x x 2
y + y 8
x y
__ 29
3 m+ y : 1 0
2 g 3x 24
x 2 3
g g 4 y x 2 .

2x 3y :
x 2
+ 4 xy : 13 .

a t
42 2 2 2 xy + 9 g2 = 87 .

3 2
x l l
3 y 0
__
3 2
2x 3 3]

5x 32 15

x y 2 2
24 xy + 95 =0
3x2y

474 . CA S E III . When the gi ven equ a ti on s a re sy mmetr i ca l

wi th r esp e c t to x a n d g ; tha t i s , when x a nd g ca n b e i n ter
cha nged wi tho ut cha ngi ng the e qu a ti o n .

E qu ati o n s of th i s k i n d ma y b e s o lv e d by co mb i n i n g th e m i n
.

su ch a way as to o btai n th e v alu e s o f x g an d x y .

x +g = 2
1 . S o lv e th e e q u ati o n s
xg 15 .

2 ?
S q u ar i n g x 2 xv y 4 .

Mu lti p ly i n g (2) by 4 4 xg 60 .

b
S u tr a cti n g , x
2
2 xg g
?
64 .

E xtr a c ti n g s q u a r e r oo ts , x g j; 8 .
 S IM UL T AN E O U S Q UAD R A TI C E QU A TION S 303

Add in g (1 ) an d 2 x 2 i8 10 or 6 .

Wh en c e ,
x 5 or 3 .

c b 6) fr o m
S u tra ti n g ( 2g 2 8 6 or 10 .

W he n c e , g 3 or 5 .

Th e s o lu ti o n is x= 5, g = 3 ; o r, x -3
, y = 5 .
()
7

In s ub trac ting 31:8 f ro m 2 , we h a ve 2 Z F 8 , i n a c co rd a nc e wi th th e n o ta

ti o n e xp la i ne d o n p age 2 98 .

In o p e ra ti n g with d o ub le s i gns , is c h a n ge d to and Z F to i , wh e n

e ve r s h o u ld be c h a ng e d to

E qu a ti o n 4
() i s e qu ivalen t to ()
2 b ut (3 ) i s e q uivale nt -
to x y 2
a nd x y z 2 .

If , th e n , we us e o n ly th e va lu e + 2 for x + y, th e gi ve n s y s te m is
e qui va le n t to (3 ) and

By 2 34 , th e s y s te m (3 ) a nd (4 ) i s e qui vale nt to (3 ) a n d
Th e n , th e give n s y s te m i s e qu i va le n t to th e p o s i ti ve va lue of x g in
an d ( (1 ) a n d
5 ) th a t i s , to
No w (5 ) ma y b e writte n (x y 8 ) (x y 8) 0 .

Th e n b y 4 7 0 th e s y s te m (1 ) a n d (5 ) i s e q ui va le nt
, , to (l) a nd

x y a n d (l
) an d x th a t i s t o ,

Th e a b ove e q u a ti o n s m ay als o b e s o lv e d b y th e me tho d o f C as e I I b ut

th e sy mme tr ica l me th o d is sh orte r a n d n e a te r .

2
= 5O
5;
x +
2 . S o lv e th e e q u ati o n s

Multi p ly (2) by 2 , 2 xg

Ad d (1 ) an d
()
3 x
2
2 xg g
2
36 .

Wh en c e ,
x y j; 6 .

b 3) f r o m
S u tra c t ( x
2
2 xg y
2
64 .

Wh e n c e , x y j:8 .

Ad d (5 ) a n d 2 x= 6 :
t 8, or 6 ;t 8

W h e nce , x = 7, 1, 1, or -7 .

b
S u tr ac t (
7 fr o m 2 y 6 Z }:8, or 6 q:8 .

Wh e n c e 1 7 7 or 1
, g , , ,
.

Th e s o lu ti o n is x = ;t 7, g = :
F1 ; y = i 7 .
3 04 AD V AN CE D C O URS E IN A L G E B R A
Th e gi ve n s y s te m is e q u i vale n t to th e s y s te m (4 ) and

Now (4 ) and (6 ) can b e wri tten

and (x y

Th en , th e sy s te m (4 ) and ()
6 i s e qui va le nt to ()
5 and wi th e ve ry

p oss ib le co mb ina ti o n o f s i gn s .

W e may s olve b y th e meth o d of C as e III oth er s y s te ms i n wh i ch th e

e q u a ti o n s a re s y mme tr ic al, e xc e p t i n th e s i g ns o f te rms as , for e xa mp le ,
th e s y s te m
x y a

I
.

xy 2 b .

We may als o s olve c erta i n n o n-s y mmetri cal s y s te ms ; as , f or e xa mp le ,

th e s y s te m
r xx
i 2 2 2
b g c .

I ax + by z d .

EXERC S E 6 3 I
S o lve th e followmg
2 2 _29
1 . i x + 2]
3
.

x2 + xy +y 2
4
l x +y
y xy + y 2 9
- 1
x z ll .

4
xv 28 .

x2 y
? 13 0 .

x y

x +y =2 a l .

xy z a
z a 2 .

b 6
a +
2 2
a b

xg z ab

= 63
j + wy + y
2 z
x
6
I x y z 3

7 y x 3

x y z l
 S IM UL T AN E O US Q UAD R A TI C E QU T A ION S 30 5

36 x + 64 y
2 2
85
; .

6 95 8 3] = 1 1 .

2
25 x + 1 6 y 2 = 54 4 .

5x 4 g] = 32 .

20
x y 2
l 3 a4 3 a 2 2
b + b 4

1 1 1 a 4 a 2b 2 + b 4

2 2 2
(a b)
2
x xv y d

475 . CA S E I V . t en ea ch e qu a ti on is o f the s econ d d egr ee,

a nd ho mogen eo u s ; tha t i s , when ea ch te rm i n vo lv i ng th e unkn own
nu mb er s is f
o the s eco n d d egr ee wi th r e sp ect to them .

C e r ta in e q u ati o ns o f th i s f o rm may b e s o lve d b y th e me th od of C as e I

or C ase III (S e e E x s 1 472, an d 2, Th e me th od of C as e I V

:
. .
,

s h ould be use d o nly wh e n th e e xa mp le c a nn o t be s olve d b y C as es I or III .

2
2 90
Ex . S o lve th e e qu ati on s
2 5z29 2 2

P utti n g i n the gi v e n e qu ati o n s y vx,

5
w e h av e x
2
2 vx = 2
5; o r, x
2

1 2v

29
an d or x
2
_ .

2
1 v

5 29
va lue s o f x
2
E quati n g , 2
1 2v 1 v

O r, 5 v + 5 8 v = 24
2
.

2
S olv i n g th i s e quati on , v or 12
{5
.

Su b s tituti ng th e s e v alu e s in w e ha ve
5 5
x
,
or 25 or th e n , x = j
; 5 or

_4
1
5
30 6 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
Su b s ti tuti n g th e v alu e s o f v a n d x i n th e e qu a ti o n y vx,

2 12
y z
(t 5Z 01

12 i 2 OI

V5 .

1 12
Th e s o lu ti on I S x :, g i 2 ;
=j 5 = or, x =i
y = 3F

V5
Th e g ive n sy s te m, an d are th r e e e qu ati o n s wi th th re e unk n o wn

numb ers by 2 36 , th e y ar e e qu i vale n t to th e s y s te m a nd

T h e n , p r e c i s e ly as in E x .
, 2 4 0 , th e s y s te m an d (3) is
e qui vale n t to (l ) , and or to and

W e may wr i te ()
5 i n th e f o r m (5 v 2 ) (v 12) 0 .

Th e n , th e s y s te m a nd () s
5 i e qu i vale n t to th e s y s te ms (I),
an d 5 v 2 z 0, an d -a n d v 12 0 .

Th en , th e gi ve n s y s te m is e q u i va le n t to the sy s te ms

2 5 5
2
x, x 2
, an d g 1 2 x, x
5 4 1 24
1
5

I n nd ing y fro m th e e q u ati o n y vx, ca re mus t b e tak e n to multiply

each value o f x b y th e value o f v whi ch was use d to o b tai n it .

EXERC S E 6 4 I
S olve th e f ollo wi ng

x 2
+ y 2 z 25 . x2 2 xy 4 y2 z 41 .

1
x xy
2 z 4 . x2

x 2
+ 3 xy 5 .

2 xy y2 -2 4 .

I 2
3 x + 8 xg 4 y2 72 .

11 x 2
xg g
2 =45 .

2 x + xg2 2
7 x + 3 xy 2y2 = 20 .

4 x xg y2

i 5x + 2 xy 3 y
2 z 27 .

3 xg + y = 2 8 2 4 x2

5 1 2 1 5
9 . + +
2 2 2 2
x y x xy y
1 3
90 _1
1 - 12 .

my
.

my i
f
11
2

x 2
+ xy 4 x2 2x
y g
2 1 6 .

12
2 = 4
x + 42
g 0 .

2 xy 4 0 x2 = 30 2 2

{
3 31 x y .

13
5 y 3 xy
.

2 72 x 2 z 38 x2y2 .
 S IM UL T AN E O U S Q U AD R ATI C E QU A T ION S 30 7

476 . S o luti on of S i multa neous E quat i ons of Hi gh er D egree b y

Factori ng .

1 . S o lv e th e e qu ati o n s
(
x

3
y + 2 ) = O .

By 4 7 0, th e gi v e n s y s te m i s e q u i v ale n t to th e s y stems
x y = 0) x _y = 0 )

x +y = m x 3g+2= Q
x 2
+ g 1 z
m x 2
+ g 1 =
Q
x +g = ,
x 3g+2=0

Th e s oluti o n s o f th e s e ar e

x x

x
2
+ g
x 2 2
= 0
y .

2 . S olve th e e q u ati on s
2 x + 3g + 6=0
W e may wr i te ()
1 i n th e f orm (
x 2 g)(
x y) 0 .

T h en th e g i ve n s y s te m i s e qui valen t to th e s y s te ms
x + 2 g = 0, r w y = 0 ,
an d
i
S olv i n g th e s e , x = 1 2, g = 6 ; o r, x =
5
, ! g
3

Th e e xa mp le c an b e s o lve d b y th e me th od of 4 7 3 ; b ut th e ab o ve

meth o d is sh o rte r .

3 . S olve th e e qu ati o n s
xg + g
2
=2 x .

M ulti p ly in g (1 ) by 2, 6 x + 2 y = 14
2 2
x .

Multi p ly i n g (2) by 7, 7 xg + 7 y = 1 4
2
x .

b
S u tra ti n g, c 6x 2
7 xy 5 O, or (
2 x + g)(
3 x 5 =
g) 0 .

Th e n, th e g i v e n s y s te m is e qu i v ale n t to th e s y stems
3 x
2
+g = 7 2
x, ax + y = 7 2
x,
an d

S olvi n g th e s e , a
t : 0, g = 0 ; x= 1 , g 2; o r, x
30 8 AD V AN CE D CO UR S E IN A L G E B R A
x
2
: x y
4 . S o lve th e e q u ati o n s
f =3y x

b
S u tr a ti n g, c x
2
g
2
= 2 x -2
y, or (x

x
2
= x + y, x
2
= x + g,
T h en , an d
x g = 0 ,
x +g 2=O ,

S o lv i n g th e s e , x = 0, g = 0 ; x = 2, y = 2 ; or ,

S o lve th e f ollo wi ng
EXE RC S E 6 5 I
(2 x 3 y) (x

L e nn on

w 4 y2 = 3 v
2
( x+
2 y) (3 x
.

( x xy + 8 y =x 2 .

x 2
3 xv
4 y
2 =
0 .
3 r i e/
2 02 : 4
y
2
6x
3x5y = 46

2 x2 xy 1 5 y2 =0 .
3 x 2
+ 3y 0 233
]
1 l 4
5 33 + 23
] 3
1 2 x2 y x xy
(x )(
2

7 3y
x 2 x 5y + 1 =0
2 x2 xy z 0 .
2 x3 + 5 x2g 8 xg2 20 y3 =0 .

$ 2 2
+ y
2 =9 0
3 x+4 y =7 .

x 2 xy
2 z 0 . x 2 mx ng .

y
2 = nx my .

477 . S oluti on b y Di vi s i on .

A XB =a Xb
C o n si d e r th e e q u a ti o n s
()
2

wh e re A an d B ar e r a ti o n a l a n d i n te gr al ex p re s s i on s w h i ch
i n volv e th e unk n o wn nu mb e r s , a nd a an d b a n y nu mb e r s .

By 236, th e g iv e n s y s te m i s e qu i v a le n t to

A= a,
OI

to
E =h; E=h
 S IM UL T AN E O US Q UAD R A TI C E QU A TION S 309

H e re r s t me mb er o f (3 ) i s o b tai ne d by di v i d i n g th e r s t
th e
me mb e r o f (1 ) by th e r s t me mb e r o f a n d th e s e c o n d me m

b e r by di v i d i ng the s e c o n d me mb e r o f (1 ) by th e s e c o n d me mb e r
of
3 3
x y 9 , 1
Ex S olv e th e e qu a ti on s
:y
.

a 3 ,
()
2

D ivide 1 b
() y w + wy + y = a
z 2
()
3

S q u ar i n g m 2
2my y
2
()
4

Su b tr a ct (4 ) from 3 my : 6, or my : - 2 .
()
5

Add ()
3 an d m + 2 wy + y = 1
2 2
.

E xtr a ti n g c s quar e r o ots , a; y i 1 . 6

()
Ad d (
2) a n d 2x: 3 j; 1 =4 or 2 .

T h en ,
a :2 or 1 .

S ub t a c t r 2
() f rom 2 31 3 j:
1 2 or 4 .

T h en , 3;
1 or 2 .

Th e s oluti o n is x= 2, y 1
; or , y
2 .

Th e equ a ti on s (2 ) a n d th ough n o t sy mme tri cal, ar e s olve d as i n 4 74

A X E = O X D,
478 . Con s i d e r th e e qu ati on s
{ B =D;

wh e e A
r
, B , O, and D ar e r a ti o n al a n d i n te gral p
e x r e s s i on s

w h i ch i n volv e th e un k n o wn n umb e rs .

By 23 6, th e gi v e n s y stem i s e qu i v ale n t to

fB A
(
o r to
B D; B
By 4 7 O, th e latte r i s e q u i v ale n t to th e s y stems
B : 0,

A C O,
and

T h en , th e gi v e n s y ste m i s e qu i vale n t to th e s y stems

0 A 0
an d
0,
31 0 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

Ex . S olv e th e e qu a ti o n s
w y = 3 w+ 2

D i v i din g ()
1 by th e g i v e n s y stem ,
is e qu i v ale nt to th e
s y ste ms
m y = 0 , w+ y = 9w2
6 w+ 4 , ()
3
an d
3 w+ 2 = 0 , w

Th e s o luti o n o f th e r st s y stem i s : a y

To s olv e th e c
se on d , a d d 2
() and th e n,

2 90 =9w 2 3 x
+ 6, or 9 w 2

21 6 5 :
t \/ -1 9 1

18 18

2 w 2

-1 9 1

If we try to solve b y s ub s ti tuti ng th e valu e of y fro m (2) i n we sh all

h a ve a n e qu atio n o f th e thir d d e gr ee i n x .

EXERC S E 6 6I
S olve th e followi ng

x3 3 26
y z .

x y z 2 .

x3
+ y = 28 0
3
.

2
x

xQ

( x2
y
e 4) 2 1 00 .

'

( a
c 4 ) (3 y 2)
 S IM UL T AN E O U S Q U AD R A TI C E QU A TION S 31 1

3
I 8 x + 27 y 3 z 91 . 98
11 4
L4 x2 4 6
xy + 9 y
2 : 13 , y a: 15
cit
y = a
m 4 4 2 2 l

{
y z x y .

x y =x y xQ 2
3 = 12

2 2 l . y + x 3y .

2 ( x y ) (3 96
g 19
+
y x 6 x y 2
+y
2
x z 42 .

l l 1 1 1 7
+ +
x y 6 x y 6

47 9 . S p eci al Meth ods f or th e S oluti on of S i multaneous E qua

ti ons of Hi g h er D eg ree .
3
$ 19 '
()
1
1 . S o lve th e e qu a ti o n s
()
2

Mu lti p ly (2) by 3 3 g 3 my ?
18 .
()
3

b 3) f ro m
S u tra c t ( x
3
3 g 3 my
?
y
3
1 .

E xtr ac ti n g cub e r o o ts , 9 :y 1 .
()
4

D i v id in g ()
2 by my 6 .
()
5

S o lv i n g e q u a ti o n s ()
4 an d
()
5 by th e me th o d of 4 7 4 , we
n d y = 2; o r, a : -2
, y
-3 .

2 S o lv e th e e qu ati o n s
9 w
.

:
L +ya =6 .

P utti n g w= u + v and y = a v,

<
u
'

and ( u v
) (
u c
) 6 .

R ed u ci ng 2u 3
6 a w?
9(
u
2
v
2
) .

R e d u ci n g 2u 6, or u 3 .

Putti n g it 3 in 54 18 v
2
v
2
) .

Wh en c e , v
2
1, o r i) j:
1 .

T h e re f o r e ,

a nd
y = a

T he a rti c e o f sub s ti tuti n g u v and u v fo r :

a a nd
y is ad van tage o us

in any c a se wh ere th e g ive n e q uati o ns a re s ymmetr i ca l 4 74) with

re s p e ct to x and y . S e e als o E x 4 . .
31 2 A D V AN C ED C O UR S E IN A L GE B RA

3 . S olv e th e e q u a ti o n s
m+ 32
!
2
2 58 + 2 3] 23
my 6 .

M ulti p ly i n g (2) by 2, 2 my ~

12 .

Ad d (1 ) an d
O r, m
( = 35 .

p
Com le tin g th e s qu a r e , m
( y)
2
m
2( y) 1 36 .

T hen ,
an d m+ y = 5 or 7 .

S qu ari ng m 2
2 my y
2
25 or 49 .

Multi p ly i n g (2) by 4, 4 my 24 .

cb
S u tr a ti n g, m 2
2my y
2
1 or 25 .

Wh en c e ,
m y = 1 1 or 1 5 .

Ad d i n g (
4 ) an d 2 m: 5 j:
1, or 7 j:
5 .

Wh en c e, m 3 , 2, 1, or 6 .

cb 5) f r o m
S u tr a ti n g ( 2y 5 IF 1 , or 7 Z F5 .

Wh en c e , y 2, 3 , 6, or 1 .

m4
y
4
97
4 S olv e th e e qu ati on s
m+ y 1
.

P utti n g m= u + v an d y = a v,

u v -1
an d (n + o
) + ( ) .

R e du i n g c 4
2 11 + 1 2 u 2 2
y + 2 71 : 97 4
.

R e du c i n g 2 u 1, or u

Su b s tituti n g i n 1 + 3 oz 2 11
4
: 97
5
-5
2 1 V
g
31
S o lv i ng th i s, mx : i j:
5
i
or an d v - or

1 5 1 V 31
Th e re f o re , ma t-u o r


2

2, 3, or
 S IM UL TAN E O US Q U AD R A TI C E QU A TION S 31 3

-- 3 1

1 43 V 31

In s olvi ng frac ti o nal s i multa n e o us e qu a ti o n s o f h igh e r d e gre e , we must

j
r e e c t a n y s o lu ti o n wh i c h s a ti s e s th e e qu ati o n o b ta i n e d b y e qu ati n g to

z ero th e L . C . M . of th e g i v e n d e n o mi n a to rs
Al so , in s o lvi n g si multa n e o us e q u a ti o ns of h igh e r d eg ree h avi ng un
k n o wn nu mb e rs un d e r ra d i ca l s ig ns , we r e ta i n o nly th o s e s o luti o n s whic h

sa tis fy th e g i ve n e qu ati on s , wh e n th e p r i nc ip a l va lu es of th e r o o ts ar e

ta k e n

EXERC S E 6 7 I
S olve th e f ollovsmg
'
m4 + y
4 257 . mzy m
m y z 5 . ways m3
m + y + m y = 3 2
2 2
.
m
my 6 .

=
m+ 24 m
j
3 3 3
2
y a + +y =
2 2
3
x xy +L
lmy + my
2 2 = 2 a (a 2

m+ y
2
xy + 2y 2 . 1 12O .

m
-
Vi z
l =7 .

my m+ y
9 .

n1 2
y
2 1 69 .

my my -
my m + y =
2 2 20 . 2 2 60 .

9 m2 13 my 3 m 1 23 .
= 109 .

my = 12 .

\ 2 m
/ 2
m 5 5
y = 2l1 .

m y

m+ 2
y
8 .

18
2
y
m4 + 2 m3y
19
m+ y = my
31 4 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L GE B R A

S IMU L TANE OU S QU AD RA TIC E QU ATIONS WITH MORE

TH AN O NE U NKNO W N N U MB E R
'

()
1
4 80 . 1 . S o lv e th e e q u ati o n s 2 m 3 y + z = 1 1 .
()
2
m+ 2 y z 6 .
()
3

Ad d (2) an d 3 m y = 5 ; or, y = 3 m 5 .
()
4

1 0 = m
By + 6 7 4 .
()
5

Su b sti tut e v alu e s o f y an d z in

m+ 9 m
2 2

Or, 59 m 86 m 2

43 4 16
E N 4 50 ,
55

5 or
% 5 2 or

1 89
An d by ( ),
5 z =7 4 or
59
2
(y (
6) z 0
)

2 . S olv e th e e qu a ti o n s (
z c
)( m a
)
a
w
( ) (y
Multi p ly a nd ()
3

m
( a
)
2
(y b) 2
( z c
)
2
a
2 2 2
b c .

z
a
) (y b)( c
) 1; abc .

z
bc i bc
= :
a
m a t
,
or m
a a

g
c b 2
:
t CCl

o o

1
13
2
(3 :
t
c c

m(m y z
)
3 . S olve th e e q u ati o n s m
y( y z
) (1
2
.
 S IM U L TAN E O U S Q U AD R AT I C E QU A T ION S 31 5

Ad d an d (1
2
b 2
0
2
.

Th en,

D i vid e ()
1 by m :
t

D i vi d e ()
2 by (4 )

D i vi d e ()
3 by z j:

EXE RC S E 6 8I
Th
( e n o te on p a ge 3 13 a pp li e s wi th e q u al fo r c e to th e followi ng
mp le s )
e xa .

S olve th e follo wi n g

my + mz : l 8 m2 .

m =

:
2
y + y
z 2 7 y .

z m+ zy : 36 z 2

my + z m= b
yz .

my yz

I zm
c .

2 m+ 2
y
2 z2 : 43 .

m
m+ y
3 z z l3 .

L2 z +2m myz .

m+ z 4

1
.
y z .

mz + yz = 77 .
81 6 A DV AN CE D C O URS E IN A L G EBR A

PR OBL E M S INV OL V ING S IM UL TANE OUS E QU ATION S OF A

HIGH ER D E GR E E TH AN TH E FIR S T

481 I n s l i n g p b lem s whi c h i n o l e i mu ltan e u s e qu a

. o v ro v v s o

ti n s f a h i gh e d g e than th e t th e re w i ll u su lly b
o o r e r e rs , a e

mo e than n e se t f a lu e
r f th un k n w n n u mb s ; n ly
o o v s o e o er o

th o lu s sh o uld b e etai n e d wh i c h ati s fy th e c o n d i ti n s f

se v a e r s o o

th p blem
e ro .

Th c n i d e a ti on s o f
e o 2 61 2 62 an d 4 63 h old f o s i mul
s r , , ,
r

tan e o u s e q u a ti o n s o f any d e gr e e .

EXERC S E 6 9 I
1 . Th e p r o d u c t o f th e s u m o f two nu mb e rs b y th e s malle r i s 2 1 , an d

th e p ro d uc t o f th e i r d i ffe r en c e b y th e gr e a te r i s 4 in d th e nu mb ers . F
2 Th e d iffe r e n c e o f th e s qu a r e s o f two n umb
. e rs i s 2 60 a nd th e su m
13
o f t e nu
h m be s s
r i -
5
th e i r d i ffer e n c e i n d th e . F nu mb e rs .

3 . Th e su m of th e s q ua r e s o f two nu mb e rs i s 6 1 , a n d th e p ro d uct o f
th e i r s qu ar e s i s 9 00 . F i n d th e nu mb e rs .

4 . Th e d iffe r en c e of the c ub es o f t wo n umb e rs is 3 1 6 a nd if th e p ro d

n ot o f th e nu mb e rs b e ad d e d to th e s um of th e i r s qu ar e s , th e su m is 7 9 .

Fi n d th e n u mb ers
mw
.

5 . Two nu mb ers are e x p res se d b y th e sa e t o di g i ts i n re ve rs e o r d er .

Th e su m of th e numb e r s e q u a ls th e s qu a r e o f th e su m of th e d ig i ts , a nd
th e d iii e r e n c e of th e n umb e rs e q uals 5 ti mes th e s q ua r e o f th e s malle r
d ig i t . Fi nd th e nu mb e rs .

6 . Ap arty a t a h o te l s p e n t a c e r ta in s u m . H ad th er e b e e n ve mo r e ,
an d e a c h h ad s p en t fty c e n ts le s s , th e b ill wo uld h ave b e e n H ad
th e r e b e en th r e e le s s , an d e a ch h a d s p en t fty c e n ts mo re , th e b i ll wo uld
h av e b e e n 5 . H o w man y w e r e th er e , an d wh at d i d e a ch s pe n d

s qu ar e o f f the S um o f two n umb er s e xc e e d s th e i r p r o d u c t b y

7 . Th e
84 an d th e s um of th e n umb e rs , p lus th e s q u are r oo t o f th e i r p r o d u c t,
e qu als 14 . Fi nd th e nu mb e rs .

8 . Th e d iffe re nc e of th e c ub e s o f t wo numb er s i s 728 a nd i f th e p r o d

u ct o f th e nu mb e rs b e multi p lie d b y th e i r d i ffe r e n ce , th e r e s ult i s 7 2 .

Fi n d th e nu mb ers .

9 .
$ If
7 0 0 b e p u t a t s i mp le i n te r es t f o r a c e rta i n nu mb e r o f y e ar s , a t

a c e rta i n r a te , i t a moun ts to 5 If th e ti me we r e 4 y e a r s less , a n d

.

th e r a te L} p e r c e nt mo re , th e a mo u n t w ould b e Fi nd th e time

an d th e ra te .
 S IM UL TAN E O US Q U AD R A TI C E QU A TION S 31 7

10 . If th e d ig its o f a nu mb er o f two gu r es b e i n v e rte d , th e quoti e nt

1
of th i s n umb er b y th e g ive n nu mb e r is 1
7
9
a nd th e ir p ro d u c t 2 268 . Fi nd

th e n umb e r .

11 . Th e s qu ar e of th e s malle r of two n umb e rs , a d d e d to twi ce th e i r

m ma ller numb dr
A n d th e s qu a r e o f th e grea te r

p r o d u c t, g i ve s 7 ti e s th e s .

e xc e e d s th e p r o d uct o f th e n u mb er s b y 6 times th e s ma ller n umb er ind . F

th e nu mb e rs .

12 A an d Bt r a ve l fr o m P to Q miles a t u nifo rm r ates B tak ing

, 14 , ,

20 mmute s lo n ger th an At o p e r fo rm th e j o urn e y O n th e re tu rn e a c h .

,

tra vels o n e mile an h o u r fa s ter , and B n ow tak es 1 5 minute s lo ng er th an

A Fi. nd th e r a te s o f trave lli n g .

13 .
A a nd B r un a r ac e a ro u n d a c o urs e miles lo ng
two win ni ng b y , B
two min ute s . A now i n c r e a s e s hi s s p e e d b y two mile s an h o u r , a n d B
d i mi n i sh e s h i s b y th e sa me a mo un t, a nd A
win s b y two mi nu tes i nd . F
th e i r o ri g i n al r ate s .

14 . Am a n as c e n d s th e las t h alf of a mo un tain a t a r ate o n e -h alf mile

an h o ur le s s th a n hi s r a te d u r i n g th e rst h alf , a n d r e a ch es th e top i n

h o urs . O n th e d e s c e n t, h i s mile a n h o ur gr e a te r th an d ur i ng
r a te is o ne

th e rs t h alf o f th e asc e nt, a n d h e a cc o mp li s h es i t i n 2 ? h o u rs i n d th e 7 . F

d i s ta n c e to th e t0 p , a n d h is r a te d ur i n g th e rs t h alf o f th e asce n t .

15 . Th e s q u ar e o f th e s e c on d d i gi t o f a nu mb e r o f thr e e d ig its e xc e e d s
twi c e th e su m of th e rs t an d th ir d b y 3 . Th e s um o f th e rs t a n d s e c o n d
d ig i ts e x c ee d s 4 ti mes th e th ird b y 1 A n d if 4 9 5 b
. e s ub tr a cte d fro m th e
numb e r , th e d i gi ts will b e i n ve rt e d . Fi nd th e nu mb e r .

1
16 . A r e c ta n g ula r p iec e o f c lo th , wh e n we t, sh rink s
E
;
i n i ts leng th ,
l
a nd i n i ts wi d th If th e ar e a i s d imi n is he d b y 1 0 3 s qu a r e f e e t, a nd
f
.

th e len g th of th e fou r s id e s b y 5 % f e et, wh at we re th e orig i n al d i me nsi o ns

17 . A h a s p ro v is i o n s for 3 6 d a y s
s h ip If th e c r e w we r e 1 6 gr e a te r , a n d
.

th e d a ily ra ti o n o n e -h alf p o u n d le s s , th e p r o vis i o n s wo uld la s t 3 0 d a y s If .

th e c r w w e re 2 le s s , a n d th e d a i ly ra ti o n o n e p o u n d g r e a te r , th e y wo uld
e
la s t 2 4 d ay s . Fi nd th e n u mb e r o f me n , an d th e d a i ly ra ti on .

18 . Th e sum o f tw o nu mb e r s i s an d th e su m o f th e i r fth p o wers i s

1 0 25 . F i n d th e n umb e rs .

19 . Am an le n d s $21 00 i n two a mo unts , at d iffe r e n t rates of in ter e s t,

a nd th e t wo su ms p r o d u c e e qu a l r e tur n s . :
If th e rs t p o r ti o n h a d b e e n
lo a n e d at th e s e c o n d r a te , i t wo u ld h a ve p ro d uc e d $4 8 a n d if th e s e c on d
p o r ti o n h a d b e e n lo a ne d at th e rs t ra te , i t would h ave p ro d uce d 8 27 .

F i nd th e r a te s .
31 8 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
20 . A c an do a p ie c e of wo rk i n two h our s less ti me th an B; and

to ge th er th e y ca n d o th e wo rk i n h o urs le s s ti me th a n A alo n e . H ow
lo ng d oes e a ch a lo n e ta k e to d o th e w ork

21 . A s tarts to tra ve l f ro m P to Q , an d at th e sa me ti me B s ta rts to

tra ve l f ro m Qt o P, b o th tra ve lli n g at c o n s ta n t ra tes . A re ac h es
Qi n 8
h ours , a nd B re ac h e s P i n 1 8 h o ur s , a fter th e y h a ve me t on th e ro a d .

Ho w ma ny h o u rs d o es e a ch ta k e to p e rf orm th e j o u rn e y
22 . A an d Bt r a ve l fr o m P to Qand b ac k . A s tarts o n e h o ur afte r B ,

o ver tak e s hi m at a p o i n t two miles fr o m Q me e ts h i m

, minu te s afte r
32
wa r ds , a n d re ac h e s P h o urs b e fo re B F . i nd th e d is tan c e fr o m P to Q,
an d th e r ate s o f trave l o f A a nd B .

GR APHICA L R E PRE S E NTATION O F S IM UL TAN E OUS QU AD

R A TIO E QU A TION S WITH TW O U N KN O W N NU MB E R S

482 . 1 . C o n s i d e r th e e q uati o n y
2
4 m 4 .

We h av e y = i 2 x/ m .

If A
( ,
B )
If C
(, )
D
If m ()
E
e tc .

F or p o si ti ve lue o f m o fo any
any va ,
r r

n g a ti e
e alu e b e tw e n 0 a n d 1
v v y h a s e ,

tw o va lue s ; th e g ap h e x te n d s t an i n d e
r o

n i te ly g e a t di t n c
r t th i gh t f 0
s a e o e r o .

F or a ny n e g a ti v e v alu e o f m 1 , y i s i ma g i na ry ; th e n , n o

p a r t o f th e g ra p h li e s to th e le f t of a p e r p e n d i c u la r to at E XX .

2 . C o n si d e r th e e q u ati o n m 2
2 y =1 2
.

m 1 2
He re , y
2
_
2

y = :
j

If y = 0 . A
( , A '
)
If m i s b etw 1 een an d 1
,

y i s i m a g i n a y ; th e n nrp a t f ,
o r o betw e en
p e n d i c u la s to XX r a t A a nd A
'
.
 S IM UL T AN E O US Q U AD R A TI C E QU A TION S 31 9

(B 1 0 1
B '
1 0 )
F or a ny p o s i ti v e v a lu e o f m 1, o r a n y n e g ati v e v alue 1,

y h as tw o v a lue s ; th e n, th e g r a p h h as two r a n c h es , b ea ch of

w c
hi h e xte nd s to a n i n de n i te l gr ea t d i stan c e fr o m 0 y .

3 . C o n s i d e r th e e qu a ti o n m 2
y
2
4 m 2 y
I n thi s ca s e, it is c on ve n i e nt to rs t loc ate th e p o in ts wh e re

th e g rap h i nte r se ts th e c a xe s .

2
If (13

and m 2 j; V 3 . A
( , )
B
If y + zg
y = 4 ,

an d y 1 j; V 5 (0 D ) .
,

We may w r i te the g i v e n e q u a ti o n
;
w)
m 1 5, y + 1 = 0 , 1
If or an d y .
(
E , F )
I f mh a s an y p os i ti v e v alu e 5, o r a n y n e g a ti v e v alu e 1,
(1 m)(5 m) i s n e g a ti v e , a n d y 1 i ma gi n a r y; th e n , no p a r t
of p
th e g ra h e xte n d s to th e r i gh t of F, or to th e le f t of E .

Agai n, w e may w th e g i ve n e q u ati o n

r i te

m2 2 2 or
, (
m y
y y ; ).

4 or 2 m m= 2
If y ,
a nd .
(G H ),

If y h a s an y o s i ti v e p v alu e 2, o r a n y n e g a ti v e va lu e 4,

(
4 y) (
2 y) i s n e g ati v e ; th e n ,
no pa r t of th e g ra h p e xten d s

a b ov e H, or b elo w G .

It is s h o wn , i n wo rk s on A n aly ti c G eo me try , th at th e grap h o f a ny e q u a

tio n of th e s ec o n d d e gr e e , wi th two unk no wn nu mb er s , is on e o f th e c o n i c

s ecti o n s , s o-
c a lle d f ro m b e i n g th e s e c ti o ns o f a c on e ma d e b y a p la n e e i th e r
a ci r c le , a p a r a b o la , an e llip s e , a h yp er b o la , o r a p a i r of s tr a i g h t li nes .

Th e gra ph o f E x 1 i s a p a r ab ola , . as a ls o i s th e grap h of a n y e qu ati o n

o f th e fo rm y? am am
2
,
o r y b .

(T h e g ra p h s o f 4 6 5 a n d 4 67 a r e p a r a b o las ) .

Th e g ra p h o f E x 2 i s a h y p e rb ola , as a ls o is th e gra p h o f a ny
. e qu a ti o n

o f th e fo r m a m ?
by2
c , if a a n d b a r e nu mb e rs o f lik e s ign .

(Th e h yp e r b o la h as t w o b r a n c h es . Th e g r a p h o f a ny e qu a tio n o f th e
fo rm m y a i s a h y p e r b o la ) .
3 20 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G EB R A
Th e grap h o f E x 3 i s a . ci rcle as als o i s th e gr aph o f an y e quati o n o f
2 =
th e fo rm m + y
2
a , or

Th e gr aph o f a n e
y q a u ti o n f h f
o t e or m am
2
by 2
c, wh e re a, b, an d c

a re numb e rs o f li k e s ig n , a n d a a n d b u ne q ua l, i s a n e lli p s e .

(Th e g ra p h of a ny e qu a ti o n o f th e f o rm u2m2 2 2
b y 0 is th e pa ir of

5
s tr a igh t lin es wh o s e e q u ati o n s are y i 2 .

4 83 . Gr ap hi cal R epr es entati on of S oluti ons of S y s tems of S imul

t aneous Q ua drati c E quati ons .

y = 2
4 m .

1 . Con 3 1 d er th e e qu at1 on s

p
Th e g r a h o f y 4 2a
mi s th e p ara b o la A OB .

Th e g rap h o f 3 m y 5 i s th e s tr ai g h t

li n e AB , i n te r s e ti n g th ec p a ab ola
r at th e X

p o i n ts A an d B , r e s p e c ti v e l y.

To n d th e cc-o r d i n a te s o f A a nd B , we
solv e th e g i v e n e qu ati o n s th e s o lu

22
ti on i s m= 1 , y = _ 2, a nd m
9
, y z

g .

I t may b e v eri e d i n th e gu re th at th e s e are th e co o r d i n ate s

of A an d B, re s p e cti ve l y .

H e n c e (c omp a re iftwo gr ap hs i n ters e ct, the cc -

a ny o r eli

na te s o f a ny p oin t o f i n ter s ec ti on f or m a s o lu ti on of the sys tem of

equ a ti o n s r ep r es ented b y the grap hs .

2 . C o n s i d e r th e e quati on s

2 2
13 y 17 .

Th e g ra h o f mp y = 1 7 i 2
s th e
2

c i r c le AD , W ho se c
e ntr e i s at 0 , an d

wh o s e r a d i us i s x/I7
m
.

Th e gr a p h o f y 4 i s a h pe r y
b o la , h a v i n g i ts r an ch e s b
i n th e
a n gle s XOY and X OY '
,
res
p ec

ti v e ly , an d i n te r s e cti n g th e c i r c le at th e p oin ts A an d B in
X O Y, an gle X OY
'
a n gle an d a t th e p o i nts 0 an d D in .
 S IM UL T ANE O US Q UAD R A TI C E QU A TION S 321

Th e s o luti o n o f th e g i v e n e q ua ti o ns is

y = 1 ; m= 1 , y
= 4 ; m= 1
, y
= 4
; a n d m 4, y 1 .

It may b e v e r i e d i n th e g u r e th a t th e s e are th e c c -o r d i n a te s

o f A , B , O, an d B , r e s p e cti v e l y .

3 . Co n sid e r th e e qu a ti o n s

m
2
4 y 2
4 .

Th e gr ap h o f m 4 y 4 i s th e 2 2

e lli p se AB , i n te r s e ti n g at c XX
p o i n ts 2 to th e r i gh t a n d 2 to th e

le ft of O, Y Y a t p o i n ts 1 a b ov e an d 1 b e lo w 0
an d

.

Th e g p
r a h o f 2 m 3 y 5 i s th e s tr a i g h t li n e OD .

3
_ y 5
Su b sti tutin g m in m 2
4 y 2
4 , we o b tain th e
2
e quati o n 25 y 2
30 y 9 0, whi ch h as e q u al r o ots .

9
5
5
T hu s , y an d m
2 g
Th e e qua l r oo ts s i gn i f y th th e two p o i n ts o f i nte r se ti on
at c
c o i n ci d e, a n d th e li n e i s th e r e f o r e ta n g e n t to th e e lli p s e .

I n ge n e r a l, i f th e e qu a ti on o ta i n e d e li mi n a ti n g o n e o f b by
w b
th e unk n o n num er s h a s e qu al r o o ts , th e g r a h s a r e ta n ge n t p
c
to e a h o th e r .

4 . C o n si d e r th e e q u ati o n s

Z ?
9 (D y 9 .

m 2y 2 .

Th e g ra h o f 9 m p y
2 2
9 is ah p er y
b o la , h av i n g i ts r an h e s b c a bo ve a n d b e lo w
0, res p e cti v el y .

Th e gr a ph of m 2 y : 2 i s th e s tr a i h t
g
li n e AB .

b
S u s ti tu ti ng m= 2 y 2 i n 9 m2 2
y
9
,

we o btai n th e e q u a ti o n 35 y 2
72 y +45 0,
wh i c h h a s co mp le x r o o ts .
322 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B RA
Th e n, th e g r ap h s h av e n o p o i n t o f i nte r s e c ti o n .

In g e n e r a l, if th e e u a ti o n o ta i n e d b
q y e li m i na ti n g b on e o f th e
u nk n o wn numb e rs h as n o r eal r o o t, th e g r a h s d o p n ot i n te r se t c
ea ch o th e r .

EXE RC S E 7 0 I
0
Fi n d th e g ra p h s o f th e f ollo wi ng

1 . xy z G . 3 . m+ y =4
2 2
. 5 . 9 m
2 4 2
y =0 .

2 . 4 .
y
2 z 5 m 1 . 6 . 4 m+
2
9y 2 = 36 .

7 . 4 m 2
y
2 4 . 8 . m2 + y +6
2
m 2y = 15 .

Fi nd th e gr ap h s of th e f ollowi ng s y s te ms , an d in e a ch c a se ve rify th e

p ri nc ip les of 4 83

+ 4 y =4 m =9
2 2 2 2
96 .
y .

m y = 1 . 5 m -4
y
9 . l ~
my = 1 0 .

m 2 2 2x 3y 2 =5 m + 5 y =53
2 2

lL 5 m
y 16 . . 2 .

y =6 m
2 .
+6y 12 . 3 m 24
y
2 24 .

y
2
3 m 9 m 2
y
2
14 8 . m+ y + 3 m=22
2 2
.

4m 2 9 2 =0
m+ 2y my

8 .
y .
 IND E TE R MINA TE L IN EA R E QU A TION S

3 23

XX II . IND E TE R M INA TE L INE A R

E QU A TI O NS

484 . I t wa s sh o wn i n 2 69 th at a s y m o f m i nd e p e n d e n t
s te

lin e a r c o n tai ni n g m th n
e q ua ti o n s ore a m un k n o wn n u mb e r s
h n i n d e n i te ly g
as a a t n u mb e f s luti n re r o o o s .

S uc h a s y s te m i s a ll d i d t min t c e n e er a e

If h we ,
oth e un k n w n n u mb
v e r, a e q ui e d t
o s a ti fy ers re r r o s

oth e c o n d i ti n s the nu mb e
r o f s lu ti n s may b e n i te
,
r O o o .

4 85 S oluti on of I ndete mi n te L i ne
. E qu ti on i n P o i ti e
r a ar a s s v

Integ ers .

We s h all c on s i d e r c
i n th e p r e s e n t h a p te r th e s o lu ti on o f
i n d e te r mi n ate li n e a r e q ua ti o n s , i n w
h i c h th e u nk n o n n u m w
b e r s a r e r e s tri c te d to p o s i ti ve i nte g r a l v a lu e s .

1 . S o lv e 7 m 5y 1 1 8 i n p o s iti v e i n te g e r s .

D i v i d in g by 5 , the s malle r of th e two c oef c i e nts ,

2 3 2$ 3
_ 23
.
m y .

5
S in c e by
,
th e c o n d i ti o n s O f th e p r o le m, b m an d y mu st b e
2 m 3
p o s i ti ve i n te g e r s , m us t b e an i n te ge r .

L et thi s i n te g e r b e r e p r e s e nte d by p .

2x 3
Th e n , _p ,
or 2m 3 5p .

D i vi d in g (
1) by 2 ,

1 1
m 1 or , m 1 2 =
p
2

S in ce m an d p a re i nte ge r s , m 1 2p is an i nte g e r ; an d

p 1
th e r e f o r e mu s t b e an i n te g e r .

L e t th i s i n te ge r b e r e p r e s e n te d by q .

gi l
Th e n , = q, or p = 2 q
1 .

2
3 24 AD V AN C E D C O URS E IN A L G E B R A
Su b sti tuti n g i n 2m 3 10 q 5 .

Wh e n c e, m 5g 1 .
()
2

S u b sti tuti n g thi s v alue i n th e g i v e n e qu ati o n ,

35 g 7
g.
()
3

r m th e
E qu ati on s ()
2 a nd ()
3 f o gen er a l s olu ti on i n i ntegers Of

th e g i v e n e q u ati o n .

B y g i v i ng to q th e v a lu e z er o, o r an y o s i ti v e o r n e g ati v e p
b
i n te g e r, we s h all O tai n s ets o f i n te gral v alu e s o f ma n d y h i h w c
s ati s f y th e g i v e n e q u ati on .

If q i s z e r o , or an
y n e g a ti ve i n te g e r, m w i ll b e n e g ati v e .

If g i s p o si ti e i nt g e
an y 3 v e r , y w ill b e n e g ati v e .

H e n c e th e n ly p iti e i n t g
,
o os v e r a l v a lu es m an d y
of whi ch
sa ti sf y th e g i e n e qu ati o n a e th
v r o se o b ta i n e d f r o m th e v alu e s

1 , 2, 3 Of q .

T h at i s ,
m= 4 , y = 1 8 ; y = i l; an d y = 4 .

2 . S olv e 8 m 13 y 1 00 i n p o s i ti v e i n te ge r s .

D i vi d i n g by 8 , th e co c i e nt o f s malle r
ef a b s olute value ,

5y+4
%
l

m -
1 2 + ; o r, m y 12
y
8
5y 4
T h en , must b e an i nte g er .

8
2 5 y + 20
Multi ply i n g by 5, mu st als o b e an i n te ger .

y + 4
T hen ce
,
3y
g 2 mu s t b e an i n te ge r , a nd hen
8
mu s t b e an i n te g e r ; le t thi s b e re
p r e s e n te d by p .

-
T h en ,
11
2 z
zy, o r y = 8 p
4 .

Su b stitutin g i n th e gi v e n e q u ati o n,

8m or m= 1 3 p + 6 .

I n th i s c ase p may b e an y p o s i ti v e i nte g e r .

I f p = 1 , m= 1 9 and i f p = 2, m= 3 2 an d y = 1 2 ; e tc .

T hus ,
the num be r o f s olu ti on s i s i n d e n i te l gr e at y .
 IND E TE R MINA TE L INE AR E QU ATIO NS 3 25

5y+4
Th e a rtice o f multip ly i n g by 5 s aves much wo rk in E x 2 . .

Th e r ule in a n y cas e i s to multip ly th e nume ra tor of th e fra c ti on b y

s u ch a n u mb e r th a t th e c o e fc ient of th e u nk n o wn q u an ti ty sh all e xcee d

so me multip le d e n omi n a to r b y u n i ty
o f th e .

:
If th is h a d n ot b e e n d one , th e la s t p art of the s o luti o n would h ave
s to o d as follo ws
5y+4
L et p, or 5 y + 4 =8p .

3 3 17 4
Di vi d e by - th e n
5
mus t b e an i nte ger .

3p 4 _
L et _q , or 3p
5

D i vid e b y 3 , p 1 th en must b e an i nteger .

L et

1 r r 1
D 1V 1 d e b y 2 , .
th en mus t b e an i nte ge r .

2
r 1
L et 3, or r =2 s + 1 .

2
S ub s titu ti ng i n or g :3 s + l .

S ub stituti n g i n 3p 4 15 s 5, or p 3 5 8 +3 .

S ub s titu ti ng i n 5y 4 40 s 24 , or y 8 s 4 .

S ub sti tuting i n th e give n e qu a ti o n ,

8 x 104 8 or x = 13 s + 1 9 .

Th es e v alue s o f x a nd y d iffe r i n fo r m fr o m th o s e ob ta i n e d ab o ve b ut
i t i s to b e o b se rv e d th a t 1 3 s 1 9 and 8 s 4 , f o r th e va lue s 0 , 1 , 2 , e tc .
,

of 3 , g ive r i s e to th e s a me s eri es of p os i ti ve i ntege rs as 1 3 p 6 a nd 8p 4

fo r th e v alu e s 1 , 2 , 3 , e tc , o f p . .

We will now sh o w h o w to s o lv e i n p o s i ti v e i ntege rs t wo

e qu ati on s i n v olvi n g thre e u nk n o wn nu m e r sb .

3 . I n h ow ma ny way s can th e su m of be p ai d wi th
d o lla r s, h alf-
d ollar s , an d di me s , th e nu mb e r of ,
d i me s b e i n g
e q u al to th e nu mbe r of . d o lla r s and h a lf-
d olla rs to g e th er

L et a: numb e r of d o lla rs ,

y numb er of h alf-d ollar s ,

an d -
z z z nu mb er of d i mes .
326 AD V AN CE D - C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
T he n by th e c ond iti o ns ,

x +y=z .

Addi n g,
1 1 w+ 6 y = 1 4 4 .

D i vi din g by 6, a : 5

a : 24
y .

6
5
T he n x
mu s t b e an i nte ge r ; o r, a :mu st b e a multi p le o f 6 .

6
L et a: 6p ,
wh e e p i s an i n teg e
r r .

Sub sti tu te i n 66 1) 6y 144, or y 24 1 1 10 .

S ub s ti tute i n z = 6 p + 24 1 1 p = 24 5 p .

Th e n ly p s i tive i n te g
o o r a l s o luti o n s a re w he n p 1 or 2 .

Th f th n u mb e r of wa y i s two ; e i th e r 6 d o lla r s , 1 3

e re o re , e s

h a lf-d o lla r s , an d 1 9 d i me s ; or 1 2 d o lla r s , 2 h a lf-

d o lla r s ,
a n d 1 4
d i me s
EXERC S E 7 I I
S olve th e follo wi ng i n p osi ti ve i n te gers

1 . 3 x + 5 y = 29 . 5 . 10 x + 7 y = 29 7 .

2 . 7 x + 2 y = 39 . 6 . 23 x + 1 7 y = 1 83 .

3 . 6 x + 29 y =2 7 4 . 7 . s x + 7 1 y = 1 9 33 .

4 . 4 x + 31 y =4 73 . 8 . 1 3 x + 50 y = 1 0 89 .

S o lve th e follo wing i n le as t p os i ti ve i n tege rs

9 . 6x7 y = 13 . 12 . 8 x 3 1 y = 10 .

10 . 5x-8y =3 1 . 13 . 1 5 x 88 y 47 .

11 . 14 x 5 y z 64 . 14 . 64 x 19 y = 50 7 .

S olve th e followi ng i n p os iti ve i ntege rs

{
3x
15 16
2 x 11 y + z 25 . 4 m+ 2 y 3 z = 5 .

17 . In h o w ma ny d iffe re nt way s ca n 8 b e p ai d wi th quar te r-

d ollars
a nd d i me s
18 . In h o w many d iff e r e nt ways c an 2 18 . b e p ai d wi th h alf-
c rowns ,
wo r th 2 3 6 d . . e a c h , a nd i n wo
or s, rth 28 . e ach
 IND E TE R M INA TE L IN E A R E QU ATION S 32 7

19 . Fi nd two fra c ti o n s wh o s e d e n o mi n a to rs ar e 5 a nd 7, r es p e c tively ,

wh o s e nu me r a to rs are th e s malles t p oss ib le p o s i ti ve i n te g e rs , and wh os e

d i ffe r e n ce i s E
35

20 . In h o w ma n y d iffe re nt way s c an 8 b e p a id wi th fty -c e nt p ie ces ,

t we nty -ve -c e nt p i e c e s , a nd twe n ty -c e n t p i e c es , s o th a t twi ce th e nu mb e r
of f ty -c e n t p i e ce s , p lus twi c e th e n u mb e r o f twe n ty -c e n t p i e c e s , s h a ll

e xc e e d th e n u mb e r of twe n ty -ve -c e n t p i e c es b y 3 1

21 . A
fa rme r p u r ch as e d a c e rta i n nu mb e r of p igs , sh e e p , and c a lves ,

fo r $ 1 38 Th e p igs c o s t $4 e a c h , th e
. s h e ep 7 e ac h , a nd th e c a lve s $9
e ach and th e wh o le n u mb e r of a ni mals p urc h as e d wa s 23 . H o w many
o f e a ch d i d h e b uy

22 . In h o w ma n y
d i ffe r e n t wa y s c a n b e p a id with q uar ter - d ol
lars , twe n ty -c e n t p i e c e s , a n d d i mes , s o th a t twi c e th e n u mb e r o f q u ar te rs ,

p lus 5 ti me s th e n umb e r o f twe n ty -

c en t p i eces , s h a ll e x c e e d th e n umb er
of d i mes b y 3 6

48 6 . E ve r y li n ea r e q u ati o n , w i th two un k n o wn nu mb e r s, a:
an d y, c an be r e d uc e d to o ne of th e f o r ms

a wj
; b y = t c, :
wh e r e a, b, an d c a r e p o s i ti ve i nte ge r s w h i ch h av e no c ommon
d i vi s o r .

Th e e q u ati o n ax + by c c n n ot b e l
a s o ve d i n p o s i ti v e
i n te g e r s ; f o r, i f x, y, a , a n d b a r e s p o i ti e i n te g
v e r s, aw b y mu s t
a ls o b e a p o s i ti v e i n te g e r .

Aga in , th e e qu ati on s a wj; b y = o an d ac

e by c c a n n ot

be s o lv e d in p osi ti ve i nte g e r s i f a an d b h a ve a c o mmo n

di v i s o r .

F o r, i f a:an d y ar e p o s i tiv e i nte ge r s, th i s c o mmo n d i v i s o r

mu s t also b e a d i vi s o r o f a mi b y an d c
,
o n s e q u e ntl y of c ; whi ch
is c on trary to th e h yp oth e si s th at a, b, an d 0 h av e no c o mmon
di vi sor .
 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A

XX III . R A TIO A ND P R O P O R TIO N

487 . Th e R a ti o of o n e nu mb e r a to a n o th e r n u mb e r b i s th e
q u o ti e n t o f a d i v id e d by b .

T hu s ,
th e r ati o o f a to b is it i s als o e x p re s s e d a :
b .

In th e r a ti o a b, a is c alle d th e rst te r m, o r a n te c e d e n t, a n d

b th e s eco n d ter m, o r co n s equ en t .

If a is b , th e r a ti o a b is c alle d a r a ti o o f g r ea ter i neq u a li ty ; if a is

b , i t is c a lle d a r a ti o o f les s i neq ua li ty .

Th e r a ti o o f th e p r o d uc t of th e a n te c e d e n ts o f a s e r i e s o f r ati os to th e

p ro d uc t o f th e c o n s e qu e n ts , i s s a i d to b e c omp o u n d e d of th e g ive n ra ti os .

Th us , a c b cl i s c o mp o und e d o f th e r a ti o s a : b a nd c d .

"
I he ra ti o aa z b 2 is c alled th e d up li ca te r a ti o , th e r a ti o a 3 b 3 th e trip li
c a te r a ti o , a nd th e r a ti o Va x/ b th e s u b -d up li ca te r a ti o , o f a :
b .

R ATIO OF C ONCR E TE MAGNITU DE S

488 . In 4 8 7 , we c o n s i d er e d th e r a ti o of a b s tr a ct nu mb er s
onl y; i t i s, h o we v e r, nec e s s a r y to c o n s id e r the r a ti o of t wo
co n c ma g ni tud e s o f th e s ame k i n d
re te .

I f a c on c re te m a g n i tu d e i s a ti m e s a ce rta i n u n i t, a n d ano th e r
5 ti me s the s a me uni t, we de ne th e r a ti o o f the rs t ma gn i tu d e
t o the s e co nd a s b e i n g th e rati o o f a t o 5
T hu s ,
th e r a ti o of two li n e s wh ose len g th s are a nd 35
'

inch es , re s pecti v el y ,
i s 2% 3 g, or
g
k I f the r ati o c a n be ex p re s s e d a s a ra ti o n a l n u mb e r, a s i n th e
b Co mmens ur ab le
.

a ov e i llu s tr ati o n , th e ma gn i tu d e s a r e s ai d t o b e .

c
If i t a n n o t b e e x p r e s s e d a s a r ati on a l n u m be r, th e y a r e s ai d

to b e Incommens urab le .

PR O POR TION
A 489 . A Proporti on i s an e qu a ti o n w h o se me mb e rs a r e e qu a l

rati os .
 R A TIO AND PR O PO R TION
T h us ,
if a :
b an d c d a r e e q u a l r ati o s ,

a :
b =e zd or
a c

b .
d
is a p ro po rti o n .

f /
Th e sy mb o l is so me ti mes us e d i n p lac e o f th e s ign o f e quality i n a

p ro p o rti o n .

4 90 In th e p r o o rti on a :
. b c :pd, a i s c alle d th e rst term,
b th e s eco n d , 0 th e thi rd , a n d d th e f o u r th .

A Th e r s t an d th i r d te r ms p of a ro
p o r ti o n a r e c alle d th e a nte
c ed e nts , a n d th e se c o n d a n d f o u r t h te r m s th e co n se qu en ts .

A T h e r s t an d f o u rth te r ms a re c alle d th e extre mes, an d th e

c
s e ond a n d th i r d te r ms th e mea n s .

I f th e m e a n s p of a m e a n
ro i s
p c
o r ti o n a r e e u a l, e i th e r
a lled q
a M ea n Prop ort i onal b e tw e e n th e r s t a n d la s t te r ms , an d th e

la s t ter m i s c alle d a Th i rd Prop orti onal to th e r s t an d se c on d

te rms .

Th u s, i n th e p ro p o rti o n a :
b b c, b i s a me an p r o p orti on al
b twe e e n a a n d c, a n d c is a th i rd p ro
p o r ti o n a l to a an d b .

A F ou th P r r op ort i onal to th r e e nu m e r s b i s th e f ou rth te r m of

a p ro
p o r ti o n wh ose r s t thr e e te r ms a re th e th r e e nu mbe r s
tak e n i n th e i r o r d er .

T hu s , i n th e p r op o rti o n a :
b s c d, d i s a f our th p op
r o r ti o n al

j
o a , b , an d c .

A Conti nued Pr op orti o

n is a s e r i e s o f e qu al r ati o s , in w hi c h
ea ch c o n s e q u e nt i s th e sa me as th e f o llo w i n g a nte c e d ent ; a s,

PR OPE R TIE S OF PR OPORTIONS

14 9 1 . In a ny p p o r ti on ,
r o the p r o d u ct o f the extr e mes i s equa l to
the p r o d u ct of the mea n s .

L e t th e p r o p o r ti on b e a :
b c d .

T hen by (
s 4 89 ,
5 ft
C lear i n g of c
fra ti o n s, ad be .
 3 30 AD V ANCE D C OU R S E I N A L GE B R A
4 92 . Fr o m th e e qu a ti o n a d bc we o b tain
b Cl
g b
a _ .

C
, b g c
, ,
an d d
c

d c b a

T h at i s, i n a ny p r op o r ti o n, e i ther extr eme equ a ls the p r o d u ct

f
o the mea n s d iv i d ed b y the o the r extreme ; a n d e i ther me a n equ a ls
the p r o d uct f
o the extre mes d i vi d ed b y the o the r mea n .

J 4 93 .
(C o n v e rse of If the p r o d u ct f
o two n umb e r s b e

equ a l to the p r o d uc t f
o two o the r s , o n e p a i r ma y b e ma d e the
extr e mes, a nd the o ther p a i r the mea n s , of a p r op o r ti on .

L et ad bc .

D ivi diug by b dr
a c

b d

T he n ,
-
a :
b .

I n lik e ma nn e r by d i v id i n g th e m e m b e r s of () y ,
1 b a b th e n

by ed ,
an d th e n by a c, we h a ve

an d

4 9 4 1 In a ny r
p po o r ti o n ,
the terms i n p rop o rti o n b y
a re alter

nati on ; tha t i s ,
the mea n s ca n be i n tercha nged .

L e t th ep op o ti o n b er r a :
b c :
d .

T h en by 4 91 ,
ad be .

W h en c e by 4 93 , , a :
c b d .

We a ls o h a v e f ro m by 4 93 ,

d b c a .

Th at i s , i n a ny p r op o rti o n , th e extre mes ca n b e i nter ch a ng ed .

4 95 . In a ny p rop o r ti o n, the ter ms a re i n p rop o r ti o n b y Inv er

s i on ; tha t i s, the secon d ter m i s to the r s t a s the f o ur th term i s

to the thi rd .

L e t th e p r o p o rti o n b e a b c :
d .

T h e n by 4 91, ad :b C
1 .
 R A TIO AND PR O PO R TION 3 31

Wh e n c e , by 4 93, b a d 0 .

It f ollo ws fr o m th e ab o ve th a t, i n a ny p r op or ti o n, th e mea ns ca n be
wr i tte n as the extr e mes , a nd the extr emes a s th e mea ns .

4 4 96 . A mea n p rop or tio n a l b etween two x nu mb er s is equ a l to the

s qu a r e ro o t o f the i r p r o d uct .

L e t th e p r o po r ti o n be a :
b b 6 .

Th en by 4 91 , b 2
a c, a n d b V ac .

497 . In a ny p r op or ti o n , the ter ms i n p r op orti o n b y Com

a re

p os i ti on ; tha t i s , the su m of the rs t two ter ms i s to the rst

ter m as the su m of the la s t two ter ms i s to the thi rd ter m .

L e t th e p r o p o r ti o n be a b c d .

Th e n, ad bc .

Ad d i n g ea ch me mb e r o f th e e q u ati on to a c,

or d ( e + d)
Th e n b y 4 93 , a +b za c +d :
c .

We may a lso p r o ve

J 4 98 . In a ny p r op o r ti on , the ter ms a re i n p rop o rti on b y Div i s i on ;

tha t i s , the d if e r en c e o f the rs t two ter ms i s to the r s t term a s
the d if er en ce o f the la s t two ter ms i s to the th ir d term .

'

L et th e p r o p o r ti o n b e a b c d .

Th n e , ad bc .

S ub t a c ti n g ea ch me mb e
r r of th e e qua ti o n fr o m a c,

ad = d) = b
ao ac b e, or a
( o c a ( ) .

T he n ,
a b :
a = c d :
c .

W e may als o p r ove a b z b z c d z d.

i 4 99 . In a ny p p
r o o r ti o n ,
the ter ms a r e i n p r op or ti o n b y Com

p os i ti on and Di v i s i on ; th a t i s ,
the su m of the rst two terms i s

to thei r d i er en ce as the su m of the la s t two ter ms i s to thei r

d i
'

er ence .

L e t th e p r o p o r ti o n b e a b c d
8 32 A DV A N C ED C O UR S E IN A L G E B RA

T h en by a b 0 +d
s 4 97 ,
a C

b d
An d by a C

4 98,
Cb C

D m d me <
'

1>y
'

b o2 a +b c + d
.
M
( , H ,

Wh e nc e, a +b za d .

50 0 . In a ny p rop o r ti o n , if the rs t two terms b e mu ltip li ed b y

a ny n u mb er, a s a lso the la s t two, the r es ulti ng numb ers will b e i n
p r op o r ti o n .

L et th e p op o
r rti o n be a b c:
d .

Th ce
g$ an d h en
g
e n, r .

1 m n

The re f or e , ma mb no nd .

b d
W e may als o pro ve
a c

m m n u

(E i th e r m or n may b e un ity th a t i s , th e te r ms of e ith er rati o may b e

multipli e d or d i vid e d wi th o ut multip ly i ng or d i vidi ng th e te r ms of th e
o th e r )

x
.

50 1 . In a ny p rop ortio n, if the

p li e d b y a ny n u mb er , as a ls o th

r es ulti ng nu mb ers wi ll b e i n p r op o rtio n .

L e t th e p op o
r r ti on be a b c d .

w
T h en an d he n ce .

,
nb did
T he r e fo r e , ma :
nb mc nd .

b d
We may als o p r ove
a c

m n m n

(E i th er m or n may b e un i ty .
)

50 2 . In a ny n u mb e r of p r op orti o ns , the p rod ucts

r esp o n d i ng ter ms a re i n p r op o rti o n .

L e t th e p opo
r rti o n s be a b c d

an d e f g h .
 R A TIO AND PR O PO R TION 333

T h en a 9 ,
,
b d

Mu1t1p1y mg,
c
x _ 2 Q

or
b f d h

W h en c e ,
ae z b f = cg z d h .

I n lik e mann er, th e th e o r em may b e p r o v e d f or a ny n u mb e r

of p r o o r ti on s
p .

503 . The quo ti en ts of the corr esp on d i ng te rms f

o two p r o

p o r ti o n s a r e i n p rop or ti on .

L e t th e p op o r r ti o n s be a b c :
d ,

T h en ,
a
2, a nd i k
b d e g

Wh en c e ,
a
x I c
x
> 6
< ;
b
- 14 3
-d
b e d g e f g h

0 b c d
Th e n ,
6 f g h

504 . In a ny p rop o r ti o n , li ke p o wer s or li ke p ri ncip a l r o o ts of

the ter ms a re i n p r op o r ti o n .

L e t th e p op r orti o n be a b c d .

T he n ,
2 c
; and he n ce 91 92
b d b n
d n

Th e r e fo r e , a

b
c

:
d
.

W e may als o p rove

V
YSOS In se r i es e qua l r a ti o s , a n y a n teced ent i s to i ts
. a of con

s eq ue n t a s the su m of all the a n tece d e n ts i s to the su m of a ll the

c o n s e qu en ts .

L et

Th en by 4 91 , ad z : b e,

an d f
(I : be .

Als o, ab ba .
 3 34 AD V AN C E D O
C U RS E IN A L GE B R A
Ad di ng,
When c e ,

I n li k e ma n n e r, th e th e o r e m may b e p ro v e d fo r a ny

o f e qu al r a ti o s .

9 50 6 . To p r o ve tha t if

"
pb qd f

r

If 9 3 _f It, th en a = b k, e = d h, e = f k, e tc .

b d e

T he n , pa

qc

re

p n
a )
"
q(
d h)
r ( )
f k "

"
h (p b qd f

r

The re f ore ,
p b

O r,
d + f +
n
n
r

9 50 7 . If thr ee nu mb ers a re in c o n ti nu ed p r op or ti o n , the rst is

to the th i r d as the s qu a r e o f the rs t i s to the s qu a r e o f the se co n d .

L e t th e p op o
r r ti o n be a b b c .

a b
Th e n,
b c

b a a
T he r e f or e , x
>
< - >
< or
5 5
,
b b

Wh enc e ,
a :
c : a :
b
" 2
.

9 5 08 . I f f o ur nu mb er s a re in co n ti nu ed p r op or ti o n , the rst i s to
the f o ur th as the cub e f
o the rs t i s to the cu b e o f the s eco nd .

L e t th e p op o
r rti o n be a b b c c d .

a b c
Th e n,
b c d

d b- c .
a a a
Th e r e f o r e x x
b c d b b b

Wh e n c e, a d a
3
b 3
.
 R A TIO AND PR O PO R TION 3 35

5 09 . E xamples .

1 . If x : p r o ve z a me a n p ro
p o r ti o n a l
be tw e e n x and y .

F r o m th e gi ve n p r o p o rti o n , by 4 91 ,

n
2 2 2 2 2
y( x z
) x (y )
z , or 2 xyz y z xy 2 xyz xx .

Tr a n s p o s m g, 2 2 2 z
x y xy xx g e

D i v i d i ng by x y, xy z
2
.

T he r e fo re , z is a me a n p r o p o rti o n al b tw e en x and y
e .

Th e th e o re m of 4 99 s av e s w o rk i n th e s o luti o n o f a ce rta i n

cla ss o f f ra c ti o n al e u a ti o n s
q .

2
x + x -1 x 2
2 . S olv e th e e q u a ti o n
x x +2
2
1 x

By c o mp o s iti o n an d d i v i s i on,
2 2
2 x 2 2 x x 1

2 x 4 x

C lea ri n g of c
f ra ti o n s , 2 x
2

2 x
2

T hen , 3 x
2
= 2, and x = j:

a C
3 . Pr o v e th at i f ,
th e n
b d

a
2 b2 za
2 3 ab =c 2 d2 :
0 3 0d
2
.

L et Q s ; th e n ,
a : bx .

b d

T he r e fo re , c
2
1 2 2
a
2
b 2
b


x
2
b 2
x
2
1 (l
2
0 d
'

a
2 3 ab b x 2
3b x 2 2
x 3 x
2 C
2
3 0 0
2 3 cd
2
d d

a
2 b2 :
a
2 3 ab = c
2 d2 :
0
2 3 0d .

EXERC S E 7 2 I
Fi
.

and
'

1 . nd th e th i rd te r m o f a p r o p o r ti o n wh o s e rs t, s ec o nd , fourth
5
te rms a re - and r e s p e c ti ve ly .

4 6 9
4
2 . Fi nd a th i rd p ro p o r ti o nal to
1

9
3 36 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
Fi nd a mean p r op orti on al b e twe e n 1 g an d 24 g .

Fi nd a f ourth p ro p o rti on al to 4 3, 5 g, an d 1?

Fi nd a thi r d p r op o rti o n al to a
3 27 an d a 3 .

x x
z 12 2 9 + 20
Fi nd a mea n p ro p orti on al b etween an d
x a

x 5 x +3
Q
S olve th e follo wi ng e qu ati o ns

3x 8 2x 5 x +22 x 3 3x+2
7 8
2
2x 8 3x 2
.

3 r +4 2 x+ 7 x

x2 + 3 x 1 x2 +2 x + 1
9 .

x 3 x+ 1
2
x 2 x 1
2

12 . If a :
b =c :
d and

ae + bf :
ae dh .

13 . Fi nd two numb e r s s uc h th at, if 9 b e ad d ed to th e rs t, an d 7 s ub

tra cte d fr o m th e s e c on d , th e y wi ll b e i n th e r a ti o 9 2 ; wh ile i f 9 b e s ub

tra c te d from th e rs t, a nd 7 add ed to th e s eco n d , th e y wi ll b e i n th e r a ti o

9 11 .

14 . Fi nd two nu mb ers i n th e ra ti o a b, s u ch th at, i f e a ch b e i ncre as e d

by 0, th e y s h all b e i n th e r a ti o m:
n .

15 . Fi nd th r ee n umb e rs i n c o nti nu e d p r o p orti o n wh os e su m i s 28 4,

s uch th a t th e q u o ti e nt of th e rs t b y th e s e c o n d sh a ll be
2
16 . Fi n d a numb e r su c h th at, i f it b e ad d ed to e a ch te rm of th e r a ti o

8 :
5 , th e r e s ult is H of wh at i t wo uld h ave b e e n if th e sa me nu mb e r
20
h ad b een s ub tr ac te d fr o m e a ch te r m .

17 . The mb e rs is
me a n p r op o rti on al b e twe e n th e
s e c o n d o f th r e e nu a

o th e r two Th e th i rd nu mb e r e xc e e d s th e s u m o f th e o th e r two b y 2 0
.

a n d th e s um o f th e r s t a n d thi rd e x c e e ds th r e e ti mes th e s e c o n d b y 4 .

F i n d th e n umb ers .

18 . If 8 a - 5 b :
7 a 4 b =8 b 5 e z7 b 4 c, p r o ve c a thi rd pr op or
ti o n ai to a and b .

19 . If a b +
- c -d :
a b , p rove
 R A TIO AND PR O PO RTIO N 33 7

If x y: / me an p r op or tio nal
2 a z 2
20 .
y z x y
i
x y 2 , p ro ve y a

b e twe e n x a nd z .

21 . Ai s fo llo wi n g B alo n g a c e r ta i n r o a d , wh e n Bt ur n s a n d walk s i n

th e o pp os i te d i r e c ti o n ; i f A a nd B a pp ro a c h e a c h oth e r ve times as fas t
as b e fo r e , c o mp are th e i r ra tes .

22 . If 4 s ilve r c o i n s a n d 11 c o pp e r c o i n s a re wo rth as much as 2 g o ld

c o ins , and 5 s i lve r c o i n s a n d 19 c opp e r c o i n s a s muc h as 3 g o ld c o i ns , nd
th e r a ti o o f th e va lue o f a go ld c o i n , a nd th e value o f a s i lve r c o i n , to th e

valu e o f a c opp e r c o i n .

23 . G i ve n 2 ab ) x ( a
2
2 b 2 )y ( a
2
b 2
)
x a
2
b 2
)y, nd
th e r a ti o o f x to y .

24 . Gi ve n
b c b
th e ra ti o o f x to y, a n d o f x to z .

a a c

25 . Ii
% , p r o ve ,

(a ) 3 a
2 4 ab z2 a b + 7 b =3 2 c 2

3
+ 6
2 2 5 d3
(b ) a ab za b .

26 . Th e m o f fo ur n u mb e rs i n p r o p ortio n i s 32 Th e s um o f th e
su .

me a ns e xc e e d s th e s u m o f th e e x tr e me s b y 4 a n d th e s um o f th e c o us e

q ue nts e x c e e d s th e s um o f th e a n te c e d e n ts b y 1 6 i nd th e nu mb e rs . F .

27 . A p as s e n ge r o b se r ve s th a t a tra i n p as s es h i m, m o vi ng i n th e
O pp o s i te d i re c ti o n , i n 3 s e c o n d s wh ile , i f i t h ad b e en mo vi n g i n th e s a me
d i r e c ti o n , i t would h a ve p ass e d h i m i n 1 3 s e co nd s . C o mpa r e th e ra tes o f

th e tr a i ns .

28 . E ac h of two mi xture o f wi n e an d water

ves s e ls c o n ta in s a . A
mixtur e c o n s is ti n g o f e qu al me as u res fr o m th e two v e s s els i s c o mp os e d o f
wi n e a n d wa te r i n th e r a ti o 3 :
4 ; a n oth e r mixtu r e c o ns is ti ng o f 1 4 me as
ur e s fr o m th e rs t a n d 2 1 me a sur es fro m th e s e c o n d , i s c o mp o se d o f wi n e

to wa te r i n th e r atio 2 Fi n d th e r a ti o o f wi n e to wa te r i n e a c h ves s el.

29 . If 9 9 5 , p r ove
b d f
(a )
4 4 4 zb4 2
(b ) a + 0 + e + d 4
c +
30 . If a b, b c, an d c a a re in c o nti n ue d p rop ortio n , p rove
a za -b .
0

31 . Fi nd fo ur numb e rs i n p r op o rti on s u ch th at th e s um o f th e me an s
is 21 , an d o f th e e xtre me s 3 9 a nd twi c e th e last te rm e xc e e d s th re e ti mes
th e su m of th e rs t two terms b y 36 .

82 . If a, b, c , an d d are in co n ti n u ed p ro po rti o n , p r o ve
3 a +4 d z2 a 5 b3 .
33 8 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

XX IV . V A R IA TI O N

51 0 . O ne v a r ia ble nu mb er 24 5 ) i s s aid to va ry d i rectly as

a n o th e r wh en th e r ati o of a ny two v a lu e s of th e r s t e q u als

th e r a ti o o f co c

th e rr e s p o n d i n g va lu e s o f th e s e on d .

It is u s ual to o mi t th e wo rd
d i rec tly ,
a nd si mp ly th a t o ne

mb
s ay

nu e r va r i es a s a n o th e r .

Th u s , if w k ma n
a or re cei ve s a xe d b
n um e r o f d olla r s p e r
d i e m, th e n u mb e f d r o o lla r s r e cei ve d in m da ys w i ll b e to th e
b
n u m e r r e c e i ve d m i s to n
in n da ys as .

T h e n , th e r a ti o o f a ny two n umb e r s o f d olla r s r e c e i v e d e quals

th e r ati o o f th e c or r e s p o n d i n g n u mb e r s o f d ay s w o rk e d .

H e n c e, th e n u mb e r o f d o lla r s w hi c h th e w o rk man r e c e i v e s
va r i es a s th e n u mb e r o f d ay s d u r i n w hi c h h e w o rk s
g .

Th e s y mb o l cc is us e d to e x p re s s v a r i ati o n ; th u s, a oc b is

re ad a v arie s as b

.

51 1 . ble i s s ai d t
O ne v ar i a y i n r e ly a s a n th e w h eno va r ve s o r

th e s t a i e s d i
r v tly a s th e e ip
r r ec l f th e s e o n d r c r o ca o c .

T hu s th n u mb e f h u s i n wh i ch a ai lway t ai n w ill
,
e r o o r r r

tra v e r s e a x e d ute a i in s ly a s th e
ro
p e
v e d ; i
r es f th v er e s e

sp e e d b e d u b l d th o t a i new i ll t
,
a e i s e ei ts o u te
r i n n -
h lf r v

r o e a

th e nu mb e f h u s r o o r

O ne a i ab le i s a d to a y a s two o th e s jintly w h en i t
v r s i v r r o

var i e s d i c tly a s th e i p o du c t
re r r .

T h u s th n u mb e ,
e f d o lla s e c ei ve d by a w o k ma n i n a
r o r r r

c e t in n u mb f d ay s a i s j i ntly a s th e n umb e w h i ch h
r a er o v r e o r e

i n n d y a n d th nu mb e o f d a y s d u i n g w h i c h h

re cei ves o e a ,
e r r e

w ks
or .

On e var iab l i s i d t v a y d i e c tly a s

e sa e c n d a n d i n e s ly
o r r a s o v r e

as a th i d w h n i t a i e j oi n tly a th e s e c n d a n d th e e c i p
r ,
e v r s s o . r

r o c al o f th e thi r d .

Th u s , th e a ttra c ti on of a b dy
o v a ri e s d i re ctl y as th e a moun t
of matte r, ihd i n v e r s e ly as th e s qu ar e o f th e d i s tan ce .
 V A R IA TION 3 39

51 2 . If :y
a cc ,
then : (1 e qu a ls y multip li ed b y a cons ta n t nu mb e r .

L et
'
ao a n d y
'
d e n o te a x ed p a i r o f c o rr e s po n din g v a lu e s o f

an d y, a n d ac a n d y a ny oth e r p i a r .

:w
4

a
'
w '

B y th e d e ni ti o n of 5 1 0, y
7 7
g
.
,
3 3

D e n o ti ng th e c onstant r a ti o
3 b y lm, w e h a ve

x = my

513 . It f ollo ws f ro m 51 1 and 5 1 2 th at

: 7
1 . If c va r i es
c

:
i nvers ely as y,

nd
a
5m .

2 . If a va r i es j o i ntly a s y a z, x yz .

3 . If :
va
a r i es d i r ectly as y

a nd i n vers ely a s z, a : 77

?
Th e c o n ve rs e o f e a c h s ta te me nt o f 5 12 and 5 1 3 is a ls o tru e th a t is ,
if x e qu als y mu lti p li e d by a c o n sta n t, a at :y , e tc .

51 4 . If :
a 00 y , a nd y cc z, then ::
a or z .

M A I
it 543
w = my .

An d if y oc z, y = nz .

Sub sti tuti n g i n w muz .

W h e n c e by 5 1 3 , ,
9 :z
cc .

51 5 . If
y w h en z
r ac i s c o n s ta n t,
a nd woc z when y i s con s ta n t,

then woc yz when b oth y a n d z va ry .

L e t y a n d z b e th e
'
v alu e s of y and z, r e s p e c ti v e l y wh e n
,
a;
'
h as th e v alu e aa .

L e t y b e c h a n g e d f r o m y to y , z r e ma i n i n g o n s tan tl
" c y e qu al
: c
to z , a n d le t a b e h an ge d i n on s e q u e n c e f r o m rc to
' '
c X .

_ y '

Th e n by 51 0
a
1
X y

No w c h an g e d f m
le t 7. he ro z
'
to z
"
, y re mai ni n g c o n st a n tly
a n d let : b e c h an g c on s e que n ce f
e qu a l to y
" ed in mX "
, a ro to x .

X '

T h en , "
z
" ()
2
x z
34 0 AD V AN CE D CO UR S E IN A L G E B R A
w! l
z
l

M y
ac
"
z H N ()
3
y

No w i f b oth ch a n ge s ma d e , th at i s , y f ro m y to y an d
a re
'

z f r o m z to ,
c
c i s
'
z
" c h an ge d f ro m cc to as , an d yz i s c h an ge d

f r o m y z to y z
' '
.

T h en by th e r a ti o of an y tw o v alu e s o f as e qu als th e
r a ti o o f th e cor r esp o n d in g va lu es o f yz ; a n d, b y 51 0,
'

a cc: yz .

I n li k e man n e r i t may b e p r ov e d th a t i f th e r e are an

y
b b le s y z u e tc s u ch th t w y w h e n u e t
n u m e r o f va r i a 513, , , ,
.
,
a oe z, ,
c .

a e c n s tan t w
r o wh n y u e tc e c n stant tc th n if all
,
oo z e , ,
.
, ar o ,
e .
,
e

th e a i able s y
v r u e tc a y va ie
, a s th e i p
z, ,
du ct .
,
v r , a; r s r ro .

T h e fo llowi n g i s an i llus tra ti o n of th e a b o ve th e o r e m

It is k n o wn , b y G
e o me try , th at th e a re a o f a tr i a n gle v a ri e s a s th e b as e

wh en th e a lti tud e i s c o ns ta n t, a n d as th e a lti tud e wh e n th e b as e i s

c o ns ta nt.

H e n c e , wh e n b oth b as e an d alti tud e va r y , th e a re a vari es as th e ir

p ro d uct .

PRO B L EM S

51 6 . b
P ro le ms i n va r i ati o n a r e r e a d il y s o lv e d by c on v e r ti n g

th e v a r i ati o n i n to an e qu ati o n by ai d o f 512 or 51 3 .

1 . If c v ar i e s
c i n v e r s el y as y ,
an d e qu als 9 w hen y 8, n d
th e v alu e o f so when y 18

.

: y ?
If a v ar i e s i nv e r se l as
!
y, as
3

P utti n g a= 9 an d y = 8, 9
g ,
or m = 72 .

T hen ,
90 Q; an d , i f y = 1 8,
y 18

2 . G i v en th at th e a r e a o f a tri an gle v ar i e s o i n tl j y as i ts
b as e a n d a lti tu d e , h at w
ill b e th e a s e o f a tr i an glew b wh os e
alti tu d e i s 1 2, e q ui v a le n t to th e su m of two tr i a n gle s wh o s e
base s a re 10 and 6, a n d alti tu d e s 3 an d 9, re sp e c ti v el y
L et B , H , an d A d e n ote th e b a s e , alti tud e , a n d a r e a , r e s p e c

b
,

ti v e ly , of any tr i a n gle , an d B th e
as e o f th e r e q ui r e d tr i a ngle .

S in ce A v ar i e s j o i n tl y as B an d H, A mB H 5 1 3)
 V A R IA TION 341

Th en th e r s t tr i an gle i s m x 1 0 x 3 , o r 30 m,
ar e a o f th e
a n d th e a r e a o f th e s e c o n d i s ru > <6 x 9 , o r 5 4 m ; w h e n c e, th e
a r ea o f th e r e qu i r e d tr i a n g le i s 3 0 m 5 4 m, o r 8 4 m .

B u t th e a r e a of th e re
q u i r ed tr i a n gle i s a lso mx B '
x 12 .

T he r e f o r e, 1 2 mB '
8 4 m, an d B '
7 .

EXERC S E 7 3 I
x
1 . If vari e s i nv ers e ly as y, a n d eq uals
2 wh en y wh at is th e value
of y wh e n a
; 2

3 ?

2 . If y cc z
2
, a n d e quals 4 0 wh en z 1 0 , wh at is th e valu e of y i n te rms
?
of z

3 . If z va ri es j o intly ; an
as a

:
d y, a n d e qu als
g
- wh e n x g and y
wh at is th e va lue o f z wh e n a
g a nd y
g
9
4 If x va r i e s dir e ctly as y an d i n vers e ly as z , a n d is e qu al to wh e n y
18
.

27 a nd z 64 , wh a t i s th e va lue o f a wh e n y 9 and z 32

5 . If 5 x + 8 0c 6 y 1, an d wh en y = 3 , wh a t is th e va lue o f a :
wh e n y = 7 ?
1
6 If cc y
3
an d x
'

zz 4 wh e n y =4 wh a t i s th e valu e o f y wh e n n
o 1

5
,
.
,

7 . Th e su rf a ce o f a c ub e v a r i e s as th e s q ua r e o f i ts e d ge . If th e sur

f ac e o f a c ub e wh os e e d ge is 2 i n c h es i s 3 2% s q ua r e i n ch es , wh at will b e
.

th e e d ge o f a c ub e wh o s e s u rfa ce is 3 0 ; s qu a r e i n ch e s

8 . Th e d i s tan ce falle n b y a b o d y fr o m a p os iti o n o f r e st var i e s a s th e

s qu a re o f th e time d u r i n g whi c h i t falls I f a b o d y falls 1 0 2 9 % f ee t i n 8 .

s eco n d s , h o w lo ng wi ll i t ta k e to fa ll 4 0 2 5, fe e t

9 . If 7 me n i n 4 w e ek s e ar n $23 8 , h ow ma ny me n will e ar n
i n 3 we ek s ; i t b e i ng g ive n th at th e a moun t e a r n e d va r i e s j o i ntly as th e
nu mb e r o f me n a n d th e n u mb e r of we e k s d uri n g whi c h th e y work .

10 . A c i r c ula r p la te o f le ad , 1 7 i n ch e s i n d i a me te r , i s me lte d an d forme d

i nto th re e c i r c ula r p la te s o f th e s a me th i c k n e s s I f th e d i a me ters o f two .

of th e plate s are 8 a nd 9 i n ch e s , r es p e c ti ve ly , n d th e d i ame ter of th e

; i t b e i ng g i ve n th a t th e
o th e r a re a o f a c i rc le v a ri e s as th e s qu ar e o f i ts
d i ame te r .

11 . If y e qu als th e su m o f two nu mb ers wh i ch vary d i re c tly 3

as x a n d

i n ve rs e ly a s 95 , r e s p e c ti ve ly , a n d y
5 3 wh e n a : 3 , and y
9
2
wh e n a:
2
2 , wh at i s th e va lue o f y wh e n a: 1
2
34 2

AD V AN CE D O
C URS E I N AL GEB RA
12 . If :
a e q ua ls th e su m o f two nu mb e rs , one of wh i c h va r i e s d ire c tly
as y
2
and th e o the r 2
i n ve rs e y a s 2 , a n d a
l 4 5 wh e n y :
z z1 dz 1 an , a nd

a: 40 wh e n y 2 and z
3 , nd th e va lue o f y wh e n z 37 d z
a; an z .
1 .

13 . If y e q u als th e su m of th r e e nu mb er s , th e rs t o f wh i c h i s c o ns ta n t,

an d th e s e c o n d an d th i r d a s x2 a n d a 3 , r e sp c ti ve ly , a n d 50
va ry
e y
wh e n x 2 , 3 0 wh e n a; 2, and 1 1 0 wh e n a: r . 3 , nd th e e xp r e ss i o n

fo r y i n te r ms of x .

14 . Th e vo lu me o f a c i r cular c o i n var i es j o in tly as i ts th ic k n e s s and

th e s qu a r e of th e r a d iu s of i ts fa c e . T wo c o in s wh o s e th i ck n e ss e s a re

5 a nd 7, a nd ra d ii of fa c e s 6 0 an d 30 , re s p e cti ve ly , a re me lte d , a nd

f o r med i n to 10 0 c o ins , e a c h 3 u n i ts thi c k . Fi nd th e ra di u s o f th e fa c e of

th e n e w c o in .

15 .Th e d is tan ce trav elle d b y a man , i n any h o ur afte r th e rs t e qu als ,

a c on s ta n t nu mb e r o f miles , p lus a n umb e r o f mi le s wh i c h va r ie s i nv e rs e ly

as th e nu mb er of h o ur s tr av e lle d b ef or e th a t h our I f h e tra vels 1 2 mi le s

.

i n th e 6 th h o u r , a nd 8 i n th e 1 1 th , h o w fa r d o es h e tra ve l i n th e 2 l s t h o ur
19
16 . If th e we i gh t of a s p h e ri c al s h e ll, two i n c h e s th i ck , i s of i ts
27
weigh t i f s o li d , n d i ts d i amete r ; i t b e i ng g i ve n th at th e vo lu me of a

s p h e re va r i e s as th e c ub e o f i ts d i a me te r .

17 . Th e illumi n a ti o n fr o m a s ource of ligh t va r i es i nversely as the

s qu a r e o f th e d i s ta nc e . If a b o ok , n ow 1 0 i n c h es o ff, b e move d -1
)
i nc h e s fa rth e r a wa y , ho w mu ch wi ll th e li gh t re c e i ve d be r e d uc e d

18 . P ro ve th at i f :
a oc z , a n d y cc z , th e n :]:y m
a z s ,
an d V an] oe z .

19 . P ro ve th at i f oc ce y, an d z cc u, th e n xz oc yu .

20 . P rove th at i f x o :
y ,
th e n at any"
 AR ITHM ETIC PR OGRE S S ION
51 7 . An Ari thmeti c Progres s i on i s a s e ri e s 283 ) i n wh i ch

ea ch te rm, afte r r s t, i s
th e o bt ai n ed by a dd i ng to th e p r e ce d
i n g te r m a c on s tant n u mb e r c a lle d th e Co mmo n D if e r ence .

T hu s 1 3 5 7 9 1 1
, , , , , , ,
is an a r i th me ti c p ro
g r e ss i o n in
w hi ch th e c mmon d i ff o eren c e is 2 .

Ag ai n, 1 2, 9 , 6, 3 , 0 , 3, is an a r i th meti c p r o gr e s s i on i n
w h i ch th e c omm n d i ff
"
o ere n e c is 3 .

A A ith m ti P g
n r i e c ro re ss o n is a ls o c a lle d a n A r i th meti c S er i es .

5 1 8 G i n th t t
. ve e rs er m, mmo n d if eren ce, d ,
a, the co a nd the
nu mb er of te rms , n , to fi d the la s t ter m, l
n .

Th e p r o g r e s s i o n i s a ; a d, a 2 d, a 3 d,
We o se r ve th at th e
b d i n a n y te r m i s le ss
c o e f c ie nt o f . by 1
th an th e nu mb e r o f th e te r m .

Th e n, i n th e nth te r m th e c o e fc i ent o f d w ill b e n 1 .

T h at i s , I: a ( n 1 )d . I
()
51 9 . Gi ven the rs t ter m, a, the la s t ter m, l, a n d the numb er

f
o ter ms , n , to n d the um of the te r ms , S
s .

+ (l
Wr i ti n g th e te r ms i n r e v e r s e o r d e r,

S = l + (l 2d
)+
Addi n g th e s e e qu ati o n s te r m by te rm,

The l): II
r e fo r e , 2S n a ( l), and S
3 (
a ( )
Th e r s t ter m, co mmo n d iffer e nc e , nu mb er of ter ms , la s t term, an d s um

f
o th e te rms , a r e c alle d th e e leme nts o f th e p ro gr e s s io n .

Su b sti tuting i n (II) th e v alu e o f l fr om (

I), we h ave
34 4 AD V AN CE D C UR SE O IN A L G E B R A
5 20 . Ex I n th e p ro g r e s s i o n 8 , 5 , 2 , 1 ,
.
m ,
to 27
te r ms , n d th e la s t te r m a n d th e s u m .

H er e , a = 8, d = 5 -8 3, n = 27 .

Su b sti tute m z= s + (
27 70 .

27
S u b sti tu te i n s .

(
s 7 0) 83 7
5
.

Th e common differ e n c e may b e fo un d b y s ub tra c ting th e rs t

fro m th e s e c o n d , o r a ny term fr om th e n e xt f o llo wi ng te rm .

EXERC S E 7 4 I
In each o f th e f ollo wi n g , n d th e las t te rm an d th e s um :
1 . 5, 1 4 , 23 , to 1 8 te rms .
I 58 ,

5 4 5
.
15 b y
2 . 9, 2, , to 2 3 ter ms
51
,
4s
,
_3 5 ,
to 1 5 te r ms .

4 .
z ,
19
, to 1 6 te r ms .

4 8

l/ 5 ,
2
1
_
_
_l
_
6 c 2

8

47

31

9 36 18

7 .
11
,
_19
; 1, to 3 9 te r ms .

8 16

V 8 .
3
,
i
i-1
,
to 5 2 te rms .
d ,

10 6 30
9 . 3 a + 4 b, 8 a + 2 b, 13 a, to 1 0 te rms .

p _
2y
t/ 10 to 9 te r ms
I?
. , .

3 c 3 z

5 21 . If any th r e e of th e v e e le me n ts o f an a ri th me ti c p ro
g r e s s i o n a re g i v e n ,
th e o th e r two may b e f o und by su b s ti tuti n g
th e k n o wn v a lu e s i n th e f un d a men tal f o r mulae ( I I),
I) an d ( a nd

s o lv i n g th e r e s u lti n
g e qu ati o n s .

5 5
1 G iv en a z n =2 0 , S =
= nd (1 an d l
g
. .
,

Su b s ti tutin g th e g i v e n v a lu e s in
5 5 1 5
10 + 01

2 th en , I
3 5 6
 PR OG RE S S ION S 34 5

Su b sti tuti n g th e v alue s o f a , n, a n d l in I

() ,

19
2 2 + 19 d ; wh en c e , 19 d
6
, and d z .

2 . Gi v en d 3 l
,
39 , S 2 64 ; n d a an d n .

Su b sti tuti n g i n (I ) ,

39 = a + ( n or a =3 n 42 .

Su b stituti n g th e v alu e s o f l, S , an d a in II
( ) ,

g =3n
2 64 = n 42 5 28 2 81
(
3 or n,

n
2 27 n -1 7 6 .

16 or 11 .

Su b sti tuti n g i n a 48 42 or 33 42 6 or 9 .

Th e s o lu ti o n i s, a 6, n 16 ; o r, a 9, n 11 .

Th e s igni c a n c e o f th e two a n s we r s is as f ollo ws

If a z6 an d n 1 6 , th e p ro gre ss i o n i s
6 , 3 , O, 3 , 6 9 , - 12 1 5 18,
, , ,

33, 36 , -39 .

If a 9 a nd n 1 1 , th e p r ogr e s s i o n i s
9, 1 2, 1 5, 18, 21 24 , -2 7
, ,

In e ach o f th es e th e s um i s 26 4 .

1 _ 1
3 l en a d S n d l an d n
5
.
, .

1
1 5
Su b s t tut n g
i i in I
() ,
l_
_ ( n 1
n

Su b s ti tuti ng th e v alu e s o f a , S, an d l in II
( ) ,

3
g =n
3 2 9 n = 36

, or ,
or n .

S olv i n g th i s, n 12 or 3 .

Th e v a lu e n 3 mu s t b e j
r e e c te d , f o r th e nu mb er of terms
in a r
p go r e s s i o n mu st b e a p o s i ti ve i n teger .

Su b stitutin g n 1 2 in l 37 2
1
12
3 16
4 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
Any va lue o f n wh i ch i s p os i ti ve i n tege r
not a mus t b e j
r e ec te d , toge th e r
wi th a ll o th e r va lue s d e p e n d e nt o n i t .

F ro m I
() an d II
( ) , g e n era l f or mu lae f o r th e so luti o n o f e xa m
p le s li k e th e a bo ve may b e r e a dil y d e ri v e d .

4 . Giv en a, d, an d S ; d e ri ve th e f o r mula f o r n .

By 5 1 9, 2 S = n [ 2 a + (n or du + (
2 z
a

T h i s i s a q ua d r a ti c in n ; s o lv i n g by fo rmu la 4 50,
a
(
n

EXERC S E 7 5 I
=8 , l z 147 , n : l9 ; n d a a nd S .

6 n
,
= 14 , S -6 1 6
; n d a an d l
.

69
, n : 1 6 , l : 3 6 ; nd d a nd S .

: 8, n z 25 , S -25 00
n d d and l .

3 z S 78
; n d d a nd n .

4 4
2 29 29 2 5
, n z; 2 5, S ; n d a a nd d .

4 4

Q ,
30 6
; n d n and l .

5 5
1
n d n a nd S
5
, .

S 1 65
; nd a and l
.

n 24 , s 24 1 ; nd a and d .

95 93 5
d S ; n d a an d n
6
.
3

97 315
s ; nd d an d n .

10 2

n 21 , S nd d a nd l
.

S n d a an d n .

S n d n an d l .
 PR OG R E SS ION S 34 7

16 . Gi ven a , l, and n ; d e ri ve th e for mula for d .

17 . Gi ve n a , n , and S ; d e r iv e th e f o rmulae fo r d an d l
.

18 . Gi ve n d, n, a n d S ; d e ri v e th e f o r mu lae f o r a an d l
.

19 . Gi ve n a, d, an d l d er i ve th e for mulae f o r n a nd S .

20 . Gi ve n d , l, an d n ; d e ri ve th e f o r mu lae fo r a a nd S .

21 . Gi ve n l, n , and S ; d e r i ve th e f o r mu lae for a a nd d .

22 . G ive n a, d, a nd S ; d e ri v e th e f o rmula fo r l .

23 . Gi ve n a, l, and S ; d e r i ve th e for mulae fo r d and n .

24 . Gi ve n d , l, a nd S d e ri ve th e fo rmulae f or a an d n .

A ri th meti c Me a ns .

To n d an a r i th me ti c p r o g re s si on of m+ 2 te r ms , w h se o

r s t an d la s t te r ms are two g i v e n nu m b e rs, a an d b, is c all d e

i n s er ti ng m a r i th meti c mea n s b e twee n a a nd b .

E tc . I n se rt 5 a r i th me ti c me a n s b etw e en 3 an d 5 .

We n d an a r i th me ti c p rogre s s ion o f 7 ter ms , i n whi ch a 3

a nd l: 5; su b stituti n g n 7, a 3, an d l 5 i n (I ) ,

5 =3+6
a er d

1
g
11
Th e p r o gr e s s i o n i s 3, ,
- 1
3 3

523 . L et ac d e note th e a ri th me ti c me an b etw e e n a an d b .

T h en w a z b x, or 2x= a +b .

b
Wh en c e,
g
a
w=

T h at i s ,
the a r i thmeti c mea n b etween two nu mb ers equa ls on e

ha lf the i r su m .

EXE RC S E 7 6 I
1 . In s e rt 7 a rith me ti c me ans b e twe e n 4 a nd 10 .

2 . In ser t 6 a ri th me ti c me a ns b e twe e n
2
- an d

3 . Ins e r t 9 ar i th me ti c me an s b e twe e n _Z and 6 .

4 . I nse rt 8 ar ith me ti c mea n s b e twe e n 3 an d

. 84 8 A DV AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L GE B R A

5 . In s e r t 5 a ri th me tic mea ns b e twe en 3 an d

9 3

6 . H o w ma n y a r ith me ti c me a n s are i ns e r te d b e twee n

wh e n th e su m of th e s e c on d a nd la s t i s
2 ?

7 . If m a ri th me ti c me an s are i n se r te d b e twe en a an d b , nd th e
th r ee .

Fi nd th e a r ith me ti c me an b e twe e n
8 . 1 % an d 2g . 9 .
(3 m n 2 an d
) (m 3 n ?
)
and
a :
x3 l
5 24 . Pr ob lems .

1 . Th e s i xth te rm o f an a ri th meti c p r o gr e s s i o n is a nd th e
1 6
fte e n th te r m i s F i n d th e r st te r m
5
.

Th e mmo n d iffe r e n c e mus t b e o n e -n in th

co th e re s ult o b ta ine d by
s ub tra c ting th e s i xth te r m fro m th e fte e n th .

6
Th e n , d
a 2) 5
3( .

Ag a in , th e rs t ter m mus t e qu al th e s i xth te r m minus ve time s th e

co mmo n d i ffe re nc e .

5 5 5
Th e n ,
6 2 3

2 . mb e r s i n a r i th me ti c p r o gr e s s i o n s u ch th at
Fi n d f o u r nu

th e p r o d u c t o f th e r s t a n d f o u r th s h all b e 4 5 , a n d th e p r o d u c t ,

of th e c
s e on d an d thi r d 7 7

L et th e nu mb e rs b e re p r es e n te d by a; 3 y, x y, x y, and 9; 3 y,
r e s p e cti ve ly
x
.

2 9y 2
45 '

Th e n b y th e c on d iti o n s ,
2
x 77 .

S olvi ng th es e e quati o n s ,

Th e n th e nu nfb e rs ar e 3, 7 , 1 1 , 1 5 ; or , 3, 7, 1 1, 15 .

In p r o b le ms lik e th e a b o ve , i t i s c on v en i e n t to r e p r ese nt th e unk n o wn

n umb e rs b y s ymme tr i c a l e x p r es s i o n s .

Th us , i f ve n umb e rs h ad b e e n r e qu i r e d to b e f oun d , we sh ould h ave

r e p r e se n te d th e m b y a :2y , 9c y, at , a: y , an d a : 2 gf
 PR OGR ES S ION S 34 9

EXERC S E 7 7 I
1 . The s e venth ter m o f an a r i th me ti c p rogr es s i on is and th e

thirtee nth term

3 . Fi n d th e twe nty -s ec on d te rm .

2 . Th e rs t te r m o f a n a ri th me ti c p r o gre s s i o n i s 1 , a rid th e s um o f th e

s i xth an d te n th ter ms i s 3 7 Fi n d th e s e c o n d , th i rd , a n d fo urth t e r ms .

3 . rs t te r m of
Th e
th e s e ve n th te r m 3 .
a n a r i th

F
me ti c p r o gre s s i o n o f e le ven te rms i s
i nd th e s um o f th e te rms .
2, and

4 . In me ti c p r o gre ss i o n,
a n a ri th th e m o f th e rs t a n d last
su te rms is
two-n i nths th e s um o f all th e te r ms . F i n d th e n umb e r o f te rms .

Ho w ma ny p o s iti ve inte g e rs
5 . of th ree d igi ts are multiples of 13 ?
W h at is the i r s um
6 . Fi nd ve mb e rs i n a rith me ti c p r ogress i on
nu s u ch th at th e i r su m
s h all be 2 5 , a n d th e s u m o f th e i r s qu ar es 1 3 5 .

7 . Fi nd fo u r nu mb e r s i n a ri th meti c p r o gr e ss i o n s u ch th a t th e p r o d uc t

of th e rs t an d th i rd s h a ll b e 21 , an d th e p r o d uc t of th e s e c o n d a n d
fou r th 24 .

8 . If th e c on stan t d i ffe r e n ce me ti c p r ogr e ssi on e qu als twi c e

o f a n a r i th

th e rs t te r m , th e q u o tie n t o f th e s um o f th e ter ms b y th e rs t te r m i s a

p e rf e c t s q u a r e .

9 . In me ti c p r o gr e ss i on , th e s um of th e rs t m te rms , le ss
a n y a r i th

twice th e s um o f th e rs t m 1 te r ms , plu s th e s um o f th e rs t m 2
te rms , e q u als th e c o mmo n d i ffe re n c e .

10 . m of th e rs t te n te rms o f
Th e su a n a ri th me ti c p r o gr ess i on i s to
th e s u m of the rs t ve te rms a s 1 3 to 4 . Fi nd th e rati o o f th e rs t te r m
to th e c o mmo n d i ffer e n c e .

11 . Th e su m of s ix n u mb er s i n me ti c p r ogress i on i s 36 ,
a ri th an d th e
su m of th e i r s q u ar e s i s 2 8 6 . F in d th e nu mb ers .

Am 1
12 . an tr av e ls
? mi le s . H e tra vels 20 mile s th e rs t d ay , a nd

i nc re a s e s h i s s pee d o ne -
h a lf mile i n e a ch s uc c e ed ing d ay . H o w man y
d a y s d o es th e j ou r n e y r e qu i r e

13 . Fi nd th r e e nu mb e rs i n a r i th metic p r o gre s s io n , s uc h th a t th e s q u ar e

of th e r s t a d d e d to th e p r o d u c t o f th e o th e r two gi ve s 1 6 , a n d th e s qu ar e
of th e s e c o n d a d d e d to th e p ro d uc t o f th e o th e r two g i ve s 1 4 .

14 . At r a ve lle r s e ts o ut f rom a c er ta i np la c e , a nd g o e s 3 % mile s th e rs t

h o ur , 3 4 th e s e c o nd h o u r , 4 th e th ir d h o ur , an d so on .A fte r h e h a s b e e n
g o n e 5 h ou r s , a n o th e r s e ts o u t, a n d trav e ls 8 4 mile s an h our . A ft er h ow
ma ny h o urs are th e tr av e lle rs tog e th e r
(I nterp re t th e two a ns we r s .
)
 35 0 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L GE BRA
15 . Fi ndm o f th e terms o f
th e su a n a rith me ti c p ro gre ss i o n of 1 1 te rms ,
in whi c h 1 2 1 is th e middle te r m .

16 . Am a n cli mb i ng a mou ntai n , as c e n d s th e rst h o ur 1 00 0 fe e t, th e

s e c o nd h o ur 8 00 f ee t, th e th i rd h o ur 60 0 fe e t, an d so on . Aft er h ow

t
many h o urs wi ll h e b e at th e h e i g ht of 2 8 0 0 fe e t

(In terp r e t th e two a n s we rs .

)
17 . If
p e rs o na s a v es 3 120 e ach y e ar , an d p uts thi s sum a t s i mp le
i n te r es t a t 3 4 p e r c e nt a t th e e n d o f e a c h y e a r , to h o w mu c h wi ll h i s

p p
r o e r ty a mount at th e e n d o f 1 8 y e ars
M
18 . Th e r e ar e 12 e q ui d is ta n t b alls i n a s tr a igh t lin e . Ap e rs on sta r ts

fr o m p o s iti o n i n lin e wi th th e b alls , a n d b e y o n d th e m, h i s d is ta n ce fr o m

a

th e rs t b a ll b e i n g th e s a me a s th e d i s tan ce b etwe e n th e b alls , a n d p i c k s

th e m up i n s u cc e ss i o n , r e tu r n i n g wi th e ach to h i s o r i g i nal p os iti o n . He
nd s th at h e h a s walk e d 5 4 6 0 fe e t . Fi nd th e d is ta n ce b e twe e n th e b alls .

19 . A a nd B tra vel a r o un d mile s

th e w o rld , th e c i r c u i t b ei n g 2 36 6 1 .

Ag o es e as t o n e mile th e rs t d ay two mile s th e s e c o n d d ay th r e e mi le s

, ,

th e th i rd d ay , a n d so on .
gBo e s we s t a t a u n i fo r m r a te o f 2 0 miles a d a y .

A ft er how many d ay s wi ll th e y me e t
(In te rp r e t th e n e ga ti ve an s wer .
)

GE OM E TR IC PR OGR E S S ION
5 25 . A Geometri c Prog res s i on i s w hi ch e a ch te m
a s e ri e s in r ,

a fte r r s t, i s o b ta i n e d
th e by multi ply in g th p c e di n g te m e re r

by a c on stan t n u mb er c alle d th e R a ti o .

T hu s ,
2 , 6, 1 8 , 5 4 , 1 6 2, is a g e o metri c p r o gr e s s i o n in whi ch
th e r ati o is 3 .

1
9 , 3, 1 ,
1
3
5 f
,
I is a ge o me tr i c p r o gr e s s i on in w hi ch th e r a ti o

3
3, 6, 1 2, 24 , is a g e o me tr i c p r o gr e s s i o n in
wh i h th ati
c e r o is 2 .

AG mti P eo e r c r o gr ess i o n is als o c alle d a Geo metr i c S er i es .

5 26 . G i ven the rs t ter m, a, the ra ti o, r , a n d the numb e r of

terms , n, to nd the la s t ter m, l .

g g
Th e p r o g r e s s i o n i s a , a r , a r , a r ,
We o s e r ve th at the e xp o n e n t o f
b r in a ny te r m i s le s s by 1
th an th e n um e r o f b th e te r m .
 PR O G R E S S IO N
s 351

T h n i n th e nth te m th
e ,
r e e xp o n en t o f r w i ll b e n 1 .

T h at i s Z ar
m 1
()
I

5 2 7 G i v n th t t m
. e e rs er ,
a, the la s t ter m 2 an d the r a ti o, r ,

to nd the s u m of the te S .

W
0,

W
C
?
Q
f
n l

Multi p ly i n g e ach

rS = tt\

r ctr
?
ctr
2
ae i l
ctr
"
.

b
S u tr a c ti n g ()
1 f r om S a m "
a , or S
B ut by (I ) ,
5 2 6, N ctr

.

N a
s
1

( )
1 1
r

ter m, r a ti o , n u mb e te r ms , la s t ter m, an d s um of the ter ms ,

th e e le ments o f th e p rogr es s i o n .

528 . E xamples .

1I n th e p r o gre ssi on 3 , 1 , 1 ,
. to 7 te rms, nd th e
3
te rm a n d th e s u m .

He re , a 3, r
g , n 7 su b sti tutin g i n (I ) an d (II ) ,

6
1 1
l 3
5
3 24 3

1 21 8 6
x
3 24 3 7 29 7 29 1 0 93
1 2 2 24 3
1
3 3 3
Th e r a ti o may b e fo und b y d i vi d ing th e s e c on d te rm b y th e rst, or

a ny te r mb y th e n e xt p r e c e d i n g te rm .

2 I n th e p ro gre s s i o n
. 2, 6, 1 8 , to 8 te r ms, n d th e
la s t te r m a n d the s um .

6
H e re , a 2 r

i
3 n= 8
; th e r e f o r e
f?
.
, , ,

2 2 x
z ( (
_3 x 4 37 4 2
)
S 328 0
_4
.
3 52 A DV A NCE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B RA

EXERC IS E 7 8

In each o f th e f ollo wi ng , n d th e las t te r m and th e su m of th e terms

to 1 0 te r ms
1 . 1, 2, 4 , .

6 . 1, _4 , to 7 terms .

2 . 12 4 s, to 6 te r ms .
4 3

3 . to 9 ter ms .

g , to 6 te rms .

gg5
3 12
4 .
, , , to 5 te r ms .

16
,
,
5 5

3
gg
1
5 , , 2,
g 12
, ,
to 8 te rms .

5 29 . If a ny th r e e of th e ve ele men ts g e o me tr i p r o
of a c
g re s s i on a r e g i v e n ,
th e may b e
o th e r two by b f o un d s u s ti tu ti n g

th e g i v e n v a lu e s i n th e f un d a me ntal f o r mulae (
1 ) an d (
II), an d

s o lv i n g th e r e s ulti n g e qu ati o n s .

B ut i n ce r ta i n c a se s th e o p e r a ti on i nv olv e s th e s o luti o n o f

a n e q u ati on o f a d e gr e e h i gh e r th an th e s e o nd c ; an d in o th e r s

th e u nk n o wn b
nu m e r a p pea rs p o ne nt th e s oluti n f
a s an e x ,
o o

w h i ch f o rm o f e q u ati on can u s ually o n ly b e affe c te d by th e ai d

of lo gar i th ms
In a ll s u c h c ase s i n th e p re s en t c h apte r, th e eq uati on s may
be s olv e d by i n s p e cti on .

1 . G i ve n a 2 n
,
=5 l 3 2 ; n d r an d S .

Su b sti tuti ng th e g i v e n v alue s in I

() ,
we hav e

32 2r ; 4
w h e nc e, r
4
1 6, or r i2 .

Su b sti tuti n g i n (II ) ,

If T

2 1

Th e s o luti o n i s, r = 2, S 62
; o r
,
r 2 S
,

Th e s ign i c an c e o f th e two an s wers i s a s f ollo ws

If r : 2 , th e p r o gre s s i on i s -2
,
4 8
, ,
16, -8 2
,
wh os e su mi s 62 .

If 7 : 2 , th e p r ogress i o n i s 2 , 4, 8 , 1 6 , 82 , wh ose su m i s 22 .
 PR OGR E S S ION S 3 53

1 1 64 0
2 . G i v en a. 3 r ,
n d n a nd l
3 7 29

_1 '

1 64 0 3
S ub sti tutl n g in
( ),
I I
7 29 1
1
3
65 60
Wh en c e, l+ 9 ,
o r, Z
7 29

Su b sti tutin g th e v alu e s o f a , r , a n d l in I

() ,

l
1 _1
n

7 29

Wh e n c e , by in s p e c ti on ,
n 1 7, or n 8 .

F ro m () I an d (II) g e n e ral fo rmulae may b e d e ri ve d fo r th e s olu ti o n o f

cas es li k e th e a b ov e .

If th e g ive n e le me n ts a r e n , l, and S , equ a ti o ns fo r a an d r may b e

f oun d , b ut th ere a re n o d e n i te f o r mu lae f o r th e i r values .

The sa me i s th e c as e wh e n th e g i ve n e le me nts a re a , n , a nd S .

Th e ge n er a l for mulae for n i nvo lve log a ri th ms ; th es e cases ar e

c us se d i n 6 0 4 .

EXERC | S E 7 9

Give n r 3, n 8 , l : 2 1 8 7 ; n d a an d S .

1 28
Give n a 6, n
2 43
; n d r a nd S .

Given r 5, n 5, S 1042 n d a a nd l
.

1 3
Gi ve n a 3, r
-
2
, l
1 28
; nd n and S .

5115
Gi ve n r 2, n 10, S
2
; n d a an d l
.

Gi ve n a g nd r an d S .

2 1 25
24 3 4 63
Gi ve n a l
64 1 92
; nd r an d n .

Gi ve n a. 3 S
2 343
; nd I a nd a .

4 1 0 24
24 5 7

ggg
Gi ven a
g , l : 1 4 58 S ,
z

g ; n d r and n .
3 54 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
11 . Gi ve n a , r , a n d S ; d e r i ve th e fo rmula f o r l .

12 . Gi ve n a , l, an d S ; d e ri ve th e f o r mula fo r r .

13 . Gi ve n r , l, a nd S ; d e r i ve th e fo rmula fo r a .

14 . Gi ve n r , n , a n d l d e r i ve th e fo rmulae for a an d S .

15 . Gi ve n r , n , a n d S ; d e ri ve th e f o rmulae f o r a an d l
.

16 . Gi ve n a , n , a n d l d er i ve th e f o rmu lae for r and S .

530 . S um of a Geometri c Progres s i on t o I nni ty .

Th e li mi t 2 4 5 ) to w hi c h th e su m o f th e te r ms of a d ecreas
i ng ge o me tri p c
ro g re s s i o n a pp r o a h e s ,
h e n th e n u m c w be r of

te r ms i s i n d e n i te l i n r e a s e d , i sy c
a lle d th e s um of the c s er i es

to i n n ity .

F o r mu la II
( ) ,
527 , may b e w r i tte n

S
a
1 r

It is e v i d en t th a t, by
s u f c i e n tl y c onti n ui n g a de c re as i n g

ge ome tr i c p r o g re s s i o n, th e a b s o lu te v a lu e o f th e la s t te r m may
b e ma d e le s s th a n an y a s s i gn e d n umb e r, h o w e v e r s mall .

:
H en c e , wh e n th e n umb e r o f te rms i s i nd e nitely i n c reas ed ,
1, an d th e r e f o r e r i , a p p r o a c h e s th e li mi t 0 .

l 7
T h en c
i p p o ach e s th e li mit a
,
th e f r a ti o n a r
1 r

erefor e, th e su m of a de c a si n g ge o met i c p o g
re r r r e ss i on

ty i s gi v e n by th e f or mu la
JJ S
a

1 r

1
1 F i n d th e su m o f th e s eri e s 4, - to i nni t y

. .

He re , a = 4, r

4 12
Su b stituti n g i n (III ) , S
2 5
1 +
5
Thi s s i g ni e s th at, th e gr e ate r th e nu mb er of te rms tak e n , th e mo re
n e arl y d o es th e ir su m a pp r o ac h to 1?
b u t th e su m will n e ve r e x a c tly
5
e qua l th i s value .
 PR OG R E S S ION S 8 55

A r ep ea ti ng d ec i ma l i s a de c r e a s i ng g e o me tr i c p r o g re s s i o n,

an d i ts v alu e may b e fo un d by f or mu la (III ) .

2 . F i n d th e v a lu e o f . 851 51 0 0 o f ] o I
,

We h av e , 8 5 1 5 1
. . s . 0 51 . 0 005 1 0 b "
Th e te r ms a fte r th e r s t c on sti tut e a de c re a si n g g e o metri c
p r o g re s s i o n , in whi ch a . 051 , an d r . 01 .

0 51 0 51 51 17
S u b s ti tuti n g n
i III S
. .

1 . 01 . 99 990 330
8 17
T he n th e v alue o f th e g i v e n d e i mal i s c or
10 33 0

EXE RC S E 8 0 I
Fi n d th e s um o f th e f ollowi ng to i n n ity :
1 . 6, 2 , 1, 5 .
8
,
E ,
49
,
5 15 90

3 1 2
2 12 3 6
4 10 25

4, 2 1 _3 1

5
3 7
5 5 Z 32
, , , )

25 2
_ 5 50 5 5 10
4 1 1 8

W
6 9 27 6 27 243
w
J F i nd th e valu e s o f th e f ollo wi ng

9 8 18 1 11 917 7 7
3
. . . .

10 . . 629 62 9 59

53 1 . Geometri c Means .

To n d ge o me tr i c p r o gr e s s i o n o f m + 2 te rms,
a h o s e r s t w
a n d la s t te r ms ar e two g i v e n n u m e r s , a a n d b , i s a lle d i n s er t b c
i ng m geo metri c mea n s b etween a a n d 6 .

1 28
Ex . I
n s e r t 5 g eo me tr i c mean s e t e e n 2 an d b w .

7 29
We n d a g e o me tri c p r o g re s s i o n o f 7 te r ms, i n w h i ch a 2,

and l:
$
33 su b sti tuti n g n 7, a 2, an d l:
$? 7
1 11
()I ,

1 28
2 r ; wh e n
6
ce ,
r
6 64
, a nd r :i ?
7 29 7 29 3
356 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN AL GE B R A
4 s 16 32 64 1 28 '

Th e r e s It l s 2, i
s 9 27 81 24 3 7 29

53 2 . L et a d e no te th e ge o me tri c mean b e twe en a and b .

b
T h en ,
a;
o r 13
2
ab .

a re

W h en c e, w ab

T h at i s , the geo metr i c mea n b etween two nu mb ers is equa l to

the s qu a r e r o ot o f the i r p r o d u ct .

EXERC S E 8 l I
1 . I n s ert 8 ge o me tri c me an s b e twe e n 3 an d 1 92 .

8
2 . I n s e rt 7 ge o me tr i c mea n s b e twee n 3 a nd 1 9 683 .

3 . I ns e rt 6 ge o me tri c me a ns b etwe en 5
an d 5 1 20 .

16

4 . I n s ert 4 g eo metri c me ans b e twe en

1
- an d
512
6 7 29
5 . I nse r t 5 ge o me tri c mean s b etween 48 an d

6 . I n s e rt 3 g eo me tri c mean s b etwe e n 5

and
1
32 10
7 .m ge o me tric me ans
If are i n s e rte d b e twe e n a a nd b , wh at are th e
las t two me a n s

Fi n d th e g e ometri c me an b e tween
2 5
902 my

10 . a
2 4 ab +4 b
2
an d 4 a
2
+4 ab +b
2
.

533 . Prob lem .

F in d 3

nu mb e r s i n ge ome tri c p r o gre s s i on s u c h that th ei r

su m s h a ll b e 1 4 , a nd th e s u m o f th e i r s qu ar e s 8 4 .

L e t th e n umb e rs b e re p r e se nte d by a , a r , a nd ar
2

2
a ar ar 14 .

Th en , b y th e c o n d iti o n s ,
2r 2 2 4
a
2
a a r 84 .

Di vi d e ()by
2 a ar a r 2
z6 .

S ub trac t (3 ) from 2 ar 8, or r
 PR O GR E S S ION S 35 7

19
S ub s tituting i n a 4 : 14 , o r a2 10 a
a

S olvi ng th i s e q u a ti on , a 8 or 2 .

4 4 l
S ub sti tutms
C O 0

in 4 r
s 2 2
Th en, th e numb ers a re 2, 4 , a nd 8 .

EXERC S E 8 2 I
1 . Wh at numb er mu st be a dd ed to eac h o f th e numb ers a , b , an d 0 ,

so th at th e r es ulti n g n u mb e rs sh all for m a ge o me tri c p r ogr e s s i o n P

2 . Th e s ixth te rm o f a geo metri c p r ogress i on is i , an d th e e le ve nth

27 Q

term Find the third te r m .

6 56 1
3 . Fi nd a n ari th meti c p r ogre ss i on wh ose rs t ter m i s 2 , an d wh os e
rs t, four th , a n d te nth te rms f or m a g eo me tri c p r o gr ess i o n .

4 Th e p ro d uct o f th e
. rs t ve terms of a ge ome tri c p r ogress i o n i s 24 3 .

F i nd th e thi rd te r m .

5 . Fi nd fo u r nu mb ers i n ge ome tric p ro gre s s i o n s u ch th at th e su m of

th e rs t and fourth i s 2 7 , a nd o f th e s e c o nd a nd th i rd 1 8 .

6 . Fi n d s ix nu i n ge o me tr i c p r o gr es s i o n s uch th at th e s um o f
mb e rs
th e rs t, th i rd , a nd fth i s 1 4 7 , a n d o f th e s ec o n d , fo urth , a n d s i xth 2 9 4 .

7 . Th e su m of me tr i c p r o gr es s i o n wh ose rs t te r m
th e terms of a geo
i s 1 , r a tio 3 , a n d n u mb e r o f te r ms 4 , e q u als th e s u m o f th e te r ms o f a n
a ri th me ti c p ro gr ess i o n wh ose r s t te r m i s 4 a n d c o mmon d iffe re nc e 4 ,
.

F i n d th e n u mb e r o f te rms i n th e a r ith me t ic p r o gre s s i o n .

8 . A man wh o s ave d e ve ry y e ar ve -f ourth s as mu c h as in th e p re c e d

i ng y e ar , h ad s av e d in four y ear s $922 5 H o w mu c h d i d h e s a ve th e rst
.

y e ar
9 . Th e p op ula ti on of a s tate i n c re as e s fr om 1 000 0 0 to 1 6 10 51 i n ve
y e ars . Wh at i s th e ra te o f i nc re as e p e r y e a r

10 . Th e d iffe re n c e b e twe e n two n umb e rs is 7 2 , an d th e i r a ri th me ti c

mea n e xce e ds th e i r g e o me tr ic me a n b y 8 . Fi nd th e n umb ers .

11 . The su m o f th e rs t e igh t te r ms o f a d e c r ea s in g g e o me tri c p r ogr es

s io n is to th e s um to i n n ity as 1 6 to 2 5 . F i n d th e ra ti o .

12 . Th e re are th re e n u mb e r s i n g e o me tr i c p ro gre s s i o n wh os e su m is
If th e rs t b e multip li e d b y
g ,
th e s e c o n d b y
2 , a nd th e th ird b y
g ,
the

r e s ulti n g nu mb ers will b e in ar ith me ti c p rogressi on . Wh at are th e

nu mb e rs
35 8 A DV A N C ED C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
13 . Th e d i gi ts o f a numb er o f th r ee gur e s are i n g e ometri c p r ogre s
s ion , a nd th e i r s um i s 1 4 If 594 b e s ub tra cte d fr o m th e nu mb er , th e
.

d ig i ts wi ll b e r eve rse d . Fi n d th e n u mb e r .

14 . Th e mth te rm of a ge o me tr i c p r o gr e s s i o n i s p , an d th e nth te r m i s

15 . Th e su m of th r e e mb e rs i n g e ome tr i c p r ogressi on i s
r ati o n a l nu

an d th e s um o f th e i r r ec ip ro c a ls
65
in d th e n u mb e r s F .

3
16 . If th e nu mb e rs a, b, a n d c a re i n g e o me tr i c p ro gr e ss i on , p rove

17 . Th e su m of th e r s t f ou r te r ms o f a g e o me tr ic p r ogr ess i o n is 4 5 ,
a nd o f th e rs t six te r ms 1 8 9 . Fi n d th e r s t te r m and th e ra ti o .

18 . If a, y, and z a r e , r es p ec ti vely , th e p th , q th , a n d r th te rms o f a

ge o metr ic p rogress i on , p r o ve
r
xq x 21 9
9
yp r

HAR M O NIC PR OGR E S S ION

53 4 . A Harmoni c Pr og res s i on i s a s er i es of te rms wh o s e
re c i pr o c a ls fo rm an a r i th me ti c p r o g r e s s i o n .

Thus 1 3
i 3h , , , ,
,
is a h ar mo n i cp ro gr e s s i on
,
b c e au s e th e

rec ip c ls f t e
ro a o te r m s , 1 , 3 , 5 , 7 , 9 , g
m
,
form an a r i th meti c
p g e ssi n
ro r o .

A H ar mo n i c Pro gr e ss i o n i s a lso c alle d a H a r mo ni c S e r i es .

An y p r o ble m i n h a r mo n i c p r o g r e s s i o n , w h i c h i s s u s c e p ti b le
o f s o lu ti o n , ma y b e s o lv e d by ta ki n g th e r e c i p r oc a ls o f th e

te r ms , a n d app ly i n g th e f o r mulae o f th e a ri th me ti c p r o g re s s i o n .

The re i s, h o w e v e r, n o g e r al
e n me th od f or n di n g th e su m of
the terms of a h a rmo n i c s e ri e s .

2
Ex
te r m .
. I n th e p ro
g r e s s i o n 2,
g , to 36 te r ms, n d th e la st

T ak i n g th e e c i p o c als of r r th e te rms, we hav e th e a ri th me ti c

1 5
p r o gre s si on -
2

2 2
1
H e re , a d = 1, n 36 .

2
 PR OG R E S S ION S 359

11
3
7
su b sti tutin g i n s 5 1 8, +
(
3 6 1) x 1 .

2
Then ,
i s th e la s t te rm of th e g i v e n h a rmo n i c s eri e s .

535 . Harmoni c Me a ns .

To n d h a r mo n i c p r o gr e s s i on
a of m+ 2 te r ms , wh o se r s t
a n d la s t te r m s a r e two g i v e n n u m b er s , a a n d b, is c a lle d i n s er t
i ng m ha r mo n i c mea n s b etween a a nd 5 .

Ex . In s e rt 5 h a r mo n i c me an s b e tw e en 2 an d 3 .

We h a v e to i n s e rt 5 a r i th me ti c m e an s b tw
e e en

Su b stituting a
g , l n 7 , in I
() ,
5 1 8,

1 1 5
6d 01 d
3 2 36

T h en th e a ri th meti c s eri e s is

1 13 2 1 1 7 1

2 36 9 12 18 36 3

T he r e fo r e , th e r e u ir e d
q h a r mo n i cs e ri e s is

36 9
36
21 , ?
1 23 18 7 3
13 2 7

53 6 . L et ac d e n o te th e h a rmo n i c m e a n b tw e en
e a an d b .

Th e n , 1 i s th e a r i th me ti c me an b tw 1 an d
:
e e en
a a

11 1
1
T hen b y 5 23 ,
a b a +b a n d a :
;
,
a 2 2 ab

EXERC S E 8 3 I
In e a ch o f th e follo wi ng , nd th e las t te r m

1 g 12 12
to 2 2 te rms

.
.
,
s

_
. .

g,
5

11
,
to 1 9 te rms .
360 A DV A NC ED C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
3
3 2, 0 "

I
.
,

i 4 2

11 39 17

5 .

g 2 g
,
-
,
- ,
t o 3 7 terms .

6 . Ins e rt 6 h a r mo n ic me an s b e tween 2 a nd

7 . I ns ert 8 h a r mon i c me an s b e twe e n and

8 . I n s e rt 7 h a rmon i c me a n s b e twe e n an d

Fi nd th e h ar mi on c me an b e twe en

9 .
g an d 10 .
7 b an d

2
b 2

2 2
3 4 a b a b

11 . Fi n d th e (n 1 )th term of th e h a r mon i c p r o gr e s s i o n a, b,

te r ms .

12 . If m h ar mo n i c me ans ar e i n se rte d b e twe en a an d b , wh at is th e

th i r d me an
13 T h e rs t term of a h armoni c p r o gre s si on i s p , an d th e s e c on d te r m

q . C o nti nu e th e s e r ie s to th r e e mo r e te r ms .

14 . Th e a r i th me ti c mea n b etwe e n two n umb e rs is 1 , and th e h ar mon i c

me a n 15 . F i n d th e n umb e rs .

15 . Th e fth te rm of a h ar mo n i c p r o gre s s i o n i s g , and th e e le v enth

3
1
te rm
5
2
Fi nd th e fte e n th te r m .

16 . Th e g e o me tr i c me an b etwe e n tw
p nu mb ers is 4 , a nd th e

h ar mon i c me an
16
5
.
Fi nd th e nu mb e rs .

17 . Th e a r i th meti c me an b e twe e n two nu mb e rs e xc e e d s th e ge o me tr i c

me an b y
5 ,
and th e ge ome tri c me a n e xc e e d s th e h a rmo n i c mea n b y

13
Fi n d th e nu mb ers .

(R ep res en t th e su m o f th e nu mb e rs b y at, an d th e i r p r o d u c t b y y .
)
18 . P ro ve th a t, i f an y th r e e c o n se c u ti ve te r ms h armo n i c p r ogre s
of a

s i on b e ta k e n , th e rs t i s to th e th i rd a s th e rs t mi nus th e s e c on d i s to
th e s e co n d mi nus th e th i rd .

19 . If a
2
, 5 2
, a n d c2 ar e in ar i th meti c pr ogre ss i on, p r ove th at b c,

c a , an d a b ar e i n h a r mo n i c p r o g r e s s i o n .
 PR OG RE SS ION S 3 61

20 . If a, b, a nd c ar e in a r i th me ti c p r o gr e ss io n , b , c , a n d d i n ge o me t
r ic p r ogre ss i o n , a n d c , d , and e i n h ar mo n i c p r og re s s i o n , p r ove a , c , a n d e
i n ge o me tri c p rogress io n .

53 7 . L e t A , G, an d H d e n ote th e a ri th meti c , ge ome tri c, an d

h a r m on i cm e a n s, r e s p e c ti vel y b tw e e n
,
e a an d b .

T hen ,
by 5 2 3, 53 2 , and 53 6,

A an dH
2

b 2 b
; j
a
B u t, x
a b

W h e n c e, A XH = G z
,
or

Th at i s, the geo me tr i c mea n b etween two n u mb er s i s a ls o the

geo me tr i c me a n b e twee n th e i r a r i thme ti c a n d h a r mo n i c mea n s .

53 8 . L et a an d b b e tw o p o s i ti v e r e al nu mb e r s .

By 5 3 7 , th e i r g e o m etr i c
me an i s i n te rme d i ate i n v alu e

be tw e en th e i r a r i th me ti c an d h a r mo n i c me an s .

-- b
f
Z
B ut
a +h 2 ab
t
a I b Z
l ab (a .

2 a +b 2(
a + b)

a p os i ti ve n u mb e r .

H ncee ,
ofme an s, th e a ri th me ti c i s th e gre ate s t, th e
th e th r e e

g e o me tri c n e x t, an d th e h ar mo n i c th e lea s t .
362 A DV AN CE D C O URS E IN A L G E B R A

XX V I . C O NV E R G E NC Y A ND D IV E R GE NC Y
O F S E RIE S

539 . An I nn ite S eri e s 2 8 3) may b e d e v elo p e d by D i vi

s i o n, o r by E vo lu ti o n .

L et i t b e r e qu i r e d , for exa mp le, to d i v i d e 1 by 1 w .

1
1 a:
w
ai x2
2
x

Th e qu o tie n t i s o b tai n ed i n th e f o r m of th e i nn i te s e ri e s

1 a; o
.

Agai n, le t i t b e r e q ui r e d to n d th e s qu a r e r o o t o f 1 x .

1 + 517 1 +
2

2 + 90
8 4

Th e r e s ult is o bta in e d i n th e f or m of th e i n n i te se rie s

2
93 90
1 + +
2 8
I n ni te by me th o d s, ne
'

s e rie s

ma y als o b e d e ve lo p e d o th e r o

of th e mo st i mp o r ta nt of w hi ch w i ll be c o n s i d ere d i n Ch a p .

XXV II .

54 0 . Conv erg ent a nd Di v erg ent S er i es .

An i n n i te s erie s is s ai d to b e Co n ve rgen t whe n th e m of

su

th e r s t n te r ms appr o a ch es a xe d n i te n um be r as a li mi t
wh e n n i s i n d e n i te l y incr ease d .
 C ON V E R G E N CY AND DIV E R G E N C Y OF S E R ES I 3 63

Thi s li mi t i s c alle d th e Va lue f

o the S er i es .

A ni te s er i es may be r e ga r d e d as a c o n verg e n t s e ri e s .

An i nn i te s e r i e s i s s ai d to b e D i ve rgen t w h e n th e sum o f th e
rs t n te r ms c a n b e ma d e nu me r i c a lly g re a te r th an a n y a s si gn e d
nu mb er , h o w e v e r g r e at, by taki n g n s uf c i e ntly gre at .

Con s id e r, f o r e xa mp le , th e i n ni te s e ri e s

1
d e v e lo p e d by th e f acti on
:
r
1 a

I . Su pp o se v
. : 901 , whe re a, is nu me r i c ally 1 .

In th i s c a s e th e gi ve n s e ri e s i s a d e c r e a s i n g G e o me tri P r o c

g r e s s i o n ; a nd by 5 30 , th e s u m o f th e r s t n te rms a r oa h e s pp c
1
th e li mi t when n i s i n d e n i t ly i n c re e a se d .

1 out

T h at i s th e s um o f th e t n t ms a p p h s a xed nite
,
rs er ro ac e

nu mb e s a li mi t w h e n n i s i n d n i t ly i n c
r a , s d e e rea e .

H e n c th e s e i e s i n g nt wh e n i s nume i c ally 1
e, r s co ve r e cc r .

L e t us tak e , f o r exa mp le , a; . 1 .

Th e s e ri e s n o w tak e s th e fo r m 1 . 1 . 01 while th e valu e o f

th e fr a c tion fro m whi c h th e s e r ie s wa s d e velop e d i s

l . 1 9
In th is cas e , h owe ve r gr e a t th e nu mb e r o f te rms tak e n , th e i r su m n e ver
19
e x ac tly e qu als , b ut a p p o a c h e s th i s v alu e as a limi t
r
5
Thus , i f an i n ni te s e r i e s i s c o nve rg e nt, th e va lue of th e s er i es 54 0 )
e q uals th e va lu e o f th e e xp re s s i o n f r o m wh i ch th e s e r ie s was d evelo p e d .

II . S up p o s e so xl , wh e r e as, is nu me ri c ally 1 .

Th e su m o f th e r s t n te rms i s n o w
1 K
1 +u+u + 2 -+ u n
3 1 4 3
1
5171
y ,

wi n 1
B y tak i n g n s uf ci e n tl yg r e a t, c an b e ma d e to nu me r
$1 1
i c ally c
e x e e d any a s s i g n e d n u mb e r , h o w e v e r gr e at .

H nce e ,
th e serie s is d i vergen t w h e n no i s n u me r i c ally 1 .

L et us tak e , fo r e xa mp le , a; 10 .

Th e se r i e s n o w tak e s th e f o r m 1 10 1 00 wh ile th e v alue o f

1
th e fra c ti o n fr o m wh i ch th e s e r i es was d e ve lop e d i s
1 10 9
3 64 A DV A N C ED C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
In thi s case , th e gr ea te r th e numb e r o f te rms tak e n , th e mo re d oe s
1
th ei r su m d i ve rge fr o m th e v alu e
9
Th us , i f an in n ite s eri e s i s d i ver g e nt, th e gre a ter th e numb e r o f te r ms
ta k e n , th e more d oe s th e i r s um d i ve rge f r o m th e value of th e e xp r es s i o n

from whi c h th e s e ri e s wa s d e velop ed .

III . Su pp o se 1 a .

In thi s c as e e ach te
,
r m o f th e s e ri e s e q u als 1, an d th e su m
of th e r st n te r ms e qu als n ; a nd th i s su m can b e ma d e t o
c
e x e e d an y as s i g n e d n u mb e r, h o w e ve r gre at, by tak i n g n s uf
c i e n tly gr e at .

H e nc e , th e s e ri e s i s d i vergent wh e n a : 1 .

IV . pp o s e :
Su a 1 .

I n th i s c as th e s e e ri e s tak e s th e f or m

1 1 + m
;
an d th e su m of th e rs t n te rms i s e i th e r 1 or 0 a cc o rd i n g

as n is o dd or ev en .

I f th e
. su m of r s t n te rms o f a n i nn i te s e ri e s n e i th e r
th e
ap p ro a ch e s a x e d n i te li mit, n o r e x c e e d s an y a s s i gn e d nu m
b e r, h owe e v r g r e a t,
w h e n n i s i n d e n i te ly i n c r e a s e d ,
th e s e r i e s

is c alle d an O sc i lla ti ng S eri es .

H e n c e th e s ,
e ri e s is a n o s ci lla ti ng ser i es wh en a: 1 .

54 1 . I t f ollo w s fr o m 5 4 0 th at an i nn i t e iee s r s ca nn o t be
use d f or the p urp os es o f d emon s tr a ti on u n less it i s con vergen t .

I t wi ll b e u nd ers too d , th r ough o main d e r o f th e wo rk , th at, i n

ut th e re

e ve r y e xp r e s s i o n i nv o lvi n g a c on verge n t i nni te s e r i es th e va lu e of th e ,

s eri e s is me ant . F o r e x a mp le , th e p ro d uc t of two c o nv e rge n t i n ni te

s e r i es will b e un d e rsto o d a s s ig nify ing th e p r o d uc t of th e ir v alue s .

OR E M S ON C ONV E R GE NC Y AND D
THE E NCY
OF S E R IE S 3
W i

54 2 If a n i n n i te eri e i c n
.
g n t the l t t m pp
s a ch s s o ve r e ,
as er a ro es

the li mi t ze wh n the numb er f t m i i n d n i t ly i n ea ed

r o, e o er s s e e cr s .

L e t th e s e ri e s be ul + u, +
By 54 0 , i ll 162 + + 16 1
7,
an d MI
[
U2 un + un + 1 ap

p ro a ch th e sa me n i te li mi t wh en n i s i n d e n i te l y inc r e a se d .
 C ON V E R G E N CY AND DIV E R GE N CY OF SE R E S I 3 65

B ut th e li mi t of b etw e n u u
th e d i ffe r e n c e u ah id e 1 2 ,

u1 u2 un u,H i th d iff
s n c e o f th i li mi ts
e ere e r

Wh e n c e ,
a p p o a c h s th e li mi t 0 w h en n i s i n d e
r e ni te ly

in c r ea s e d .

54 3 . An i nni te m of the rs t n
ser i e s is co n vergen t if the su

ter ms i s n i te, a n d the s u m of a ny n i te n u mb er of ter ms co m

me n ci ng w i th the (n 1 )th app r oa ches the li mi t zer o, when n i s
i nd e n i t ly e i n cr e a s e d .

L et U re
p r e s e n t th e su m o f th e r s t n te r ms , an d , V th e su m
of th e m te r ms a n , 1 u n + m, o f th e s e r i e s u1 u2

By 25 4 , th e li mi t o f U + V, h e n w n i s i n d e n i te l i n y c r e a s e d,

i s th e s u m o f th e li mi ts o f U a n d V

B ut s i nc e V ap
p r oac h e s th e li mi t 0 , w h en n i s i nd e n itel y
i n c r e a s e d , U + V a pp r oa ch e s th e s a me li mi t a s U .

S i n c e th i s i s th e c a s e w
h a te v e r th e n u m e r o f ter ms i n V, b
U mu s t a p p r o ac h a x d e n i te li mit w h en n i s i n d e n i te l y
in c r ea se d; a nd th e s e ri e s is c o n ve r ge nt .

1
Ta k e , f or e xa mp le , th e s e ri e s 1
55

2
Th e su m o f th e rs t n te rms is wh ich i s n ite h o we ve r
1
1
gre a t n ma y b e .

5
Th e su m o f th e te rms fr om th e (
n 1 )th to th e (
n m)th i s

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .

Z n

wh i ch a pp r o ac h e s th e li mi t 0 wh e n n is i n d e ni te ly i n c re as e d .

T h e n , th e s e r ie s is c o n ve r g e nt .

(Thi s s e r i es was p ro ve d c o n v e r ge nt in 54 0 , I .
)

54 4 . If an in n i te s er i es is c o n vergen t or d i vergen t, i t wi ll
re ma i n co n vergen t o r d i ve rgen t a fte r a ny n i t e nu mb er of ter ms
ha ve b een a d d ed to , o r s u b tr a cte d
f ro m it .

F or i n th e c a s e of a c o n v e r g e n t s e r i e s , th e su m o f th e r s t n
te r ms s till a pp r o a ch e s a xe d n i te li mi t wh en n i s i n d e n i te ly

in c r e a se d .
 366 A DV AN C ED C O U R S E IN AL GE B R A
An d in th e c as e o f a d i v e r g e n t, th e su m o f th e r st n te rms
s till e x e e d s c a ny a s s i gn e d nu mb e r, h o w e ve r gre at, w h en n is
i n d e n i te l y i n c r e a s ed .

T h en i n te ti n g
,
s a serie s fo r c o n ve r g en cy or d i v e r g en cy , we
may c omme n c t e a a ny a ss ign ed ter m, taki n g n o a cc o un t o f th e

p c e
re d i n g te m r s .

4 54 5 . If a ll the terms o f an in ni t e ser i es a re p o s i ti ve, a n d the

su m of a ny n co ns ecu ti ve terms i n it
s e however gr ea t n ma y b e,
the ser i es is con vergen t .

F o r , th e g re a te r th e n um e r o f te r m s tak e n, th e gre ate r b w ill

w y
b e th e i r s u m ; b u t thi s s um i s a l a s n i te .

T h en wh n n i s i nd ni t ly i n c e d
,
e e e r a se ,
th e su m o f th e r st n

te ms mu s t a p p r a c h a xed ni te li mi t ;
r o an d th e s e ri e s is c on

v e r g e nt .

Th us , i n th e i llus trat ive e xa mp le of 5 4 3 , th e su m o f th e rs t n te rms

i s ni te , h o we ve r gre at n may b e a nd h e n ce , th e s e ri e s is c o n ve rge nt .

546 . wi n g th e m
Th e f ollo ore , an d th a t of 54 7 , are o f g r ea t
i mp tan c e i n te s ti n g th e c o n
or ver
g e n cy or d i v e r g e nc y of seri e s

If, mmen c i n g wi th a cer ta i n a s s i gn ed ter m, ea ch term of a

co

s er i es of p o s i ti ve terms i s le ss tha n the co r r esp o n d i n g ter m of

a se ri es of p o s i ti ve te r ms , wh i ch i s kn own to b e co nv er en t, the
'

g
r s t s er i e s is c o n vergen t .

F o r th e su m o f th e r s t n te r ms i s n i te , h o w ev e r gre at n may
b e, and th e se ri e s is co n v e r g e n t by 54 5 .

E 11) . P r ove th e i n n i te s eri e s

1 1 1
1 +
2
c on ve ge nt r .

E ac h te m c o mme n c i n g w i th
r ,
th e th i r d, i s le s s than th e c or

r e s p on d i n g te m o f th se ies r e r

1 1 1
1 +
+
2 2 2
2 3

w h i c h wa s p r o v e d c o nv e rg e nt in 54 0 , I .

T h en the g i , v e n s e ri e s is c on v e r g e n t .
 C ON V E R G E NC Y AN D DI V E R G E N C Y O F S ER E S I 3 67

54 7 mmen c ing wi th a ce r ta i n a ss i gned ter m, ea ch term of

. If, co

a s er i es of p os i ti ve terms i s g rea te r tha n the co rr e sp o nd i ng ter m

of a s er i es of p os i tive ter ms , whi ch i s kn o wn to b e d i ve r en t, the

g
i ven s er i es i s d i ve rgent
g .

F o r, th e m o f th e r s t n te r ms may b e ma de to e xc e e d
su

a ny a s s i g n e d n umb e r, h o w e v e r g reat, by taki n g n s u ffi c i e n tly

re at
g .

Th us , co mme nc i ng wi th th e s e c o n d ter m, e ac h te r m o f th e s e ri es

is g eater th an the corresp on d ing te

r r m of th e s e ri es

wh i c h was p r o ve d dive rg e nt i n 54 0 , I II .

Th e n , th e g i ve n s e ri e s i s d i ve rge n t .

(Th is was a ls o p rove d i n 54 0 , ) II .

I
\ 54 8 . To p rove the i n n i te s er i es

1 1 1
+
a n
co nvergen t when k is 1, a nd d i vergent when k 1 or It 1 .

I . If k c
i s > 1 , th e s e o n d a n d th i r d te rm s a re to ge th e r
1 1
$
2
r th e n e xt f o u r te r ms a r e to g e th e r 5 th e n e x t
2 ?
9
2 k

e i gh t a r e

T h en
to g e th e r

th e
5 k ; an d s o o n

i s le s s th a n th e
.

, s e ri e s s e ri e s

2 z
4 s 1 1
. 1

1
or i + +
w g

whi c h was p rov ed , in 5 30 , to a pp r o a ch a ni te li mi t w he n

th e nu mb e r of te r ms wa s i n d e n i te ly i n c e r a s ed .

T h e fo e re r ,
th e g i v e n s e ri e s is c o n v e rg e n t .

II If k . 1 , th e s e ri e s bec o me s
1 1 1
1
 68 A DV A N C ED C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
1
Th e thi r d an d f o u rth te rm s ar e to ge th e r or ; th e n e xt
52
f our te rms a re to g e th e r or an d s o o n .

T h en by , taki n g a s uf c i e n tly g re at n um er b of te r ms , th e i r
su m may b e ma d e g re a te r th an an y a s s i g n e d nu mb e r, h o w e v e r
g r ea t,
a n d th e serie s i s d iv e rgent .

Th e se ri e s ()
1 i s a h a r mo ni c s er i e s

III . If k i s 1, e ac h te r m of th e g i v e n s e ri e s , c ommen ci ng ,

w i th th e se c on d ,
i s g re ate r th a n th e c orre spond ing te r m a

of

a nd th e seri e s is d i v e r g ent
As e xa mples of th e ab o v e ge n e ral th e o re m, th e se ri es

1 1
1 + + + +m
2 4 2
2 3
is convergent and th e s er i e s

1 +
V2 V3 VI
i s d i ve rgen t .

54 9 mmenci ng wi th a certa i n a ss i gne d term, ea ch term

. If ; co

of a s er i e s of p o s i ti ve ter ms i s gr ea ter tha n s o me a s s i gned n i te

n u mb er , h owever s ma ll, the s er i es i s d i ve rg ent

F o r th e m o f th e r s t n te rm s c an b e ma d e to e xc e e d a ny
su

a s s i g n e d n u mb e r , h o w e v e r gr e a t, by taki n g n s u fci en tly great .

Th u s , i n th e s er i e s

e a ch ter m, co mme n c i ng with th e s e c o nd , i s gre ate r th a n

Th e n , th e s e r i es i s d i ve rg e n t .

terms , the f two

'

If , i n two o s i ti ve r a ti o o
550 . s er i e s o f p co rr e

sp o n d i n
g te r ms i s a lwa ys n i te, the r s t s e r i es is co n vergen t if
the s e co n d is con vergen t, a n d d ivergen t if i t i s d i vergen t .

L et th e s e ri e s b e u1 + u2 + u3 + m ,
an d v1 v2 + v3 +

I . L e t th e s e c on d s e r i e s be c o n v e r g en t .

L et k b e a n i te n um b er g r e a te r th a n th e gr e ate s t of th e

f i
lz a
g
r
t l
i t} /
f
r a ti o s ,
th e n , k, < k, w
k .

1 2 v1
 C O N V E R G ENC Y A ND DI V E RG EN C Y o r S ER E S I 36 9

Th e n, a, kvl , 71 2 kvg, u
,
a n
kvn .

Add i n g th e s e i n e q ua li ti e s , we h a v e

( u. 2 k(
v1 + 712 +
B ut sin c e th e se cond seri es is c o n v e r g e n t, v1 v2 v is
ni te , h o w ev er g r ea t n may b e ; a ls o , It i s ni te .

Th e n , a1 + u2 + + an i s n i te , h o w e ve r g r e a t n may b e ,
and th e rs t s e ri e s is

II . L e t th e s e con d s e rie s b e d i v e r g e nt .

L et k be a ni te nu mb e r s malle r th a n th e le a s t o f th e r a ti o s

u a
E, j , a
th e n , J
a
> h
n
>k .

v1 v2 v1 v2 v7,

Th en ul k vl ,

152 ky z, N
,
u k Un
.

W h e n c e , (a 1 u2 an
) k(
v1 v2 +
,

No w, s i n c e th e s e c o n d s e ri e s i s d i v e r g e n t, vl + v2 v

c an b e m a d e gr e a te r th a n a ny a s s i g n e d n u mb e r , h o w e v er g re at,
by s u fc i e n tl y
i n re a s i n g c n .

Th e n , a1 u2 a n c an b e ma d e gr e a te r th an a n y a s s i gn e d

nu m e r , b ho w eve r g r e a t, by c
s u f i e n tl y
i n c r e a s i n g n, an d th e
r s t s e ri e s i s d i ve rg e n t .

1 1 1
1 . P ro v e th e serie s 3
+ m
c o nv e r ge n t .

1 x2 2 X3 3 x4

We c o mp ar e th e s e ri e s W i th th e s er i e s

1 1
1 + + +
2 2
3 2

w h i ch wa s sh o wn to b e c on v e r g e n t in 54 8 .

Th e r a ti o of th e n th te r m of th i s to th e nth te rm of th e
1

gi ve n s e ri e s is
2
w ,
or 1

n n ( 1)

T hi s is al w ay s b e tw ee n 1 an d 2, an d i s there for e ni te fo r
e ve ry v a lu e o f n .

Th e n th e g i v e n s e ri e s is c on v er gent .
 70 A DV ANC E D C O U R S E IN A L GE B RA
2 2
1 2 3
2 . P ro v e th e s eri e s d 1 ve r g ent
1 x2 3 x 4 5 x 6
We co mp ar e i t w i th th e s e ri e s

wh i ch wa s sh o wn to b e di v e r g e n t i n 5 4 0 , II I .

Th e r a ti o o f th e n th te r m of th e g i v e n se ri e s to th e nth te rm
of ()
1 i s

i
1
T hi s is alw ay betw e ens and ,
an d i s th e r e fo r e n i te f o r
2
ev y
er v alue o f n ; th e n th e g i v e n s e ri e s i s d i v e rg e n t .

551 . If , co mmenc i ng wi th a ce r ta i n a s s ign ed ter m, the r a ti o

of ea ch te r m of an i nfin i te s er i es o f p o s i ti ve ter ms to the p re ced i ng

te rm i s nu mer i ca lly les s tha n a f i x e d p o s i ti v e n u mb e r ,
wh i ch i s

i ts elf les s tha n un i ty, the s e r i es is con ve rgen t .

L e t th e serie s he u1 u2 u3
()
1

S u pp o s e - < k,
QL2
23 < h, m ,
u"
k, m ,
wh e re k is 1 .

U1 2 u n l

By 54 0, I , s in e c It i s 1 , th e i n n i te s e ri e s

is c n e ge n t
o v r .

Th n by 550
e , , sin e u 1c i s n i te , th e s er ie s

()
2
is c on v e r gen t .

Mu lti ply i n g to g e th e r th e r st n 1 of th e a bo ve i n e qua li ti e s

we h a v e
u 2u3 un

1 71 2 u n -i 1

Th at i s , th e n th te r m of ()
1 i s le s s th an th e n th te r m of ()
2
an d by 5 4 6, s e ri e s ()
1 i s c o n v e r g e nt .

Th e r a ti o o f a n to un i s calle d th e R a ti o of C o nver g ency o f th e i n nite

s e r i e s u1 W u3
2 3 4
2 2
Ex . P r o ve th e s eri es 1 + c onv e r g ent .

l_ l
l
_
 C ON V E R G E N C Y AND DIV E R G E N C Y OF S ER ES I 37 1

Th e ra ti o o f th e (n 1 )th te rm to the nth i s

n+1
2

2 n

Ln

If n : 2, th e r a ti o e q u a ls an d for an y v a lu e o f n 2 , th e

ra ti o is 2
3
Th e n ,c o mme n c in g w i th th e f o u r th te rm, th e r a ti o of ea ch
te r m to th e p c e di n g i re s
g ,
an d th e s e r i es is c o n v e r ge n t .

552 If , co mmenci ng wi th a c er ta i n a ss i gn ed te r m, the r a ti o

of e a ch ter m of an inn i t e s e r i es o fp os i ti ve ter ms to the p reced

i ng ter m i s e i ther e qu a l to , or
g r ea te r t h a n ,
un i ty,
the s e r i es i s

d iverge nt .

F or, co mme n c i n g w i th th e a s s i gn e d te rm, ea ch te r m of th e

s e ri e s is e i th e r e q ua l to , or g r e a te r th an , th e a s s i gne d te r m ;
and th e s e ri e s i s d i v e r ge n t by 54 9 .

2
:P
3
2 2 2
Ea rov e th 6 s e ri e s + + di v e r g en t .

1 x 2 2 x 3 3 4:

Th e r a ti o o f th e (n 1 )th te rm to th e n th is
n+ l
2

(n 1 )(
n 2)

n ( n 1)

If n 2, th e r a ti o e q u als 1 an d f or an y v alue o f n 2, the

r a ti o 1 s 1 .

Th e n , co mme n c i n g w i th th e th i r d te r m, th e r a ti o of e ac h

te r m to th e p r e c e d i n g i s e qu a l to , or g r e a te r th a n, 1 , an d th e
s e r 1 e s i s d i v e r ge nt .

55 3 . Th e me tho d of 55 1 d o e s n o t a pp l y when th e r ati o o f

th e ( n + 1 )th t e r m to th e n th i s le s s th a n 1 , b u t ap p ro a ch es
the li mi t 1 w /
h e n n i s i ll d e n i te ly i n re as e d c .
 37 2 A DV A N C ED C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
c a s e the ati w ill n t alway b l s th an a x d
F o r i n thi s r o o s e es e

p os i ti e n u mb v w

hi h i i ts l f l t
e r,h n 1 c s e e ss a .

I n s u c h a s s th n c ge n ye d i e g e n cy o f th e s e i e s
,
e co ver c or v r r

mu s t b e d e t mi n e d by th t t er o er es s .

C n si de f o e xa mp l th e s e
o r, rs e, ri e

1 1 1
1 +
3 5 7

Th e rati o o f th e ( n 1 )th te rm to th e n th is

1 _1
2 n + 1 2n 1 n

1 2 n +1 1
2+
2n 1 n

Thi s w ay s 1
is al , b ut a pp r oa ch es th e li mi t 1 w h en n is
i n d e n i te ly i n c ase d re .

Th e s eri e s i s d i ve r g ent, wh i ch may b e sh o w n as in 54 8, II .

4 55 4 If ni t ter ms i s i t wi ll
an in e s e r i es o f p o s i ti ve con ve rgen t,
0 r ema i n
.

so a f ter the s i gn s o f a ny o f i ts ter ms ha ve b een cha nged .

F o r th e su m of th e r s t n te rms w i ll s ti ll b e n i te, h o we v e r
g r e at n may b e, an d th e s e ri e s is c on v e r gen t by 54 5 .

I t f o llo w s f r o m th e a b ove th a t th e th e o r e ms
l
of 54 6
and 5 51 h o ld wh e n a n y o r a ll o f th e te r ms a r e n e g ati v e ; a n d
a ls o th e r s t s tate me n t of 55 O wh en a ll th e te rms are

n t e
e g a i v .

55 5 . I t fo llo ws fr o m 55 1 , 5 5 2 , an d 554 th at
I . If the r a ti o o f the ( n 1 )th ter m f
o an in n i t e s er i es to the

n th ter m app r o a ches a li mi t nu mer i ca lly < 1 , when n i s i n d e

n i tely i n crea s ed , the s e r i es is c o n verge nt .

2
Th u s , i n th e ex a mp le o f 551 , a p p r o a ch e s th e li mi t 0 , wh e n n is
n 1
i n d e n i te ly i n c r e as e d .

1 Th e n , th e s e r i es is c o n verg en t .

FR II . If the r a ti o o f the ( n + )1 th te r m o f a n i n n i te s eri es to

the n th term app ro a ches a li mit n u mer i ca lly > 1 , when n i s
indeni tely i nc rea s ed , the seri es i s di vergent .
 C ON VER G E N C Y AN D DI V E R GE N C Y O F SER ES I 37 3

Th us , i n th e e xa mple of 5 52 , th e r ati o o f th e (n 1 )th te rm to th e

nth te r m c a n b e writte n and th i s a pp roac h es th e li mi t 2 wh e n n is

2
i n d e n i te ly i n c r e a s e d 1
h
Th e n , th e s e r ie s i s d iv e rg e n t .

If th e r a ti o o f th e (n 1 )th te r m to th e n th term a p p r o ac h e s th e li mit

1 , wh e n n i s i n d e n ite ly i n c r e a se d , o th e r te s ts mus t b e a pp li e d to d e ter
mi ne wh eth er th e s e r i e s i s c o n ve rg e n t o r d i ve rg e nt

p.
9 55 6 . If the ter ms f
o an in n i t e s er i e s a re a lter n a te l
y p os iti ve

a nd n ega ti ve, a n d ea ch te r me r ica lly les s tha n the p r eced ing

m nu

ter m, the s er ie s is co n ve rg en t if the n th ter m ap p roa che s the li mi t

0 when n i s ind e ni t ly i n e c r ea s e d .

L e t th e s erie s be u1 u2 u3

I t may b e w r i tte n i n th e f o rms

71 2
) (u3 U4
) us ) 1
()
an d u1 (uz us
) (u4 u5
) ()
2

S in ce e ach o f th e e xp r e s s i o n s u1 u, , w, u e tc .
,
is p o si
ti v e ,
it i s ev i de n t f ro m (1 ) an d
()
2 th a t th e su m o f th e r s t n

te r m s i s p o s i ti v e , an d u] .

T hat i s , th e su m o f th e r st n te rms of th e g i ve n s e ri e s is
n i te , h o w e ve r g r ea t n ma y b e .

Th e su m of th e m te rms c o mmen c in g w i th th e (n 1 )th i s

ziz ( n
u a
+2 it un i
m )5 ()
3

th e u pp e r or lo we r s i gn b eing tak e n b ef o re a n ,
a cc o rd i n g a s

m is o dd or e v en .

Th e ex p r e s si o n i n p a r e nth e s e s c an be w r i tte n i n th e f orms

( un+ 1 un + 2 > ( un + 3 rut-4 )

and (M
71 -1
4 2 rt ( n -H a n
)
whi ch sh o w s th at i t i s p o s i ti v e a n d a n

Now ,
if n is i nd e n i te l y i n c re a s e d , a n , an d th e r e fo r e
e xp r e s s i on ap p r oa ch es th e li mi t 0 .

T hu s, th e su m of c ommen c in g
an y ni te nu m e r o f b te r ms
w i th th e (n + 1 )th app ach s th li mi t 0 w hen n i s indenitely
ro e e

i n c e ase d
r n d th e s e i e s i
,
a c on e g n t by 54 3 r s v r e .
 374 A DVA N C ED C O URS E IN A L GE B R A
As an e xa mp le o f th e a b ove th e o re m, th e s e ri e s

1 1 1
+
2 3 4
is c onve r g e nt .

ni t
4

4 55 7 . To p rove the i n e s er i e s

co nvergen t when a :
i s nu me r ica lly 1 .

Th e r ati o o f th e ( n 1 )th te r m to th e nth te r m i s

1
( 1)

ar
:
a n n
a
n n 1 n

whi ch app o ac h e s r th e li mi t awh en n i s i n d e n i te l y i nc ea s d

r e .

T h en i f i s ,
a n u me r i c a lly < 1 ,
th e s e rie s i s c o nv e g e nt
r

5 55 I ) ,
.

558 . To p ro ve the i n n i t e s er i es

2
o

1 + az
1 -
l
convergent f or eve ry va lu e o f an

Th e r a ti o o f th e ( n + 1 )th te rm to th e nth is

whi ch a pp o ac h e s th e li mi t 0 w h en n i s i nd en i te ly i n c
r r e as e d .

T h e n th e s e i e s i s c n ge nt 5 55 I )
,
r o ve r ,
.

n i t
A 559 . To p r ove the i n e s er i es

wher e n is a ny p os i ti vef r a cti o n, or n ega ti ve i n teger or f r ac ti on ,

c on vergen t when a :
i s n umer i ca lly 1 .

By 28 7 , th e r a ti o o f th e ( r 1 )th te rm to th e r th te rm i s

7
 C ON V E R G E N C Y AND DI V E R G E N C Y OF SER ES I 37 5

T h at i s ,
x, or

1 , thi s a p p r oa c h e s th e li mi t wh e n l
If n d oe s n o t e q ua l c
c

r i s i nd e n i te l y inc re a s e d ; a nd th e se rie s is c on v e r g en t if a :i s
nu me r i c a ll y 1 5 5 5,
ta k e s th e f o r m 1
? 3
If n 1 , th e s e ri e s a; at x

w hi c h i s c o n ve r g e n t w h en :
is a n ume r i a ll c y 1 by 556 .

560 . T he in ni t e s e r i es

"
loc +

is con verge nt when the mer i ca l va lu e of cc i s

nu ta ken su i

c i e n tly
s ma ll, a nd f o r a ny numeri ca lly s ma ller va lu e of at , i n clu d i ng zer o .

F o r th e . r a ti o o f th e ( n 1 )th te r m to th e n th is

W h ate v e r th e v a lu e s o f k an d l, a; may b e ta k e n so s mall th at

I
w ay c y wh e c y
f s h all al s be nu me r i a ll q, re i
g s n u me r i all 1 .

Th e n, fo r th i s v alue o f so th e s e ri e s is co nv e rg e n t .

An d by 5 4 6, i t i s c o n v e r ge nt for a ny nu me ri c ally s maller

v alue o f cc, c
i n lud i n g 0 .

561 . If a :
h as an y v alue
(
not i n clu d i n g ze r o
) w h i c h mak e s
th e s e ri e s
a be : 0x 2
()
1

c o n v e r g e n t, a :
bi ca
r
? m ,
an d th e r e fo r e b aa 0x
2 m ,
or

x (b + c x m ) ,
i s ni t e, f o r thi s va lu e o f 93 .

Th e n , s i nc e c
c is n o t z e r o, b en : i s n i te f or th i s v alu e

o f at an d x ( ca: m ow pp ch th e li mi t 0
z
; b ) ,
or b ar a r oa es

wh en a :
is i n d e n i te l y d e c r e as e d .

S in c e b or i s n i te f o r an y v alu e o f 03, e x e c pt 0 whi ch ,

mak e s s e ri e s ()
1 c o n v e r g e n t, i t i s i tself con v e r g e nt fo r thi s
e of a :
562 . Ab solutely and Condi ti onally Conv erg ent S eri es .

A con v e r ge n t i n n i te s e r i e s, h av i n g n e g ati v e te r ms , i s s ai d to
be a b s o lutely convergent when it re ma i n s c o nv e r g e nt af te r th e
s i gns o f th e negati ve ter ms ar e ch an ge d .
37 6 A DV A N C ED C O UR S E IN AL G E B R A
It i s sai d to b e c on d i ti ona lly co nvergent wh e n thi s i s n ot th e
c as e .

T hu s ,
th e c onv erge nt i nn i te seri e s 55 6)

1 1 1
1
2 3 4

i f th e s i gn s o f th e n e ga ti ve te rms ar e c h an ge d b e c ,
o mes
1 1 1

w hi c h wa s p ov ed di e gent i n 5 4 8
r v r .

T h en th e se i e s (1 ) i s c ondi ti on ally c onv e gent

,
r r .

In a c n d i ti o n ally c on e g en t s e i e s th e s u m f th e te ms
o v r r ,
o r

ap p ro a c h e s a diffe e n t li mi t by a d i ffe e n t ar an g e me n t o f th e
r r r

te r ms .

T hu s , in s e r i es we may w r i te th e ter ms

wh i ch sh o w s th at th e su m o f th e te rms i s

We may als o w r i te th e ter ms

1 1
+
11

whi ch sh o w s th at the su m of th e te rms i s

6
T h en th e te r ms o f a s e ri e s c ann ot be a rr an g e d
'

in a ny d e si r e d
o rd e r unl e ss th e s e r1 e s i s a b s o lu te l y c on v e r g e nt .

EXERC S E 8 4 I
E xp and each of th e f ollowin g to f our terms

3 +4 x 2 + 4 x 5 as
1 0 4
l + 2x 3 2
6x +7 x 3

2
1 -5 c2 :
5 2
.

1 x

3
6 . V x + xy + y
2 2
. 9 . Va + 2 b6 .
 C ON V E R G E N C Y A ND DI V E R GE NC Y o r S ER E S I 37 7

D e te r mi ne wh e th e r th e fo llo wi n g i n n i te se ri es are c o nv e rge nt o r

d i ve rg en t :
L)
10 . .

(
c 17 .

11 .
U) 18 .

1 l l
+ + 19
17 2

3 4 5 6

2a 1 +
3 +

1
14 . 1
41 2

1
15

4 34

1
16 .

2 2 f5
+ + + 23

D e te r mi n e f o r wh a t values o f :
a e ach o f th e followi ng i n n i te s eri es is
c o n ve r g e n t o r d ive rge n t :

2 2 2 x3
2 33 + 3 96 +

26 . Pro ve th e i nn i te s e ri e s

1 1 1

c o nve rg e nt wh en a :
i s 1, an d d i ve rg e nt wh en x 1 or x 1 .

27 . Pr ove th e i nn i te s e r i es

1 ?
x a

1 + x
+
1 +
+
1 + +

c o nverge n t for eve ry va lue o f cc .

In d e te r mi n ing th e c o n v e rg e nc y o r d ive rg e n c y o f a s er i es , it is us u ally

b e s t to co mme n c e wi th th e te s ts o f 55 5 i f th e limi t a ppr oa ch e d is 1 , th en

o th er me th o d s may b e trie d .
 78 A DV ANCE D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A

XX V II . U ND E TE R M INE D C O E FF IC IE NTS

TH E TH E OR E M OF U NDE TER MINE D COE FFICIE NTS

5 63 An i mp o rtant me th o d f o r e x p an d i n g e x p r e s s i on s i n to
s eri e s i s b a se d o n th e f ollo w i n g th eo re m:
L et the memb er s f
o the equ a ti o n

A + B x + Om + D ai + 2
A ()
1
3 '

b e in n i t e s er i es whi ch a r e e qu a l f or a ny valu e o f :
wh i ch
a ma kes
the m b o th c on verg en t ; then , the co e i c i en ts o f li ke p o we rs o f a:
in
the s e r i es wi ll b e equ a l; tha t i s,

B Z B '
, 0 : O '
,
etc .

By 5 60 , e a c h s e ri e s is c o n v e r g en t for a ce rta i n n ite v alu e

of v
.
,
a n d f or a ll s malle r v alue s ; an d si n e c thi s i s th e case, e a ch
of th e e xp r e s s i o n s

+ 0 90 +
2 2
3 513 and B cc + 0 90 +
ap p oach th e li mit 0 wh n :
r es i s i n d e n i t ly d e c e as d e a e r e

T h n th gi en s i ap p o ac h th li mi ts A an d A e sp ec
e ,
e v er e s r e

,
r

ti vely w h n :
,
i i n d n i t ly d
e a a s d e e e c re se .

N w i n c th e g i e n s i e s a fu n c ti on s f
o ,
s e v wh i c h a e
er re o r
e, r

eq u l
a f o y a lu f
r eve r
o w hi c h m k
v s th m b
e th c on v e g e n t
a a e e o r ,

th e i li mi t w h n
r i s i n d n i t ly d c ea s d a
s e at e qu a l e e e r e re

The f e r e or A A '
,

an d h e nc e Bx + 0x + 2 m

S in c :
is n
e a ot 0 , w e ma y d i vi d e th r ou gh by cc .

T h en , B + Ca>+ m
()
2

B y 5 6 1 , e a h me m e r o f ( c b
2) i s c o n v e r ge n t f o r th e sa me
:
v a lu e s o f a a s th e c o rr e s o n d i n
p g me m e r of b
T h t i s (2) i s s ati d by
a , s e a n y v a lu e o f a :
wh i ch mak e s b oth
me mb e n rs
g n t ; a n
co d l ver e e tti n g a b e i n d e n i te l y de c r e as e d,
we h a v e B B
r
.
 U ND E TE RMIN E D C O E FFICI E N TS 37 9

Pro c e e di n g i n th i s way , we may p r o ve C

O
,
e tc .

Th e ab o ve p r o o f h o ld s wh e n e i th e r o r b o th of th e g i ve n s e ri es ar e nite .

EXP ANS ION OF FR A CTION S

3
2 3 x
564 1 Ex p an d in c
a s end in g we rs of
:3
. .
p o x .

1 2 a

We s aw i n 5 3 9 th a t a f a c ti o n c o uld b e e xp a n d e d i nto a
, ,
r

s e i e s by d i i d i n g th e n ume a t
r v by th e d en o mi nato r or r .

We th e f o e k n o w tha t th e p o p o s e d e xp an s i o n i s p o s s i ble
re r r .

As s ume th e n
2 3
2 3 93 x

1 2 w+ 3 1

wh e re A, B , C, D ,
E ,
a re n umb e r s i n d e p e n d e n t o f a) .

Cle ar i n g of c
f r a ti on s , an d c o lle c ti n g th e te r ms i n th e c
s e on d

me mb e r i nv o lv i n g lik e p o w e r s o f a), we h ave

2 3x2
m = A + B ax+ 0
s 2
+ D m+ E
3 i -
()
2
'

93 sc t u n
.

1
3
_ 2 A 2B _
4 u7 2D

1
.

4 0 11 3 1 4
+3A +3 0
.

+3B
A v erti c al li ne , c alle d a b a r , is o fte n u s e d i n p la c e of p a re n th e s e s .

Thu s , B :i
a s e q ui vale n t to (B 2 A) x .

2A

E qu ati on s ()
1 and ()
2 are s ati s e d w h en :h a as a ny valu e

whi c h mak e s th e ec n d s o me mb e r a c on v e r g e nt s e r i e s .

Th e n by 563 th
, ,
e c o e fc i en ts of lik e p o we rs of v
. in ()
2
mu st b e e q u al ; th at i s ,

A 2
B 2A . 0 ; my B = 2 A
0 2 B + 3 A 3 A 3
D 20 +S B S E 1

E ~
2 D+3 C m oA E = 2 0 _3 o

Su b stitutin g th e s e v alu e s in we h av e
2 s
2 3w a
: :
'

2 4 a w2 1 5 c
c
3 27 a
4

1 2 93
Th e r e s u lt ma y b e v e ri e d by d i v i s i on .
380 ADV AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L GEB RA
The s e r i es e xp r es s es th e va lu e o f th e fr ac ti o n o nly fo r s uch value s o f a :
as mak e i t c o n ve rg e n t

I f th e nu me r a to r an d d e n omi n ato r c on tai n o nly even p we

o rs

o f x, th e O p e r a ti on may be a b ri d g e d by as sumi n g a s eri e s c on

ta i n i n g on l y th e ev en p o w e r s o f a) .

2
2 4 x
4
T h us ,
i f th e fr a ti on c we re
90
we

s h ou ld as su me
+5 m
2
1 3 90

it e qu al to A Ba : 2
0m 4
D 50 6
E 90 8

I n li k e man n e r , i f the nume r ato r c n tai n s on ly d d p w e

o o o rs

o f x, a n d th e d e n o mi n a tor o nly e e n p w e s we s h o uld a s ume

v o r , s

a s er i e s c on tai n i n g o n ly th e o dd p w e f x o rs o .

I f e e y te m f th e n ume to
v r r o nta i n s we may a ssu me a ra r co at,

s e i e s c mme n c i n g w i th th l w e s t p o w
r o f w i n th nu me a to
e o er o e r r .

If e y te m f th e d e n o mi n at c n tai n s we d ete min

ver r o or o (13,

r e

by a c tual d i i s i on wh t p we o f :
v wi ll cc u i n th st te m
a o r a o r e r r

o f th e x p n s i o n an d th e n as su me th e f a ti n e qu a l to a e i e s
e a ,
r c o s r

c omme n c i n g w i th th i s p w f th e x p n ents o f a:in the

o er o 90 , e o

s ucc e e d i n g te ms i n c e as i n g by u n i ty a s b e f o e
r r r

2 . Ex p an d in c
a s e n di n g p o we r s of w .

S
2
D iv i di n g 1 by 3 90
2
,
th e qu oti e n t i s .

5
We th en a s su me,
z- 2
Aw J- Bw l
C + D x + E oc +
'

r
3

Cle ar i n g of c
fr a ti o n s

1 =SA+3B 50 4 -3 0 w + 3 D m+ 3 E
2 3

A B C D

E quati ng coe c i ents of li k e p o we r s o f x,

3 A=1 ;

3 B A = O;

3 O B =0;

3 D C = D;

S E D = O; e tc .
 U ND E TE R MIN E D C E O FFI CIE N TS 3 81

Wh en c e , A
1
B 1 0
g
, )
9

Su b sti tutin g i n we h av e
1 _ w 2
wu 2
"

3 517
2

3 s i +
27
+
81
+

In E x 1 , E . 2D 3C th at i s , the c oe fc i e nt of x
4
e qu als

twi ce th e c
o ef ci en t o f th e p c re e di n g te r m, mi n u s th r e e ti me s
th e c oe ffi ci e n t of th e n e xt b ut p one re c ed in g .

It i s e vi d ent th a t thi s la w h old s f or th e c

s uc ee d i n g te rms ;
th u s, th e c o e ffi c i e nt o f x
5
is 2 x 27 ) 3 x or 9 .

Af te r th e la w o f
c o e f c i e n ts h as b e e n f u n d i n n y xp a n s i o n
o a e ,

th e te r ms may b e f oun d mor e e s a i ly th n by l n g d i i s i on ;

a o v

an d f o r th i s r e a s o n th e m e th o d o f 5 64 i s to b e p e f e e d wh en r rr

a lar g e n umb e r o f te r ms i s r e q u i r e d .

Th e law f o r E x 2 i s th at . e a c h c oe fc i ent is o n e-
thi r d th e

p r e c e d in g .

EXE RC S E 8 5 I
E xp and each o f th e follo win g to ve te r ms

3+2x 1
1-4 513 x
2 3 x3
5 9
1 x+ 3
.

1 x

3 x 2 2+

1 6x 2 x + 3 x2 2 3 2
95 3 + 5 x 2
6 . 10 .

1 +4 x l + 2 x2 3 2 x+ w 3

4 + x2
1 +4 zz 2 + x 3 x2 1 4 + x3
7 11
1 + 4 x x2 _4 x + 5 x2
'

1 3 x2 1 x+ 2 x

2x x7 x
3
4 x4 3 4 x3 l 4 x+2
:
. .

3 5 5 2 x3 3 x5 x6

cl 2 1 c
c 2 oc 2 2 +x 2 - 3 x3

E XP ANS ION OF S U R DS
565 . B 93 . E xp an d :i n as ce n d i n g p o w e
a r s o f a} .

We s a w, in 5 3 9 , th at th e s q u a r e r o ot o f a n i mp e rf e c t s quar e
c o uld be e xp a n d e d i n to a s e ri e s b y E v o lu ti o n .

We th e r e f o r e k n o w th at th e p r o p os e d e xp a ns i on is p oss i ble .

As su me th e n ,
-E m
()
1
4
V1 +
382 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
S qu ari n g b o th me mb e r s , we h a v e by 1 34 ,

1 az =A 2
03 + B z
ac
2
513
3
+ 0 2 4
x 4
+ 2 AB + 2 AO + 2 AD + Z AE
+2B0 + 2 BD
E qu ati n g c o efc i e n ts o f lik ep o we rs o f ac,

A 2
1 A 1 .

1 1
2 AB 1 ; o r, B
2A 2
2
B 1
B + 2 AO
2
O; o r, 0
2 A 8
BO 1
2 AD + 2 B O 0 ; o r, D
A 16
2
0 4-
3
131)
0 + 2 AE + 2 B D
2
O; o r, E
2
Su b stituti n g th e s e v a lu e s 1 11 we h av e
4
5 513

2 8 16 1 28

Th e re s ult may b e v e ri e d by E v o lu ti on .

Th e se r i es e x p r e s s e s th e va lu e of V1 :
a o n ly fo r s uch values o f a as :
mak e it c o n v e rg e n t .

EXERC S E 8 6 I
E xp an d e a ch o f th e follo wi ng to ve te rms

5 . (71 4-3 95 .

s
6 . x/l x 2 x2 .

ARTIAL F R A CTIONS
P

566 . I f th e d e n o mi n t f a f a c ti n c a n
a or o r o be r e s o lv e d i nto
f ac to r s , e a ch of th e r s t d e g r e e i n a), an d th e n u me r a to r i s o f a
lo w er d e gr e e th an th e d e n o mi n a to r , th e Th e o r e m o f U n d e te r
mi n e d C o e fc i e n ts e n a ble s u s to e xp r e s s th e g i v e n f ra c ti o n a s
th e s u m o f two o r mo r e p a r ti a l f r a cti o n s , wh o s e d e n o mi n ato r s
w

a r e f a c to rs o f th e g i v e n d e n o mi n ato r , a n d h o s e n ume ra to r s
ar e i n d ep ende nt of w
.
 U ND E TE R MINE D C O E FFI CIE N T S 383

5 67 . CA S E 1 . No f a cto rs of the d en o mi na tor e qua l .

11 i
9
pa
+ pa c
1 Se r ate i nto rti a l f ra ti o n s
:
. .

(3 a 2)
3
19 as 1 A B
As sume
513 1
(
3 x 3 5 w+ 2

wh ere A and B a re n u mb e r s i n d e p e nd e n t of as
.

we h a v e
Clear i n g of fr ac t
i
on s,

1
)
B .
()
2

Th e s e on dc me mb e r of
()
1 mu st e x pr e s s th e v alu e of th e

g i v e n fra cti on fo r e v er y v a lu e o f a)
.
H n ce e ,
e q u a ti o n
'

()
2 i s s a ti s e d b y ev er y v a lu e o f x ; an d by
5 63 , th e c o efc i e n ts o f li k e p o we rs of a :
in th e two me mb e r s
ar e e q u a l .

T h at i s , 5 A + 3 B = 1 9,

2A B = 1
"
an d . 0

S olv i n g th e se e q u ati o n s , we o b tai n A 2 an d B

Su b stituti n g i n we h a v e

l 9 w+ l 3

(
3 x 3w

Th e r e s ult may b e v e ri e d by n d i n g th e su m o f th e pa r ti a l

f ra cti on s .

+4 x
2 . Se pa r a te
39 91?
i nto pa r ti al c
f r a ti o n s .

2 517

Th e fa tor s c o f 2 513 90
2 95
3
ar e ac, 1 90, and 2+ x .

x +4 A B C
As s ume th e n + +
2x
x
2
m 3
x 1 x 2+ x

Cle ar i n g of c
f ra ti o n s , w e h av e

w+ 4 = A (
1 w) + B x (
2 + 90
) + C (
1 w) ax .

Thi s e qu ati o n , be ing s ati s e d by ever y v a lu e o f x, is s ati s e d

wh en ac O .
3 84 AD V AN CE D C O URS E IN A L G E B R A
P utti n g cc 3 0 , we ha v e 4 2 A, or A 2 .

Agai n, th e e q ua ti on is s a ti s e d wh en a :1 .

P uttin g m= 1 , we h av e 5 = 3 B , or
3
Th e e qu a ti o n is a ls o s a ti se d wh e n : a 2 .

P utti n g a : 2, we ha v e or (j_

1
+4 _
x2 3
+ +
2 w w m cc
2 3
l w 2 + x

2 5 1
a : w
)
Th e s tud e n t s h ould co mpare th e a b ove me th od of ndi ng A an d B wi th
th at us e d i n E x . 1 .

568 . CAS E II . All the f a cto rs of the d en o mi n a tor equa l;

z
( 11 4 4 6 in to
L e t it b e r e qu i r e d to s e p ar a te
90
pa r ti a l

c
f ra ti o n s .
(
91;

Su b sti tutin g y + 3 f o r w, th e f r a ti o n c b ec o me s

3
2

p c
R e la i n g y by a: 3 ,
th e r e s ult ta k e s th e f o rm

1 5 2
3 m
x ( c
(cv

Thi s sh o w s th at th e g i v e n f r a t i o n c c an be ex p r e s se d a s th e
su m o f th r e e p a r ti a l f r a c ti o n s , h o s e w nume rato r s a re ind ep en
d en t of w, an d wh o se d e n o mi n a tor s ar e th e p weo rs of w 3
b egin n i n g w i th th st a n d n d in g w i th th th i d
e r e e r .

S i mi l c n s i d e ti n s h ld w i th e s p e ct t an y xample
ar o ra o o r o e

u n de rC s II ; th nu mb e
a e f p a ti al f c ti n i n an y c
e r o r ra o s a se

b e i n g th m a th n u mb e o f qu l f to i n the d n mi
e sa e s e r e a ac rs e o

n at or o f th g i e n f a c ti o n
e v r .

i n to p a rti al f r a ti on s c .
 U ND E T ER MI NE D C O E F FI CI E N TS 38 5

In a cc o rdan c e w i th thp e a b ov e ri n ci ple ,

we a s su me the g iv en
f r ac ti o n e q u a l to th e s u m o f two p a r ti a l f ra c ti o n s , h o se d e w
n o mi n ato r s a r e th e p o e r s o f 3 a w :
5 e g i n n i n g i th th e rs t b w
a n d e n di n g w i th the s eco nd .

6 az + 5 A B
T hat i s , 2 -5
(
3 x + 5) 3 92 4 3
( 90 4

Cle ari n g of c
f ra ti on s, 6 w 5 A (3 a : 5) B

3 A90 + 5 A B .

E qu ati n g c oe fc ien ts of li k e p o w e r s o f x,

3A 6,

an d 5A B 5 .

S o lvi n g th e s e e q u ati o n s , A 2 an d B 5 .

6 w+ 5 2 5
Wh e n c e 2
(
3 x + 5) 3 w+ 5

5 69 . CA S E III . S o me of the f a cto rs of the d en omi na tor equa l .

Ex . Se p arate i n to pa r ti a l f r ac ti o n s .

x x (
Th e me th o d i n Ca s e III is a co mb i nati on of th e me th o d s of

Ca s e s I an d II we a s su me
3 w+ 2 A B 0 D
m(w+ 1 )3
a:
C leari n g of c
fr a ti on s,

Ox (x + 1 ) + D x

A 0
2
(
S + 2 B + 6 90

(
3 A + B +
E qu a ti ng c o efc i en ts of li k e p o w ers of w,

A B 0,

3A 2B 0 0,

A:2 .
386 AD V AN CE D C O U RS E IN A L G E B R A
S o lvi n g, we h av e A 2, B 2, O 2, an d D 1 .

Su b s ti tu ti n g in

3 a; 2 2 2 2 1
w(
w+ 1 ) 3
:x+1
a
( x + 1)
2

Th e fo llo wi ng ge n er al rule fo r C a s e III will b e fo un d c o nv e n i e nt

X
Af r a c ti o n o f th e f or m hould b e as sumed
(a: a ) (90
s
b) m) "
e qu al to

m+ m>
< f

S i ngle fa c to rs lik e a : a a nd a :bh avi ng s in gle

p ar tial fra c ti o n s c or

re sp o n d in g, a rr an ge d as i n C as e I ; a n d re p ea te d f a c to rs lik e (a : m)

h a vi n g r p ar ti al fr a cti on s c o rr e s p o n di n g , a rr a ng e d as i n C ase II .

EXERC S E 8 7I
S e p ar ate th e followin g i nto p a r ti al fra c ti ons

8 513 6 5 x 75
2
1 5 '

ma 2 5 x

4 x2 9 .

1 9 x 30 9 x 15 x
2
2 6
6 :
. .

2 3 3
5 90 11 ( x D
2 33 10 43 x + 6
3 7
: 6

( x
2 6 x2 + 5 t

2
2 x + 1 5 x + 34 2
8x 4 2 2 7 113
4 8 12 .

(x + )
5 3
( x
2 8 1 4 x + 5 x2

flu 38 2 x3 + 1 9 x2 1 7 x + 1 2
13 . 14 .

4 - 4 3
(2 95 913 4 113

x3 x 4 1 8 x 4 x/2
15
(ao 9 x + 6 x 1
2

1 4 x2 + 1 1 x + 2 9 9 x3 24 x2 + 2O x 4
18 21
(3 x 3
( x
19
x 3
+ 14 x 2
+ 9 x 22
4
(
x + )
2

x3 3 x2 7 x 44 l 9 x 32
20 23
: 3)
. .

2
2
( ( x
2 3 ) (8 x 10

x ot a

570 . I f th e d e gr e e o f th e nu me r a to r i s e qu a l to , or g r e a te r

th a n , th at o f th e d e n o mi n ato r, th e p r e c e di n g me th o d s a re

p c ab l
i n a p li e .
 UN E TE R D MIN E D C O E F FI C I E N TS 387

In su ch a c as e, w e d i v i d e th e nu me ra to r by th e d e n o m i n a to r
ma i n d e r i s o bta i n e d
u n til a r e whi ch is of a l we o r d e g r ee th a n
th e d e no mi n a to r .

m 3x
3 2
1
Ex . Se p ate
ar
2 x
i n to an i nte gr a l e xp r e s s i o n an d
90
a rti a l fr a c ti o n s
p .

2 1
?
3 it 1 a;
We h a v e by d - x 2 ()
1
:
,
i v i s i o n,
2
x
2
w x a

2 1
We c a n n o w s e p ar a te f

i n to p ar ti a l f ra ti o n s c by th e
x
2
a: 1 3
me th o d of Ca s e I; th e r e s u lt is
a; a:1
3
3w ?
1 1 3
S u b s tl tuti n g
x
: 2
:1
in
:
a
2
x a a; a

A n o th e r way to s o lve th e a b ove e x a mp le i s to co mb i ne th e me th o d s of

564 an d 567 , a nd ass u me th e g i ve n frac ti o n e qu al to

Ax + B + 9 +
D
: c x l

EXERC S E 8 8 I
S e p ara te th e fo llo win g i nto i nte g ral e xp ress i o n s a n d p artia l fr a c ti on s

9 x3 + 2 1 x2 + 2 2 x 1 7 2 x5 2 x5 3 x2 + 1
3
1 x4 x3
)
4 x3 2 6 x2 + 20 x 1 6 x5 + 6 x4 2 x3 + 5 x + 1
2 4
( a; 952
00
5 936
+ 15 m5 + 3 x4 18
5
3 x3

571 . I f th e d e n o mi n ato r of a fr ac ti o n c an be r e s o lv e d i n to
c y
f a to r s p a rtl o f th e r s t a n d p a r tl o f th e s e c on d , o r a ll o f th e y
se c o n d d e g r e e , i n w, a n d th e n u me r a to r i s o f a lo w e r d e g r e e

th an th e d e n o mi n a to r , th e Th e o r e m of U n d e te r mi n e d C o e f
c i e n ts e n a b le s us to th e g i v e n fr a c ti o n a s th e s u m o f
e xp r e s s

two or mo re p a r ti a l f r a c ti o n s w h o s e d e n o mi n a to r s a r e f a to r s
,
c
of th e gi v e n d e n o mi n ato r , and wh o se nu me r ato r s are in d e

p den t of a
e n :i n th e c ase of f r a c ti o n s c o rr e s p o n di n g to fac to r s
of th e r st d e gr e e , an d of th e f o rm Aw + B i n th e case of

c
f ra ti o ns c o rr e s p o n d in g c
to f a to r s of th e S e co n d d e g re e .
388 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
Th e on l y e x c e p ti o n s o ccu wh en
r th e f a to r s c of th e d e n o mi
n ato r a r e o f th e se c on d d e gr e e a n d all e q u al .

1
Ex . S ep ar a te i n to p ar ti a l f ra ti o n s c .

Th e f a to r s c of th e d e n o mi n ato r are a :1 an d x
2
a :1 .

1 A B x lC
As sume th e n
3
w+ 1 +1 x w+ 1
2
x

Cle a ri n g of c
f ra ti o ns, we ha v e
1 = A(
x
2

0 .

E qu ati n g c oe fci ents o f lik e p w e o rs o f w,

A B 0,

an d A O 1 .

1
S o lvi n g th e se e qu ati on s , A
g an d C '

3
, ,
{

Su b sti tutin g i n 1 1 :2 a
,
a) 1 m
3( 1) m a: 1 )
3( 2

EXE RC S E 8 9 I
S e p arate th e following into partial fr acti on s
6 m+ 5x+
2 2 4 x3 5 x2 + 6 x + 3
1 4
1
. .

3 x4
x + 1

5 x2 + x 1 4 22 x - 6
5 .

oc + 3
) 8 x3 2 7

3 x2 x + 25 4 x3 + 18 m+ 8
6 .

2 x3 5 x2 + 4 x 1 0 x4 +3x +4 2

572 . We wi ll now S how h ow to n d an e x p r e ss i on for the

n th te r m of th e p
e x ans i o n o f a c
f ra ti o n i n c
a s e n di n g w e rs o f
p o

as
, wh e n th e d e nomi nato r c an be re so v e l d i nto bi n omi al fac to s r

of th e r s t or se c ond d e gre e in 90 .

Ex . Fi n d th e n th te r m i n the e xp an s i o n of the fra ti on c

1 7 a:
 U ND E TE RMIN E D C O E FFI CI E N TS 3 89

S e p ar ati n g th e f r a ti on i nto c pa rti al c

f ra t i o n s by th e meth od
of 567 , we h a v e
1 +7 a : 2 1
1 + 2 x 3 1 x 1 +3 x
()
1

z
B y d i v i s i on , ()
2
l w
1
an d 1 3 4
2
3 19 +
s
()
3
:
90
1 +3 a

Th e n th te r m of
()
2 i s 2 at

, an d th e n th te r m of ()
3 i s
n l l
3) w n

b c
S u tr a ti ng, th e nth te r m of ()
1 i s

2 aa or
[ 2

Th e a b ov e may be us e d a s a f or mula to o b ta i n th e s u c ces s i ve terms o f

th e e xp ans i on .

If n 1 , the exp re ss i o n b e c omes (2 1 )x0 , or 1 .

If n 2 , th e e xp ress i on b e co me s (2 3 )x, or 5 at .

If n 3 , th e e xp r e ss i o n b e c o me s (2 9 )a z
, or 7 2
113 ; etc .

1 + 7 x
1 5a: -7 2
+
: :
93
1 +2 s -3 a 2

EXERC S E 9 0I
In e ac h o f the follo wi ng , nd th e nth te r m of th e exp ansi on o f th e
frac ti on i n as cen din g p owers of x :
3 5 x 12
1 4
I x 2
.

6 +5x 6

2x 1 7 +4 x

a 5
m 6 + 3x4 2

1 9 x+ 2

6 + H x 1 + 5x+ 6
3 6
5
2 + x 3x2

In E xs 5 . and 6 , i t sh ould b e o b se rved th at th ere a re two f orms for th e

nth te rm acco rd in g as n is e ven o r od d .

REV ERS ION OF I

S E R ES

57 3 To i i + W + cx + i s to n
. r evert a g v e n s e r es y a ex

p re s s mi n the f orm of a s e ri e s p r o c e e d i n g i n as e ndin g o c .

p w ers
of y .
39 0 AD V AN CE D C O U RS E I N AL GE B R A
Em . R e v e rt th e s e ri e s y = 2 w 3 x
2
+ 4 x 5 3
m+ 4 m

A s s ume , x = Ay + B y + Oy + D y +
2 3 4

Su b s ti tuti n g in thi s th e gi v e n v a lu e o f
y,
=
w A(
2x 2
3 w+4 x 5
3
m+4 m
)
2 4
+B(
4 x + 9 x

+ 0 (8 x
3 4
36 x +
T h at i s ,
m= 2 Aw 3 A 52
2
+ 4 A x
3
5 A m+ 4 m

+4 B 12 B + 25 B
8 0 36 0
16 D

E q uati n g c oefci e nts of li k e p o we rs of a ,

2A 1

3A 4 B O

4 A
5 A + 25 B 3 6 O + 1 6 D = O e tc
; .

1 5 35
S o 1v i n g , A ,
B 0 D e tc
2 16 1 28
1 3 2 5 35
S ub s ti tuti n g 1n
(1 as 3; y + y +
3

2 8 16

I f th e p o we s o f :
e ven a e w a n ti n g i n th
r ai
g e n s e i e s th e
r e v r ,

o pe ra ti o n may b e a b i dg e d by a s u mi n g :
r e q u al t a i s c n s 51 o ser e o

ta i n i n g on ly th dd p o w e s o f y
e o r .

T hu s, t e e t th
o r v e ies y
r :x x x e s r we a ss ume a
3 5 7

= -
w Ay + B y + Ga i 0 2 +
7 3 b

I f th e o dd powe rs o f a :a re w antin g i n th e gi v e n s e ri e s , we
su b s ti tute t fo r 00
2
, a n d r e v e rt th e p
s e ri e s , e x r e s s i n g t i n as e n d c
in g p owe s f r o y; by taki ng th e s quar e r o o t of thi s r e s u lt. a :
i ts e lf ma y b e ex p re s s e d in as c end i n g p we o rs of y
.

If th e r s t te r m of th e g i v e n s e ri e s i s i nd e p en de nt of as ,
it i s
im p os i b l
s e to e xp r e s s a :i n c
a s en di n g powe rs o f y, th o u gh i t i s

p o i ble t
ss o e x pre s s i t i n th e form o f a s e ri e s whose terms a re

f un c ti o n s of y .
 U ND E T E R MIN E D C O E FFI CIE N TS 391

T hu s ,
le t i t b e r e qu i r e d to r ev er t th e s e ri e s

y = 1 + w+

The s e ri e s may b e w r i tte n y 1 :

a

Q
We th e n assu me

w= A <
y 0<
y

P ro c e e d in g as b ef o re, we n d

1 1
> --
<
y

EXE RC S E 9 I I
R eve rt each o f th e fo llo wi n g to fou r te r ms

1 .

2 .
y z x 2 x2
+3x 4 4
x + 3

3 .
: : x
a
2
a

4 .

5
2
+
a :
3 x4
+
I
.

2 6 8

g x2 x3
6 0 y '

l y : x 4 m+ 6 8 +
8 7

L E L
 AD V AN CE D C UR S E I N AL GE R
O RA

XX V III . TH E BINO M IA L TH E O R E M

ANY R ATIONAL E XP ONE NT

574 . I t wa s p rov e d in 2 85 th at, if n is a p o sitive i nte ge r,

()
1

In th i s c ase ,
th e se c on d me mb e r i s a nite se r i e s o f n +1
t e r ms .

If n is a ne gati v e i n te ge r, or a p o s i ti v e o r n e g ati v e f r a c ti o n,
th e s e ri e s i n th e c
se o n d membe r b c e o me s i n n i te ; f o r n o one

of th e e xp re s si on s n 1, n 2, e tc .
,
c a n e q u al z e r o .

We w ill n ow p r o ve th a t In thi s c a se th e se ri e s g i v e s th e v a lu e

of (
1 p r o v i d e d i t i s co n verg n t ,e th i s we k n o w to b e th e c as e
w hen a:
is nu me ri c ally 1

575 . Proof of th e B i nomi al Th eor em for Any R ati onal Exp onent .

If m an d n a r e
p o s i ti v e i n tege r s ,

1)

an d 2
az +
L
B u t, 1
( at
)

x (
1 m) m+"

Th en th e p ro d u ct of th e s e ri e s i n th e s e c on d me mb e r s o f (2)
an d
()
3 mu st e qu al th e e xp a n d e d f o rm of
(
1 th at i s ,

s :
mw+
a
1 + - + no
g

()
4
I
2

We p r o v e d th e a bo v e r e su lt o n y
th e h p oth e s i s th a t bo th m
an d n we re p o s iti ve i n te g e r s .
 TH E BINOMIA L THE O RE M 39 3

B ut th e f or m o f th e p r odu c t will e vi d en tly b e th e s ame wh at

e ve r th e v a lu e s o f m an d n .

Th e r e fo r e , ()
4 h o ld s f o r a ll r a ti o na l va lu e s o f m an d n, p ro

vided a:i s n u me r i c a ll y < 1 ; f o r i n thi s ca se ea ch serie s is

c on v e rge nt .

(W e a ss u me th a t th e p r o d uct o f two c o n ve rge n t se ri es is co nve rgent .

)
No w le t the y mb ol f (m)

m
s s ta n d f o r th e '
se r i es

1 + mw+ M z
+
L
2
fo r a n y r ati o n a l v a lu e o f m .

Th en, if m i s a p o s i ti ve i n te g e r, f
Th e n , by 25 1 , ()
4 ma
'

y b e w r i tte n

m
f( ) .
=f (
m
whi ch h o ld s fo r all r a ti o n al v a lu e s o f m an d n .

Th e n by if p i s a ls o a r ati o n al n u mb e r,
m
f( ) f (
f m + 7
0] e te

T hu s ,
m
f( ) xf ()
n to r c
f a to r s

()
7

No w le t m, n, p ,
c h be
q u al ea e to 2 , wh e re q an d r ar e
r
p o s i ti v e i n te g e r s ; th e n
(
7 b c me s e o

x = f (q) o

B ut S i n ce q i s a p o s i ti v e i n te g e r, f (q) at ?
)
r

Th e n , (
1

Tak in g th e r th r o o t o f b o th me mb er s
9 Q 1
g r

g
r
1 + m+ 2
93 +
I
ii
wh i c h p r ov e s th e th e o re m f o r a p o s i ti ve f r ac ti on al e xp o n e n t .

Th e re s ult i s p rove d o n ly for th e c as e wh ere x is nu meric ally 1 .

3 94 A D V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
A ga i n , i n le t m = n, whe re n is a p o si ti v e i nte ge r or

a p si ti ve f acti n
o r o .

T he n f( ) n
,
=f ( -n n = o
) f () o

B ut f (
0 ) s tan d s f o r (
1 whi c h e q ua ls 1

T he re for e , f n
)
No w si n e nc is a p o s i ti v e i n te g e r or a p o si ti v e c
fra ti on i t
fo llo ws f ro m (5) a n d (8) th a t f (n) (
1 a
)
1
W he nc e , f( n
)
(
1
T hen ,

(+
1 v

whi ch p r ov e s th e th e o r e m f o r a n e gati ve i nte g ral or n e g ati ve

f ra c ti o n a l ex p one nt .

Th e r e s ult i s p r o ve d o nly i n th e c as e wh e r e xi s n umeri c ally 1 .

57 6 . P utti n g
2 for v,
. in 57 4 ,

L_
2
a 2 a

Multi ply i ng ea c h te r m by a ,

we h a v e

(a w)
a

na
n1
a:M 1
co
n 2 2
x ( )
1 0
E
We w th at th e s e c n d me mb e o f (9) i s c on e ge nt wh en
k no o r v r !

i s nu me i c ally 1 r .

H en c th e s e c on d me mb e of (1 0 ) i s c on e g ent wh en :i s
e, r v r a

n ume i c ally r a .

If i s nume i c ally we c an e xp an d ( ) i c d i "

'

v
. r n a s e n
a, n g a a

p wo e s f
r a ; th u
o s ,

(: ) a a EH
" 1
a as
"
si
n 2 2

an d thi s s e ri e s w ill b e c onve r
g e n t,
s i n e a c is nu me r i c ally 93
.
 TH E BINOMIA L TH E OREM 39 5

57 7 . E x amples .

In e xp a n di n g e xp r e s s i o n s by th e B i n o mi al The o re m wh en

e
,
e xp o n e n t i s fr a ti o n al c or n e g ati v e , th e e xp on e n ts an d

c oe f i nts f the t ms m y b e f un d by th e l w f 285

c e o er a o a s o ,

w hi c h h ld fo all ati on al alu s o f th e e xp on ent

o r r v e .

p t m
1 E.x a n d ( a to e t as v er .

2
Th e e xp n n t o f i n th e s t te m i s - a n d d e c e ase s by 1
o e a r r r
3
in e ac h s u c e d i n g t m ce er .

T h e xp n e n t f :
e i n th e s e c o n d te m i s 1 an d i n c ea s e s by
o o a r ,
r

1 i n ac h u e di n g te m
e s cc e r .

Th e c e fc i e n t f th e s t te m i s 1 ; o f th e s e c on d te m
o o r r r ,
3 .

2 1
Multi p ly i n g th e c o e fCI e n t o f th e c
s e on d te rm, by
5

g
,

th e ex p one nt o f a i n th at te r m, an d di v i d i n g th e p r o d u c t by
th e e xp on e n t of 2 :i n c r ea s e d by 1, or 2 , we h a v e as th e
c
o e f c i e nt o f th e thi r d te r m an d so on .

T h en ,

a a ?
t 5 _ 1 a i
A
i 7 4
s

(d + )
x : 61 1 2
2
4 - a
4
23 +
3 4
9 81 24 3

It follo ws fro m 5 7 6 th at th e s e rie s e xp r es s es th e value o f (a )

as?
o n ly wh e n :i num
a s e ri ca lly a .

If xi s nu me ri c ally a, ( a x %
) is e qu al to

2 . E xp an d (
1 to v e te rms .

-
c
E n lo s i n g 2 2; i i n ar e nth e s e s we h a v e
"

p ,

-2
i -2
(
1 2 of ) 1 [ 2w ( n
f

-2 3 t -4 t

1 2 1 (
2 a ) 3 1 (
2 r
a
)
2

4 1
5
(
2 x 5 1
6
(
2 y
-2
1 1 2 a) 1
80
"

C
It

B y wri ti ng th e e xp o n e n ts o f 1 , in e xp an d i ng [1 (2 x we can
mak e u s e o f th e fth la w o f 2 85 .
39 6 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
-
Th e s e r i es e xp re s s e s th e v alu e of (1 2 2; i rz o n ly wh e n 2 2; 3
: n um
1
nume r i c a lly l, or a 2 e r i c a lly 1 .

2
T h a t i s , wh e n x}

is nu me ri c a lly 2, or wh e n xi s p os i ti ve and 4 .

1
3 . Ex p an d to f o u r te r ms .

ya "
1
3 i v
1

E n c lo s m g a
"
1
an d 3 a

? In pa r e n th ese s , we h ave
1 1 3 xi i
[( a
>
r
m
1 .
3
ea
s
1
( a

t i
g i t
-1
(n n <
z
a a Sw s ) ~
sw

1 <
a
4
3 a s

Th e r es ult e xp res s e s th e v alu e o f th e give n fr ac ti on o nly wh en 3 231 "

is nu me ri c ally 1 if 3 af i is n ume r i ca lly l th e fra c ti o n c an b

"

a d ,

e xp a nd e d in as c e nd i ng o w f 1

p e rs o a

EXERC S E 9 2 I
E xp and each o f th e follo wi ng to ve te r ms
_
5

1 .
7
(g

2 1 a :-8
t
( L
)
.

-2
.

8 . in

)?
3
3 .
(1 a

4 . 9 .
(a 4 2 x%)

5 1
10 .

6 .

11 6 yz ) 7
.
] .

578 . Th e f o r mu la f o r th e rth ter m of (a a

)

2 87 ) h o ld s
f o r f ra ti o n al c o r n e g a ti v e v a lu e s o f n , s i n e c i t wa s d e r i v e d f r o m
an e xp a n s i o n w hi h h as b een c p r o v e d to h old f o r a ll r a ti on a l

v a lu e s o f the e xp o n e n t .
 T HE BINOMIA L T HE O R EM 39 7

B 23 Fi n d th e 7 th te rm o f ( 3

. a
_3
E n clo s mg :
3 a 7 I n p a r e n th e s e s, we h a v e

(a 33 3 2
[ a 3a ny ?

Th e e xp o n e n t o f g
3 af ) i s 7 1, or 6 .

1 1 9
Th e e xp o n e n t o f a is 6, or .

Th e r s t fa to r c of th e nu me r a to r i s an d th e las t f a to c '

19 16

I 1,
"
or
3 3
.

T h e la s t fa c to r of th e d e n o mi n ato r i s 6 .

H e nc e, the 7 th te r m

1 4 7 10 13 16

-
3-4 5-
6 o

6 7 28 1 3
9
3 )

3 2

or
3

F md th e
EXE RC S E 9 3 I
6th te rm xii 7 th te rm o f 4 i ?
v
1 . of (a 7 .
( Q x )
1
2 ' 5th te r m Of (a I

8 . l 0 th te r m of
-5 (90 m)
3 . 1 2th te r m of (1 (
13 ) .

-4
-1 te rm Of (m 2 77.
4 7 th te r m OI 2
10 9 th te r m of (a a )
3
5 9 th te rm of
(a 2
.

s
11 6 th te rm of (a f 4 b 2
)

1 .

6 5th te rm of 1
12 . 8 th te r m of (W 3 3 if ?
)
1 4

13 . Te r m I nvolvi ng x

14
in a /
\ y
3
3
x/z 2
9 l 9
m mg ( 4 b ) 2
.

14 . Te r Inv o lv a 4 in a 3 .

579 . E xt ra cti on of R o ot s .

Th e B i n o mi a l T h e or e m ma y s o me ti me s b e u s e d to n d th e
a pp ro x i ma te r o o t o f a n u m e r , w h i c h i s n o t a p e r f e t p o b
er o f c w
th e s ame d e gr e e a s th e i n d e x o f th e r o o t .
39 8 A DV AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

ma tely
7
Ex . F i n d 1 35 a pp r o x i to v e p lac e s of d e c i mals .

Th e n e are st
p e rfe c t c u b e to 2 5 i s 2 7 .

We h av e { 7 25 i 72 7 2

(>i
ea e
i 2>

3
s

E .
3 3
) <
g
81

2 4 40
3 -3 2 -
9 3 5 -
81 3 8

Ex p re s sing e a ch fr a c ti o n a pp r o xi ma tely to th e n e ar e s t fth

c
d e i mal p la ce ,
we h a v e

V 25 3 . 07407 . 0 0 1 83 . oooos

In we th e n u mb er i nto two p ar ts , th e rs t o f wh i c h
'

any c as e , s ep a r a te

is th e n e xt le s s o r n e xt gr e a te r p e r fe c t p o we r o f th e me d e gr e e as th e
sa

r e q ui re d roo t ; c h o ic e b e in g mad e of th e one wh i ch mak es th e s malle r

se c o n d term, p ro vi d e d th e s e r i es is co nve rge nt

Thus , i n nd ing 3 17 , we s h o u ld tak e (3 3

a nd n o t (2 8 of} ;
fo r a lth o ug h th e la tte r h a s th e s ma lle r s e c o n d te rm, th e s er i e s is n o t c o n
ve rge nt

'

If th e ra ti o o f th e se c o nd te rm of th e b i n o mi al to th e rs t i s a s mall
p r op e r frac ti o n , th e te rms o f th e e xp a n s i o n d i mi n i sh r ap i d ly ; b u t i f th i s
ra ti o i s b ut li ttle le s s th a n 1 , i t r e qu i r e s a gr e a t ma ny te rms to i nsu re a ny

d egree o f ac cur ac y .

EXERC S E 9 4 I
Fi nd th e app roxi mate valu e o f e ach o f th e f ollo wi ng to ve p lac es of
d ec ima ls

4 . VIE
 L OGA R I T HM S 399

XX IX . L O GA R ITH M S

5 80 . An y p o s i ti v e r e a l nu mb e r , m, c an be e xp r e s s e d i n th e
fo r m a ,
wh e re a is a ny p o s i ti ve re al n u mb e r e x c e p t un i t
y .

If a
Mo

m, a :i s c a lle d th e L oga r ithm of m to the B a s e a ; a

r e la ti o n wh ch i i s ex p re s s e d

a; lo gum

A n e ga ti ve n u mb e r i s n o t c o n s i d e re d a s h aving a loga rith m .

Th e Common S y s tem
.

58 1 . .

L o g a ri th ms o f nu m e r s to th e

b
a s e 1 0 a r e c a lle d Co mmo n b
L oga r i thms , a n d c o llec ti v e l f o r m th e Co mmo n S ys tem y .

y y
Th e a r e th e o n l o n e s u se d f o r n u me r i c a l c o mp u ta ti o n .

It i s c u s to ma ry , i n w r i ti n g co mmo n lo ga r i th ms , to o mi t th e
su b sc ri
p t 1 0 wh i ch i n d i c a te s th e b ase ; th us,

lo g 10 1 3 i s w r i tte n s i mp ly lo g 1 3 .

A ny p o s i ti v e r ea l nu mb e r, e x c e p t un i ty , may b e tak e n a s th e b ase of a

s y s te m o f lo gar i th ms .

58 2 . By 3 59 an d 360 ,

00
10 0
1, 10
~ ~
l
. 1,
1
10 1 0, w
2
10 1 00, e tc .

Wh e n ce , b y th e d e n i ti on of 581 ,
lo g 1 = 0 , lo g 1 .
10,

lo g 1 0 1, log 0 1 .
. 2 8 1 0,

lo g 1 00 2, lo g 0 0 1
. 3 7 1 0, e tc .

Th e s ec o n d f or m fo r lo g 1 , lo g 0 1 , e tc , i s p r e fe r a b le i n p r a c ti c e
. . . .

W h ere no b a se i s e xp r e ss e d , th e b as e 1 0 i s u n d e rs to o d .

It i s e v i d e nt f r o m th e a b ov e th a t th e mmo n lo g a r i th m o f
co

nu mb e r gr e ate r _ th an 1 i s
p o s i ti v e ,
a n d o f a n u mb e r b e tw e e n

an d 1 n e ga ti v e .
400 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E BR A
If a nu mb e r i s n ot an e xa ct p o w er o f 1 0 , i ts co mmo n lo g a
r i th m c an on l y be e xp r e s se d a pp r o x i mate ly ; th e i n te gr al p a r t
of th e lo g a r i th m i s c alle d th e cha r a cter i s ti c, a n d th e d e c i ma l

p a r t th e ma n ti s sa .

F or e xa mp le lo g 1 3

He re , th e ch a a cte r r i s ti c is 1 ,
and th e manti s s a 1 1 39 . .

A n e g ati v e lo ga r i th m i s alw y a s e xp re s s e d wi th a p o s i ti v e

man ti s s a , whi ch i s d on e by a d di n g a n d su bt r a c ti n 1
g 0 .

Th us ,
th e n e g ati v e lo ga r i th m is w r i tte n

(
1 0 1 0, or 10 .

I n thi s c as e, 7 1 0 i s th e ch ar a c te ri s ti c .

Th e n e g a ti ve lo gari th m 1 0 is so me ti me s wr i tte n th e '

n e gati ve s i g n o ve r th e ch a r ac te r i s ti c s h o wi n g th a t i t a lo n e is n e ga ti ve , th e

ma ntiss a b e i ng a lwa y s p o s iti ve .

58 3 . If a nu mb e r ha s v e p la c e s i n i ts i nte gr al p art, i t li e s
b etw n 1 0 a d 1 0 ; a n d h e n c e i ts c o mmo n lo g ar i th m li e s
4 5
ee n

b e tw e n 4 an d 5
e .

T h e f e th e c h cte
re or , ara r i s ti c i ts lo g a r i th m i s 4
of .

In g n l if
e nu mb era ,
a er h a s n p la c e s i n i ts i nte gr a l p ar t, i t
li esb tw n
e nd ee a a n d th e c h a ra c te r i s ti c o f i ts lo g a

r i th m is n 1 .

H ence , the c ha r a cter i s ti c of the loga r i thm f o m b e a nu

r gr

tha n 1 i s 1 les s tha n the n umb e r o f p la c es to the lef t of the d eci

ma l p o i n t .

58 4 . If a d e c i ma l h a s th r e e c i ph e r s b twe een i ts d e i mal c

p o i n t a n dr s t s i g n i c a n t gu r e , i t li e s b e twe e n an d

a n d h e n c e i ts c o mmon lo garithm li e s b e tw e en 6 10 and

7 10 .

ch a c
0

Th e r e fo r e , th e ra c te r i s ti of i ts lo g a r i th m i s 6 10 .

I n g e n e r a l, i f a d e c i m al h as n c i ph e r s b w
e t e e n i ts d e i ma l c
p o i n t a n d r s t s i n i a n t g u r e ,
i t g c
li e s b tw
e e en a nd

and i ts co mmo n lo g ar i th m li e s b tw
e een
(n 1 ) an d n,

or (
9 n
) 10 an d (
1 0 n
) 10 .

T h at i s ,
th e c h ar a cte ri s ti c o f i ts lo ga ri th m i s (
9 n
) 10 .
 H e n c e, to f i n d th cha ra cter i s ti c o f the loga r i thm of a nu mb er
m
e

b e tween z e ro a nd 1, s ub tra c t the n u b er of c ip her s b etween the

d ec i ma l p o i n t a n d f ir s t s ign i ca n t g ur e f r o m 9 , wr i ti ng 1 0
afte r the ma n ti s sa .

58 5 . In a n y s ys te m, the loga r i thm of un i ty i s zer o ,

For b y 3 59 , a
o
1 ; wh e n ce, by 5 8 0 , lo g l a
0 .

586 . In a ny s ys te m, the loga r i thm of the b a s e i s u ni ty

,
,

Fo r a
1
a ; wh e nc e, lo gd a 1 .

5 87 . In a ny s ys te m who se b a s e i s gr ea ter tha n uni ty

loga ri thm o f z e ro is mi nu s i nn i ty .

F or i f a is > 1 ,

Whenc e ,
by 5 80 , lo g 0 a
00 .

Th e ab o v e r e s ult mu s t b e i n te rp re te d as fo llo ws
If, i n any s ys te m wh os e b ase i s gr e a te r th a n u nity , mb e r ap p r o a ch e s
a nu

th e li mit 0 , i ts lo g a ri th m i s n e ga ti ve , a nd i n c r e as e s wi th ou t li mit i n ab s o
lute valu e (C o mp a re
.

Y 5 88 . In a n y s ys te m whos e b a s e i s les s tha n un i ty, the loga r i thm

of z er o i s in ni ty .

F or i f a is < 1 , a

0; w h en c e ,
lo g 0 ,
00 .

Th is me a n s th a t i f , i n a ny s y s te m w h os e b as e i s le s s th an un i ty , a

numb er app ro ac h e s th e li mi t 0 , i ts lo ga r ith m i n cr e as e s wi th o ut li mi t .

5 89 . In m, the loga r i thm of

a ny s ys te a p r od uct is e qu a l to the
s um of the loga r i thms of i ts f a cto r s (It q !
7
1.

Ci
.

j
Ass u me th e e q u ati o n s a m, a
n .

Th e n ,by 5 80 : log m y l ,
a o g, n .
f 1

M ulti p ly i n g th e a s su m d qu ti o n e e a s,

a x a : mn , or a
x+
mn .

Wh e n c e , lo g mn ,
a; y lo g ,
o n lo g , n

I n lik e ma nn e r , th e th e o r e m ma y b e p r o v e d f o r th e p r o du ct
of an
y n u m e r o f f a to r s b c .
 a

AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

By aid of th e a b th e o r e m, th e lo g a r i th m o f a n
o ve
y p o s i ti v e

i n te g e r may b e f o un d w
h en th e lo g a ri th ms o f i ts f a to r s a r e c
kn o n w .

Ea . Giv e n lo g 2 . 3 01 0 , an d lo g 3 . 477 1 ; n d lo g 7 2 .

lo g 7 2 = lo g (
2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3)
lo 2 + lo g 2
g lo g 2 lo g 3 + lo g 3

9 0 30 . 9 5 42

5 90 . In a n y s ys te m, the loga r i thm f

o a f r a cti on is equ a l to
the loga r i hm
g o f the nu me ra tor mi n us the loga r i th m of the
d eno mi n a to r .

As s u me th e e n a ti o n s a

. m3 a y = n

Th en , lo g m, y,
lo g , n .

a

m
D i v i d i n g th e a ssu me d e qu ati on s , or a
x y
z ,

m
W h e n c e, lo g,
7b
a :y lo g m ,
log , n .

i
Ex . G i v e n lo g 2 : 30 1 0 ; n d lo g 5 . .

1 0
lo g 5 lo g lo g 1 0 lo g 2 1 . 30 1 0 . 69 9 0 .

59 1 . In m, the loga r i thm of a ny p o wer of a qua nti ty

a n y s y s te

is e qu a l to the loga r i thm of the q ua n ti t mu ltip li ed b y the exp o nent

y
f
o the p o wer .

As s ume th e e q u ati on a

m; wh n c e e ,
2 5lo g m
.

,
.

R ai s i n g b o th me mb e r s of th e as su me d e q u a ti o n to th e p th
p weo r
wh enc e :
,
a ?
m p
; ,
lo g, m =
( ) p a p l
p
o g m ,
.

592 . In a ny s ys te m, the loga r ithm of a ny r o o t of a qu a n ti ty ,

is e qu a l to the loga ri thm of the qu a nti ty d i vi d ed b y the i n d ex

f
o the r o ot .

1
1
F o r , lo g, UR lo g ,
m
( )
?
:
a
lo g m,
 5
L OGA R I THM S C
A
9

593 . Examples .

1 . G i ve n log 2 = 3 01 0 ; n d lo g .

lo g 2 3
g x lo g 2
g x 30 1 0 . . 501 7 .

To multip ly a loga ri th m b y a fra c ti o n , multip ly rs t b y th e nume rato r ,

an d d i vi d e th e r es ult b y th e d e n o mi n a to r .

f
3
0

G i v e n lo g 3 : 4 7 7 1 ; n d 10 g
'

2 .

3
8 lo g 3 47 7 1
1o s v3 0 59 6
.

. .

s s

G i v e n lo g 2 4 7 7 1 , n d lo g tx
3 . . 3 0 1 0 , lo g 3 .
a
By 5 89 ,
1 5
2% x 3 3)
lo g ( lo
g 2 % lo g 3 2 lo g 2 lo g 3 6 9 67
5 1
. .

EXE RC S E 9 5 I
Gi ve n lo g 2 39 1 0 , lo g 3 . 4 7 7 1 , lo g 7 . 8 4 5 1 , n d th e lo gar i th m of

1 . 84 . e . 2? 11 . 67 1 0 5 . 16 . 1 8 5 22 .

3g
2 . 392 . 7 . { 73 . 12 . 17 .

48 7
3 . s . 5292 . 13 . 2 80 .

7si
405 7
4 . 14 . .

14

5 . 76 . 10 . 4 53 .

5 94 . To p r ove the re la ti o n

lo g m
lo g, m a

lo g b ,

As s u me th e e qu ati o n s a

m, b
y
m .

Th e n , :
a lo g, m, y lo g, m.

N

F r o m th e a s su me d e q u ati o n s , d

c
b y
,
or a
? b . A
6 W

T he r e fo r e , lo g, b
5
,
lo g , b
4 04 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
lo g m
Th at i s lo g , m a

lo g b
,

By ai d of thi s r e lati o n , if th e lo ga r i th m o f a n u m e r b m t
a c e rta i n b ase a i s k no w n, i ts lo g a r i th m to an y o th e r b ase

may b e f o u n d by d i vi d i n g by th e lo g a r i th m of b to th e base a

595 . To p ro ve the r e la ti o n

lo g ,
a x lo g, b 1 .

P u tti n g m a in th e r e s u lt o f 5 94 ,
lo g a 1
a
58 6
lo g b a
lo ga b

W h en c e lo g b a log ,
1 .

59 6 . I n the mmon sys tem, the ma nti s s ce of the loga ri thms

co 0

nu mb er s ha v i n g the s a me s equ e nce of g ur es a r e equ a l .

S u p p o se , f o r e xa mp le , th at lo g . 4 84 7 .

T h en ,
lo g lo g (
100 x lo g 1 0 0 log

2 . 4 84 7

lo g 03 053 . lo g x lo g 0 1. lo g

s 10 . 4 84 7 10 ; e tc .

In g en er al, i f n is an
y p o s i ti v e o r n e g at v e i i n te ge r ,

lo g (
10 "
x m) n lo g 1 0 lo g m n lo g m .

B ut 1 0
x m is a nu mb er whi ch d i ffe r s fr o m m o nl y in th e

p o s i ti o n o f i ts d e c i mal p o i n t, an d n lo g m is a nu mb e r h a vi n g
th e sa me c
d e i ma l p ar t a s lo g m .

H e nce, i f two nu m b ers h ave th e same s e qu e n c e of gu re s

th e man ti s s ee of th e i r lo ga r i th ms a r e e q u al .

F o r thi s r e as o n , o nl y
man ti ssae ar e gi v en , i n a ta b le o f
C o mmo n L og a r i th ms ; f o r to n d th e lo gari th m o f an y nu mb e r,
w e h a v e o n ly to n d th e ma n ti s s a c o r r e s p o n d i n g to i ts s e qu e n c e
o f g u r e s , a n d th e n r e x th e c h a r ac te r i s ti c i n a c c o r d a n c e w i th
p
th e r u le s o f 5 83 an d 5 84 .

Th i s p r o p e rty o f lo gar ith ms o n ly h olds fo r th e c o mmo n s y s te m, a n d

c ons ti tute s its s up eri o ri ty o ve r oth e r s s te ms f o r nume ri c a l c om utation
y p .
 L O G ARITHMS 4 05

Ex . G i v e n log 2 . 301 0 , lo g 3 . 4771 n d lo g 0 04 32 . .

4
lo g 4 32 lo g (
2 x 3 8
) 4 lo g 2 3 lo g 3

Th e n , th e ma nti s s a of th e r e s u lt i s 63 3 5
'

. .

W hen c e by 5 8 4 , lo g 0 0 4 3 2 . 10 .

EXE RC S E 9 6 I
Gi ve n lo g 2 . 30 1 0 , log 3 . 4 7 7 1 , log 7 . 8 4 5 1 , n d th e loga r ith m of

1 . 3 . 6 7 50 . 5 . . 0 3 24 . 7 . . 7 84 .

2 . 4 . 6 . . 00 0 1 7 5 . 8 . . 00 1 87 5 .

USE OF TH E T ABL E
597 . Th e ta le b (p a ge s 4 06 an d 4 0 7 ) g i v e s th e ma n ti s s ae of

th e lo g a r i th m s o f a ll i n te g e r s f r o m 1 0 0 to 1 0 00 , c
c al u la te d to
f ou r p la c e s of c
d e i ma ls .

59 8 . To nd the loga r i thm

f m b er of thr ee gu r e s o a nu .

L ook i n th e c olu mn h e a d e d
No f o r th e r s t two s i gn i

.

c a n t g u r e s o f th e g i v e n nu mb e r .

T h e n th e r e q u i red manti s sa w ill b e found i n th e c o rr e

s p o n d i n g h o r i z o n ta l li n e , i n th e v e r ti c al c olu mn h e a d e d by

th e th i rd gu r e o f th e n u mb e r .

F i n a lly , p r e x the c h a ra c te r i sti c i n a cc o rd an c e wi th th e

r ule s of 5 83 an d 584 .

F or e xa mple ,
lo g

lo g 3 44 10 ; e tc .
- lF~

59 M
D

F or a nu mb e r c o n s i s ti n g of one or two s i gn i c an t gur e s,

th e c o lu mn h ea d e d 0 may b e us e d .

Th u s , le t i t b e re
q u i r e d n d lo g 83 an d lo g 9
to .

By 5 9 6 , lo g 8 3 h a s th e sa me m an ti s s a as lo g 83 0 , and lo g 9
th e s a me ma n ti s s a a s lo g 9 00 .

H ence, lo g 83 an d lo g 9

5 9 9 To .
nd the loga r i thm f
o a nu mb er of mor e tha n thr ee
gu r es .
4 06 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B RA
.

)
-
a r
L OGA RITHMS . 4 07
 O8 A D V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A '

1 . R e qu i re d th e lo g ar i th m of

We n d f r o m th e ta b le , lo g y
r
lo g
3
T h at i s ,
an in c re a s e of on e e
te n th of a un it i n th e nu mb e r
p roduc e n s a in i n th e lo g a r i th m .

h s of a un i t i n th e
0 1 4 i n th e lo g ar i th m,

H e n c e, 1 53 .

Th e b ov e a th at th e d i ff e re nc es of

lo ga ri th ms a r e p r o p o e ir c or res p o n d in g nu m
b ers wh i c h , th o ugh i e ntly e xac t fo r p ra c ti
c al p ur p os e s .

Th e d iffe r e n c e b e twe e n a ny ma n ti s s a tab le a n d th e ma ntiss a of

th e n e x t h i gh e r n umb e r o f th e s e g ur e s , ed th e Ta b ula r D if fer e nc e .

Th e f o llo w i n g ru l e i s d e ri v e d fr he a b ove

F in d f ro m the ta b le the ma n ti s s the rs t thr e e s ign i ca n t

g u r es , a n d t

ela tter b y the re ma in i ng gur es of the nu mb e r, wi th

a d ec i ma l p

oi n t b ef o r e th e m .

Ad d the re s u lt to the m a n ti s s a o f the fir s t three figures , a n d p re

x the p r ep er c ha r a c ter i s ti c .

I n n d i ng th e c or r e c ti o n to th e n e a r e s t u n i ts
gure , th e d e c i mal p or
ti o n s h o uld b e o mi tte d , p r o vid e d th at if i t i s . 5, or gr e a te r th an . 5 , th e
u n its

g ure i s i nc re a s e d b y 1 thus would b e tak en a s 1 3 , as 3 1 ,
nd

a as 23 .

L e
X J
2 . Fi n d th e lo g a r i th m of . 0 21 s a

M an ti s s a 21 5 3 3 24 Tab . d i ff . 21 a m
2 08
. 3 3 26 c
C o r r e ti on 2, n e a rl y .

Th e r e s ult is 10 .

600 To nd the mb er co rr esp o n d i ng to l ga r ithm

'

nu
. a
o .

1 . R e qu i re d th e nu mbe r wh ose lo g ar i th m i s
 L OGA R IT H M S
b
F in d i n th e ta le th e man ti s s a 6 5 7 1 .

I n th e c o rr e s p o n d i n g mn h e a d e d No , w e
li n e , i n th e c o lu

n d 4 5 , th e r s t tw o g u r e s o f th e r e q u i r e d n u mb e r , a n d at th e
h e a d o f th e c o lu mn w e n d 4 , th e th i r d g ur e .

S i n c e th e c h a r a c te ri s ti c i s 0 th e re mu st b e o n e p la c e to th e ,

le ft o f th e d ec i ma l p o i n t
H en c e , th e nu mb e r c o rre s p on di n g to is

2 . R e q ui r e d th e nu mb e r wh o se lo gari thm i s d

We n d i n th e ta b le th e man ti ss ae 392 7 a n d 3 9 4 5 .

Th e n u mb e r s c o rr e s p on d i n g to th e lo ga r ith ms an d

1 3 9 45 a re an d re s
p e c ti v e l y .

T h at i s, an i n c re a s e of 0 0 1 8 i n th e man ti s s a p ro d u e s
. c an

i nc r ea s e o f o ne -te n th o f a u n i t i n th e n u m e r c o r re s p o n d i n g b .

T hen ,
an in c re a s e o f . 00 0 7. i n th e m a n ti s s a wi ll p r o d u c e an in
c r e a s e of 3
1 3
o f on e -
t e n th o f a u n i t i n th e nu mb e r , or . 04 , n e a rl y .

H en c be
'

e, th e nu m r c o rre s
p o n d i n g is . 04 , or

Th e f ollo wing r ule i s d e r i v e d f r o m th e a b ov e

F i nd f r o m the ta b le the n ea t le thr ee gu r es co r

r esp o n d i n g, a n d the ta b u la r d i e re n ce .

a
S u b tr a ct the n ea t f r o m the gi ven
less an d d i v i d e the
re ma i nd er b y the ta b u la r d i er e n c d

A nn ex the qu o ti ent to the r st thre e gu r es o f the n umb er , a nd

p o i n to f the r e s u lt .

The r ules fo r p o i n ti n g o ff a r e th e r eve rs e o f th os e of 58 3 an d 5 84

I . If 10 i s no t wr i tte n af te r th e ma nti s s a , a dd 1 to th e c h a r a cte ri s

ti c , g i vi ng th e numb er f p la ces to th e lef t of th e d ec i ma l p o i nt

o .

II
If 1 0 i s wri ttenaf ter the ma nti ss a s u b tr a c t th e p o s i ti ve p a rt of
.
,

th e ch a r a cter i s ti c f r o m 9 g i vi ng th e n u mb e r of c ip h e rs to b e p la ce d b e twee n
,

the d e ci ma l p oi n t a nd r s t s i g nic a n t g ur e .

3 . F i n d th e nu m e r b wh o se lo g ar i th m i s 10 .

5 265
Ne xt le s s man t . 5 2 63 ; g u r e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g, 33 6 .

Ta b . d i ff . . 2, n ea rl y .

1 3

70
410 AD V AN C E D C O U RS E IN A L G E B R A
B y th e a b o v e r ule , th e r e w ill c ip h e to b e
be o ne r
p la c e d be
tw een c
th e d e i ma l p o i n t a n d s t s i gn i c n t g u e
r a r .

Th e r e s u lt i s 0336 2 . .

Th e c o rr e c tio n can u s ually b e d e p en d e d u p o n to o nly o n e d ec i ma l

p lac e ; th e d ivi s i o n s h o uld be c arri e d to two p lac es to d e te rmi n e th e la s t

gur e a c c urately .

EXERC S E 9 7 I
Fi nd th e logarith m o f

1 . 70 . 4 . . 03 3 7 . 7 . . 96 1 7 .

2 . . 59 . 5 . . 0 00 3 7 8 8 .

3 . 6 . 9 .

Fi nd th e n umb er c o rre s p o n d i ng to

13 .
21 .

14 . 10 . 18 . 22 .
-10 .

15 . 19 . 10 . 23 . 10 .

16 . 10 . 20 . 10 . 24 .

APPL ICATIONS
60 1 . Th e pp oxi mate
a r v alu e of a nu mb e r i n whi c h th e
O p e r a ti on s i nd i c t d i n v l
y multi p li c ati n d i i i n in
a e o v e onl o ,
v s o ,
vo

luti n o e o lu ti n m y b
,
or c n e n i ntly f un d by l ga ith m
v o a e o v e o o r s .

Th u tili ty f th e p
e s c nsi t i n th f a c t th t d d i ti n
o roc e s o s s e a a o

ta k s th e p la c e
e f multi p li c ti n s u b t ti n f d i i si o n
o a o ,
r ac o o v ,

multi pli c ati on o f i n luti n a n d d i i i n f e olu ti n vo o ,

v s o o v o .

In mp utatio n s wi th f o ur-p lac e lo gari th ms , th e r es ult

co c a nn o t us ually

be d e p e n d e d u p o n to mor e th a n f o ur s ig n i c an t gure s .

1 . F i n d th e valu e o f . 0 63 1 x x 5 1 27 2
. .

B y s 5 89 , lo g x x 5 1 2 7 2)
.

lo g 0 6 31 . lo g lo g 5 1 27 2. .

lo g . 0 63 1 10
lo g
lo g 51 2 7 2. 10
Ad d i n g, log o f r e s u lt 20

10 (S e e Note b e lo w ) .
 L OGA R I TH M S 41 1

Nu mb e r c o rr e s p on d i n g t o 7 10 .
2 3 32 .

If th e su m is a n e g a ti ve lo ga r i th m, it s h o u ld b e wr i tte n i n s u ch a fo r m
th at th e n e g a ti ve p o r ti o n o f th e c h ar a c te r i s ti c may b e 10 .

Th us , 2 0 i s wr i tte n 10 .

3 3 63
2 . F i nd th e v a lu e o f
7 9 84

33 6 8
By s 5 90 lo g lo g lo g 7 9 8 4 .

7 984

lo g 10 (S e e No te b e lo w)
.

lo g 7 98 4
b
S u tr a ti n g,c lo g o f r e s ult 10

Nu mb e r c o rr e s p on d i ng 2 . 04 2 1 8 .

To s ub trac t a gr e a te r lo g a ri th m fr o m a le s s , or a n e g a ti ve lo gar i th m
fr o m a p os i ti ve , i n c re ase th e c h a r a c te r i s tic of th e mi nu e n d b y 1 0 , wr i t
i ng 1 0 a fte r th e man tis s a to mp e nsate co .

Th u s , to s ub tr a c t fr o m wr i te th e min u en d i n th e fo rm
1 0 s ub tra c tin g 3 90 22 fro m th i s , th e r e s ult is
.

3 . F i n d th e v alu e o f

By 5 9 1 , lo g 5 x lo g 0 7 3 9 6 . .

log 0 7 3 96
. 10
5
50

10 lo g 00000 221 3 .

4 . F i n d th e v alu e o f 0 0 35 053 ;

B y s 5 9 2, lo g { 7 0 350 5 3
lo g 035 063
. .

lo g 0 3 5 0 63
. 10
Note b el w ) o .

10 lo g 3 2 7 4
. .

To di vi d e a n e ga ti ve lo gar i th m, wr ite i t i n s uch a f o r m th a t th e n e ga

ti ve p o r ti o n o f th e c h a r a c te r i s ti c may b e e x a c tly d ivis ib le b y th e d i vi s o r ,

wi th 1 0 as th e q u o ti e n t .

Thus , to d ivi d e 1 0 b y 3 , we wr ite th e lo ga ri th m i n th e f o rm

30 . D i vi d i n g th i s b y 3 , th e q u o ti e n t i s 10 .
 12 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A

60 2 . A r i th meti cal Complement .

Th e Ar i thmeti ca l C o mp leme n t of th e lo g a r i th m o f a n u m e r , b
o r, bi
y th
r e ,
e Co loga ri thm of th e b
n u m e r , i s th e lo g a r i th m o f

th e r ec i
p r o c al o f th at nu mb e r .

Th u s , c o lo g 409 lo g 1 lo g 4 0 9 .

lo g 1 10 .
v 10 (S e e E x 2 ,
.

lo g 4 0 9
c o lo g 4 09 10 .

Ag a in , c o lo g . 0 67 lo g -
d
e

lo g 1 lo g 067 . .

lo g 1 10 . 10
lo g 0 67 . 10

c o lo g . 0 67

I t f ollo ws f ro m th e a b ov e th a t the co loga r i th m of a nu mb er

ma y b e f o un d b y s u b tr a cti n g i ts loga r i thm f r o m 1 0 10 .

Th e m may b e f oun d b y s ub tr a c ti n g th e las t s i g nic a nt g ur e

c o lo g ar i th

of th e lo ga r ith m fr o m 1 0 a n d e a ch o f th e o th e r s fr o m 9 , 1 0 b e i ng
wri tte n a fte r th e r e s ult i n th e c as e o f a p os i ti ve log ari th m .

5 1 3 84
Ea : F m<1 th e v a 1u e 0 f
.

x 0 94 6
.

51 8 84 1
10
.

x
x 094 6 .

1 1
lo g 5 1 384 10 g + 1O g
8 7 08
. . 0 94 6
lo g 5 1 3 84
. c ol og 08 c ol og . 0 94 6 .

lo g 5 1 3 84
. 2 10
c o lo g 10
c o lo g . 0 94 6

10 lo g 6239 . .

It i s e vi d e nt b ov e e xamp le that, to nd th e lo ga
f ro m th e a

r i th m o f a f ra c ti o n w h o s e te r m s a r e th e r o d uc t o f f a c tor s , we
p
a d d tog e ther the loga r i thms of the f a c tor s of the n u mer a to r , a n d
the co loga r i thms of th e f a c to r s of the d e n o mi n a to r .
 L OGA R I TH M S Q 413

Th e v alue o f th e f r a c ti o n may b e f o un d wi th o u t us i n g c o lo ga ri th ms by
th e f o llo wi ng fo r mu la g7
?
3
. 5 1 3 84

Th e a d va n tag e in u s i n g c o lo g a ri th ms is th a t th e wr itten wo rl
x
p u ta ti o n i s e xh i b i te d i n a mo r e co mp a c t f o r m . 1
;

60 3 . E x amp les .

a 3
1 . F i n d th e v alu e o f
5
35
3

lo g 2 lo g c o lo g 35 60 2)
3g
"

9 o D
1 5
m g g j d

lo g 5 . 69 90 ;
lo g 2
3
.

.
30 1 0
2 3 30
(
a
D e
f
7 x

5
c o lo g 3 10 X 10
6 Q i
7
.

. 1 3 64 lo g

A n ega ti ve nu m b er h as no co mmo n lo g a r i th m
If su c h n u mb e r s oc c u r in c o mp u ta ti o n , th e y ma
y b e tr e ate d
as if th e yw e re p o s i ti v e , a n d th e si
g n o f th e r e s u lt d e te rmi n e d
i rr e s p e c ti v e o f th e lo g a r i th m i c w o rk .

Th us , to n d th e valu e of x we nd th e valu e o f

x and p ut a n e g a ti ve s ig n b e fo r e th e r es ult.

0 3 2 96
2 F i n d th e v a lue o f
.

0 32 9 6 1 03 296
10 g
. '

3
1
lo g 03 29 6
. lo g
3

lo g 0 3 29 6 . 10
lo g

10 lo g 1 60 6
. .

Th e re su lt is . 1 60 6 .
 AD V AN CE D C O U RS E IN A L G E B R A

E XE RC IS E 9 8

Fi nd b y logari th ms th e values o f th e fo llo wi n g

1 . x . 09 34 8 . 3 . x

2 . x 4 . . 38 1 4 2

5 .

87 0 28 x
10
.

. 0 0 0 6 58 9

x 694 5
. x . 0 1 3 82
x 4 694 x . 00 4 5 7

13 . 19 . 25 .

14 .

15 .

16 . 10 0 3 .

1 Q
. 00 7 7 9 5 ) 7
23

24 . 30 .

x 83 1 8 4 x

00 0 5 6 1 6

. 2 7 5 50

2
x 6/1 7 959 x
 L OGA RI T HM S 415

EX P ONE NTIAL AND L OGAR ITH MIC E QU ATION S

60 4An E xp onenti al E quati on i s a n e q ua ti o n i n
. w h i ch th e
u n k n o w n n umb e r o c c u r s a s a n e x p o n e n t .

To s o lv e a n e q ua ti on o f thi s f o r m, ta k e th e lo g a r i th ms of b o th

me mb e r s ; th e r e s u lt wi ll b e an e qu a ti o n whi ch c an be s o lve d

by o r di n ar y alg b e ra i c me th o d s .

1 . G i ve n 3 1
23 ; n d th e v a lu e o f x .

Ta k i n g th e lo g a r i th m s of b o th me mb e r s ,
lo g lo g 23 or a :
lo g 3 1 lo g 23

lo g 2 3
Th e n,
lo g 3 1

2 . S o lv e th e e q uati o n 3 .

Taki n g th e lo g a ri th ms of b o th m e mb e r s , a :
lo g . 2 lo g 3 .

lo g 3 47 71 4771
Th en , m:
lo g 2 . 10 699

An e q u ati o n o f th e f o rm a


b may b e s olv e d by i n s pe cti on

if b c an be e x p r e s s e d a s a n e x ac t p o w er of a .

3 . S o lv e th e e qu ati on 1 28 .

We may w r i te th e e q u a ti o n 2 7
,
or 2 4
2 7
.

:
T he n by
Z

,
i n spe cti o n , 4 a; 7 ; an d a :

If th e i
e qu at o n we e 6
r 1 90
we c ould wri te i t ( ) 24 ac
th e n

: :
4 wo uld
2 e qu a l 7, an d a
2 .

Ce r ta i n lo g a r i th mi c e q u ati on s a re r ea d i l y s olve d by ai d o f

th e p r i n c i p le s o f 589 to 5 9 1 .

4 . G i ve n 2 lo g a
: m;
a n d th e v alu e o f as .

By 59 1 , 2 lo g w a
lo g , ()
2
113 w h e n c e, lo g , ()
x
2
m.

Th e n by 5 80 , a
m
z x
z
; wh n c e e, 96 : j:VF : j; as .

5 . G i v e n lo g (: 4 ) a lo g : 3 ; n d th e
a va lue o f x .

lo g (: 4 )
x+ 4
By 590, lo g a: lo g
:
a .

a
4 16 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
4
T h en ,
lo g 3 and by 58 1 , 1 0 3

4
T he r e f or e , 1 000 w :4
a ,
a n d x
999

s xs n ms s 99
S olve th e f ollo wmg
4
13
()
1 7 5 1 1
3 4

12
. . . .
"
.

4 27 81
2 . . 06 a
5
8 . . 3 4
1 00 .

13
3 9 34 7 : 062 5 9 16 a
c
32
ac
z
25
. .
. . . .

1 1
4 . 0 0 50 3s 10 . 32 4
14 _
_ a
n
1 28 a
5 .

Z
3

() ()
11 l 8 15 3
m
.
. . .

6 . 73 : 8x . . 16 7 2

16 . Gi v e n a , r , an d Z d e ri ve th e f or mula for n

17 . Gi ve n a , r , a n d S d e r i ve th e f o r mu la for n .

18 . Gi ve n a , l, a nd S d e r i ve th e fo rmula f o r n .

19 . Gi ve n r , l, an d S ; d e ri ve th e for mula for n .

S olve th e f o llo wi n g

20 . 3 lo ga x 4 lo ga m . 23 . log 3 lo g (: 1a) l .

21 . lo g (: 5 )
a lo g (2 az+ 1 ) =2 . 24 . lo g e : l g (4 o a: 1 .

22 . lo g 5 lo g (3 a; 3 . 25 . lo g 2

2 log a : log (5 9:
60 5 . L og ar i thm of a Numb er t o Any B as e .

1 . F i n d th e lo g a r i th m of . 3 to th e ba se 7 .

By 594 ,
lo g ) 3 10 5 22 9
lo g? 3 6 1 87 +
. .

lo g 10 7 . 84 51 . 84 5 1

E xa mp le s of th i s k i n d may b e s olv e d by i n s p e c ti o n , i f th e
b
nu m e r c an be e xp r e s s e d a s an e x a ct p w f th e b o er o as e .

2 . F i n d th e lo g ar i th m of 1 2 8 to th b s e 1 6
e a .

L e t lo g16 1 2 8 a ; th e n ,
by 6 58 0 , 1 6
9
1 28 .

Th e n , as i n E x 3, . 60 4 , w
i ; th a t i s ,
lo g1 6 1 2 8
 L OGA R I TH M S
EXE RC lS E l0 0

Fi nd th e v alues o f th e fo llo wi n g

1 . log -
1 59 . 3 . 82 .

2 . lo g ; 7 . . 4 . lo g y 00 4 5 3
. .

Fi nd b y i ns p e c ti o n th e valu e s o f th e fo llo wi ng

1
()
l
7o 1n a 125 0 8 0 10 g m
7
9 0 log
27
1 3 o 10 0 1O g
sa
l
() 2 56

E XP ONE NTIAL AND L OGAR ITHMIC S E R IE S

60 6 . L e t n be e a l n u mb
a r g a t th n u n i ty er re er a .

By 3 64 ,

Ex p an di n g b o th me mb e r s by th e B i n o mi al Theo re m

+n
7b

1
2

1
c by hy p th e si s n i
S in e, 1 i s nu m i c ally
o s er
5 , ,

b th m mb s o f (1 ) a c n g n t s e i e s
o e er re o ver e r

We may w i t e qu ti n (1 ) i n th f m r e a o e or

1 + w+ + ~

whi c h h old s h o w e ve r g re at n may b e .

No w le t n b e i n d e n i tel y in c r e as e d .

Th e n , th e li mi t of ea ch of th e te r m s e tc , . is 0
418 AD V AN CE D CO UR S E IN A L GE B R A
H enc e ,
th e li mi ti n g v a lu e o f th e r s t m e mb e r of
()
2 i s

1 1
+
9 3
an d th e li mi ti n g v alu e o f th e se c on d me mb e r i s
3
1 a}
[3
By 25 2, th e s e li mi ts a r e e qu al ; th a t i s,
3
1 1 e 36
L?
1

Th e s erie s i n th e s e con d me mb e r i s c on v e r ge n t f or eve r y

v a lu e of a an d th e s e ri es in b ra c k e ts i s a ls o c o n v e r

g e n t,
f or i t i s o bt
ai n e d f r o m th e s e ri es i n th e c
s e on d me mb e r
b y p uttin g 1 i n p la c e o f x .

D e n oti n g th e s e r i e s i n b ck e t by
ra s c, we h ave

whi ch h o ld s fo r e ve r y v a lu e o f 93 .

P utti n g ma f o r : x, in
ms 2 2
mw 3 3
e
m
1 + mx +
2
L
. L
?
t

L et m lo g ,
a, wh e re a is an y p o s i ti v e r e a l nu mb e r .

m m
Th e n an d e

e a a

Su b s ti tu ti n g th e s e v alu e s in we o btai n
y
g
E
3-
1 l
( g ) ( g
l ( g )
l 5
()

a o ,
a a o ,
a o ,
a

G
Q

w hi ch h old s f o r a ll v a lu e s o f w, an d a ll
p o s i ti v e r eal v a lu e s

of a .

Th e r e s u lt 5 i
() s c alle d th e E xp o n en ti a l S er i es .

60 7 . Th e s y s te m of lo g ar i th m s w hi ch h as 6 f or i ts b ase
is c a lle d th e Nap i er i a n S ys tem, f ro m Na p i e r, th e i n v e n to r
of lo ga r i th m s .

Na p i e r i an lo g ari th ms a r e a ls o c a lle d Na tu r al L oga r i thms .

 L OGA RI TH M S 419

The ap p r ox i mate v a lu e o f 6 m ay b e r e a d il
y c alculate d fro m
th e s e ri e s o f 6 06 ,
1 1
e + + +
2
I 2
1
an d wi ll b e foun d to e qual
60 8 To exp a n d lo g, (
1 ) in a s c en d i ng p ower s f
"
. x o a .

Su b stitu ti n g i n 60 6 , 1 a :
fo r a , an d g f o r w,

te r ms i n g
2 3
(
1 96
? 1 [ l (
o g6 1 r
)] g , g ,
e tc .

wh i ch h o ld s f o r a ll v a lu e s o f g, p ro vi d e d a:i s r e a l, an d a lg e

b ra i c a lly g r e a te r th an
p
E x an d i n g th e r s t me m b e by th
r e Bi n o mi al Th e o r e m,

L
2 . L2
" " e tc
1 [ log 6 (
1 g te r ms i n g, g ,
.
()
6

Th e r st m e m ber of ()
6 i s c o n v e rg e n t when a; is nu me ri c a lly
le s s th a n 1
H e nc e , ()
6 h o ld s f or a ll v a lu e s o f g, p rov i de d a:i s r e a l, a n d

n u me r i c all y l s th nes a 1 .

Th e n , by th Th e e ore m of U n d e te r mi n e d Co e fc i e n ts , th e
c o e fc i ents of g i n th e two se r ie s are e q u al ; th a t i s,

x x
2
+ m 3
m+ 4 m

2 3
m4
m
5

O r, l a: x 90

2 3 4 5

whi ch h ld f ll lu s
o s or a va e of a n u :
me ri c ally le s s th a n 1 .

T h i s e ult i c lle d th
r s s a e L oga r i thmi c S er i es .

It was p r ove d i n 5 5 7 th a t thi s s eri e s was c o nve rge nt wh e n :w

a as

nu me r i ca lly le ss t h a n 1 .

It w a s a ls o sh o wn in 5 56 th a t i t was c o n v e rg en t wh e n a:l , and in

5 4 8 th a t i t wa s d i ve r ge n t wh e n x 1 .

Th e n , s e ri e s (7 ) can be u se d to ca lc ula te N a p i e ri a n loga ri th ms , p r o

vi d e d c:i s ta k e n e qu a l to , or nu me r i c a lly le s s th an , 1 .

Un le ss a is s ma ll, it r e q ui re s th e su m of a gr e a t many te rms to e ns u re

any d e gre e o f a cc ura c y .
4 20 AD V AN CE D CO UR S E lN AL GE B R A
60 9 . We w ill n ow d e r i ve mo re
a c on v en i e nt seri e s fo r
c alc u la ti o n o f Nap i e r i a n lo g a r i th ms .

P u tti n g a; fo r x, in (
7 60 8 , w e h a v e

1
10 g6 ( a}
)
b c 8) fr o m (
S u tr a ti n g ( 7 we o btai n

s
l + u
z _2 a
' 3
e o o o o
5 90 l +

m n
L et a: m an d n b ei ng po s i ti v e , a n d m n .

m+ n
m n

T hi s is a v a li d s u b s ti tu ti on , s i n c e i n thi s c ase
m n
m n
1 +
l +x m+ n 2m m
l w m n
1 _
2 n n

m+ n
Su b sti tuti ng th e s e v a lu e s in we o btai n
1
1O ge T _ 2 +
n +n 3 m+

B ut by 5 9 0 , lo g ,
lo g m ,
lo g ,
n ; wh n ce
e

lo g m = lo g e
e
n +

61 0 . L et it b e r e q u i re d , fo r e xa mp le , to c
c al u late

Nap i e ri an lo ga r i th m of 2 to si x plac es of c
d e i mals .

P u tti n g m 2 and n 1 i n th e r e s u lt o f 609 , we h av e

lo g 2
,
lo g 1 ,
2

Or s in e c lo g 1 ,
0

lo g, 2 . 0 1 23 4 5 7 . 0 0 082 30 . 0 000 653

. 0 00 0 0 5 6 . 00 000 0 5

2 X 3 4 65 7 3 4
. . 69 3 1 4 6 8 .
 L OGA R ITHM S 4 21

Th e n, lo g ,
. 6 93 1 4 7 , to th e n ea r e st s i xth p lac e of c
d e i mals .

H a v i ng f o un d lo g 2, we may c alc ula te lo g 3 b y p u tti n g m = 3

, e

an d n 2 i n th e r e s ult o f 60 9 .

Pro c ee di ng i n thi s way , we s h a ll n d lo g 1 0 ,

61 1 . To c a lcu la te the mmo n loga r i thm of

co a nu mb er , ha vi ng
g i ven i ts Nap i er i a n loga r i thm .

P utti n g b 10 an d a e i n th e r e s u lt o f 5 94 ,

lo g m 1
lo g mm ,
x lo g, m . 4 34 29 4 5 lo g , m .

lo g, 1 0

T hus ,
lo gm2 . 4 3 4 29 4 5 x 69 31 4 7 . . 30 1 0 30 .

61 2 . Th e mu lti li e r p by wh i c h l o gar i th ms o f an y s y s te m ar e

d e r i ved fr o m Nap l e rl an lo g a r ith ms , i s c a lle d th e mo d ulu s of

th at s yst e m .

T hu s ,
. 4 3 4 29 4 5 i s th e mm o n s y s tmod u lu s
e m of th e c o .

Co n ver s ely, to n d th e Na p i e r i a n lo g a r i th m o f a n u mb e r
w h en i ts c o mmon lo g ari thm i s gi v e n , we may e i th e r d i v id e the
c o mmon lo garith m by the mo d ulu s 4 34 294 5 , o r multi ply it by .

th e re c i p c al o f
ro . 4 34 2 94 5 .

EXERC S E IO I I
Us ing th e tab le o f co mmon lo gar i th ms , n d th e N ap ie r i an log ari th m o f
e ach o f th e fo llo wing to four s ign i c an t g ur e s

1 . 1 00 0 . 3 . 5 . . 0 4 56 8 .

2 . . 0 00 1 . 4 . 6 . . 56734 .

7 . W h at i s th e ch ar a c ter i s ti c of lo g5 7 58

8 . Wh at is th e c h ar ac te r i s ti c o f lo g 50 0

9 . If log 3 . 4 7 7 1 , h ow many d igi ts are th e r e i n 3 17

10 . If log 8 . 9 0 31 , h ow many d i gi ts ar e h
t e r e i n 8 28

11 . If lo g 1 1 h ow many d igi ts are th e r e i n th e inte gral

31
pa rt of 11 9 ?
4 22 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

XXX . C O M P O U ND INTE R E S T A ND
A NNU ITIE S

61 3 . c
Th e p r i n i p le s o f lo ga r i th m s may b e ap plie d to
b
s o luti o n o f p r o le ms i n C o mp o un d n ter e s t I .

L et P n u mb er of d o lla rs i n th e p r i n c i p a l ;

n nu mb er o f y e ars ;
t th e r a ti o to o ne ye a r of th e ti me d u ri n g w hi c h
p le i n te r e s t i s c a lc ula te d ; th u s , i f i n te r e s t
;

co mp ou n d e d se m i -a n n u a ll y ,
z : 217

R num b f er o d o lla r s i n th e a moun t of o ne d o llar f

t ye s ;ar

A n u mb f
er o d olla r s i n th e a moun t o f P d ollar s f
n y a s e r .

Sin c e on e d olla r a mou n ts to R d o llar s i n t y e ar s , P d o ll

wi ll a mou n t to P R d o lla r s i n t y e ar s ; th a t i s , th e a mo un t
th e end of th e l s t i n te r v a l i s P R d o lla r s .

I n li k e ma nn e r , th e a m oun t at th e end of th e
2
2d i n te r v al i s P R x R , or PR d olla r s ;
2 3
3 d i n te r va l i s P R x R , or P R d o llar s ; e tc .

S in ce th e wh o le n u mb er of i n te r v als i s th e a mount

th e en d o f th e la s t o n e, in a cc o rd a n c e w i th .
th e law o b s erve
a b o w i ll b e
ve,
?
P R d o llar s .

T h at i s A PR g
,

7
By 5 89 , 5 9 1 , lo g A lo g P lo g R 2
()
2
.

1 . W h at w ill b e th e m o u nt o f $ 7 3 2 6 f o r 3 y e a r s a n d 9
a

mo nth s 7 p er at c e n t c o mp o un d i n te r e s t, i n te r e s t b e i n g c o m

p o un d e d q u a r te r l y
1
He re , P 7 8 2 6, n 3 4, t R 15
4

.
 C OM PO UND IN TE R E ST AND ANN UI TI E S 4 23

lo g P
log R x 15 2 .

lo g A A 5159 4 93 .

2 . W h at sum o f mo n e y w ill a mo un t to 8 i ll 3 y e ar s

at 5 pe r c en t c omp o un d i nte r e s t, i nte r e s t b e i n g c o mp o un d e d

s e mi -a n n u a ll y
Fr om lo g P lo g A lo g R .

H e re , n 3, t 1 ,
R A
2
lo g A
lo g R x 6
lo g P P : s 1 5 21 .

3 . I n h o w ma n yy e ars wi llmo un t to
$ 30 0 a at 6

p e r c ent c o mp oun d i nte r e st, i nte r e s t b e i ng c o mp o und e d quar

/

te r ly

F ro m
lo g R

He r e, P : 300 , t R A

4 lo g 4 x 0 065
.

y ear s .

4 . At w h at r a te p e r c e nt p e r a nnu m w i ll 8 5 00 am unt to o

in 6 y ea rs a nd 6 mon th s , i n te r e s t b e i n g c o mp ou n d e d

se mi -an nu ally
lo g A lo g P
F ro m

He re , P = 500 , n 64, t A

lo g A
lo g P
13
4 24 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
Th at i s , th e i n ter es t on on e d o llar f o r 6 mo n th s i s
th e r a te i s 5 p er c ent pe r a nnu m .

61 4 . To n d the p res en t wo r th of A d o lla rs d u e at the

of n ye a rs, i n ter es t b ei ng co mp o u n d ed a nn u a lly .

P utti n g t : 1 i n 61 3 , we h av e

A : PR ; "
w h en c e ,
P

N
AN U ITIE S

61 5 . An Annui ty i s a x e d su m of mon ey p ay ab le a t e q ua l

i n ter v a ls of ti me .

I n th e p r e s e nt c h ap te r we s h all c on s i d e r th o se c as e s o n l y in
whi ch th e p ay me nts e an nu l ; i n d i n g th p s nt w th
ar a ll e re e or

of u c h a n a nn ui ty i t i c u sto ma y to c mp oun d i n te e t ann u

s , s r o r s

ally .

W h e n we s p e ak f th annu i ty a s b gi nn i ng at a c e tai n
o e e r

ep coh i t i
,
u n d t d tsh a t th e t
ers oo
s p a y me n t b e c me s d u e r o

on ey ea f m th t ti me
r ro a .

61 6 .
fi n d To
th e p r e s en t wo r th of a n a n n u i ty to c onti nu e f or

n s ucces s i ve y ea r s , a llo wi n
g co m p o un d i n ter e s t .

L et A nu mb e r of d olla r s i n th e ann u i t y;
R nu mb e r of d ollar s i n th e a moun t o f one d o llar f or
one ye ar ;
P : b
nu m e r of d ollar s i n th e p re s ent w o rth of the
a nn u i t y .

By 61 4 , th e p r e s e nt w o th of th e
r

l st p ay men t

2d p ay me nt

nth p ayment
 C OM PO UND IN TE R E S T AND ANN UITIE S 4 25

H enc e ,
th e su m th e p r e s e n t
of w o r th s of th e se pa rate a
p y
ments , or th e p r e s e nt w
o r th o f th e a n nu i t y ,
is

A A A A
+ + "
+
R n
n n-l
1? R

T h at i s ,
P =A +
131 4
L a
w n
? )

Th e e xp r e s s i o n in b a c k ts i s
r e th e su m of th e te r ms of a

e
g o me tri c p r o gr e s s i o n i n w hi c h
, a

,
n
r R, an d l 1 .

1
1
"
R
T he n ,
b y 1 1 , 8 5 27 , P :A
1
R

E at . w
F i n d th e p r e s e nt o r th o f a n a nn u i t o f 8 1 5 0 to y c on

ti nu e y w
f o r 20 ea r s, allo i n g 4 p e r en t c o m p o un d i n te re s t c .

He re, A 1 50, n 20 , R R 1 . 04 .

Wh e nc e,

1
lo g
20
20 c o lo g
(1 0 4
.
)
c ol og 10
20
10 lo g 4 5 7 1
. .

(
1 . 4 57 1 ) 3 7 50 x 5 4 29 . .

lo g 3 7 5 0
lo g 5 4 29
. 10
lo g P P 8 2036 .

61 7 . We h av e f ro m 6 1 6,

A
"
R
w hi c h is a fo rmu la f or n d i n g th e a n nui t y to c on ti nue fo r n

s u cc e s s i v e y ea r s, wh en th e p r e s e n t wo r th an d th e a mount of

o ne d olla r f o r o ne y e ar are gi v e n .
4 26 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
F or mula (4 ) ma y als o b e us ed to n d wh at x e d a nnu al p ay me n t mus t
be mad e to c a n c el a n o te o f P d o lla rs d ue n y e ars h e n c e , R b e i ng th e
nu mb e r of d o lla rs i n th e a mo un t o f o ne d o llar fo r o ne y e ar .

61 8 . If i n 61 6, n b e i n d e n i te l y in c r e a s e d, th e li mi t
in g v a lu e o f th e s ec o n d me mb e r i s
A
R l (8

T h at i s , the p r es en t wor th of a p e rp e tua l a n nu i ty i s equ a l to

the a mo un t of the a n nu ity d i vi d ed b y th e i nte r e s t o n o n e d o lla r

f or o ne y ea r .

61 9 . To nd the p r es ent wor th f

o an a n nu i ty to b egi n af te r

m ye a r s , a n d co n ti n u e f or n y e a rs ,
a llo wi n g co mp o un d i nterest .

W i th th e n ota ti o n of 61 6, th e nu m e r b of d olla r s i n th e
v alu e o f th e a nnu i t y on e y e ar b e f ore th e r s t p ay me nt b e c o me s
d ue , i s 1
1 _
R a
A (R n

A ,
R l R "
(R 1

B y 61 4 , th e p s
re e n t wo rth of th i s a mo unt, du e m y ea rs

hen e, i s c A (R n
1)
R

"
E (H 1)

T he r ef or e ,
M "
R (
R 1)

6 20 . By 6 1 8, th e p r e s en t w o r th o f a p e r p etual ann ui ty to
b e gi n a fte r y
m e a r s, i s g i v e n by
th e f o r mu la

A
P _
_
R un 1)

EXE RC S E IO Z I
I . W h at wi ll b e th e a mo un t of
8 1 3 00 fo r 1 6 y e ars at 5 p e r ce n t
c o mp o un d i n ter e s t, th e i nte r e s t b e in g c o mp o un d e d a nnu ally

2 W h a t s um o f mo n ey w i ll a mou nt to
. i n 8 y e a rs a n d 9
mo n th s a t 4 p e r c e n t c o mp o un d i nte re s t, th e i nte r e s t b e i ng co mp ound e d
q ua r ter ly
 C OM PO UND IN TE R E S T AND ANN UITIE S 4 27

3 . In h o w ma n y y e ars will 8 8 5 9 mo u n t to
a at3 p er c e nt

co mp oun d i nte res t, th e i n te r e s t b e i n g co mp o un d e d s e mi-a n nu a lly

4 . W h at i s th e p r e s e nt wo rth o f a n o te f o r d u e 1 2 y e a rs
h en c e , allo wi ng 3 g p e r c e n t c o mp o un d i n te r e s t, th e i n te r e s t b e in g c o m

p o u nd e d a nn u ally
'

5 . A t wh a t rate per c en t p e r a nnu m will $3 7 0 0 g a i n $6 7 8 i n 4 y e ar s

an d 3 mo nth s , th e i nte r e s t b e i ng c o mp o u n d e d q ua r te r ly

6 . In h o w ma ny y e a rs wi ll a s um o f mo n e y d oub le i ts elf at 6 p er
c e nt c o mp o u nd i nte r e s t, th e i nte re s t b e i ng c o mp o und e d a n n u ally

7 . In h o w ma n y y e a r s wi ll a su m of mo n ey tre b le i ts elf at 4 4 p er
cent c o mp oun d i nte r es t, th e i n te r e s t b e i ng c o mp o un d e d s e mi-a nnu a lly

8 . W h at
i s th e p r es e n t wo r th o f a n a n n u i ty of $ 30 0 to c o n ti n ue 14
y e a rs , allo wi n g 4 p e r c e n t c o mp o un d i n te r e s t

9 . W h a t i s th e p res e n t wo r th of a p e rp e tu al a nn u i ty o f 8 a llo w

i ng p er c e nt c o mp o und i n te r es t
10 . Wh a t
i s th e p rese n t wo rth o f a n a nnu i ty of $2238 to c on ti nu e 4
y ea rs , allo wi n g 6 p e r c e nt c o mp o u n d i n te r es t ?

11 . Wh a t i s the p r e s e nt wo r th o f a n a n n u i ty o f $26 80 to b e g in after

1 0 y e a rs a n d c o n ti nu e fo r 7 y e a r s , allo wi n g 5 p er c e n t c o mp o u n d i n te r e s t

12 . W h a t xe d a n nu a l p ay me nt mu st b e ma d e i n o r d e r to c an c e l a

n o te fo r 8 3 500 i n 5 y e a rs , a llo win g 4 4 p e r c e n t c o mp o un d i n te r e s t ?

13 . Wh a t i s th e p re se n t wo r th o f a p er p e tual a n nu i ty o f to
b e gi n a fte r 8 y ears , a llo wi ng 3 3 p e r c e nt c o mp ou n d i n te r es t

14 . W h at a nnu i ty to c on ti n ue 1 2 y e ars c an b e p u r c h ase d for $3 14 9 ,

allo wi n g 7 p er c e n t c o mp ou n d i n teres t

15 .
A
p ers o n b o rro ws $636 5 h o w mu c h mu s t h e p ay i n a nn ual
i ns ta lme nts i n or d e r th a t th e wh ole d e b t may b e d isch arg e d i n 1 0 y e ar s ,
allo w i ng 4 4 p er c e nt c o mp oun d i nte r e s t
 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

XXX I . P E R M U TA TI O NS A ND C O M B INA
TIO NS

62 1 . Th e d i ffe r en t or de r s i n w h i ch th i n g s c an be a rr a n g e d

a r e c alle d th e i r Permutati ons .

T hu s ,
th e p e r mu tati o n s o f t h e le tte r s a ,
b ,
6 ,
ta k e n two a t a

ti me , a r e a b , a c, ca , cb an d th e l r p e r mutati o n s tak e n
t

th re e at a ti me, a r e a b c, a c b , b ac, b oa , ca b , c b a .

6 22 . Th e Comb i nati ons of th i n g s ar th e d i ffe r e nt c o lle c ti on s

whi c h c an b f me d f m th e m with ut
e or ro o r e ga r d to th e o rd e r

i n w hi c h th y e pl ede ar ac .

T hu s th c mbi n ti n f th e l tte s
,
e o a o s o e r a, b , 10 , tak e n two at a

ti me are a
b ,
b c, ca
m ; fo r th o ugh ab an d ba a re d iffe r en t p e r mu
tati o n s , th e yf or m th e sa me c o mb i n a ti on .

6 23 . To n d the nu mb er of p ermuta tion s of n d ier ent thi ngs

ta ken two at a ti me .

C o n s i d e r th e n lette r s a, b, c,

I n maki n g an y .
p a r ti ucla r pe muta ti on of two le tte rs , th e
r

r s t le tte r may b e an y o n e o f th e n ; th at i s , th e r s t p la c e

c an b e lle d i n n d i e r e n t w ay s .

Afte r th e r s t p la c e h a s be en lle d , th e c
se on d l
p a ce c an be
lle d w ith a ny o n e of th e re mai n i n g n 1 le tter s .

Th e n, th e wh ole n umbe r of pe r mutati on s o f th e le tte r s tak e n

two at a ti me i s n(n
We w i ll n o w c on s i d e r th e g e n e r al c as e .

6 24 . To nd the n u mb er o fp er muta ti o ns of n d ier e nt thi ngs

ta ken r at a ti me .

C on si de r th e nle tte r s a, b, c,

I n mak i n g any p a r ti c u lar p e r mu ta ti on of r le tte r s , th e r s t

le tte r may b e a n y o n e o f th e n .

Afte r th e r s t p lac e h a s e e n lle d , th e b se c on d p lac e can be

lle d w ith a ny o n e o f th e re ma i n i n g n 1 le tte r s .
 PE R M UT A TION S AND C OMBINA TION S 4 29

Afte r th e s e c on d p la c e h a s b een lle d , th e th i r d p la c e c an be

lle d i n n 2 d i ffe r e n t w ay s .

Co n ti nu i n g i n th i s way , th e r th p la c e c an b e lle d i n

n
( r or n r 1 d i ff e r en t way s .

T h en ,
th e wh o le n u mb e r of p e r muta ti o n s o f th e le tte r s tak en
r at a ti me i s g i v e n by th e f o r mu la

P, : l n 2 m
l

(
n n 7 )( ) ( n
-
()
1
Th e nu mb p e rmu tati o n s o f
er o f n d i ffer e n t thi ngs tak e n r at a ti me i s
u s ua lly d e n o te d b y th e s y mb o l n P r .

6 25 . If a ll th e le tte r s a re ta k e n to g e th e r, r n, an d ()
1
b c om
e es
a
P n
= n
( 7l 1 n
7
)( 2
()
H en c e, the n u m
b p er o f er muta ti o n s of n d ie r e nt
'

thi ngs ta ken

n a t a ti me e qu a ls the p ro d u ct f
o the n a tura l numb er s f ro m1 to n
i nc lus i ve .

6 2 6 To fin d the nu m
b er o f co mb i n a ti ons of n d ier en t thi ngs
f

V
ta ke n r at a time
Th e nu mb e r of p er muta ti o ns of n d i ffe re nt th i n g s tak e n r at

M i me i s n 2
n n
( l )( ) (n
I h m
B ut by
625 , e ac h co mbi n a ti on o f r d i ffe r e n t th i n g s may
h av e | r p e r mu tati o n s .
W
H e n c e , th e numb e r o f comb i na ti o ns o f n di ffe rent thi n gs
f
tak e n r a t a ti me e q u als th e nu mb e r o f p e r mu ta ti o n s d i v i d e d .

:
1
H s
L 7

Th e nu mb e r o f co mb in ati on s o f n d iffe r e n t th ings tak e n r at a h te i n s

us u ally d e n o te d b y th e s y mb o l n (J r.

6 27 . Multi p ly i n g b o th te r ms of th e f r ac ti o n ()
3 by th p e ro d

u ct of th e n a tu r al n u m e r s b f r o m 1 to n r i n c lu s i v e , we h a v e

wh i ch is an o th e r for m of th e r e s ult .
4 30 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
628 T he n umb e r o
f m o n s of n d i

. b i n a ti co er e n t thi n s ta ken r
g
at a ti me e qu a ls the n u mb er of c o mb i n a ti o n s ta ken n r a t a ti me .

F o r i n ma ki n g a se le c ti on of r th i n g s o ut o f n , we leav e a

s e le c ti o no f n r th i n g s .

Th e th e o re m may a ls o b e p ro ve d b y usi ng th e r e s ult o f 62 7 .

6 29 . Examp les .

1 . H o w man y c h an ge s can be ru n g w i th 10 b ells , tak i ng 7

at a ti me N
A

P utti n g n : 1 0, r : 7 , in 62 4 , (
4

10 P7
: 10 s
, 9 8 7 6 5

2 . H o w ma n y d iffe r e n t c omb i n ati on s c a n b e f o r me d w i th 1 6

le tte r s , taki n g 1 2 at a ti me
By 628 , th e n um b
mb i n a ti on s o f 1 6 diffe r e nt thi n g s ,
er of co

tak e n 1 2 a t a ti me , e qu a ls th e n u mb e r o f c o mb i n a ti o n s o f 1 6
d i ffe r e nt th i n g s , ta k e n 4 a t a ti me .

P utti n g n : 1 6, r: 4 , in 626,

-1 3
04 1 8 20 .
1

3 H dw ma n y d i ffe r e nt w o rd s, e a c h c o n s i s ti n g o f 4 c o ns on ants
.

a n d 2 v o w e ls , c a n b e f o r m e d f r o m 8 c o n s o n a nts a n d 4 v o w e ls

Th e nu mb e r o f c o mb i n a ti o n s o f th e 8 c o n s on a nts , tak e n 4 at
8 7 6 5
a ti me , i s or 70 .

1 2 3 4
Th e b
n um e r o f c o mb i n a ti on s of th e 4 vo w els , tak e n 2 at a

ti me , i s
i or 6 .

Any on e o f th e 7 0 s e ts o f c n s n ant may b e a ss o c iate d wi th

o o s

a n y on e of th e 6 s e ts o f vow l ; h nc th e a i n ll 7 0 x 6
e s e e, er re a ,

or 4 20 se ts , e ac h c o n ta i n i n g 4 c n s n n ts an d 2
o ow lsa vo e .

Bu t e a ch set of 6 le tte r s may h a v e I6, or 7 2 0 d i ffe re nt

p e r muta ti o n s
T he r e fo r e , th e wh o le n u mb e r of d iffe r e nt w o rd s is

4 20 x 7 20 , or 3 0 24 0 0 .
 PE R M UT A TION S AND C OMBINA TION S

EXE RC S E IO3 I
Fi nd th e values o f th e fo llo wi n g

1 .
1 4P6 3 1 7 P7 5 17 0 11
2 .
9 P9 . 4 .
15 07 .
!
a
6 .
29 0 24 .

7 . In a c e rta i n p la y , th e re a re ve p a r ts to b e tak e n b y a c o mp a n y of

twe lve p e r s o n s I n h o w ma n y d i ffe r e nt wa y s c a n th e y b e a s s ign e d

8 . H o w ma n y d iffe r e n t wo r d s , o f n i ne d i ff e r e n t l tte rs e a c h , ca n be
fo rme d fr o m th e le tte rs i n th e wo r d flowe r i ng , i f th e v o we ls re ta i n th e i r

p lac e s
9 . Ho w ma n y d i ffe re n t nu mb e rs ,
d i ffe re nt g ure s e a c h , c a n
o f s e ve n

b e fo r me d fro m th e d ig i ts 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , i f e ac h nu mb e r b e g i ns wi th
I

1 a n d e n ds wi th 9
10 . H o w man y e ve n n u mb e rs , of ve d iffe r e n t
g ur es e ach , can be
fo rme d fr o m th e d ig i ts 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8
mmitte es ,
'

11 . H o w ma n y d i ffe re n t co of 8 p e rs o ns e a ch , ca n b e fo rme d
fr o m a c o rp o r a ti o n o f 14 _p e rs o ns In h o w ma n y wi ll any p a r ti c ula r
i n d i vi d ua l b e f o un d ? I n h o w ma n y wi ll a ny p a r ti c ula r i n d i vi d u a l b e
e x clud e d

12 . A a nd B a re in a co mp a ny of 72 me n . I f th e co mp an y i s di vid e d
i nto s q uad s o f 6 , i n h o w ma n y of th e m wi ll A and Bb e i n th e s a me s q u a d

13 . In h o w ma ny d i ffe re nt wa y s c a n s ix p e rs o n s be s ea te d a t a r o u nd

tab le

14 . 1 5 p o i nts i n a p la n e , n o thr e e i n th e s a me s tr a ig h t li n e
Th e r e a re .

H o w ma ny q u ad ri la te rals c an b e for me d , h av i ng f o ur o f th e p o i n ts for

v e r ti c es

15 . If 32 s o ld i e r s a r e d rawn up i n lin e 4 d e e p , i n h ow many d iffe re nt

wa y s c an th e y b e a rr a n ge d s o as to h a ve a d iffe r e n t set i n th e f ro nt r a nk

In h o w man y wa y s , i f th e f ro nt r an k is a lwa y s to c o n ta i n 3 p artic ula r

me n P

16 . If th e mb e r o f c o mb i n a ti o ns o f 2 n d iffe re n t th ings tak e n n l a t

nu

a time , i s to th e numb e r o f c o mb i n a ti o n s o f 2 n 2 d i ffe re n t thin gs ta k e n

:
'

n a t a ti me a s 1 32 35 , nd th e v alu e o f n .

17 . H o w ma n y d i ffe re n t c re ws , e ac h c o n s i s ti ng o f e ig h t o a rs me n an d a

s te e r s ma n , can bfo r me d f ro m 16 b o y s , o f wh o m 1 2
e c a n ro w b ut c a nn o t

s te e r , a n d th e bth e rs c a n s te e r b ut c a nn o t ro w
18 . A
p e rs o n h a s 22 ac q ua i n ta n c e s , o f wh o m 14 a r e ma le s . In h o w
man y wa y s c a n h e i n v ite 1 7 gue s ts fr o m th e m s o th a t 1 0 ma y b e male s
19 O ut of 10 s o ld ie r s a n d 15 s a i lo rs , how ma n y d iffe r e n t p ar ti e s be

. c an

fo rme d , ea c h c o n s is ti n g o f 3 s o ld i e r s a n d 3 s a i lo rs
4 32 AD V AN C E D C O UR SE IN A L GE B R A
20 . F ro m3 se rg e a nts , 8 1 6 p r i va te s , h o w ma n y d iffe r e nt
c o rp o r a ls , a n d

p a r tie s c a n b e f or med , e ac h c o n s i s ti ng o f 1 s e rge a n t, 2 c o rp o r a ls , a n d 5

p r i va tes
21 . O ut of 3 c ap i tals , 6 c o n s o na n ts , and 4 v o we ls , how ma ny d iffe r e nt
wo r d s o f six le tte rs e ac h c a n b e f o rme d , e a ch b eg i n n i ng wi th a c a p i ta l,

and h a vi n g 3 c o n s o n a n ts a n d 2 vo we ls

22 . H o w ma n y d i ffere n t wo r d s of 8 le tte rs e a ch c a n b e f or me d fr o m
e i gh t le tte rs , i f 4 of th e le tte rs c a nn o t be s ep a r ate d ? H o w ma ny i f
.

th e se f o ur c a n o nly b e in o n e ord e r

23 . I n h o w ma n y d iffe re n t wa y s ca n te n s o ld i e rs b e d ra wn up i n d o ub le
ra n k ,i f th r e e p ar tic ular me n a re alway s. i n th e fro nt ra n k , a n d th re e oth e rs
a lwa y s i n th e r e a r

24 . H o w ma ny d i ffer e nt nu mb e rs o f se ve n gur es e ach ca n b e fo rme d

fr om th e d ig its 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , i f th e rs t, f o ur th , a nd las t d ig its
a re o dd n umb e rs

25 . H o w many d iffe r e nt wo r d s o f s ix le tte r s e a c h ca n b e f o r me d fr o m

th e le tte rs i n th e wo rd p er co la ti ng , i f e a c h wo r d h a s a c o n s o n a nt fo r i ts
rs t a nd las t le tte r , a n d a vo wel fo r i ts s e c o n d a n d fth
26 . 2 n gu e s ts a t a d i nn e r-
Th e r e are p a r ty If th e h os t a nd h o s te ss h ave .

xe d p la c e s o pp os ite to e a c h o th e r , a n d two s p e c i e d gue s ts c a nn o t s i t n e xt

e ac h o th e r , i n h o w ma ny wa y s ca n th e c o mp a ny b e s e a te d

63 0 . To n d the nu mb er of p er muta ti o n s of n thi ngs whi ch a re

n o t a ll d ie r en t, ta ke n a ll toge ther .

L e t th e re b e n le tte r s , of w hi ch p a re a s , q are b s , an d r a r e

o s, th e re st b e i n g a ll d i ffe r e n t .

L et N d eno
te th e num be r of pe r muta ti o n s of th e s e le tte r s
tak e n a ll to g e th e r .

p
S u p o s e th at, i n a n y a s s i gn e d p e r mutati o n of th e n le tte rs ,
th e p

a s we re r e p la c e d by p new le tte r s , d i ffe ri n g f r o m ea ch
o th e r a n d a ls o f r o m th e re ma i n i n g n p lette r s .

Th en by si mp ly a lte r i n g th e o rd e r o f th e s e p le tte r s a mo ng
th e ms e lv e s , w i th o ut c h a n g i n g th e p o s i ti o n s o f a ny o f th e o th e r
le tte rs , we c o u ld f ro m th e o ri g i n a l p
e r mu ta ti o n f o r m p d i ffe r
[
e nt p e r muta ti o n s
If th i s w er e d o n e i n th e ca se of e a ch o f th e N o r i gi n a l p e r
muta ti o ns , th e wh o le n u mb e r of p e r mu ta ti o n s w ou ld b e
 PE R M UTA TION S AND C OMBINA TION S 4 33

Aga i n, i f i n th e latte r th e q b s
any on e o f e r e r e p la e d

w c by
q n e w le tte r s ,
d i ffe r i n g f r o m e a h o th e r a n d f r o m t h c
e r e ma i n i n g

n q le tte r s ,
th e n a lt e r i n gby
t h e o r d e r o f t h e s e q e tte r s a mo n g
l
th e ms e lv e s , w e c ould f r om th e o r i gi n a l p e r mu tati o n fo rm |_
q
d iffe r en t p e r muta ti o n s ; a n d if thi s e r e d o n e i n th e c a s e w of

c
e a h o f th e N x p o r i g i n al e r mu tati o n s , th e p
h o le nu m er w b of

p e r mutati on s w ou ld be NxL
p xl
q
_ .

In lik e mann e r, i f i n ea ch of th e latte r th e r o s

we re r e

p lac e d b y r n e w le tte r s , d i ff e r i n g f r o m e a h o th e r a nd f r o m c
th e r e m a i n i n g n r le tt e r s ,
an d th e s e r le tte rs e r e p e r mu te d w
a mo n g th e ms e lv e s , th e w
h ole n u m e r o f e rmutati o n s ould b e b p w
Nx mg w x x

,
B ut th e b
num e r o f p er muta ti o n s on th e h yp othe s i s th at th e
n le tte r s ar e all d i ffe r e n t, i s [ n

o r, N
m
Any o th e r c a se .
may b e tr eate d i n a si mi lar ma nn e r .

E at . H o w man y p e r mutati o n s c an b e f o rme d f r o m th e lette rs

i n th e wo rd Ten ness ee, ta k en a ll to geth e r

He re th e r e ar e 4
o s, 2 n s,

2
s s , an d 1 t .

P utti n g i n th e a b ov e f o rmula n 9, p 4 , q : 2, r = 2, we
hav e
l
9 5 6 7 8 9
3 7 80 .

63 1 To n d the mb er of p er muta ti o n s f d ier en t thi ngs,

'

. nu o n

ta ken r at a ti me, when e a ch ma y o ccur a ny nu mb er of ti mes

f m
ro o n ce up to r ti mes , i n clu s i ve .

Co n s i d er th e n le tte rs a, b, c,

I n maki n g a ny p ar ti u lacr p e r muta ti o n o f r le tte r s, th e r s t

le tter may b e a ny o n e of th e n ; th at i s ,
th e rs t pla c e can be
lle d i n n d iffe r e n t a w ys .

Th e s e c on d le tte r c a n also be a ny o n e of th e n ; tha t i s , th e

s e c o nd p la c e c an b e lle d i n n d i ffe re n t w ay s .
4 34 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
C o n ti nu i n g i n th i s way , th e r th p lac e c an b e lle d i n n d i ffe r
e nt w ay s .

T h en ,
th e nu mb er o f p e r mutati on s i s
n x n x to r f a c to r s , or n

.

Ex . H o w man y d i ffe r e n t w o rd s o f f o ur le tte r s ea ch c an be

f o r m e d f ro m ni n e lette r s , if ea ch le tte r m ay o c cu r an y n u mb er
of ti me s f r o m on c e up t

o fo u r ti me s , i n lu s i ve c
H e r e , 77 . 9, 7

4 .

T h en ,
th e n um b e r of d i ffe r e n t w ords is
'

4
9 ,
or 65 6 1 .

63 2 . To f i n d th e e n ti r e nu mb er of
mb i n a ti o n s of n d iff er ent co

thi ngs , when ea ch ma y b e ta ke n a ny n u mb er of ti mes f r o m o nce to

n ti mes , i n clu s i ve .

C o n sid e r th e n le tte r s a, b, c,

We can tak e th e m on e at a ti me i n n w ay s .

We c an tak e th e m 2 at a ti m e i n M w ay s
1
2

We c an ta k e th e m a ll in on e w ay .

Th e n , th e e n ti r e n u mb e r of w ay s i s
1 (3 2 89 )
I )

Ex . I n h o w man y w ay s c an a s e le c ti o n o f one o r mor e v ol

u me s b e ma d e f r o m5 b k oo s

H e r e, n 5 ; th e n , th e e n ti r e n u mb e r o f s e le c ti on s i s
5
2 1, or 31 .

EXERC S E IO4 I
1 . In h o w many d iffer e nt o r d ers may th e le tte rs of th e wo rd d e nomi
n a ti o n b e writte n

2 . Th e r e are f o u r wh i te b illi a rd b alls e xa c tly ali k e , a n d th r e e re d b alls ,

als o a lik e . In h o w ma ny d i ffe r e n t wa y s ca n th e y b e a r ra n ge d
 PE R M U TA TION S AND G OMBINA TION S 4 35

3 . In h o w many wa y s c an s i x g i ve n to ve p e rs o n s , if th e re
th i n g s b e

is n o res tr ic ti o n a s to th e nu mb e r eac h ma y r e c e i ve

4 Ho w ma ny d iffe re nt nu mb e rs le s s th an 1 0 00 0 c an b e fo r me d fro m
th e d lg i ts 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8

5 . In h o w many d iffe re nt o rd e rs ma y th e le tte rs of th e wo rd i nd ep en

de nce b e wri tte n

6 . H o w man y d i ffe r e nt s i g n a ls c a n be ma d e wi th 7 g
a s , of wh i ch 2
ar e b lu e , 3 re d , an d 2 wh ite , i f a ll a re h o i s te d fo r e a c h s ig n a l ?

7 . A r a i lwa y s ign al has m a rms , a n d e ach ca n b e p la ce d i n n p os i ti o ns .

H o w ma n y d iffe re n t s i gn als c an b e ma d e wi th i t P

8 . Am an h as e i gh t f ri e n d s . In h o w man y way s ca n h e i nvi te one o r

more o f th e m to d i nn e r

9 . H o w ma ny d iffe re nt wo r d s o f e i gh t le tte rs e a ch c a n b e for me d fro m

th e le tte rs i n th e wo r d a r r a ng e d , if th e rs t, fo urth , a n d s eve n th le tte rs
a re a lway s v o we ls

10 . Ah o u se ha s n in e w in d o ws i n fr o n t . H o w ma ny d i ffe re n t s ign a ls

c an b e g i ve n b y h a vi ng one or mor e o f th e w in d o ws op en

11 . In h o w many wa y s c an 13 b oo k s be a rr a n ge d o n a s h e lf, wh e nve

vo lu me s a r e a lik e , a n d f our o th e r v o lu me s a r e a ls o a li k e

12 . Ho w ma ny d i ffe r e n t nu mb e rs gre ate r th an 1 0000 0 0 c an b e f orme d

fro m th e d ig i ts 4 , 3 , 3 , 3 , 2 , 2 , 0

13 . In h o w man y way s ca n two d i me s , th r e e q u ar te r s , fo ur h alve s ,

and ve d olla rs b e d i s trib ute d a mo ng 1 4 p ers o n s , so th a t e a ch may r ec e i v e

a c o in

14 . Ab a g c o n ta i n s a c e n t, a h a lf-d i me , a d ime , a twe n ty -

c e n t p ie c e , a

q u a r te r-d o llar a
,
h a lf-d o lla r , a nd a d o lla r . In h o w man y wa y s c an a s u m
of mo ne y b e d rawn fr o m the b ag
 AD V AN CE D O
C URSE IN A L G E B R A

XXX II . P R O B A B IL ITY
633 S u pp o s e th a t a b a g c on ta i n s 5 w hi te
. b alls ,
4 r ed b alls ,

an d 3 lac k alls , a n d th a t o n
b be a ll i s d r a n b w at ran d o m .

A ny on e b all i s a s lik e l y to b e d ra wn a s a n y o th e r .

Th e d ra wi ng o f a b a ll c a n o cc u r i n 1 2 d i ff e re nt w ay s ; for a ny

one o f th e b alls ma y b e d ra w n .

Th e d r a wi ng o f a wh ite b a ll c an c
o cu r i n 5 d i ff er en t w ay s ;
fo r an
y on e o f th e w hit b all
e s ma y b e d r a w n .

5
We may th e n c o n s i d er as th e lik e li ho o d th at, i f

a b all i s
12
d ra wn ,
i t is a wh te b allt
i

Th e d r a wi ng o f a w
_ h i te b a ll c an f a i l to o ccu r i n 7 d i ffer e nt
way s ; f o r any o ne o f th e re d o r bla ck balls may b e d r a w n .

7
We may th e n c on si d er as th e li k e lih o o d th at, i f a b all i s
12
d ra wn ,
it i s n ot a wh i te b all .

63 4 . W e may tak e th e f o llo w i ng d e n i ti on f o r the te rm

p r o b a b i li ty
If a n e v e n t c an happ en i n a d i ffe r en t w ay s , an d f ai l to h a pp en
i n b d iffe r en tw y s nd ll the w y a ,
a a se a s a r e e qu a lly li kely to o ccur,

a
th e p o b ab i lity of th e h app e n i n g o f th e
r ev e n t is a nd th e
a b
b
p ob ab ili ty f i ts fai ling i s
r o
a +b
We sa y th e o dd s are a to b i n f a vo r of th e e ve nt, i f a i s gr ea te r th a n b ,
a n d a to b a g a i ns t th e e ve nt, if a i s les s th a n b .

I t f o llo w s th at i f th e p r o a i lit o f th e h a bb y pp e ni ng of an

e v e n t i s p , th e
p r o a ili t o f i ts f a i b b
li ng i s 1 p y .

635 . E x amp les .

1 . A b ag c o n ta i n s 5 whi t 4 e, r e d , an d 3 bl ck b alls
a .

()
a If 3 b a lls a r e dr a w n wh ,
at Ts th e p b ab ility th at
ro th e y
ar e all wh i te
Q)
 PR OBABIL I TY 4 37

Th e nu mbe r o f c o mb ina ti o n s of th e 5 whi t b alls tak en 3

e , \

5 4 3
at a ti me , i s 01 1 0 ; th at i th e d w i ng f 3
s, ra o

w h ite b alls c an ha
ppen in 1 0 diffe re n t w ay s .

Th e b
nu m e r o f c o mb i n ati o n s

of th e 1 2 b lls tak en 3 at
a ,
a

12 1-1 1 0
ti me , i s or 2 20 ; th a t i s, th e d r a w in g o f 3 b all c an s
1 2 3
o ccu in 855) di ffe
r r e nt w ys a .

10 1
T h eu th e p ob ,
r ab 1 1 l ty f d o r aw m ocr 3
'

wh t i e b all8 is ,
or .

22 0 22

()
b I f 6 b alls are dra wn w h at
,
i s th e p ro b abili ty th at 2 a re

wh ite , 3 re d, a nd Ablack ?
The nu mb e r of co . mb i n ati on s of th e 5 white b alls tak en 2 at ,

a ti me , i s or 10 ; th e num e r b o f c ombi nati on s of the 4

; 2g
!
A
red b alls , tak e n 3 at a ti me , is

,
or 4 .

We may asso ci a te to g e th e r any o n e of th e 1 0 c omb i nati o n s

of . w h i te b alls ,
a ny on e of th e 4 c o mb i n ati o n s o f e d b alls
r ,

and a ny bl ck b all ; h ef e th
one of ar i n a ll
th e 3 a s ic ,
e re e

1 0 x 4 x 3 o 1 20 di ff e e n t c o mb i n ti n e ac h on s i sti ng of
,
r ,
r a o s, c

2 wh i te b a lls 3 e d b alls n d 1 b l c k b all

,
r , a a .

Also th e nu mb e of c mb i n a ti on s o f th e 1 2 b alls tak e n 6 at

,
r o ,

1 20 10
H en c e ,
th e r e qu i r e d
p r o b ab i li ty il s ,
.

9 24 77

2 . A b ag c on tain s 30 ti ck e ts numb e ed 1 2 3 m 30 r , , , ,
.

()
a I f fo u ti ck e ts
r e d aw n w h at i s th e c h n c e th at
ar r ,
a b o th
1 a nd 2 w i ll b e a mo n g th e m
Th e n umb e r of co mb i n ati o n s of th e 28 ti k e ts num e r e d c b
28 27
3, 4 , 3 0 , tak en 2 at a ti me , i s th at i s, th er e are

28 27
d i ffe r e n t w ay s of dr a wi n g fo ur ti k ets, tw o c of w h i ch
1 2
a r e nu mb er e d 1 an d 2 .
4 38 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
Th e nu mb e r of c omb in ati on s of c
th e 3 0 ti k e ts , tak en 4 at a

30 29 28 27
ti me , i s
1 2 3 4
H e nc e , th e p r o b b ility
a th at, i f f o ur ti k e ts c ar e d ra wn ,
two
of th e m w i ll b e 1 an d 2, i s
- 2 8 -2 7 3 0 -2 9 3 -4 2
1 -2 - 1 -2 -3 -4 145

()
b I f f o u r ti c k e ts are d ra wn wh a t i
,
s th e c h an c e tha t e i ther

1 or 2 w ill b
mo n g th em
e a

E i th e r 1 o r 2 w i ll b e a mo n g th e ti c k e ts d r a w n , u n le s s ea ch
ti c k e t d r a w n b ear s a nu mb e r f r o m 3 to 3 0 i n c lu s i v e .

Th e n um b er of c o mb i n ati o n s of th e 2 8 ti czk e ts n u m be re d 3,
28 27 26 25
1 2 3 4
b c mb i n ati o n s c tak e n
\

Th e num er of o of th e 3 0 ti k e ts , 4 at

30 29 28 27
a ti me , i s
1 2 3 4
H e nc e ,
th e p r o b ab ili ty th at e a ch of c
th e 4 ti k ets d r a w n b ea rs

28 -2 7 -26 -25 65
a nu mb er f r o m 3 to 3 0 i n c lu s i v e , i s or
87
Th e n , th e p r o b b ili ty
a th a t n on e o f th e ti c k ets d r a wn b ea rs

22
a nu mb e 1 fr o m 3 to 3 0 i n c lu s i v e , i s 1
g or
87
Th i s th e n 1s th e p r o b ab ili ty th a t e i th e r 1 or 2 w ill b e a mong
th e ti c k e ts d r a wn .

I
EXE RC S E [ 0 5

0
1 . Ab a g c o n ta i n s 6 wh i te b alls , 5 red b alls , a nd 4 b la ck b alls ; nd
th e p r o b ab ili ty of d r a wi ng

() a O n e b la c k b all .
(d ) F o ur whi te b alls .

(b ) T wo whi te b alls .
(e ) T wo b alls o f e ach c olo r .

()
0 T hre e re d b alls .
(f ) F o ur r e d a n d th r e e Wh i te b alls .

(9 ) T wo re d , ve whi te , and t wo b lac k b alls .

2 . Ab a g c o n ta i n s 2 4 ti c k e ts nu mb e re d 1 , 2 , 3, 24 if th re e tic k e ts
ar e d ra wn , n d th e p r o b ab ility

(a ) Th at th e y a re 1 , 2, an d 3 .

(b ) Th a t e i th e r 1, 2, or 3 is a mong th e m .
 PR OBABIL I T Y 4 39

Wh at
,

3 . i s th e p ro b ab ility of th r o wi n g n o t mor e th an 5 i n a s in gle

th r o w w i th two d i c e

4 . W h at i s th e p r o b ab i li ty of th r o wi ng a t le a s t 5 i n a s in gle th r o w
with two d i c e
5 . W h at is th e p r ob ab i li ty o f thr o wi ng 1 0 i n a s i n gle th r o w wi th th r e e
d ic e

6 . If s i x p e rs o ns s e a t th e mse lve s a t ra n d o m a t a r o un d t ab le , wh at is
th e p ro b a b i li ty th a t tw o s p e c i e d p e r s o n s w i ll s i t to ge th e r

7 . I f fo ur c a r d s ar e d r a wn fr o m a p a c k , wh a t i s th e p r o b ab ili ty th at
th e y a re o f th e sa me s u it

8 . Th e re are 8 b o oks , o f wh i c h 4 ar e o n math e mati cs an d 3 on s ci enc e .

If th e b oo k s p la c e d to ge th e r o n a s h e lf , wh a t i s th e p r o b a b i lity th a t
a re

th e ma th e mati c a l vo lume s , a nd a lso th e s c ie n ti c , wi ll b e to ge th e r

636 . Mutu ally E xclus i v e E v ent s .

If an e v e n t c a n h a pp e n i n mo r e th a n o n e way , a n d if i t h app e ns i n any

of th e wa y s , c a n n o t a t th e s a me time h a p p e n i n a n y o f th e o th e r wa y s ,
th e s e v a r i o us wa y s a re s a i d to b e mu tu a lly exc lu s i ve .

If a n e v en t ca n happ en i n more tha n one wa y, a nd thes e wa ys

a re mu tu a lly e xc lu s i ve, the p ro b a b i li ty o f the hap p en i ng of the

e ve nt equ a ls the s u m of the p r o b a b i li ti es of i ts happ en in g i n the

s ep a ra te wa ys .

S up p o s e th a t an e v e n t c a n h a pp e n i n a c e r tai n w ay a ti me s
o ut o f b, an d in a n o th e r wa y a
'
ti me s o ut o f b ; all th e se way s
b ei n g e q u all y li k e ly to o c urc .

Als o , s u pp o s e th a t th e two w ay s in whi ch th e e ve n t c an

h app e n ar e mutu ally ex clu si ve .

S i n c e th e event h ap p e n s a a
'
ti me s o ut o f b , th e p r o b abi lity
}
,
p enin g i
b
a 01 C
of i ts h a p
5 Z
1
s or +

B ut 5 i s th e p r o b ability th at th e e ven t ha pp en s i n th e r s t
;
1

way , an d b ab ili ty th at it h ap p e n s i n th e s e c on d way

th e p r o .

H en c e th p b b ility th at i t h ap p en s e quals th e sum o f

,
e ro a

th e p o b a b ili ti
r f i ts h app e n i n g i n th e e p a te w ay s
es o s ra .

I n lik e man n e th e th e e m may b p o e d wh e n th e e ar e

r, or e r v r

more th an two w ay s i n wh i ch th e e v e nt can h app en .

 40 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A G E B L
R A

63 7 . Examples .

1 . F i n d th e p b ab i li ty o f th o wi n g 4 in
ro r a s i n gle th r o w w ith
two d i c e .

Th e e v e n t c an p
h a p e n i n two way s ; e i th e r b y th r o wi n g 3
an d 1, or by th o w r b
i n g d o u le -t o s ; w an d th e s e w ys a ar e mutu
a ll y ex c lu si ve .

E a c h d ie can c o me up in 6 w ay s ; an d h en ce th e p a i r can

b e th r o wn i n 6 x 6, or 36 w ay s .

O f th e s e di ffe r e nt th r o w tw wi ll
s, o be 3 an d 1 ; hen ce ,
th e
2
p b ability
ro of th ro wi n g 3

an d 1 is
36
Ag a i n , d o ub le-tw o s c an b e th r o w n in on l y on e way ; h en ce , th e
1
p b ab i li ty
ro of th r o w in g d ubl -tw o e os is
36
1 1
Th e r e f or e , th e p o b abi lity
r of th r o wi ng 4 i s 2
or
36 36 is
Thi s e xa mple ca n be s o lve d more e as ily b y th e me th o d of 63 5 ; th e
ab o ve me th o d i s g i ve n s i mply a s an illus tra ti o n of 6 36 .

2 . A b ag c nt i n s f
o a o ur $1 0 g o ld p i ec e s an d s i x s ilv e r d ol
la r s . If a pe s n i r o s e n ti tle d to d r a w two '
c o in s at r a nd o m,
wh at i s th e v a lu e o f hi s e xp e c ta ti o n

If p e rs on h as a c h a n c e o f wi nn i ng a c e r ta i n sum o f mo ne y , th e
a

p r od u c t o f t h e s um b y t h e p r o b a b i li ty o f hi s wi nn i ng i t i s c alle d h i s

e xp ec ta ti o n .

Th e nu mbe r o f comb in ati o n s of th e f o u r g o ld p i e ce s ,

tak e n

2 at a ti me ,
is
7 $2 , an d th e nu m e r o f

10 9
b c o mb i n ati o n s

ce
of

p ob ab ili ty
th e te n

c oi n s ti me , i s

tak e n 2 at a h e n th e r of
, ;
1 2
43 2
w
d ra i n g two g o ld c oins i s or
10 -
,
9 15
T h en th e alu e o f th e exp e ctati on s o f a a s it d e p en d s
v ,
r on

th e d a w i n g f two g o ld c o i n s i s 2 x 20 o
2
.

r o d o lla s , ,
r r .

15
1
Th e p o ba b i li ty o f d a w i n g tw S l
r c o ms 8 or o i ve r 1 r
3
2
th e v alue of th e c or e spo n d i n g e xpe c ta ti o n i sr d lla s o r
5
.
 PR OBABI L ITY 44 1

Agai n, th e p ro b a b i lity of d ra wi n g a g o ld c oi n an d a s i lv e r

10 9 8
c -

o in is ( )
6 4
1 2
,
or
15
th e v a lue o f th e c o r re s p o n d i n g e x

8 8
p e c tati on is
5 5
x 1 1, or d o lla r s .

H n ce e ,
th e v a lu e o f th e e xp e c tati on is d ollars ,
or

EXE RC lS E | 0 6

1 . Ab a g c o n ta i n s 20 ti c k e ts mb e re d 1 , 2 , 3 ,
nu 2 0 ; i f a tic k et b e
d ra wn , wh a t is th e p r o b ab i li ty th a t i ts n umb e r i s a multi p le o f 3 o r 7

2 . Fi n d th e p r o b a b ility o f th ro wi n g a t le as t 9 i n a s i n gle th r o w wi th
two d i ce .

3 . A b ag c o n ta i n s 4 h alf-d olla rs and 6 q u a rte r-d ollars I f a p e rs o n i s

.

e n ti tle d to d r a w a s i n gle c o i n , n d th e va lu e o f h is e xp e c ta ti o n .

4 . Fi nd th e p r ob ab ili ty of th r o wi ng 1 3 i n a s i n gle th r o w with th r ee

d i ce .

5 . A b ag c o n ta in s 3 d imes , 4 ve- c e t p i ece s , a n d 2 twe nty -ce n t

n
p i e c es . If a p e rs o n is e n ti tle d to d ra w t wo c o i n s , wh a t i s th e va lue o f h is

e xp e c ta ti o n ?

6 . Fi d th
n e p r ob ab ili ty of th ro wing 7 i n a s in gle th r o w wi th fo ur d i c e .

7 . Ab g a c o nta i n s 7 g o ld d o lla rs , a n d 5 ve -d olla r g o ld p i e c e s If . a

p e r s on i s e n ti tle d to d ra w f ou r c o i n s , wh a t i s th e va lu e o f h i s e xp e c ta ti o n

8 . Ab a g c o n ta i n s 6 fty -c e n t p i e c es , a n d fo u r o the r c o i n s whi ch h av e

a ll th e sa me v a lue . If a p e rs o n s e xp e c ta ti o n o n d ra wi ng thre e c o i ns i s

1 20 3 c e n ts , nd th e va lue o f e ac h o f th e un k no wn c o i n s .

C OMPOU ND EV E NTS
63 8 . I ndependent E v ent s .

If ther e a re two i n d ep en d e nt even ts who s e r e sp e ctive p r o b a b i li ti es

a re kno wn, the p ro b a b i li ty tha t b oth wi ll happ e n i s the p r o d u ct of
the i r s ep a r a te p r o b a b i li ti es .

Tw o e
e v n ts a r e s a i d to b e i nd ep e n d e nt wh e n th e o c curr e n c e o f o n e is
n o t a ffe c te d b y th e o c c ur r e n c e o f th e o th e r .

L et a b e th e nu m b er of w ay s i n wh i ch th e r s t e v e nt can

h a pp e n , an d b th e nu mb e r of wa y s i n wh i h i t c c an fa il ; a ll

th e s e w ay b ei n g e q ually li k ely t
s o o ccu r .
442 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN AL GE BR A
Als o , le t a
'
b e th e nu mb e r o f w a y s i n w h i c h th e s ec on d e v e n t
an d b th e n u mb e r o f w a y s i n w hi c h i t c a n f a i l ll
'
c an h app e n , ; a

th e se w y ba s e i n g e q u a ll y lik e l yt o o c cu r .

W e may a s s o c i a te to ge th e r a ny one of th e a +b case s in

w hi c h th e r s t e ve n t h app en s or f a ils , an d an y one of th e
a
'
b
c ases i n wh i c h th e s e con d h ap p en s or f a i ls ; h e n c e th e re

are (a b) (
a
'
b '
) c a s e s , e q u a ll y li k e l yt o o ccu r .

In aa
'
of th e s e b th
cas e s o e v e n ts h a pp e n .

Th e r e fo re, th e p b b i lity
ro a th a t b oth e v e n ts p
h a pe n i s

d a

( b) (
' '
a a b )
p b b i li ty pp en s
B ut
a i! t?
i s th e ro a th a t th e r s t e v e nt ha ,

an d
!
a
l
th e p r o b b ility th at the
a s econ d h ap p e n s .

a b
H en c e, th e p r o b b ili ty th t b
a a o th e v e n ts p
h a p e n i s th e p ro c
du t
of th e i r s e p a r a te p b b i
roli ti s
a e .

An d i n g e n e r a l, if p l , p g, p 3, m ,
a re th e re s
p ec ti v e p ob bili ti s r a e

o f a ny n u mb e r o f i n d e p e n d e n t e v e n ts , th e p ob abi lity th at all

r

th e e ve n ts h a pp e n i s p 1 p zp 3 m .

63 9 . E xample s .

F in d th e p r o a ili t
1 . b b y f th o w i ng
o r an a c e i n th e r s t onl y
o f tw o s u c e s s i v e th r o s c w wi th s in gl a e die .

1
b b ili ty f th win g n
Th e p r o t th t t i l i s
a
6
o ro a ac e a e rs r a
.

Th p b b i li ty f n t th w i n g n at th
e ro a c nd i
3 o o ro o e e se o s

H e n c e th p b b ili ty f th w i n g an ac e i n th e st n ly f
,
e ro a o ro r o o

5 5
tw s u cc
o s i e th o w s i
ess x o v r r
6 36

2 . F i n d th e p r o a i li t o f th r o b b y wing a n ac e at le a s t on e c in
th r e e w w th r o s i th a s i n gle d i e .

Th e w ill b n c un l th
re th e f ilu
e a a e e ss e r e a re r e a re s .

e r a
2
Th p o b b i li ty f f i li g t th t t i l i 5 ; n d th i s o a n a e rs r a s a is

als th po b ab ili ty f f i li ng t e a h o f th e th e t i als

e ro o a a c o r r .
 PR O BABI L I T Y 443

H en c e ,
th e p r o b ab ili ty th at th e re wi ll b e th r e e f ai lure s i s

5 5 5 1 25
x x
b 6

e 21 6

T hen th e p b ability th ro at th e r e wi ll n ot b e th r e e f a i lur e s i s

1 25 91
21 6
6 634 or
21 6

3 . A b ag c o ntai n s 5 r ed b alls ,
4 wh i te b alls an d 3 b lack
,

b lla s . Th re e b alls a r e dr a wn i n su cc e s si on , e a c h b ing e

p l c d re a e

bf e o re th e n e xt i s dra w n .

W h a t i s th e p ro b b iali ty th a t t h e

b all c
O

s d r a wn a re o n e o f e ac h o lo r

5
Th e p r o b bi lity th at
a th e r s t b all is r ed is ; th e p r o b a
12
4
b ili ty th at th e s e c on d is wh i t e is
,
or a n d th e p r o b ab i li ty
12
3 1
th at th e th i rd 18 bla ck 1 8 or
4
,
12
H n ce e ,
th e p r o b b ili ty
a of d ra w i ng a red b all, a wh i t b all
e ,

5 1 1 5
a nd bl a a ck b ll i n thi
a ,
ig d d i s a ss ne or er , s
,
or
12 3 4 1 44
B ut a re d b ll a w h i t b a ll n d
a ,
bl e ,
a a a ck b all m ay b e d r a w n
in L3 ,
or 6 di ffe r e n t orders a nd in e ac h c a se th e p r o b a

5
b 1 ty
1 1
0 0

is
1 44
Th e n b y b b
63 6, th e p r o a ili t o f d r a i n g a r e d all, a y w b whit e

b a ll, a n d a b la ck a ll,b w
i th o u t r e g ar d to th e o r d e r i n w hi ch
5 5
th e y are dr aw n, I S x 6, o r
144 24

64 0 . D ependent E v ents .

T he p r o b a b i li ty o f the c o n c urren t hap p en i ng of two d ep end en t

i s the p r o b a b i li ty of the
e ven ts r s t, mu ltip li ed b y the p ro b a b i li ty
tha t when the r s t ha s happ e n ed the s eco n d wi ll f o llo w .

L et a an d b h a v e th e sa me mea n i n g s as in 63 8 .

Als o, s u pp o se th a t, a fte r th e r s t ev en t h a s h a pp e n e d , a '

r e p r e s e n ts th e nu mb e r o f wy a s i n wh i c h th e s e c o n d w ill f o llo w ,

an d b '
th e nu m er b of w y i n wh i h
a s c it w ill n ot f o llo w; all

th e s e w ay s b e ing equa lly li k ly t o cc u e o r .

4 44 A DVA NCE D C O URS E IN A L G E B R A
Th e n th e r e a re in a ll (
a b)(
a

b

) c a s e s , e q u a ll y li k ely to
c
o c ur , a n d in d a

of b th n t h pp n
th e se o e ve s a e .

Th e r e f o re , th e p r o b bili ty th t b th e nts h ap p en i
a a o ve s

d a

(
a b) (
a b )
H en c e ,
th e p ro b abili ty th t b th a o ev e n ts p e n i th p b a
h ap s e ro

b i li ty o f th e r s t, multi p li e d by th e p ro b b i li ty th at wh e n i t
a

h a s h a pp e n e d th e c n d w ill fo ll w
se o o .

An d i n g e n e r a l, i f th e r e a r e an y n u mb e r o f d e p e n d e nt e v e nts
su ch th a t p l i s th e p r o a i li t b b y o f t he r s t, p 2 th e p r o b a b i li ty

th at w h n th e s t h h pp n d th s c d will f llo w p th
e r as a e e e e on o , 8 e

p rob a b i li ty th t w h n th tand d h e h a pp n d e rs a s e co n av e e e

th e th i d w i ll f llow
r n d s o o n th e n th e p r b a b i li ty th a t a ll
o , a ,
o

th e e e n ts h ap p e n i s 10 p
v 1 3

64 1 . E x amples .

1 . S olv e E x 3 , . 639 , i f th e b alls a r e n o t r ep la ced a

f te r b e i ng
d r a wn .

5
T h e pr o b ab ili ty th a t th e r s t b a ll is re d is ; th e p r o b a b i l
11 7

i ty th at th e s e con d is whi te i s an d th e p ro b ab i lity th at th e

3
th i r d is b la ck is
lo
H e n c th e p b ab i lity
e, ro of dra wing a re d b all ,
a wh i t b alle ,

5 4 3
an d a b l c k b ll i n th i
a a s a s s i g n e d o rd e r , is x X
12 E
,
10
B ut th e b alls m ay b e d r a wn i n L
3, or 6 d iffe r e n t o rd er s .

The r e fo r e , b b i li ty f d
th e p r o a o ra wi n g a red b a ll, a wh i te
b all n d,
a a b l ck b ll w ith ut e g
a a ,
o r ar d to th e o rd er in whi ch

5 i 1 43 3
th y a e d
e r r aw n i s x x x 6
~
or '

,
ii
,
12 11 10
Qg
i
2 An. ur n c
wh it b ll n d 3 b l k balls ; an th
o n ta i n s 5 e a s a ac o er

co n t i n s 4 w hi t
a b ll nd 7 bl k b ll W h t i th p b
e a s a ac a s . a s e ro a

b ili ty f b t i n i n g a w h i t b ll by a i n gl d a w i n g f m o n e
o o a e a s e r ro

of th e u rn s tak e n at ran d o m
 PR OBABIL ITY 445

S in ce th e ur n s ar e e qu a ll y li k e l y to b e tak e n , th e p r o ba
b ili ty of ta k i n g th e r s t u rn is
5 ; an d th e p b b i li ty
ro a of th e n

wi n g a w h i t ball f m it is
2
'

dra e ro

H en c e ,
th e p ob ab ility
r of o b ta in in g a whi te b all fr om th e
1 5 5
r s t ur n I S x or
5 S 16

I n lik e ma n n e r, th e p r o a i li t b b y of o btai ni n g a w hi te b all

1 4 2
c
f r o m th e s e o n (1 ur n i s x - , o r
2 il 11

H enc e ,
th e r e qu i re d
p ro b b l ty i s
a 1 1
5 2_,
_ 87
16 11 176

64 2 . G i ve n the p ro b a b i li ty o f the hap p e n i ng of an event in

o ne tr i a l, to nd the p ro b a b i li ty o f i ts happ en i ng exa ctly r ti mes
in n tr i a ls .

L e t p b e th e p r o b b ili ty
a of th e h a pp e n in g of
~
th e e v e nt in
on e tri a l .

Th e n 1 p i s th e pr o bab ility of i ts f ai li n g

f
b b
Th e p r o a i li t th at th e e v e n ty i ll h a pp e n i n w ea ch of th e

q
r s t r tri als , an d f ail i n e ac h o f th e r e mai ni n g n r tr i a ls , i s

p (
1
B ut th e nu mb e r of w y a s in whi ch th e m ay h a p p e n
e v e nt

exa c tly r ti me s i n n tr i a ls i s e qu a l to th e n um b e r o f c o mb i n a

ti o n s of n th i n g s ta k e n r at a ti me , or

i t

H nce e, th e p ro a i li t b b y th at th e e vent w ill h a pp e n e xac tl y

r ti me s i n n tr i a ls i s

1
[1
Ex . Wh a t i s th e p r o a ili tb b y of th ro wi ng e xa c tly th ree a e s c
i n v e th r o w w s i th a s i ng le d i e
44 6 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
1
H e re , p

Su b s tituti n g i n th e re
q u i red
p ro b b i lity i s
a

2
1 25
or
1 8 8 88

643 . I t f o llo w s f ro m 64 2 th a t, if th e p r o a ili t b b y of th e

h ap p e n i n g of th e e ven t in o n e tr i a l i s p , th e p r o a i li t b b y of i ts
f a i li n g e x a c tl y r ti me s i n n tr i a ls i s

E
64 4 . G i ven the p ro b a b i li ty f
o the happ en i ng f
o a n e ven t i non e
tr i a l, to nd the p ro b a b i li ty o f i ts hap p en i ug at l t ti mes i n n
e
g i r

tr i a ls .

Th e e v en t ha p p e n s at lea s t r ti me s if i t h ap pe n s e xa c tly n

ti me s , or f ai ls e x a c tl y cc, m , n r ti me s .

Th en th e i t h a p p e n s a t le a s t r ti me s e qu als
th e su m o f th e p r o b a b i li ti e s o f i ts h a pp e n i n g e x a tl
. n ti me s , c y
or f a i li n g e x ac tl y once , twi c e , m ,
n r ti me s .

By 64 2, 6 4 3 , th e r e qu i r e d
p ro b ab i li ty i s

Ex . W h at b b
i s th e p r o a i li t o f th r o y w in g at le a s t th r e e c
a es

i n v e th r o w w s i th a s i n gle d i e
1
H ere, p r 3, n 5 ; th e n th e r e qu i r e d p b ab i lity
ro is
E

1 2 64 8

EXE RC S E IO 7 I
I . Fi nd th e p r o b ab ili ty of th r o wi ng e x a c tly f o ur s i xe s i n s ix th r o ws
wi th a s i n gle d i e .

2 . Fi nd th e p r o b ab ility of th r o wi n g at le a s t fo u r d o ub le ts i n s ix th r o ws
wi th a p ai r of di c e .
 PR OBABIL IT Y 4 47

3 . A p u rs e c o n tai n s 5 d ollar s a nd 7 ve -c e n t p ie c e s , a n d a n o th e r

3 d olla rs 1 2 ve -c e n t p ie c e s
and . F i n d th e p ro b a b i lity o f o b ta i n i ng a
d o lla r b y d ra wi ng a s ingle c oi n f ro m o ne o f th e p u rs es ta k e n a t ra nd o m .

4 . If a c o in is to s s e d e igh t ti me s , wh a t i s th e p r ob ab ili ty th at th e h e a d
will tur n u p a t le as t ve ti mes

5 . Ab a g c o n ta i ns 5 whi te and 3 b lack b alls . If 4 b a lls a re d ra wn a nd

n o t re p la c e d , wh a t i s th e p rob a b ility th a t th e b a lls d ra wn a re a lte rn a te ly

of di ffe re n t c o lo rs

6 . What i s th e p r ob ab ili ty o f th ro wi ng 1 0 wi th a p a ir of d i ce e x a c tly

th re e ti me s i n f o ur tri als

7 . T h e p r o b a b i li ty o f a c e r ta i n e ve nt is 2 , a n d o f a n o th er i n d e p e nd e n t
7
6
of th e rs t
11
. Fi nd th e p ro b a b ility th at o ne a t le as t of th e e ve nts will
h app e n .

8 . If two c o i ns a re tos se d u p ve ti me s nd th e p r o b a b i li ty th a t th e re
,

will b e ve h e a d s a nd ve ta i ls .

9 . E a chfou r p ers o ns d r a ws
of a c ar d fro m a p ack . Fi n d th e p ro b a
b ility th a t th e re wi ll b e o n e o f e a c h s ui t.

10 . A B , , C . and D th r o w a d i e i n s u cce s s i o n , i n th e o rd e r na me d ,
until o n e th r o ws a n a c e . Fi n d th e i r res p e ctive c h a n c e s o f th ro wi ng a n
a c e a t th e rs t tri al .

11 . Ab a g c o n ta i n s th r e e wh i te a n d s ix b lack b alls . A p e r s o n d r a ws
th r e e b a lls , th e b a lls wh e n d r a wn n ot b e i ng r e p la c e d . Wh at i s th e
p rob ab i li ty of d ra wi n g a wh ite b all 9

12 A p ers o n h a s fo ur ti c k e ts i n a lotte ry i n whi c h th e r e th ree p ri z es

'

. are

a nd sev e n b la nk s F
i n d h is c h a n c e o f d ra wi n g a p ri z e
. .

13 . Ab o x c o n ta i n s te n c o u nte rs n u mb e r e d 1 , 2, 3 , 10 . Aft e r o ne

i s d ra wn , i t i s p ut b a c k , a n d th e p r o c e ss i s r e p e a te d i nd e n i te ly . Fi nd

th e p ro b a b ility th a t No 1 will b e d r a wn i n f ou r tr i a ls
. .

14 . Ab a g c o n ta i ns s i x b alls . Ap e rs o n tak es o n e o u t, a n d r e p la ce s it
.

A ft er h e h as d o n e th i s s ix ti me s , nd th e p r o b ab i li ty t h a t h e h as h ad i n
h is h a nd e v e ry b a ll i n th e b a g .

a se ri es o f g a me s , th e p r o b a b ility th a t th e win n e r o f a ny g a me
n ext g a me i s
3. Fi nd th e p r o b a b ility th a t th e wi nn e r of th e

rs t ga me win s th r e e or mo re of th e ne xt fo ur .

16 . Ab a g c o nta i n s th r e e ti c k e ts n u mb e re d 1 , 2, 3 . A ti ck e t i s d ra wn ,
a n d re p la c e d . A ft er th is h a s b e e n d o n e f o ur ti mes , wh at is th e p rob ab ility
th at th e su m of th e numb ers d ra wn is e ve n
448 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
17 . Ap u rs e c o nta i n s a s i lve r d o lla rf o ur d i me s ; a n o th e r c o nta i ns
a nd

ve d ime s . Fou r c o i n s a r e ta k e n f ro m th e fo r me r a n d p u t i n th e la tter ;

an d th e n fo u r c o in s ar e ta k e n fr o m th e la tte r a n d p u t i n th e fo rme r i nd . F
th e p ro b a b i lity th a t the d ollar is s till i n th e rs t p urs e .

18 . A a nd B , wi th s i x o th e rs , d ra w lo ts for p a r tne rs , p lay four tw o

an d

h a n d e d g a me s , a ll th e p la y e rs b e ing o f e q ua l s k ill . Th e fou r wi nne rs d ra w

lo ts fo r p a r tne rs , a nd p la y t wo g a me s , a n d th e wi nne rs i n th e se ga mes p la y
a n al g a me F
i n d th e p r o b a b i li ty th a t
. an d A B
h a v e p la y ed to ge th e r .

19 . If f our wh o le nu mb e rs ta k e n a t r an d o m b e multip li ed to get h e r , n d

th e c h anc e th a t th e la s t d ig i t i n th e p r o d u c t i s 1 , 3 , 7 , o r 9 .

20 . An urn co nta i ns 3 whi te a nd 3 b lac k b a lls , a n d a n o th e r 4 wh i te and

4 b la c k b alls . Ab a ll i s ta k e n fr o m one a nd p u t i n th e o th e r If a b all

.

b e d r a wn fr o m o ne o f th e u r ns c h o s e n at a r a n d o m, wh a t i s th e p ro b ab ility

th a t i t is wh i te
 C ON TIN U E D F R A C T ION S 449

XXX III . C O NTINU E D F R A C TIO NS

64 5 . A Conti nued Fracti on i s a n e xp r e s s i o n o f th e fo rm

b b d
a
o r; a +
C + e +

as it is u s ua ll yw r i tte n .

We s h a ll c on s i d e r i n th e p r e s e nt wo rk o nly c o n ti nue d fra cti on s of th e

f o rm
i

1 1
b c

wh e r e e a ch nu me r a to r i s u n i ty , a a p o s iti ve i nte ge r or 0, an d each o f th e

nu mb e rs b , c, a p os i tive i nte g e r .

64 6 . A ter mi n a ti ng c o n ti n u e d c
f ra ti o n i s o ne in whi c h th e
b
nu m e r o f d e n o mi n ato r s i s n i te ; as,

1 1 1
a +
c + d
An i n n ite c o nti n u e d f ra c ti o n i s one in whi c h th e num be r of

d e n o mi n a to r s i s i n d e n i te l y g re at .

64 7 . In th e c o nti nu ed f ra ti o nc
1 1 1
a1
Ct?

i
"
as

i
4

a1 is c a lle d th e rs t c o n ve rg en t,

1
dl
a2
th e s eco n d co n ve rgent;

1 1
a, th e th ir d co nvergent; an d s o o n .

2 "
i

as

If a1 0, as i n th e c o nti nu e d f ra c ti o n

1 1 1
as as 054

th e n 0 i s c o ns id e r e d th e rs t c o n ve r g e n t .

64 8 . A ny o r d i n a ry f r a cti o n i n i ts lo wes t terms ma y b e co n

ver te d i n to a termi na ting c o n ti n u e d f r a cti o n .

 50 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

L e t th e g i ve n f ra ti o n b e 9,c wh p
o th e r .
2 e re a an d b a re ri me to e a ch

D i vi d e a by b, an d le t al d e n o te th e qu o ti e nt an d b 1 th e re

mai n d e r th e n ,
a bl l .

b b b
bl
D ivi de b by b ,, an d le t a2 d e n o te th e qu oti e nt an d b 2 th e re

ma i n d e r ; th e n,
1 1
9 _ _
b b2
az + az +
b1 b1
b2
Ag a i n , d i v i d e b l by a nd le t a3 d e n o te th e qu o ti en t an d b3
th e re ma i n d e r ; th e n ,

bs
The p oc e s s i s th e
r sa me as th a t of n d i n g th e H C F o f a . . .

an d b 1 88 ) an d s in e a c an d b ar e p r i me to e a c h o th e r , we

mu s t e v e n tu all y obtai n a re ma i n d e r u ni t y ,
at whi ch p o i nt th e
O p e r ati o n te r mi n ate s .

H en c e , an y o r d i n a r y c
f r a ti on i n i ts lo we st te r ms c an be c on

ve r te d i n to a ter mi n a ti ng c o n ti n u e d c
fr a ti o n .

C o nv e r t
g; n to a c o n ti nu e d c
f r a ti o n
'

Ex . .

a,

a2

16
7 da

14
a,

6
 C ON TIN UE D F R A C TION S 451

1 1 1
Th e r e f o r e
23 1 + 2+ 3+ 2

64 9 . A qu a d r a tic s u rd 3 68) ma y b e co n ver ted i nto an i nfin i te

co n ti n u ed f r a cti o n
.

'

Ex . Co n v e rt V 6 i n to a c o n ti n u e d f r a c ti o n .

Th e g re ate s t i n te g e r i n 6 i s 2 ; we th e n w r i te

R e du i n g c V ii 2 to an e q u i v a le n t c
f ra ti o n w i th a r ati o n al

nu me r a to r we h av e
2
6 2 V6+ 2
1

x/6 + 2
2

Th e g re ate s t i nte ge r i n we th e n w r i te

2 2 2 (x/ 2)

1
Su b s ti tuting i n 6 2
1
2
v6 2

Th e gr e ate s t i nte g e r in 6 2 is 4 w e th e n w r i te

Su b sti tuti ng i n
V6 2
4 52 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN AL GE B R A
Th e s te ps n o w r e u r, a n d c w e h a ve

O J
1 1 1 1
v b = 2 +-
0 w
f ra c ti o n i n whi c h th e d e n o mi nators
,

A n i nn i te c o n ti nu e d r e cu r is
calle d a p e r i o d i c c o n ti nu e d f ra c ti o n .

650 . A p er i od i c co n ti nu e d f r ac ti o n ma y a lwa ys be exp r es s ed

as an i rra ti o n a l n u mb er .

1 1 1 1
Ex . E x p re s s a s an i rr ati o na l nu mb e r .

L et x d en o te th e v a lu e o f th e f rac ti o n th e n ,

1 1 3+ x 3+ x

1 +3 + x 3+ x+ l 4 + x

Cle ar i n g of c
f ra ti o n s ,

or x
2
+3 x =3 .

8 + V9 + 12
S olv i n g thi s e q u ati o n , x
2 2

It i s evi d e nt th at th e p os i ti ve s i gn mus t b e tak e n b e fo r e th e r a d i c a l.

PR OPERTIE S OF C ONV ER GE NTS

65 1 . In 65 2 to 6 5 7 , i n lu s i v e , we c s h a ll s u pp ose th e c on

c
ti nu e d f r a ti o n to b e

1 1 1 1
1 +
2 + Cs -i
an + an+ i +

An d we s h a ll le t p , d e n o te th e nu me r ato r, an d g,
th e d e n o mi
n ato r , of th e r th c on v e r g e nt wh e n e xp r e s s e d i n i ts
si mp le s t f o r m .

65 2 . To d eter mi n e the la w o f f or ma ti on f
o the s u cces s i ve

co n ve rg ents .

Th e r s t c o n v e r g e nt is d l .

l a 1a g +1
Th e c
s e on d is d l +
2 as
 C ON T IN UE D F R A C TION S 4 53

Th e th i r d i s a1 +
1 1-_ dl +
2 as a sa s 1 2613 1

Th e thi rd c on v e rg e n t may b e w r i tte n i n th e f o rm

20
s 1
in wh i c h we o b se rve th a t

I Th
. e nu mera to r equ a ls the mera to r of the p rec ed i ng con nu

vergen t, mu ltip li ed b y the la s t d e n o mi n a to r ta ke n , p lu s the n u mera

to r of the c o n ve rge n t n ext b ut p r eced i ng
o ne .

II . The d en o mi n a to r e qu a ls the d en o mi n a to r of the p r eced i ng

c o n ver
ge n t,
mu ltip li ed b y the la s t d en omi n a to r .
ta ken , p lu s the
d en o mi n a to r o f the co n verge n t n ext b ut one p r e c e d i n g .

We will n o w p r o v e Ma th e ma ti al by c I n du c ti o n th at th e a bo ve

la w s c
h o ld fo r a ll o n v e rg e nts a f te r th e s ec o n d , wh e n e xp r e s s e d

i n th e i r si mp le s t f o r ms .

A ss ume th at th e la ws h o ld fo r a ll co n v e r g e n ts a s f ar a s th e
n th i nc lu s i v e .

1 1
Th e n th c on v e r g e nt is 11
dl +
Q7! 2 + a3 +

Th c
e n, S i n e th e la s t d e n o mi n a to r i s a n, we h a v e

pn a np a l + p n 27 an d Qn a nQn I gn 2 '

l + p n 2
Wh e n c e p ra d p n
g

qn a n Qn l
i Qn 2

Th e (n 1 )th c on v e rg e n t is

1 1 1 1
1 +
052 + 3 + an + a w l-I

a n a n +l + 1
wh i ch d iffe r s fr o m th e n th o n l y i n ha vi n g a n + or
a n
i n p la c e of a n

a 1
Su b stituti ng n
d
for in we h a v e
s u +1
an

a a -
l-I n n 1
p n -I + p n 2
a n-
lI
4 54 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
an+1
( an p n 1 + 12 14 )+p n I

an +1 (
a n Qn l 972 2) g n I

(1 71 + a + p n l
,
by 1 3
a n + l gr:
g n I

It i s evident th at th e c
s e on d me mb e r of ()
3 i s th e si mp le s t
f o rm of th e ( n 1 )th c o n v e r g e n t, a n d th e r e fo r e

p n-
l-l an-
l-lp n + p n -1 ) a nd Q n-
l-l lI Q
an - n gn l

Th e s e
"

r e s ults a r e in a cc o rd an c e w i th l w s I an d II a .

H e n c e , i f th e la ws h o ld fo r a ll c n e g e nts as fa
o v r s th e n th r a

y a l h ld f the ( 1 )th
i n c lu s i v e, th e so o or n .

B ut w k n w th a t th y h ld f
e th thi d c o n e g nt a n d
o e o or e r v r e ,

h n
e th y h ld f
ce th f u th ;
e nd in
o th e y h ld a s f a a s
or e o r a s ce o r

th f u th th y a l
e o h ld f
r th f th ;
,
e nd s n so o or e a o o .

H n th l w h ld f ll n g nts fte th e s e c o n d
e ce , e a s o or a co ve r e a r .

Ex . F i n d th e r s t v e c o n v e r g e n ts o f

1 1 1 1
+

Th e rs t c on v e rg e nt is 1 , and th e se c ond is 1 1, or 2 .

T he n by ,
a id o f th e la w ju t p
s s r o ve d,

2 -2 1 5
th e th lr d ls
mi 3
,

2 17
th e f o ur th is

th e fth 13
43

1
The d i
2
"
er e n ce b etween two c o n s ec u ti ve
f
6 53 . co nvergents

p 7 l+ 1
1
a nd is
qn - l-l l-
gn Qn - l

Th e d i ffe r e n c e b etw e e n th e r s t a n d s e on d c c on ve rge n ts is

1
0t1
aO I

Th u s th e th e o re m h o ld s fo r th e r s t a n d s e on d c c on ve r g e n ts
 C ON TIN UE D F R A C TION S 4 55

Assume th at i t h o ld s f o r the n th a n d
( n 1 )th c onve r ge n ts .

1
T h at 18 , Qt y
p
- n +1
OI

a n +l
~
p n +IQn 1
()
1
g r; gn -H gn Qn + l

p l-l
n- p u +2 p n +l a n + 2p n + l +pn
T hen ,
a n-
65 2)
g n+l g n+2 gn -H Qqn -
f- H 9 11

( a n + 2p n + l q l + p n + l Qn ) N
( a n +2p n + l gn + l + 19 gn -
l-l)
71

9 n +1 (
a n + 2 9 71 4-
1 (
In )
p n + l qn ~
p 9 n n +1
1
by
6 5 2) ()
1
gn + l gn + 2 gn + I Qn + 2

H enc e ,
i f th e th e o r e m h o ld s f o r a ny p a i r o f c on s e cuti ve c on

v e r g e n ts , it a ls o h o ld s f o r th e n e xt p a i r .

B u t we k n o w th at i t h o ld s f o r th e r s t and c
s e o nd c on ver

g e n ts ,
a n d h en ce i t a ls o h o ld s f o r th e se c on d a nd thi r d ; and

si nc e i t h o ld s f o r th e se c o nd and thi r d , i t a ls o h o ld s f o r the

th i rd an d f o u r th ; an d S O o n .

Th e r e fo r e , th e th e o r e m h o ld s un i v e r s all y .

As a n e xa mp le of th e th e ore m, th e d i ffe re n ce b e twee n th e fourth and

fth c o nve r ge n ts , i n th e e xa mple i n 6 5 2, i s

17 73 7 31 7 30 1
10 43 10 x 43 10 x 43

6 54 I t f ollo ws 6 53 th a t p n a n d q, c a n h av e n o c o m
f ro m
mo n d 1 v i s o r y
e x c e p t un i t ; f o r i f th e y
h a d , i t o uld b e a d i v i s o r w
of o r u n it , y w
hi c h i s i mp o s s i le b .

Th e r e f o r e , a ll c o n v e r g e n ts f o rme d i n a cc o r d an c e wi th th e
la ws of 6 52 a re i n th e i r lowes t terms .

65 5 . The even conve rgen ts a re gr ea ter ,

a nd the o dd co nver

g en ts less , tha n the f ra cti on i ts e lf .

I Th st c on gent dl
. e r ver , ,
i s les s th an th e fr a ti on i ts e lf, c
1
s in c e i mitte d s o .

1
II . Th e se c on d ,
aq
d2 i s gr e a te r ,
e au s e i ts d e nbc
o mi n a to r a2

1
i s le s s th an 012
as
th e d e n omi nato r of th e fra ti on c .
4 56 A DV AN CE D C O UR S E IN AL GEB R A
1 1
I II . Th e thi r d, dl -
l ,
i s less , b e ca u s e , by II ,
th e
2 + 3
1
1 1
d e n o mm a to r ar -
t 1s g r ea te r th a n a2 + th e
63 a3 + (1 1 +
d e n o mi n ato r of th e f r a c ti o n ; an d so on .

H en c e th e ,
r s t, thi r d, o n
,
c o n v e r g e n ts a re le s s , a nd th e
s e c o n d f o u th
,
r ,
c on v e r g e n ts g r e a te r th a n th e f r a c ti o n i ts e lf .

65 6 . A ny c on vergen t is n ea r er tha n th e p r e c ed i ng con verge n t

to the va lu e o f the f r a cti on i ts e lf

By 65 2
gir l-2 a n + 29 n

+l
"
i Qn
"

c
Th e fr a ti on i ts e lf i s o b ta i n ed f ro m i ts (
n 2 )th c o n v e r g e nt

1
b y p u tt1 n g i n p la ce of a n
.

n+ 3

H en c e, de n oti n g th e v a lu e o f th e f r a c ti o n by x ,
we ha v e

p n-
ll
mp n +l

mq n+ 1 qn
q

w he re m s tan d s for a n +2
n +a

N ow w~ 13
qu a +l Qn Qn
m(p n --
l i qn N
a n-
l-I )
mqu +
qu ( l gi t)
m
65 3
9 11 0
71 971 4 4 qn )

p n +1 mp + 10 p n+1
Als o,
, 11
it
gn -
l-l
mg n +1

i (I n

qn + 1

a n+l
N
p n -l-I Qn
(
1. 4 1 0 71 a an) q . )
S i nce a, is a p o s i ti v e i nte g e r, a n +2 is
ET
is, m i s 1 .

An d S in ec g n +1
m+ 1 q71

i Qn l

Qn +1
is gn
 C ON TIN U E D F R A C TION S 4 57

T he f
re ore, th e f r ac ti o n ()
2 i s le s s th a n th e f ra ti o n c fo r
it has a s ma lle r n u m e r ato r a n d a g r ea te r d e n omi n a to r .

H en ce , th e( + 1n)th c
o n v e rg e n t i s n ea r e r th a n th e n th to
th e v a lu e c
Of th e f r a ti o n i ts e lf .

,
I To d etermi n e li mi ts to the ma d e i n
65 7 . e rr o r ta ki ng the n th
co n ve rgen t f or the f r a cti o n i ts elf .

W i th th e n o ta ti o n of 6 5 6, th e d iffe r e n c e b etwe en th e
c
f r a ti o n i ts e lf an d i ts n th c o n v e r ge n t is

m
mqu+
qu ( l gn )

Si n ce m is th e d e n o mi n ato r q, 1 +
gn (
qn + 1 '
qn)

Th e d e n omi n a to r i s a ls o qn qn .

1 1
H en c e , th e fr a c ti o n ()
1 i s an d

Th at i s , th e e rr o r ma d e i n ta k i n g th e nth c o n v e r g e n t f o r the
f ra cti on i ts e lf li e s b tw e
e en

1 1

qn (
Qn + l i Qn ) "
qn 9 n + 1

AS a n exa mp le of th e ab o ve th e o r e m, th e e rro r mad e i n ta ki ng th e

f o ur th c o nv e r g e n t f o r th e f r a cti o n i ts e lf , i n th e e x a mp le i n 652 , li e s

b e twe e n
1 1 1 1
_
an d . 1

10 ) 10 x 43 5 30 43 0

EXE RC S E I IO 8

C o n ve rt e a ch of th e fo llo wi ng i n to a c o n tin ue d frac ti on, and nd i n

e ac h c a s e th e rs t ve c o n ve r g e n ts .

118 445 4 18 7 15
1 . 3 . 5 . 7 .

91 612 57 1 1 56 1

2 53 743 8 32
2 . 4 . 6 . s .

1 79 61 1 5 151

C o n ve rt e a ch o f th e f ollo wi n g i n to a c o n ti nu e d fra c ti o n , n d i n e ac h

c a se th e rs t fo u r c o n v e rg e n ts , a n d d e te rmi n e li mi ts to the error mad e in

tak i ng th e thi rd c onve rge n t f o r th e fra cti o n i ts e lf .
4 58 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

8
'

11 . x/ .

E xp re ss e ach o f th e fo llo wi ng i n th e f o r m o f a s ur d

1 1 1 1 l 1
21 . 23 . 4

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
24 . 1

l 1 1 1
25 . a

26 . The S i d e re al y e a r is a pp ro x i mately 365 2 56 36 d ay s ; e xp r e ss th e

e xc ess ab o ve 3 6 5 d ay s as a c o n ti n u e d f r ac ti o n , a n d n d i ts rs t f o u r

c o n ve rge nts .

27 . A k ilo me ter i s a p p r o xi mate ly 6 2 1 3 8 mi le

.
; e xp re ss th i s d e c i ma l
as a c o n tinu e d f ra c ti o n , n d i ts fth c o n v e rg e n t, a n d d e te r mi n e li mi ts to
th e e rr or ma d e i n ta k i ng th i s c o n ve r g e n t f o r th e fr a c tio n i ts e lf .

28 . Amt e er is a p p r o xi mately y ard s e x p re s s th i s d e c i mal as a

c o n ti nu e d fra cti o n , n d i ts S ixth c o n ve r g e n t , a nd d e te r mi n e li mi ts to th e
e rr o r mad e i n tak i ng thi s c o nve r g e n t fo r th e f r a c ti o n i ts e lf .

29 . E xp r ess th e gr e a te s t r o ot o f th e e q u a ti o n

2 x2 10 x 5

as a co n tinu e d fracti on , and nd th e rs t ve c o n ve rge nt s

'

C o nv er t e a ch o f th e f o llo wi n g i nto a c o nti n ue d fr ac ti o n , a nd n d in

e ach c as e th e rs t fo u r c on ve r g e n ts

31
1
32 . 33 . 57 .

V a)
"
 XXX IV . S U MM A TIO N O F S E R IE S

65 8 . Th e S ummati on of an i nn i te li te ral s e ri e s i s th e p ro
c e ss of n d i n g an e xp r e s s i o n f r om whi c h th e s e r i e s may b e

d ev e lop e d .

In 530 , we gave a meth od fo r n d i ng th e su m of an i nni te ge o me tri c

s er i e s .

R E CU RR ING S ER E S I
659 . C o n s i d e r th e i n n i te s e ri e s

(
8 8) 2

2
( (
3 2
4 x
) 2 x (
3 x
) x 2 x
) 0, e tc .

T h at i s ,
a ny th r e e c c
o n s e u ti v e te r ms , as for e xa mp le 2 x, 3 x , 2

and 4 x
3
,
ar e so r e la te d th a t th e thi r d , mi n u s 2 x ti me s the
s e c o n d, p lu s x
2
ti me s th e r s t, e q u als 0 .

660 . A R ecurri ng S eri es i s an i n n i te s e ri e s of th e f o r m

a o + a 1 w+ a 2w
2
+
wh e r e an
y r 1 c on se c uti ve te rms , as fo r e xa mp le
a nx ,
" m ,

a r e s o r e la te d th a t

0 ;

p , q, 8 b ei n g c o n s tan ts .

Th e a b o v e r e c urr i n g s e r i e s is s ai d to b e of th e r th or d er, a n d

th e e x p r es s 1 0 n 2 "
1 + p x + 9 93 + sx
is c alle d i ts s ca le o f r ela ti o n .

Th e r e c u rr i n g s e r ie s of 6 59 i s o f th e s e c on d o rd e r , a nd i ts s c ale o f

rela ti o n is 1 2 x x2

An i nn ite ge o me tri c s e r i es is a r e c ur r i n g s e r i e s of th e rs t o rd e r .
4 60 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
Thus , i n th e i nn i te ge ome tr i c s e ri es

a ny two c ons e cuti ve terms , as fo r e xa mp le x 3

and x 2
,
ar e s o r elate d

th at 3
( )
x (
x x? ) 0 an d th e sc ale o f r ela t i o n is 1 x.

661 . To nd the s ca le o f r e la ti o n o f a r ec u r r i ng s er i es .

i
I f th e s e ri e sr s t o r d e r , th e s c a le o f r e lati o n may b e
is of th e
f ou n d by d i v i d i n g a ny te rm by th e p r e c e di n g te r m, a n d s ub
tr a c ti ng th e r e sult f r o m 1 .

I f th e s e ri e s is of th e c
S e on d o rd e r , a 0 , dl , a 2, a 3 , i ts con

s e c u ti v e c o efci ent s , an d

1 +p x qx
2
i ts s c a le o f r e lati o n , we

ag +p az + qaq =05

fro m whi c h p an d q may b e d e te r mi n e d .

If th e s e ri e s is o f th e th i r d o r d e r , d o, dl ,
a 2, a 5, o n

,
i ts
c on se c uti ve c oefc i ents, an d 1 +p x qx
2
rx
3
i ts s c ale o f r e la

ti on, we sh all h av e
3 + p 2 Q1 i

7 o
'
0:

fr o m w hi c h p q,
, an d r may b e d e te r mi n e d .

It i s e v i d e n t f r o m th e a bo ve
'

th a t th e s c ale o f r e la ti o n o f a

r e c urr i n g s e ri e s o f . th e rth o r d e r may b e d e ter mi ne d wh en an y

2 r c ons e c uti ve te r ms ar e g i v e n .

To c
a s e r tai n th e w e may r s t mak e tr i al o f
o rd e r o f a s eri e s ,

a c
s a le o f r e la ti o n o f th r e e te r m s ; i f th e r e s u lt d o e s n o t a g r e e

w c
i th th e se ri e s , try a s ale o f f o u r te r ms , v e te rms , a n d s o o n
u n ti l th e c o rr e c t s c ale o f r e la ti o n i s f o un d .

I f th e s eri e s is as s u med to b e of too h i gh a n o rd e r , th e e q ua

ti o n s C orr e s p o n din g to th e a s su me d s c ale w i ll not b e i nd e p e n

d e nt .
(C o mp a re

662 To nd the su m of a r ecu r r i ng s e r i e s when i ts s ca le o f

r e la ti on i s kn o wn .

L et 1 px qx
2
b e th e s cal e o f r e la ti o n o f th e s er i e s

2
0

i + 2x
 SU MMA T ION O F SER ES I 4 61

D e n oti n g th e su m o f th e r s t n te r ms by S ", we h ave

2
S .
0 an + 03 2
T h en , p xS n p a ox + p a 1x
2

2
an d
2
qx 8 n qa n_2x

qa ox

Add i n g th e s e e q u a ti o n s , an d r e m e mbe ri n g th at, by v i r tu e o f

th e s c ale o f r e la ti o n ,

2 + 190 4

Q0 O; '
a
a -1 +p n2
I qa nii : 0 1
"

th e c o e fci e n ts o f x
2
,
x
3
,
m ,
x
"1
be co me 0 , and we h a ve
2
+p x 9 90 )
0 ( ai + 10 2 0)90 a
e .. 90

gn a w

W h en ce ,
"
_ o
g al +2 4 52 (p a qa M 2 2
1
()
2
1 +p x 290

whi ch i s a fo r mula f or th e su m o f th e rst n te rms of a re c u rring

s er i e s o f th e c
s e on d or d e r .

If x is so tak e n th at th e g i v e n s e ri e s is co nver ge nt, th e

e xp r e s s i o n n +l
( ) + qa n 1 w
7 1.
19 66 -1 + 90 4 4 93

a pp roach es th e li mi t 0 wh e n n i s i n d e n i te l y inc r ea s e d

an d ()
1 b e co me s
1 + 10 90 2
3
()
2
9 9

whi ch is a f o r mula f o r th e v a lue 54 0 ) o f c

a r e urr i n g s e r i e s

of th e s ec o n d o r d e r .

I f q = 0 , th e s e r i e s i s of th e r s t o r d e r, an d th e r e fo r e
1 +P 0a = 0 hen e1

w c o
S (3 )
1 p x

wh i c h is a f o rmula fo r th e v a lu e o f a r e c ur r i n g s e ri e s o f th e
r s t o mp a r e
o rd e r .
(C
I n lik e mann e r , w e s h a ll n d the fo r mula

f1

+ pi qa o zw 2

1 -p x qx2 lr x3
fo r th e v a lu e o f a r e c u rr i n g s e r i e s o f th e th i r d o rd e r .
4 62 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN AL GE B R A
It will b e o b s e rve d , i n fo r mulae and th a t th e d e n o mi n a to r
is th e s ca le o f re la ti o n .

A r e c urri ng se ri es i s fo rme d b y th e e xp a n s i o n , i n a n i n ni te s e r i e s , o f a
frac ti on , c alled th e g ener a ti ng f r a c ti o n T h e o p e r a ti o n o f s umma ti o n
.

r e p ro d uc e s th e fracti o n ; th e p r o c ess b e i ng j us t th e re ve rs e o f th at o f 564 .

Ex . F i nd th e su m of th e s e ri e s

To d e te r mi n e th e c
s a le o f r e la ti o n , we r st a s su me the s e ri e s

to b e of th e c
s e on d o rd e r

Su b stituti ng d o 2, a1 1, a2 5, a3 7 , in 66 1 ,

S o lv i n g th e s e e qu a ti on s , p 1, q 2 .

To as c e r ta i n if 1 -x 2
2 x is th e co rre ct s c a le o f r e lati o n ,

c onsi d e r th e fth te rm .

S in c e 17 x
4
x
)(
7 x
3
) 2 x )( 2
5 x ) i s 0 , i t f o llo
2
ws th at
1 x 2 x
2
i s th e co rr e ct s cale .

Su b sti tutin g th e va lu e s o f a 0 , dl , p, an d q i n

2 )x _
_ 2 x
=
1 x -2 x2 1 x 2x2

The result may be ve r ie d by e xp an s i o n .

Th e s eri es e xp r es s e s th e value o f th e frac ti o n o nly fo r s uch values o f x

as mak e th e s e r i e s c o n ve r g e n t .

T o n d fo r wh a t va lu e s o f x th e g i ve n s e ri es i s c o nverge nt, we p roceed

as in 572 we nd b y th e meth od of 567

2 x 1 1
1 x2 1 2x 1 + x

x + x2
(1
1 n 1 n l
Th e nth te r m o f th e give n s e r i e s i s [2 71
1) ] x

Th e ra ti o o f th e (n 1 )th term to th e nth te r m is

1
2
l x

11 1 1
[2 l) ]
n n
x
 S UM MA T ION OF S E R ESI 4 63

Th is app ro ac h e s th e limi t 2 x, w h e n n i s i nd e n i tely i nc reas e d .

Th e n, th e s e ri es is c o n ve r g e n t if x is nume ri c all y< l 55 5 ,

2

EXERC S E IOQ I
In e ac h o f th e fo llowi ng nd th e ge n e rating fra c ti on , a nd th e exp re s

s io n fo r th e nth te rm, a nd d e termi ne for wh at values o f x the s er i es is

c o nverg e n t

1 . 4 x + 7 x2 5 x3 + 1 9 x4 +

2 . 1 13 x 23 x2
8 5 x3 239 x4 + m .

3 .

4 . 5 1 3
3x+ 5x2

5 .

2 x + x2 + 22 x3 l 9 1 x4 +

7 .

8 . 1 + 3 1 x 1 9 x2 + 39 1 x3 6 1 9 x4 + m .

In e a ch o f th e follo wi ng n d th e g e ne ra ti ng frac ti o n, a n d c on ti nue t he

s e ri es to two mor e ter ms

2
+ x 3 2
x + 6 x3 4
7x + l x
0 5 1 1 6
x +

2 x x2 7 x
3 1 8 x4 59 x5 1 8 1 x6
+
11. 2 11 x 1 5 x2 20 133 24 23 1 5+
98 1 30 956

THE DIFF E RE NTIAL ME THOD

663 . I f th e r st te m o f a s e i e s b e s u b t ac te d
r r r fr o m th e
c
s e o n d, th e c
se on d f r o m th e thi r d , an d s o o n , a s e ri e s i s fo rme d
w hi ch is c alle d th e r s t o rd er o f d i
f
ere n ces of th e gi v e n s e rie s .

Th e r s t o rd e r o f d i ffe r e n c e s of th i s n ew s e r i e s is c a lle d th e
s eco n d o r d er o f d i of th e g i v e n s eri e s an d s o o n
f
e r en c es ; .

T hu s, i n th e s e ri e s

1, 8, 27 , 64 , 1 25 , 2 1 6,

th e su cc e s si v e or d e r s o f d i ff e r e n ces a re as fo llo ws
l st o r d e r, 7, 1 9, 37 , 61 , 91
2d o rd e r, 1 2, 1 8, 24 , 30 ,
3d o r d e r, 6 6 6,
4 th o rd e r,
4 64 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
Th e D iffe e nti
Meth od i s a me th o d f o r n d in g a ny te rm, o r
r al

th e s um o f a ny nu mb e r o f te r ms o f a s e ri e s by me an s o f i ts
,

su cc e s s i v e or d e rs o f d i ff e re n ces .

664 . To n d a ny ter m of the s er i es

1 , 2 : as , 4, a a + b

Th e su cc e s si ve o r d e r s o f diffe r e n ces are a s f ollo ws

l st o r d e r, az dl , d3 Q2 , d4 d o
,
o n
,
can+1 a n,

2d o r d e r, d3 2 a2 + a] , a, 2 a3
'

3d o r d e r, d4 3 d3 +3 dz cal , e tc .

D e n oti n g th e r s t te rms of th e 1 s t, 2 d, 3d , o r d e rs o f

fe r en c e s by d l, d 2 , d 3, re s
p e cti vel y , we hav e
d1 a2 (l l ; wh en c e , a2 d1 dl .

d2 (1 3 2 d2 ; wh e n c e
(Ll ,

as

d3 a, 3 a3 3 dz (Ll ; w h en c e ,

a4 = a1 3 e tc .

w ill b e o b se e d i n th alue s o f d
It rv an d th at th e
,
e v z, a 3, a ,,

c o fc i ents o f th e t m a e th s ame a s th e c e fc i nts o f th e

e er s r e o e

te ms i n th e xp an s i o n by th e B i n o mi al The e m f d
r e a:to or o

th e fi t rs nd ,
n d th i d p w
s eco s e p c ti e ly
,
a r o er ,
r s e v .

We w ill n w p o e by Math e mati c l I nd u cti n th at thi s la w

'

o r v a o

h o ld s f o r a ny te rm of th e g i ve n s e r i e s .

As s u me th e la w to h o ld f o r th e nth te r m, th e n th e c o ef

ci en ts o f th e te r ms w ill b e th e sa me a s th e c oe fc i e n ts o f th e
te r ms i n th e e xp a n s i o n by th e B i n o mi a l Th e o r e m o f d + x to
th e (n i )th p o w er ; th a t i s ,

E
If th e law h old s f o r th e n th te r m o f an
y s e ri e s , i t mus t a ls o

h o ld f o r th e n th te r m of th e r st o r d er o f d i ff e r e n c e s .
 S UM MA TIO N or S E R ES I 4 65

O r, a n+ 1 (13 4

Ad d i n g (1 ) an d we have
2>+ 2J d2

M 2[ (

+ - -
n

Q
Th i s r e s ult i s in ac c o r d an c e w i th th e a bo ve law .

H nc
e e, i f th e la w h o ld s f o r th e n th te r m of th e g i v e n s e r i e s ,
i t h o ld s fo r th e ( n 1 )th te r m ; b u t w e k n o w th at i t h o lds f o r
th e f o u r th te rm, an d hen ce i t h o ld s f o r th e fth te rm ; an d

so o n .

T he r e f or e ,
()
1 h o ld s f o r an
y te rm of th e g i v e n s e ri es .

If th e d i ffer e nc e s n a lly b eco me z ero , th e value o f a n c an b e ob ta i n e d

e xac tly .

665 . To nd the su m of the r s t n ter ms of the s er i es

an 2: Q 3) 49 (1 5 ,

L e t S d e n ote th e su m o f th e r s t n te r ms .

Th en S i s th e ( n 1 )th te r m o f th e s e r i e s

0) an a1 + a 2) d1 + a2 + d 3,
()
2

Th e r s t ord er of d i ffe r e n c e s of
()
2 i s s e ri e s wh ence,

th e r th o r d e r o f d iffe r e n c e s of
()
2 i s th e sa me as th e (r 1 th
)
o rd er o f d i ffe r e n c e s of

Th en , i f d l , d 2, m ,
r e p r e s e n t th e r s t te rm s of th e l st, 2 d ,
o r de r s of d iffe r e n c e s of d l, d l, d, , m ,
wi ll b e th e r s t te r ms
of th e 1 s t, 2d , 3 d , o n
,
o rd ers o f d i ffe r e n c e s of

Pu tt i n g al 0 , d] .
a] , dz : db e tc .
,
in 664 ,

n l 2
_
na n ( 1) d + n (n ) n ( 2d 2 +
s 1 + 1 ()
3
2
L_ L

666 . Ed . F i n d th e twe lf th te r m, an d th e su m of th e r s t
tw e lv e te rms , of th e s eries 1 , 8 , 2 7 , 64 , 1 25,
4 66 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
H e re , n 1 2, (1 1 1 .

Als o, d 1 = 7 , d 2 = 1 2, d 3 = 6, an d d4 = 0

Su b s ti tu ti n g l n 6 64 , th e t w e lfth te r m

10 11 .
1o 9 .

12 +
1 2

Su b s ti tu ti n g i n 66 5, th e su m o f th e r s t tw el ve te rms

12 -
11 -1 0 12 -1 1 -1 0 -9
12
+ o7 + 12 6 = 6 0 84
- -2 - 1 -2 -3 -
0
0

1 2 1 3 4

66 7 . Pi les of S h ot .

E at . If sh o t b e p i le d i n th e sh ap e o f a py rami d w i th a tr i
an g ular b as e, e a ch s i d e of hi h e xh i i ts 9 w c b s h o t, n d th e nu m
b er i n th e p ile .

Th e b
n u m e r o f s h ot i n th e r s t v e c ou r s e s a re 1 , 3,
and 1 5, r e s p e c ti ve l y; we h a v e th e n to n d th e su m o f th e rst
ni ne te rms of th e s eri e s 1 , 3, 6, 1 0 , 1 5 ,

Th e su cc es s i v e o r d er s o f diffe r e n c es ar e a s f ollo ws
l st o r d e r, 2, 3, 4, 5,
2d o r d e r, 1, 1, 1,
3d o r d e r, 0, 0,

Pu tti n g n 9, dl 1 , d1 2, d 2 1 in 665,

9 8 9 8 7
S 9 0
2 1 1 65

EXERC S E HO I
1 . Fi nd th e rst te rm of th e s i xth o r d e r o f d iffe re n c es o f th e s e ri e s
3, 37 5 ,

2 . Fi nd th e i 5 th te r m, an d th e su m o f th e rs t 1 5 terms , of th e s e r i e s
1 , 9 , 21 , 37 , 57 ,

3 . Fi nd th e 1 4 th term, a nd th e s u m o f th e r st 1 4 te r ms , o f th e s e ri es
5, 14 , 7,

4 . Fi nd th e su m o f th e rs t n multi p le s o f 3 .

5 . Fi
n d th e n th te r m, a nd th e s u m of th e r s t n te r ms , o f th e s eri es

2, 1 1,
,
 SU MMA TION OF SER ES I 4 67

6 :If b e p ile d i n th e s h a p e o f a p y ra mi d w i th a s qu a re b as e ,
sh o t e ac h

s id e o f wh i ch e xh ib i ts 2 5 s h o t, nd th e n u mb e r i n th e p ile .

7 F i nd th e 1 3th te rm,
. an d th e su m of th e rs t 1 3 te rms , o f th e s e ri e s 1 ,

3 , 9, 2 5 , 5 7 , 1 1 1 ,
8 . Fi nd th e l 0 th te rm, an d th e s um o f th e rst 1 0 te rms , of th e s er i es 4,
2 , 10, 4 , 56 , 20 6 ,

9 . Fi n d th e s um o f th e s q u a re s o f th e rs t n multip les o f 2 .

10 . Fi nd th e nth te rm, a n d th e su m o f th e rs t n te r ms , o f th e s e ri e s 1,
3, 1 3, 17 , 3, 4 1 ,

11 . Fi nd th e n umb e r o f sh ot in a p ile of 9 c o ur s e s , wi th a r ec ta ngular

b as e , if th e nu mb e r o f sh o t i n th e lo n g e s t s i d e of th e b a s e i s 2 4 .

12 . Fi nd th e numb e r of s h ot in a tr un c a te d p i le o f 1 0 c o urs e s , wi th a

s q ua r e b a s e , if th e nu mb e r o f sh o t in e ach s i d e o f th e lo we r b as e is 1 6 .

13 . Fi n d th e n u mb er o f sh o t in a
.

trun ca te d p ile o f 8 c o u rs es , with a

r e c ta n g ula r b a se , i f th e n u mb e r o f s h o t i n th e le n g th a nd b re a d th of th e
-
b as e are 20 a nd 14 , r e s p e cti ve ly .

14 . Fi nd th e 1 2 th te rm , an d th e su m of th e rs t 1 2 te rms , o f th e s e r i es

1 , 1 3 , 4 9 , 1 39 , 3 33 , 7 0 1 , 1 333 ,
15 . Fi n d th e 9 th te rm, an d

th e su m of th e rs t 9 te r ms , of th e se ri es

20 , 4 , 36 , 1 32 , 3 56 , 8 20 , 1 67 6,

16 . Fi nd th e s um o f th e fo ur th p o we r s of th e rs t nn atu ral nu mb e rs .

17 . Fi nd th e n umb er o f sh o t p ile w i th a r e ctan g ula r b a s e , i f th e

in a

nu mb e r of _
sh ot i n th e le ngth a n d b re a d th o f th e b as e a r e m a nd n ,
res p e c ti vely .

18 . Fi nd th e numb e r o f sh o t in atr un c a te d p ile o f n c o urs e s , wi th a

tri a ngula r b as e , i f th e nu mb e r o f s h o t i n e a c h s i d e o f th e lo we r b as e is m .

INTE RPOL ATION

6 68 . I nterpol ti on i s th
a e p ro c e s s o f c
i n tr o d u i n g e t e e n th e b w
te r ms of a s e ri e s o th e r te r ms c o n f o r mi n g to th e la w o f th e

s e ri e s .

I ts u s u a l a p p li a ti on c i s i n n d i n g i n te r me d i ate nu mbe r s
b e twe e n Math emati c al Tab les
th o s e g i ve n i n .

Th e o p e r ati o n i s e ff e c te d by gi v i n g f ra cti o na l v alu e s to n i n

6 64 .

Th e me th o d I nte p lati on of r o r e s ts on th e a s su mp ti o n th at a

f mul whi h h
or b p
a d f c as een r ov e o r an i nte g ral v alu e o f n, h o ld s
als o w h n n i s f a c ti n l
e r o a .
 68 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
Ex . G iv en V5 V6 v
x/8 n d
I n th i s c a s e th e s u cc e s s i v e o r d e r s o f d iffe r e n c e s a re

2 1 34 , . 1 9 63 , . 1 8 2 6,
o1 7 1 , o1 s7 ,
'

. 0 034 ,

W h en c e, d l = 21 3 4 ,
. d2 _ . 01 7 1 , d . 0 034 ,

No w ,
th e re
q u i re d te r m i s d i s tan t i n te r v als f r o m V5 .

Su b s ti tuti n g n in 664 , w e h a v e , a pp r ox i mate ly,

1 3
x 2 1 34 +
?i 5 . 01 7 1 )

x
x 0 0 34
1 x2 x3

. 27 7 4 . 00 33 . 0 0 02

EXERC S E I III
1 . Gi ve n lo g lo g lo g log 2 9 ;
n d lo g
Gi { 7 91 f/s { m:4 54 684

2 . ve n .
,

nd
3 . Th e r e c i p r o c al o f 3 5 i s 0 285 7 . of 36 , . 02778 of 37 . 027 03 ; of 38 ,
0 263 2 e tc . Fi n d th e re c ip ro c a l o f

4 . Gi ve n log 1 24 lo g 1 2 5 log 1 26
log 1 2 7 nd lo g
5 . Gi ve n 2 13 926 1 , 2 23 1 0 64 8 , 2 33 1 21 67 , 24 3 1 3 8 24 , a nd

2 53 1 5 62 5 ; n d th e cub e o f

6 . G i ve n 16 g 61 2 log 62 lo g 63
log 6 4 n d lo g

SU MMATION OF S ER ESI BY S EPAR ATION INTO PAR TIAL

FR A CTIONS
31 8 . 1 . F i n d th e su m of th e r s t n te rms of th e i n ni te
s e ri e s
1 1
-
1
2 3 3 4 5

an d d e te r mi n e wh eth er th e s er i e s is con ve rg e n t or d i ve r ge nt .
 SU MMATION or S E RI E S 4 69

( n 1 )(
n 2)
Se pa r a ti n g i n to p ar ti a l f ra ti o n s c by th e m e th o d o f 5 67
h av e 1 1 1
n +1 n +2

T hen th e su m o f th e r s t n te r ms of th e g i v e n s e ri e s is

1 n 2

2 n 2 2 ( n 2)

ce 1 th e li mi t 1,
1
S in a pp r o a ch e s wh en n i s i n d e n i te l y
n 2 2
i n c r e a s e d , th e s e ri e s is c o nv e r g en t

2 . F i n d th e su m o f th e r s t n te rms of th e i n n i te s e ri e s

1 1 1
+
1 -5

an d d e te r mi n e w h eth e r th e se ri e s is c on v e r ge n t o r d i v e r g e nt .

1
Th e nth te r m o f th e s er i e s is whi ch , by th e meth o d
1
n n
( 2)
of 567 , e qu a ls
2 n 2(
n 2)

T h en th e su m o f th e r s t n te r ms i s

1
2(
n + 2
)
All th e te r ms c a n c e l e xc e p t th e r s t two p o s i ti v e, and th e
la s t tw o n e ga ti v e .

Th u s th e su m o f th e r s t n te r ms i s

Th e latte r e xp r e s s i o n a p p r o ac h e s th e li mi t wh en n is
1
i n d e n i te l y in c r eas e d .

H e nc e , th e series is c o n v e r ge n t .
4 70 AD V AN C E D C O UR SE IN A L G E B R A

EXERC S E I II2
In e a ch o f th e f ollowi ng , n d th e su m o f th e rs t n te rms , d e te r
mi ne wh e th e r th e s e ri e s is c o n ve rg e n t o r d i ve r g e n t

1 1 1 1
3

1 1 1
4
2 -1 5
3 5

In e a ch of th e follo wi n g , nd th e su m of th e rs t 77. te r ms , and d ete r

mine fo r wh at value s o f x th e s e r i es is c o nve r g e n t

1 1

:
(I :
a 123

(1

8 . Fi nd th e s u m o f th e r st n te rms of

1 1
x(x l ) (x + (56 +
 TH E O R Y OF N UMB E R S 471

XXX V . TH E O R Y O F NU M B E R S

67 0 . I n th e p r e s en t h a te r, th e c p
or d w nu mb er will si gn i fy a

p o s i ti ve i n teger ; an d e v e r le tte r i ll b ey w u n d e r s too d a s r e pre

s e n ti n g a p o s i ti v e i n te g e r .

On e num e r b is s ai d to d i vid e an o th e r wh en i t i s c ntai ne d i n o

it w i th out a ma i n d e r ; i n thi s c a s e ,
re r th e s e c o n d nu mb e i s s a i d
to b e a mu ltip le o f th e r s t .

A p r i me nu mb er i s a n umb e r w hi c h c a nn o t b e di v i d e d, w i th
'

o u t a r e ma i n d e r , by a n n u m b e e x c e t i t s e lf a n d u n i ty
y r p .

O n e n umb e r i s s a i d to b e p r i me to a n o th e r w he n th er e i s n o
n u mb e r, e x c e p t u n i t , w h i c h w ill d i v i d e e a c h o f th e m w i th ou t
y
a r e ma i n d e r .

67 1 . If a nu mb er d i vid es the p ro d uct of two o ther s , and is

p r i me to one of th em, i t mu s t d i vi d e the o ther .

L e t th e nu mb e r n c
d i v i d e the p r o d u t a b , a n d b e ri me to a p .

S i n ce n di v id e s a b , th e
p c
r i me f a to r s o f a b mu s t b e th e s a me

as th o s e o f n, w ith c e r ta i n a dd i ti o n al p me f a c to r s
ri .

B ut sin e n c i s p r ime to a , n an d a h a v e n o c o mmon f a c to r

y
e xc e p t u n i t .

T h e n th e p i me fa to s of b must b e e ith e th e s ame as th o se

, r c r r

of n o ,w i th c t i n a d d iti n al p i m fac to s an d n d i i d e s b
r er a o r e r v .

67 2 . If p a ri mmeb e r d i
nu v i d es th e p r o d u c t of a ny n u mb er of
fa cto rs , i t mus t d i vi d e s o me f a c tor of the p ro d u ct .

L et p b e p m e nua m b ri
e r w h i c h d i v i d e s th e p r o d uc t a b c

Th e n , th e p ri me fa c tor s o f a b c mu s t b e p , w i th c e rta i n
a ddi ti o n a l r i me f a c to r s
p .

Th en , so me on e of th e n umb er s a , b , c, mu s t h av e p a s a
p r i me f a c to r , a n d th e r e f o r e p d i v i d e s s o m e f a c to r o f th e p r o d u c t .

67 3 . I t f ollo ws f ro m 6 7 2 th a t
If a pme n u mb er d i v id es
r i a p o s i ti ve i n tegr a l p ower f
o a nu m
b er a, i t must d i vi d e a .
 72 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L GE B R A
67 4 . If the n u me r a to r a nd d e n o mi n a to r o f a f r a cti on a re

p ri me to e a ch o ther, the f r a cti o n i s i n i ts lo wes t terms .

L et a be p ri me to b .

p o ssi ble wh e
If le t
g 5 is'
, ,
re 5 .

'
ab
Multi ply i n g b o th me mb e r s by b

,
a
'
.

b
Wh en c e sin ce
'
,
a is an i n te g e r , b d i v i d e s ab
'
.

B ut i s p r i me to b , a n d h e n
a ce b d i v i de s b '

B ut th i s i s i mp o s s i le i f b i s
'
b b .

H nce e ,
b
c ann o t b e b, an d 5 i s i n i ts lo w e st te r ms .

67 5 It wa s p ro v e d , i n
. 6 7 4 , th at b d i vi d e s b '

Wh en e , b '
c
mb , h e r e m i s an i nte g e r w .

% g
bn
T h en ,
a
' C
- E a m
1

H en i s p r i me to b ,
g multi
' '
c e, if a a nd a a nd b a r e equi

p les o f a a nd b .

67 6 . A nu mb er ca n be r es o lve d i n to p ri me f a cto rs in o n ly o ne
wa y .

L et n be a c o mp o s i te nu mb e r ; an d su pp o s e n abc m , wh e re

a, b, c, m are r i me n umb e r s
, p .

S u ppo s e als o , i f p o s s i le, th at n b a

' '
b c m , wh e re a '
, b
,
c
,

is a diffe r e n t s e t o f p r i me nu m e r s b .

We h av e , abc . o u
a
' ' '
b c
()
1

T h en ,
a di vi d e s ' '
a b c m ,
an d th e r e f or e d i v i d e s so me one o f

th e nu mb e r s a
'
,

Th e n , si nc e a , b, c, m ,
an d a
'
, b '
, c
'
, are p r i me nu m e rs, a b
mu s t e qu a l s o me one o f th e nu m e r s a b '
,
b
'
,
'
c ,

S u pp o s e , th en , a z :a ; d i vi di ng th e m e m
'
be rs o f
()
1 by a an d

a
'
,
re s
p e c ti v e l y , bc b
r
o
!
7

an d , a s bef ore, b e q u a ls o n e o f th e nu mb e r s b '

, c
'
,

P ro c e e din g i n thi s wa y , we c an p r o ve e ac h of th e nu mb e rs
a, b, c, m ,
e qu a l to o n e o f th e nu m e r s a b '
,
b

,
c

,
 T HE O RY or NUM B E R S 473

67 7 . T o n d th e h i g h e s t p o we r of 2 whi h i s c c o n ta i n e d i n IE '

O f th e f a c to r s 1 , 2, 3 , m ,
1 4 , th e nu mb e r s 2 , 2 x 2, 3 x 2 , m ,

7 x 2 c o n ta i n 2 as a f a c to r at le a s t once .

Th e nu mb e rs 2 2
,
2 x2 2
,
3 x2 2
c o n ta i n 2 2
as a fa c to r at le as t
on c e .

Th e nu m b er 2 3
c o n ta i n s 2 3
as a f a to rc on e c .

T h en ,
th e h i gh e s t p o we r of 2 in [14 is e v i d e ntl y
or 11 .

We w ill n o w c o n si d e r th e g en e r a l c a s e .

To n d the
h i g he s t p o we r f
o a, whe re a is a ny p r i me nu mb er
whi ch i s co nta i ned i n _ ln .

O f th e fa c to r s 1 , 2, 3 , m ,
n, th e nu mb e r s a, .
2 a, 3 a, w e
,
c on

tai n a as a c
f a to r at le a s t on ce .

L e t th e la s t te r m of th i s s eri e s be pa .

Th en , pa e i th e r e q u als n , o r is n ; w h en ce ,

n
10
E, 0 1

P
a a

T he r e fo re , p i s th e g r e a te s t i n tege r i n
a

Ag a i n , th e nu mb e r s a
2
,
2 a
2
,
3 a
2
,
m ,
c o n ta i n a
2
as a f a to rc at

le a st on e c ; le t th e la s t te r m of thi s seri es b e qa 2
.

Th e n, a s b e fo re, q
1
2 ,
or q< 2 ; ~
a a

W he nc e , g i s th e g r e a te st i n te g e r i n 71
2
.

Co ntin u in g i n th i s way , th e h i gh e st p o we r of a in l
n
_ i s

wh e re p i s th e gr e ate s t i n te g e r i n 1 , g
i n 15
2
,
L
r i n 31 ,
7
8
e tc .
a a a

We wi ll n o w s o lve th e e xa mp le of 6 7 7 b y th i s me th o d .

In thi s c as e , a 2, n z 14 th e n , 33 .

7
n
2
z
n
3
7
a a 2 a 4

The gre ate s t i nte ge r i n 7 i s 7 in Z is 3 ; i n Z is 1 .

2 4
Then, th e hi gh e s t p o w er of 2 i n 1 4 is 7 3 1, or 11 .
4 74 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L GE B R A
67 8 The p r o d u ct of
. a ny 72 co ns ec uti ve i n teger s i s d i v i s ib le b y
I
n

L e t th e i n te g e r s b e m 1, m 2, m n .

Multi p ly i n g b o th n u me r a to r a n d d e no mi n a to r by th e p ro d

uc t o f th e n atu r al n u mb e r s f rom 1 to m, i n c lu s i v e , th e fr a c ti on

L ?

If a is a ny p ri me nu mb e r, th e ex p o n e nt of a in | m n is
m
I
n
p + q r wh e re p i s th e gr eate s t i nte g e r i n
m
t
n
q i n
'

a a

Th e e xp o n e n t o f a i n [m i s p 1 9 1 r1 m ,
whe re pl i s th e

7
g r e a te s t i nte g e r i n
g , 11 i n
( 2
2

,
r1 in e tc .

Th e e xp o n e n t o f a in I
n i s p2 g z r2 m ,
whe re p i s
2 th e

g r eate s t i n te ge r i n 3 , q2 i n 73 ,
2
r2 i n 73 ,
3
e tc .

a a a

Th e n, th e e x p on e n t o f a in Ini I n is (p 1 + p 2) (q1 qg)

m n
Now, th e gr e ate s t i n te g e r i n i s e i th e r th e su m of th e
a

g r e a te s t i n te g e r s in an d or e ls e it e xc e e d s th 1 s su m
a a
by u ni t y .

Th a t i s , p e q u a ls - 1
p 1 + p 2,

or p1 p2 .

S i mila rl y , g e q u als 91 Q2, or q1 92 1 ; e tc .

T hen , 10 q r is n ot

th a t i s , th e e xp o n e n t o f a in | m n is n ot i ts ex p o n en t in

mu s t b e an i n te g e r .

Wh en c e, (m m
1)( 2) m
( n
) i s d i v i s i le b by In .

67 9 . If p n is a ri me nu mb er, the co e i c i e n t f o a ny ter m, excep t

the r s t a n d la s t, i n the e xp a n s i o n b y the B in o mi a l Theor em of

( a i s d i vi s i b le b y n .
 THE O R Y OF N UMB E R S 4 75

By 2 8 7 , th e
c o ef c i e nt of th e ( r 1 )th te r m of ( a
)
as

is

n ( u 1) -r
+ 1)
()
1

By 67 8 , n ( u 1) ( n r b by In
1 ) i s di v i s i le

f r o m 1 to 1 n n f th e f a c t
If r has a ny v alu e n ,
o e o ors of
II

c an di v i d e n ; f o r, by hyp oth e s i s ,
n i s a p i me n u mb e
r r .

T h e n umu st di i d e (n 1 )
,
v (n r

T h e ef o e e xp e ssi on (1 ) s an
r r , r i i n te g e r, a hd d i vi s i le b by n .

Fermat Th eorem

68 0 . s .

If is ri me mb er , a nd m i s p r i me to m " 1 1 is

n a p nu n, . a

multip le of n .

L et a, b, c, m , k be an y mnumb e rs .

Ex p an d in g by th e B in o mi al T h e or e m, we h a ve

" " 1 ( n n 1
(+
b + 76) + +

a na c c

L
2
()
1

ch c c i e nt ML 1
) b by n
E
By 67 9, ea o ef n, i s d i v i s i le .

T hen ,
ever yt m i n th e e x p a n s i on
er w h i c h i s n ot a p o w e r
of a , b, c, 1 ) c a n b e w r i tte n
k, i s a multi p le o f n ; a n d (

+ 10 7 5

wh e re p is an i n te g e r .

P utti n g a =b c : k : 1 , we h a v e

m m= m (m l
"

or p n, o r

S in ce m i s p m eri
to n ,
i t c a n n o t b e a mu lti p le of n .

Th e n , 1 mu st b e a mu lti p le of n .

m m = p n, 6 80 , h o ld s i f m i s
"
68 1 . Th e r e s ult of n ot

p ri me to n .

Th at 1 S , m
m is a mu lti ple / of n w h en n i s p ri me , wh eth e r

m i s p ri me to n or n ot .
 476 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A

E XAM PL E S

68 2 . 1 . I f two c
c o n s e u ti v e n u mb e r s are not mu lti p le s of 3,
th e i r su m is a mu lti ple of 3 .

Th e nu mb e r s mu s t b e i n th e f o rms 3 m 1 a n d 3 m + 2 .

Th e n th e i r s u m i s 6 m 3 , w hi c h i s a mu lti p le o f 3 .

I t follo wsfr o m th e ab o ve th a t a n y nu mb e r o f th e fo r m

:
n (
n + 1) [ n ( n or n u ( 1 ) (2 n l ),

i s di vis ib le b y 6
F o r e i th e r n mu s t b e e ve n or n 1 and if n e i th e r n n o r n l is a

multip le o f 3 , th e i r s u m i s a multiple o f 3 .

2 . E ver yp e rfe ct s q ua re i s i n th e f o r m 5 n, o r 5 n j; 1 .

F or a ny n u mb e r i s i n th e f o r m 5 m, or 5 m j:a, wh e re a may
be 1 or 2 .

m
( )
5 i s i n th e f o rm 5
2
n .

Ag a i n , 5
( m j; a ) 2
e q u a ls a mu lti p le of 5 , p lu s a
2
.

2
But a is e i th e r 1 or 4 ; an d 4 5 1 .

H en c e , (
5 m :
t a
)
2
di ffe r s by
1 f r o m a multi p le of 5, and is
th e r e fo r e i n th e f o r m 5 n 1 or 5 n 1 .

3 . If n is e ve n , a n d not a mu lti p le of 3, n
2
2 i s d i v i s i le b
by 6 .

F or n mu s t b e i n th e fo r m 3 m j; 1 , w h e r e m is o d d .

T hen ,
n
2
2 9 m j:
2
6m 1 2, whi c h i s d i v i s i ble by 3 .

Aga in , 2 is even h e n c e , i t i s d i v i s i le b by 6 .

4 . E v er y e v en p o we r of an odd n u mb i in er s th e form
8 n 1

No w, an y o dd n u mb e r i s i n o ne o f th e f o r ms

8 m:
t 1, or 8 mi 3 .

I f th i s b e r ai sed to an y e ve n p o w e r, th e r e s u lt will b e a
multi p le of 8 p lu s 1 , or a multi p le of 8 p lu s an e v e n p owe r

of 3 .

No w w mu lti ple

an y ev e n po er of 3 i s i n th e f o r m of a of

8 , p lu s 1 .

H e nc e , any e ve n p o w er of an odd nu mb e r i s i n th e f o r m
8 n 1 .
 TH E O R Y OF N UMB E R S 477

5 .

P r o v e th at n
7
n i s d i v i s i le b by 42 .

By 6 81 , s in e c 7 i s p r i me , n
7
n i s d i v i s i le b by 7 .

Ag a i n , n n
7
=n ( n
6
l) = (
2 1
n 72
)
( n

By 67 8 , ( n 1)n ( n b by
1 ) i s d i v i s i le
I
3 o ,
r 6 .

H nc e e, n
7
n is d i i s i b le by 7 a n d 6
v by 4 2 ,
or .

6 . P r ov e th at th e f o u rth p o we r of a ny nu mb e r i s i n th e
fo r m 5 n or 5 77. 1 .

I f m i s p ri me to 5 , m 1 i s a mu lti p le o f 5 4

Th a t i s , m i s a
4
u lti p le o f 5 , i n c r e a se dm1 ; by an d i s th e r e
f ore i n th e f o r m 5 n 1 .

If m i s n ot p r i me to 5 , i t c o n ta i n s 5 as a f a to rc an d m is4

i n th e fo rm 5 n .

EXE RC S E HS I
1 . If n is odd , an d gre ate r th an 1 , (n 1) n ( n 1 ) is di vis i b le
b y 24 .

2 . Pro ve th at n 5
n i s di vis ib le b y 3 0 , if n is gre a te r th an 1 .

3 . Pr o ve th at n (
n 1) ( n 5) is a multip le of 6 .

Fi n d th e h i gh e s t p o we r of 2 in [ 50 .

5 Fi nd th e h i gh e s t p o we r o f 3 i n Q0 .

6 P r ove th at e ve ry p e rf e c t s q u a r e i s i n th e f o r m 3 n, o r 3 n 1 .

7 P rove th a t e ve r y p e r f ec t s i xth p o we r is i n th e for m 7 n, or 7 n 1 .

8 . Pr o v e th at, if n is o dd , a n d n o t a multip le of 3, n2
5 i s d i vi s ib le
6

9 P ro ve th a t, if n i s hd d , (n2
3) (n 2 7 ) i s d i vi s ib le b y 3 2 .

10 . P rove th at any o d d p o we r of 7 i s i n th e fo r m 8 n l .

11 . P ro ve th a t n
5
5 n 3
4 n is d i vis i b le b y 1 20 , if n i s g re a te r th a n 2 .

12 . P rove th at, if n is o dd , a nd g r ea te r th a n 1 , n5 n i s d i vis ib le

b y 2 40 .

13 . Pr ove th at e ve ry p e rf ec t c ub e i s i n th e f o rm 7 n, or 7 n } 1
z; .

14 . Pr o ve th a t e v e ry p e r fe c t c ub e i s i n th e f o r m 9 n, o r 9 n i 1 .
 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

xx xvi . D E TE R M I NA NTS
Th e s o lu ti o n o f th e e q u a ti o n s

a as l by cl ,

233 629 as

620 1 b l c2
'

C2a 1 0 1 652
,
11
92 25 1 1 62 Ga b y

Th e co mmo n d e n o mi n a to r m ay b e w ri tten i n th e f o r m

an
1
& 2,

T hi s is un d e r s too d a s s i gn i f
:
y i n g th e p r o du ct of th e p u p e r

le ft-h a n d a n d lo w e r r i g h t- a n dh n u mb rs mi nu s th e p o duc t of
'

e r
'

th e lo we r le ft-h a n d a n d u p p e r r i gh t-
h an d .

T he ex p re s sion
()
1 i s c a lle d a D ete r mi na nt off th e S econd

/
r
nume rato s o f th e a b o ve

Th e fra c ti o n s c a n a ls o be ei rp r e ss e d as d e ter
mi na n ts th u s ,
Cl , bl
02 6 1 17 1 6 2 an d 620 1
0 2, 52

68 4 . Th e s o lu ti o n o f th e e qu ati o n s

{ a l
v I b ly I 0 12 db

+ b 2y + = d 27
I
a c2z

I (1 337

I b ay

Caz (13,

a i b 20 3 1
01 1
730 2 a 2 b ac i 251 0 3 "
I

w i th r e s ults o f s i mi la r f o r m f o r y an d z .

Th e d e n omi n ato r o f (1 ) ma y b e w r i tte n

 D E TE R MINAN TS 4 79

T hi s i s un d e r s to o d a s s i g nify i n g th e m o f th e p r o d u c ts o f
su

th e n um e r s b c o nn ec te d by li n es p a r a lle l to a li n e j o i n i n g th e

u pp e r le f t-h a n d c o rn e r to th e lo w e r r i gh t-
h a n d, i n th e f o llo w
i ng d i a g ra m, mi nu s th e su m of th e p r o d u c ts o f th e n u m e r s b
c nn
o e c te d by li n es p a r a lle l . to a j
li n e o i ni n g th e lo e r le ft-h an d w
c o ner r to th e u p p e r r i g h t-h a n d .

Th e e xp re s s i o n ()
2 i s c a lle d a D etermi n a nt of the Thi rd Order .

Th e nume ra to r of th e v xp r es s e d as a d e te r mi nan t,
as fo llo ws

as may b e veri e d by e xp a n di n g r ule .

68 5 . Th e nu m b er s i n th e r s t, s e c o n d , e tc .
,
h o r i z o n tal li n e s ,
of a d e te r mi n a n t, are s ai d to b e i n th e r s t, s e co n d , e tc , ro . ws ,
r e s p ec ti v e l
y ; m b
and
e r s i nth e
th e r s t, s e c o n d , e tc
nu ,
v e r ti ca l .

c o lu mn s , i n th e r s t, s e co n d , e tc , co lu mn s . .

Th e n u mb e r s c o n s ti tu ti n g th e d e te r mi n a n t a r e c a lle d i ts
e lemen ts , a n d th e p r o d u c ts i n th e e x p a n d e d f o r m i ts ter ms .

Thu s , i n th e d e te r mi n a n t of
6 8 4 ,
t h e e le m e n ts a r e

a l, a 2, a s, e tc , a n d th e te r ms a 1 b 2c3 ,
. a 1 b 3c2, e tc .

EXERC S E I 4

E va luate the follo wi ng d e te rmi n a n ts 7

1, 5, 2
x + 2/1 x y a b
_
,
1 3 4, 7, 3
+ y b
. '

x y, 23 2 b7 a
9; 8, , 6
4 80 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
9

a, b, c x + y, z
,

7 b, a, d 93, y+ z,

0, d, a y, y,

V e rify th e f ollo wing b y e xp an d i ng th e d e te rmi n a n ts

al, b1, 01 63, b3, as ma l , 5 1 , 01 an 771 5 1 , 01

9 . (1 2 , b 2, 62 C2 , b 2, (1 2 10 . 772 0 2 , b 2, C2 (1 2 , 777 62 , 02

a s, b 3, 03 61, 19 1 , (1 1 ma g , 53 , 03 a s, mb s , 03

1 19 1 C1

11 . 61 2 , 02 , C2
b e, 03 as, be

68 6 . If, i n an y p er mu ta ti o n of th e nu mb e r s 1 , 2 , 3 , n, a

g r e a te r n u mb e r p r e c e d e s a le s s, th er e i s sa i d to b e an i n ve r s i o n .

Th u s , i n th e case o f ve nu mb e r s , th e p e r mu ta tio n 47 3 ; 5 , 2 h as s ix

i n ve rs i o n s ; 4 b e fo r e 1 , 3 b ef o re 1 , 4 b e fo r e 2 , 3 b e f o r e 2 , 5 b ef o re 2 , an d

4 b e fore 3 .

Con si d er, n o w, th e n
2
e le me nts
1 2
, : 1 3 , ;

2 1) 2 27 2 37
()
1
a t v

a n 17 a n 2) a n 3)
, , ,

Th e n o tati on in r e ga r d to s u f xe s , in i s th at th e r st
suf x d e n ote s th e r o w, an d th e s e c on d th e c o lu mn , i n w h i c h
th e e le me n t i s s i tu a te d .

Th u s , a , i s th e e le m e n t i n th e lath r o w a n d r th c olumn .

L e t a ll p o s s i b le p r o d u c ts o f th e e le me n ts tak e n n a t a tim e b e
f o r me d , s u bj e c t t o th e r es tr i c ti o n th at e ach p r o d u c t s h a ll c o n
ta i n o n e a n d o n ly o n e e le me n t fr o m e a c h r o w, a n d o n e an d o nly
o n e f ro m e a c h c o lu mn , a n d w r i te th e m s o th a t th e r s t s u ixes
s h a ll b e i n th e ord er 1 , 2, 3 , m ,
n .

T his i s e qu i vale n t to wr i tin g all th e p ermutati o n s of th e n u mb e rs 1 , 2 ,

n i n th e s e co n d s ul d es .

M ak e ea ch p r o du ct or c
ac o rd i n g a s th e nu mb e r o f i n v e r
s i on s i n th e s e co n d s u f x e s is e ven o r o dd .
 D E TE R MINAN TS 4 81

Th e ex p re s si on
()
1 i s c alle d a D ete mi n r ant of th e nth Ord er .

T he nu mb e r o f te r ms i n th e e xp an d e d fo r m o f a d e ter mi n a n t of th e n th
o rd e r is ln (
Th e e le me nts ly i n g i n th e d i a g o n a l j oi n i n g th e u
pp e r le ft
h an d to th e lo w er r i g h t-
han d c o rn e r , are s ai d to b e i n th e

p r i n c ip a l d i a go n a l; th e te r m wh ose f ac to r s ar e th e e le me n ts i n
th e p r i n c i p al d i a go n a l i s a lw y a s p o s i ti v e .

Th e d e termi n a n t (1 ) of 6 86 is so me ti mes e xp r e s s e d b y wr i ti ng o nly

th e e le me nts i n t h e p ri n c i p al d i a g o n a l th u s ,

I 1 |

, 1, a n. n

Wh e n i n th e f o r m ()
1 of 686 , th e d ete rmin a n t i s s ai d to b e i n th e
S qu a r e F o r m .

68 7 I t may b e
. sh o wn th at th e d e n i ti o n . of 68 6 a gr e e s

w i th th at o f 68 4 .

F or c on si der th e d e te r mi n ant (4

2 2,
,

:3 2
3, 1 , )

Th e p r o du c ts of th e e le me n ts tak e n 3 at a ti me , su bj ect to
th e r e s tr i c ti o n th a t e ac h p ro d u c t s h a ll c on t ain one an d o nl y
one me nt f ro m e a c h r o w, a n d o n e an d o nly _
e le o n e fr o m e a ch

c olumn , th e r s t s ufxe s be i n g w ri tte n i n th e or d e r 1 , 2, 3 , ar e

1 1 2 2 3 3,
. , . 1, 1 3 , 2, 1 2 2 1 3 3;
. , .
1 2 2 3 3 1
, , , : 1 3
,
3 2
, :
an d dl , 3 a ; 2 a 3, 1 .

I n th e r s t of th e s e th e r e are n o i n v e r s i on s i n th e s ec o n d

s u f xe s ; i n th e s e c o n d th e r e i s o n e ,
3 e f o r e 2 ; i n th e th i r d b
th e r e i s o n e ; i n th e f ou rth , two ; i n th e fth , tw o ; i n th e
s i xth , th r e e .

Th e n by th e r u le o f 6 8 6 , th e r s t, f o u r th , and fth p r o d u c ts
are p o s i ti ve, an d th e se co nd, th i r d , a n d s i x th a r e n e g a ti ve ; an d

th e e xp a n d e d f o rm i s

I

2 1 .
1 . 3 2 2 3 1 1
. .

wh i ch ag re e s w i th 68 4 .
4 82 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
68 8 .

p m uIf , i n
ta ti o n of th e l
a ny
e tters 1 ,
2; 3
er,
n, two
numb er s b e i n te r cha n e d , the n u mb e r of i n ve rs i o ns i s i n cr ea s e d
g
o r d i mi n i s h ed b y a n o d d nu mb e r .

I f two mb ers b e i n te r c h an ge d , th e n u mb e r o f
co n s e c u ti ve nu

i n v e r s i o n s i s i n c r e a s e d o r d i mi n i sh e d by 1 .

T h u s, i f a hmb i s a p e r mu ta ti o n o f 1 , 2, 3, m , n , th e
nu mb e r o f i n v e r s i o n s i n a kmb d iff e r s b y 1 f r o m th e n u mb e r
i h --a mk b m ; f o r th e n u mb e r o f i n v e r s i o n s s o f a r a s th e
o

n u mb e r s p r e c e d i n g 76, a n d f o llo w i n g m, i s c o n c e r n e d i s n o t

a ff e cte d by th e i n te r h an ge c .

No w le t m
f g b e a p e r m
a kb eu tati o n o f thee n u mb e r s

1 , 2, 3 , n, h a v i n g p nu mb e r s b e tw e e n 76 an d m .

B y i n te r c h a n g i n g m w i th f , th e n m w i th e, a n d s o o n i n s u c
c e s si o n w i th e ac h o f th e p 1 numb e r s to th e le ft o f m, m may
be b r ou ght to th e le f t of h .

Th e n , by i n te r c h a n g i n g k w i th b , th e n It w i th c, a n d s o o n in
su c c s i n w i th h f th p n umb e t th i gh t f k I m y
es o e ac o e rs o e r o ,
t a

b b ugh t t th
e ro i g ht f f o e r o .

T hu h n d m m y b i n te ch an g d by p 1 p
s, a a 2p e 1 r e ,
or

i nt h n ge
e rc f c n c uti
a n u mb s o th at i s by n d d umb
o se ve ers ,
a o n er

o f i nt ch n g er f ns uti a n u mb es o
s co ec ve er .

I t f ll w s f m thi th a t i f k n d m b
o o ro i n t c h an g d th e
s ,
a e er e ,

nu mb of in er si ns i i n c ea s d ve rd i mi n i h d by an d d
o s r e or s e o

n u mb e r .

6 8 9 An y p e mu tati n f th n u mb e s 1 2 3
. r n o n be o e r , , ,
ca

o bt i n ed f o m ny th by ep ate d i nte h n g s f tw
a r a o er r e rc a e o o

n u mb e rs .

If we c mme n c e i n th i w y wi th th e p mu t ti n 1 2 3
o s a er a o , , ,

m n i t lf fte n u h i nt c h n g th
, se , a r o w i ll b n d d
e s c er a e ere e a o

n umb f in er oi n i n th lti n g p mut ti n

ve rs o s e re su er a o

I f i n th l tt w int h n g tw n u mb
e a er e w h all h e rc a e o er s , e s ave

a p mut ti n wi th an
er n n u mb
a o f i i n ev e er o n ve rs o s .

P e di n g i n th i
ro c w y s i c e th w h l n u mb
e s f p mu t
a ,
n e o e er o er a

ti o n i s n s n n u mb aw h ll n d th t th e n umb e
ev e e r, f p e s a a r o er

mu t ti n s w i th n d d nu mb
a o f i n e s i o n s e qu a ls th e n u mbe
a o er o v r r

w ith an n numb f i eve i er o n v e rs o n s .

 D E TE RMINAN TS 4 83

It fo llo ws f ro m th e a b o ve th a t, i n th e e xp a n d e d f o rm of th e
d e te rmi n an t of 686, th e nu mb e r of p o s i ti v e te rms e q u a ls

th e nu m be r o f n e g a ti ve te r ms .

6 90 . Th e e xp a n d e d fo r m of th e d e te r mi n an t 686, may
a ls o be o bt ain e d by w r i ti n g th e s eco n d su i r e s i n th e o r d e r
1 , 2, 3 , m ,
n , an d mak i n g e ac h p ro du t c or ac c o r d i n g as th e
nu mb e r o f i n v e r s i o n s i n th e r s t s uixes i s ev e n or odd .

F o r le t th e a bs o lu te v alu e o f a n y te r m, o b tai n e d by th e r u le

of 6 86 , b e ag
q
an
; ()
1

whe p q re ,
i s a p e mutati
,
r r on o f 1 , 2, m , n .

T hi s i s obtai ne d f m th ro e rs t te r m

u
m ()
2

by c h an gi ng s e c o n d s uf x e s , 1 to p , 2 to q, -
,
n to r .

S i n ce p , q, -
,
r i s a p er mu tati on of 1 , 2, m
,
n,
()
2 ma
y b e

w r i tte n
a -
P P
a'
qv9
a
an d 1
() m a y b e o ta i n e d f r o m th i sb by c h an gin g
rs t s u f xe s ,

p to 1 , q
to 2 ,
-,
r to n

In th e s e two me th o d s , th e r e i s th e sa me nu mb e r of i nte r
ch a n ge s o f two
s u f xe s , a n d th e te r m ()
1 w i ll th e r e f o r e h a v e
th e sa me S i gn .

PR OPER TIE S OF D E TE R MINANTS

69 1 . A d etermi n a n t i s n o t a lte r ed in va lu e if i ts r o ws a re

cha nge d to co lu mns , a nd i ts co lu mn s to r o ws .

Th e tru th of th e th e or e m fo r a d e te r mi n an t o f th e th ir d o rd er may
e as i ly be se e n by e xp a n d i n g th e d e te r mi n ants

1 , b l, Cl 1 7 2 ,

(1 2 , 52 , C2 an d bi , b 2,
8 3 b ? 63 011 C2 )

in e ac h o f whi c h , b y 68 4 , th e e xp a n d e d fo r m i s

(1 1 5 2 0 3 61 1 17 3 0 2 a zb acf a zb i cs d ab i ca 3 b 2cl

P roof o f the theo r em .

4 84 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
C on s i d e r th e d e te r mi n an ts
a ] 1,
a l 2, ooo al
, n
2 1)
,
2 2)
, 7
2
, n
0

a n 1) a n 2) 3
an n I n )
2 n ) an n
m
, , , , , ,

S i n c e th e c
s e on d s u f xe s of th e r s t d e ter i n ant a re th e
sa me as th e r s t
s u f xe s o f th e se c o n d , i f th e r s t d e te r mi n an t

be e xp a n d e d by th e r u le o f 6 8 6, and th e s e ond c by th e r ule

of 69 0 , th e r e s ults w i ll b e th e s ame .

Th e r e for e th e d ete r mi n an ts a re e qu al .

692 . A d eter mi n a n t i s cha nged i n s ign if a ny two cons ecu ti ve

r o ws , o r a n y two co n s e cu ti ve co lu mns , are i n ter cha nged .

th e th e o r e m wh e n th e rs t d e te rmi
'

Th e tr u th of a n d s e c o n d r o ws o f a

n a n t o f th e thi r d o r d e r a r e i nte r ch a nge d , ma y b e s een by e xp a nding

d ete r mi n an ts
an b l, 01 G2, 17 2 , 02

a s. b a. 62 an bl, 61

d 3a 63 , C3 3 , b ib 03

By 684 , th e e xp a n d e d fo r ms are , r esp e c ti vely ,

(1 1 5 2 0 3 011 53 0 2 0 2 53 0 1 (1 2 5 1 0 3 0 3 51 6 2 (1 3 52 0 1 ,

and a2b 1 63 a zb s c 1 ai b scz 61 1 52 0 3 (1 3 520 1 613 121 0 2 5

o n e of wh i c h is th e n egati ve o f th e o th e r .

P r o of of the theor em .

C o n s i d e r th e d e te rmi n an ts

3 l n
,

a n , 1) a n 27 an it a n 17 a n 2) a
, , , ,

th e qth a n d r th ro ws of th e r s t b e i n g, res
pe c ti v el y ,
th e rth

an d qth w ro s of th e s ec o n d .

L e t th e a b s o lute v a lu e o f o n e o f th e te rms of the r s t d e te r

ml n ant b e I
7 8
0 0 .
a
q " ar
u
an
u ; ()
1

where s, v is a pe r mutati on of 1 , 2, m ,
n .
 D E TE R MINA NTS 4 85

S in ce th e e le me nt i n th e qth row an d

tth c olu mn of th e
c
s e on d d e te r mi n a n t i s a
,
an d th e e le me nt i n th e rth row

an d u th c o lu mn a
, th e a b s olut e v a lu e of th e co rr e s
p o n d i n g
te rm of th e c
d e te rmi n a nt may b e o ta i n e d f r o m (1 )
se o nd b by
r e p la c i n g am, an d a lu a , an d a
n , by
r e s e ti v e l ; th at i s , p c y
dl a a an
7 a m t q, u , v

Th e la tte r ex p r e ss i o n is a ls o th e a b s o lute v alu e o f o n e o f th e

te r ms ofr s t d eter mi n an t, s i n c e i t h a s o n e a n d o n ly on e
th e
e le me n t fr o m e a c h r o w, a n d o n e a n d o n ly o n e f r o m e a c h

c olumn ; an d writi n g i t s o th at th e r s t su fxe s shall o cc ur i n

th e o r d e r 1 , 2, m , n, we h a v e

1 a'
q, u
an : an
,

v ()
2

No w wh atev e r th e nu mb e r of i n v e r s i on s i n th e c
s e on d su f

xe s of s, m ,
t, u, m , v, th e nu mb er of i n v e r s mn s ln th e
c
s e on d su f x e s o f s, u, t, v, d iffe r s f r o m i t by u nity ;
f or i n th e r s t c as e t p e c e de s
r u, an d i n th e c
s e on d u p e
r

c ed s t e .

H nc e e ,
th e te r ms ()
1 a n d ()
2 o f th e r s t d e te r mi n an t are o f

o p p s i te
o s i gn

T h at i s , any two te rms th e gi v e n d e te r mi n an ts o f e qu al

of

a b s olu te v a lu e ar e o f o p p o s i te s i g n ; a n d h e n c e th e d e te rmi

n an ts th e ms e lv e s a r e o f e qu al a bs o lu te v alu e an d o pp o s i te S i g n .

I t f ollo ws ,
fro m 69 1 an d 69 2, th a t if two c c
o n s e u ti v e

c lu mn s
o ar e c
i n te r h an g e d, th e s i gn of th e d e te rmi n an t i s
c h an g d e .

69 3 A d e termi n a nt i s cha nged i n

. s ign if a ny two r ows, o r a ny

two co lumn s , a r e i n ter cha nged .

I t fo llo ws f r o m th e p roo f of 68 8 th a t a ny tw o ro w s, or

a ny two c o lu mn s , of a d e te r mi n a nt may b e i n te r h an g e d c by an
o d d nu mb er o f i nte r c h a n ge s o f con s e cu ti ve r o s o r c o lu mn s w .

B ut e ver y i nt c h er a n ge of
.
tw o c o n s e c u ti v e ro ws or c olu mn s
c h an ge s th e S i gn of th e d e te r mi n a nt
T h ef e th eer or ,
S i gn o f th e d e te r mi n an t i s ch a n g e d if a ny two
r o w s o a ny tw o
,
r c o lu mn s , are i n te r c h a n g e d .
4 86 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN AL GE B R A
6 94 . Cy cli ca l I nter cha nge of R o ws or Co lu mn s .

By n 1 s u cc e s s i v e i n te r c h an ge s of tw o c o n s e c uti v e ro ws ,

th e r s t ro w of a d e te r mi n a nt of th e n th o r de r may b e ma d e
th e last .

T hu s by ,
6 9 2 , th e d te rmi n an t
g
1, b l) ml
at2 b 2 m2
1 s e q u al to
a n
)
b n )

n ;
bm m u
1 ? b l)

Th e a b o ve is c a lle d a cycli ca l c
i nte r h an g e of ro w s .

I n li k e ma nn e r , by n 1 c
s u c e s si v e i n te r h an
c e
g s of t wo
c c
o n s e u ti v e c o lu mn s , th e r s t c o lumn of a d e te rmi n an t of th e
n th o r d e r may b e ma d e th e la s t .

6 95 . If two r o ws , o r two c o lu mn s , o f a d eter mi n a nt a re i d en

ti ca l, the v a lu e o f the d eter mi n a n t i s zer o .

Th e truth of th e th e or e m wh e n th e r s t t wo ro ws of a d e te rmi n a n t of

th e th i rd o rd e r a r e i d e n ti c al, may b e s ee n by e xp an d i n g th e d e te rmin ant

an bi , 01

G1 , bl; 61

2 7 b2) 02

By 6 84 , th e e xp a n d e d fo r m i s

0 1 01 6 2 a l b zc l a l b 26 1 (1 1 0 1 6 2 -
I a2b l6 1 (22 0 1 6 1 , 0 1 0
'
.

P r o of o f the the or em .

L e t D b e th e v alu e of a d e te r min an t h a v i n g tw o ro ws ,
or

two c olumn s ,
i d e n ti c al .

I f th e se ro ws ,
o r c o lu mn s , ar e c
i n te r h a n ge d, th e va lue of th e
r e s u lti n g d e te r mi n a n t i s D
B ut s i n ce th e ro w s , o r c o lu mn s , whi c h are i n te r h an g e d c are

i d e nti c al ,
th e two d e te r mi n a nts a r e o f e u a l v alu e
q .

H en c e ,
D D ; an d th e r e f o r e D O.

69 6 If e a c h e le men t i n o ne co lumn , o r i n o n e r o w, i s the s u m

'

of m ter ms , the d eter mi n a n t ca n b e exp r es s ed a s the s u m of m

d etermi na nts .
 D E T E R MINAN TS 4 87

Th e tr uth of th e th e o r e m wh e n me n t i n th e rs t c olumn o f a e ach e le

d e te r mi n a nt o f th e thi r d o rd e r is th e s um o f two te r ms ma y b e s ee n b y ,

e xp a n d i ng th e d e te rmi n a n t ; c o ns id e r , fo r e x a mp le , th e d e te r min an t

0 1 1 , b l, C1

632 2 , 52 , C2

C53

I d3 1

b 3a 63

By 68 4 , th e e xp an d e d fo r m i s

( 61 1 611 ) (52 0 3 53 0 2 ) (612 d z)(b 3 0 1 131 0 3 )

(a s d e) (17 1 6 2 b 20 1 )

b 3 0 2) -
'

(1 1 (b 26 3 1
L 61 2 093 6 1 51 0 3 ) a3 (b 1 0 2 52 0 1 )
d 1 (b 2 0 3 53 0 2 ) d2 (b 3 6 1 51 0 3 ) 52 0 1 )

an bi , C1 1 , b1 , 01

2 , b 2, 62 d2 a b 2, 02

a s, 03 , C3 da, 03 , 63

P ro of o f the the or em .

Co n s i d e r th e d e te rmi n an t
dl r)
0 0 0

,
,

y
2 14

a n 1,
,
c o s

, a
L et ea ch e le ment i n th e rth c o lu mn b e th e su m of m terms ,
as f ollo ws : 1 b1 + cl + + 11,
2
, r
b2 + cs + +fz;

L et a
,
a
w a,

b e th e a bs o lu te v alu e o f o n e o f th e e le

me n ts of th e n ,

al
m a , an
a l p (q +
b c
q + + 12) an

(h
p + 0 1
1 1,

It i s e v i d en t fr om thi s th a t th e d e te r mi n a n t ()
1 can be ex

p resse d as th e su m o f th e d e te r mi n an ts
b l?
3
b 2) "
3 2

a n 1)
,
b an
, n an 1)
,
4 88 AD VAN C E D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
69 7 . If a ll the men ts i n o n e co lumn , o r _i n o n e r ow, a r e
e le

multip li ed b y th e s a me n u mb er , the d etermi n a n t i s mu ltip li e d b y

thi s numb e r .

Th e truth of th e th e o r e m, wh e n a ll th e e le men ts i n th e rst c olu mn

of a d e te r min an t of th e th ir d or d er are multi p li e d b y th e same numb er ,

may b e s e en by e xp a n d i n g th e d e te r mi n a n t .

C ons i d e r , f or e xa mp le , th e d e te r mi na n t

G1 , bi , 01

(1 2 , b 2, C2

a s, b Sa 03

M ultiply ing e a ch ele ment i n th e r s t colu mn b y m, we h ave

ma n b n 01

ma m 17 2 7 C2

ma g , b a, c
os

Th e e xp and e d form of (2) is

ma 1 (b zca b a0 2 ) m d b sci b 1 0 3) m3 (b 1 0 2
g
wh ich is m ti me s th e e xp a n ded fo r m o f

It i s e v i d e nt fr o m th i s th a t ()
2 e qu a ls ()
1 multip li ed b y m .

P r o of o f the theo rem .

C o n si de r th e d e te rmi n an t

a 2 1, a2 r,
,

an
,
0 0 0

,
an
r ,
o n e

, a
Multi p ly i n g ea ch e le me n t i n th e r th c o lu mn by m ,
we h av e
a 1 1)
,
ma i n? a1
, n

a2 l

o n e

,
ma 2 , , r
G2 ,

an l,

0 0 0
,
ma n, r
0 0 0

,
a

L et a
w
m an
,
b e th e a b s o lu te v a lu e o f o n e o f th e ter ms
of

c
R ep la i n g a , b y ma m , th e a bs o lu te v alu e of th e c or re

s p on d i n g te r m O
f (2) i s ma 1 p a

a
.

It i s e v i d e nt f r o m thi s th t th e d e te r mi n an t ()
2 e qu als m
ti mes the d e te r mi n an t
 D E TE R MINAN TS 4 89

698 . If a ll the ele men ts in a n y c o lu mn , o r r o w, b e mu ltip li e d

b y the sa mb er , a n d e i ther a d d ed to , o r s u b tr a cted f r o m, the
me nu

c or resp o n d i ng e le men ts i n a n o the r co lu mn , o r r ow, the va lu e of

the d eter mi na n t i s n o t cha nged .

L e t th e me n ts i n th e r th c olu mn o f th e f o llo wi n g
e le

d e te r mi n an t b e mu lti p li e d by m, a n d a d d e d to th e c o r r e s p on d
i n g e le me n ts i n th e qth c o lu mn .

1 , C O O

,
a a r
q

b l, b q,
0 0 .
b r,

kl ) k q?
kn

We th e n O b ta i n th e d ete r mi n an t

a, a
q + ma n
b l) b q I mb r '

kl) kq + mkr a

wh i c h, by 696 an d 69 7 , i s e qu a l to

a l 0 0 0
a 0 0 0
T, 0 0 0
an I, 0 0 0

q,

b l) b,, b, , b, b ,,

kl , 0 0 0

,
kg, 0 0 0

,
hr , 0 0 0

,
kn k l, 0 0 0

B ut th e c o ef c i en t o f m i s z e r o
Whe n ce ,
th e d e te r mi n an t (2) i s e qu al to

699 . Mi n ors .

I f th e e le me nts i n a ny m ro ws an d an y m c olu mn s of a

d e te r mi n an t -
of th e n th or der be e ra s e d , th e re ma i n i n g e le

m e n ts f o rm a d e te r m i n a n t of th e (
n m)th o rd er .

T hi s d ete rmi n an t 1s c alle d an mth M i no r of th e g i v e n d e te r

mi n ant
b l) db
.

I, 0 1> 91

1; db 91 2 :b x 0 2> d tv -9 2

T hu s ,
d 3, e, is a se c on d mi n or of a,, b, , c, , e3

57 51 35 4 1 bx G4 9 "

5 :x
b 0 5;
4 90 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
!

It is o bt ained by e r a si ng th e s ec o n d and f o u r th ro ws ,

th e s e c o n d an d thi r d c o lu mn s , of th e la tte r d e te r mi n a n t .

7 00 . To n d the co e i c i e n t o f al 1
,
i n the d eter mi n a n t

I n
,

2 1) 2 2)
()
1
, ,

a n 1)
,
a n 2)
,
a
By 68 6, th e ab so lu te v a lu e s of th e te r ms w hi ch i n v olv e
a1 1 are o bt ai n e d by f o r mi n g a ll
pos s i le p b
r o d u c ts o f th e e le

me n ts ta k e n it at a ti me , su bj e c t to th e r e s tr i ti o n s th a t th e c
r s t e le me n t s h all b e a l 1 , a n d th a t e ac h p r o d u c t s h a ll c o ntai n
,

o n e a n d o n ly o n e e le me n t f r o m e ac h r o w e x c e p t th e fi r s t, a n d
o n e a n d o n ly o n e f r o m e ac h c o lu mn e x c e t th e r s t
p .

It i s e vid e nt f r o m thi s th at th e co e c i
f en t of a ] 1 In
,
1 m
() ya

be o btai n ed by f o r mi n g a ll p o s s i bl e p r o du cts of th e f o llo wi ng

e le me n ts tak e n n 1 at a ti me ,

m ,

a n 37
,

subj ct t th e t i cti n th at
e o e r s r o e ac h p r o du ct s h all c ontai n one

an d n ly n
o l m nt f m o h
e e e e ro eac ro w, an d on e an d o n ly n f
o e ro m
e ach c lumn w i ti n g th t
o ,
r e rs s u ffi x e s i n th e ord e f 2, 3 , m , n ,
an d ma k i n g e a ch p ro d uc t or a cc o r d i n g a s th e nu mbe r o f
i nv e r s i o n s i n th e s e c o n d s uf x e s is e v en or o dd .

T h en by 6 8 6, th e c oef c i e n t o f a

is

2 11

an a n 3) H .
a
d ) , )

th at i s, th e mi n or o bt aine d by e r a si ng th e r s t r o w an d th e
rs t c o lu mn of th e g i v e n d e te r mi n an t .

7 01 . By a id o f 7 00, a d e te r mi n a n t of an
y o rd e r may b e
ex p re s s e d a s a d e te r mi n a nt o f an
y hi gh e r or d e r .
 D E TE RMINAN TS 4 91

1 , O, 0 , 0, O
11 b l) Cl 0; 1 7 O) O) 0
T hu s )
27 b 2, 02 O; O: 1? b n CI

3 , b ay 03 O) O) 2 :b 2 , 02

7 02 . Coefci ent of a ny ele ment of a D ete r mi nant .

To n d th e c Oe fci en t o f
1 3 b l) cl

2; bx 02 1
()
3, ba 03

B y two i n te r h an ge s c o f c o n s e c u ti v e ro ws ,
th e la s t ro w may
b e ma d e th e -r s t ; th u s , by 6 92, th e d e te r mi n a n t e qu a ls

31 b 3) C3

17 b 1) Cl

27 b it) 02

c
By i n te r h an g i n g th e r s t two c o lu mn s,
() q
2 e u als
b 3, a 3, c3

b l) 1 ; C1

27 2; 62

By 7 00 , th e c oefc i e n t of b ,, i n is

1, cl

2, 02

T h t i s th e c fc i n t f th e e l me nt i n th e thi d w an d
a , oe e o e r ro

sec nd
o lu mn qu ls
co emu lti p li d by th at mi n
a f (1 ) e or o

w hi h i s b tai n ed by e si n g the th i d w n d c n d c o lumn

c o ra r ro a se o .

We w ill n o w c o n i d e th e gene al c as e ; t n d th c o efc i nt

s r r o e e

of a , i n th e d e te r mi n an t

1 1 ,
,

k 11
.
4 92 AD V AN C E D C O URS E IN A L GE B R A
By k 1 i n te r h an ge s c of c c
o n s e u ti v e ro ws ,
and r 1 i nte r
ch an ge s f c n s cuti o o lu mn soth e e l e ve c ,
e me n t a, may b e
b u gh t to th u p p le ft-h an d c n
ro e er or er .

T hu s by 692 th e d e t m n ant e quals

, ,
er l

k . r)
k 1 7
,

k-1 - a l 1,
( 1) (

7 ,

n ,

T h en by ,
7 0 0 , th e c o efci e nt o f a ,

is

1 17 ,

7
1 , n
k + r -2
1)
n , 1) n , 71

2 e-4
B ut 1) h+r
i )
h+ r
ly I .

H en c e ,
th e c oefcien t men t i n th e kth r ow an d rth
of th e e le

c olumn e qu als mu lti p li e d by th at mi n o r o f (4 ) wh i c h .

i s o b ta i n e d by e r a s i n g th e k th r o w an d r th c olum
n .
.

7 03 . By ai d o f 7 0 2, a d e te r mi n ant of an y o r d e r may b e
e xp r e ss e d i n te r ms of d e te r mi n an ts o f an y lo w e r o rd e r .

Thu s , si n e c e ve r y te r m of a d e te rmi n an t c o n ta i n s o n e an d

:
: g:
2:
I
o n ly o n e e le me n t f r o m th e r st r o w, we h a v e ,

l)
3 b
1
[7 27
637
C27

0 87
2
bl
27

37
c27

0 37
2
3
37 637 c3 7 3
4 7 547 c4 7 4
27 b 27 2 27 b 27 c2

C1 37 1737 3 1 37 637 03 7
4 7 17 4 4 7 4 7 C4

an d e a ch of th e latte r d e te r mi n an ts may i n tur n b e ex p r ess e d

i n te r ms of d e te r mi n an ts of th e c
s e ond order .

7 04 . E valuati on of Determi nants .

Th e me th o d of 7 03 may b e u s e d to e x re s s a d e te r mi n ant
'

p
of an y o r d e r hi gh e r th a n th e thi r d i n te r ms o f d e te rmi n an ts
of th e th i r d o rd e r, whi ch ma y b e e v a luated by th e r u le o f 68 4 .
 D E TE RMI NAN TS 4 93

Th e theo re m of 698 may o f te n be mp loy e d to s h orten th e

'

p ocess
r ,
as s h o wn i n Ex 1 . .

5 s, 6

11, 1 3, 11
1 E v a luate
14, 20, 23
.

7, 1 3, 1 2, 2

b c
S u tra tin g the r s t row fr om th e las t twi ce th e r st r ow

f r o m th e s e c on d , an d th r e e ti me s th e r s t ro w fr o m th e th i r d
th e d e te r mi na n t b e c om es

5, 7, 8, 6 5, 7, 8, 6
1, 2, 3, 1 1, 2, - 3, 1
_1 _4 , _ 1 , 3, _ 4, bN 69 7
,
3, 5 5
2, 6, 4, -4 1, 3, 2, 2

b c
S u tr a ti n g v e ti me s th e s e c on d r o w f r o m th e r s t, a dd i n g

th e s e co n d r o w to th e th i r d, and su bt a cti n g
r th e c
s e ond ro w
f r o m th e la s t,we h av e

:
0, - 3 23 , 11
,
_3 , 23 , 11

I; g f i =2

2 5, 7 4 b y 7 02
, ,
(
.

2
1, 5, _1
O7 17 57 _1
Th ebj e c t o f th e b ov e p o c e s s
o a r i s to p ut th e gi ve n d e te r
mi n an t i n s u c h a f m th t all b u t or a o n e o f th e e le me n ts i n o n e

c o lu mn s h all be z e ro ; th e d e te r mi n a n t ca n th e n b e ex p re s s ed

as a d e te r mi n a nt of th e th i rd o r d er by 7 02
Th e la s t d e te r mi n a n t may b e e v a lu ate d 68 4 ; b u t i t i s by
b b
e tte r to s u tr a c t v e ti me s th e r s t c o lu mn f ro m th e s e o n d , c
an d th e n ad d th e r s t c o lu mn to th e la s t ; th u s ,
'

3, 38 , s
38 8
2 5, 3 2, 9 2 25 6) 1 1 96 .

3 2, 9
1, o, 0

2 P ro v e th at c th e d e te r min ant
'

. a b c is a f a to r of

06, b,
4 94 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
Ad d i ng th e se c on d an d thi r d c o lu mn s i n su cc e ssion to th e
r s t, the gi ve n d eter mi n a nt e q ua ls
a +b +a 2 c

c +a + a m b .

b +c+m a a

S in c e eve y te r r m c on tai n s a n e le me n t fro m th e rst c olumn ,

a + b + c is a c
fa to r of th e gi v e n d e te rmi n ant .

2 3
x, x ,
x

3 E valuate y
3
.
y, , y
2 3
z, 2 ,
2

If xbe p ut e q ual to y ,
th e d e te rmi nan t h as two r o ws i d enti c al ,

a n d e q u als z e r o

Then ,
x l
y must b e a c
f a tor an d i n lik e mann e r,
y z an d z x are c
f a to r s .

L et th e g i v e n d e te rmin an t X( x y)( y z
)(
z x
) .

To d e te r mi n e ,
w e o s e r v e Xth a t x, y,
a n d z a r b
e f a tor s c of

th e d e te r mi n a nt ; th e n , X u s t e qu a l xyz, a s i s e v id e n t m by
cing r s t te r m i n th e f o r m i s + xy
'
2 3
n o ti th a t th e e xp a n d e d z ,

v alu e o f th e d e te r mi n ant i s
( y)( )(
'

an d th e xyz x y z z x) .

EXERC S E 5 I
E valuate th e followi ng d eter mi nan ts
3
7, 8, 9 1, a, a

35 , 40 3
1 . 28 , 4 . 1, b, b
21 , 26 , 30 1, c, c3

9, 1 3, 17 1, 1, l
2 2
2 . 11, 1 5, 19 5 . x , y
2
, 2

17, 21, 25 x 3
, 31
3
, 23

1 1 1 1
2 5, 2 3, 19
6, 11, 25, 7
3 . 1 1, 9
8 7 1 3
21 17 14
1, 6, 6, 5

a, b, c, 0 x, x, x, x

b, a, 0, c x, y , x, x

C, O, _a , b x, x) y, x
07 07 b7 x7 x7 377 y
 D E TE R MINAN TS 4 95

O7 17 17 l 2
1, 0, b2
a , 6
2
1, a , 0, C2 3
2 2
1, b , c ,
0 4

7, 10, 1 3, 3 1, 1, 1, 1
14, 19, 27 6 a, b, c, d
24 , 33 , 41, 10 a
2
, b 2
, c 2
, d 2

31 , 47 , 64 , 15 a
3
, b 3
, 0 3
, d 3

17 . Pro ve th at a b c is a fa c tor of th e d e ter mi n an t

(a W , 5 2
, 6
2

a
2
, (b c )
2
, a
2

f 2
b , 6 , (6 a ) 2

18 . Prove th at a b c d is a fa c to r of th e d ete r mi n an t

a, b, c, d
b, a, d, c

c, d, a, b
d, c, b, a

7 05 . L e t A,, B , , K d e n o te th e c o e f c i e n ts of th e e le

me nts a, , b,, -
i l a, re s p ec ti vel y ,
i n th e d e te r mi n a n t

1 7 b l) kl
27 b 27
1
()
n b , kn

Th en s inc e e e y te mo f th e d t mi n an t c on ta i n s n e and
, v r r e er o

o n ly o n e e l me n t f o m th e s t c lu mn th e
e a lu e
r f the d e te r o ,
v o r

mi n ant i s '

A1 I I A2 2 "
A n
n

In lik e mann e r, th e v a lue o f th e d e te r mi n a n t a ls o e q u als

B lb l B 2b 2 I " "
B nb m K ie I l "

I
"
l(u hn

7 06 . W i th th e n o tati o n o f 7 0 5, i f ml , m2, m ,
a re th e
e leme nts i n a n y c o lu mn o f th e d e te r mi n an t of 7 05, e xc e pt

th e r s t, Alml Azmz Anon ,

i s th e v alu e o f a d e te r mi n ant, whi ch d iffe r s fr o m

'

()
1 on l y in
h a vi n g m1 , mg, m m , ,
i n s te a d o f a l , a 2, a n as th e e le me n ts i n
th e r s t c o lu mn .
4 96 AD V AN C E D C O URS E IN A L G E B R A
T he m Alml Azmz I '
Amm u
05

f o r i t i s th e v alue of a d e te r mi n an t w h i ch h as two c olumn s

id e nti c al .

I n li k e mann e r, i f ml, mg, m ,

m ,
a re th e e le ments i n any

c olumn o f th e d e te rmi n a nt ex ec p t th e s e c on d ,

B lml B 2m2 B umu O;

an d s o o n .

S OL UTION
ATIONS O F E QU

7 07 . L e t i t b e e qu i e d to s l e th f llo w i n g sy ste m o f n
r r o v e o

li n e ar, s i mu lta n eo u s e q u ti n s i n v l i n g n unk n o wn n umb e s { I

a o ,
o v r

1 971

9 7
1 5
177
4 70 1 51777 i p l
4 '
()
1
255 1 + ()
2

()
3

L et Q1 , Q2 , Q ,
d e n o te th e c o efc i ents of th e e le ments q] ,
q n,
res p e c ti ve ly ,
i n th e d e te r mi n an t

a l, qb kl
27 927 762
D:

77 7 gm kn

Multi ply i n g e q uati o n s

()
3 by Q1, Q2,
res p e c ti ve l y , a n d ad d i n g , we h av e

n (Qi a l Q22
wr (QIQI I

Q2Q2 a n )+
+ wn (Qlk1 Q2k2 l l Qp 2 2

I

a n
'

By 7 0 6, th e c oef c i en t o f ea ch unk n o wn nu mbe r, c pt x

ex e , ,

is z e ro .

By 7 0 5 , th e c oef c i e n t o f x i s D ; a ls o, th e s e c on d me mb er
,

i s th e v a lu e of a d e te rmi n an t w h i c h d i ffe r s f ro m D o nly i n

h a vi n g p l , p 2, m , p i n,
s te a d o f g,
l
m , g
a s th e e le me n ts i n

th e r th o lu mn c .

D e n o ti ng th e latte r by D , ,
we h av e
 D E TE R MINAN TS 49 7

The d e te rmin an t D i s c alle d th e Di s cri mi na nt of th e gi ven

s y ste m o f e qati o ns .

7 08 Ex Fi n d th e v a lu e o f y f r o m th e e qu ati ons

. .

3 x 5 y +7 z 28x

4 x 2 y 5 z 9

Th e d e n o mi n a to r of th e v a lu e Of y i s th e d e te r mi n an t

3, 5 , 7
2, 6, 9
4, -2 5
,

The me r ato r i s o bta i n e d by p utti n g fo r th e

nu se on d c c olumn
th e s e c o nd me mb e r s o f th e g i v e n e q u ati o n s .

28 7
23 - 9
,
_
Th e r e fo r e ,
57 7
4

67
_5
.

2,

7 09 . Co n s i de r th e w in g sy stem o f n h omoge ne ous

f o llo
li n e ar e qu ati o n s , inv olvi n g n unkn w n nu mb e s : o r

b 1 x2

I
0 1 933

I hl xn l I 791 37
"
77
0

O n e s oluti o n o f th e sy stem i s x , 0, x2 O, m ,
x, 0 .

We w i ll n d w h at elati n mu s t h old b etw e e n th e

'

no w r o s

c o efc i e nts i n o d that th e e may b e

r er r o th e r s olu ti on s .

We may w i te th e gi en sy ste m
r v

() l

I
0 1 973

I 761 53

77
1 971 7

62932 0 22 3 + m
+ a nae

b u x2 a s+ k w n n n xl '

We w ill now u se th e la s t n 1 of th e se e quati o n s to ex p res s

th e va lu e s o f x2 , m ,
x,, i n te rms o f xl .
4 98 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
By 7 07 ,
2371 7 6 27

n xh cm

[7 27 0 27

b n On ) N .
) "
7

wi th r e s u lts o f s i mi la r f or m f o r x3 , m ,
x .

Su b s ti tuti n g th e s e v a lu e s i n th e rs t e qu a ti o n o f s y stem
a n d c le a r i n g o f c
fra ti o n s , w e h a ve

627 C27 702 27 C27 752 b 27 27

b C 7
kn n ?
on , 7
kn

b 27 27 2

b n) hm it

By 69 3, th e c o e fc i e nt o f x 1 e q u als

b 27 702 27 c27 752

1

b kn a n , cm kn

1 7 b17
2 b k"
T h at i s (5 ()
4

an, b n, 0 0 0

,
kn

I f th e d e te r mi n an t (
4 ) e qu als 0 , e qu ati o n () s
3 i s a ti s e d when
x1 h a s any r e al v a lu e .

Th e n , i f th e d i scr i mi n a n t th e g i v e n s
of y s te m v a n i s h es , the
s y st e m h as an i nd e n i te l y g r e a t n u m e r o f b s olu ti o n s .

If a n y r e al n u mb er , m, b e ta k e n a s a value o f xl , th e c orresp ond ing

value o f x2 mus t b e 2 7 C2 , 152

m kn
 D E TE R MINAN TS 4 99

S i milar c o ns id era ti o n s h old with r esp e c t to x3 ,

71 0 . C o n s i d e r th e f ollo wi n g y s s te m of n li n e ar e q uati o n s

i nv o lvi ng n 1 un k n o w n n u mb ers

a m b l wz kl 0
b zwz I
' '

I 9237

77 0

n xl '

l b n xz I
'

Ia

n l
"
I kn
"
0

Multi p ly i n g th e te rm s o f e a c h e q u a ti o n by u ,
we hav e

I b luw2 I
" "

I

-
1 k1 0 7

274 5171 "

I 5274 5172

1 702 0

n u xl

I'
b ot 372
/

I9

71
74 51377 4 kn O

T hi s may b e c o n si d e r e d a s a s y s te m of n h o mo g e n e o u s li n ear
e q u ati o n s , i n v olv i ng th e n u nk n o wn nu mb e r s , u xl , u xg, m ,

B y 7 0 9 , th e o n d i ti o n c
h i c h mu s t h old i n w order th at th e
s y s te m (
1 ) may h a v e p o s s i le s olu ti on s i s b
17 91 7 9 17 kl
27 b 27 9 27 752

m b u) 9m kn

T hi s , the n , i s th e c o n di ti o n whi ch mu s t h old i n ord er th at th e

e q u a ti o n s o f th e g i v e n s y s te m may b e co n s i s ten t .

Multi pli cati on of Determi na nts

'

711 . .

C o n s i d e r th e d e te rmi n a n t
1 01 "
I

91 0 1 b 21
1 0 2 (7 1 0 2 I b 22"

By 69 6, th i s c an be e x p re s s e d i n th e f o r m
5 d
b l c2 1 0 27 b 22 (
710 2

That i s by ,
69 7 ,
C1 7 01 0 17 l 1 7 Cl
l b l (l l 291 G 20
0 27 2 27 C2
50 0 AD V AN CE D C O URS E IN AL GE B R A
Th e r s t an d las t d e te rmi n a nts are z e ro , s i n e c th e y h ave tw o

c olumn s i d nti c al e .

T h en by 692 , ,
th e g i ve n d e te rmi n an t e q u als

0 17 1 C1 7 1
i b z (1 s
C27 2 C27 2

( a1 2 6 _ c1 7 1 1 7 bl
X
0 17 1
C27 2 27 b2 0 27 2

T h at i s th e p o d u ct f two d t min ants o f th e s e c

,
r o e er o n d or de r
c an b e x p e s se d a s a d te mi n an t
e r f th e s e c o n d o d e e r o r r .

Aga i n c n s i d e th e d e t m n an t
,
o r er i

I

23 1

I
3 fl 7 b l 1 I [7 29 1 I I7 3 717

.
Cl 1 i
0 23 1

b 1 2 I 623 2 I b sf x Cl 2 2I
0

I
"
29 2

I

0 23 '
C3 72 .

I

23 3
I
b l 3 i b 29 3 I

I

0 26 3

B y 6 9 6 , thi s e q u a ls th e s u m o f t w ent y-s e ven d e te rmi n an ts,

of w c
h i h th e f o llo i n g ar e t e s w yp
b 29 1 7 f
Cs l 1 1 7 b 1 1 7 C26 1 b ld h C1 l

528 27 call! b 1 27 C23 2 7 b 1 27 cl 2

b 29 3 7 Csf s b 1 37 c29 3 b l s7 C1 3

T h at i s by , 69 7 ,

1 7 9 17 fl 1 7 1 7 91 1 7 1 7 1
i b 2cs 27 9 27 f2 7
1 91 0 2 27 27 92 7
lb l cl 27 27 2
37 e37 f
. 3 37 37 93 37 37 3

Th e e i gh te e n d e te rmi n a n ts of th e se on d c t yp e ,
an d th e th r e e
of th e thi r d t p e , a r e a ll y z e ro by 69 5 .

H nc e e, th e gi v e n d e te r min a nt e qu als

1 7 917 f l 1 7 f i7 31 3 17 1 7 fi
.

1 620 3 27 9 27 f2 1 930 2 27 f2 7 32 2b 1 0 3 3 27 27 f2
37 6 37 fs 37 1 37 93 9 37 37 f3
8 17 f 17 1 f1 7 1 7 61 f1 7
.
8 17 1

I
'
2b 3 0 1 32 7 . f2 7 2
I

3 b 1 0 2 f 27 27 92

I

3 b 20 1 f 27 9 27 2
J

f3 7
37 93
1 87 337 3
 DE TE RMINANTS 50 1

By 69 2, th e a bo v e e qu als
1 7 6 17

a l b 3c2 Z b SCl 21
71 03 3 51 0 2 3620 0 2 7 9 27

37 3 37
1 7 b17 c1 1 7 3 17 fl
27 b 27 02 X 27 6 27 fl
37 b 37 C3 37 9 37 fa
T ha t i s, th e
,
p ro duc t o f two d e ter mi n an ts of th e thi r d o rd e r

can be ex p r e ss e d a s a d e te rmi n an t of th e thi rd or d er .

E XE RC IS E II6
S olve th e fo llowi ng b y d e te rmi nants

x +2y +3z = 4 . m+ y + z :L
1 . 3x+ 5y + z = 18 . ax + by + cz f z d .

4 33 + y+ 2z = 12 .
2
b y 2
0 2 dz .

93 + 31 + z -
l u
8z 3y 7 z
2 m+ 3 y 4 -
z + 5 u
x 6
+ y 4 z
3x 4 y + 5z + 6 u
2x5y + z
4 x + 5 y 6 2 u

5 . E xp ress as a d e termi nant .

1 2 - 1 3
E xp ress 0 1 _4 5 as a d eterminant .

2, 3 o 2

3 as a d e te rmin ant .
(C om
E xpress
5 p are

E xp ress th e sq uare of as a d ete rmin ant .

 02 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A

XXX V II . THE O R Y O F E QU A TI O NS

712 . E ve r y e q u ati o n o f th e n th d e gre e, w i th o n e unk n o wn

b
nu m e r, c a n be w r i tte n i n th e f o r m

()
1

w h e e th e c oefc i e nts may b e p si ti e o n egati ve inte g

r o v r ,
ral o r

f c ti o n l ati n al
ra a i ati o n al e al p u e i magi n a y o
,
r o or rr ,
r ,
r r ,
r co m
pl x o e o
e ,
r z r .

I f n o c oe fc i e n t e quals e o th e e qu ati on i s s ai d to b e z r , Com

p lete ; o th e r wi s e , it i s s ai d to b e I n co mp lete .

1; We s h all call (1 ) th e Gen er a l F o rm of th e e qua ti o n o f th e

nth d e gr e e .

713 . It w ill b e p ro v e d pp en di x that e v e y e quati n

i n the A r o

of th e a b o ve fo rm h a s a t leas t o n e o o t e al p u e i ma g i n a y o
r ,
r ,
r r ,
r

co mp le x .

714 . C
( o n v e rs e of If a is a roo t o f the equa ti on

w + p 1w

+p n -l x + p x 0,

the rst memb er i s d i vi s i b le b y a : a .

If a is a r o ot o f a

+ 10 1 a
1
+ 10 0 .

B ut by 1 39, a
0 1 a
1
" 1

+ 17 i s th e r e mai n d e r o btai ne d
by di v idi n g rst memb er
the by 1)
of ( a: a .

Th e n, th e r s t me mb e r o f (
1 ) i s di vi s i b le by a: a .

715 .

\
Numb er of
q ts .

A n equ a ti o n of the n th d egree ha s n ro o ts, a nd not mo r e tha n it .

L e t th e e q uati o n b e
n_ n_2
w n
p 1
l
+ p 2x + p n 1 w+ 19 77
0 ()
1

By 7 1 3 , th i s e q ua ti o n h as at lea st o n e ro o t .

L e t a b e th i s ro o t ; th e n by 7 1 4 , th e r s t me mb e r i s d i v i s i ble
by : a a , an d th e e q u a ti o n may b e p u t i n the fo rm
1 2
w
( m
(
u
Qw 2
u
g l x
it g n ) 0 '
 TH E O RY O F E QU A TIO NS 503

By 1 8 2, th e la tte r e qu ati o n may b e s olv e d by p lac ing

a : a O,

QM
n
an d fu qn 0 .

E qu a ti on(
2) mu s t a ls o h av e at le a s t one r o ot .

L e t b b e thi s r o ot ; th e n ()
2 ma y b e w r i tte n

(:
a 6)( e
n 2
ne
w
m) 07

an d th e e qu ati o n may b e s olv e d by p la ci ng

w b z
m
an d x
2
m n 3
0

a 4 517 Tn .

C o ntin u i n g th e p r o c e s s u n ti l n b i n mi 1 o al c
f a to rs h av e
b e e n d i v i d e d o ut, w e s h all i
a rr v en lly at a n a e q u a ti o n o f th e
r s t d e g r e e , 13 k O5 W h n c : 76
e e, a .

The r
re f o e , th e g i v e n e q u a ti on h a s th e n r o o ts a , b,
Th e ro ots a r e n o t n e c e ss a r i ly u n equ a l co mp a re n o te , 1 83 .

D ep
,
V 716 . r es s i on of E quati ons .

It fo ll w
o s fr o m 7 1 5 th at, i f m r o o ts o f a n e q u a ti o n o f th e
n th d e gr e e are kno wn ,
th e e q u a ti o n ma y b e d e p r e s s e d to
a n o th e r e q u ati o n o f th e (n m)th d e g r e e , whi c h s h a ll c onta i n
th e o th e r n on r o o ts .

Th u s , if all b ut two of th e r o o ts o f a n e q u ati o n a r e kno wn ,

th e s e two ma y b e o b tai n e d f r o m th e d e p re s s e d e q u a ti o n by th e

V
r u le s

Ex .
fo r -q u a dr ati c s

T wo ro o ts o f
/ th e e qu a ti o n 9 cc

37 cc
?
8 x 20 O a re

2 an d 3; W h a t ar e th e o th e r s

By 7 14 , th e r s t me mb e r o f th e gi v e n e q uati on i s d i v i s i b le
by (: 2)
a or -w 10 .

D i v i d in g 9 c
t

37 x
2
8 : 20 by 3 x
a
2
cc 1 0 , th e qu o ti e n t
2
is 3 x x 2 .

Th e n th e d e p r e s s e d e u ati o n
q is

3 x
2
12 2 0 .

S olvi n g by th e r ule s f or qua d r ati cs : ,

a or 1 .
50 4 A DV A NCE D CO URS E IN A L G E B R A

EXERC S E H7 I
1 . O ne ro o t of x3 x2
32 :
c 60 0 is 5 n d th e o th e rs .

2 . O ne r o o t o f 8 r 3 5 x2 3 4 x+ 24 0 is 3 ; n d th e o th ers .

3 . O ne ro o t o f 24 13 - 50 23 2
4 9 3:
- + 20 = O i s nd th e o th ers .

4 . O ne r o ot o f 27 m a 54 x 2 141 r. 28 0 is
3= ; nd th e o th e rs .

5 Two ro o ts of 9 x 4
+ 6 x 3 59 (
13 2 20 23 + 1 00 0 a re an d 2
.

.
7
3
n d th e o th e rs .

6 . Two r o o ts of 20 x4 a re 4 an d

2 ,
nd th e o th e rs .

7 . Two ro o ts o f x4 2 2
2 a a 2 : 16 a 3x 96 a 4 =0 ar e 3 a a nd

4 a nd th e o th e r s .

8 . O ne r o ot of
1

( n 2 -4 n 1 1) x n 3 2 2
n + 5n + 6 =0 is -n -3
nd th e o th er s .

717 . Formati on of E quati ons .

It f ollo ws f ro m 7 1 5 th at i f th e roo ts o f

" n l
93 + p l w + Pn ~
1 w+ 19 0

ar e a , th e e qu a ti o n may b e w r i tte n i n th e f orm

( x b
) ~ -
(w k =O
) .

H en c e ,
to f or m a n e qu ati o n w h i ch s h a ll h a ve a n y r e qu i r e d

ro o ts ,

S u b tr a ct ea ch r oot f r om x, a nd p la ce the p ro d uct of the

es s i o n s equ a l m i f :a ;
ex
pr to zero
in l: J
'
.

Ex . F orm an e qu a ti on hi h c s h all h ave th e r oots 1,

an d _E .

B y th e r ule m
( 1) a : 0 .

Multi p ly i n g th e te r ms of th e s ec o n d c
fa to r by 2 ,
an d o f th e
thi r d by 3 , we h a v e

w l 2
( )( x

Ex p an di n g , 6 x
3
+ x
2
12 x + 5 = 0 .
 TH E O RY O F E QU A TION S

EXERC S E I II8
F or m e quati o ns h avi ng th e r o o ts

3 7
1
8 4, 4,
(
. .
,
5 3

2 . 1, _4 , 6 .

3 .
2 i va
4 . 2,

5 . 2 a

6 .
1 , 2, 7 , 8 .

l 5
7 . 2 9
3 2

13 .

2 2
14 . n 1
+ , n 2, n 3
+ , n 4 .

N 718 Comp os i ti on of Co i ci ents

; .

e .

By 7 1 7 , th e e q u a ti o n w h os e r oo ts a r e a a n d
'

b is

w
( d
)( x or

Th e e q u ati on wh o s e r o o ts a r e a , b,
a nd c is

(
w d
)( x b )(
cs 6) = 0 ,

w 2 a bc =0
(B
( a + b+ o
) + .

The e q u ati o n w ho s e r o o ts a r e a , b, c, a n d d is

w
( u m
)( ; b )(
a: c
)(: a
a
) 0, or

-b
(
4
90 a

(
abc abd a cd b cd)90 a b cd O.

In th e a b o v e e x p an d e d fo r m s , we o b s e rv e the fo llo win g la w s

The c oe i c i

en t o f the s eco n d ter m i s e qu a l to min us the su m
o f a ll the r o o ts .

The co e t
i c i e n of the thi r d ter m i s e q ua l to the su m of the

p r o d u cts of the r o o ts , ta k en two at a ti me .

ic zen t ter m i s equ a l to mi n u s the m

The f the f

co e o o u r th su

f the p ro d ucts f the r o o ts , ta ke n thr ee a t a ti me

o o
g ig;
The la s t ter m i s q
e ua l to p lu s or mi n us the p r o d uct of a ll the

r oo ts , acco r d i ng a s the numb e r of r o ots is even or o dd .

E

50 6 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
We w i ll n ow r
p ov e b
y ly
l a th e ma ti c l
w a I n d u c ti on th at th e
b l w mb e r

~ H

a o ve a s h o ld f o g a n y nu of r o o ts .

A s s u me th e m to h o ld f o r n r o o ts ; a, d, k, l, m .

Th at i s, ( cc u m
)( ( a
'
m)

wh e re p1
+ lm ;
0
13 + klm) ;

p
j:a b cd klm, a cc ordi n g a s n is e v e n o r odd .

I f we i n tro d u c e an a d di ti o n a l r o o t, r , we e q u ate to z e ro the

r o du c t o f
p
x
n
+ p 1w
n 1
+ p 2x
'
n 2
+ p 3w
n 3
N .
by C
D T.

Thi s g i v e s th e e qu a ti o n

mow
" 1
(3

+( (

x p1 7
0 90 10 2 19 770
9 90 on . 0 .

H ere, th e c oef c i e n t o f th e s e c on d te r m i s

O f th e th i r d te rm
ab + a c + bc + + m) .

O f th e f o ur th te r m

( a bc + + klm) + lm) .

Th e la st te r m i s 4 :a b cd mr, c
a c o rd in g a s n is e v en o r o d d ;
or j; a b cd r, a cc o r d in g a s n 1 is e v e n o r o dd .

Th e s e r e s ults a r e w ith th b l w
in a cc o r d a nc e e a o ve a s .

H nc e e, i f th l w h ld f
e n a ts th y h ld f
s n+1
o or roo , e o or r o o ts .

,
B u t we k n w th t th ey h ld f
o af u t nd h en c o or o r ro o s, a e th e y
h o ld f o r ts ;
ve n d s i n e th e y h ld f
ro o a o t c o or ve r o s, th e y
h old f o r s i x r o o ts ; an d so on .

H en c e, th e la w s h ld f ny n umb o or a e r o f ro o ts
. .

4 7 19 It f o ll w s f m 7 1 8 th at if
o ro a n e qu ati on o f th e n th
,
.

d e g r e e i s i n th e g e n e ra l f o r m,
J If th e s e c on d te rm i s an ti n g, th e w m o f th e

r o o ts is O
'

su .
 THE ORY O F E QU A TION S 50 7

I f th e la st te r m i s w a n ti n g , a t le a s t o ne ro ot is 0 .

We a ls o s e e th at i f th e la s t te rm i s i n te g r a l, i t i s d i v i s i le b
by e v er y i nt e g r al r oo t .

7 20 . If a ll b ut on e of th e r o o ts of a n e q u ati on o f th e n th

d e g r e e i n th e g e n e r al f o r m a r e k n o n , th e r e ma i n i n g r o ot may w
b e f o un d by
c h an g i n g th e s i g n o f th e o e fc i e n t o f th e s e o n d c c
te r m o f th e g i v e n e qu a ti o n , a n d s u trac ti n g th e s u m o f th e b
k no wn r o o ts f r o m th e r e s ult ; or, by d i v i d i n g th e la s t te r m of

th e g i v e n e q u a ti o n if n is e v en, o r i ts n e g ati v e if n is o dd, by

th e p r o d u t c of th e k n o wn r o o ts .

If a ll b ut two are kn wn o ,
th e
c o e f ci ent o f th e c
s e on d te r m
of th e d e p r e s se d e q u ati o n 7 1 6) m ay b e f o un d by a d d in g th e
s u m o f th e k n o wn r o o ts to th e c oe f i e n t o f th e c c
s e ond te r m
of th e g i v e n e q u a ti o n ; an d th e la s t te r m th e d e p r e s s e d
of

e q u a ti o n ma y b e f o u n d by d i v i d i n g th e la s t te r m o f th e gi v e n
e q u a ti o n by p lus o r mi nu s th e p r o duc t of

th e kno wn r o o ts

acc or d ing a s n is e v e n o r o dd

.
" 2
Ex . T wo r o o ts of th e e q u ati o n 9 cc 37 x 8 at 20 O

w h at a
ar e 2 an d
g ; re th e o th e r s

We r s t p u t th e e q u a ti o n i n th e g e n e ra l f o rm by d i vi d i ng
e a c h te r m by 9 .

37 8 2 0
I t th e n b e c o me s 4
27 w __
9

S in ce th e r e i s n o 02
3
te r m, th e
c o ef c i en t o f th e c
s e on d te rm
is 0 .

Th en th e c oef c i en t of th e c
s e on d te r m of th e d ep r e ss e d

e q u a ti o n i s O 2
g g ,
or

Th e
c o e f c i en t o f th e la s t te r m of th e d e p r e s se d e q uati on

20 2
"

3 3
Th e d e p r e s s e d e qu a ti o n is x
2 1 27
3
2
s olv1 ng , cc or 1 .

3
 AD V AN CE D C URS E O IN A L G E B R A
EXE RC S E 9 I
1
ro o t
.

.
Two r o o ts o f 1 6 x3 37 a: 21 0 a re 1 and
3 ; nd th e o th e r

2 . Th re e ro ots o f 4 x4 1 7 x3 6 4 x2 25 7 at 60 0 ar e 3, 4, and

5 nd th e o th e r ro o t .

3 . F our r o ots o f 2 93 5 3
+ x4 30 x3
l, 2,

4, and nd th e o th e r .

2
4 . Fi ve ro o ts of 36 x 6 4 75 x 4 4 31 x 3 91 71 x 12 0 are

1, _3 __l 1
a nd 1 ; nd th e o th er
3
, .

2 6
5 . O ne r oo t o f x3 8 x2 23 x 210 O is 6 ; nd th e o th ers .

6 . Two ro o ts of 6 x + 7 x 37 x 8 x + 1 2 = 0
2 4 3 a re 2 an d 1 ; nd
2
th e o th ers .

7 . Th r e e roo ts of 6 x4 2 7 x3 1 4 8 x2
204 a : 7 20 O a re 2,
3, and 4 n d th e o th ers .

8 . T wo r o o ts o f x 4 5 a
2
+4 =0 are a l
a nd a 2 ; n d th e o th e r s .

S y mmetri cal Functi ons of the R oots .

Th e ex p r e s si on s f o r p l , p 2, i
p , n 7 1 8, ar e s y mme t i c al r

1 4 6) f un ti on s c o f th e r o o ts o f th e e qu ati o n , and c an be
ex p re ss e d a s f ollo w s (c omp a re

p l 2a .

p 2 2ab .

3
13 Ea b c, etc .

O th e r s ymmet i c al fun cti on s

r of th e r o ots can be ex p re sse d in
terms of th e c o e fc i e n ts .

Ex . If a, b, and c ar e th e r o ots o f th e e quati o n

2
3 4
9 l 10 + 10 22 :
+ 10 3
: 0,
nd th e v a lu e s o f Ea z
,
and Ea b
g
.

We h ave 2a = a + b + 2 2 2
(
c
2 = a + b + c)
2

( )
Ea
?
2 (2 a b ) _p i )2 2 192 = p l z
2 17 2

Aga i n , 2a b
2
a
2
b a b 2
c b
2
a oa
2
c
2
b
- 3 a bc

I 3 17 3
"
3 10 3
p 1p 2
 TH E O R Y O F E Q U A TIO NS 509

EXERC S E l2 0 I
If a, b, an d c a r e th e r o o ts o f x3 p1 x2
p zx + p 3 0 , nd

1 . 2 1 .
2 . 2 1 .
3 . 2 07
8
. 4 . 2 62202 . 5 .

a ab a
2

If a, b, c , a nd d ar e th e ro ots o f x4 p1 x3
p 2x
2
193 16 4 174 0 , nd
1
6 . 2 7 . xi .
3 . mab c .
,

9 . 2 37
2
17 . 10 . 2a 8
a ab
V

r V
y 7 22 . Fracti onal R oots .

An e qu a ti o n in the g e n er al f or m wi th i n tegra l coe ents

lci

ca nn o t ha ve as a r oo t a r a ti o n a l
f r a cti o n 1 98) i n i ts lowes t
terms .

L e t th e e qu ati o n be
" 1
+ p 1w

4 H + 19 7. 0,

03 on l x
7
wh e re p l, p 2,

m , p ,
are i n te gr a l .

I f p o ss i le , le t b a r a ti o n a l c
f r a ti on in i ts lo w e st te r ms, b e
a r o ot o f th e e qu a ti o n ; th e n ,

+ 171 + 192

Multi p ly i n g ea c h te r m by U
,
an d tran s p o s i n g,
0 _2
5;
- M
(p b + p n 1 b
n
1a a

By h yp o th e s i s , a an d b h av e n o c o mmo n d i v i so r ; h e n ce a

a nd b h av e no c ommon
We th e n h a v e a r ati o n al c
fr a ti on i n i ts lo w est te rms e q u al

to an i nte g r al e xp r e s s i on , wh i ch 1s i mp o s s i b le .

Th e re fo r e , th e e q u ati o n c ann ot h av e as a r o ot a r a ti o n al

f r a c ti o n i n i ts lo w e st te r ms .

6
7
9
2 23 . Co mp lex R oots .
v

If a co mp lex nu mb er i s a ro ot o f a n e qu a ti o n i n the ge ner a l

f or m, wi th r ea l co e ic i e

n ts ,
i ts j
c o n uga te 4 2 5) i s a lso a roo t .

L e t th e e q u ati o n be

+ p u _l m+ 191. 07

ac

wh e re p l,
m , p ,
a re r e a l n u mb e r s .
51 0 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
L et a + b i, W h e re a an d b h a v e th e sa me me an i n gs as in
4 1 5, b e a r o ot o f th e e q u a ti o n ; th e n ,

+ p n _1 (a

( b i) + p 1( b i) b i )+ 10 7. 0

a a

E xp an d i n g by th e B i n o mi al Th e o re m, w e h a v e by 4 11,

I
? I

n 1 3
b
2
Ej
n

a u

I2
()
2

c
C o lle ti n g th e r e al a n d i ma gi n a r y te r ms, we h a ve a r e s u lt o f

th e f o r m P Q , 0 .
()
3

H e re,
P s tan d s f o r th e m o f a ll th e te rms c on ta in ing a
su

a lo n e , to ge th e r w ith all th e te 1ms c on tai n i n g e v e n p o we rs o f i ;

Qi f o r a ll te 1 m s c o n ta i n i n
g od d p o w ers of i
In 01 d e r th a t e q u ati o n
(
3 ) m a y h o ld ,
we
__
_
1n u s th ave

P : o, an d Q o (s

No w su b stituti n g .
a b i f or cc i n th e r s t me m be r of it
bec o me s
( b i) + p l ( ( b i) ()
4

a a a

E xp an d i n g th e p o e r s o f a w
b i , we s h a ll h av e a r e s u lt h i h w c
d iffe r s f r o m th e r st me m e r o f ( b
2) o n l i n h a v i n g th e eve n y
te r ms i n e ac h e x p an s i o n , or th os e i n v olv i n g i as a f ac to r,
cha nged in s ig n .

Th e n , c olle c ti n g th e r e al a n d i ma gi n ar y te r ms , th e ex p i
r e ss o n

() q
4 e u a ls
P Q;
i

wh e re P an d Qh av e th e sa me mean i n g s as be fo re .

B ut sin c e P = 0 an d :
Q 0, P Qt = o
H enc e ,
. a bi is a ro o t of
Th e a b o ve d e mo n s tra ti on h o ld s wi th o u t c h a nge wh e n a e qu als z er o ;
th us th e th e o r e m h old s f o r any p u r e i ma g i n a ry nu mb e r

7 24 . It f o llo ws f ro m 7 13 and 7 2 3 th a t e ve r y e q u ati o n o f

o dd d e gre e ha s at le a s t one r eal r o ot ; fo r an e q ua ti o n c a n n o t

h a ve a n o dd n u mb e r o f co mp le x r o o ts .
an d a b 1 , is
b \/
[ x ( a

(
w

an d i s th e r e fo r e p o s i ti ve f o r e v er y r e a l v a lu e o f v .

TR ANS FOR MATION O F E QU ATIONS

L

7 26 . To tra n sf o r m a n e qu a ti o n i n to a n o th e r whi ch s ha ll ha ve V

the sa me r o o ts w i th co n tr a ry s ign s .

L e t th e e q u a ti o n be
_l _2
w + P1
n
+ p 2x
n
+ p n 1 x + 19 71
0

Su b s ti tu ti n g g f o r
'
a, w e h av e

y)
" _
+ p 1 ( b
1
+p 2 < _ + p n _1 ( y) O
y

I

.

D i vi d i n g ea ch t er m by we h a v e
n l n 2
y y
g - 10
+ 17 2 l
1) (
"
O r, 2
1
+ r zu
2
()
2

th e u pp e r o r lo w e r s i gn s b e in g ta k e n a c c o rd i ng a s n is o d d or

e ven

n
.

<
I t f o llo ws fr om ()
1 an d ()
2 th a t th e d e s i r e d tr a n s f o r ma ti o
3 ,

m ay b e e ff e c te d by cha ng i ng the si
g n s o f th e te r ms o f o dd d egr ee,
W

if the d egr ee o f the e qu a ti o n is even , or the s ign s of the te r ms f

o

t ter m, if
eve n d egr e e
e qu a ti o n i s o d d
o
a nd

.
o f the inc
pM
plg
en d en
AM t W IQ

the d egree of the

Th e ab o ve r ule a pp li es wh e th e r th e e qu ati o n is co mp lete or i nco mp le te .

Ev . T r a n s fo r m th e e q u a ti o n 10 x 4 0 i n to a n o th e r

wh i ch s h all h av e th e sa me r o o ts wi th c o n tr a r y si gns .

B y the r ule , th e tr an s fo rme d e q u a ti o n is x

3
10 a :4 0 .
 u
P tti n g mm y, th at i s, 3] f o r v,
. we h av e

n
+p 1 + 7
12 + p n 1 +p n = 0

M ulti p ly i n g ea ch te r m by m

m + p 7m 2 + p nm
" 1 2 2

+

0

y 10 1 y
H nc
e e, to e ff e ct th e d e s i re d tran s fo r mati o n , multip ly the
ec o nd te r m b y m, the th ir d ter m b y m, 2
a n d s o on .

E 27 . T r a n s f o r m th e e qu a ti o n 7 m 2
6 0 i n to a n o th e r

wh o s e r o o ts sh a ll be r e sp e cti v el y 4 ti me th s o se o f th e r s t .

y
S u p p l i n g th e mi s s i n g te r m w i th th e c o ef c i en t z e r o, an d

y
a p p l i n g th e r u le , we h av e

m+ 4
3 -7 a
z
+4
z -0 w 4 3
or a
3
+ 2 8 cc
2

728 . To tr a n sf o r m a n e qua ti o n wi th f r a cti o n a l co e i ci en ts i n to

a n o ther whose co e en ts
i ci s ha ll b e i ntegra l, tha t of the rs t ter m
b ei n g un i ty .

f
c T h e tr an s f o r mati o n ma
y b e e ffe te d c by tr an s f o rmi n g th e
e qu a ti o n i n to a n o th e r h o s e r o ots s h all b e w r es
p e c ti vel y m ti me s
th o s e of th e r s t an d th e n gi v i n g m s u ch a v alu e as

w i ll mak e ev er y
c o e f ci e nt i n te g r a l .

B y gi v i n g to m th e le a s t v alu e h i ch ill m ak e e v e r c o ef w w y
c w
i e n t i n te gr al, th e r e sult ill b e o ta i n e d i n i ts s i mple s t f o r m b .

Ex . T r an s f o r m th e e q u ati o n 27
3 93
i nto an
36 1 083
o th e r wh o s e c o ef c i e n ts sh all b e i n te gral, th at o f th e r s t te rm
b e in g u n it y .

By 7 27 , th e e qu ati o n
m a m K
3
w x +
3 36 1 08

h a s i ts r o o ts r e s p e cti ely m ti m th s
v es o e of th e g i v e n e qu a ti o n .

It i s e v i d e n t, by i n p cti n th at th
s e o ,

e le as t v alu e o f m w h i ch
wi ll mak e ev er y
c o ef c ien t i n te gra l, i s 6 .

P utti n g m 6 , we h a v e

x 2w
3 2

wh ose r oo ts a r e 6 ti me s th o se of th e gi v e n e u a ti on
q .
 TH E O R Y OF E QU A TION S 51 3

7 29 . To tr a n sf or m an e qu a ti o n i n to a n o ther whos e roo ts

s ha ll be r e sp ec ti vely tho se o f the rs t i ncr ea se d b y m.

a z 7

L e t th e e q u ati on be
"
()
I
as t 731 + 2 2 1 2 1

P utti n g as m y, th at 1 s,
y m f or v, we h a v e

(2 m7
+2 2 4 6 m) + p = 0 n ()
2

E xp a n d i n g th e p o e r s o f y m w
th e B i n o mi al Th e o r e m, by
a n d c o llec ti n g th e te r ms i n v o lv i n g li k e p o e r s o f y, we s h all w
hav e a r e s u lt o f th e f o rm

y
"
my
()
3
N
wh
. .
0

ose r o o ts ar e re s
p e c tl v e ly th o s e of th e g i ve n e qu at1 on 1 n

ce
r ase d by m .

Ev . T nf
ra s or m
th e equ ati o n 23
3
7 a; 6 0 i nto an o th e r

wh s o e roots s h all b e r e s e ti v e l p c y th o s e of th e r s t i n c r ea s e d
by 2 .

S ub s ti tuti n g y 2 for a,

(y 7 (y 2) + 6 2 0 .

Ex p an di ng , an d c olle cti n g th e te rms i n v o lv i n g li k e p ow e rs

of y, we h a v e 3
y

7 30 . If m an d th e co ef c i e nts of th e g i v e n e qu ati o n ar e

i n te g r al, th e c o ef c i e nts of th e tr a n s f o r me d e qu a ti o n may b e

c o n v e n i e n tl yf o un d
by th e f o llo w i n g me th o d
:
.

P uttip g a m for y i n we bt in
o a

+ qu = 0; ()
4

whi ch m u st, o f c ou r se , ta k e th e sa me f o r m as ()
1 o n e xp an d i n g

th e p o w e rs of 27 + m, an d c olle c ti ng th e te r ms i nv o lvi n g li k e

p o we r s of a .

D i vi d i n g th e r st me mb e r o f (4 ) by a :m ,
we h ave
-2
-
Mn + 21 (2 + ma +
(
1
r
e
)
n
5
()
as a q u o ti e n t,
w ith a re ma i n d e r gn
.

D i v id i n g ()
5 by 27 + m, w e h a v e th e re mai n d e r e tc .
51 4 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
H en c e ,
to o bt ai n th e
c o e f c i e n ts o f th e tr a n s f o r me d e qua ti o n

D i vi d e the memb er of the gi ven equ a ti o n b y m+ m , the

f i r st

r e ma i n d e r wi ll b e th e la s t ter m of the r equ i r ed e qu a ti o n .

D ivi d e the qu o ti ent j u s t f o un d b y a: m the r ema i n d er wi ll b e

the co e i ci en t of the n ea t to the la s t te r m of the tr a nsf o rmed equa

ti o n a nd s o o n .

Eu '
. T r an s fo r m th e e qu ati on x
3
7 a:6 0 i nto a n o th e r

wh s o e r o o ts s h all be res p cti v ly

e e th o s e of th e r st i n c re a s e d
by 2 .

D iv i di n g 23
3
7 : 6 by : 2
a a ,
we h av e th e q uoti e n t x
2
2 :
a

3, an d th e re mai n d e r 1 2 .

D ivi din g v
2
2 ac 3 by a 2 , we h a v e th e q u o ti e n t a :4 ,

an d th e re ma in d e r 5 .

D i vi d i n g w 4 by a 2, we h av e th e re mai n d e r 6 .

T h en ,
th e tr a n s f o r me d e qu a ti o n is
3
w
C omp ar e E x .
, 7 29 .

731 T o tr a n s f o r m an e qu ati o n i n to a n o th e r wh os e r o o ts

by mw e h n ge y m to
.

s h all b e th o s e of th e r s t d i mi n is hed ,
c a

y + m i n th e me th od of 7 29 , an d a : m t w m i n th e ule o r

of 7 30 .

7 32 . To tr a nsf or m the e qu a ti o n

" n 1
97

tl
'

+ Pn 1 + 10 77 07

wher e p 1 i s n ot zer o, i n to a n o the r whos e s eco nd term s ha ll be

wa n ti ng .

E x p an di n g th e p o e r s o f y m i n th e rs t me m e r o f w b
c c
7 2 9 , a n d o lle ti n g th e te r ms i n v o lvi n g lik e p o e r s o f y, we w
h av e
I (P1

02 0

y

771 7

If m b e so tak e n th at p 1 mn z 0 , wh en c e m th e coef
ci e nt o f y
" 1

w i ll b e zero .

H en ce, th e d e s i r e d tr an s f o r ma ti o n may b e e ffe cted by s ub

pl
s ti tuti n g i n th e g i v e n e q ua ti o n y n
.

1n p lac e of a .
 THE OR Y o r E QU A T IO NS 51 5
x
.

7 33 . S y nth e ti c Di v i s i on .

Th e o p e r a ti o n o f di vi s i o n , i n e xa mple s li k e th at o f 7 30 , ma y
be c o n v e n i e ntl y p e rf o r me d by a p ro c e ss kno wn as S ynthe ti c
D i vi s i o n .

L et it b e re
q u i re d to d i v i d e m 3
12 as
?
29 x 21 by : 3 a .

U s i n g d eta h e d c
c o e f c i e n ts we ha ve

1 21 1 3
1 Quoti e nt .

1 5 , R e ma i n d e r .

W e may o mi t th e r s t te r m o f e a c h p a r ti a l p r o d u c t, f o r i t 1 3
me r e ly a r e p e titi o n o f th e te r m i mme d i ate ly a b o v e .

Als o , th e s e c o n d te r m o f e ac h p a r ti a l p r o d u c t may b e a d d ed
to th e c o rr e s p o n d i n g te r m o f th e d i v i d e n d, p r o vid e d we c h a n g e
th e s i g n o f th e s ec o n d te r m o f th e d i v i s o r b e fo re multi p ly i n g .

Th e wo rk n o w s ta n d s :
1 21
3 1
9

6
15

T h e r s t te r m of th e d i v i s o r b e i n g un i t y i n all a p p li c a ti o n s

of 7 3 0 , i t may b e o mi tte d ; a n d th e rs t te r ms of th e succe s

s i v e d i v id e n d s c o n s ti tu te th e q u o ti e n t .

R a i s i n g th e o li qu e b c
o lu mn s , th e O p e r a ti o n w i ll s tan d as

f o llo w s

D iv i d e nd , 1 12
+ 29 21 + 3
P a r ti a l p r o d uc ts , 3 27 6
Qu o ti e n t, 1 9 2, 1 5 R e mai n d e r .

Th e c o mp le te r e s ult is o b tai ne d as f o llo w s

51 6 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN AL GE R B A
Mu lti p ly i n g th e r st te r m of th e d i v i d e n d by 3 ,
an d ad d ing
th e r e s ult to th e s ec o n d te r m of th e d i vi d e n d, g i v e s th e s e c o nd

ter m th e q u oti e n t
of .

y
Mu lti pl i n g th e la tte r by 3, an d a d d i ng th e r e s ult to th e
th i r d te r m th e d i v i d e n d, g i v e s th e la s t
of te r m o f th e q u o ti e n t .

Mu lti pl i n g th e latte r y 3 , a n d ad di n g th e by r e s u lt to th e la st
te r m o f th e d i v i d e n d , g i v e s th e r e ma i n d e r .

H n ce e ,
th e q u o ti e n t i s 27
2
9 93 2, an d th e re mai n d e r 15 .

If th e te rm i n vo lvin g any :
p o we r o f a i s wa n ti ng , i t mus t b e sup p li e d

wi th th e
c oe f c i e nt 0 b e fo r e a p p ly i n g th e r ule .

Th e wo rk of tra n sf o r mi n g , by S y nth e ti c D i vi s i o n, th e
e qu ati on 3 7
96 27

i n to wh os e ts sh all b e e p c ti ly th s e o f th e st
a n o th e r ro o r s e ve o r

i n cre as ed by 2 w i ll s tan d a s f o ll w s ( mp a
,
7 30 ) o co re

1 + 0 7 6 L
2 +4 6
2 3 + 1 2 l s t R em
, .

2
+ 8
4
+ 5, 2d R em .

-2
6
,
3d R em .

T hu s ,
th e tr an s fo r me d e qu ati on is

EXERC S E I I2 I
Tr a ns for m e a ch o f th e followi ng into a n e qu ati o n whi ch s h all h ave th e
sa me r o o ts wi th c o ntra ry s i gns :
1
4 8x3
2 x5 6 4 2 x
. x .
+ x

3 . T r a n sfo r m 93
3
10 23 2
5 :7
a 0 i n to a n e qua ti o n whos e ro o ts

s h a ll b e , r e s p ecti ve ly , 5 ti me s th os e of th e rs t .

4 . T ra n s fo r m x4 4 x 3 2 x2 3 z 0 i n to an e qu ati o n wh ose ro o ts

s h a ll b e , r e s p e c ti ve ly , 6 ti me s th o s e of th e r st .

5 . Tr a ns fo r m 3 x3 5 2 0 i n to an e quati o n Wh os e ro ots sh a ll

b e, res p ec ti vely ,
2 th o s e o f th e rs t .
 TH E ORY O F E QU A TION S 51 7

6 . Trans fo r m 7 6 x3 75 a: 1 25 0 i nto an e quati o n wh ose

roo ts s h all b e, r esp e c ti ve ly , th o s e of th e rs t multip li e d b y

5
Tr an s fo r m e a ch o f th e fo llow i n g i nto a n e qua ti o n wi th i n te gr al c oe f
c i ents , th a t of th e rs t te r m b e i ng uni ty 7

7 m a 7x 2
3 9 :
+ 9 . 94
l7 a2 13 a :
+
5
0 .

4 32 18 54 72

8 o x3
+
6 2: 11 0 0 10 . x4
+
2 2: l
0 0

25 40 5 1 25 2 25

11 . T ra ns for m x3 5 732 62 : 11 z 0 i n to an e qu ati o n wh os e ro o ts

s h a ll b e, r e s p e c tive ly , th o s e o f th e rs t d i mi n is h e d b y 5 .

12 . Tra n s fo r m x3 4x 2
3 x 29 z0 i nto an e qua ti o n wh ose r o o ts

s h all b e, r e sp e c ti ve ly , th os e o f th e r s t i n c r eas e d b y 6 .

13 . Tr a n s fo r m x3 13 a ? 82 0 i n to a n e qua ti o n wh o s e ro ots sh all

b e, r es p e c ti ve ly , th o s e of th e rs t i n cr ease d b y 2 .

14 . Tr a n s fo r m 20 4
+ 2x 3
7a 31 :
0 i nto an e quati on wh ose z
roo ts s h all b e, r e s p e cti ve ly , th os e o f th e rs t d i mi n i s h e d b y 1 .

15 . Tran s fo r m 93 4 3 8 x2 10 0 i nto a n e qu ati o n wh o s e r o o ts

sh all b e , r e sp e cti ve ly , th os e o f th e rs t i n cr e a s e d b y 3 .

16 . Tr an s f o r m x4 6x 2 5 a: 19 0 i nto a n e q uati o n wh os e r o ots

s ha ll b e, r e sp e c ti vely , th ose of th e rst d i mi n i s h e d b y 4

D E S C AR TE S
R UL E o r S G I NS
7 34 . If an e q u a ti on of th e n th d e g re e i s i n th e g e n er al
V
f or m a P er ma n e n ce of s i gn o c c ur s w
h e n two s u cc e s
s i ve te r ms h a v e th e sa me s i gn , a n d a Va r i a tio n o f S i g n o ccu rs

wh en tw o c
s u ce s s i v e te r ms h a v e op p os ite s i g n s .

Th u s , i n th e e q u ati o n a:
- 6
3 93
4
5 :1
a 0 , th er e a re

two pe r man e n c e s an d two v a r i at on s i .

a
7 35 . De s cart es

R ule of S i g ns .

No equ a ti o n , whether co mp lete or i ncomp lete, ca n ha ve a

gr e a te r nu mb er of p o s i ti ve r o o ts tha n i t ha s v a r i a ti o n s f o s ign ;

a nd no co mp lete e qu a ti o n ca n ha ve a g r e a te r nu mb er of n eg m
tha n i t has p erma n ences

ti ve r o o ts o f si
gn .

L et an e q u ati o n i n th e g en e ra l f o rm h a v e th e f o llo wi n g
8 1 311 3
0 0 0

th e mi ss i n g terms b e i ng s upp li ed w i th z e ro c oe fci ents .

51 8 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
If we i ntr o du ce a n ew p os i ti e v r o ot a , w e multi p l y th i s b y
w a w r i ti n g o nly th e s i gns w h i c h ccu o r i n th e
p oc es s
r , we h av e
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

wh e re m s i gni e s a te r m wh i c h may b e 0, or

No w, in le t a d o t b e p la c e d o ve r th e r s t mi n u s s i gn ,
th e n ov e r th e n ex t plu s S i gn , th e n o ve r th e n e x t mi n u s s i n ,
g
and s o o n .

Th e n um e r o f b d ots sh o w s th e nu mb e r o f v ar i a ti o n s ; th us ,

in ()
1 th e re are th r e e v a r i a ti o n s .

I n th e a b o e e ult w b
v r s ,
e o s er ve th e f o llo wi n g la w s
I . D ir e c tly u n d e e a h d tt
r c o ed te r m of
()
1 i s a te r m of ()
2
ha ving the sa me s i gn .

T hu s ,
th e te r ms nu mb e re d 4 , 5, an d 8, i n ()
1 an d h a ve
th e sa me S i gn .

II . Th e la s t te rm of ()
2 i s of o pp o si te S i gn to th e te r m
c y un d e th
di r e tl r e la s t d otte d te rm of

Th e b la wa o ve s a re e as il y se en to h o ld u n i v e r s all y .

B y th e r s t la w, h o w ve th e te m m k d m i s tak e n
e r r ar e ,

th e r e are a t le a s t as man y a i ti n s i n th st i gh t te ms f
v r a o e r e r o

()
2 as in ()
1 an d by th e s e c n d l w th e e i s at leas t n e
o a ,
r o

v a r i a ti o n i n th e re ma i n i n g te r ms of

H e n c e , th e i ntr o d u c ti o n of a new p o s i ti v e r o o t i n c r e a s es th e
nu mb e r o f v a r i a ti o n s i n th e e q u ati o n by
a t le a s t o n e .

I f, th e n , we f o r m th e p r o d u t o f a ll th e f a to r s o r r e s o n dc c c p
i n g to th e n e g ati v e a n d i ma gi n ar r o o ts o f a n e q uati o n , mu lti y
pyl i n g th e r e s u lt by c
th e f a to r c o rr e s p o n d i ng to e a c h o s i ti v e p
root i ntro d u c e s at lea st o n e v a r i ati o n .

H en ce ,
th e e q u a ti o n c a n n o t ha v e a g r e a te r n u mb e r of p o si
ti v e r o o ts th a n i t h a s v a ri a ti o ns o f s i g n .
 TRE O RY E E Q U A TIO N 0
W M M P
O S 51 9

To p r o v e th e s e c o n d p a r t o f D e s a r te s c
R ule, let y b e
b
s u s ti tute d f o r cc i n a ny co mp le te e q u ati o n .

Th e n S i n c e th e s i gn s o f th e a lte r n a te te r ms co mme n c i n g w i th
th e s ec o n d are ch an ge d th e o ri gi n a l p er ma ne nces of

s i gn bec o me va ri a ti o ns .

B ut th e tran s fo r me d e qu ati o n c a nn ot h av e a gre ate r nu m e r b

of .

p os i ti ve r o o ts th a n i t h a s va r i a ti o n s .

H e nc e , th e o ri gi n a l e qu ati o n c an n ot h av e a g r e a te r n u mb e r
o f n ega ti ve r o o ts th an i t h a s p erma n e n ces .

.
In a ll a pp li c a ti o ns of D es c a r te s

R ule , th e e quati o n mus t co n ta i n a

te r m i n d e p e n d e n t of a ; th a t i s , n o r o o t mus t e qu a l z e r o 1 82 ) for a

z e r o ro o t c a nn o t be re gard e d as e ith e r p os i ti ve o r n e gati ve .

7 36 . I t f o llo ws f
m th e la s t p a rt o f 7 3 5 , and from 7 2 6,
ro

th a t i n a ny e qu a ti o n , c o mp le te o r i n c o mp le te , th e n umb e r o f
n e g a ti v e r o o ts c an n o t e x c e e d th e n u mb e r o f v a r i a ti o n s i n th e

e q u a ti o n w h i c h i s f o r me d f r o m th e gi ve n e q u ati o n by c h a n g i n g

th e s i g n s o f th e te r ms o f o dd d egr ee .

$ 7 37 . In an y co mp lete e qu a ti o n , th e su m o f th e n umb e r o f
p e r ma n e n c e s a n d v a r i a ti o n s e q u a ls th e n u mb er o f te rms le s s

one, o r th e d e gre e of th e e q u a ti o n .

Th a t i s , th e m o f th e su n um b er of p e r man en c e s an d v a r i a

ti o n s e q u als th e n umb e r o f r o o ts

H e n c e , i f th e

r o o ts of a co mp lete e qu a ti o n are a ll r e a l

he nu mb g q p
_ o s I t1 v e r o o ts e qu a ls th e nu mb e r o f v ar i ati o n s

an d th e nu mb e r of n e g ati ve r oo ts e qu a s l th e nu mb e r of p e r

ma n e n c e s .

wh
"

AEE qu ati o n o se te rms a r e all p os i ti v e c a n h av e no p o s i o

ti v e r o ot ; a nd a c o mp le te e q u a ti o n wh os e te r ms a r e a lte rn ate l y
p o s i ti v e a n d n e g ati v e c a n h a ve n o n e g a ti v e r o o t .
7

7 38 . E 90 . D e te rmi n e th e n atu r e o f th e r o o ts o f

00
3
2 a:5 0 .

T h ere is n o v ari ati on , an d c on s e qu e n tl y no p o s i ti v e r oo t .

Changi ng the s i gn of th e i n d e p e n d e n t te rm, we h ave

3
x +2x
5 20 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
He re th er e i s o n e v a r i ati o n ; h
an d
t e r e f o r e th e g i v e n e qu a

ti o n c an n o t h a v e mo r e th an o n e n e g a ti v e r o o t

Th en s in c e th e e q u ati o n h a s th r e e r oo ts one o f th e m
mu st b e n e g a ti v e a n d th e o th e r two i ma g i n ar y .

I f two or mo r e s u cce ss i ve te r ms o f a n e qu a ti o n a re wa n ti ng , i t fo llo ws

by D es c a rtes

R ule th a t th e e q ua ti o n mus t h a ve i mag inary r o o ts .

I
EXE RC S E | 2 2

If th e r o o ts o f th e fo llo wi ng a re all r e a l, d e te rmin e th e ir s ign s

1 . x +x i4 x
3 2
3 . x
4
a 3 l 9 x2
+ 49 x 30 -0 .

3+ 1 2
4 2
2 . 4 x 3
4 . 5x 4 3 x 1 x 68 x

5 . x4 4 x3

3 . x 5 4 1 1 x4 + 3 3 x3 + 1 1 x2

7 .

D e te r mi ne th e n atu r e of th e r oo ts o f th e fo llo wi ng

3 2
8 . x 2 x 3 z 0 . 11 . x5 + 4 x3

9 . 12 . S u

x5

10 .
+ 32 O . 13 .

14 . P r o ve th at th e e qua ti o n x5 x3
x 2
3 z0 h a s at le ast two i magi
n a ry r o o ts .

L IMITS To THE R OOTS

7 39 . To nd a s up er i o r li mi t to the p o s i ti ve r oots f
o
'

an

e qu a ti o n .

Th e f o llo w in g e xa mp le s i llu s tr ate th e p r o c ess of nd in g a

sup e ri o r li mi t to th e p o s i tiv e r o o ts o f a n e u a ti o n
'

q .

1 . Fin d a su pe ri o r li mit to th e p o si ti v e ro o ts of

G r o up i n g the p o s iti v e a n d n e g ati v e te rms, we c an wri te th e

r s t me mb e r i n th e f orm
m(x
2
1
()
It i s ev i de nt th at i f as e qu a ls o r e x c e e d s 3, th e e xpre s si on ()
1
is p o s iti ve .
 TH E O R Y OF EQU A TION S 5 21

H enc e ,
no roo t of the g i v e n e q u a ti o n e q u a ls o r ex e e d s c 3,
an d 3 is a s upe r i o r li mi t to th e p o s i ti v e r o o ts .

2 . Fi nd a s up e ri o r li mi t to th e p o s i ti ve r o o ts o f

4
513 15 x
2

4
2 4
We s e p a r a te th e r s t te r m i n to th e pa rts
a
an d
$
an d
3 3
w r i te th e r s t me mb e r i n th e f o r m

g

10 + 24 , or
g a ge 45 as so
n ar .

It i s e v i d e nt f ro m th i s th at n o r o o t c an be so g r e at a s 5;
henc e , 5 i s a su p e r io r li mi t to th e p o si ti ve r o o ts .

'

If we h a d wri tte n th e rs t me mb e r i n the f or m

2
x
x2
-
(

01
2 2 2

we s h o uld h ave fo un d 6 as a s up e r i o r li mit to th e p o s iti ve r o o ts .

4 4 4 4
Th u s , s e p ar ati ng i nto 21 an d
re
1 n s te a d of
a
and gave a
g ;
,
3
s maller limi t .

e

r 7 40 . To nd an i nf er i o r limi t to the n ega ti ve ro o ts f
o an

equ a ti o n .

F i r s t tra n s fo r m th e e qu a ti o n i nto an o th e r wh i c h s h a ll ha v e
th e sa me r oo t s w ith c o n tr a r y s i gn s 7 2 6)
Th e su
p e r i or li mi t to th e p o s i ti v e r o o ts o f th e tra n s fo r me d
e qu ati o n , o b tai n e d a s i n 7 39, w
i th i ts S i g n h a n g e d , i ll b e c w
an i n f e r i o r li mi t to th e n e g a ti v e r oo ts o f th e g i v e n e q u ati o n .

Ex . F in d an i n fe ri o r li mi t to th e n e gati v e r o o ts o f

C h an gin g th e ig s n s of th e te r m an d th e i n d e pe nd e nt te r m

( 7 2 6 >
7
W 6 h a ve 5
27 +2m
3
()
1

We w r s t me mb e r i n th e f o rm
'

ca n r i te th e
2
(
3
x x

It i s e vi d e n t f ro m th i s th a t 11 0 roo t o f ()
1 c an be so g r e at as

2 ; h e nc e ,
. 2 is an i nfe ri or li mi t to the ne ga ti ve roots of the
i v e n e u a ti on
g q .
522 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
By g r o up in g th e x5 a n d te r ms , i n we Ob tai n a s maller li mit th an
if we g ro up th e a n d as
?
te rms .

EXERC S E | 2 3 I
In e ac h o f th efo llowi ng ,
nd a s up e ri o r li mi t to th e p ositive r o ots , an d

an i n fe r i o r li mi t to th e n e ga ti ve

1 . v 3
+ 3 a 2
+x 4 . 3 a 4 5 x2 8 x

2 . x 4
+ 5 x 15 x 3
5 . x5 4 x4 + 6 x3
+ 32 x2

3 . x 4
+ 3 x 5x 2
6 . 2 x5 + 5 x4 + 6 a 3 1 3 a 2

7 . In th e e q ua ti o n x3 3x 1 0 , p rove 3 a s up e r i o r li mi t to
th e p o s i ti ve ro o ts , a n d 2 an i n fe ri o r li mi t to th e n e gati ve .

8 . In th e .
e qu a ti o n 2 5 a? 73 : 0 , p r o ve
v
. 4 an i nfe ri o r li mit
to th e n e g ati ve r oo ts , a n d nd a s up er i o r li mi t to th e p os i ti ve .

9 . In th e e q u a ti o n 3 9 a ? 12 a: 10 z 0 , p ro ve 3 a s up eri o r

li mi t to th e p os i ti ve ro o ts , a nd 6 an i n fe r i o r li mi t i ve .

L O CATION OF R OOTS
741 . If two r ea l n u mb ers , a a nd b, n o t r o o ts o f the equa ti on

m
f () +pn 0,

when s u b s ti tu ted f or a:i n f ( ) a , g i ve r es u lts of opp os i te s ign, a n

o dd n u mb er of r o o ts o f f () as 0 li e b etween a a nd b .

L et a be a lgeb r a i ca lly g r e a te r th a n b .

L et d, m , g
b e t h e real r o o ts o f f () a 0 ly i n g b e tw e en a an d
l

b an d h, m ,
tkh e r e ma i ni n g r eal r o o ts .

T h e n by , s 7 17 ,
= ac a 76 ()
1
f ()
w ( iv d
) ( 27 g) ( h) ( )
wh F ( ) i s th e p o duct o f th e
e re v
. r c
f a tors co r re s p ondi ng to th e ,

c mp l x ots f f ( ) 0
o e ro o a .

S ub s ti tuti n g a n d b fo :
in a r a we h av e

f ()
a = ( a d) " 3(a 2
g) (7 h
) (a k
)
a nd d h
) -(
b
) '

Sin ce e a ch o f th e nu mb e r s d , m , g i s le s s th a n a a n d g r ea te r

th an b , e ac h o f th e f a to r s c a d, a g i s o s i ti vpe ,
a n d e a h c
of th e f a c to r s b d, b g n e g a ti v e .
 THE ORY or E QU A TIO N S 5 23

A g ai n , c
s i n e n on e o f th e nu mb e r s h, m ,
lo li e b e tw e e n a an d

b th e e xp r e ss i on ( a h) ( a h) h a s th e sa me s i gn as (
b h)

(
b
A lso F (a ) an d F (b ) a e p os iti e ; f th e p du c t f th
,
r v or ro o e

f a cto s c r e s p o n di n g to a p i
o rr f o n j u gate c o m le x
p o ts a r o c ro

i s p s i ti e f
o e v y al lue o f or ve r re va a;

B ut by hyp o th e s i s f ( ) a n d f ( b ) a e f o pp o s i te s i gn
,
a r o .

H e nc th e nu mb e e, f f a c to s b d b g mu s t b e dd
r o r
,
o

th at i an o d d nu mb e
s, of oo ts li e b tw ee n a a n d b r r e .

If th e nu mb e rs s ub s ti tute d d i ffer b y un i ty , i t is e vi d e nt th at th e i h
te gra l p a rt of at leas t one r o o t i s k n o wn .

Ex .c ate th e o ots o f
Lo 6 :7 0 r a
?
a .

B y D e s c a te s R u l th e e q uati o n c a nn t h a ve mo e

r e o r

th n n e p o s i ti e n
a o m e th a n tw n eg ati e
v ,
ts
or or o v ro o .

Th lue s o f th s t m mb e f
e va th e va lu e s 0 1 2 3
e 1r e r or , , , , ,

2 and ,
3 of : a e a s f llo w s : a r o

m= 0 ; 7 7 x = 1 ; 1
. a: 3 ; -7 . . .

11 . m= 3 ; 1 1 . x 1 .

S in c e th e S i gn of th e r s t me mb e r i s w he n an d

+ wh e n m= 3 , one r o ot li e s b etwe e n 2 an d 3 .

The o th e r s li e b etwe en 1 a nd 2, an d 2 an d 3
,
re

s p e c ti v ely .

In lo c a ti ng r o o ts b y th e ab o ve me th o d rs t mak e , tr i al of th e n umb e r s
0 , 1 , 2, e tc .
, c o n ti n ui ng th e p r o ce s s u nti l th e nu mb er of p o s iti ve r o o ts d e te r
mi n e d i s th e sa me as h as b p r e v i ous ly i n d i c a te d b y
e en e s c a rte s R ule D
.

Th us , i n th e a b o ve e xa mp le , th e e q ua tio n c a nn o t h ave mo re th a n o n e

p os iti ve ro o t a nd wh e n o ne h as b e e n f o u n d to li e b e twe e n 2 a n d 3 , th e re
i s n o n e e d o f try i ng 4 , o r a n y gre ate r p o s i tive nu mb e r .

Th e work ma y s o me ti me s b e a b r id g e d b y nd i ng a s up er i o r li mi t to
th e p o s iti ve r o o ts , a nd a n i n fe r i o r li mit to th e n e g a ti ve r o o ts o f th e gi ve n
e q uati o n 7 39 , fo r n o nu mb e r ne ed b e tri e d wh i c h d o es n o t f all
b e twe e n th e se li mits .

EXE RC S E | 2 4 I
L o cate th e r o o ts o f th e f o llo wi ng

1 . x3 4 132 6 z 0 .

3
2 . x
5 24 ADV A NC E D C O U R S E IN A L G EBRA
3 . x4
+ 3 x 4 x3
4 . x4
+x 19 x2 3

5 . P r o ve th a h
t t e e i
q t on x
ua 3 2 x 2
5 x 5 0 h as e i th e r o n e o r

th r e e r o o ts b e twe e n 1 a nd 2 .

6 . P ro ve th at th e e q u a ti o n x4 5x 2
7 x 2 0 h as a roo t b e twe e n
2 a nd 3, a nd at le as t one b e twe e n 0 a nd 1 .

7 . Pr o ve th a t t he e q ua ti o n x 4
3x 3
as
? 3 x 4 0 h as a r oo t be
twe e n 0 an d 1, and at le a s t one b e twe e n 3 an d 4 .

Q x7 4 2 . L ocati on of R oots b y S ynth eti c Di v i s i on .

W i th th e n otati o n o f 7 41, if f () a an d f ()
b a re o f O pp os ite
s i g n , a n o dd nu mb e r o f r o o ts o f m
f () 0 li e b e tw e en a an d b .

NO W b y 25 1 ) f () a a
n
+ p 1a
n 1

l
"
+ p n 1 a + 10 7 ()
1
n l
an d b =
f () b .
n
Pl b

l
"
p ot 1 b + 10 n ()
2

Als o, (1 ) a n d (2) a r e th e re ma i n d e r s o b tai n ed by d i v i d i ng

x

1) l + p n _1 x + 19
by w a an d x b e sp e c ti ly ,
r ve

Hence i f when f ( ) i d i i d
, ,
a s v ed by x a an d w b , th e
re ma i n d e r s are of o p p os i te si gn , an odd nu mb e r of r o o ts of

f ()
w O li e b twe e e n a an d b .

Th e re ma i n d e rs may b e o btai n e d by S yn thetic D i vis i on .

3
Ex . L oc ate th e r o ots o f 90 5 ac 4 0 .

By D e s ca r te s

R ule , th e e qu a ti o n c a n n o t ha v e mo r e th a n on e

po si ti mo r e th a n two n e g ati v e r o o ts
ve , n o r .

D i v i d i n g 90 3
m 5 a: 4 by as, th e r e mai nde r i s
2
4 .
()
3
Di v i d i n g th e rs t me mb e r s u c c e s s i v e ly by a: 1 , a: 2 , :3
a ,

m+ 1 , m+ 2, an d x + 3 , we h a v e
5 4 1 11 ()
4
1 1 o 5
o _5 1

5
() ()
s
2 6 2 _2 2 6
s 2

()
6 5 ()
9
3 12 21 _3 6 3
4 7 17 2 1 7
 T HE O R Y OF E QU A TION S 5 25

In (
5) a nd th e re ma i n de r s are 2 a nd 17, res p e c ti vel y;
hen ce o n e ro o t li e s b etw een 2 an d 3 .

In ()
3 a nd
(
7 th e re ma i n d e r s a re 4 an d 1, res p e c ti v el y;
h en ce a r oot li e s b e tw e en 0 a nd 1 .

I n li k e man n e r, a ro o t li e s b etwe e n 2 an d 3 .

Th e a b ove p ro c es s is n o th i ng mo re than a c o n ve n i e nt way o f a p p ly i ng

th e te s t of 74 1 .

I t h as mo re o ve r th e me th o d o f d ir e c t s ub s tituti on
a d va ntage over th e
th at, wh e n th e i ntegr al p art o f a r o o t h as b e e n fo und , th e wo rk p e rf o r me d
is i d e n ti c a l wi th th e rs t p ar t o f H o rn er s me th o d

7 94 ) fo r d e te r
mi ni ng a d d i tio nal r o o t-gure s ; th u s , i n th e a b o ve e xa mp le , th e wo rk i n
w rs t th ree lin e s o f th e d e te r mi n a tio n b y H orner s

( 5 ) i s i d e n ti c a l i th th e

meth o d o f th e ro o t o f th e g iven e qu atio n ly i ng b e twe en 2 a nd 3 .

Th e n o te to 7 4 1 a p pli es wi th e q ual f orc e to th e me th od of 7 42 .

EXERC S E IZ S I
L o cate th e r o o ts o f th e f ollo wi ng

1 . x + 3
3 x2
3 . x4 4 x3 + 6 x
3 2 4
2 . x +4 x + x 4 . x

5 . Prove th at th e e q ua ti o n x 3
+ 5x+ 4 =0 h as o ne r oo t b etween 0
and 1 .

6 . P r o ve th at th e e qu a ti o n x4 2 95 3 5 90 2 4 a:6 0 h as a ro ot b e

twe e n 2 a nd 3, a nd a t le a s t one b e twe e n 3 and 4 .

7 43 . Th e me th o d s of 741 and 7 4 2, th o u gh si mp le i n
p r i n c i p le , and e as y to a pp ly ,
ar e n o t s uf c i ent to d e al with
e ver p y ro b le m i n lo c ati o n of r o o ts .

L et i t b e re qu i r e d , for e xa mp le , to lo c ate th e r oo ts of .

By 7 24 , th e e q u ati o n ha s at leas t o n e r e al r o ot .

By D es ca r te s

R ule , i t h a s no p o s i ti ve r o o t .

By 7 40, 3 is an i n fe r i o r li mi t to th e n e g a ti v e r o o ts .

P utti n g t e q u al
a to 0 , 1, 2, 3, r e s p e c ti v e l , y th e co rr e

s p on d i n g v a lue s of th e r s t me mb e r a re 1, 1, 1, an d 5,
r e s p e c ti ve l y .

Th e n , th e e q u a ti o n has e i th e r o n e r o o t o r th r ee r o o ts b etw e en
2 and 3
; b ut th e me th o d s a lr e a d y gi v e n a re n o t s ufc i ent
to d e te rmi ne whi ch .
5 26 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
S tur m s

T heo rem 7 5 8 ) a ffo rd s a me th o d fo r d e te r mi ni n g
c omp lete ly th e n u mb e r an d s i tu a ti o n o f th e r e al r o o ts of a n

e q u ati o n .

It IS more d i fc u lt to a pp l y th an th e meth od s o f 7 4 1 an d
7 4 2, a n d s h ould be us e d o n ly i n c a se s w hi c h th e latte c a n no t r

r e s o lv e .

7 44 . Graph i cal R epres entati on .

p
Th e g r a h o f a n e xp r e s s i o n o f h i gh e r d e g re e th a n th e c
s e ond,

w
w i th o n e u nk n o n nu m e r , may b e f ou n d a s i n b
4 65 .

E x F i n d th e g r a p h
. of

Z 2 x + 3
P ut y = w 3 2 a2 2x+ 3 .

I f w= 0 , y = 3 If m= 3 , =
y 6 .

If If a :
If x = 2, y
1 . If a; 2
, y
9 .

e tc .

The gra h i s th e u rve AB C,p c

hi h e xte n d s i n w c e i th er d i rec
ti o n to a n i n d e n i te l g r e at d i stan e fr o m y c XX
745 . Graph i cal L ocati on of R oots .

Th e p r i n i p le o f c
28 0 h o ld s fo r th e gr a h p of th e r s t me m
b e r o f an e qua ti o n o f h i gh e r d e g r e e th an th e c
s e on d , w i th one

un k n ow n n umb e r .

Thu s th e g a p h ,
r of 7 44 i n ter s e ts c XX '
at m= 1 , b etwe e n
m= 2 an d m= 3 , a n d b e tw ee n x = -1 an d w= 2 .

And th e e q ua ti o n or
2 as?
2 a: 3 0 h as o n e r o o t e qua l to
1, one b tw e e n 2 an d 3
e ,
an d one b etwe e n 1 a n d 2 .

T hi s may b e ve ri e d by s olvi ng th e e quati o n ; th e facto rs of th e rst

:1 :3

me mb e r ar e a and x 2
a .

T h i s m th e o d of lo c atin g r o o ts i s si mpl y a g a p h i al e p e s e n
r c r r

tati o n of th e p ocess
r of 7 41, a nd is s u bj e c t to th e limi tati on s

s tate d in 7 43 .

I f th e gr ap h d oe s n ot i n te r s e t c XX '
,
th e e qu ati o n h as n o r e al

r oo t .
 THE O RY O F E QU A TION S 5 27

Th e n o te to 74 1 ap p li e s wi th e q ua l f o rc e i n th e grap h ic a l me th o d of

locati ng ro ots .

EXERC S E I2 6 I
L o c ate the ro o ts o f th e fo llo wi ng e q ua ti o n s gr aph i c a lly Q

1 . x 3 3
x 3 . x3 7 x2
+ 12 x 5 . x3 8 x2 + 19 x 1 2 .

2 . 4 . 6 . x 3
3
x 2

36 2
7 . x4 +2 x x

5/W
V DIFFE RE NTIATI ON

In a ny fun ti o nc of a : le t : h b e s ub stitute d fo ;
a r as

su b t a ctr fr o m th e r e sult th e g i ve n fun c ti o n a n d d i i d e th e , v

re mai nd e r by h .

Th e li mi ti n g v alue of th e re s u lt a s h ap p ro a c he s th e li mit

z e ro , is c alle d the d er i va ti ve f
o the f u ncti o n wi th r esp ect to it .

L et i t b e re quir e d , f or exa mp le , to n d the d eri vative of

2
x3 2x 5
wi th re sp e c t to x .

S ub s ti tu ting x h for x, a nd s ub tracti ng fr om the r e sult th e give n

function, we h ave
2
(x + h) 3
(x3 2 x + 5 )
3 x2h 2
h3 4 xh 2 h2
+ 3 xh + .

Di vi d i ng this re s ult b y h , we h ave

3 x2 + 3 xh + h2 4 x 2 h .

Th e li mi ti ng value o f (1 ) as h 0
h app r o a c es , i s 3 x2 4 x .

H e nce , th e d eri va ti ve of x 3 2x 2
5 wi th re sp e ct :
to a i s 3 x2 4x .

Th e p oc e ss
r e xe mp li e d a bo ve is c alle d Differenti ati on .

747 . I n g e n e r al, le t u r e p r e s e nt an y fu n c ti on of as ; an d

supp s w
o e th at, h e n a i s h a n g e d to a :c :h ,
itb c ome u h e s

.

T h en th e d e i ,
r v a ti v e o f u w i th r e s p e ct to : i s e xp e s s e d
a r as

follo w s (
c o mp a e r

li m
h i O
5 28 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A

I t f o llo ws f ro m th e a b ove th at i u
d oc h

wh e re
gm u s ta n d s f o r th e d e r i v a ti ve of u w ith re s p ect t o x .

748 . c
Th e p r o e s s o f d iffe r e nti ati on i s f a i li tate d c by me an s
of th e w
f ollo i n g f o r mu lae, i n h i h a r e re s e nts a ny w c p c on stant ,

n a ny p o s i ti ve i nte ge r, a n d u, v, w, m , an y f un c ti on s o f : a

-w =1
da :
d d
II .

dx
< )
u+ a
d ac

Cl
11 m
111 .

da : a ) a -u
d co
.

d d d (1
IV .

d d d
V .

( u vw = (vw

Qag v-
l
dx

cl d
V I . it
n
) nu u
ti p dx

5
"-1
V II , av

) n a te
5

7 49 . I n p rov m g th e f o rmulae o f 7 4 8, we sha ll su o se th at, pp

w he n a b
+ h i s s u s ti tu te d f o r v, u i s h a nge d to u + h , v to
'
. c
"
v h ,
w to w e tc .

P r o of of I .

d li m
By 7 4 7 , m
aa
5 h O

T h at i s ,
the d eri va ti ve wi th r esp ect to a o :f v
. i tself i s un i ty .

P r o of of II .

d lim li m
d cc h i O h

by 747,
Th a t i s , the d e ri va tiv e wi th r e sp ect to :f
a o a f uncti on of a :p lu s

a cons ta n t e qu a ls the d er iva tive f the f u n cti o n o :

o
f v .
 TH E O R Y OF EQU A TION S 5 29

d d
o r e xa mp e, < < )
2
90
dx dx
P r o of f
o III .

d li m li m
(
W ) h f 0 .
h a 0

li m d
h 5:0
2 5 6) a

(
u 747,

Th at i s , the d er i va ti ve wi th r esp ect to a f

o a con s ta n t ti mes
a f un cti o n o f as equ ls
a the co ns ta n t ti mes the d eri va ti ve of the

f uncti o n o f a .

Fo r e xa mp le , 3
i

lim 2 2
o

11 s o
.
h

h '
h "
lim lim
+

11 1 0
.

Z h 7
d d d

Th at i s , the d eri va ti ve w i th r esp ect to a :f o the su m of a ny

nu mb er of f un cti on s of a :equ a ls the su m of thei r d er i va ti ves .

P r o of f
o V .

C o n s i d e r rs t th e c as e of c
two f a to r s .

"
at li m u + +h uv
( )
uv
h i o

lim
h i O

"
u x v +h x

by 254 , 25 7 .
5 30 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN AL GE BR A
As h a pp r oa c h e s th e li m i t 0, It
"
"
a ls o a p p r o a ch e s 0 ,
an d th e r e
fo r e th e li mi ti n g v a lu e o f v h is v .

z
Wh en c e ,
i n
( )
uv u
3
v v
i

ba:
u .

C on s i d e r n e xt th e c a s e o f th ree c
f a to r s .

lf
d 1
by (1 )
(
d a:
u vw
) 33
[( ) uv w] w (
uv
)
e v
uv w,

w +
g
v - -u
a3
uv
w .

%
d
vw - k uw
u - - - v + uv w
a Jw
.

I n li k e mann e r th e th e o r e m may b e p ro v e d f or a ny n u mbe r

c
o f f a to r s .

T h at i s ,
the d er i va ti ve wi th r esp ect to :of
a the p r od u ct of any
numb er of f u n ctio n s of w e qu a ls the s um of the r es ults o b ta i n ed b y
mu ltip lyi ng the d er i va ti ve of ea ch f a ctor b y a ll the o ther f a cto rs .

: : oz

dL $
G
F or e xa mp le , U 1 ) m] Q
2
(a 1 ) - w
6 2
d 6

P r o of o f VI .

If we s up p ose v, w, i n V , to b e all e q u al to u , an d th a t
th e b
n um e r o f c
f a to r s i s n, we h av e by V ,

d d n -1
d d
+ + to te r ms = n l
~

u n
:
16 ?L H .
nu u
:
.

dd d oc da da '

]
F or e xa mp le ,
di x
z
3

P r o of of V II .

By 1 1 1 ,
2
$ aw
( ) ( )
w by V I
n r
a a, ,
x

a nx
" 1
,
by I
T h at i s ,
the d er i va tive wi th r esp ect to w of a co n s ta n t times a ny

p os i ti ve i n tegr a l p o wer o f as e qu a ls the co n s ta n t, ti mes the e xp o n en t

of the p ower, ti mes :

a r a i s ed to a p o wer whos e exp on en t i s less b y 1 .
 TH E ORY O F E QU A TION S 5 31

F or e xa mp le , (
3 x
4
) 12 x 3
.

Ex . F i n d th e d e r i va ti v e w i th ct t re sp e o a; o f

2m 5x2 3
+ 7 : 6 v .

By II an d IV ,
d
(
2 w 3
5x + 7 2
: 6)
51
d
2
( x
3
)
d
$
2
)
d
dx dx

by V II .

EXE RC S E I2 7 I
Fi nd th e d erivati ve wi th re sp e c t to a :fo

1 . 5 a z
+ 7 az . 5 . 4 x5 7 x4 + 8 x3 :
a .

2 . 3 x3 x2 + 3 . 6 . x6 4 x4 + 6 x3 + 7 x2 6 .

3 . x4 + 5 x l2 3
c
c 4 . 7 . 2 x5 + 3 234

x5 +9 x4 4 x3 5m 2 e 5

4 . . 8 . a

7 50 . S ucces s i v e D iffe enti r ati on .

If u is an y f un ti o n c of a , th e d e r i v ati v e of th e d e ri v ati v e of

u i s c alle d th e S eco n d D er i va ti ve of u wi th r esp ect to v, a n d is

2
d
re p r e s e n te d by u
2
.

(1113

Th e d e ri va ti v e of th e c
se on d d e r i v a ti v e of u is c a lle d th e
T h i r d D er i va tive o f u wi th r esp ect to a , an d
'
is re
p r e s e n te d by

Ex . F i n d th e su cc e s s i ve d e ri v a ti v e s wi th re spe ct to at o f

3m 3
9 x 12
2
x +2 .

We
g 3 x3 9 12 -2 = 9 18 12
2 2
h av e, (
a:
x x l ) x x .

g; ( 18
2 3
3x 9x .

3
d 9
(
3 2
3 x x
3
dx
4
i + 2) = O ;
3 2
3
( x 9 '
a 12 a3 e tc .
dm
532 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E BR A
It wi ll b e u n d e r s too d h e r e after th at wh e n we s p ak
e of the d erivati ve of
a fun c ti o n o f x, th e firs t d e ri vati ve is me an t .

EXERC S E I2 8 I
Fi nd th e s ucc ess ive d eri va ti ves wi th r e sp e c t to a of :
1 4 952 + 7 3 4 7 4 3 2
. x . . x +x +9x .

2 . 2 5133 11 22 -
4 4 . 5 . 3 x5 + 2 x4 + 6 x2 5 .

3 a4 5 x3 - 2x 6 4 955 10 3 -- 1 3 95
. . . 95 2 .

7 51 . Gr ap h i ca l R ep res en
tati on of De i r v ati v es .

L e t P Q b e th e gr a p h o f a ny fu n c ti on o f a , f (
cc
)
L e t P b e an y po i n t o n th e g r a ph h a v i n g th e a b sc i s s a at, an d

Q a n oth e r p oi n t h a v i n g th e a b s ci s sa

:h
a .

Dra w PM and QN p e r p e n d i c u lar to

XX , '
an d P R p e r p e n d i c u la r to QN .

Th e n , P M r e p r e s e n ts f ( a , an d Q
) N
re
p r e s e n ts
f(: h) a .

Wh e n c e, QR r e p r e s e nts f(:ah)
f ()
93

f( _f (x
92
Then + h
,
th e r a ti o
0
is re p r e s e n te d by
h 3

I f we d e n ote th e d e r i v ati v e of f () w
a i th res p c t to a:
e by f
m
f () j
,
e

Th en , f is re
p r e s e n te d by th e li mi ti n g v alue o f th e r a ti o

QR th e li mi t 0 ; th at i s , a p p rb ac h e s
as h a pp r o a c h e s as Q P .

PR
He n c e ,
if P T i s ta n ge n t to th e gr a h p at P , me e tIng QN
25
p r o du c e d a t T, is re
p r e s e nte d by th e r a ti o
PR
Th e la tte r r a ti o i s th e ta ng e n t of th e a n gle TP R .

7 52 . p li c ti
By ap a on o f c
th e p r i n i p le s o f 7 5 1 , we c an d e te r
mi n e th e p oi n t w h e XX
'
s re a n y g ra ph i s p a r a lle l to .

" TR
F o r, i f th e gra ph i s p a ra lle l to X I at P , th e r ati o
PR
is e vi d e ntl y e
q u al to ze ro ; so th at f is zero at that po i nt .
 TH E O RY O F EQU T A ION S 5 33

If th e n we s olve th e e qu ati o n f ()
'
x 0 , we s h all d e te rmi n e
in wh at p o i n ts th e g ra h p of f () p i sv
. a r a lle l to XX '
.

Co n s i d e r , f o r exa mp le , th e g r a p h o f 7 44 .

4 x 2 .

S olvi n g th e e q uati o n 3 x
2
4 a : 0 , we h a v e

(I?
3 3

T he n ,
one p o i nt is to th e r i gh t o f YY , '
and th e

2

o th e r to th e le ft .

3
L e t th e p up il d e te rmi n e th e p oin ts wh e re th e gra p h s o f th e rs t me m
b ers o f th e e quati ons in E xs 1 to 6 , i n c lus i ve , i n E xe rc i se 1 2 6 , are p ara lle l
.

to XX '
.

M UL TIPL E R OOTS
7 53 If e qu ati o n h a s two mo re r o o ts e u a l is

. an or q to a, a

s ai d to b e a Multi p le R oot of th e e qu ati o n .

I n th e a bo ve ca se, a is c alle d a d o ub le r oo t, tr ip le r oo t
, qu a d V
rup le r o o t, e tc .
,
ac c o r d i n g as th e e qu a ti o n h a s two r o o ts, th r e e
r oo t s, f our r oo ts , e tc , e q u a l
. to a .

7 54 . L e t th e e q u ati o n

n
p w +op 1

w + 10 2 0

h ave m r oots e u a
q l to a .

By 7 1 7 , th e r s t me m be r ca n b e p ut i n th e form

()
2

whe re f (ot) i s th e
p ro du c t of th e f a to r s c c o rr e s p ondi n g to th e
r e ma i n i n g r o o ts o f a nd i s th e r e fo r e a r a ti o n a l a n d i n te g ral
p
e x r e s s i o n o f th e ( n m)th d e g r e e w i th e p e c t to
r s a .

By 7 4 8 , V , th e d e ri va ti v e of ()
2 w i th e s p e c t to
r :
i s a

( x a m ;

(:
a m(cc by 7 48 , V I .
5 34 AD V AN C E D C O URS E IN AL G E BR A
p b t a
m
It i s e v id e n t th at th e ex r e s si o n
()3 i s d i v i s i le b
y ( r ;
and th e r e fo r e th e e q u ati o n f o r me d by
e q u ati ng i t to z e ro w ill
h av e m 1 r o o ts e q u a l to a .

H e nc e ,
if a n y e qu a ti o n o f f the or m (1 ) ha s m ro o ts equa l to a,

the e qu a ti o n f med b y or e quating to z er o the d er i va ti ve of i ts rs t

memb er w i ll ha ve m 1 r o o ts e qu a l to a .

I t fo llo ws f ro m th e a b ov e th at, to d e te rmi n e th e e xi s te n e o f c

mu lti p le r o o ts in an e q u a ti o n o f th e f o rm

Pox

+ p n _1 90 + p n 0)

we p c ro ee d as f o llo ws
F i n d the H O F . . .
f
o the f i r s t memb er a nd i ts d er iva ti ve .

If the re i s no H O F . . .
,
ther e ca n b e n o mu ltip le r oo ts .

If ther e i s a H C F . . .
, by e qu a ti ng i t to z ero a n d s o lvi ng the re

s a lti ng e qu a ti o n , the r e qu i r ed r o o ts ma y be o b ta i ned .

Th e num e r b of ti me s th at ch
ea r o ot o cc u rs i n th e gi v e n
e qu a ti o n e xc eeds by on e th e nu mb er of ti me s th a t i t o u r s i ncc
th e e q u a ti o n o b tain e d by e qu ati n g th e H . C F to
. . z e ro .

Ex . F in d a ll th e r oo ts of

Th e d e ri vati v e of th e r s t me mb e r is
4 x
3
i sm + 24 v
?
. 10 .

Th e H ,
C; F ,
of th i s a nd th e rs t me mb e r o f (1 ) i s aa

2 113 +
S o lv i n g th e e q u ati o n m2
2 :1
a O, th e r o o ts a r e 1 an d 1 .

H e nc e , mu lti p le r o o ts o f (1 ) ar e 1 , 1 , an d 1
th e .

S u b tr a c ti n g th e s u m o f 1 , 1 , an d 1 f r o m 6, the re mai n i n g
ro ot is 3 .

EXE RC S E I 12 9
Fi n d all th e r o o ts o f ea ch o f th e fo llo wi ng e qu ati ons
'

3
1 . a 3 . x3

2 . x3 +3 a2 9m 4 . 1 8 as + l 5 x2 4 a

5 . x4
+2 x3 1 1 x2
6 . x4
 THE O R Y OF E QU A TION S 5 35 V

5
7 . x

8 . x + 4
l l x3
+ 3x + 5m
3 2

9 . x5 3 x4 x3 + 7 :
a
2

10 5
6 4 1 1 3
2 2
. x + x + x + x 12 x

7 55 . We w ill n o w c o n s tr u c t th e gr a h o f th e p rs t me mbe r
of 7 54 .

Th e rs t me m b e r can b e p u t i n th e
fo rm
(: la
)(
a: 3
()
1

T hi s sh o w s th a t th e g r a p h c uts XX '

at a n d m= 3 .

S inc e (: 1 a:
)( 3 wh e n
) i s
3
c
p o s i ti v e
it is 1 3 n d n g a ti
, wh n :
or , a e ve e a

i s b tw n 1 n d 3 th g p h i
e ee b a ,
e ra s a ov e

XX wh n x i
'
1 3 and b l w
e s ,
or , e o

wh n :e i b tw n 1 n d 3
a s e ee a .

By 7 4 8 V , th e d e r i v a ti v e of
()
1 i s

d
w
( v
. 3) ( x
dm

( a; 1) + (
oc
3
3) 1 ) (v 2
. 1 +3 : 9)
11

(: a x

E qu a ti n g thi s to ze r o , we h a v e at 1 or
2 .

Th th e g r a ph i s p a ra lle l to XX :1 a nd v =
2 (g
'
en at a .

If a n y e q u ati o n , with one unk n own n u mb e r , h as a multiple r o o t, th e

grap h o f i ts rs t me mb e r i s tan ge n t to X X

.

If th e r o o t i s a tr ip le r o o t, th e c ur ve c ros s e s th e a xis o f X at th e p o i nt
of tang e n c y , a n d r e v e rs e s i ts d i r e c ti o n at th a t p o i n t .

If th e ro o t is a d o u b le ro o t, th e c ur ve i s e n ti re ly a b o ve , o r e nti re ly

b e lo w X X a t th e p o i n t of C o mp a re
ta n ge n c y .
(
L e t th e p up il c o ns tr uc t th e g rap h s o f th e r s t me mb e r s o f th e e qu a ti o n s
in E xs 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 9 , a n d 1 0 , E xe r c is e 1 2 9 ; n d ing a ll th e p o i nts wh e re
.

th e g ra p h s a r e p ara lle l to X X
.

7 56 . An e q u a ti o n o f th e fo r m x
"
a 0 c an h av e no multi
n -1 "
l f h d i v at i v e of a is an d x a an d

p e r o o ts ; o r t e e r a na ,

nx
" 1
h av e n o o mmon f a to r c c e xc e p t u n i t y .
5 36 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
The r e fo r e , th e n r oo ts o f x
"
a a r e a ll di ffe r e nt .

I t f o llo ws f r o m th e a bo v e th at e y e xp e s i o n h a s tw
v er r s o di f
f e r e nt s qu a r e r o o ts , th r e e d i ffe r e n t c ub e o o ts a n d i n g e n e
r ,
ra l n

d i e r en t nth r o ots .

S TUR MS

TH E ORE M
7 57 . We w i ll n o w d e mon s trate two th e o r e ms whi ch a re u s e d

i n th e p ro o f o r a p pli c ati on of S tu r m s

The or e m 7

I . If x b e ta ken su i c i en tly grea t, a ny te r m o f the exp ress i o n

po w
p a ()
1

ma y b e ma d e to n umer i cally exceed the su m of a ll the f o llowi ng

terms .

F o r th e r a ti o o f th e ( r i )th ter m to th e su m of all th e f o l

lo w in g te r ms i s

pa l 192 2 J on
+ 2 n r
93 x x

B y taki n g x s u f i e ntl c ygr e at, th e d e n o mi n ato r o f (

2 ) c an b e
ma d e n u me r i all c y as s ma ll a s we p
lea s e ; h e n e, th e r a ti o o f c
p rx
n "
to th e su m of th e f o llo wi n g te r ms c an b e mad e numer i

c ally as g r e at a s we p le ase .

II . If x b e ta ken sui ci en tly s ma ll, a ny ter m o f the [

e xp res s i o n

ma y b e ma d e to numer i ca lly e xc eed the s um of a ll the p r eced i ng

terms .

F o r th e r a ti o of th e (
r + 1 )th term to the su m of a ll th e
p c edi ng
re te r ms i s
n -r
Pr w
" _r + v
W
1
P0513
"
10

I
"
p r l x
n
p ox

IP

l a
y

I

p r l w

B y tak i n g x su f i e n tl c y s ma ll, th e d e n omi n a to r o f (3 ) c an be

ma d e nu me r i c ally a s s mall a s we p le a s e ; h e n c e , th e r a ti o of

to th e s u m o f th e p re ce d i n g te r ms can b e ma d e mer i
n r
p rx nu

c ally as g r e at as we p lease .
 T HE O RY O F E QU A TION S 5 37

S turm s Th e or em

7 58 . .

l -
L et f( ) p n _1 x O

()
1
n
x x + x l

p l p n

be an e q u a ti o n fr om wh i ch th e multi p le r oo ts h ave b e en
re mo ve d
L et f1 ( )x d e n o te th e d e ri v ati v e of f( ) w
x i th r es p e ct to x

D i vi d i ng f (
x
) by we s h a ll o b tai n a q u o ti e n t Q , w ith a

re ma i nd e r of a d e g re e lo we r tha n th a t of f () x .

D e n o te th i s re ma i n d e r , wi th the s i gn of e a c h of i ts ter ms
cha nged , by f (x) a n d2 ,
d i vi d e fl ( ) x by an d so on ; th e
o p e r ati o n be i n g p ci re s e ly th e sa me as th a t of n d i n g th e
H . C F . . of f () x an d f 1 ( ), x e x c e pt th a t th e s i gn s o f th e te r ms

o f e a ch r e ma i n d e r a r e to b e c h an ge d w hi le ,
n o o th e r c hange s o f
si g n a re e r mi s s i ble
p .

by hy p
S inc e , o th e s i s , f () x 0 h as no multi p le r o o ts , f ()x an d

f ()
1x h a e n c v o o mmo n d i v i s o r e x c e pt un i ty and we
n lly ob tai n a
a r e ma i n d e r in d e p e n d ent of x .

Th e e xp r e s s i o n s f() x , f ()
n
x are c alle d S tur m s

F un cti o n s .

Th e su cc e s si ve O p e ra ti o n s a r e r e p r e s e n te d a s f ollo ws
f (x) Qf 1 ( )
1w

f ()l 93
"

7 3 60
1 ,

f a
x
) Qefatv)

f i t 2 x () n
m _
Q l f K ) f (w)
71. n

We may n ow e n un c i at e S tur m s T h eo r em
.

If two r ea l n u mb er s , a a nd b, are s u b s ti tu ted i n p la ce of x

i n S tur m

s F u ncti o n s , a nd the s i g ns n o ted , the d iIfere n ce b etween

the n u mb er of v a r i a ti o n s o f s i gn 7 3 4 ) i n the rs t ca s e a n d tha t

i n the

s e con d e qu a ls the nu mb er o f r ea l ro o ts f f ()
o = O l ix
y gn

b etween a a nd b .

Th e d e mo n s tr ati on of th e th e o re m d e p e n d s u p on th e f o l
lo wi n g p r i n c i p le s :
1 . Two c o n se cu ti ve f u ncti o n s ca nn ot b oth b ecome O f or the
sa me va lu e o f x .
5 38 A DV AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L GE BR A
F o r i f, fo r a n y v a lu e o f x, fl ( ) x ,(
O a n d f2 x) 0 , th e n , by (3)
f () x 0 ; a n d s i n c e f ()
2 x O a n d f3 ( ) 0 ,
x by f ,() x O
c o n ti n u i n g i n th l s w a , we h a v e n all f n(
y x
) y 0 .

But by h y p o th e s i s , f (x) i s i n d e p en d e n t O f x, a n d c on s e qu en tly

n

c an n o t be m co e O fo r a n y v a lu e O f x .

H ence, no two c
c o n s e uti v e fu ncti on s can bec o me 0 f o r th e
sa me v alu e o f x .

II . If a nyf un cti o n , excep t f (x) a n d f (x), n b eco mes 0 f oi

'
a ny

v a lu e o f x, the a dja cen t f un c ti o n s ha ve opp o s i te s i gn s f or thi s va lu e

of m
F o r i f, fo r a ny v a lu e Of x, f2 ( ) = 0x,
th e n ,
b y we mu s t
h av e f () x f o r th i s v a lu e o f x .

The r e fo r e, fl ( )
. x a nd f3 ( ) x h av e o p p o s i te s i gn s f o r th i s v a lu e

of x ; for, by I ,
n e i th e r o f . th e m . c a n e qu a l z e r o .

III . L et c be a r o ot o f th e e q u a ti o n f (),
x 0, wh ee f (x) i s r ,

any f un ti on c e xc e pt f (x) a n d j(x) u

.

By II ,
an d f 1 1 ()
,
x h av e O p p o s i te s i g n s wh e n x c .

N ow le t h b e a p o s i ti v e nu mb e r , so ta k e n th a t n o r oot o f

O O li es b e tw e e n c
i
h and c h .

Th e n a s x c h an g e s from c h to c h, n o c h an g e O f s i g n tak e s

p la c e i n or f , +l ()
x w hil e f () ,
x r e d uc e s to z e ro , an d ch an g e s

o r r e ta i n s i ts s i gn a c c ord i n g a s th e r o o t c o c c urs a n o d d o r e v en

num b er of ti me s i n i ; (x) 0 .

Th e r e f o r e , f o r v a lu e s o f x b tw e en
e c h a n d c, a n d a ls o for
v a lu e s O f x b twe e e n c a nd c h, th e th r e e f ( ), x

an d f , +1 ()
x p r e se n t o n e p erma n e n c e an d o n e v a r i ati o n .

H e nc e , as x i n c r ea s e s f ro m c h to c h, n o c h a n g e b
o c ur s in

th e nu mb er o f v a r i ati o n s i n th e fu n cti on s an d

th a t i s , n o c h a n g e o c c u r s i n th e n u mb e r o f v a r i ati o n s as x ih
c re a s e s th r o u gh a r oo t o f f (x) 0 .

IV . L et c be a r o ot o f th e e q u ati o n f () x O; an d le t h b e a

p o s i ti v e n u mb er , so ta k e n th a t no
()
ro ot o f f x O li e s b e twe e n
c h an d c h .

Th e n , as x i n c r e a s e s fr o m c h to c h, no c h an ge o f si g n

tak e s p la c e i n wh il e f () x r e d uc e s to z e r o, a n d ch a n g e s s i gn .
 THE O R Y OF E QU A TION S 5 39

P utti n g x c h in we O btai n
"
f( c h) (c h) + p , (
c h) 1
h) p
E xpan d i n g by th e B i n o mi al Th e o re m, an d c o lle c ti n g th e
te r ms i n vo lv i n g li k e p o we rs of h, we h a ve

f( C h) 0
"
H oe l
"- 1
+ p n_l c
" l
h [ nc ( 1 )p l C 2
+ 10 n 1 ]

te r ms i n v o lv i n g h 2
,
h 3
,
m ,

B ut s i n ce c is a r o ot o f f ()x 0 , w e h av e by
_l
o
n
+ p lc
n
+ p n l c + 19 71
0

Als o , i t i s ev ident th a t th e c o e ffi c i e n t o f h i s th e v alu e o f

f ()1w hx en c is su b s ti tu te d i n l
p ac e of x ; th e r e f o r e,

f( c h) hf 1 (
c
) te r ms i n v o lv i ng h
2
,
h 3
,
m ,
h "
.
()
5

I n lik emann e r i t may b e sh o w n th at

f( c h ) hfl()
c t e r ms i n vo lv i n g h2
,
h3
,
h
.
()
6

No w i f h b e tak e n su ffi c i e ntly s ma ll, th e s i gn s o f th e c

s e on d

me mb e r s o f (5 ) a n d (6 ) w ill b e th e s a me a s th e s i g n s o f th e i r
r s t te r ms , hf 1 ( an d r e s e c ti v e ly 5 II
c
) p 7 7 , ) .

H e n c e, if h b e tak e n su fc i e n tly s ma ll, th e s i g n o f f ( c h)

w i ll b e c o n tr a r yt o th e si gn of f (),
l o an d th e S l gn of f( c h)
th e sa me as th e si gn o f

Th e r e f o r e , f o r va lu e s o f x b twe e en c h a n d c, c
th e f un ti o n s

f () x an d f 1 (x) p re se n t a v a r i a ti o n , a n d fo r v a lu e s o f x b tw e e en

c an d c h th e yp re s en t a
p e r ma n e n c e .

H e nc e , a va r i a ti o n i s lo s t as x i n c r e a s e s th ro u gh a ro ot o f

f () x 0 .

W e ma y now d e mo n s tr ate S tur m

s Th e o r em ; fo r as x in
c
'

re a s e s f r o m b to a , su pp o s i n g a a lge b r a i c a lly g r e a te r th a n b ,
a v a r i a ti o n i s lo s t eac h ti me th a t x p a s s e s th ro u gh a r oo t of

f () x O, an d o n l y th e n ; f o r h w
e n x p a s s es th r o ug h a r o ot o f

f (x) 0, wh e re f, ( ) i s
x any f un c ti o n e xc e p t f () x an d f ( ), n
x no

ch an g e o c ur s c i n th e nu mb e r O f v a r i ati o n s .

H en ce , th e nu mb e r o f v a r i a tio n s lo s t a s x i nc r e a s e s f r o m
I) to a e qu als th e nu mb e r o f r e al r oo ts o f f ( x
) 0 i n c lud e d

b etw e e n a an d b .
 -
54 0 AD V AN CE D C O URS E IN A L G E B R A
9
7 59 . It i s cu s to mary , in a p p li ati o n s c of S tu r m

s Th e ore m,
to sp ak o f th s ub sti tuti o n f n i nd n i t ly g t p o i ti
e e o a e e rea s ve

nu mb e r f o x i n n e xp e
r ,
i on as b ti tu ti ng
a r fss x ; a n d ,
su s 00 or

th e s ub s ti tu ti n f n e g ti e n u mb
o o o f i n d e
a n i te ly gr e at
a v er

a b s olu te alu as
v u b ti tu ti ng
e f xs s 00 or .

Th s u b s ti tuti n o f +
e an d o f x i n S tu m s Fun c
00 co or r

ti on s d te mi n es th e nu mb e
e r f al o t o f f ( x
) 0 r o re r o s .

Th e su b s ti tu ti n f + nd O f o x d t o mi n s th e n u mb
00 a or e er e er

o f p i ti
os l ts a n d th s u b s ti tuti n of -
ve r ea ro o ,
a nd 0 th e e o oo

n umb e f n g ti
r O al
e ats v e re roo .

S i n c e S tu m s T h r m d e te mi n th n umb of re al

e o re ts r es e er ro o

o f an qu ati o n th e n u mbe o f i mag i n ar y oo ts als o be c o me s

e ,
r r

k n o wn

7 60 . If a s u ffi ci ently great nu mb e r b e su b stituted for x in

th e e xp re s s i o n

F C) =Bp 0 28
"
p l n ai
1

I
k p -1 m I p m
h

th e s i gn O f th e r e s u lt wi ll b e the sa me as th e S i gn O f i ts rs t
te r m, p ox
"
7 57 , I) ; h nc e
e ,

If + cc b e f ( ),
s u b s ti tute d or x in F x the S i gn o f the r es u lt wi ll
b e the s a me a s the s ign of i ts r s t ter m . ,

If ( ),
oo b e s u b s ti tu te d f o r x i n F x the s ign f
o the r esu lt wi ll
b e the sa me a s , o r co n tr a ry to , the s ig n o f i ts fi rs t te r m, a ccor di n g

as the d egr ee o f F ()
x is e ve n o r o d d .

7 61 . We w ill n o w c on s i d er a n e xa mple
L et i t b e r e qu i r e d to d e te r mi n e th e u mb e r an d s i tu ati o n o f

th e r e a l r o ots o f : 3 2
p
f () x x 2 x

He re , 4 x -1 .

In th e p ocess
r Of n d in g f 2 (x), f 3 (x), e tc '
.
, an y p o s i ti ve n u me r i
c al f acto r may b e o mi tte d o r i n tr o d u c e d at p le as u r e ; f o r the

s ig n o f t h e r e s u lt i s n o t affe cte d th e by ; re in thi s way f ra ti ons c

may b e a vo i d e d .

I n th i s c a s e, we mu lti p l y f (x) b y 3 to mak e i ts r st te rm

b by
d i v i s i le 3 x
2
.
 TH E ORY O F E QU AT ION S 54 1

2
3 x

f ()
2 x = 2 x 1 .

3x x
2
4 1
2
r
2 x 1 )6 x
2
8 x 2 (3 x aq , aa
2
6 x 3 x

5 x 2
2
l0 x 5
4 (
l0 x
+5
9
Su b stituti ng oo f or x in f ( ), f 1 ( ),
x x an d f 3 ( ), x th e
si gn s ar e an d re sp e c ti ve ly su b sti tutin g
O for x, th e s i gn s are r e spe cti vely ; and s ub

s ti tuti n g + 0 0 f o r x, th e s i gn s a r e all
H nc e
e ,
th e r oo ts o f th e e q u a ti o n a r e a ll r e al, an d two of

th e m a r e p o s i ti v e a n d th e oth e r n e g a ti v e
We n ow su b s ti tu te v a r i o u s n u mb e r s to d e te rmin e th e s i tu a

ti on of th e r o o ts

f () 90 f ()
1 w f a)x )x

x 3 v ar i ati o n s .

x 3 v a ri a ti o n s

x 0, 2 v ar i ati o n s

I
.

x 1, 1 v a ri ati o n .

x 2, 1 ri ati o n
ya .

x z3 ,
n o v a r i a ti o n . l
x 00 n o v a ri ati on .

We th e n k n o w that th e e qu ati o n has on e r o ot b etwee n 0 and

1, o ne b etw e e n 0 a nd 1, an d o n e b etwe en 2 an d 3 .
54 2 AD V AN CE D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
7 62 . It will b e f o un d u s e f ul to c on

s tr u c t th e g r a p h s of f () x and f ( ),
1 x in
th e e xa mp le of 7 61 .

Th e g p
r a h of f () x is th e .
c u rv e

AB C ; c u tti n g XX at A, b tw e e en

x =0 a nd x = 1, at B, b twe en x
e

an d x 1, an d at 0, betwe n x : 2 e

an d x 3 .

Th e g r a p h Of f 1 (x) i s th e d o tte d cu rv e DE cuttin g XX

D, b e tw een x =0 an d x = 1, an d at E
'
b tw e ne an d
e

(13 2 .

To n d th e a b sc i s sas of D an d E , we s o lv e th e e qu ati o n

2
3 x 4 x 1 O .

Z i x/4 + 3
T hen , x or
3 3
I f we p u t x . 21 ; i n f ( ),
x th e r e s ult is p o s i ti v e .

T hi s sho ws th a t D i s b tw e e en 0 an d A .

Th e g rap h i llu s tr ate s i n an e xc e lle n t way th e tr u th o f 7 58,

I V ; tha t a s x i n c r e a s e s f r o m a v a lu e u s t e lo to a v alue u s t j b w j
a b o ve a r o o t o f f () x 0, no ch a n ge tak e s p la c e i n th e s i gn o f

f ()1 x w h,
ile f ( x
) d u s t e a n d c h a n g s si g n
re ce o z ro e .

7 63 A x i.n c e a s e s f
s m to +
r f ()x n d f ()
ro x c h a n g e oo 00
,
a ,

s i gn lt n a te ly f
s a er th y a a lw a y s u n lik
,
or i n s i g n j u st b f e
e re e e or

f () x c h n g s s i gan 7 58 eI V ); h n c e i f th e ts o f
, f ()
x : 0 e ,
roo

an d f ( x) 0 a ll al a t of f ( 0 li e s b e tw e e n e e y
re a x
) re ,
roo 1 v r

two d j c e n t
a ats o f f ( x
) 0
ro o .

T h at o ot f f (x) 0 li e s b etw e n e e y p ai o f a dj e n t
a r o e v r r ac

r o ts o f f( x) o 0 i a d mi a b ly s h w n i n th g u e f
,
s r 7 62 o e r o .

7 64 W e w ill gi e n e mo
. i llu s t a ti e e x a mp l
v o re r v e .

D e te mi n e th e n u mb
r an d s i tu ti n f th e a l o ots o f
er a o o e r r

f () = 4 x x
3
6 x

He re , f () x 12 x
2
6 ; o r, 2 x
2
1, o mi tti n g th e f a c tor 6 .

2
x
3
2x 1 )4 x 6 5 (2 x

4 2 x

4 x -5
 T HE O R Y OF E QU A TION S 54 3

2
2 90 1
2 .

4 + 5 )4 2 (x
2
x x
2
4 x + 5 x

5 x 2

20 x 8 ( 5
2 0 x 25

Th e las t s te p i n th e d i vi s i on may be o mitte d ; fo r we o n ly n e e d to

k n o w th e s ig n of f 3 (x) ; a nd it i s ev id e n t by i ns p e c ti o n , w h e n th e
re ma i nd e r 5x 2 is ob ta i n e d , th a t th e s ig n o f 1 3 (x) will b e

f () x f (x) 2 (x) f ix)

x co , 2 v a r i a ti o n s .

O 2 v a r i a ti o n s .

x 1, 2 v a ri ati o n s .

2, 1 v a r i a ti o n .

x z oo , 1 v a ri a ti o n .

Th e r e f or e , th e e q u a ti on h as a r e al r o o t b e tw e en 1 an d 2, and

two i ma gi n a r y r o o ts .

In s ub s ti tuting th e n umb e rs , i t i s b es t to wo rk f r o m 0 i n e i th e r d i re c
ti o n , s to p p i ng wh e n th e nu mb e r o f v ar i a ti o n s i s th e sa me as h as b e e n

p re vi o us ly found fo r + 0 0 or -0 0
,
as th e c as e ma y b e .

EXERC S E I3 O I
D e te r mine th e n a ture of th e ro ots o f th e f o llo wi ng

1 x3 2x x2 5 x 8x
4 2
.
+ .

3 2 l0
2 . x 3
+ 3 x 6 . x 4
+ 2x 5x x

3
3 . x 3
7 . x + 3 x
4

3 2 6
4 . x3
+ x 2
15 x 8 . x + 4
4 x + 2 x x

7 65 . Conti nuity .

A f u n c ti o n o f x, f ( ),
x is sai d to b e Conti nuous at x a wh e n
an i n d e n i tel y s mall c h an g e i n a p r o d u es an c i n d e n ite l y sm a ll

c h an ge in f () a .
54 4 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
Con s i d er th e r ati o n al i n te g ral f un ti o n c Of x

_1
f () =xp 0 x + p 1 x
n n

+ p n l x + 17 71.

P utti n g a h in p la c e o f x, we h a v e

f( a h) = p o (
a
"
h) + p l (
a

Ex p andi n g by th e B i n o mi al T h eo e m r ,

+ pl n
-
f( a'
h =
I ) p 0a

,
I
a
1 " "
+ Pn _i a + 19 7.

+ terms i nv olv i n g h, h ,
2

te r ms i n v o lv i n g h, 72 ,
2
f () a

T h en f (a ,
h) f () a te rms i n v olv i n g h, h f
,
m ,
h

.

y s mall f ( + h) f ( ) w ill b e i n d e
I f h b e tak en i n d e n i te l ,
a a e

n i te ly s mall ; f th e c e ffi c i e n ts f h h m h a e n ite "

2
or o o , , ,
r .

H e n c e an i n d e ni tely s mall h ange i n p od uc e s an i nd e

,
c a r

n i tely s mall c h an g e i n f ( ) a .

T hat i s a a tiona l i nteg a lf uncti on of x i c ntinu ou a t eve y

,
r r s o s r

v a lu e o f x .

I t f ollo ws f ro m th e a bo
th at th e gr ap h o f a rati o n a l i n te gr al
ve

c
fu n ti on of x is a co nti nu o u s li n e , wi tho u t b r ea ks .

We have as s u me d thi s i n th e gur e s of C h ap XIV , . 4 65 ,

4 67 , 4 82 , an d 4 83 , a n d all th e gur e s of Ch a p XXXV II
. .

7 66 . We w i ll i llu s tr a te a d i s con ti n uous f un ti on c Of x by a

gur e .

C o n s id e r th e fra ti on c
1
P ut y
x 1
As x in c rease s f r o m oo to 1 , y i s
n e g ati v e , a n d in c r e a s e s i n d e ni te l in y
a b s o lute v alu e .

As x i ncr e a s e s f r o m 1 to 00 ,
y i s o si p
ti v e ; an d c o mme n c i n g w i th a n i n de
n i te ly g r e at v a lu e , de c re as e s i n d e n i te l y .

Th e g r a p h c o n s i s ts of two b ch e s AB a n d OD ; and i t i s
ran
,

e v id e n t th at, at m z i , an ind e n i t ly s mall c h an ge i n :

e p o a r

du c e s an i nd e ni te ly g r e a t c h an ge i n y .
 S O L U TION I
O F H G HE R E Q U A TIO NS 54 5

XXX V III S O L U TI O N O F HIGH E R E QU A TIO NS

.

C OMM E N S UR AB L E R OOTS
We sh all use th e te r m co mme ns ura b le r o o t, i n Ch ap . XXXV III ,
to
s ign ify a r ati o n al ro o t e xp ress e d in A r ab ic nu me r als .

7 67 . By 7 2 2, a n e q u a ti o n o f th e n th d e gr e e i n th e g e n e r al
f o rm wi th i n te g ra l n u me r i c a l c c
o e f i e n ts , c
a nn o t h a v e

as a r oo t a r a ti o n al f ra c ti on i n i ts lo w e s t te ms r .

Th e r e fo r e , to nd all th e c o mmen u abl s r e r o o ts Of su ch an

e q u ati o n , we h a v e o nl y to n d all i ts i n te g ral r o ots .

A ga i n , by 7 1 9 , th e la s t te rm o f a n e q uati o n of th e a bo ve

f o rm i s di v i s i le b by e v er y i n te g ral r o ot .

H en ce ,
to n d a ll th e c o mme n s u ra b le r o o ts , w e h av e o nl y to
a s certa i n b y tr i a l whi ch i n tegra l di vi s or s o f the la s t term a r e r oo ts

of the equ a ti on .

Th e tri al may b e ma d e i n thr e e w ay s

I. By su b sti tuti on Of th e s u pp o s e d r oo t .

II . B y d i v i d i n g th e r s t me m b er of th e e qu a ti o n by th e
u nk n o wn nu mb e r mi n u s th e su pp o s e d r o o t i n thi s
c a s e, th e o p e r a ti on ma b e c o n v e n i e ntly pe r fo rme d by S yn
y
theti c D i vi s i on

III . By Newto n s M etho d of

D i v i s or s
In th e c as e of s mall nu mb e r s , su ch as j; 1 , th e r s t me th o d
may b e th e mo s t c o n v e n i e nt .

Th e s e on dc h a s th e a d v an ta ge th at, wh e n a r o ot h as b e en
c
f o un d , th e p r o e s s gi v e s at on e th e d e c p re s s ed eq u ati on 7 1 6)
b
f o r o ta i n i n g th e r e ma i n i n g r oots .

I f th e num er b of d i v i s o r s i s la rg e , th e thi r d meth o d w ill

b e fo u n d to i n v olv e th e le a st w o rk .

C o n s i d e rab le w o rk ma y me ti me s b e s av e d by n d i n g a
'

so

s up e r i o r li mi t to th e p o s i ti v e r o o ts , a n d an i n f er i o r li mit to th e
n e g ati v e r o o ts 7 39 , fo r no nu mb e r nee d b e tr i e d
whi c h d oe s n ot f all be tw ee n th e s e li mi ts .
54 6 AD V AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
Des ca t r es

R ule of S i gn s 7 3 5) may als o b e a d vanta ge o u sly
e mplo yed t o s h o r te n th e p r o c e ss .

Any multi p le r oo t s h o uld be re mo v e d 7 54 ) b ef o re a pply

ing e i th e r me th o d .

4 2
Ex . Fi n d a ll th e r o o ts o f x 15 x 10 x 24 0 .

B y D es ca r te s

R u le , th e e q u ati o n c ann ot h a ve mo re th an two
p o s i ti v e ,
n o r mo r e th a n two n e g a tiv e r oots .

We can w ri te th e r st me mb er x (x 1 5)
2 2
10 x 24 ; the n
n o r o ot c a n be as g r ea t a s 4
Ch an gi n g th e s i gn o f th e x te rm, th e rs t me mb e r b e c ome s
4 2
90 l5 x l0 x 24 .

We write th i s i n th e f o r m (se e E x 2, .

2
x x
x
2
2
( 4 5) 30 ) -24 .

3
T h en n o n e ga ti v e r o o t c a n be as s mall as 5
Th e i nte g r a l d i v i s o r s of 24 whi c h a re le s s th an 4 , an d gr e a te r

th a n 5 , a re j:1 j:2 j;, ,

3, an d 4 .

By su b s ti tuti o n , w e n d th at 1 i s n o t, a n d th at 1 i s, a ro ot

of th e e q u ati o n .

D i v i di n g th e r s t me mb e r by x 2 and x 3 we
h a ve
- 1 5 + 1 0 + 24 22 A

2 .
4 22 _ 2 4 3 9 _ 1 s _ 24
2 11 1 2, O R em . 3 6 8, O R em .

Th e w o rk S h o w s th a t 2 and 3 a r e r o o ts o f th e g i v e n e q ua ti o n ;
an d s in ce th e e qu ati o n c an n ot h ave mo r e th a n two os i ti v e p
r o o ts , th e s e are th e on l yp o s i ti v e r o o ts .

mai n i n g ma y b
"
by d i v id i n g by th

T he re r oo t e f o un d 24 e

p r o d uc t of - 1 , 2, an d 3 Or by th e sa me p o c es s a s
r

ab
6
ove .

D i v i d i n g th e r s t me m b byer x 2, x 3, e tc .
,
we h av e

1 + O 1 5 + 1 0 + 24 3
1 +O 1 5 + 1 0 + 24 | 2 |
2 4 22 64 .
3 9 1 8 84
2 1 1 32 40 3 6 2 8 60
 S O L U T ION OF H IG H E R E QU A TION S 54 7

1 + 0 1 5 + 1 0 + 24
I 4
4 16 4 24
4 1 6 O
Th e wo rk s h o ws th at th e re ma i n i n g ro ot is 4 .

7 68 . By 7 28 , a n e q u a ti o n o f th e
d e g re e i n th e ge n e r a l n th

f o r m, wi th f r a c ti o n a l c o e fc i e n ts , may b e tr a n s f o r me d i n to
a n oth e r w c c
h o s e o e f i e nts a r e i n te g ra l, th a t o f th e r s t te rm
b e i ng u nit y .

Th e co mme n s u ra b le r o o ts o f th e tr a n s fo r me d e q u a ti o n may
th e n b e f o un d as in 7 67

a ll
2
Ex . Find th e r o o ts O f 4 x
3
12 x 27 x 19 O .

D i v i d i n g th ro u g h by th
e c oef c i ent o f x
3
,
we have

27 x 19
x
3 2
3 x + O .

4 4

P ro ce e din g as in 7 2 8, i t i s e vi d e nt b y i n s p e c ti o n th a t th e
'

mu lti plie r 2 w i ll r e mo v e th e f ra ti o n a l c
c o e f c i e n ts ; thu s th e
tra n s fo rme d e q uati o n i s
27 x 19
x 2
3 2 2 3
2 3 x +2
4 4

3 2 38 = O
o r, x 6x + 27 x ;

wh o s e r o o ts a r e th o s e of th e g i v e n e q u ati o n mu lti p li e d by 2 .

By D e s c a r te s

R ule , e q u a ti o n (1 ) h a s n o n e g a ti ve r o o t .

Th e p o s i ti v e i nte g ra l d i v i s o r s of 38 a re 1 , 2, 1 9 , and 38 .

b by
l

D i v i d i n g th e r s t me m e r x 1, x 2, e tc .
,
we h a v e

1 6 + 27 1 _ e + 27
2 s 38
'

1 5 22
5 22 1 6 _4 19 o

Th e wo rk sho w s th a t 2 i s a ro o t o f

Th e re ma i n i n g r o o ts ma y n o w b e f o u nd by d e p r e s s i ng th e
e q u a ti o n ; i t i s e v i d e n t f r o m th e r i g h t-h a n d o p e ra ti o n a b o v e
th a t th e d e p r e s s e d e q u ati o n i s x
2
4 x 19 O
.

S o lvi n g th i s , x 2 j; 15 .

T h u s the r o o ts o f
()
1 are 2 a nd 2 j: 15 .
 54 8 AD V AN CE D O UR S E IN A L G E BR A

D i v id i ng by 2 ,
th e r o o ts O f th e g i v e n e q u a ti o n a r e

1 a nd 1 j: 15 .

7 69 . Newt on s Meth od
of Di v i s ors .

If a is an i n te g ra l r o ot o f the e q u a ti o n

n
+ p 1w e 0,

x - n.
whe r e p l , m , p n
a re i n te g e rs , th e n

a

+ pa ra p :
a 0 .

T ra ns
p o s i n g, a n d d i vi d in g by a,

10 71
p n -i P n - za P la a

f ro m wh i ch it is s een . th a t 8 mu s t b e
2
an i n te g e r .

We w
:
may r ite ()
1 i n th e f o rm

I n -l
+ p _1 n

n 2a 0
2 1 06 a

1
Re p r e se n ti n g
2
? by qn _1 , and d i vi d i n g by a,

Qn l _ n 2
a a
.

p p
a n 2 n 3

gn l
fr o m wh i c h i t i s s ee n th a t
a
mu s t b e an i n te g e r .

Pr oc d i ng i n
ee th i s wa y , i t i s e vi d e nt th a t, i f a is a r o o t of

+ p n 2
a
th e e qu ati o n , ea ch of th e nu m ers b a
92
+ 191
a
or 2 , mu s t b e
1
an i n te g e r, and A
(

1 mu s t e q ual 0 .

a a a

We th e n h av e th e f o llo w in g r u le

D i vi d e the la s t te r m f
o the e qu a ti o n by o ne o f i ts i ntegra l
d i vi s o rs , a nd to the qu o ti en t a dd the c o e i c i en t o fx .

D i v id e the r es u lt b y the sa me d i vi s o r , a nd , i f the q uo ti ent i s a n

i c i en t of
2
i n tege r , a dd to i t the co e x .

P r oceed i n th i s ma nn er wi th ea ch co e c i en t in s u cces s io n ;

then , if the d i vi s o r i s a ro o t o f the e qua ti o n, ea c h q u o ti e n t wi ll b e

i ntegr a l, a nd the la s t quo ti ent a d d ed to u n i ty wi ll equa l zer o .
 S O L UTION OF H IG HE R EQU A TION S 54 9

If f ra c ti o n a l qu o ti e n t i s o ta i n e d a t a n y
a b s ta g e , the cor

r e s o n d i n g d i v i s o r i s n o t a r o o t o f th e e u a ti o n
p q .

Ex . Fi n d all th e r o o ts o f x
4
x
3
7x 2
x _
t
{ 6 0 .

By De s c a r te s

R ule , th e e q u ati o n c a nn o t h av e mo r e th an two
p o s i ti v e , n o r mo r e th a n two n e g a ti ve r o o ts .

Th e i n te g ral d i v i s o r s of 6 ar e : t 2 i 3
t 1 : , , ,
an d j; 6 .

ctual u b stituti n w n d th t 1
By a s o ,
e a an d 1 a r e r o ots .

W w i ll n xt s c e t i n i f 2 i s a oot ;
e e a r a r a c on v e n i e n t a rr a n e
g
ment f th e w o k i s s h wn b e lo w :
O r o

1 1 7 +1
2 3
5 4

The o pe r ati o n is c ar ri e d o ut as f ollo ws

D i v i di n g 6 by 2 gi ,
ve s 3; ad di n g 1 , gi v e s 4 .

Div i d i n g 4 by 2 gi ,
ve s 2; a dd i n g 7 , g i v es 5 .

Div i di n g 5 by 2 ,
th e q u o ti e nt i s f r a ti on al ; th e re f or e, 2 c
is n o t a ro ot .

1 1 1 7 2
1 -
+1 +6 |
1 2 1 3 1 3
0 3 6 3 0 2 6 2

I n th e se c a se s a ch quoti en t i s i nte g al
,
e r ,
a nd th e la s t q u o ti ent
add e d to u n i ty g i e 0 ; th e e f o e 3 a n d
v s r r ,
2 a r e r o o ts .

Th e r e i s no ne e d of try i n g 6 i n th i s e xa mple , fo r we k no w that th e

e qu ati o n c a nn ot h a ve mor e th a n two p os itive ro o ts .

EXERC S E I3 | I
In e ach of th e follo wi ng , nd a ll th e comme ns urab le ro o ts , and th e
re ma i ni ng ro o ts wh e n p o s s i b le b y meth o d s alr ea d y g iv e n
1 3 9 x2 + 2 3 x 4 3 4x 2
9 x 36 -0
. x . 92 + .

2 . x3 8 x2 + 5 x + l4 =0 5 . 3 x3 + 4 x9

3 . e . 4 x3 + 1 6 x2 7 x

7 .

8 . x4 5 x3 + 2 0 x l 6 =0 .

9 . x4 1 5 x3 5
+6 x
2
5 50 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
x 4
+ 8 x + l1 3
x2 32 x

x 2
4
x3

4 x4 l 2 x3 9 x2 + 4 7 x

6 x 4 7 x3

5
x + 8 x 7 x3 2 4
1 0 3 x + 69 x + 1 8

3 x4 + 2 x3

x4 + x3 6 x2 + 1 6 x 32 =O .

R E C PR I OC AL O R R E CUR R ING E QU ATIONS

770 . A R eci p rocal E quati on i s o n e s u h th a t i f a ny c nu mb e r
is a r o o t o f t he e u a ti o n , i ts r e c i r o ca l i s a ls o a r oo t
q p .

I t f o llo w s f ro m th e a bo ve th a t, i f 1 be sub s titute d fo r x in a

x
re cip r o c a l e q u ati o n , th e tr a n s fo r m e d e q u ati n w i llo h a v e th e
sa me r oo ts a s th e gi ve n e qu a ti o n .

771 . L et
"- 1
H on e s? H o
" " 2
x + 10 1 2 + p ew aw+ 15. 0 ()
1
'

be a r e c i p r o c a l e q u a ti o n .

P u tti n g 1 fo r x, th e e q u ati o n b e c o me s
2 :
1 PI 10 2 l
I a2 p n l
+pn 0
mg
:
a

Cle a ri ng of c
f ra ti o n s , an d r e v e r s mg th e o rde r o f th e te r ms,
" " 1 2
P w II I _ x

I + 17 1 9? 1 O

a

on 1 513

pn 2
"
.

D i vi d i n g th r o u g h by p m
17 71 1 pn 2 10 2 p l 1
()
2
2
O
~

n n
x + x x x +
. .

;
.

0
1 p

By 7 7 0 , thi s e q u ati o n h a s th e sa me r o o ts a s an d hen ce

th e fo llo w i ng r e la ti o n s mu st h o ld b etw e en th e co ef c i e nts of

()
1 a n d

10 1
p n l
p n
a 17 2
P
p
n-z
a Pru2
P2
p n -l
P
E
I
) pn
17
1
:
F r o m th e la s t e qu ati on , p f 1 w h nc e
e , p ,, :
1:1 .
 S O L U T ION OF H IG H E R E QU A TION S 551

T h en the e quati

ons
()
3 b eco me

P1 : i Pn D 1 2
- 9 : i Pn x

a ll th e u pp e r S i gn s , o r a ll th e lo w e r s i gn s , b ein g ta k e n to g e th e r .

We th e n h a v e f o u r v a r i e ti e s O f r e c ip ro c al e
q u a ti o ns

1 . D e gr e e O d d , an d co
c i e n ts o f te rms e qu ally d i s tan t fr o m
ef

the e xtr e me s o f th e r s t me mb e r e q u al i n a b s o lu te v a lu e a n d o f

li k e s i gn as, x 3
2x2
;
2 . D e gr e e o dd , a n d c o ef ci e nts o f te r ms e qu ally d i s tan t fr o m
th e e xtre me s of th e r s t me mb e r e qu al i n a b s o lute va lu e a n d
o f op p o si te S i gn ; as, 3 x
5
+2 x
4 x
3
+ x
2 2x

3 . D e gre e ev en, an d c
c i e nts o f te rms e qu ally d i s tant
o ef

fr o m th e e xtr e mes o f th e r s t me mb e r e u al i n a b s o lu te v alu e

q
and Of lik e S i gn 4
5x3 2
; as, x + 6x
4 . D e gr e e c i e nts o f terms e q ually d i stan t
e v en , and c oef

f r o m th e e xtre me s o f th e r s t me mb e r e q u a l i n a b s olute
v a lue a n d o f o pp o s i te S i g n , an d mi dd le ter m w an ti ng ; a s,
2 3 + 3a
On a cc o un t o f th e p r o p e r ti e s s tate d a bo v e, re c i p c al
ro e qu a

ti o n s ar e a ls o c alle d R ecurr i ng E qu a ti on s .

772 . E v er y re ci p oc al
r e q u ati o n of th e r s t y may b e
v ar i e t

w r i tte n i n th e f o rm

w " 2
0,
+p + 10 0

po pa + 12 92 10 233

0; ()
1
2 ?
( p 2( )

1 ) + 10 1 6 )
"
o r, a a/
3 + 90 x x

6 +1)

1) 0 1)

o r, 10 0 3 10 1 90 15

th e n u m b e r of te r ms b e in g e v e n .

"
By 1 4 2, si n c e n is o dd , e ac h of th e e xp r e s s i o n s x 1,
x

2
1, e tc .
,
i s d i v i s i le b by x 1 .

T he re f o r e , 1 is a r o ot o f th e e qu ati o n .

D i v i d i n g th e r s t me m b er of 1
() by x+ l , th e d e p r e ss e d

e q u ati o n is
l 2 -3
p 0( x
n
w it
m at
N .
(13
2
x 1)
-2 " 4 3 2
)
a
p ,(
n n'
x x

x x x 90

" 5
w

+x
*
o .
552 A V D AN CE D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
-1 " 3
(

O r. t
) (P + ) w

p ea 101 9
10 at 2 pl 190

(p a (p l 0;

whi c h i s a re ci
p c l
ro
q u a ti
a n f th th
e i d i ty o o e r va r e .

7 73 . E ve r y e c i p c al e qu ati on of th e s c on d
r ro e v a r i et y may
be w r i tte n i n th e f o r m
w 0 902
+ p ew w
2
0
'

p e 12 pl po
m
u(
"
1 )+ p l(
w "- 1
7
x
) pa w -2 ?
w)
"
0
10 0 6 1) +2 2 0 0 1) 1) 0 .

S inc e ch ea of th e ex p re s s i on s x
"
1, x
" 2

1, e tc .
,
i s di vi s i
b le by x 1 ,
1 is a r o ot O f th e e qu ati o n .

D i v i d i n g th e rst me m be r of ()
1 by x 1 , th e d e p re s se d

e qu a ti o n is
2 3
p (
w o n l
+x
n
+ x
n
+ + x
2
+ x + 1)
3 2
) x +x + x

)
5 - 2
515 + 90
3
7
w I
n

93 73

, I 2 3
(P P ) (P P P ) w n it
P097
1 I + 0 fu I 2 I I I 0
' "

(P P P )
2 + I + o w ( P I + P 0) 90 + 0
10 O;
whi c h i s a re c i p c l qu a ti n o f th e thi d
ro a e o r var i e t y .

C7 7 4 . E ve r y e c ip c al e qu ati on o f th e f
r ro o u r th v ar i e t y may b e
w ri tte n i n th e f o rm

P0 6

13 1) PAW -l
50
) 10
2
)

I
O: 1
()
6 1) 1) 1)

o r, 10 0 6

th e n umb er o f te r ms b ing e n e ve

S in ce ache o f th e e xp e s s i o n x r s

1, xi
?
1, e tc .
, i s d i v i s i le b
by x 2
1 b th 1
,
o an d 1 ar e r o o ts o f th e e q u ati o n .

D i vi d in g th e r s t me mber of ()
1 by x
2
1 , th e d e p r es s e d

e q u ati o n is
n 2 n 4 n 6
+w
4
( +w
2
p o x + + 93 +x 1)
" 5 7 5 3
)
"
x x x x x

n 4 6 n -s 6
+ p 2(
4 2
w x
vi
+w x x +x
)
-3
p w o

law n P + 1 )
20 0 at

I (P2
'

1 l
"
I
_P o

0

5
w h i ch i s a r ec i p o c al e qu ati on
r o f th e th i r d v ar i et y
 S O L U TION OF H IG H E R EQU A TION S 55 3

775 . E ve r y r e c i p r o ca l e qu a ti o n of the thi r d va r i e ty ma y

nof
'

r e d u ce d to a n e qu a ti o ha lf i ts d egr ee .

L et th e e qu ati o n be

9
10 m n rt
h -1
-
+pm p w
a

+ 20 1 9? P0 0

D i vidin g thr ou gh by th e e qu ati on may b e written

x + 1
x

2 2
$

1 1

(
3
x + ,
ar +
50

2) = 3
3
y y y ,

2
3 y) (y
I n g e n e ra l,
. 1
x

an e xp r e s s i o n o f th e r th d e gr e e w i th re sp e ct to y .

Su b stitutin g th e s e v a lu e s in th e e q u a ti o n tak e s th e f o rm

m2
s
oy

as

(M 0

776 . I t f o llo w s fr o m 7 7 2 to 7 7 5 th a t an y re c ip r oc al e u a
q
ti o n of th e d e g r e e 2 m 1 , a n d a ny r e i p r o a l e q u a ti o n o f th e c c
f o ur th v a ri e ty o f th e d e gr e e 2 m 2 , c an b e Re du e d to a n c
e q u ati o n o f th e mth d e g re e .

777 . Ex . S olv e 2 2 5 5 a% 13 x + 1 3 x + 5
3 2
x 2 o
2. .

Th e e qu ati o n b e in g o f th e sec ond v ari e t y ,

o ne r o ot is 1
5 54 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
D i v i di ng by x 1 , th e d e p r e s s e d e q ua ti o n is

2x 3x3
4
16 x2
3 x 1- 2 = O;

a re ci p o c al e qu ati
r on o f th e th i r d v ari e t y .

D i vi d i n g by 03 ,
2
2 x
2
16 0 .

i 1 2
P utti n g x y, and x
2
+ 2 y 2 we h av e
x

2( 2 3y
2
y )
S o lvi n g th i s e q u a ti o n , y 4 or

T aki n g th e r st v a lu e , x +
2 4, or x
2
4 x

Wh en c e ,
x 2

1
T aki n g th e c
s e o n d v alu e ,
g
2
x + or 2 x 5x
;5
1
W h e nc e , x 2 or

1
Th e r o o ts o f th e g i v e n e qu ati o n a r e 1, 2, an d 2 j:
2
T h at 2 3 an d 2 x/3 a r e r ec i p r oc als may b e sh o wn b y multiply i ng
th e m ; th us , (2 3 1 .

EXE RC S E I3 2 I
S olve th e follo wmg
1 . 4 x3 1 2
+ 2 x + 21 x + 4 =0 3 . x 3 5 x2

4
3 2 4 x 6 x4 + 1 3 x3 1 3 x
2 . x + x 4 .

5 . 24 x 4
l0 x3 77 x2

6 . x5
+2 x4 5 x3 + 5 x2 2x l =0 .

7 . 5 x5 5 6 x4 + 1 3 1 x3
+ 1 3 1 x2

8 . 3 x5 + 4 x4 2 3 x3

9 . 6x 5
7x4 2 7 x3
+ 2 7 x2
+ 7 x 6 :O .

x6 1 9 x5 19 x4 + 19 2
10 . 10 x + 19 x

778 B i nomi al E quati ons

m
. .

A B ino i lEq u a ti o n is a n e qu a ti o n o f th e f o r m x

a a .

B i n o mi al e q u a ti o n s ar e als o reci
p r o c a l e q u ati o n s, an d, in
ce r tai n c as e s ,
may b e s olv e d by th e me tho d 7 7 7 .
 S O L UTION I
O F H G HE R E Q U A TION S 555

P uttin g x = a y, th e e q u ati o n x
"
: j; a
"
b e c om es -
j; 1

w h i ch i s a f o rm to w hi ch e ve r y bin o mi a l e q u a ti o n may b e
re du c ed .

In 4 60 , meth o d s w e re g i v e n f o r th e s o luti o n of th e b i
n o mi al e q u a ti o n s x
3
: j:1 ,
x
4
; t 1 , a nd x
6
= ; 1:1 .

Th e f o rm s x
5
: 1 ; 1 may b e s o lv e d by th e me th o d Of 777

Bi mi al e qu atio ns o f
no an y d e g r e e ma y b e s o lve d by a me th od i nvolvi ng
Tr igo n o me try .

EXERC S E IS 3 I
S o lve th e f o llo wi ng
5 :1 5
1

1 2 1 5
. x . . x . 3 . x
I
I
0
Q .

779 . Th e Cub e R oots of Uni ty .

By Ex 1 , . 4 60 , th e r o o ts o f th e e qu ati o n x
3
1 are

Th e thi rd ro o tis th e s qu a r e o f th e c
s e o nd ; f o r

2 3 1 3

Th e c
se o n d r oot is a ls o th e s qua r e o f th e th i r d
H enc e ,
i f th e se c ond roo t b e d e n o te d by w, th e th r e e cube
r o ots o f u n i t y are 1 , w, a nd

(0
3
S in ce (0 3 1 , th ey are 1 , w, an d or
to

7 80 . If th e c
se on d r o o t b e d e n o te d by a, th e thr e e r o o ts a r e

a , a m, a n d olm ; f2
o r th e s e e q u a l co ,
(0 , a n d
1 o r 1 ,
2 3
re s
p e c ti y
ve l .

I n lik e ma nn e r, i f th e th i r d r o o t b e d e n o te d by a, th e th r e e
z
r o o ts a r e a , d b ) , a n d a d .

H n c e if e i th
e , er of th e c u be r o o ts of a nu mb e r b e d e note d
by the o th e tw
a, r o r o ots a r e d o an d d e
f
.

C UB C E QU I ATIONS
7 81 . A Cub i c E quati on i s an e q u ati o n of th e thi rd degree
c o nta i n i n g b ut one un k n o wn nu mb e r .
5 56 A DV A NCE D C O URS E IN A L G E B RA
7 82 . By 7 3 2, th e c ub i c e qu ati on

90
3
:
+ 7 929 + 193 0,

w h e e p i s n ot e o may b e t an f me d i nt n oth w h o
r 1 z r ,
r s or o a er se

s e c o n d te m h ll b e w an ti n g by u b ti tuti n g y
1
12
r s a f x s s
1
or
3 .

H en c e ve y cu b i c e quati n c an b e d uc d to the fo m
e, r o re e r

ax b 0 .

7 83 . Carda n
s Meth od for th e S oluti on of Cub i cs .

L e t it b e re
q u i red to s o lv e th e e q u a ti o n x
3
ax b 0 .

P utti n g x y jg ,
th e e qu ati o n be co me s

W e may g i v e su ch a v a lu e to 2 th at 3 yz a s h all equ al zero .

Wh e nc e = _ a 1

,
2
3y
T h en ,
3
y 2
3
b 0 .
()
2

S u b s titu ti n g th e v alu e o f 2 fr o m (
1) in we h av e
f x
b 02 y 6 3 II
3

I

01

"
I by

I 7
1
2 7 19 27

T hi s i s a n e q u a ti on i n th e qu a d r ati f o rm c
S olv i n g by th e r u le s f o r q u a d r ati c s , w e h a v e

b lb 2
a
3

+ 3
2 V4

The n by = - b
3
3 3
z y
s
1 ()
4

T aki n g th e upp e S i gn s b fo e r e r th e ra d i c al s, in ()
3 an d

a n d su b sti tu ti n g i n th e e qu ati n x o y 2, w e h av e

x ()
5

Th e lower s i gn s b e for e th e r a d i c a ls gi ve th e sa me va lu e o f
M
x .

Th e o th e r two r o ot s may b e f oun d by depes r si n g th e gi ve n

e qu ati o n
 S O L UTION OF H IG H E R E QU A T ION S 557

7 84 Ex S o lve th e eq u a ti o n x
3 2 -
=
. .
+3x 6 x + 20 0
W e r s t tra n s f o rm th e e q u a ti o n i n to a n o th e r wh o s e se o n dc
te r m s h a ll be w a n ti n g .

P utti n g x y
-
g y 1 we h av e

s +
2
3 1 +3y 2 6y+3
y y y .

To s o lv e th e latte r e qu a ti o n , we su b sti tute a an d

in 7 83 .

<
7 14
3
T hu s , y
. _ 27 + v 14 27

The r e f o re , x y 1 5 .

D i v i d i n g th e r s t me m b er of th e g i v e n e qu ati o n by x + 5 ,

th e d e p re s s e d e
q u a tIO n 1 s

S olvi ng, x 1 :
t

Th u s , th e r oots o f th e gi ve n e qu a ti o n ar e 5 an d 1 iV 3 .

EXE RC S E I3 4I
S olve th e follo wmg
1 . x 3 24 x 7 2 z 0 . 6 . x3 + 6 x2
+ 27 x
3 2
2 . x 3
7 . x +9 x + 12 x
3 2
3 . 8 . x +x
4 . x 3 ~
2
12 x + 21 x 9 . x 3
2x2

5 . x3 10 . x 4
3
x2
+8 x

11 . Fi n d o n e r o o t o f x3 x 2 0 .

A c ub i c e q u a ti o n h a vi n g .
a co mme n s u r ab le ro ot is s o lve d mor e ea s ily by
th e me th o d of 7 6 7 th a n b y C a r d a n
s r ule .

b 3

7 85 . If h i s an
y o ne of th e c ub e r o o ts of

an d Is a ny o ne o f th e c ub e r oo ts o f
g th e th r e e

cu be r oo ts of th e r s t e xpre s s i on a re h, ha , an d Inf ,
an d th e
th r e e cub e r o o ts o f th e s e c on d a re It, kw, a nd h e
?
558 A DV AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
Th i s w ould pp a a r e ntl y i n di c ate th at x h a s n me di ffe r e n t
v alu e s .

by p ct
5
B ut 7 83 , yz 5 ; th at i s , th e ro d u of th e te rms

w ho se s um s i a v alu e o f x mu s t b e
a

3
H enc e th e ,
onl yp o ssi bl e v alu e s o f x a r e

2 2
71. hw + k w , an d hw + k w ;

f or i n e ac h of th e s e th e p rodu ct of th e te r ms i s hk ; th at i s,
2
b
or 9
; wh i le in any o th e r c ase th e p ro d u t i s c
4 5? 3

e i th e r w or 9 w2 .

3 3
P utti n g f o r w an d (0
2
th e i r v a lue s th e se c on d and

thi r d v alu e s o f x be c o me

an d

H en c e ,
th e th r e e v a lu e s o f x a r e

h + k, 3 an d
,

Th us i n th e e xa mple of 7 84 , h 1 a nd 7a 3 .

Th e n th e va lues o f y a re 4, 2 v 3, a nd 2 3 .

EXERC S E IS S I
S olve th e following

1 . 2 . x3 + 18 x

7 86 . Di s cus s i on of th e S oluti on .

If h an d k
th e r o ots o f x
3
+ ax + b = d ar e
h + k, an d M i

i i
v a

 S O L U TION OF H IG H E R E QU A TI ON S 55 9

1 . If a i s p o s i ti v e , or if a is n e g ati v e and nu me r i c ally

2
b
le s s th a n h an d ka r e r e a l a n d un e u a l
q
Z

.

Th e r e fo r e , one ro ot is r e a l, an d th e o th e r two p u r e i magi

n ar y or c o mple x .

3 2
1
If is n e g a ti v e , an d
37 meri c ally e qu al to h an d lo

2 a
.
nu
I
.

a r e r e a l a n d e q u al, an d h k is z e ro .

H e n c e, th e r o o ts ar e all r e a l, a n d two of th e m a r e e q ua l .

3 2

n e g ati v e , an d
gz me r i c ally g re ate r th an
a
'

3 If is
'

. a r nu

v alu e s o f h an d k in v o lv e u
p er
'

i mag i n ary nu mb e r s .

I n thi s c a s e, h mu s t h av e so me v alue of th e f o r m
wh e re h '
a nd k '
a r e r e al

T h at i s ,
h h '
m .

T hen ,
h '
m(g ,

T h e efo e h k 2 h a n d h k

' '
r r ,
ki ,
.

T hen the th e ts a e 2 h an d h j h i v re roo r

L
'
;

3 .

T h at i s 2 h n d h ,
'
a
'

T h e ef r th t a e e a l an d un e qua l
o re , e r oo s r r .

I n th e a b o ve c as e , Card a n
me th o d i s o f n o p rac ti c al va lue , for s i nce

s

th e re i s n o me th o d i n A
lge b r a fo r nd i ng th e c ub e r o o t o f a n e xp r e ss io n
i n th e fo rm o f a r ati o n a l e xp re ss i o n plus a q u a d r a ti c s u rd th e
v a lu e s of h a nd It c a n n ot b f o un d ; i n th i s c a s e , w h i c h i s
e c a lle d th e
I rre d uci b le C a s e , C ar d a n
s me th o d i s s a i d to fa i l .

It is p o s s ib le , i n c as e s wh e re C ar d an s me th o d fa ils , to nd th e r o o ts

b y T rigo n o me try (s e e b u t i n p r a c ti c e i t i s e a s i e r to nd th e m b y
7 67 , or b y H o r ne r
s me th o d a c c o rd ing a s th e e qu a ti on h as or

h as n ot a c o mme n s urab le r o ot .

78 7 . C on s i d e r th e equ ati o n x
3
dx
2
bx c 0 .

b
P u tti n g y
g e q u a ti o n me s

x , th e eco
5 60 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
3 b 0i
2
2 a
3 9 a b -- 2 7 c
4
O r, y i
a
y o .
()
1
27

T r an sf o r mi n g th e e q u ati o n i n to a n o th e r wh ose c o e fc i en ts
s h all b e i n te g r al, th at of th e rs t te r m b e i n g un ity we
ha v e -a 2
(
3 3
y + 3 3 b .

)y + 2 a

wh s o ts a e sp e cti
o e r o r re vel y 3 ti me s th os e of

T h e n i t f ll w s f om o o r 7 8 6 th at

1 . If 3 b bi
2
i s p o s i ti v e, o r i f 3 b a
2
is n e g ati v e and

4(
3 b a
2 3
) c y
n u me r i all le ss th a n ( 2a 3
9 ab 27 ), thce
2
g i v e n

c ub i c ha s o n e r e a l an d two pu re i ma gi n a r yo c r o mple x r o o ts .

b b m r i c a lly e u a l
l g
is n e g ati v e , a n d
)

2 . If 3 a e nu
q
a ll r e al, a n d two o f th e m
2
to (
2 a
3
9 d b + 27 )
c ,
th e r oots a re

3 . If 3 b bi
2
is n e g a ti v e , a n d 4(
3 b a
2 3
) n u me r i all c yg r e ate r

th e
3 2
r o o ts a re a ll r e a l a n d un e
th an (
2 a 9 ab 27 c
) , q u a l.

Cub i c E quati ons b y Tri gonometry i n Cardan

7 88 . S olut i on of s

Irreduci b le Ca s e .

To s olve the e qua ti on x

3
ax b O,
3 2

57 m pa
- C
where a i s p o s i tive, a nd , ( o re 7 8 6,

P utti n g x 2 m c o s A, th e e qu ati o n bec o me s

8m 3
c os
s
A 2 a m cos A b z o;
b
4 c os
3
A% co s A O
m
.

2 m 3

It i s p ro v e d i n T ri go n o me tr y (s e e E x . 1 6, p . 3 5, W e lls
Co m
p le te T r i g on o me try ) th at
4 cos
3
A= c os 3A+3 co s A .

W h en c e , A A
b
c os 3A+3 cos - c os

m 2
2 m 3

O r, c os 3 A cos A
b
2 m 3
 S O L U TION OF H IG HE R EQU A TION S 5 61

We may tak e m so th at 3
a
0 ; th e n m
m;
,

T he n (1 ) b ec o me s cos 3A
b
2 m 3

b stituti n g i n thi s th e m fr o m
'

Su v a lu e o f

c os 3 A
2 a
3

2 3 2
b b 27
S in ce by h yp o the si s <
(1
we h av e x < 1
Z I Ei
, , , .

27

T akin g th e s qu a re r o o t o f b o th me mb e r s o f th e i n e quali ty,

5
1 .

T h en ; th e v a lu e of 3 A in ()
3 i s p o s sible , sin e c i ts c os in e
is 1 .

L e t z b e th e le a s t p o s i ti v e an gle wh o s c e o s i n e e qu als

Th e n , o n e valu e o f 3 A is z .
2 a
Two o th e r v a lu e s ar e 2 '

71 +z an d 2 7r z ; f o r th e c o si n e s o f
th e s e a n gle s a r e e q u a l to th e c o sin e o f z.

Then ,
3A z z, or 2 7r :
t z;

an d x= 2 m c os A = 2 c os
5,
or 2

wh e re z i s gi v e n by th e e q u ati o n cos z

An e q ua ti o n th e th i r d d e gr e e c a n n o t h av e mo re th a n
of

th r e e d iffe r en t r o ots ; s o th a t th e s e ar e th e o nl v alu e s o f x y .

7 89 . Ex. S olv e th e e q u ati o n

x
3 4 x 2 = O .

a = 4,

(30 8 2 :
B y lo g a ri thm s, lo g cos z l
(o g 2 7 lo g
 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A

lo g 64

lo g c os

v a lu e s o f x a r e :

cos 16

( 1

1 2

cos 0 + 6 cos 1 36

s in

46

( 16

cos 1 2 0 c os 1 03

8 1 11 13

3 2
(
log 1 6 lo g 3) ()
1

lo g ()
2

cos 16 10 .

lo g ()

si n 46 10 . 3

()
4

lo g sin 13 10 .

an d 4
() to th e lo ga ri th ms of th e ab s o

lute v a lu e s o f x ar e

an d 10 .

Th e nu mb er s co r re s
p o n d i n g to th e s e ar e

an d . 5 393 .

x or . 53 93 .
 S O L U T ION O F HI G HE R EQU A TION S 5 63

If th e g ive n e q u a ti o n h a d b e e n x3 4 x 2 0 , we s h o uld h a ve h a d
3
2
a 4, b 2; a nd c os 2 wo uld h ave b ee n
3<
( 1

If co s 2
J 64
, c os (
7r z ) c os 2
2

64
7
.

We s h o uld th e n h ave fo u n d 1r z 49
a nd z 1 30

Th e th re e v a lu es o f x wo uld th e n h a ve b e e n

1
;

c os 43
and c os (1 20

i 43

We sh o uld h ave f o un d x or . 539 3 .

In a n y c as e wh e re a a nd b
p o s i ti ve , 2 i s a c u te , a nd th e e qu a ti o n
are

h as o n e p os i ti ve a n d two n e g a ti ve r o o ts ; i f a i s p os iti ve a n d n eg ati ve , b

2 is o b tuse , a n d th e e q u ati o n h as t wo p os i ti ve a n d o n e n e gati ve r oo t .

EXE RC S E l3 6 I
S o lve th e fo llo wmg

1 . x 4 x
3 3 . x3 6
+ x2 -x

2 . {12 8 6 23 47 3 2 0 . 4 . x3 3 x2

BIQUADR ATIC E QU ATIONS

7 90 . A B i quadrati c E quati on i s a n e qu ati on of th e f o ur th

d egr ee, c o ntai n in g b ut o n e un k n o wn nu mb e r .

E uler

s Meth od for th e S oluti on of B i qua drati cs .

B y 7 3 2, e ver y b i qu a d ra ti c e q u a ti o n c a n be r e du c ed to th e
form
()
1
?
x
4
on bx c 0 .

L et x u + y + z ; th e n ,

2
x

S qu ar i n g b o th me mb e r s , we h a v e
-zu 2
(
2 2 2 2
)
4 2
x 2x u +y + 2
) ( u I
2
y% (u
2 2
4 2 12
) 8 a gz y

Su b sti tutin g x f or u y z, a n d tra n s p o s i ng ,

*
x 8 u yzx

i' 2
(
2 2 2 Q Z
31 4 u y 3 1 2 z u
) O.
5 64 A D V ANC ED C O UR S E m A L G E B R A
T hi s e q uati on w i ll b e i d e nti c a l w i th () p
1 r o vi d e d

a =

b 8 u
y z,

c ( u
2
z
? 2
) 4 (y
u
2 2
37
2 2
2
z
z u
z
) .

g 71
5
2 2 2
u y 2 ,
an d

?
a

<
2 2 2 2 2 _0 1
+y )
1 11
u
Als o, u
2
y + y
2
2 +
2 2
2 u
2 2 z i

I f, n o w, we f or m the c ub i c e q uati on
2 2 2
( (
'
2 ? 2 2 2 z z 2 2
t3
U y
2
z
) t u y y z z u
) t u y z O,

th e v a lu e s o f t w i ll b e u
2
,
an d 2
2

H en ce , i f th e r o o ts o f th e cu bic e q u ati o n

2 2
3 2 a 4 6 b
t + t + ,
2 64

b e l, m, an d 7 L, we sh all h av e

m /l

t u
, and

Now x : u y+2; a nd s i n c e ea h c of th e n um be rs u, y
,
an d

2 h as two v a lu e s , a
pp ar e n tl y it ha s ei
gh t v a lu e s .

B ut by th e p ro d u c t of th e th r e e te r ms wh o s e su m is a

v alu e o f x mu s t b e 9
He nc e ,
th e o nl y v a lu e s o f x a r e , wh en b i s p o s i ti ve,

x/i x/i \f l

W m an d

an d whe n b i s n ega ti ve ,

l m /iii x/i x/m

a nd

E qu ati o n ()
3 i s c alled the a uxili a ry c ub i c o f

Ex S o lv e th e 4
46 x 24 21 0
2

791 . . e q u a ti o n x x .

He re, a = - 4 6, b =
= 24 ,
 S O L UTION OF H IG HE R E QU A TIO NS 565

2
1 2

3
1
W he n c e
a 0

T 1 27 , a nd 9

6 1
2

Th en th e a u xili a r y cu bi c is t 3
23 t 2
1 27 t 9 0 .

B y th e m e th o d of 7 67 , o n e v a lu e O f t is 9 .

D i v i d i n g th e r s t me m b er by t 9, th e d e p r e s s e d e qu ati on
2
iS t
S o lv i n g , 1 7 i 4 \/8 .

P ro c e e di ng as in 3 9 2 , we h a v e

T h en s in c e b is n e g ati v e , th e f o u r v alu e s o f x a re

V 3, 3 2

an d 3 2

T h at i s, 7, 1, an d

EXERC S E I3 7 I
S olve th e follo wmg
4
1 . x

2 . x4

3 . x4

4 . x4 5 4 x2 2 1 6 x 24 3 z o .

5 . x4 2 2 x2

6 . x4 +4 x3 4 x2 3 7 x

7 92 . Di s cus s i on of th e S oluti on .

Th e a uxi li a r y cu bi c of x
4
ax
2
bx c 0 is
2 2
4 b
3
a c
3
t + 8 t 7 90 . 1
16 64

S i n c e th e la st te r m i s e s s e n ti a ll y n e g a ti ve , th e e q u ati on

mu s t h av e e i th e r th r e e p o s i ti v e , o n e p o s i ti v e a n d two ne ga

ti v e , o r o ne p o s i ti v e a n d tw o p u r e i m a g i n a r o r o mp le x y c r o o ts

Tr a n s f or mi n g th e e qu a ti o n i n to a n oth e r wh ose c o ef c i ents

s h a ll b e i nte g r a l, th at of th e r s t te r m be i ng unit y 7 we
h av e 3 2 2 b =
2
t +2 at + (a 4 c
) t 0, ()
2

wh o se r o ots ar e r e s p e c ti v e ly 4 ti me s th o s e of
5 66 AD V AN C E D C O U R S E IN A L G E B R A
D en o ti ng 2 a, a 4 c, a n d
2
b 2
by a
'
, b

,
an d c
'
,
re s p e c ti ve l , y
it i s c
n e e s s ar y bf ,
e or e we c an d e te rmi n e th e natu re o f th e r o o ts

Of to c mput
o e th e v alu e s of 3b '
a

a nd 2 a
'g
9 a
' '
b +
'
27 c

-Now, 3b ' 4 c
) -4 a 2

an d 2 a
'3
9 a
'
b + 27 c
'
= 16 a
3
18 a(
a
2
4 c
) - 27 b 2

(
3
2 a 72 ac

T hen i t f ollo ws f ro m 7 8 7 th at
1 . If a
2
+ 1 2 c i s n e g ati v e , o r i f a + i 2 c i s o s i ti v e
z
p an d 4 ( a
2
+
le s s th an ( 2a 3
72 ac 2 7 b ) , th e a u xili ar
2 2
y c ub i c has
one p o s i ti v e a n d two p ur e i ma g i n ar y or c omplex r oots .

If l = p , V m = q + rV -1
,
and x/h = q th e
r oo ts o f th e b
i q u a d ra ti a r e c
10 1 2 1] an d p i 2 r\ / 1 , or p i 2q and 1
,

acc o di ng a s b i p os i ti
r n g a ti e
s ve or e v .

T h at i s th e b i quad ati c h a s two eal

,
r r an d two pu re i magi
n a y O c o mpl x oo ts
r r e r .

2 If . 12 i s p o si ti e an d 4 (
a
2
c v , a
2
1 2 c) 3
is e qu al to
c ub i c h as tw o
3 2 2
(2 2 h r oo ts e qu al
a
7 b ) t ace ,
.

If n x/m th e ts o f th e b i qu a d
,
roo r ati ca re

h, l, a nd l, or an d

acc o d in g as b i s p s i ti o n e gati e
r o ve r v .

T ha t i s th e b i qua d ati c h as two ots e qual

,
r ro .

+ 1 2 c s p os i ti e a n d 4 ( + l 2 ) g e ate th an
2 2 s
3 If . a i v a a r r

(
2 a
s
7 2 2 7 th
ace c u b i c h a s e i th e th e e p o i ti r r s v e, or

on e p o s i ti v e a n d two n e g a ti ve r o o ts .

In th e r s t c a se , th e ro o ts o f th e b i qu a d r ati c ar e all r e al

i n th e Se c o nd c as e, th e y a re a ll pu re i ma g i n ar y or c o mple x .

2
a
4 . If a

+ 12 c =0 an d 2 a
3 7 2 a c + 2 7 b 2 = 0 , th e n c
12
Su b s tit uti n g f ro m th e thi r d e qu a ti o n i n th e c
s e on d ,

2
1

9
or a wh e n c e, a
2 4 c =
3
 S O L U TION OF H IG H E R E QU A TION S 5 67

I n th i s ca se ,
th e au xili ar y c ub i c b e c ome s
2
3 3
__b i t b
t 3
bi t ?
_0 or
4 16 64
i
and e a ch o f i ts r oo ts is e qu al to 9
i i i
5
3
; 9 3
Th e r oo ts o f th e b i qu a d ra ti c are , and ,
5
m _
1 1
3
b
b
2
,
2
an d ; c
a c or d in g as b is p o s i ti ve or

n e g ati v e ; th at i s , th e b i qu a d r ati c h a s th r e e r oo ts e qu al .

5 . If a
2
4 c 0 and b 0 , th e b i quad r at i c b e c omes
2
x
4
ax
2 g 0, or

and i ts r oo ts ar e i

T h at i s ,
th e b i quad r a ti c h as two p ai rs of e qu al r oots .

INCOMME N SUR ABL E R OOTS

7 93 W e w ill n ow s h o w h o w t n d th e app o xi mate
. o r nu

me i c l rlue s f th se
a va o ts o f a n e q u a ti o n w h i c h a e
o o ro r n ot

c mmen su a ble 7 67 )
o r

7 94 . Hom er Meth od of App roxi mati on

s .

L et it b e r e q ui r e d to n d th e a pp r o xi ma te v alue O f th e r oo t

be twe en 3 an d 4 of th e e q u ati o n

We r s t tr an s fo rm th e e qu ati o n I nto a n oth e r w h ose r o ots

s h all be r es p e cti vely th o s e of th e st d i mi n i sh ed r by 3 7

1 _2 +5
L
51
2
3 ,
3 0 6

0 _2 1
3
0 9
0
0 7
0
0
3
0
5 68 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
Th e tr an s fo r me d e q u a ti o n is y 3
6v i
7 y 1 0 .
()
1
We k no w th at e qu ti n o t b tw
a o n O an d 1
()
1 h a s a r o e ee

m
.
,

I f th e n w e n e g l c t th t ms i n l i n g g
, ,
e f a n d f ew e er
a y vo v
'
i ,

O b tai n an ap p xi m t ro a lu e f y by s l i n g th e
a e v q u a ti n o o v e o

7 y+ 1 0 ; th u s pp x imate ly y : 1 an d x
,
a ro ,
.

T an sfo mi n g (1 ) i nto an quati n wh se

r r ts s h all b e e o o roo

re s p e c ti ve ly th o e f (1 ) d i mi ni s h e d by 1 w e h a e
s O ,
v

1 +6 +7
. 1 . 61 2 7 61
. 23 9
. 1 . 62

. 1 ~

Th e tra n s fo rme d e qu a ti o n is

2
3
2
2
z . 23 9 0 .

Neglec tin g th e 2
3
an d 2
2
te r ms , we h a v e , a pp r o xi mately,
239
02
.

. .

Th u s , th e v a lu e o f x to two p la e s o f d e i ma ls i s c c
Tr an s fo r mi n g ()
2 i nto a n e q u a ti o n h o s e r o o ts w ,
s h all be
re s p e c ti vely th o s e of 2
() d i mi n i sh e d by 0 2 .
,
w e h av e

1 + 63 + 8 23 23 9
. 02 . 1 264 1 6 7 1 28
0 7 1 87 2
. 02 . 1 2 68

. 02

Th e tr an s fo r me d e q u a ti o n is
s 2
u u u . 0 7 1 87 2 0 .

D i v id ing 0 7 1 8 7 2
. by we h av e 0 0 8 . s u gg e s te d as th e
fo u rth g u r e of th e r o ot .
 S O L U TION O F H IG H E R E QU A TION S 5 69

T hu s
,
th e to t h r e e p lac e s o f d e c i mals i s
v a lu e o f x

c
Th e p r o e s s m ay b e c on ti n u e d u n ti l th e v a lue o f th e r o ot

b
h a s e e n f o u n d to any d e s i r e d d e g re e o f p re c i s i o n .

Th e w o rk is u s u all y a rr a n g e d i n th e f o llo wi n g f o rm, th e

c oef c i e n ts Of th e c
s u c e s s i ve tra n sf o rme d e q ua ti o n s b ei n g
d e no te d by e tc ; .

1 3 _2 +5
3 0 6

0 2 1
() _ 1
3 9
3 ()
1 7 ()
2
3 61

()
1 6 ()
3
1 . 62

()
2
. 1 . 1 2 64

. 1 . 1 268
()
2 ()
3
. 02

. 02

. 02
3
()
We d e r i v e f r o m th e a b ove th e f llo win g ule f
o r or n din g th e
a pp r o xi mate v alu e O f a p siti v i n ommen s u ble
o e c ra r oo t

b y S tur m s T h eo rem

F ind b y or 7 4 2, or the

i n tegra l p a r t of the r oo t .
(C o mp a re

Tr a n sf o r m the gi ven equ a ti o n i nto a n o ther who s e r oo ts s ha ll b e

r esp ec ti ve ly tho se of the fi r s t d i mi ni s hed b y thi s i n tegr a l p a r t .

D i vid e the a b s o lu te va lu e o f he tr a n sf o r me d
the la s t ter m
f t o

e qua ti on b y the a b s o lu te va lu e of the co ei c i ent of the fi rs t p ower

of the unkn o wn n umb er , a n d wr i te the ap p r oxi ma te v a lue of the

res u lt a s the n ext figu r e f

o the r o ot .
570 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L G E B R A
Tra n sf o r m the las t e qu a ti o n i n to a n o th er who s e r o o ts s ha ll be
r esp ecti ve ly tho s e o f the rs t
d i mi n i s hed b y the g ur e of the r o ot
la s t o b ta i n ed , a n d d i vid e as
b ef o re f or the n ext g ur e of the root ;
a n d so o n .

In p ra c ti c e , th e w ork may b e c o n tr ac te d b y d r o p p i ng s u ch d e c ima l

gu r e s fro m th e r i gh t o f e ac h c o lu mn a s a r e n o t n ee d e d f o r th e r e qu i r e d

d e g re e o f a cc ur a cy .

In d e te r mi n i n g th e i n te g ra l p a rt of th e r o o t, i t will b e fo un d c o n ve n i e n t

to co nstru c t th e gr a p h Of th e rs t me mb e r of th e g i v e n e qu a ti o n .

7 95 . TO n d th e a p p r o xi mate v a lue o f a n ega ti v e i n c o mme n

s u r a b le r o o t, tr an s f o r m th e e q u ati o n i n to a n o th e r whi ch s h all

h a v e th e sa me r o o ts w i th c o n tr a ry s i gns 7 and n d th e
co rre s
p o n d i n g p o s i ti ve i n c o mme n s u r a le b r o ot o f th e tr a n s fo r md e

e q u a ti o n .

Th e r e s u lt w i th i ts S ign ch an ged w i ll b e the r e q u i r e d n e ga ti v e

r oo t .

7 96 . I n n d i n g any p a r ti c ular r o o t- gure by th e me th o d O f

7 9 4 , we ar e li a le , b e s p e c i a ll y i n th e r s t p a rt O f th e p r o c e s s ,
to ge t to o g r e at a r e s u lt ; th e sa me thi n g cc i n ally
o as o happ e n s
w h e n e xtra c ti n g s qu a r e o r c u be ro o ts f n u mb e s
o r .

Su h c a n e rr o r may b e d i s c ov e r e d by O b i n g ths erv e si gn s o f

th e la s t two te r ms of th e n e xt tr a n s fo rme d e q u a ti o n ,
for sin ec
e ac h r o o t g u r e O b ta i n e d as 7 9 4 mu s t b e p o s i ti ve, th e las t
in
two te r m s of th e tr a n s f o r me d e q u ati o n mu st b e o f opp o s i te s i gn .

If th i s i s n ot th e c as e , g u r e mu s t b e d i mi n i sh e d
th e la s t r o ot ~

u n til a r e s u lt i s o b ta i n e d w h i c h sa ti s e s thi s c o n d i ti o n .

L et it b e re
q u i re d , for e xa mp le , to n d th e ro ot b etw e en 0
3 2
an d 1 of th e e q u ati o n x +4 x -9 x

th e x te r m th e i n d e p e n d e n t te rm
2
C h a n g i n g th e s i gn s O f an d

w e h a v e to n d th e ro ot b e t we e n 0 and 1 of th e e qu a

x +5=0
3 2
ti on x 4 9 x

D iv i di ng 5 by 9 ,
we h av e 5 . s u gge s te d a s th e r s t r o ot- g u re ;
b ut it w ill b e f o un d th a t i n thi s c a se th e la s t tw o te r ms Of th e
r s t tr an s f o r me d e q u a ti o n a r e an d . 37 5 .
 S O L U TION OF H IG H E R E QU A TION S 571

Th i s sho ws th 5 i s to o g re at ; we th e n try 4 , a n d nd th a t
at .
.

th e la s t two te r ms o f th e r s t tr a n s fo rme d e ua ti on a r e o f
q
o pp o s i te s i g n .

Th e w o rk i
(f n d i n g th e r s t th r e e r oo t- g ur e s i s sh o wn
bel w o

9 5
. 4

()
1 . 8 24
. 4 . 7 1 30 64

()
1 ()
2 1 1 09 3 6
. 4 . 1 644

()
1
. 06 . 1 60 8

()
2
. 06

. 06

()
2
Th e re
q ui r e d r o o t is 4 69 , to th re e p la c e s of c
d e i mals .

797 . In case to o s ma ll a num b er i s tak e n f o r th e r o o t- g ure ,

th e nu mb e r s u g g e s te d f o r th e n e xt r o o t- g ur e w i ll b e g e a te r
r

th a n 09 . .

L et it b e r e qu i r e d , f or e xa mp le , to n d th e r o ot b etw ee n 0
an d 1 of th e e q u ati o n

D i v i di n g 1 by 3 , we h a v e . 3 s u g g e s te d as th e rs t r o ot

gur e 1 2 3
.

. 3 51

. 3

. 3

Th e b
n u m e r s u g g e ste d by th e d i v i s i o n i s g re a te r
n e xt

1; sh o w in g th at to o s m a ll a r o o t- u r e h a s
g e e nbta k e n .
57 2 AD V AN C E D C O URSE IN A L GE BR A
7 98 . I f th e c
oe f ci e nt o f th e r s t p o we r Of th e unk n o wn
nu m e r b in a ny tr a n s fo r me d e qu ati o n is z e ro , th e n e xt gur e
of th e ot may b e Ob tai n e d by d i vi d i ng the a b s o lute va lu e of
ro

the la s t term b y the a b s o lu te va lue of the co ei c i eht of the s qua re

of the unkn own n u mb er, a n d ta ki ng the s qu a r e r o o t of the re s u lt .

F o r i f th e tran s fo r me d e qu a ti on is y 3
ay
2
b 0, it i s e vi

d e n t th a t, ap p rox i mate ly , ay
2
b 0, or y

We p ro e ed c in a si mb e r
milar mann e r i f an y nu o f c o n socu

ti v e te r ms i mme d i ate ly p r e c e d i n g th e la s t te r m a r e z e ro .

H o rn e r
s me th o d may b e us e d to nd a ny r o o t o f a numb e r app roxi
ma tely ; fo r to nd th e nth r o ot o f a i s th e s a me th i ng as to s olve th e
e qu a ti o n x" a 0 .

7 99 If a n e q u a ti o n mo re r o ots wh i c h h a v e th e
h a s two or

sa m e I n te g r a l p a r t,
th e r s t d e c i ma l r o o t-g u r e O f e a c h m u s t
b e O b ta i n e d by th e me th o d o f 7 4 1 o r 7 4 2, o r by S turm s

T h e or e m .

I f two o r mo re r o o ts h a v e th e s a me i n te gra l p ar t, a n d a ls o
th e s a em r s t d e c i m a l r o o t-gu r e , th e s e c on d d e c i mal ro o t
gur e of e a c h mu s t b e O btai ne d by th e metho d o f 7 4 1 or
7 4 2, o r by S turm s T h e o re m ; a n d s o o n

.

H om er
s me th od may b e us e d to d e te r mi n e s u c c ess i ve gures i n th e
i nteg r a l, as we ll a s i n th e d ec imal, p o rtio n of the r o ot .

If all b ut on e o f th e ro o ts o f a n e q u a ti o n a r e k n o wn , th e re mainin g
r o ot may b e fou nd b y c h a ngi ng th e s ig n -o f th e c oe fci e nt o f th e se co n d

term of th e gi ve n e qu ati o n , a n d s ub tr a c ti ng th e s u m of th e k no wn ro ots

fr om th e r es ult

EXERC S E I3 S I
Fi nd th e roo t b etwe e n

1 . 1 and 2, o f x3 9 x2 + 23 x
2 . f
4 and 5 , o x3 4 x2

3 . O and l , of x

3
+8 x2 9 x

4 .
2 an d 3 , O f x3 3 x2

5 . 3 and 4, oi x3 6 x2 + 15 x

6 O an d 1, of 4 3 2 2 -x
. x + x + x
 S O L U TION OF H IG HE R E QU A TION S 57 3

7 . 2 a nd 3 ,
oi x4 3x + 4x
3

8 .
1 and 2
, o f x4 2 x 3 x2
3
+ x 2 =O .

Fi n d a ll th e re a l r oo ts o f th e fo llo wi ng

9 . x3 + 2 x2 -x 13 . x3 x2 + 2 x

10 . x 2x 7 x 1
2 3 =O . 14 . x3 x2 1 5 x + 28 0 ,

3
11 . x 15 . x4

12 . x4 + 2 x3
5 =O . 16 . x4

Fi nd th e a pp roxi ma te value s o f th e follo wi ng

18 . 3 21 .

80 0 . W e may n ow
g i ve g en e r al d i re ti o n s f o r c n d i ng th e
r e a l r o o ts o f a n e
y q u a ti o n o f th e f o r m
" n -l
:

w + pix + 10 4 9 0.
w i th i nte g r al n u me ri c a l c oe fc i e nts
1 . D e te r mi n e by D e s c a r te s

R u le 7 3 5) li mi ts to the nu mb e r
of p o s i ti v e a n d n e g a ti v e r oo ts .

2 . F i nd a s u p e r i or li mi t to th e p o s i ti v e r o o ts , a n d an i nfe
r i or li mi t to th e n e g a ti v e r o o ts 7 3 9, 7
3 . D i v i d e th e r s t me m b e by r x 1, x 2, x 1, x 2,
e tc .
,
as ex p lai n ed in 7 67
I n th i s w ay a ll th e o mme n s u r a le r o o ts , i f a n y , ill b e
. c b w
by
f oun d , a n d p o s s i l a ll th e i n c o mme n su r a le r o ots may b e b
lo c ate d .

4 . If th e i n c ommen su abl ots a n t all loc te d ap ply

r e ro re o a ,

S tur m
s Th eo re m ; b s e i n g th at i f th e t m mb
o rv n d i ts ,
rs e er a

r s t d e r i v ati v e a v e c o h or,
a o mm n f a c t th e g i e n e quati o n h v as

mu lti p le r o ots 7
5 App r o xi mate to th e d e c i mal p o rti on s
. of th e i n c o mme n
s u r a b le r o o ts by H o r n e r s me th o d

.

80 1 . Newt on s
Meth od of Ap p roxi ma ti on .

F i n d two c o n s e c uti v e n u mb e r s a an d b, on e g r e a te r a n d th e
o th e r le s s th a n a r oo t o f th e e q u a ti o n 7 4 1) an d su pp ose a

to b e n e ar er th e r o ot th a n b .

L et a y b e t h e a c tu a l v a lu e of th e r o o t, and su
,
b sti tute in
th e g i v e n e qu ati o n a y f o r x .
574 AD V AN CE D C O U RS E IN A L GE B R A
Then , y
i s s ma ll ; an d n e gl e ti n g th e ter ms i n v o by
lv i n g y,y, c 2 3

e tc . p
a n a p r o x i m a te v alu e o f y i s O ta i n e d , w hi h , h e n a dd e d to b c w
a , g i v e s a , a r s t a p p r o xi ma ti o n to th e v a lu e o f x
'
.

Su b sti tu te i n th gi n e qu ati on z f x e ve . a
'
or .

T h n by n gle ctin g th e te ms in o l in g
e e t we O b ta i n r v v
2
2 , 2
3
,
e c .
,

an a p p o xi ma t w h i h wh e n adde d to a gi e s a
r a lu e f e v o 2 c , , v

s e c o n d a pp x i mati n t th e
ro a lu of x o o v e .

Th e p o c s m y b e c n ti n ue d until th e o ot i s f oun d to a ny
r e s a o r

d i ed d eg e
es r f p e ci s i on
r e O r .

1 F i n d th e
. o t b e tw e e n 2 a n d 3r a nd n ea
o 2 o f the ,
r ,

e q u ati o n 3
x 2x 5 0 .

P utti n g x y 2, we h a v e
3 2
or y + 6 2 + 10 3

Th e n , ap p r o x u n a te ly , 10 y 1 0, or y . 1 .

Th u s , is a rs t a pp r o xi ma ti on to th e v a lu e O f x .

P u tti n g i n th e g i v e n e qu ati o n x z w e h a ve
3 2
2 2 2 . 0 61 0 .

T h e n a pp ,
r o xi ma tely, 2 . 0 61 0, and 2

T hu s ,
is a se on d a c pp r o xi ma ti o n to th e v a lue o f x .

Th e a p p r ox i mate va lue s o f y, 2 , e tc .
, s h o uld b e ob ta in e d to o ne s i g ni
ca nt g ure .

2 . F i n d th e r o ot b etwe e n 5 an d 6, an d n e a r 6, of th e
e qu ati o n 3 2
x 4 25 x 81 0 .

P utti n g x = y 6 , w e h a ve y3
1 9 y + 95 y 2
21 = 0 .

Th e n , a pp r o xi mate ly, 9 5 y 21 0, a nd y
Th u s , 6 . 2, or is a r st a pp r o xi mati on to th e v a lu e

of x .

P uttin g i n th e gi v e n e qu ati o n x z we h a ve
3 2
2 2 2 0 .

Th e n , ap p r o xi mate ly , 8 7 5 2 z . 52 0, an d 2 . O3 + .

T hu s , or is a c
s e on d a pp r o xi mati on to
th e v alue of x.
 S O L U TION OF H IG HE R E QU A TION S 575

I
EXERC S E IS S

I . Fi nd th e ro o t b e twe en 1 an d 2, a n d n ear 1, of

x3 3 x2

2 . Fi nd th e r o o t b e twe e n 0 a nd 1, a nd n ea r 1, of

x + 3
2 x2 -x 1 :O .

3 . Fi dth
n e ro o t b e tween 2 a nd 3, a n d n e ar

x3 3 x2

4 . Fi nd th e r oo t b e twe e n 2 and 3, a n d n e ar

2 5 x
x3 + 2 x

5 . Fi nd th e r oo t b e twe en 3 an d 4, a nd n e a r 4, of

6 + 9 x 3 = Q
6 . Fi n d th e ro o t b e twee n 5 a nd 6, a n d n e ar

x
3 2 x2
 A PPE NDIX 57 7

A PP E ND IX

CAUCH S PROOF THAT EVERY '

Y EQUATION HAS A ROOT

802 . We wi ll rst p rove th at, i f n is a p os i ti ve i nte ge r , e ach of th e

e qu ati o n s
x :
l:1 , a n d x"
:
t 73

ha s a ro ot of th e f or m a b i , wh e re a a nd b are r eal nu mb ers , e i th er o f

wh i ch may b e z e ro .

I . x
1 .

It i s e vi d e nt th a t1 is a r oo t o f th i s e q u ati o n .

II . x " 1 , wh e r e n is o dd .

It i s e vi d e n t th at 1 is a ro ot o f thi s e qu ati o n .

III x" 1 , wh e r e is
. n eve n .

L et n 2 m, wh e r e m is p o s i ti ve i n te g er ; th en , x
a
27

E xtrac tin g th e s qua r e r o o t o f e ach me mb e r , m m

; i j .

Th e latte r fo rms ar e i n clud e d i n th e fo ur f ollowi ng cases .

IV . x" zi , wh e r e n is od d .

If m is a i i
p o s t ve i n t ge , i
e r 4 m+ 1
i h en ce , if n is o f th e fo rm
4 m 1 , i is a r o o t o f th e e qu atio n .

Ag a in . W M , i 4r +3
i) 4 1 1) i ; h e nce , if n i s of th e
form 4 m 3, i is a r oo t o f th e e qua ti o n .

V . x" i , wh er e n i s eve n .

L et n 2 419 , wh e r e p is an o d d i nte ge r ; th en , xq i .

q
a c c or d i ng as p is of
2
L et x y th e n y? i, b y IV , y
and , i or i
th e fo r m 4 m 1 or 4 m 3
+ ; th a t i s , x2q
= i or i .

Th e v alue of 2 :m ay be Ob ta i ne d fr o m th is e qua ti o n by q s u c c e ss i ve

e xtr a c ti o n s of th e s qu are r o ot ; an d s i nc e i t h as b ee n p r o ve d th at th e
s qu a r e ro o t o f a b i , wh e re a and b a re re al, c a n b e e xp r e ss e d i n th e

fo rm a bi i t f o llo ws th at x ca n b e e xp re s s e d i n th e form a bi .

VI . x
i , wh e r e n is od d .

By 411, i) 4m+ 1 z i 4m+1 i ; h e n c e , if n is of th e fo rm 4 m+ 1 ,

i is a r o ot o f th e e q u ati o n .

Ag a in ,

i 4m+ 3
i h ence , if n is o f th e fo r m 4 m 3 , i is a ro ot .
578 AD V AN C E D C O UR S E IN A L GE B R A
V II . x i , wh e re n is e ve n .

As in V , x ma y b e Ob ta i n e d i n th e f o r m a bi .

803 . We will n o w c o n s id e r th e g e ne ra l c as e .

To p r ove th a t th e g e n e ra l e q uati o n Of th e n th d e gre e

-2
p ew
" n-
96 pix
l
+ p n 1 w rs 0

h as a r o ot o f th e fo rm a b i , wh e re a an d b a re r e a l n u mb e rs .

S ub s ti tuti n g a b i f or x i n we h ave
n 1
(
a b i ) + p 1 (a

b i) b i) pn 0 .

E xp an d in g b y th e B
in omi al Th e o re m, a n d _ c o lle c ti ng th e r ea l a n d

i magi n a ry te r ms , we s h a ll h a ve a r e s u lt o f th e fo rm

U + V2 2 0, ()
2

wh e r e U a nd V a r e r e al n u mb e rs .

W e wi ll n o w p r ove th at s uc h r eal value s ma y b e fo un d for a an d b as

will mak e U : 0 a n d V : 0 .

We ma y b e fo un d f o r
'

wi ll rst p r o ve th a t s u c h r e a l values a a nd b as

w ill ma k e U2 V 2
0 .

As a an d b c h a ng e i n v alu e , U a nd V a ls o c h a n ge ; an d if U 2 V 2

c an n o t b ec o me z ero for a n y v a lu e s o f a a n d b , it mu st h ave so me p o s i ti ve

r e al min i mum va lu e .

L et a and [i b e th e valu e s o f a and b, r e s p ec ti ve ly , fo r wh i ch U 2 V 2

h as th i s mi ni mu m v alu e .

L et P + Qi b e th e va lu e o f th e r s t me mb e r o f (1 ) wh e n a Bi i s
2 i s th e mi n i mu m
s ub s ti tute d fo r x th e n P 2 Q v a lu e o f U 2
V 2

W riting a 18 72 h i n p la c e of x in (l ) , we h ave

(a Bi h) "
+pi (a Bi i o
n 1
pi n e a :m+ n . 0 .

E xp a n d i n g b y th e Bi no mi al Th e o r e m, an d a rr a ngi ng th e r es ult in
as c e n d i ng p o we rs o f h ,

( a p1 ( a 60 7
+ p n - i (a 153i ) p .

h [ n (a Bi )
n1
+ p 1 (n me so
n -2
+5 .- n
(te rms i nv o lv i n 2 3
g h , h , h "
) 0 .
()
3

Th e rs t lin e of () s
3 i e q u al to P Qi .

T he c o e fc i e nts of so me of th e p o we r s o f It may b e z e ro ; b u t th ey

c oe fc i e n t o f
c a n n o t a ll b e z e r o , s inc e " is
th e h u n i ty .

L et m
h b e th e lo wes t p o we r o f h wh o s e c o e fc i e n t is n o t z ero an d
;
d e n o te i ts
c o ef c i e nt by R S i , wh e r e R and S ar e n o t b o th z ero .

Th e n (3 ) b ec o me s P Qi _
+ (R S i) hm

r ms i nvolvi n mth )
(te g p o wers of h h igh e r th an th e 0 .
 APPE NDIX 57 9

L e t thi s b e d e n o te d b y P Qi 0 .
(4 )
No w le t h 2 ct, wh e re c is a p os iti ve r eal n u mb e r , and t a r o o t of th e
e qu a ti o n tm 1 or tm 1 .

By 8 0 2 , t is i n e i th e r c as e a nu mb e r o f th e fo r m a bi .

' m
Qi
'
Th e n , P P Qi + (R S )c
i

W h e nc e P
P :
t R am

= 1:
Q Q: m
'
and Sa

Q j 2 (P R m

2
Q
'2 2 2
Th er efore , P P ; Q )
S c

Th at is , P '2
+Q
'2 P2

(te rms i nvo lvi ng p o we rs of 6 high e r th an th e mth ) .

(5 )
If P R QS i s n o t z e ro , 6 ma y b e tak e n s o s ma ll th a t th e s ign of th e
s eco n d me mb e r wi ll b e the s ame a s tha t o f i 2 ( PR Q S )cm .

H en ce , i f P R Q S i s p o s i ti ve ,
th e S i g n o f P Q P 2
Q2 ma y b e 2 '2

mad e n e g a ti ve b y tak ing tm 1 a n d i f P R + QS i s n ega tive , th e s ign

/

of P '2
Q
'2
P 2
Q
2
m a y b e m a d e n e g a ti ve b y ta k i n g tm 1 .

2
c h oos i ng c an d t, b e

Th us , i n e i th er c as e , b y p r op erly
P Q 2 c an ,

mad e less th a n P 2 Q
2
.

I f PR + QS = 0 ,
le t tmz
i i i n

By 80 2 , t i s i n e i th er c as e a nu mb er o f th e form a bi .

m
S i )i c +
Th e n , P Q P + Q (R

i z i +
P S) m
+ Qi
i (R i o +

Wh enc e ,
P

P ? S cm

m
an d Q Qi R
'
c +

FS) m
2
Q
2
i 2 (QR
2 2
Th e ref ore , I Q P + c

Th at i s , P '2
+ Q
'2 P2
Q = + 2 (
2
QR

No w, (P R 2 2R 2
QS
Q 2
QR
2 2 2
P S 2

QS ) + (QR PS) 2
P

9 >(18
2 2
(1 3
+ +

An d s i nce , b y h y p oth e s is , P 2 + 2 is n o t z e ro , a n d R and S a re n o t

Q
b oth 0 , i t fo llo ws th a t (P R QS )
2
(QR PS 2
) is n o t z e ro .

a nd P S is
B ut P R QS 0, hence QR n o t z e ro .

2
Th e r e fo re , i f c b e ta k e n mall th e s ign o f P + Q
s ufc i e n tly s Q ,
'2
P 2 2

wi ll b e th e sa me as th e S ig n o f + 2 (QR P S ) cm a nd we c a n e n sure th a t
m i wh e n P S is p os i tive ,
h a i
thi s S ign s all b e n e g t ve b y ta k i n g t QR
a n d tm = i wh e n QR P S i s n e ga tive .
5 80 ADV AN CE D O
C U R S E IN A L GE B R A
Th u s , b y p r op erly c h o os in g h , ma y b e mad e le ss th an P + Q2 3

th a t i s , a v a lu e O f U 2 V 2 ma y b e Ob ta i n e d wh i c h i s le s s tha n P 2 Q
2

a nd th e la tte r i s n o t a mi ni mum va lu e o f U3 V 2
.

He n c e , no p os i ti ve r e a l n umb e r c a n b e a mi ni mu m value o f U 2
V ?

a n d th e r e fo r e va lu es o f a a n d b c anb e fou nd wh i c h wi ll mak e U 2 + V 2 =O

If U + V2 = 0 , U2 2
V 2, a nd U z i Vi .

T h e n , b y 4 l 8 , U : O a nd V : 0 . s

H e n c e , s u c h r e a l values may b e foun d for a a nd b as willmak e U = 0

a nd V : 0 .

We will n o w p ro ve th at th e valu es o f a and b whi ch mak e U 2 + V 2 0

are ni te .

Th e rs t me mb e r of ()
1 may b e wri tte n

96 x x"

Putti ng a b i i n p la c e o f 23, we h ave

V a : (a + b i ) n
M
U 1 6
y,
C o n s id e r th e te rm
bi
prS ? _
r
I) ; a pr
'

( bZ )
.
T
a
2 "
(a b i )r [ (a b i ) (a (a
2
b )
r _ra .
l
l iy M a
2 2
b
r
+
L 2

Ar B ri , sa y .

?
(a L
2
2
_
_g
)
2

{( ) ( )
a r
r r a r
b
+
p 2 2 2 z 2
[
3
a +b 2 ,
a +b a +b
r (r 1)

L 2

b2
No w if a a nd b a re i n d e ni te ly in c rea s e d I n a b s o lu te value , a a nd
2 a
(

2 b a re in d e n i tely i n cr e a se d I n ab s o lu te v alue . fo r
a
an d
7)
h ave th e

sa m e s ig n s a s a a nd b, r e s p e c ti ve ly .

He n c e , i f a a nd b a re i n d e n itely i n c rease d i n ab s o lute value , A, is

i n d e n ite ly d i mi nis h e d i n ab s o lu te va lue a s a lso is R T .

T h us ()
6 may b e wr itte n
U + Vi (a A
H i] , (7 )
wh e r e A '
an d i n d e n i te ly d i mi n i s h e d i n ab s olute value wh e n a a nd
'
B are

b a re i n d e n i te ly i n c re a s e d i n a b s olute va lue .
 A PPE NDIX 58 1

If a bi b e s ub s ti tute d fo r x i n we s h all h ave a r esult wh i ch may

be ob ta i n e d f ro m b
() y
7 si mp ly c h a ng in g th e s i gns o f th e te r ms i nvo lv
i ng 1 ? thus ,
U Vi (a A '
H i] .
(8 )
M ultip ly i ng (7 ) a nd U 2
V 2
(a
2
B
2
] .
(9 )
Th e s e co n d me mb e r o f (9 ) i nc r eas es i nd e ni te ly wh e n a and b ar e in
z " i n cr eases i nd e n itely ,
d e n ite ly i n cr e as e d i n a b s o lute va lue , for ( a
2
b )
th e li mi t 1
2
a nd (1 A) ' 2
B app r o a c h e s .

H en c e , U2 V2 c a nn o t b e z e ro wh en a an d b, o r e i th e r o f th e m, ar e

i n d e n ite ly i n c r e as e d i n a b s o lute valu e , a n d th e refo r e th e valu es o f a an d

b whi ch mak e U 2 V 2 0 ar e n ite .

804 . Th e d e mo ns trati on of 80 3 h old s wh eth e r th e co efc ie nts o f th e

terms i n e qu ati o n
()
1 a r e r e a l, i mag i na r y , o r co mp lex .

It follo ws fr o m th e ab o ve th at V 1 77 , wh e r e n is a ny e ve n i nte ger a nd a

a mb e r , a nd i7 a
p os i ti ve r eal n u b i , wh e r e n i s any p o s itive i n te ge r a nd
a a n d b a ny r e al n umb e rs , c a n b e e xp r esse d i n th e fo r m c d i , wh ere
c a nd d a re r e al n umb e r s .

Th a t i s , an y eve n r o ot o f a n e ga ti ve r eal numb e r , o r an y r o o t o f a

p ure i ma g i n a ry o r c o mp le x nu mb e r , c an be e xp re ss e d a s a p ure i magi nary

o r c o mp lex n umb er (C o mp ar e
. 4 20 , 4 2 4 , and