COLD WORKING 
 
 
OBJECTIVE: 
To study the effect of cold working on the hardness and micro-
structure of low-carbon ( mild ) steel.

Work hardening, also known as strain hardening, is the strengthening

of a metal by plastic deformation. This strengthening occurs
because of dislocation movements within the crystal structure of the
material. Any material with a reasonably high melting point such as
metals and alloys can be strengthened in this fashion

Alloys not amenable to heat treatment, including low-carbon steel,

are often work-hardened

Cold working is the process of plastic straining below the

recrystallisation (recrystallization is the formation of a new set of
grains that are strain free; in addition, the material becomes softer
and more ductile) temperature in the plastic region of the stress-
strain diagram

By cold working, it is meant the forming of the metal while at a low

temperature (usually room temperature). In contrast to parts
produced by hot working, cold-worked parts have a bright new
finish, are more accurate, and require less machining. Cold-finished
bars and shafts are produced by rolling, drawing, turning, grinding,
and polishing. Of these methods, by far the largest percentage of
products is made by the cold-rolling and cold-drawing processes.

ROLLING:
In metalworking, rolling is a metal forming process in which metal
stock is passed through a pair of rolls.

Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the metal rolled.

If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization

temperature, then the process is termed as hot rolling.

If the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization

temperature, the process is termed as cold rolling.

In terms of usage, hot rolling processes more tonnage than any

other manufacturing process and cold rolling processes the most
tonnage out of all cold working processes

APPARATUS USED: 
a) Rolling Mill

b) Digital Venier Calliper

c) Bench Vice

d) Hacksaw

e) Specimen

 
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 
a) We used a specimen of low-carbon (mild) steel for the cold
working experiment.

b) The mild steel specimen was passed through the rolling

machine for the different reduction in thickness of the specimen.

c) Using the rolling mill, the thickness of specimen was reduced by

10%.

d) Rolling continued for 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 60% and the new
thickness was observed and recorded.

e) Using the hacksaw, we cut the annealed test specimen where

the micrometer read the expected diameter the most and the
resulting test pieces were marked in terms of percentage respect to
the original diameter as 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60.

f) The Hardness values of the different test specimen were

measured. The sample marked 0% was not cold worked and
consequently, it was taken as the control of the experiment. Several
readings were taken and the closest values were averaged for the
hardness value of each specimen.
% REDUCTION % REDUCTION THICKNESS HARDNESS
NOMINAL ACTUAL AFTER
ROLLING (RB)
(inch)

0 - - 28.795

10 10 7.2 29.625

20 19.4 6.4 34.205

30 30 5.6 36.55

40 40.5 4.8 -

50 50 4.0 41.16

60 60 3.2 -

Table 2: % Reduction and Average Hardness Values

 45

40

35

30

H
a
r 25
d
n
e
20
s
s

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 50

% Cold Work

Graph of Hardness against % Cold Work.

% REDUCTION % REDUCTION THICKNESS AFTER
NOMINAL ACTUAL ROLLING (inch)

0 - -

10 10 7.2

20 19.4 6.4

30 30 5.6

40 40.5 4.8

50 50 4.0

60 60 3.2

TABLE 1: Results of cold working process on the test specimen

 
 
PRECAUTIONS: 
1. The specimen was handled with the help of a well insulated

glove. The test specimen could get very hot as a result of

friction between the rolling mills.

2. We tightened the bench vice before cutting samples so as to

avoid injury during the cutting

DISCUSSION: 
Generally it is known that cold-worked metal is found out to be
harder than ordinary untreated sample.

Hardness tests can help a design engineer to approximate the

maximum stress that can be applied to a machine member by
relating the hardness value to the ultimate tensile stress.

QUESTIONS:

1. What is the effect of Cold-working on the Hardness of

annealed brass?

Answer:
The elastic limit increases, while its tensile strength and elongation at
fracture.
Also the improved elasticity of the material causes lattice distortions.

2. What is the effect of cold-working on the microstructure of

annealed brass?

Answer:

There is an increase in the number of dislocation densities

present between grain boundaries, with an equal increase in
interstitials and vacancies.

CONCLUSION 
It has been noted that there is a relative increase in the hardness of
a material after it has been cold worked.

It is advantageous to cold work a material. It gives the ability of that

material to strain harden.

Hardness helps in determining how hard or strong a material is.

Knowledge of which can be greatly applied to material selection
processes
NAME: ODUWOLE MOSOPE OLUGBOYEGA

COURSE NUMBER : MME 307/ MME 309

COURSE TITLE : MATERIALS LABORATORY (2)/

SCIENCE OF MATERIALS LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT TITLES :

1. HARDNESS TESTING
2. COLD WORKING
3. METALLOGRAPHY
4. PHASE DIAGRAMS

GROUP NO: GROUP 2.

MANUAL NO: NO 20.

DEPARTMENT : METTALURGY AND MATERIALS DEPARTMENT.

DATE TO BE SUBMITTED :

26th OF March 2010

 HARDNESS TESTING 

Objective:

1. To fully understand the meaning of the word “HARDNESS” as related

to Metallurgy
2. To obtain the mechanical property data for the bulk material from a
small sample.
3. To understand the relationship between the hardness value of a
material and the properties of such material
4. To recognize standard engineering hardness tests and scales.

EQUIPMENT USED

1. ROCKWELL STANDARD HARDNESS TESTING MACHINE

2. ROCKWELL CALLIBRATION TEST BLOCKS
3. HARDNESS TEST SPECIMENS ( 0.3% MILD-STEEL)
Hardness can be defined as resistance of metal to plastic
deformation, usually by indentation. However, the term may also
refer to stiffness or temper, or to resistance to scratching, abrasion, or
cutting. It is the property of a metal, which gives it the ability to resist
being permanently, deformed (bent, broken, or have its shape
changed), when a load is applied. The greater the hardness of the
metal, the greater resistance it has to deformation.

In mineralogy the property of matter commonly described as the

resistance of a substance to being scratched by another substance.
In metallurgy hardness is defined as the ability of a material to resist
plastic deformation.

HARDNESS MEASUREMENT METHODS

There are three types of tests used with accuracy by the metals
industry; they are,

1. the Brinell hardness test,

2. the Rockwell hardness test, and
3. the Vickers hardness test.

Since the definitions of metallurgic ultimate strength and hardness

are rather similar, it can generally be assumed that a strong metal is
also a hard metal. The way the three of these hardness tests
measure a metal's hardness is to determine the metal's resistance to
the penetration of a non-deformable ball or cone. The tests
determine the depth which such a ball or cone will sink into the
metal, under a given load, within a specific period of time. The
followings are the most common hardness test methods used in
today`s technology:

1. Rockwell hardness test

2. Brinell hardness

3. Vickers

4. Knoop hardness

5. Shore

We might be restricted to just the first 2 (i.e. the Rockwell and brinell
hardness tests) in the course of our discussion and experiment in the
laboratory.

Rockwell Hardness Test

The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement based on the

net increase in depth of impression as a load is applied. Hardness
numbers have no units and are commonly given in the R, L, M, E and
K scales. The higher the number in each of the scales means the
harder the material.

The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test

material with a diamond cone or hardened steel ball indenter.

The indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary

minor load F0 (Fig. 1A) usually 10 kgf. When equilibrium has been
reached, an indicating device, which follows the movements of the
indenter and so responds to changes in depth of penetration of the
indenter is set to a datum position.

While the preliminary minor load is still applied an additional major

load is applied with resulting increase in penetration (Fig. 1B). When
equilib
brium hass again been
b reacched, thee additioonal majoor load is
remov ved but th
he prelim aintained. Removal
minary minor load is still ma
nal major load allo
of the addition ows a pa overy, so reducing
artial reco g
the deepth of peenetratio on (Fig. 1C
C). The permane
p nt increa
ase in deppth
of pennetration,, resulting
g from thee applicaation and d removaal of the
additio
onal majo or load iss used to calculatte the Ro ockwell hardness
numbe er.

H =E-e
HR
F0 = preliminaryy minor lo
oad in kgf
F1 = additionnal majorr load in kgf
F = total load in
n kgf
e = permane ent incre
ease in de epth of penetratio
p on due too major
load F1 measurred in uniits of 0.0002 mm
E = a constaant depe ending on n form of indenterr: 100 units for
diamo ond inden nter, 130 units for steel
s ball indente
er
HR = Rockwell hardn ness numb ber
D = dia
ameter ofo steel ba all

Fig. 1.Rockwe
1 ell Test.
The Rockwell hardness tester to measure the hardness of metal
measures resistance to penetration like the Brinell test, but in the
Rockwell case, the depth of the impression is measured rather than
the diametric area.

With the Rockwell tester, the hardness is indicated directly on the

scale attached to the machine. This dial like scale is really a depth
The Rockwell hardness test is the most used and versatile of the
hardness tests.

For soft materials such as copper alloys, soft steel, and aluminum
alloys a 1/16" diameter steel ball is used with a 100-kilogram load
and the hardness is read on the "B" scale.

In testing harder materials, hard cast iron and many steel alloys,
a 120 degrees diamond cone is used with up to a 150 kilogram load
and the hardness is read on the "C" scale.

The Rockwell test uses two loads, one applied directly after the
other. The first load, known as the "minor", load of 10 kilograms is
applied to the specimen to help seat the indenter and remove the
effects, in the test, of any surface irregularities. In essence, the minor
load creates a uniformly shaped surface for the major load to be
applied to.

The difference in the depth of the indentation between the

minor and major loads provides the Rockwell hardness number.

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST:

In Brinell tests, as in Rockwell measurements, a hard, spherical

indenter is forced into the surface of the metal to be tested. The
diameter of the hardened steel (or Tungsten carbide) indenter is
10.00 mm (0.394 in.). Standard loads range between500 and 3000 kg
in 500-kg increments; during a test, the load is maintained constant
for a specified time (between 10 and 30 s).

Harder materials require greater applied loads. The Brinell

hardness number, HB, is a function of both the magnitude of the
load and the diameter of the resulting indentation. This diameter is
measured with a special low-power microscope, utilizing a scale that
is etched on the eyepiece.

The measured diameter is then converted to the appropriate HB

number using a chart; only one scale is employed with this
technique. Semiautomatic techniques for measuring Brinell hardness
are available. These employ optical scanning systems consisting of a
digital camera mounted on a flexible probe, which allows
positioning of the camera over the indentation.

Data from the camera are transferred to a computer that

analyzes the indentation, determines its size, and then calculates the
Brinell hardness number. For this technique, surface finish
requirements are normally more stringent that for manual
measurements.

Maximum specimen thickness as well as indentation position (relative

to specimen edges) and minimum indentation spacing requirements
are the same as for Rockwell tests. In addition, a well-defined
indentation is required; this necessitates a smooth flat surface in
which the indentation is made.
 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE  
1. The machine was switched on and then allowed for a few minutes
before starting the test. This was done in order to get the maximum
efficiency for the test results.
2. The machine was then re-calibrated using the standard test piece
supplied by the manufacturers.
3. It was found that the machine had an error of +0.085, and this was
used as the standard error for all experimental value.
4. The specimen was then placed on the anvil of the machine and
the indenter was placed on it.

5. Thereafter, pushing the enter/start button to commence the test

operation.

6. The position of the testpiece was varied to get a result for a

homogeneous test specimen
7. The closest of the results were averaged for the reading of the
hardness value.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS. 
Table of Readings from results.

1st 2nd 3rd 4th Average

reading reading reading reading reading
Control 30.00 29.02 27.11 28.40 28.795
sample

10% 22.61 7.19 29.48 29.60 29.625

reduction

20% 34.22 33.61 35.11 34.02 34.205

reduction

30% 35.24 37.12 36.92 36.01 36.55

reduction

50% 41.02 40.64 39.92 41.13 41.16

reduction

 
PRECAUTIONS: 
a) We made sure to vary the point of indentation for every
repetition of the hardness test on the low-carbon steel specimen to
avoid erroneous results of the hardness value.

b) At the end of the experiment, we made sure to power off the

Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine in other to avoid any sort of
electrical hazard or accidental operation.

DISCUSSION:
To the machinist, knowledge of hardness helps to predict how easily

it would be to machine a particular material and how to select his

machining tools based on their hardness.

Also, the knowledge of the hardness can be used in material

selection.

OBSERVATION:

Looking at the table of values, it was noticed that the hardness value
of the specimen increased as the thickness was reduced.
METALLOGRAPHY

OBJECTIVE:

The objective of metallography is to show and explain the steps

taken for the preparation of a material, before it is optically viewed
under the lenses of a microscope.

APPARATUS:
1. Vice
2. Hacksaw
3. File
4. Grinding and Polishing Machine
5. Emery Papers (Grade 400 & 600)
6. Coolant Water
7. Microscope- Optical Microscope (Mag. X100)
8. Polishing Powder.
THEORY:

Metallography is the study of the physical structure and

components of metals, typically using microscopy.
Before the material specimen is viewed under the microscope, it
must be prepared. The surface of a metallographic specimen is
prepared by various methods of grinding, polishing, and etching.
After preparation, it is often analyzed using optical or electron
microscopy. Using only metallographic techniques, one can
identify alloys and predict material properties. Metallographic
techniques are divided into five stages, all with their different steps.
They are:
 1. Sectioning
2. Mounting
3. Grinding
4. Polishing
5. Etching.

SECTIONING

Sectioning, being the first of the metallographic operations, is

used to cut and prepare the sample to be viewed. It involves cutting
the sample into a standard and convenient size, filling the surface for
easier grinding.

Sectioning is an important aspect of the metallographic

procedures in that if the process is not performed carefully and
suitably, it might end up defeating the aim for which it was set up.

This is due to the fact that during sectioning, there lies the
probability of altering or changing the microstructures present in
the sample. This alteration takes place as a result of the amount of
heat generated during sectioning, heat that is generated as a
result of the friction between the test piece and the hacksaw
movement.

Mounting

Mounting is done for materials with averagely small cross-

sectional area, that pose a threat to safety of the laboratory
technician when grinding.

Mounting a specimen provides a safe, standardized, and

ergonomic way by which to hold a sample during the grinding and
polishing operation
GRINDING:

Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding

wheel as the cutting tool.

After mounting, the specimen is wet ground to reveal the

surface of the metal. The specimen is successively ground with finer
and finer abrasive media. Silicon carbide abrasive paper was the
first method of grinding and is still used today.

Grinding uses a rotating abrasive wheel to smooth the flat

surface of metallic or nonmetallic materials to give them a more
refined look or to attain a desired surface for a functional purpose.
It is imperative that after the grinding process, the test material
is washed in water to remove remnant ground particles, before the
polishing process is started, to avoid smearing on the test material
after polishing.

POLISHING                                                                     

Polishing is a finishing process for smoothing a workpiece's

surface using an abrasive and a work wheel. Technically polishing
refers to processes that use an abrasive that is glued to the work
wheel.

In metallography and metallurgy, polishing is used to create a

flat, defect-free surface for examination of a metal's microstructure
under a microscope. Silicon-based polishing pads or a diamond
solution can be used in the polishing process.

Polishing is usually a multistage process. The first stage starts with

a rough abrasive and each subsequent stage uses a finer abrasive
until the desired finish is achieved. The rough pass removes surface
defects like pits, nicks, lines and scratches. The finer abrasives leave
very thin lines that are not visible to the naked eye. Lubricants like
wax and kerosene are used as lubricating and cooling media during
these operations.

ETCHING: 

In industry, etching, also known as chemical milling, is the

process of using acids, bases or other chemicals to dissolve
unwanted materials such as metals, semiconductor materials or
glass.

This process has been used on a wide variety of metals with

depths of metal removal as large as 12mm (0.5 in). Selective attack
by the chemical reagent on different areas of the workpiece
surfaces is controlled by removable layers of material called masking
or by partial immersion in the reagent.

A great many etchants have been developed to reveal the

structure of metals and alloys, ceramics, carbides, nitrides, and so
forth. While a number of etchants may work for a given metal or
alloy, they generally produce different results, in that some etchants
may reveal the general structure, while others may be selective to
certain phases or constituents.
 Some examples of etchants are listed below, followed with
the kind of material they can be used for:

For aluminium

• sodium hydroxide

For steels

• hydrochloric and nitric acids

• ferric chloride for stainless steels

• Nital (a mixture of nitric acid and ethanol, methanol, or

methylated spirits for mild steels.)

2% Nital is common etchant for plain carbon steels.

For copper

• ferric chloride

• ammonium persulfate

• ammonia

• 25-50 % nitric acid.

MICROSCOPY: 

The properties and application of both ferrous and non-ferrous

metals are to a large extent dependent by their microstructures
which can be varied with fairly wide limits by different manufacturing
processes and special thermal treatments.
 Micrography reveals the different phases or the chemical
composition present in a particular specimen.

Due to color differentiation of phases in the specimen, viewing

the material under the microscope, we can determine the phases
present and thus predict both physical and mechanical properties
of the material.

Light optical microscopy (LOM) examination should always be

performed prior to any electron metallographic (EM) technique, as
these are more time-consuming to perform and the instruments are
much more expensive.

Further, certain features can be best observed with the LOM,

e.g., the natural color of a constituent can be seen with the LOM but
not with EM systems. Also, image contrast of microstructures at
relatively low magnifications, e.g., <500X, is far better with the LOM
than with the scanning electron microscope (SEM), while
transmission electron microscopes (TEM) generally cannot be utilized
at magnifications below about 2000 to 3000X.

LOM examination is fast and can cover a large area. Thus, the
analysis can determine if the more expensive, more time-consuming
examination techniques using the SEM or the TEM are required and
where on the specimen the work should be concentrated.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES:
The samples that have undergone heat treatment in the previous
examples where sectioned.

We placed the material on the bench vice, tightened and

fastened it and then cut the material using the Hacksaw. With the
material still fastened to the bench vice, the material was then filed
until we achieved a near smooth surface.

These procedure was repeated for all four samples, i.e. the
control sample, annealed sample, quenched sample and the
normalized sample.

Mounting was neglected during the laboratory process because

the material was of sufficient cross sectional area to be held without
posing any threat or harm to us.

The four specimens were then taken to the Grinding/Polishing

material for grinding and then polishing.

During grinding, the emery paper we first used for the grinding
process was the 400-Grade emery paper. When the grinding
machine was switched on, the sample was carefully placed on the
rotating emery paper, which had been mounted on the rotating
wheel.

As the grinding proceeded, the material specimen was flooded

with the coolant (which in this case is water), to reduce heat
produced as a result of friction, and to prevent the heat from
altering the microstructure of the specimen.

After grinding was finished, the specimen was rinsed in water to

remove any remnant of the grinding process on the surface of the
specimen.

After the first 400-Grade emery paper had been used to grind the
specimen to an appreciable level, we switched the 400-grade for a
finer grade – 600-Grade emery paper.

The same procedure we applied for the 400-grade was also

applied to the 600-grade.
 After grinding had been finished we then replaced the grinding
plate with the polishing plate.

Before the material was placed on the polishing plate, an

abrasive, aluminium oxide powder, was first applied to the surface of
the material, to achieve the most mirror-like surface possible.

After application of the powder, the specimen was then put on

the surface of the rotating polishing plate, and flooded with water
for the same purpose as it was done in the grinding process.

The next process is the Etching, which is just immersion of the test
sample into an Etchant solution and swabbing it inside it.

The etchant solution we used in the laboratory experiment was Nital

(solution of nitric acid in methanol). This is done in order to reveal the
phases present in the microstructure after polishing the material.

After all the above process have then been done, it would all be
meaningless without the final and the most important stage-
Microscopy, viewing the polished and etched sample under the
microscope.

Thus we took the specimen under the optical microscope and

viewed, with a magnification of (X100), and the resulting
microstructures were photographed and are shown on the next
page.

Precautions Taken:

1. During grinding, the specimen was flooded with water to

reduce heat due to friction
2. We removed both the grinding/polishing wheels when not in
use

3. After polishing, the specimen was rinsed to remove any

remnants of grounded materials on its surface.

ANNEALING 
This is a heat treatment technique used to recover cold work and
relax stresses within a metal. Annealing typically results in a soft,
ductile metal. It is also regarded as the only softening heat treatment
process as all others generally are used to harden the material.

Softening is done to reduce strength or hardness, remove residual

stresses, improve toughnesss, restore ductility, refine grain size or
change the electromagnetic properties of the steel.

A term denoting a treatment, consisting of heating to and holding at

a suitable temperature, followed by cooling at a suitable rate,
Annealing is used primarily to soften, but also to simultaneously
produce desired changes in other properties or in microstructure. The
purpose of such changes might be:

1. Improvement of machinability;

2. Facilitation of cold working;

3. Improvement of mechanical or electrical properties;

4. Increase in stability of dimensions.

When applicable, the following more specific process names should

be used:
• Black Annealing,

• Blue Annealing,

• Box Annealing,

• Bright Annealing,

• Cycle Annealing,

• Flame Annealing,

• Full Annealing,

• Graphitizing, Intermediate Annealing,

• Isothermal Annealing,

• Process Annealing,

• Quench Annealing, and

• Spheroidizing.

When the term is used without qualification, full annealing is implied.

When applied only for the relief of stress, the process is properly
called stress relieving.

Full annealing is the process of slowly raising the temperature

about 50 ºC (122 ºF) above the Austenitic temperature line A3 or line
ACM in the case of Hypoeutectoid steels (steels with < 0.77%
Carbon) and 50 ºC (122 ºF) into the Austenite-Cementite region in
the case of Hypereutectoid steels (steels with > 0.77% Carbon).

It is held at this temperature for a sufficient time for all the

material to transform into Austenite or Austenite-Cementite as the
case may be. It is then slowly cooled at the rate of about 20 ºC/hr
(60 ºF/hr) in a furnace to about 50 ºC (122 ºF) into the Ferrite-
Cementite range. At this point, it can be cooled in room
temperature air with natural convection.

The grain structure has coarse Pearlite with ferrite or

Cementite (depending on whether hypo or hyper eutectoid). The
steel becomes soft and ductile. We anneal cold worked metal to
soften it and to reestablish its ductility. The full anneal of steel for the
machining of a gear blank, the steel is first austenized; then furnace
cooled. The temperature for the austenized varies according to
carbon content. Furnace cooled produces very coarse pearlite.

The process anneal usually carried out for small cross

section products. As practical matter, this annealing process is
limited to low carbon sub-eutectic steel. If higher annealing
temperature were used, austenite would form and cooling would be
rapid enough to form a brittle martensite due to very large surface
to volume ratio of products like wires and sheers.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 
EQUIPMENT USED:

1. ELECTRIC FURNACE

2. THONGS

3. 0.2% CARBON STEEL

4. STAINLESS STEEL CUP/BOWL

5. WATER, OIL, BRINE SOLUTION.

PROCEDURE:

During Heat treatment in the laboratory, the following

process where undertaken;

We switched on the furnace and let the temperature rise to about

the room temperature.

When the temperature had gotten to the room temperature, we

then put in the sample into the furnace, with the use of the tongs,
and the continued the heating by increasing the temperature of the
furnace, at a rate of 30°C/ minute.

The temperature of the furnace had been pre-programmed to

reach a maximum of 850°C (since the steel belonged to the class of
HYPO-EUTECTOID STEEL).

When the furnace reached the maximum temperature given,

we held the samples inside the furnace for about 20 minutes, after
which we then removed the heat by switching off the furnace from
its external switch.

The test sample was left in the furnace for full annealing to occur.

Precautions taken:
1. Thongs were used to put into the furnace.
2. When removing the specimen from the furnace, it was closed
quickly to avoid excessive loss of heat to the environment.
PHASE DIAGRAMS
One reason that a knowledge and understanding of phase

diagrams is important to the engineer relates to the design and

control of heat-treating procedures; some properties of materials are

functions of their microstructures, and, consequently, of their thermal

histories

Even though most phase diagrams represent stable (or

equilibrium) states and microstructures, they are nevertheless useful

in understanding the development and preservation of

nonequilibrium structures and their attendant properties; it is often

the case that these properties are more desirable than those

associated with the equilibrium state.

Phase diagram of an alloy system is a graphical presentation of

the relationships between the phases compositions and their relative

amounts at any given temperature and under equilibrium

conditions.

A phase may be defined as a homogeneous portion of a system

that has uniform physical and chemical characteristics

Phase diagrams are used for quantitative description of the phase

transformation and changes.
Phase diagrams are used for quantitative description of the phase
transformation and changes.

The phase in an alloy are not necessarily uniformly distributed

throughout the structure. There are certain ways in which these
phases may be associated to form the structure. The association of
phases in a recognizably distinct fashion may be referred to as a
structural constituent of the alloy

The study of the interrelation of phases in an alloy system at

different temperatures and for different alloy compositions is of
importance to understand the characteristics of alloys.

An equilibrium diagram may be defined as a plot of the

composition of phases as a function of temperature in an alloy
system under equilibrium equations

Phase diagrams may be unary or one component phase diagram

(phase diagram for pure substances), and Binary Phase diagrams,
(phase diagrams for alloys, more than one component

For the purpose of this experiment, we’ll limit ourselves to that of

the Fe-C (Iron- Carbon), Binary phase diagram.

IRON‐CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM 
Iron-carbon phase diagram describes the iron-carbon system of
alloys containing up to 6.67% of carbon, discloses the phases
compositions and their transformations occurring with the alloys
during their cooling or heating. Carbon content 6.67% corresponds
to the fixed composition of the iron carbide Fe3C.
The iron-carbon phase diagram shows the temperatures and
compositions at which the different constituents are austenite, ferrite,
and cementite (iron carbide, Fe3C).
The following phases are involved in the transformation, occurring
with iron-carbon alloys:

1. L - Liquid solution of carbon in iron;

2. δ-ferrite – Solid solution of carbon in iron.

Maximum concentration of carbon in δ-ferrite is 0.09% at 2719 ºF

(1493ºC) – temperature of the peritectic transformation.

The crystal structure of δ-ferrite is BCC (cubic body centered).

3. Austenite – interstitial solid solution of carbon in γ-iron.

Austenite has FCC (cubic face centered) crystal structure, permitting

high solubility of carbon – up to 2.06% at 2097 ºF (1147 ºC).

Austenite does not exist below 1333 ºF (723ºC) and maximum carbon
concentration at this temperature is 0.83%.

α-ferrite – solid solution of carbon in α-iron.

α-ferrite has BCC crystal structure and low solubility of carbon – up to

0.25% at 1333 ºF (723ºC).

α-ferrite exists at room temperature.

4. Cementite – iron carbide, intermetallic compound, having

fixed composition Fe3C.

Cementite is a hard and brittle substance, influencing on the

properties of steels and cast irons.
Bainite

Bainite is a constituent which forms from austenite in a tempertures

range below 530 oC and above Ms . Bainite forms together with
pearlite in steel which are cooled somewhat too fast to form a
complete pearlite structure. Bainite is like pearlite a mixture of ferrite
and iron carbide but in a different form. The bainite structure varies
from a featherlike pattern to pattern of lens shaped particles
depending on the temperature range of formation. (Featherlike
constituent in upper temperature range and lens like in the lower
temperature range). Bainite is harder, stronger and tougher than
ferrite-pearlite structures at lower temperatures.

Martensite

Martensite is the hardest structure formed from austenite. It is a

distorted BCC (tetrogonal) it is a body centred tetrogonal structure.
The distortion is caused by trapped carbon atoms which have not
been able to nucleate into cementite

Some features of martensite are listed below

* The crystal structure is a stressed structure which is resistance to

dislocation movement it is therefore strong and relatively brittle.

* There are various types of martensite depending on the carbon

content:

for C <0,2% the martensite is in the form of well defined thin strips
(laths),
 for C <= 0,6% plates of martensite are formed ,

for C < = 1,2% the martensite is in the form of arrays of well

defined plates

* The martensite phase initiates at a temperature Ms and is

complete at a temperature Mf.

The following phase transformations occur with iron-carbon alloys:

Alloys, containing up to 0.51% of carbon, start solidification with

formation of crystals of δ-ferrite. Carbon content in δ-ferrite increases
up to 0.09% in course solidification, and at 2719 ºF (1493ºC) remaining
liquid phase and δ-ferrite perform peritectic transformation, resulting
in formation of austenite.

Alloys, containing carbon more than 0.51%, but less than 2.06%, form
primary austenite crystals in the beginning of solidification and when
the temperature reaches the curve ACM primary cementite stars to
form.

Iron-carbon alloys, containing up to 2.06% of carbon, are called

steels.

Alloys, containing from 2.06 to 6.67% of carbon, experience eutectic

transformation at 2097 ºF (1147 ºC). The eutectic concentration of
carbon is 4.3%.

In practice only hypoeutectic alloys are used. These alloys (carbon

content from 2.06% to 4.3%) are called cast irons. When temperature
of an alloy from this range reaches 2097 ºF (1147 ºC), it contains
primary austenite crystals and some amount of the liquid phase. The
latter decomposes by eutectic mechanism to a fine mixture of
austenite and cementite, called ledeburite.

All iron-carbon alloys (steels and cast irons) experience eutectoid

transformation at 1333 ºF (723ºC). The eutectoid concentration of
carbon is 0.83%.

When the temperature of an alloy reaches 1333 ºF (733ºC), austenite

transforms to pearlite (fine ferrite-cementite structure, forming as a
result of decomposition of austenite at slow cooling conditions).

Critical temperatures
1. Upper critical temperature (point) A3 is the temperature, below
which ferrite starts to form as a result of ejection from austenite
in the hypoeutectoid alloys.
2. Upper critical temperature (point) ACM is the temperature,
below which cementite starts to form as a result of ejection
from austenite in the hypereutectoid alloys.
3. Lower critical temperature (point) A1 is the temperature ofthe
austenite-to-pearlite eutectoid transformation. Below this
temperature austenite does not exist.
4. Magnetic transformation temperature A2 is the temperature
below which α-ferrite is ferromagnetic.
CONCLUSION
A phase diagram is a very useful instrument of analysis and

quantitative evaluations of the alloy behaviour.

The beauty of using a phase diagram is in its ability to show whether

a substance exists as a vapor, liquid, or solid at a given temperature

and pressure.

REFRENCES:

1. WIKIPEDIA ONLINE ENCYCLOPEDIA

2. ENCAARTA ENCYCLOPEDIA
3. PHYSICAL METALLURGY BY VIJENDRA SINGH
4. Materials Science and Engineering BY William D. Callister,
Jr.