Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fisheries
06 governance and
training in the
Mangroves in a
changing climate
06 Pacific Islands
Region 43
4
24
Utilizing ICM to address food
security and improve livelihood of
49 a high carbon dioxide world; can
we predict the future?
communities in Chonburi
Vol. 15
tropical coasts
Aquaculture and
Raphael P.M. Lotilla Jonel Dulay Jin Hwan Hwang G. Robin South
Executive Editor Ray Nonnato Leyesa Rolando A. Inciong Kwanta Tantikamton
Design/Illustration/DTP Michael A. Kendall Nisakorn Wiwekwin
S. Adrian Ross Vitaya Khunplome
Editor Contributors David C. Little
Anabelle L. Cayabyab Donald J. Macintosh Cover photo by:
Anna Rita Cano Katie Chalk Darren Raeburn Raniel Jose Castañeda
Philippines
Assistant Editor Minna Epps Evelyn M. Reyes
w w w. p e m s e a . o r g
The Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect
Asia (PEMSEA), Global Environment Facility (GEF), United Nations the views or policies of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the United
Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Office for Project Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Office for
Services (UNOPS), publish Tropical Coasts Magazine biannually. Project Services (UNOPS), Partnerships in Environmental Management
This issue on Food Security is co-published by the ASEAN Centre for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity, and
for Biodiversity. This publication is geared towards stimulating an other participating organizations, or the editors, nor are they an official
exchange of information and sharing of experiences and ideas record. The designation employed and the presentation do not imply
with respect to environmental protection and the management of the expression of opinion whatsoever on the part of GEF, UNDP, UNOPS,
coastal and marine areas. Readers are strongly encouraged to send PEMSEA, and ACB concerning the legal status of any country, territory
their contributions to: or city or its authority, or concerning the delimitation of its territory or
boundaries.
Executive Editor
P.O. Box 2502, ISSN 0117-9756
Quezon City 1165,
Metro Manila, Philippines
4 December 2008
There is a growing evidence of the are at risk of extinction, 45 of which are among the most diverse in the world.
narrowing biological diversity base for in Asia. But 80 percent of the region’s coral reefs
food production from land and marine are at risk. Sedimentation and pollution
sources in Southeast Asia and in other Deforestation, habitat destruction, from upland and coastal developments
parts of the world. overfishing and destructive fishing threaten coral reefs. Destructive fishing
practices, coral reefs degradation, methods destroy marine ecosystems
The Food and Agriculture Organization large-scale mining, poverty traps, resulting in diminishing breeding
(FAO) reported that the pressure to inappropriate agricultural policies, grounds for fish and other aquatic life.
produce food to meet the world’s industrialization, and pollution are the
increasing demand has intensified culprits that cause massive biodiversity The proliferation of marine protected
over the past 100 years. As a result, the loss. Biodiversity loss is also caused areas (MPAs) in the region shows a
natural functions of ecosystems and by emerging influences, including growing consciousness on the need to
the variability of genes, species, and liberalization and globalization of deal with the increasing threats leading
populations is now severely affected. production, urbanization, invasive to the degradation of the coastal and
Over the millennium, humans have alien species, climate change, and marine resources of Southeast Asia and
relied on over 10,000 various plants shifting consumption patterns. All these to food security. A marine protected
species for food. Now, there are barely contribute to the reduction of food area is any area of inter-tidal or sub-tidal
150 species
p under cultivation. Even sources. terrain, togetherg with its overlying y g waters
livestock
lilive
vest
stoc diversity,
ockk di
dive
vers
rsit
ity, according
y, aacc
ccor
ordi
ding
ng ttoo FA FAO,
FAOO, and
and associated
asso
as soci
ciat
ated flora,
ed flor
fl ffauna,
oraa, fau
auna
na, hihistorical
hist
stor
oricical
al
is likewise significantly under threat. The Association of Southeast Asian and cultural features, which has been
The
Th he first
firsst
fi
fir st global
glo b l assessment
loba
ba asse
asse sess
s me ent
n o off liliv
livestock
vestto
vest
ve occk Nations
Nati
Na to
ti on (ASEAN)
ns (A
ASEEAN
A ) reregion
egi
g on h has
ass oone-third
on ne-thi
ne -tth
hiird
irrd
doorr reserved
rese
reese ed by
servved by legislation
le
egi
gisl
islat
slatatiio
ion to pprotect
ro
ote part
ecctt p
par
arrt or
or
biodiversity
bi odi
od
diviver
ersi ty indicated
sit
ity ind
ndica
iccaatted
te
ed that
d tth 643
haat 64
h 6 43 br breeds
b re
ree
eeeds
ed
ds 284,000
284
28 4,00
4, km2 o
00 km off all
all coral
al coral
co raal reef
rreefs,
reeeffss,, whi
w
which
hiich
h ch aare
re
re all
aalllll enclosed
enccllos
encl
en osedd environments
envviirro
on
nment
me en ((IUCN,
ntts (IIU
UC
CN,
N, 1 1988).
9888)
8).
In 2002, UP-MSI, et al., conducted a marine protected areas and to ensure our little ways, we can do a lot to curb
review of the marine protected areas of that they are designed and located in biodiversity and food insecurity.
Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, the best places to conserve biodiversity There is a need to develop and expand
Myanmar, Singapore, the Philippines, and ensure food security. the knowledge base from the scientific
Thailand, and Vietnam focusing on the arena, and all practical means of using
sub-tidal areas and inter-tidal areas ACB is an intergovernmental regional biodiversity resources. We also have to
essential for marine species, such as centre of excellence that facilitates recognize the importance of building
coral reefs and turtle nesting beaches. cooperation among the members of alliances to address the issue of food
Results indicated that environmental ASEAN, and with relevant national security.
degradation is causing the most governments, regional and international
impacts on the marine environment organizations on the conservation and Understanding the threat is good, but
and MPAs in almost all countries. The sustainable use of biological diversity, not good enough. If we acknowledge
array and intensity of threats vary and the fair and equitable sharing of that biodiversity loss in both land and
from site to site. For example, sites benefits arising from the use of such marine resources has implications
in Peninsular Malaysia suffer much biodiversity. on food security, and recognize that
more from development than those in everyone is entitled to access to food, as
Sabah where coral mining is a bigger On 4-7 November 2008, ACB convened philosopher Onora O’Neill has said, let
problem. The amount, completeness in Bali, Indonesia, an experts meeting us start to define who will do what, for
and accuracy of the data on MPAs vary on marine gap analysis for the whom and when.
among countries, depending on the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, and
amount of research and government Vietnam. The meeting served as initial References
interest in the subject. Protected area step for ASEAN Member States to
data held by different Southeast Asian enhance understanding and agree Fuentes, R. U. 2009. Seminar on “Biodiversity
and Food Security: Are we really
government agencies are not always on the process of marine protected
understanding the threat?”, held in Los
consistent. Some of the MPAs lack area gap analysis. Experts identified Baños, Laguna, Philippines. Southeast
information on their exact location and representation, ecological and Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study
most do not have a defined boundary management gaps of marine protected and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA) -
or size, making quantitative coverage areas, and established regional and Agriculture and Development Seminar
Series (ADSS) and ASEAN Center for
comparisons impossible. national action points for marine
Biodiversity. www.aseanbiodiversity.org
protected area gap analyses. These are
During the 2nd ASEAN Heritage Parks very important in conserving coastal Fuentes, R. U. 2008. “Experts Meeting on
Conference in Sabah, Malaysia, Dr. Chou and marine biodiversity which could Marine Gap Analysis for the Philippines,
Loke Ming of the National University contribute to food security (Fuentes, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Viet Nam”,
held on 4-7 November 2008, Bali,
of Singapore reported that out of the 2008).
Indonesia. ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity
total number of MPAs in the region, only (ACB), Indonesia’s Ministry of Forestry,
10 percent are effectively managed; Today’s challenge is how to increase Conservation International, and Haribon
88 percent of the coral reefs are under agricultural and fisheries yield while Foundation. www.aseanbiodiversity.org.
threat, the region’s MPAs cover only conserving biodiversity ecosystems.
International Union for Conservation of
eight percent of its reefs; and only one We have a menu of available options
Nature (IUCN). 1988. 1988 IUCN Red List
percent within MPAs are effectively for sustainable food production which of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland,
managed. The identified gaps include involves mixed farming systems, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.: 154 pp.
management effectiveness including integrated pest management, crop
transboundary management; effective rotation, organic agriculture, recycling UP-MSI, ABC, ARCBC, DENR and ASEAN. 2002.
Marine Protected Areas in Southeast
management network; prioritization of crop and animal wastes, regulated
Asia. University of the Philippines-Marine
and identification of sites of global/ fishing, and other mechanisms. Science Institute (UP-MSI), Asian Bureau
regional significance to preserve for Conservation (ABC), ASEAN Regional
biodiversity; and coordination, However, it should be pointed out that Centre for Biodiversity Conservation
including information resources sharing, there is a very limited adoption rate of (ARCBC), Department of Environment
and Natural Resources (DENR),
and capacity building. these options. The international regime
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
is unable to touch the heart of the (ASEAN). ASEAN Regional Centre for
The ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB) issues. The heart of the issues is within Biodiversity Conservation, Department of
is working to address these gaps, and us. We have to examine our way of Environment and Natural Resources, Los
in particular to increase the number of consuming resources, and know that in Baños, Philippines, 142 pp., 10 maps.
6 December 2008
Mangroves in a changing
climate
Mangroves at Ranong, Thailand. Mangroves protect against erosion, storms and sea level rise.
INTRODUCTION natural disasters, thereby reducing the resources and the vital ecosystem
vulnerability of coastal communities processes that sustain them.
Coastal areas have been centers of and investments. The important role
human settlement and economic of healthy mangrove forests gained Mangroves are one of the most
activities for thousands of years recognition after the December 2004 productive ecosystems worldwide,
due to their easy accessibility from Tsunami where areas with extensive which millions of people in the Indian
the sea, their remarkable biological mangrove coverage suffered less Ocean still depend upon. In addition
productivity, and the wide array of damage compared to areas which had to timber, mangroves provide a wide
goods and services that they provide. been cleared for other forms of land range of goods and services, and
Today, many of the world’s largest use. Despite the global awakening to even cultural attributes. These include
cities occupy coastal locations; ports, the importance of mangroves and their valuable fishery and aquaculture
shipping and other major industries interdependence with other coastal resources, wildlife, medicines, gums,
are also concentrated here; while ecosystems such as coral reefs and tannins, honey and fruits (Saenger,
beaches, coral reefs and islands have seagrasses, many coastal areas and 2002). Mangroves also protect
become a magnet for tourism. Coastal resources remain under severe pressure. shorelines from erosion and flooding,
ecosystems are also our best allies in High population growth, compounded and provide storm protection; they are
the face of climate change. by migration into coastal areas, also efficient in carbon sequestration
Coastal ecosystems, especially overfishing, habitat conversion and and nutrient retention. Thus, mangroves
mangrove forests, act as buffers against poor development planning, have led are often seen as the backbone of
extreme weather conditions and to increasing pressure on the remaining tropical ocean coastlines, yet many
Tropical Coasts 7
sediments, thereby promoting land mangroves adjacent to coastal fishing hectare, with annual productivity in
conservation as a vital contribution grounds and the yield of shrimp caught the range 9-12 t C/ha (Ong, 1993). The
against sea level rise; and (b) hold back by fishers (Martosubroto and Naamin, belowground accumulation of carbon
the sea and reduce wave forces with 1977). by the root systems of mangroves is
their extensive and dense above ground harder to estimate, but could approach
roots by an estimated 70-90 percent Even today, shrimp and other 700 t C/m depth of soil/peat per
on average, or by 20 percent per 100 mangrove-dependent species, such hectare, with an estimated rate of
m in the case of mangrove green belts as mudskippers (Pseudapocryptes) carbon sequestration of 1.5 t C/ha/year
in Vietnam, which were planted for and mud crabs (Scylla) support the (Ong, 1993).
coastal protection purposes (Mazda et subsistence needs of millions of poor
al., 1997). Mangrove forests moderate aquatic collectors, who include some Mangrove foliage production results
climate extremes by providing shade of the most vulnerable people in Asia. in an annual rate of leaf litter fall in
and increased air-humidity, while also Moreover, many of these mangrove the order of one to several tonnes per
reducing wind velocity and soil water products are sold to pond owners, who hectare, much of which leaches into
evaporation. Mangrove ecosystems rear them commercially as part of the coastal seas, or becomes converted
nurture coastal fish and shellfish stocks very important coastal aquaculture into particulate detritus as a key food
by providing rich feeding and nursery industry flourishing throughout the source for fish, shrimp and other aquatic
grounds, thereby contributing to the region. Thus, mangroves are not only consumers that make up mangrove-
livelihood and food security of millions a vital first line of defence against sea dependent coastal food webs. However,
of coastal dwellers around the region. level rise and storms, they are also leaf-burying (by crabs), other forms of
An early fishery-coastal habitat study fundamental to food security and to litter build up, and soil surface carbon
in Indonesia, for example, revealed a sustaining livelihoods. accumulation can be significant under
direct correlation between the area of certain local conditions, especially
Mangroves and the global carbon where tidal water flows are impeded.
cycle Moreover, as mangrove forests
have declined in extent, or become
Mangroves are proving to play a increasingly isolated from the sea by
vital role in the global carbon cycle. dyke and canal-building, ever smaller
Despite covering less than 0.1 quantities of mangrove-derived detritus
percent of the global land surface, have become available for the formation
they nonetheless account for 10 and export of organic matter offshore.
percent of the dissolved organic Researchers speculate that the rapid
carbon (DOC) that flows from land decline in mangrove cover threatens the
to the ocean (Dittmar, et al., 2006). delicate ecological balance in coastal
Researchers at the Florida State waters and may eventually shut off
University have noted that the the important link between land and
organic matter that is dissolved ocean along previously mangrove-
in the world oceans contains a dominated coastlines, with potentially
similar amount of carbon as that adverse consequences on atmospheric
stored in the skies as atmospheric composition and climate stability.
carbon dioxide (Dittmar, et al.,
2006). Dissolved organic matter One area of particular concern is that
is an important player in the climate change may lead to more
global carbon cycle that regulates frequent and severe storm events,
atmospheric carbon dioxide and especially in cyclone (= typhoon/
climate. hurricane) prone areas of the tropics.
Severe storms have the potential to
There is also growing awareness, cause significant mangrove damage and
backed by scientific studies, even mass tree mortality which, coupled
showing the value of mangroves with sediment removal and related
for carbon sequestration. Their hydrological changes, could threaten
aboveground biomass can the ability of mangroves to recover
A subsistence fisher in the Mekong Delta .
contribute 100-200 tonnes C per (Gilman, et al., 2008). In Honduras,
Tropical Coasts 9
land level in the delta and the huge project level. Incorporating climate Mangrove Ecosystem Management
population it supports. The climate is change adaptation considerations and was held in Ranong, Thailand ,
becoming more extreme with several enhancing adaptive capacity of coastal which brought together close to 200
severe droughts in recent years, communities is crucial to ensure the mangrove experts/scientists and local
creating water shortages and extreme long-term sustainability of coastal community representatives engaged in
salinities that threaten agricultural development projects. mangrove management. The aim was
and aquacultural production. In not only to illustrate the value of local
response, the Government of Vietnam In recognition of the importance and traditional knowledge and how it
is carrying out large-scale mangrove of mangroves and other coastal can help shape sustainable mangrove
rehabilitation, sea-dyke upgrading and ecosystems, MFF is encouraging the forests, but also to share experiences
other investments for climate change countries around the Indian Ocean and lessons learned in post-tsunami
mitigation. Mangroves for the Future region to increase their investment mangrove reconstruction efforts across
(MFF) is helping to promote positive in these vital coastal ecosystems and the region, as well as approaches
examples like Vietnam — to show the to share knowledge and experiences for understanding and embedding
world why investing in mangroves about the best ways to cope with stakeholder interests more effectively
and other coastal ecosystems is so climate change along their vast in future mangrove rehabilitation
important and cost-effective, and how coastlines. A recent Scientific and initiatives.
community groups and governments Technical Symposium on Sustainable
can take action to prevent further
losses.
Mangroves for the Future Initiative (MFF)
Mangroves for the Future (MFF)
MFF builds on a history of coastal management interventions before and after the 2004
MFF is a regional multi-partner initiative tsunami, especially the call to continue the momentum and partnerships generated by
to promote investment in coastal the immediate post-tsunami response. It focuses on the countries worst-affected by the
ecosystems. MFF is partnership-based, tsunami with projects in India, Indonesia, Maldives, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
people-focused and policy-relevant, MFF also includes other countries of the region that face similar issues, with an overall
and climate change is of direct aim to promote an integrated ocean wide approach to coastal zone management.
relevance. The MFF programmes of
work reflect this through its adoption Its long-term management strategy is based on identified needs and priorities that
of climate change considerations as emerged from extensive consultations with over 200 individuals and 160 institutions
a cross-cutting programme of work. involved in coastal management in the region.
MFF is also adopting a new approach
by moving from a reactive response to The initiative uses mangroves as a flagship ecosystem in recognition of the important
a more proactive one. The aim is to role mangroves played in reducing the damage caused by the tsunami, and the
address long-term sustainable coastal implications on livelihoods because of mangrove forest destruction. But MFF is inclusive
management needs and develop of all coastal ecosystems, including coral reefs, estuaries, lagoons, sandy beaches,
community resilience, including seagrasses and wetlands.
building awareness and capacity for
improved food and livelihood security, MFF is based on a vision of a healthier, more prosperous and secure future for all
and to ensure that environmental sections of coastal populations in Indian Ocean countries. It is a unique partnership-
considerations are included in disaster led initiative working in four key areas of influence: regional cooperation, national
preparedness and climate change programme support, private sector engagement and community action.
adaptation responses.
MFF undertakes collective actions to build knowledge, strengthen empowerment, and
Methods for integrating climate enhance governance through 15 broad programmes of work to address the current and
change considerations into all MFF future threats, and to conserve and restore coastal ecosystems. These are implemented
activities have been developed based through a series of on-the-ground projects, through small and large grant modalities.
on existing climate proofing tools.
MFF also conducts regional and in- MFF seeks more effective and inclusive institutions, policies and mechanisms
country training courses on the use for cooperation at national and regional levels by prioritizing coastal ecosystem
of practical climate proofing tools management across national development agendas, policies and budgets.
and methods applicable to the field/
Tropical Coasts 11
Mangroves in the future to meet the long-term development Brighouse, J. Bungitak, E. Dus, M. Henry,
needs of coastal communities, while I. Sauni Jr., M. Kilman, E. Matthews, N.
Teariki-Ruatu, S. Tukia, K. Yuknavage.
MFF and its partners are seeking to securing their livelihoods against
2006. “Pacific Island Mangroves in a
develop and test climate proofing tools climate change impacts and helping Changing Climate and Rising Sea.” UNEP
at project sites in the region. It will coastal communities prepare for Regional Seas Reports and Studies
further identify mechanisms for REDD potential climate-related disasters. No. 179. United Nations Environment
(Reducing Emissions from Deforestation Programme, Regional Seas Programme,
Nairobi, Kenya.
and Ecosystem Degradation), based on
an ecosystem approach that enhances Macintosh, D.J. and E.C. Ashton. 2002.
natural sequestration and storage of References: A Review of Mangrove Biodiversity
carbon in existing mangrove forests and Conservation and Management. Centre
Cahoon, D.R., P.R. Hensel, K.L. Rybczyk, E.E. for Tropical Ecosystems Research,
restored degraded mangroves areas.
McKee Proffitt and B.C. Perez. 2003. University of Aarhus, Denmark. 134pp.
The effectiveness of REDD activities will “Mass tree mortality leads to mangrove
ultimately depend on the success of its peat collapse at Bay Islands, Honduras Martosubroto, P. and N. Naamin. 1997.
contribution to the development needs after Hurricane Mitch.” Journal of “Relationship between tidal forests
of communities that rely on mangrove Ecology, 1:1093-1105. (mangroves) and commercial shrimp
products. Considering the large number production in Indonesia.” Marine
Dittmar, T., N. Hertkorn, G. Kattner, and Research in Indonesia, No 18: 81-86.
of people in coastal areas that climate R. J. Lara. 2006. “Mangroves, a major
change impacts could displace, MFF source of dissolved organic carbon Mazda, Y., M. Magi, M. Kogo, and P.N.
would seek to conduct activities to the oceans.” Global Biogeochem. Hong. 1997. “Mangroves as a coastal
to: mobilize local communities and Cycles, Vol. 20, No. 1, GB101210, doi: protection from waves in the Tong King
10.1029/2005GB002570, 2006. Delta, Vietnam.” Mangroves and Salt
governments to undertake joint actions
Marshes, 1:127-135.
for sustainable coastal management; Gilman, E.L., J. Ellison, N. Duke and C.
ensure food security through sound Field. 2008. “Threats to mangroves Obura, D.O., J. Tamelander, and O. Linden
ecosystem management; build from climate change and adaptation (eds.). 2008. “Ten years after bleaching-
knowledge to better understand the options.” Aquatic Botany. facing the consequences of climate
links between livelihoods and climate change in the Indian Ocean.” CORDIO
Gilman, E., H. Van Lavieren, J. Ellison, Status Report 2008. CORDIO (Coastal
systems; and increase adaptive capacity V. Jungblut, L. Wilson, F. Areki, G. Oceans Research and Development
in the Indian Ocean)/ Sida-SAREC.
Mombasa. www.cordioea.org. 489pp.
Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network.
Grouper aquaculture
species such as seabass or red snapper with a debt they might be unable included the activities’: (1) importance
averaged 12.5 percent in the 27 villages to repay. Successful farmers repaid as a source of income; (2) contribution
surveyed. The adoption of fish culture into a village fund 50 percent of the to household ability to save money;
— and specifically of grouper culture value of the materials and seed they (3) degree of financial or personal
— was not confined to any wealth received, with payments spread over risk; (4) level of investment required;
category but occurred in the livelihood two years. If a farmer experienced (5) importance in relation to other
portfolios of all wealth groups and was problems, repayment was rescheduled activities; (6) required physical capital
equally prevalent among the wealthiest without penalty. The funds were used and its lifespan; and (7) length of time
and poorest households (Figure 1). How to finance other villagers’ entry into before the investment was recouped.
was it possible for poorer households to aquaculture. The scheme has clearly
establish and maintain grouper culture? been successful, as the number of The matrices constructed in showed
households in the village involved in that fish culture and fishing were
Institutional dimensions and access grouper culture rose from an initial 40 closely related. Villagers reported being
to finance households in 1996 to 60 in 2000. willing to undertake a relatively risky
method of fishing because it provided
Lack of financing was among trash fish with which to
Figure 1. Relationship between wealth status
the most frequently reported and fish culture. a feed cultured fish, reducing
constraints to the uptake or eliminating the need
of grouper aquaculture to buy feed. The extent to
throughout southern Thailand. which households were
Yet the residents of one village prepared to take risks to
in Satun Province, where a supply feed for grouper
remarkable 69 percent of culture clearly indicated the
households cultured grouper, importance they attached
were able to overcome this to it. Similarly, fishers’
constraint regardless of wealth ability to source seed fish
group. This can be largely from their own catch was
attributed to the involvement important to maintaining
of external organizations, grouper culture. In 2000–
particularly the Department of 2001, the cost of a seed fish
Fisheries (DOF), which helped measuring 10–14 cm was
fishers in coastal villages to 20 baht ($0.50). Stocking
adopt fish culture or other 500 fish per cage was thus a
a
Shown as the percentage of households in each wealth group whose livelihood
alternative activities, principally portfolios include fish culture (no significant association P = 0.065). considerable investment in
to curtail the use of destructive a region where the average
fishing gears. Selected villages annual household income
were given materials sufficient to allow Livelihood synergy and capital in 2000 was $3,062. However, fishers
20 to 30 families to construct two substitution were able to offset this investment by
cages. Extension officers from DOF then replacing financial capital with natural
showed the new farmers how to build Important links were found to exist capital.
cages, nurse seed fish, grade fish and between activities in the livelihood
recognize disease. portfolios of fishers that enabled poor Strategies to cope with risk and
households to maintain and develop uncertainty
By providing all the materials necessary their culture systems. This synergy
for cage construction, the project was particularly pronounced between Fish disease was found to be the
allowed poor households to overcome fishing and aquaculture. Ranking biggest risk to grouper culture
this biggest hurdle to entry. DOF and preference matrices completed throughout southern Thailand. Many
provided seabass fingerlings, but many by focus groups in the case study risk-averse grouper farmers offset risk
farmers subsequently stocked grouper communities revealed that different by stocking an additional species, most
fingerlings from their own fish catch. livelihood activities contributed in commonly seabass. Seabass enabled
a variety of ways. Villagers ranked producers to minimize risk, as they
It is significant that DOF did not activities by importance according are less vulnerable than grouper to
provide money or burden households to participant-defined criteria, which salinity fluctuations and disease, and
Tropical Coasts 15
can be sold on the relatively stable The preferred total length of juvenile and building up assets. Other activities,
local market, which is indifferent to the grouper for stocking was 20–23 cm for such as fishing, trading and wage labor,
more expensive grouper. Seabass seed short grow-out and 10–14 cm for long are generally accorded more time and
is easily obtained from government or partial grow-out. provide income to meet daily needs. This
or private hatcheries and grows more suggests that efforts to encourage fishers
quickly that grouper. The downside is Grouper culture is vulnerable to to leave fishing for fish culture are likely
that seabass requires more feed than the international market. However, to fail or make fishing households more
grouper and, whereas grouper can predominantly small-scale production vulnerable unless alternative options for
be fed every 2–3 days without any holds down supply and supports daily income are provided (Sheriff, 2004).
detriment to fish health or growth (an prices. At the time of the study,
important advantage to fishers who grouper had a farm-gate value of 300 Conclusions and policy
may be away from home for some baht per fish weighing 1.2 kg, enabling implications
time), seabass must be fed daily. farmers to generate income, or at least
The study found that culturing
Grouper farmers also Figure 2. Significance of grouper culture in grouper can generate
managed risk by varying household livelihood strategies substantial financial benefits
the culture cycle. They did aggregated for all three case study for poor households. However,
not generally adhere to a
communities. this depends on a number of
strict regime of stocking conditions:
and harvesting, primarily
because of the variable 1. Support from external
availability of grouper seed. agencies allows poor
Instead, they stocked and households to overcome
harvested continuously as investment constraints.
long as juvenile fish were Providing materials for
available. As one farmer cage construction and
reported, the culture cycle establishing a village fund
cannot be planned, as allows poor households to
fingerlings of different sizes take up grouper culture.
reach a market size of 1.2 2. Natural capital substitutes
kg at different times. This for financial capital. The
prevents their managing availability of wild-caught
the culture cycle so that seed and feed allows poor
harvesting coincides with Chinese New breakeven, despite high mortality of fishing households to stock
Year, when grouper prices spike. Many up to 80 percent (Sheriff, 2004 and and feed grouper.
wealthier farmers expressed the wish Sheriff, et al., 2008). Sensitivity analysis 3. Grouper culture is compatible with
for hatchery-produced fingerlings of indicated that grouper culture could other livelihood activities. Fishers
standard size that would allow precise remain viable in the face of significant are able to integrate grouper
scheduling of stocking and harvesting, increases in feed and seed fish prices aquaculture into their livelihood
but the cost would be more than what and a fall in marketprice to 100 baht. strategy without narrowing
most grouper farmers could afford. Grouper culture would therefore livelihood diversity. Modest time
Instead, farmers with limited finances appear to pose little risk to households demands and the ability of grouper
distributed the costs and benefits of and is unlikely to increase vulnerability to withstand infrequent feeding
grouper culture over time. when carried out as part of a diverse leaves farmers free to pursue
set of livelihood activities. additional occupations.
The strategies of farmers rearing 4. Farmers can manipulate the culture
grouper in floating cages in the case The role of grouper aquaculture in cycle to suit their risk profile. This
study communities can be divided household livelihood strategies was facilitated by the existence of a
into two broad categories: (1) a short market for juvenile fish for further
grow-out period of 3–6 months to Grouper culture is considered a main growing out.
minimize risk; and (2) a long grow-out occupation by few villagers in any of 5. Grouper is highly valued on the
period of 6–13 months to obtain the the communities studied (Figure 2). international market. The high price
maximum price for fish of market size. Rather, it is primarily for saving money farmers get for their fish ensures
16 December 2008
that grouper culture is economically activity will cause interventions 2003. Improving coastal livelihoods through
viable even if market prices decline. to fail and may worsen household sustainable aquaculture practices: A report
The current lack of hatchery- vulnerability. to the collaborative APEC grouper research
produced seed keeps production and development network (FWG/01/2001).
STREAM Initiative, Network of Aquaculture
low and prices high. 3. Hatchery-produced seed. The
Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA), Bangkok,
development of grouper broodstock
Thailand.
The following policy considerations and hatchery production technology
affect the success of grouper is currently a major area of research Heemstra, P.C. and J. E. Randall. 1993. FAO species
aquaculture: in the Asia-Pacific region, reflecting catalogue.“Groupers of the world (family
the hope that grouper cultured Serranidae, subfamily Epinephelinae).”An
1. Affordable and accessible credit. from hatchery-produced seed will annotated and illustrated catalogue of the
DOF support in the form of training lift pressure on wild fish stocks. grouper, rockcod, hind, coral grouper and
and extension, together with the However, requiring a closed culture lyretail species known to date. Vol. 16. Food
provision of funds for getting started, cycle may be inappropriate in and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Rome.
were crucial to making the benefits the case of grouper. Commercial
Kongkeo, H. and M. Phillips. 2002.“Regional
of grouper culture accessible to all hatchery seed production is likely
overview of marine finfish farming, with
wealth groups in the community. to stimulate grouper production
an emphasis on groupers and regional
Without external support or credit, and encourage its emergence cooperation.”In: APEC/NACA/BOBP/GOI
grouper culture is dominated by on an industrial scale, boosting (eds). Report of the Regional Workshop on
wealthier households. supply, undermining market prices Management Strategies for Sustainable
and making grouper culture less Seafarming and Grouper Aquaculture, Medan,
2. Livelihood synergy. Synergy in attractive as a livelihood option for Indonesia, 17–20 April 2000. Collaborative
livelihood activities is essential to poor fishers. The future of the sector, APEC grouper research and development
the ability of poor households to and its role in reducing pressure on network (FWG01/99). Network of Aquaculture
maintain grouper culture despite reef fisheries, is more likely to be Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA), Bangkok,
lack of capital. Yet synergy is a sustained by keeping production in Thailand.
livelihoods aspect of the poor that is the hands of small-scale farmers.
Lau, P. and R. Parry-Jones. 1999. The Hong Kong
often overlooked, as recent studies
trade in live reef fish for food. Hong Kong:
suggest that aquaculture may TRAFFIC East Asia and World Wide Fund for
provide an alternative livelihood References Nature Hong Kong.
for fishers, replacing rather than
supplementing fishing. The study Haylor, G., M. R. P. Briggs, L. Pet-Soede, H. Tung, Marte, C. L. 2003. Larviculture of marine species in
made clear that livelihood activities N. T. H. Yen, B. Adrien, B. O’Callaghan, C. Gow, Southeast Asia: Current research and industry
perform a variety of roles. Failure to L. DeVantier, C. Cheung, R. Santos, E. Pador, prospects. Aquaculture 227:293-304.
understand the functions of each M. de la Torre, P. Bulcock and W. Savage.
Pomeroy, R. S., J. E. Parks, and C. M. Balboa. 2006.
“Farming the reef: Is aquaculture a solution
for reducing fishing pressure on coral reefs?”
Marine Policy 30(2):111–130.
By Anabelle L. Cayabyab, Supervising Environmental Management Specialist and Head ICM Division PG-ENRO
Evelyn M. Reyes, Community Affairs Officer II PICAD
ICM at Work:
Harnessing Local Initiative
to Achieve Food
Security
Historic Cavite, home of modern
revolutionary Caviteños braving the
challenges of protecting the coastal areas
and securing the needs of the people.
At the end of implementing and adopting
management strategies and approaches
to attain sustainable coastal
development, integration, coordination
and sectoral participation remain key to
the success or failure of management
programs.
Figure 1. Map of Cavite Province
Aside from its rich historical legacy Moving towards industrialization pollution from land- and sea-based
and culture, the Province of Cavite, sources, habitat degradation and
which is one of the provinces bordering In the 1990s, Cavite transformed itself overexploitation of resources, illegal
the Manila Bay in the Philippines, is from an agricultural province into a highly fishing and intensive land development
blessed with natural resources that have commercialized province that serves for industrial and human settlements.
provided food and sources of livelihood as haven for a number of world-class As migration from neighboring
for the people. It has 71,202.76 ha of industrial estates situated both in the provinces and the metropolis sets in,
agricultural land favorable for growing coastal and non-coastal municipalities. more and more people are settling in
major crops such as rice, corn, coffee These estates house companies mostly the coastal area. Coupled with rapid
and others. Its forest area of 8,624 ha engaged in manufacturing of electronics, industrialization, this has caused
supports diverse flora and fauna. Cavite clothing, food and beverage, plastics and environmental problems particularly
has eight coastal municipalities and one pharmaceuticals. Cavite’s industrialization the deterioration of water quality
city with a total coastline of about 85 and its proximity to Manila enabled a and destruction of coastal habitats.
km stretching from the municipalities large segment of the population to be Operators of illegal structures for fish
of Maragondon to Bacoor. It has an employed in the industries. production and other marine products
estimated coastal water of about 93,679 likewise sprouted up in the coastal
ha that supports coastal habitats and In recent years, the province is waters of Cavite. Such illegal structures
diverse marine resources (Figure 1). facing various challenges, including hampered navigation of small boats,
18 December 2008
obstructed the circulation of water and coastal towns. Each Council consists
affected the mussel and oyster farms of representatives from government
in the area. Legitimate fish cage and agencies, private sector and the civil
mussel culture operators were affected society (Figure 2 and 3). The two levels
due to competition for space with these of Council serve as policy making
illegal structures. bodies of the program at the provincial
and municipal levels, respectively. The
The total population of the province Project Management Office (PMO),
was estimated to be almost 2.9 million which coordinates the day-to-day
in the recent 2008 census, representing activities of the ICM program was
an average growth rate of 4.59%. created and likewise institutionalized
There are about 17,400 fishers whose under the Provincial Environment and
livelihoods mainly depend on fishing in Natural Resources Office (PG-ENRO)
three major bays, namely: Manila Bay, on November 2004 through Executive
Bacoor Bay and Cañacao Bay. Cavite Order No. 48. The Governor, who serves
is also known for the production of as Chair of PICMC, mandated the
mussels, oysters, milkfish, prawns and nine coastal Mayors to designate one
tilapia. Mussel and oyster culture methods in Cavite. permanent coordinator either from the
Municipal Planning and Development
Provincial Government Cavite embraced the integrated
Office, Municipal Environmental and
Taking the Lead management approach when it became
Natural Resources Office, or Municipal
Agriculture Office. The coordinators
an integrated coastal management
In 2001, the Provincial Government automatically served as Vice-Chairs of
(ICM) parallel site in March 2004, when
took concrete steps to address the the Municipal/City Council.
it signed a Memorandum of Agreement
environmental issues and threats
with PEMSEA and the Philippines
in the coastal areas of Cavite. While The ICM program is financed by the
Department of Natural Resources and
the national government defines the provincial and municipal governments.
Environment (DENR).
policy framework for development Replicating the Province of Bataan’s
and proper management of Manila experience, which serves as a shining
Establishing mechanisms to sustain
Bay, the provincial government of example on how the private sector
the ICM program
Cavite took the lead role in establishing support can be tapped, Cavite also
and operating a province-wide managed to entice the participation
The ICM Program was institutionalized
management system to address the of a number of private sector
from provincial to barangay or
multiple and conflicting uses of the enterprises, which recently evolved into
community levels through the creation
coastal waters and to ensure that a council, the Cavite Corporate Social
of the Provincial ICM Council (PICMC)
the livelihoods of the people were Responsibility Council (CCSRC). Among
and Municipal/City ICM Councils in 9
sustained. the activities supported by the private
Chair
(Mayor)
Vice-Chair
(ICM Coordinator)
Project Manager
sector included providing assistance conducted for various groups such Contributing to bay-wide
for alternative livelihood projects as barangay (community) leaders, management of Manila Bay
for coastal communities, especially religious groups, nongovernmental
the fisher folks, adopting a highway organizations, local government units, Being part of Manila Bay, where a
program, participating in conservation the academe, fisherfolks, the youth bay-wide environmental management
programs, and participating in regular sector and the private sector to explain program is in place, Cavite participated
coastal clean-ups and other relevant the ICM program, discuss issues and in the development of the Manila Bay
projects coordinated by the Province. solicit their respective views and Coastal Strategy. The Manila Bay Coastal
commitments to attaining sustainable Strategy was developed through
Staff from the local governments, development of the coastal areas of consultations with various stakeholders
private sector, academe, non- Cavite. For the creation of the councils from the three regions surrounding the
government organizations and people’s at the various municipalities, extensive bay, the National Capital Region and
organizations of the 9 coastal towns stakeholders’ consultations were Regions 3 and 4, which included Cavite.
of Cavite have attended trainings on undertaken to ensure transparency The strategy provided a comprehensive
ICM and specialized training courses and awareness of the ICM program. environmental framework, targeted
including resource valuation, integrated This process has resulted in high public outcomes and a series of action
information management system, acceptability and participation in ICM programs involving the participation
advocacy and communication. The implementation. of relevant stakeholders of Manila Bay
Province is also a member of the
PEMSEA Network of Local Governments
for Sustainable Coastal Development,
which serves as a platform for the local
governments to share knowledge and
good practices in ICM implementation.
one city (Noveleta, Kawit, Bacoor and Table 1. Production of Oysters and Mussels based on the number of operators and area.
Cavite City). To support this initiative,
the Provincial Government issued No. of Operators Area (ha) Production (mT)
Executive Order 69 that prohibits the Year
Oyster Mussel Oyster Mussel Oyster Mussel
proliferation of the illegal structures.
EO 69 also required the adoption of a 2005 395 306 15.18 120 674.50 3,630.08
holistic and integrated management 2006 395 191 15.28 145.87 708.76 4,707.84
approach for managing the coastal 2007 426 117 31.93 155.52 1,578.48 4,580.40
areas of Cavite and more importantly
the development of the Coastal Use Table 2. Annual Production of Milkfish, Tilapia and Prawn in 2006.
Zoning Plan for Cavite. This action is
expected to address the multiple use No. of Operators Area (ha) Annual Production (mT)
conflicts and result to better water Municipality
quality in the area. Brackish Freshwater Brackish Freshwater Milkfish Tilapia Prawn
Bacoor 28 40 14.1 11.1
Table 4 summarizes the dismantled Cavite City 0.09
structures in Cañacao Bay and Bacoor Kawit 107 257 105 69.2
Bay. It is expected that the potential Noveleta 21 1 71.50 1 2.5 13
long-term socioeconomic benefits of Tanza 50 11.55 21.27
the activity conducted will ultimately Imus 7 0.21 0.19
translate to fisheries productivity Maragondon 2 30 2 1.2 0.94
capable of providing sufficient marine
Naic 17 47 3.6 4.16 11.18
harvest for Caviteño families, increased
Ternate 45 8 47 1 9.8
tourism revenues, sustained coastal
resources, and reduced water pollution.
Table 3. Annual Production of Milkfish, Tilapia and Prawn in 2007.
5. Establishment of Marine-based
Pangisdaan (Agile Fish, Healthy Fishery). Major activities have been implemented Enterprises. This includes fish
The program, which is being spearheaded that are expected to benefit the low- processing, seaweed farming,
by the Governor focuses on ehancing income, less privileged fisherfolks and purchase of gillnets and boats, and
fish production through utilization of fish farmers. The following are some of backyard fish farming. It is expected
fish hatchery technologies and providing the major projects: that 20 agri-enterprises will be
aquaculture technical extension services. established, contributing to the job
Furthermore, the program is in support 1. Establishment of Tropical Fish Ponds. generation efforts of the provincial
of the President of the Philippines’ Six fishponds were established in government.
Ginintuang Masaganang Ani (Golden 2007-2008 to propagate tropical
Harvest) Program and the Department fishes that are known for their Establishment and maintenance of fish
of Agriculture’s thrust of developing rural ornamental value. sanctuaries
areas through aquaculture.
Cavite is also promoting the
Box 1. Objectives towards achieving sustainable fishery industry. establishment of marine protected areas
as another approach towards achieving
Six major objectives towards achieving sustainable fishery industry: (1) Conserve, sustainable fisheries in the province.
protect and rehabilitate the earth’s finite resources for sustainable environment; (2) There are three existing fish sanctuaries
Integrate, coordinate and strengthen the work of environmental group by catalyzing in Cavite, namely, the 56-hectare Carabao
the active sharing of information, knowledge, expertise and other resources; (3) Island Fish Sanctuary in Maragondon,
Promote ecological consciousness and action on issues relevant to the protection of the 15-hectare Bulaklakin Reef Marine
people’s health and environment; (4) Promote corporate social responsibility through Sanctuary in Ternate, and the 5-hectare
the implementation of environmental programs and activities; (5) Build partnership Fish Sanctuary in Tanza. The sanctuaries
and promote sense of ownership; and (6) Strengthen the mass based multi-stakeholder are expected to promote the conservation
participation, the dismantling of illegal structures along the coastal waters was of the marine resources in the area. The
successfully enforced and now on its stage of harmonizing the mussel and oyster respective local governments have
farmers to form a cooperative. passed the necessary ordinances that
Tropical Coasts 23
Box 2. Coastal use zoning in Cavite Province. human activities and uses; 6. protect
human welfare; and 7. improve overall
A step-by-step process in developing the coastal use zoning plan include: the analysis management of the coastal areas and the
of existing institutional framework on spatial planning and zoning scheme to identify environment.
gaps and overlaps; analysis of existing uses, plans and activities in the area; evaluation
of land and water attribute and use suitability; development of matrices of multiple The Way Forward
use conflicts and suggested utilization; collection and completion of project data and
maps, determining the classifications of coastal use zones; development of coastal ICM has provided Cavite with the
use regulatory, determining the appropriate institutional framework or arrangement; management framework and systematic
packaging draft coastal use plan and corresponding institutional framework; finalization process to address the challenges to
of the plan; and stakeholder consultation. sustainable development of the coastal
areas in the province. It also serves as a
The primary use zones identified are: aquaculture, mudflat protection, buildup, mechanism for the province to contribute
municipal fishing, tourism (beach, heritage site, historical and cultural), eco-tourism to the implementation of the Operational
(mangrove and migratory birds), reclamation/commercial, pollution prevention and Plan for the Manila Bay Coastal Strategy.
control/regulatory, habitat enhancement and management, port development, The ICM program will continue to
industrial, shipping and navigational, military reserve, protected area (coral reef and promote a broad-based multi-stakeholder
sanctuary), fish port, fish pond, boat landing, agricultural, urban and special zone. involvement and cooperation as the
province gains more experience and
capacity as well as financial resources
serve as legal basis for the protection of policies and ordinances on anti-illegal to address these challenges including
and management of the protected areas. fishing and encroachment of illegal establishing a sustainable fishery industry
Direct assistance is also provided by the structures, in support of enhanced for its people.
LGUs through technical and financial fisheries and aquaculture production. The
support. development of the zoning plan also aims
to facilitate the delineation of municipal References:
Addressing Multiple Use waters and provide designated use zones,
FAO Corporate Document Repository .
Conflicts including a 10 percent allocation for “Mussel Culture,” by Aypa, Simeona
aquaculture area along Cañacao Bay and M. Available at www.fao.org/docrep/
Cavite has also embarked on developing a Bacoor Bay. field/003/AB737E/AB737E04.html
coastal use zoning plan as a key measure
to address multiple use conflicts and More specifically, the development of MBEMP. 2005. Operational Plan for the
Manila Bay Coastal Strategy. Manila Bay
regulate the activities in its coastal areas. the coastal use zoning plan aims to: Environmental Management Project.
This initiative is spearheaded by the 1. delineate/validate suitable areas for
Provincial Government and part of the particular human use, while minimizing Office of the Provincial Agriculturist (OPA) -
bay-wide project of the DENR to develop the impacts to ecosystems and public Cavite. Various reports and survey from
a coastal use zoning plan for Manila Bay. health; 3. protect critical or representative 2005 to 2007.
The coastal use zoning plan is expected to habitats ecosystems and ecological PEMSEA and MBEMP-MBIN. 2007. Manila
encourage forging of partnerships among processes; 4. protect natural and cultural Bay Area Environmental Atlas. PEMSEA
stakeholders and promote enforcement sites; 5. resolve/minimize conflicting Technical report 20, 182 p.
By Vitaya Khunplome, Chief Executive of the Provincial Administrative Organization of Chonburi (Thailand)
and ICM Project Director
Nisakorn Wiwekwin, ICM Secretariat, Sriracha Municipality, Chonburi Province, Thailand
Utilizing ICM
to address food
security and improve
livelihood
of communities
in Chonburi
Members of the Garbage Banks earn reward points that can be exchanged for cash or goods.
Sriracha Municipality in 2006 as community committees, to cage undertaken to evaluate the impact
part of the initial implementation and feed the spawning crabs, and of the project on the blue swimming
of the Chonburi Coastal Strategy, to return them to the owners or crab population. There are no
with some support from the Office market after the crabs release scientific surveys in the project
of the Prime Minister, through the their larvae. The teams are also area that can serve as baseline for
SML Project (a village/community tasked to educate and provide assessment. However, fishers in the
development fund), the Wastewater advice to others supported by two municipalities have observed
Management Authority, the Duang technical experts, and a municipal an increase in crab catch in 2007
Manee private school, and PEMSEA. officer; compared to 2006 (the crab condo
Building on this initiative, a two-year t &WBMVBUJPOPGQSPKFDUSFTVMUT in Sriracha was established in April
project to set up new crab condos in terms of increase in blue 2006). In Bangphra for example,
to be operated by the Wat Luang swimming crab population, in one of the big fishery ports in
community in Bangphra Municipality, through yield stock assessment or Chonburi Province that supplies the
and to support the maintenance of abundance in Sriracha Bay; crab market, crab catch was around
the existing crab condos in Sriracha t 3FHVMBSFOWJSPONFOUBM 40 kg/boat/day in April 2006. Catch
Municipality, was initiated in 2007, monitoring by a relevant research in April 2007 was around 100 kg/
with funding support from the GEF/ institute in collaboration with boat/day (the same as the catch in
UNDP Small Grants Programme (SGP), the communities and local the “peak” month of November 2006).
and with guidance from PEMSEA. government. Considering the high cost of scientific
This project is currently being study/assessment, evaluation of the
implemented through collaboration The Chonburi Fishery Association, crab condos are being done through
among communities, government, local academe and ICM project questionnaire surveys of changes in
private sector and academe. technical advisers support the crab crab catch in the project area.
condos in terms of technology and/ Additional outcomes of the project
Procedures for this innovative project or knowledge sharing. Information include:
include: dissemination and capacity building
t 5IFFTUBCMJTINFOUPGGTIPSFPG for project members are being t 1SPNPUJPOPGBXBSFOFTTBOE
suitable floating containers with undertaken through training, study recognition of responsible fishing;
submerged resting cages; tours to existing crab condos, and t &DPUPVSJTNBU,PI-PZ1VCMJD
t 5IFDPMMFDUJPOPGTQBXOJOHDSBCT exchange forums. In collaboration Park by including crab-release
from fishers by donation and/or with the Sriracha Fisheries Research activities among its attractions;
purchase; Station of Kasetsart University, sea t &GGFDUJWFUSBOTGFSPGLOPXMFEHF
t 1VUUJOHFBDITQBXOJOHDSBC water quality monitoring is being to communities and youths
into separate baskets which undertaken to assess and to evaluate by experiential learning and
are vertically stacked like a potential impacts on water quality. information dissemination; and
condominium; t (PPEQSBDUJDFPGHFOFSPTJUZ
t "TTJHOJOHSFTQPOTJCMFUFBNT Assessment of sea crab yield goodwill and cooperation among
consisting of fishers, or stock/abundance are also being the community teams.
restoration. A community-based solid already installed grease traps while and other traditional festivals, and
waste management project, which installation in hotel restaurants has ancient royal mansions and vacation
encourages students and communities been initiated. In the latest meeting homes of previous kings, high-
to collect and remit reusable and of the ICM Provincial Coordinating ranked royalties and elites, making
recyclable wastes to “Garbage Banks” Committee in February 2009, the use of tourism one of the main generators
located in schools and communities, grease traps was promoted to all local of employment and income in the
also contributes in minimizing governments in Chonburi. province.
degradation of habitats resulting
from nonbiodegradable wastes that The ICM PCC’s habitat protection and The sustainable and stable
eventually end up as marine litter. restoration successes to date give hope development of tourism is recognized
Members of the Garbage Banks earn that, through the cooperative efforts as being contingent upon the
reward points that are recorded in their of many public and private partners, efforts being taken to protect
bank books, which can be redeemed adequate coastal habitats for fish and Chonburi’s natural, cultural and
later in cash or in kind. wildlife will exist for future generations. historical attractions. The Chonburi
The key is to find solutions that ensure ICM Project has been promoting
Promotion, and legislation in Sriracha self-sustaining natural systems despite tourism development that satisfies
and other municipalities, of the use conflicting demands on the natural social, economic and aesthetic
of grease traps in restaurants in order resources. needs while respecting cultural
to reduce oil in wastewater, is also and ecological integrity. In addition
contributing to stress reduction in Sustainable tourism to coastal protection, restoration
the marine environment from oily development and beautification efforts, marine
wastes. With the active support of the conservation activities have been used
Restaurants Association of Chonburi, Owing to its strategic location along to draw local and foreign visitors to
200 restaurants in Sriracha have the Gulf of Thailand, its proximity to Chonburi. In Sriracha Municipality,
Bangkok, for example, a sea turtle conservation
its various pond at the Koh Loy (Loy Island) park in
natural, Sriracha holds numerous and varying
cultural and sizes of sea turtles, which visitors can
historical view and feed. At least one hundred
values, and of these sea turtles are released
the availability annually to the sea with stakeholder
of supporting participation.
facilities and
convenient Visitors at Koh Loy are also
transport encouraged to contribute to
services, marine conservation by buying
tourism has and releasing fishes and crabs. In
been one addition to serving as venues for
of the main marine conservation education for
economic young and adult visitors alike, these
activities in activities also generate income for
Chonburi. In local folks who provide the turtle
addition to feeds, crabs and fishes, and for local
the appealing entrepreneurs who operate food
seaside, white stalls and sell various ornaments
sand beaches and souvenir items.
and coastal
resources, To further promote eco-tourism
other tourist and at the same time develop a
attractions sense of responsibility among the
of Chonburi youth for marine conservation and
Top: Chonburi is involved in coral rehabilitation activities. include
Bottom: Underwater and beach cleanup activities in the province involve various sectors including the
youth. buffalo racing continue to page 58...
30 December 2008
Biodiversity loss
T he For gotten Crisis
News about the global financial crisis is always in the front page of newspapers. Bomb attacks in Iraq and
Afghanistan are often television news breakers. World attention is focused on the humanitarian implications of
conflicts in the Middle East. Effects of climate change are favorite topics of video documentaries. Buried under
these global issues and other problems such as terrorism, high crimes, and corruption is a lesser known crisis
with far greater implications than anyone can imagine — biodiversity loss.
We are losing our biodiversity at unprecedented rates due to deforestation, large-scale mining, wildlife hunting,
illegal wildlife trading, and other irresponsible human activities. Biodiversity loss poses a significant threat to
our food security, health, livelihood, and the earth’s overall capacity to provide for our and future generations’
needs.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment published in 2005 reported that humans have increased extinction
levels dramatically over the past decades at 100 to 1,000 times the normal background rate.1 In Southeast Asia
alone, 1,312 out of 64,800 species are endangered.
1
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and Human
Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. World Resources Institute,
Washington, D.C.
Tropical Coasts 31
Ultimately, the loss of biodiversity is one of the greatest And with every species lost, the natural ecosystems we call
threats that we face. It is in the area of food security, home become biologically poorer.
perhaps more than any other, that biodiversity’s value is
most clear. Nature provides the plant and animal resources The consensus to save Southeast Asia’s thinning
for food production and agricultural productivity. When biodiversity moved the ASEAN, with funding support from
we destroy biodiversity, we destroy our source of food. the European Union (EU), to establish the ASEAN Regional
Centre for Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC) Project. From
The Food and Agriculture Organization reported that out 1999 to 2004, the project facilitated collaboration among
of more than 10,000 different plant species used for food
by humans over the millennia, barely 150 species remain
under cultivation. Of these, only 12 species provide 80
percent of the world’s food needs and only four – rice,
wheat, maize and potatoes – provide more than half of
human’s energy requirements.2 What happened to the
9,850 other species? If they have not been lost already,
they are vulnerable.
2
Food and Agriculture Organization. Agricultural Biodiversity in
Over 500 million people in Southeast Asia could be affected by massive biodiversity loss.
FAO. Available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/i0112e/i0112e.
pdf.
3
Food and Agriculture Organization. Global Forest Resources
Assessment 2000. Available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/unfao/bodies/cofo/
cofo15/X9835e.pdf.
32 December 2008
Southeast Asia occupies 3 percent of the earth's total surface yet serves as home to 20 percent of all the world's known species.
ASEAN Member States for biodiversity-related initiatives. programme development and policy coordination, human
A year later in 2005, the ASEAN and EU agreed to establish and institutional capacity development, biodiversity
ACB to carry on the work of the completed ARCBC project. information management, public and leadership
ACB, an intergovernmental regional center of excellence awareness of biodiversity values, and sustainable
that facilitates coordination among the members of financing mechanism.
ASEAN and with relevant national governments, regional
and international organizations on the conservation and To leverage resources, ACB also forms alliances with key
sustainable use of biological diversity, is at the forefront of stakeholders in the regional and global levels, including
conserving biodiversity in Southeast Asia. the Partnerships in Environmental Management for the
Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA). Both ACB and PEMSEA have
It is the first regional initiative to save the ASEAN’s rich but a common objective of promoting the preservation
highly threatened biodiversity. of marine and coastal species and sustainable use of
biodiversity in Southeast Asia.
With its slogan “Conserving Biodiversity, Saving Humanity,”
ACB performs its mandate through five components: The two institutions have plans to collaborate in
The author addressing the scientific community in Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines and Director Mundita Lim of the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau of the Department of
explaining the impact of biodiversity loss on food security. Environment and Natural Resources, and representatives of Embassies of European Union
and ASEAN countries, test ACB's newly designed website.
Tropical Coasts 33
For more information on the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity, its advocacy, and
its programs, please contact (+6349) 5362865 and (+6349) 5361044, e-mail
contact.us@aseanbiodiversity.org, or visit www.aseanbiodiversity.org.
Dr. Ahmed Djohglaf, Executive Secretary of the Convention on Biological Diversity, visits
ACB to discuss international cooperation in reducing biodiversity loss.
34 December 2008
The Governments of Brunei Darussalam, the Kingdom of for Biodiversity to further strengthen regional cooperation on
Cambodia, the Republic of Indonesia, the Lao People’s biological diversity;
Democratic Republic, Malaysia, the Union of Myanmar, the
Republic of the Philippines, the Republic of Singapore, the DO HEREBY AGREE AS FOLLOWS:
Kingdom of Thailand and the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam;
Article 1
Being members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Establishment of the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity
(hereinafter referred to as “ASEAN”):
There shall be established an ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity
AWARE of the immense importance of the rich diversity of (ACB), hereinafter referred to as the “Centre”. The Centre shall
biological resources in the ASEAN region and its contribution have its seat in the Republic of the Philippines.
to social development, economic growth, environmental
protection and ecosystem services, at the national, regional Article 2
and global levels; Purpose of the Centre
REITERATING their commitment to conserve and sustainably The purpose of the Centre shall be to facilitate cooperation
use these biological resources, in accordance with national and coordination among the members of ASEAN, and with
priorities, and regional and international imperatives; relevant national governments, regional and international
organizations, on the conservation and sustainable use of
RECOGNISING the valuable achievements of the ASEAN biological diversity and the fair and equitable sharing of
Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation Project (1999- benefits arising from the use of such biodiversity in the ASEAN
2004) in promoting biodiversity conservation and sustainable region.
use, especially in terms of networking, training, research and
database management; Article 3
Structure of the Centre
RECALLING the support of the ASEAN ministers responsible
for the environment for the continued sustainability of The Centre shall be composed of:
the ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity Conservation
as embodied in the Yangon Resolution on Sustainable (a) a Governing Board;
Development signed on 18 December 2003 in Yangon, (b) an Executive Director and such staff as shall be
Myanmar; necessary to perform the functions of the Centre; and
(c) such committees or subsidiary bodies as may be deemed
THANKING the Government of the Republic of the Philippines necessary by the Governing Board.
for hosting the ASEAN Regional Centre for Biodiversity
Conservation; Article 4
Governing Board
WELCOMING with appreciation the offer of the Government
of the Republic of the Philippines to host the ASEAN Centre 1. There shall be established a Governing Board, hereinafter
Tropical Coasts 35
referred to as the Board, assuming overall responsibility, (h) perform any other function as and when considered
and accountable for the operations [of ] the Centre. necessary to achieve the purpose under Article 2 of this
Agreement.
2. The Board shall comprise of the members of the
ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment or their Article 6
representatives and the Secretary General of ASEAN or his Executive Director
representative.
1. The Executive Director shall be responsible and
3. The Board may invite observers as it deems appropriate to accountable for the day-to-day operations of the Centre
attend the Board Meetings. and any other function that may be directed by the Board.
4. The Board shall be chaired by the Chairman of the ASEAN 2. The Executive Director shall be a citizen of an ASEAN
Senior Officials on the Environment. The Executive member country, and have a term of office of three (3)
Director shall act as Secretary to the Board. years, which may be extended at the discretion of the
Board. The Executive Director shall be selected by open
5. The Board shall meet at least once a year. Extra-ordinary recruitment. However, Member Countries that opt for
meetings may be called by the Chairman at the request of nomination will conduct their own selection process and
any member of the Board, provided that such request is nominate suitable candidate(s) for the consideration of
supported by at least one other member. the Governing Board.
6. The Board shall report to the ASEAN ministers responsible 3. The Executive Director shall be assisted by professional
for the environment. and supporting staff to carry out the assigned functions
and responsibilities as approved by the Board.
Article 5
Functions of the Board 4. The Board shall designate an officer to serve as the Acting
Executive Director if the office of the Executive Director
The functions of the Board shall be to: should become vacant, or if he/she is deemed by the
Board as unable to discharge his/her duties. The Acting
(a) provide policy guidance and directions, and undertake Executive Director shall have the capacity to exercise all
overall supervision of the operations of the Centre; the powers of the Executive Director pursuant to this
present Agreement.
(b) approve the organizational structure and staff
requirements for the Centre; 5. The Executive Director shall:
(c) approve the rules and procedures for the conduct of the (a) administer the Centre and its programmes with a view
meetings or proceedings of the Board, its committees or to ensuring that the Centre fulfils its purpose;
subsidiary bodies;
(b) prepare annual work programmes, plans, budgets,
(d) approve the rules, procedures and regulations for the financial statements or any other documents for the
operations of the Centre, including the staff and financial consideration of the Board;
rules;
(c) report on the implementation of the activities of the
(e) approve the business plan, including the annual work Centre to the Board;
programmes and budget of the Centre and monitor their
implementation; (d) appoint, subject to the confirmation of the Board,
manage and supervise key professional staff of the
(f ) appoint an Executive Director for the Centre and Centre;
determine the terms and conditions for the position, and
confirm the appointments of key professional staff; (e) appoint, manage and supervise supporting staff,
consultants and experts to the Centre;
(g) administer the funds entrusted to the Centre, and to
approve the rules and procedures for the management (f ) develop and implement strategies to ensure
of such funds; appropriate funding for programmes and institutional
36 December 2008
(g) perform such other duties as may be required by the Any member country may propose amendments to this
Board. Agreement. Such amendments, when approved by all
Member Countries, shall come into force on such date as
Article 7 may be agreed upon.
Host Government Obligations
Article 11
1. As a commitment to the Centre, the Government of the Review and Termination
Republic of the Philippines, hereinafter referred to as the
Host Government, shall provide at its own cost, adequate 1. This Agreement shall be reviewed at least every five
premises, operational facilities and such other facilities years by the Member Countries to this Agreement.
needed for the operations of the Centre.
2. This Agreement shall be terminated by agreement
2. The Host Government shall also grant to the Centre and of all the ASEAN member countries and shall be
its staff privileges and immunities as may be necessary for conducted in a manner as not to prejudice their
the performance of their duties and functions similar to respective interests in this matter. Upon termination of
those accorded to the ASEAN Secretariat and its staff and this Agreement, the Centre shall stand dissolved.
in accordance with the laws and regulations prevailing in
the country of the Host Government. 3. Upon the dissolution of the Centre, the disposal of the
assets and liabilities of the Centre shall be determined
Article 8 jointly by all ASEAN Member Countries.
Financial Arrangements
Article 12
1. There shall be established an ASEAN Biodiversity Fund, Settlement of Disputes
hereinafter referred to as the Fund.
Any dispute concerning the interpretation or
2. The Fund shall be utilised to meet the expenses necessary implementation of the Agreement shall be settled
to implement the activities required to fulfill the purpose amicably through consultation or negotiation.
of the Centre, as approved by the Board.
Article 13
3. The ASEAN member countries may make voluntary Status of Annexes to the Agreement
contributions to the Fund.
The Annexes attached to this Agreement shall constitute
4. The Fund shall be open to contributions from other an integral part of the Agreement.
governments and organizations, as approved by the
Board. Article 14
Final Provisions
Article 9
Juridical Personality 1. This Agreement shall be subject to ratification by the
ASEAN member countries and shall enter into force on
The Centre shall possess juridical personality and have the the deposit of the sixth instrument of ratification with
capacity to: the Secretary General of ASEAN.
Done at the respective capitals of ASEAN member For the Government of the Union of Myanmar,
countries on the dates indicated.
mangrove rehabilitation, training of local was proposed. Initially, many in the It has taken four years but Maloloy
communities in fishing rights and laws, community were extremely skeptical. says he is finally a champion of the
coastal zone management and watershed Psychologically, the sea had always sanctuary, after members of the
management. belonged to them, in addition, the best sanctuary committee asked him to
breeding spots, of course, were also the become a fish warden himself. The
With the majority of locals dependent best fishing spots. Enforced protection sense of responsibility finally hit home.
on the fishing industry, the project also met with deep resentment by some in
provided opportunities for people to the community. “Now I understand the whole
move into other forms of livelihood, process of the CRM (coastal resource
including sustainable farming of oysters During the early years after the management) program,” he says. “I am
and seaweed, technical training such sanctuary was introduced, community a member of the marine sanctuary
as information technology (IT) training, fish wardens, despite the backing of management committee and I
construction, garment making and even local authorities, reported finding safeguard and sustain the programme.”
ecotourism. up to 80 fishing boats in the marine
sanctuary in a single night. Harsh According to Lota Montejo, the
While World Vision provided technical fines and confiscation of equipment chairwoman of Tabogon’s main
expertise to draw up the goals and were no match for the backlash from a sanctuary, there were many like Maloloy
community that felt their in the early years of the programme.
rights were threatened.
Sabotage for ideological “Some fishers intentionally fished in the
as well as economic sanctuary because of the abundance of
reasons was a real fish in comparison. Before it had not even
possibility. been a fishing ground, now suddenly it
was the main source of fishing activity.
One fisher, Romie Then suddenly there were 60 to 80 boats
Maloloy, can still clearly sighted there every day.”
state the reasons why he
was reluctant to join the The occupants of these boats made little
environmental battle. effort to disguise their identities and
were well known to the government
“Honestly, I was and community. Rather than continuing
involved in illegal to criminalize them, there began a slow
fishing activities… process of changing their minds, not
and I was against the just through penalties but also through
establishment of the persuasion and proof.
sanctuary. My reason was
directions, and support to community that I couldn’t make a living from the “The impact of our marine sanctuary
groups to implement their decisions, most area I was allowed to fish in. In those has changed a lot of perceptions in
of the labor came from the community, days fish were very difficult to catch the community,” says Montejo. “Many
and the government provided the because of overfishing and pollution.” started with negative impressions, but
equipment. As with many of World Vision’s now they are positive because of the
most successful community-driven “A year later, I still didn’t believe the increase in the legal fish catch. The most
projects, the economic investment was sanctuary worked – they showed us a recent assessment in November this year
minimal, the driving force coming from video but there was no sign of fish and [2008] shows us clearly that the marine
local committees and individuals who the coral had deteriorated.” resources have improved.”
believed in the benefits that these drastic
measures would one day bring. Maloloy continued his illegal activities
in the face of increasing penalties Tabogon’s benefits emerge
Community climbs aboard and community disapproval. “I was from the ocean
apprehended many times and paid
World Vision had already been working what I had to for my penalty. But I The ability to provide proof was integral
in Tabogon for many years when never felt guilty, and I earned more in to the success of the sanctuary plan.
the ‘ambitious’ plan for a sanctuary fishing than I paid in penalties!” It came early; within a couple of years,
Tropical Coasts 41
despite the halving of fishing waters, The impact of land-based livelihoods on found that self-reported fish catches
the yield had indeed doubled from its marine livelihoods, and the importance in Lamon Bay had already increased to
2002 low point. By 2006, the catch in of coastal zone management and around 10-15 kg/day (again up from
the same area had increased to 10 kg watershed management, has led to 0-1 kg in 2002). Anecdotal evidence
per fisher. an understanding that no community from fisherfolk in 2008 suggests
is isolated from the actions of others. that, like in Tabogon, fish catches
This was a turning point for the Additionally, the training in non- are approaching 25 kg/day and that
community. Since then, public support fishing industries has meant that the illegal fishing practices have decreased
for policing has increased substantially community is now not as dependent considerably.
in line with strong community on fishing for either food or income.
adherence to the principles of local Nowadays, oyster production, seaweed Taking the model forward
environmental management. production, welding, land agriculture
and other livelihoods are seeing a Lightheartedly, the chairman of
Lately, fisherfolk have been reporting significant increase in participation and Tabogon’s third marine sanctuary, Mr.
catches of 25 kg/day. With the success thus in community value. Dagino Montemor, recently listed his
of the original marine sanctuary, the main concern with the project “that
community and the local government A nascent tourism industry has been someday fishers’ boats will not be able
have entered into an agreement to another promising outcome
increase the number of sanctuaries for the people of Tabogon.
around Tabogon from one to three. The marine sanctuary has
allowed extensive coral reefs,
In addition, other neighboring now with abundant fish and
communities, previously unassociated other sea creatures, to thrive.
with World Vision, are seeking advice Previously there was no
on how to introduce similar coastal tourism activity connected
management plans. Not only will to this reef. Now, the fees
these initiatives increase protection charged to tourists to view
of the Philippines’ most vital resource, the marine sanctuary areas
but they will further relieve pressure are helping with the financial
on Tabogon waters where these sustainability of the CRM
communities have been fishing. activities.
for food security and the restoration of climate change), they are also very sustainability as a key factor in
livelihoods and lifestyles are the driving vulnerable to slight changes in ocean addressing poverty. One of the
factors behind the success of the temperatures, ocean acidity and water biggest challenges to child health and
activities. Commitment to the value height. protection occurs when contemporary
of the environment in its own right, populations lose their balance with the
although growing, remains weak in Assessment by marine experts on the environment, and take from it without
both communities. current environmental effects of this protection and restoration.
project has not yet occurred, while
Should fish numbers decline again, research to predict the impact of For World Vision, the success of coastal
which could feasibly happen through climate change is desperately needed. resource management in what for
disease, pollution drift or algal blooms, Even then, it may be impossible to us developmentally speaking are
such as red tide reported in other areas accurately link findings to specific local “unchartered waters” shows not just
of northern Cebu recently, support environments, or to convince local what is possible, but also what is
for the marine sanctuary could drop communities of any changes to plan. necessary — a blurring of the lines
significantly. of development to acknowledge
Anecdotally, though, the proof is there, sustainability as a key responsibility.
Even now, a challenge to the reflected not only in stronger food
sanctuaries lies in the increasingly security but also in the life of the sea.
lucrative nature of the fishing industry. More than 60 fish species together
As a result of overfishing globally, rising with the region’s dolphins, rays and The Tabogan Marine Sanctuary Plan was a
prices and falling stocks of seafood turtles are returning in numbers to joint initiative between:
mean that illegal fishing activities the waters off Tabogon — an unusual
have become even more profitable. and rewarding side effect for a project t Local Government Unit of Tabogon
Increased pools of cash for illegal designed to protect and nurture the t SOGOD Incorporated (community-
and commercial fishing may increase community’s children! based organization in partnership
opportunities for corruption where with World Vision)
communities and individuals are poor. World Vision plans to continue and t Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
expand its marine food security Resources - Province of Cebu
Groups involved in illegal and projects in the Philippines. Alongside t Japan International Cooperation
commercial fishing may have the this, the importance of the Philippine Agency
economic power to purchase advanced archipelago in marine resource t Environmental Legal Assistance
sonar equipment to better detect management needs greater research Center, Philippines
schools of fish and faster boats than and championing internationally, and t Department of Environment and
those used by the community fish messages of protection need to be Natural Resources, Philippines
wardens. To keep up, the wardens need spread nationwide.
to upgrade boats, use night vision Many communities, not only around
equipment, obtain sophisticated IT Cebu but also in the many islands of References
equipment, even build lighthouses the Philippines, still find themselves
and other anti-poaching infrastructure, in very similar situations to that of BFAR (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources). Various reports and
none of which the coastal communities Lamon Bay and Tabogon before a
articles from the BFAR website. Bureau
of the Philippines can afford. CRM approach was initiated. The of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources,
destruction of world-class coral reefs Department of Agriculture, Philippines.
In terms of true sustainability, and other marine environments still http://www.bfar.da.gov.ph
one other significant challenge continue through illegal activities
FAO Statistics Division. 2006. FAO Statistical
merits acknowledgement: the as such as dynamite and cyanide fishing,
Yearbook. Available online at: http://
yet unanswered question of the as does overfishing by large illegal www.fao.org/ES/ess/index_en.asp;
effect of climate change on coral commercial vessels. http://www.fao.org/ES/ess/yearbook/
reefs and marine environments default.asp. Food and Agriculture
in the Philippines. Although coral Addressing this may not seem to be Organization, Rome.
reefs are acknowledged to be of within the realm of a child-focused
World Vision Development Foundation.
great benefit as a “carbon sink” (and development agency like World Annual Reports and Project Evaluations.
therefore protection of coral reefs is Vision. But Millennium Development World Vision Development Foundation.
of benefit to global efforts to combat Goal Seven calls for environmental http://www.worldvision.org.
Tropical Coasts 43
By G. Robin South
Coordinator, International Ocean Institute OceanLearn Programme
Division of Marine Studies
Faculty of Science, Technology & Environment
The University of the South Pacific
PO Box 1168, Suva
Fiji Islands
Fisheries Governance
and Training in the Pacific
Islands Region
Introduction comprises some 23 states covering like Fiji, Tonga and French Polynesia,
more than 30 million km2 of the Pacific are archipelagic states comprised
Great geographic, demographic and Ocean and includes all of the island of numerous large and small highly
developmental diversity exist within the nations or territories of the tropical dispersed islands. Others like Papua
Pacific Islands region. These differences Pacific Ocean, as well as all associated New Guinea consist of parts of very
extend to the climate, geological offshore and ocean areas that are large, high continental islands, plus
resources, topographical features, soil considered part of the “cultural areas” countless offshore large and small
types, mineral and water availability, of Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia. islands. The total land areas vary from
extent of coral reefs and diversity of Some “groups” or countries, like Easter 12 to 26 km2 for groups of low-lying
terrestrial, freshwater and marine flora Island, Guam, Kosrae, Nauru and Niue, coral-limestone islands like Tokelau
and fauna. The Pacific Islands region consist of one single small island. Some, and Tuvalu to over 400,000 km2 for the
44 December 2008
continental island areas like Papua New waters, this fishery currently catches regional Fisheries Treaty, assistance
Guinea. around one million tonnes/year whole in drawing up the Convention for the
weight of skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus Prohibition of Fishing with Long Drift
The Pacific Islands region is the world’s pelamis), yellowfin tuna (Thunnus Nets in the South Pacific, and assistance
most important fishery. The tuna fishery albacares), bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus) to members in drawing up bilateral
alone is worth US$1.7 billion annually, and albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga) agreements with distant water fishing
although the returns to the Pacific (Adams, 1996). nations (DWFNs). FFA maintains a
Islands through licensing agreements database on catches and receives,
are small compared with the value. One These migratory fish stocks do not collates and disseminates information
third of the world’s tuna is captured recognize territorial boundaries so on fishing activities in the region (South
in the region, which includes 40-60 they are governed and managed and Veitayaki, 1999).
percent of the supply to tuna canneries through a number of regional and
and 30 percent of Japan’s sashimi international bodies and agreements The SPC’s Oceanic Fisheries Programme
market (Fisheries Task Force, 2002). overseen by the Forum Fisheries Agency plays a critical role in the areas of
The institutional framework for the (FFA) based in Honiara, Solomon catch statistics, stock assessment and
governance of fisheries within the Islands, the Secretariat of the Pacific monitoring of migratory fish stocks,
Pacific Islands region concerns two very Community (SPC) based in Noumea and in research on populations and
different components: the first relates to (Oceanic Fisheries Programme), New the environmental conditions that
the enormous oceanic fishery, and the Caledonia, and the Commission for influence them. The SPC also oversees
second to coastal fishery. the Conservation and Management an observer programme for the fishery.
of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in
Oceanic Fisheries — fishes that know the Western and Central Pacific The Tuna Commission manages and
no boundaries Ocean established in 2004 and based monitors the Pacific region’s tuna stock
in Pohnpei, Federated States of and enforces controls in international
The fishery for tropical tuna is carried Micronesia. waters beyond each country’s 200
out mainly by distant-water fishing nautical mile maritime boundaries. The
vessels of non-Pacific Island nations, The FFA advises members on the legal Commission is founded on the premise
within the Exclusive Economic Zones and technical aspects of delimiting of the United Nations Convention on
(EEZs) of, and high seas adjacent their maritime boundaries, and in the Law of the Sea and the subsequent
to, Pacific Island nations. Within the drafting of appropriate legislation to agreement relating to the Conservation
Secretariat of the Pacific Community protect stocks. Important initiatives of and Management of Straddling Fish
(SPC) Fisheries Statistical Area, the FFA have included the negotiation Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish
excluding Philippines and Indonesian of the United States — South Pacific Stocks. This subsequently led to the
Tropical Coasts 45
three times and consists of six modules: of materials for a specific location, and
for their translation to other languages.
t .BOBHFNFOU"EWJDF The Coordination Units of all the UN
t 'JTIFSJFT.BOBHFNFOU1PMJDJFT
programmes offer assurance of quality
Strategies and Plans control, facilitate networking, and
t .BOBHFNFOUPG-FHBM*TTVFT assist in the evaluation of materials.
t 4UBLFIPMEFS3PMFT The training programmes are hosted by
t 3FHVMBUJOHBOE.POJUPSJOH'JTIJOH academic or training institutions, which
Activity benefit from the learned methodology
t "ENJOJTUSBUJWF'VODUJPOT and from the opportunity to adapt the
training courses to their own specific
Coastal Fisheries needs. An example would be the Marine
Studies Programme of the University
Within the Pacific Islands region, the of the South Pacific, where two courses
International Ocean Institute (IOI) and developed by IOI-South Pacific on
its host, the University of the South Integrated Coastal Management,
Pacific’s Marine Studies Programme, and Environmental and Resource
have played a key role in the Economics, have subsequently been
development of training programmes adapted as undergraduate courses.
supportive of the coastal fisheries Furthermore, the TRAIN-X methodology,
sector. The driving force behind the while radically different from the usual
IOI’s training programmes is the need teaching methods at a university, has
to directly impact decisionmakers proved to be a very valuable tool in the
from government, the private sector improvement of teaching by those staff
and nongovernmental organizations members who have undertaken the
(NGOs) with ocean or coastal mandates, TRAIN-X training.
on their nation’s obligations under
The broad focus for this Course is the UNCLOS, and under the various Fisheries Management and
responsible management of oceanic conventions and agreements Marine Protected Areas
fisheries resources. The focus on emanating from UNCED. Thus, there
oceanic issues reflects the continuing are common iterative themes in the Coastal fisheries management in the
dynamic state of fisheries management training programmes that place the IOI Pacific Islands region is a national
arrangements in the Pacific Islands stamp upon them. IOI-Pacific Islands has responsibility overseen by national
region and the significance of oceanic developed and offered the following governments. With the support of
fisheries resources as the region’s courses: governments, it is now strongly
primary renewable resource. It linked to the establishment of Marine
also underlines the importance of t .BOBHFNFOUBOE%FWFMPQNFOUPG Protected Areas (MPAs). Of the more
maintaining an active role for fisheries Coastal Fisheries than 400 MPAs in the Pacific Islands
managers in on-going negotiations to t &OWJSPONFOUBMBOE3FTPVSDF region (Pascal, et al., 2008), the vast
establish effective conservation and Economics majority are predicated on the need to
management arrangements for regional t 4VTUBJOBCMFVTFPG'JTIFSJFT protect declining and overfished coastal
fish stocks. t 4NBMM*TMBOET resources, an important food security
t *OUFHSBUFE$PBTUBM;POF issue for the resource owners. The
While principally targeting oceanic Management majority of these MPAs is community-
fisheries, this Course also draws the t 2VBOUJUBUJWF3FTPVSDF#JPMPHZ driven, and utilizes community-based
attention of fisheries managers to the management strategies, or co-
potential of the Code, the associated Effectiveness of Courses management strategies. Government,
Technical Guidelines and International NGOs (local, regional and international)
Plans of Action to support fisheries The UN and IOI programmes stress the and in a few cases, the private sector
management initiatives across the importance of sharing and networking are among the partners involved in the
broad spectrum of needs encountered courses and modules; this is an excellent management of these MPAs. The locally
in Pacific Islands fisheries — coastal and way of avoiding duplication of effort. managed marine area programme
oceanic. The Course has been offered Mechanisms exist for the adaptation (LMMA) which originated in Fiji, has
Tropical Coasts 47
now spread to other Pacific islands, and sustainable these reserves are in the Region), and OceanLearn also deals with
beyond to Southeast Asia, with a total long term, and how effective they are Marine Protected Area Management,
of 342 sites (2007: www.lmmanetwork. in protecting fish stocks, they represent and is more geared towards the needs
org). An LMMA is defined as “An area of a strong community response on of actual MPA managers. Fisheries
nearshore waters and coastal resources the importance of coastal fisheries management is integral to the course,
that is largely or wholly managed at a management. which is organized as follows:
local level by the coastal communities,
land-owning groups, partner Two courses on MPAs have been t 0WFSWJFXPGUIF1BDJöD*TMBOET
organizations, and/or collaborative promoted by the IOI’s OceanLearn t *OUSPEVDUJPOUP.1"T
government representatives who reside Programme, which was established to t .1"TBOEDPBTUBMNBOBHFNFOU
BOE
or are based in the immediate area.” coordinate the IOI’s capacity-building t .1"OFUXPSLT
(Govan, et al., 2008). This is a novel programs (www.oceanlearn.net). One,
approach to conservation in which developed jointly with UN/DOALOS The course is highly participatory, with
communities play the lead role in and using the TRAIN-SEA-COAST input from participants who provide
project implementation and monitoring Methodology, was first offered in the case studies from their respective
instead of scientists or government Solomon Islands in 2007: Development, countries. It was first offered in Fiji in
officials. The project has won several Implementation and Management 2008.
international awards for this innovative of Marine Protected Areas (Figure
approach. The LMMA has developed 1). Inevitably, substantial parts of Samoa’s Village Fisheries
a training programme designed to the course relate to coastal fisheries Management Plan
provide stakeholders with the necessary management. A second course offered
MPA management and monitoring jointly by the United States National Unique among fisheries management
skills. Oceanographic and Atmospheric initiatives in the Pacific is the Village
Administration (NOAA) National Marine Fisheries Management Plan, developed
While the jury is still out on how Sanctuaries Program (Pacific Islands in Samoa (King and Fa’asili, .1999).
t International agreements
t National legislative and
Development institutional framework
t Model legislation for marine
t conservation
Figure 1. The UN/DOALOS/OceanLearn MPA course consists of three distinct modules that present in a sequential
manner the process of developing, implementing and managing sustainable and successful MPAs
(source: Training Manual, Development, Implementation and Management of Marine Protected Areas.
UN/DOALOS/OceanLearn, 2007).
48 December 2008
The coastal and marine ecosystems of recognized the need for village rules is available to assist stakeholders in
Samoa have been a mainstay for the to be given legal support to prevent the management of MPAs; funding
people over many generations. Over the such a loophole, and thus village-level limitations are the main hindrance to
last 50 years, rapid development has led Fisheries Bylaws were introduced. The making them more widely available.
to population explosion, and serious By-laws are village specific and they
changes to traditional living. Market often include activities that cannot be It remains to be seen how effective
economies became a dominating force carried out within the village coast. To management of stocks in the high seas
impacting adversely on the traditional date 83 villages are participating with and in the coastal waters of Pacific
social setting and obligations. The 62 agreeing to set up fish reserves as Islands will be, but the signs of decline
Fisheries Act of 1988 and Fisheries part of their Management Plan. This of stocks throughout the region do not
Regulations 1995 were enacted to try network of 62 reserves provides a good portend well for future security.
and manage the fisheries resources. conservation strategy for the marine
resources of Samoa. References
In recognition of the shift in Samoa’s
modus operandi, the Government now Conclusion Adams, T. 1996. “Governance of Fisheries
encourages the participation of the and Aquaculture in the Pacific Islands
Region.” Review paper for the 3rd
fono (council of chiefs) and the role of The management of oceanic fisheries
Dialogue on the ACP-EU Research
other users (i.e., the untitled men and in the Pacific Islands region is a highly Initiative. Belize.
the women’s group) in decisionmaking. structured and regulated process, with
Separate meetings allow for a free flow extensive input from all stakeholders Fa’asili, U. and Kelekolio, I. 1999.
of discussions, and a representative involved. The development of the “The use of village by-laws in
marine conservation and fisheries
from each group is selected to form the UN/DOALOS OceanLearn training
management.” SPC Traditional Marine
Fisheries Management and Advisory course has been designed to address Resource Management and Knowledge
Committee (FMAC). The overall international conventions and Information Bulletin # 11.
objective is to develop a Fisheries agreements supportive of sustainable
Management Plan to enable the village management of highly migratory Fisheries Task Force. 2002. “Fisheries
in the Pacific. Coherence between
to manage its resources. fish stocks that have immense global,
development and commercial
regional and national significance. objectives.” DG DEV/AIDCO. Pacific
The process can take between three Almost 100 fisheries managers have Issues Paper No. 1. Brussels.
months to over a year, from the initial successfully completed the course, but
introduction phase to the formal many more need to complete it: what Govan, H., W. Aalbersberg, A. Tawake and
J.E. Parks. 2008. “Guide to Supporting
adoption of a Fisheries Management is needed are the necessary funds for
Community-based Adaptive
Plan. Villagers decide on what are the this. Regardless of the highly developed Management.” The Locally-Managed
critical issues to be addressed and management systems in place, it Marine Areas Network. 70 pp.
what solutions that they would adopt. is evident that the stocks of some
Fish reserves are declared taboo for important species within the fishery are King, M., and U. Fa’asili. 1999. “A network
of small, community-owned village
a period of time and enforcement is at risk; furthermore, poaching accounts
fish reserves in Samoa.” SPC Traditional
the sole undertaking of the village. for some 40 percent of the catch. Marine Resource Management and
The villagers impose penalties for Knowledge Information Bulletin #11.
lawbreakers equivalent to the old days, The management and regulation
including fines of pigs, chickens or of coastal fisheries is largely the Pascal, N., J.-R. Mercier and N. Conner.
2008. Economics of Marine Managed
money. This initially worked well for the responsibility of national governments,
Areas of the South Pacific. Workshop
villagers, but proved to be a toothless but includes heavy involvement Report, Suva, Fiji. Coral Reef Initiatives
tiger when the offenders are outsiders of NGOs, and the resource owners for the Pacific (CRISP), Secretariat
(non-village people). As clause 104 themselves. Most of the coastal of the Pacific Regional Environment
of the Constitution stipulated that all fisheries in the region are unregulated, Programme (SPREP) and International
Union for Conservation of Nature
lands lying below the high water mark and information on stocks is scarce.
(IUCN).
is public land, this meant that outsiders Overfishing and stock depletion have
can fish within the village coastal zone led to the formation of many MPAs South, G.R. and J. Veitayaki. 1999. “Global
including taboo fish reserves. Villagers in the region, and which are largely initiatives in the South Pacific: A case
found it difficult to impose their focused on fisheries management, and study of the regional approach to
workable arrangements.” Asia Pacific
fines on members of another village. involve both traditional and western
School of Economics and Management
To overcome this, the Government strategies. A variety of training courses STUDIES ON LINE, 99(1): 1-52.
Tropical Coasts 49
the population of the coastal zone ecosystems but we don’t know oceans on the goods and services
continues to rise. To make realistic enough to identify the winners and delivered by the marine ecosystems
plans to sustain the development of losers. of East Asia. We know there will be an
coastal states, politicians and planners impact but we cannot predict its scale
need a realistic prediction of the As an increasing volume of carbon or provide details of the species or
resources that the sea will provide. dioxide dissolves in the ocean, it ecosystem functions that will be most
will become more acidic and, as it severely damaged. To do so, we need
Over recent years, there have been does so, its fundamental chemistry to develop our existing partnerships
major international research efforts and that of the species living in it within the region and use the
to understand to consequences will change. There will be changes methods we have develop in Europe
of climate change and ocean in the availability of the nutrients in a new tropical setting. We have
acidification for the provision of in seawater that are needed to already begun collaborations with
marine resources in which the sustain productivity with knock- partners in China and would welcome
Plymouth Marine Laboratory on consequences for ecosystem discussions elsewhere.
has played its full part. PML has productivity. In animals and plants,
undertaken research on the impacts there will be changes in basic PML is highly aware that the threats
of increased sea temperatures, on physiology; acute experiments carried posed to the ocean in a high carbon
ocean acidification as well as on out at PML have indicated impacts dioxide world and has been highly
the interaction between them. The on respiration, reproduction and active in disseminating information to
effects on the biology of the ocean are repair following damage, all of which policymakers and coastal managers
considerable; most species live within will have an impact on the viability worldwide; as an example, PML
well-defined ranges of tolerance and of organisms and the ecosystems recently held a series of workshops in
if the environment changes outside in which they live. Evaluating the China to increase awareness. In this
these limits then a species must either impacts of ocean acidification is a new setting, PML stressed that climate
move or die. If the temperature of the field of research in which PML has change and ocean acidification are
ocean increases, then less tolerant played a leading role but it remains now inevitable and that there is an
species will move their distribution in its infancy; it is vary difficult to urgent need to put in place strategies
towards cooler waters and as a identify the most vulnerable elements of adaptation and mitigation. For such
consequence patterns of fisheries of tropical ecosystems. Finally, little policies to be formulated, the need
will change. This can already be seen attention has been paid to the likely for new, well focused, fit for purpose
happening in high latitudes, but in interactions between increasing research was emphasized. We believe
the tropics comparatively little is temperatures and increasing acidity that this must be carried out on an
known about temperature tolerances which may well be more severe than international scale making use of the
or the likely result of the biological the individual impacts combined. widest possible sets of skills. With its
interactions between displaced long standing background in the East
species which makes it difficult to PML scientists are not yet in a position Asian Region, PML looks forward to
make hard and fast predictions. We to make firm predictions about the collaborating in this process.
know there will be changes in marine impacts of warmer and more acid
52 December 2008
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Subsidiary Bodies meeting in Bonn, Germany.
once climate changes, there will be food supply chain, taking into Since an ecosystem cannot
limited increase in food production. account that climate change will be adapted through human
Industrialized countries like RO directly impact on food production. intervention, it will not be cost-
Korea need to consider food self- effective to plant, adapt and make
sufficiency more than protection of Vulnerability in food tropical species indigenous in a
food production within their own security monsoon region as the global
territories. temperature increases. If humans
Impact, vulnerability and adaptation intervene in the ecosystem’s natural
Second, there is a need for are defined differently depending adaptation to climate change, there
consideration of the impact of on what we want to see in a system. is the risk of causing secondary
mitigation actions on adaptation. Woodroffe (2007) discussed the adverse impacts in addition to
UNFCCC defined adverse effect concepts of vulnerability, resilience, climate change impacts.
as including “the adverse effect etc., from the perspective of
of the measure for reducing GHG various fields such as ecology, In the adaptation system relating to
emissions.” Discussions on the disaster prevention and so forth. food security, controlling production
adverse effect of climate change The definition of vulnerability in is in the regime of controlling
measures has been devoted primarily ecosystems is different from the ecosystems. There are several options
to diversification of economies of meaning used in the study of available such as “double cropping”
countries that produce oil-related human society relating to disasters. or enhancing the production of
goods. However, the mitigation Sometimes, this confusion misleads indigenous species, improving
measures for climate change can to the construction of an adaptation irrigation systems and developing
affect not only the oil-related system designed only for humans. water resources, all of which may
economy, but also food production Knowing that it is almost impossible not create major secondary impact.
and supply, vis-à-vis the conversion to make migratory birds return Nevertheless, such efforts in
of food crops into renewable energy, to certain areas or to control the increasing production may not be
such as biofuel generated from corn. blooming seasons of plants with enough for a community to adapt
human efforts, the only way for the to the changed weather. In addition,
The importance of the issues ecosystem to adapt to a climate- the amount of food generated as
discussed above is not recognized changed world is to mitigate the a consequence of enhanced food
or discussed in depth in the present adverse impacts through reductions production via ecosystem control
adaptation regime. Existing efforts on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. may not be enough for the global
are more focused on localized The only thing that we can do to community to adapt to a climate-
measures and concepts with the view adapt to climate change is to change changed world. It can be inferred
on future impacts. An adaptation and adapt ourselves to the changed that the problem of food scarcity
system needs to consider the global environment. may not be solved solely by the
54 December 2008
Manufacturing
Industrialized country
development and implementation of territories. However,
an adaptation system focused on the these countries’ national
prevention of declining production adaptation plans are Small territory
in a climate-changed world. It is time silent on how they will Usually well
Indirect prepared for
to think of other options, except meet their supply needs adaptation
impact
for ecosystem intervention, to keep if their main sources
production steady. of supply, which are
Large territory Direct
located outside of Lack of
Developed countries are perceived their territories, fail. adaptation impact
system
as less vulnerable to climate change. For example, RO Korea
This supposition enables them to imports over 60 percent
focus more on the vulnerability of its grains, except for
and adaptation of less developed rice, from countries Agriculture/fishery
Developing country
countries. However, this leads to including China, Chile,
more emphasis being given to food the United States, etc. Figure 1. Indirect vs. direct impact of climate change
production, whereas adaptation However, what will depending on industrialization level and
territory size.
for food security is not only happen to RO Korea if
influenced by production but also climate change seriously
supply. History shows that supply affects the countries exporting food, or aquatic food products, indirect
causes more serious problems than or if the global market is shaken impact will be important to a
production. For example, in the late by such impacts? In this sense, country that imports most of its
1800s, the El Niño phenomenon industrialized countries still need food. Generally, countries with small
caused long-term drought in India, to think about how and from where territories such as RO Korea and
China, Brazil, etc., and resulted in they can secure their food supply. Japan may not produce enough food
a large number of deaths of over This is a matter of supply rather than within their own boundaries; but
30 to 60 million around world. This production and in other words, one countries with large territories such
drought was not solely responsible country’s production is also critical to as the United States and Argentina 2
for famine but precipitated the another’s own production capacity. would be able to produce almost
failure in food supply. Also, the major all their food. To those countries
increase in the price of corn in 2007 Such impact, which can occur in with small territories and high
was not solely caused by decrease a country through the trade of dependency on agriculture or
in production, but also by the goods from other places, can be fisheries, direct impact will be more
disruption in the supply market. termed “virtual climate change important than virtual impact. Thus,
impact” or “indirect climate change the relationship between direct
The view on how food will be impact.” Indirect impact mainly and indirect impact as well as the
supplied explains why industrialized occurs through food supply or the size of a country’s territory and its
countries need to take into account distribution system while direct status of industrialization would
the adverse impact of climate change impact occurs during production. be conceptualized in such a way as
in other countries, in particular the While direct impact will be critical in shown in Figure 1.
developing and less developed a country that produces agricultural
countries. The supply chain of
industrialized countries begins
at production in developing and
agricultural countries. Industrialized FAD (Food Availability
countries, for example, RO Korea, El Niño Drought
Declination
Japan and some European Union
countries, which have a short supply
of food internally, build their food
supply system outside of their Adaptation system Famine
2
These countries are still vulnerable to
the competition between food and Figure 2. Schematic of the famine driving mechanism.
energy.
Tropical Coasts 55
supply system, which increased happen to RO Korea if the 1985 48.4 103.3
the death toll. In other words, Food extreme events caused 1990 43.1 108.3
Availability Declination (FAD) could by climate change occur 1995 29.1 91.4
be one of the main reasons which in China, its major food 2000 30.8 102.9
caused the famine in Asia (Figure exporting country? The 2001 32.2 102.7
2). FAD is not determined solely adaptation system of
2002 31.0 99.2
by food production; consideration China may be equally
2003 27.7 90.3
on how we can supply if extreme crucial to RO Korea in
2004 26.8 96.5
events happen is also a factor. view of food security, in
2005 29.3 102.0
particular, the food supply
system. 2006 28.0 98.9
In summary, history tells us that
56 December 2008
environmental protection, selected corresponding local capacity analysis for better assessment and
youths from local schools have development. In parallel, the project reporting of outcomes.
been trained to serve as eco-travel also spearheaded various on-
guides in Koh Loy and other tourist the-ground actions involving the ICM implementation in Chonburi
areas in their spare time. Token local governments, communities has been facilitated by the following
incentives are provided to the and various stakeholders in order factors:
volunteers by the local government. to demonstrate the benefits of
Hundreds of youths have also been integrated and collaborative t A common vision and framework
trained in environmental protection actions. Key outcomes of ICM for actions through the coastal
and marine conservation and implementation in Chonburi strategy and its implementation
are involved in various activities, include improvement in the plan, and consolidation of local
including waste segregation and decision-making process through initiatives;
recycling, mangrove reforestation, the ICM Provincial Coordinating t Appropriate legal and
and water quality monitoring and Committee, improved interaction institutional arrangements for
analysis. and cooperation among the local multisectoral and inter-agency
governments, and enhanced coordination;
Guided by the vision of a healthy stakeholder participation in marine t A dedicated coordinating
and sustainable coastal city, public and coastal management activities. body/secretariat in Sriracha
parks, promenades and facilities Municipality;
that promote exercise and sports, In terms of ecological and t Political commitment and
cultural activities and social socioeconomic outcomes, the dedication of ICM “champions”;
interactions for locals and visitors lack of systematic comparative t Strategic capacity development
alike have also been built in Sriracha studies on these aspects at this of local personnel and
in order to promote not only social point does not yet allow explicit awareness building and
and economic vibrance, but also conclusions to be made. Based on education of stakeholders;
overall wellbeing and improved stakeholder feedback, however, t Participatory and integrated
quality of life. improvements have been observed planning and implementation
with regard to the harvest of approach involving various
Outcomes of ICM crabs and other marine species, stakeholders;
Implementation mangrove cover has increased and t Multistakeholder partnerships,
seagrass beds have been restored including nongovernmental
Over the past decades, rapid in Sriracha Bay, among others. organizations and the private
economic growth, increase in Recyclable materials are also being sector;
population, and increased resource collected every week in various t Use of scientific information to
utilization have exerted a toll on the municipalities. Although, there are support management decisions
marine environment and resources no systematic studies to determine and actions; and
of Chonburi. Substantial efforts additional income resulting from t Integration of ICM activities
have been directed by governments these and other activities, they into the local government
and various stakeholders to address are considered to be directly or development plans and
the resulting ecological, health indirectly contributing toward local programs.
and economic threats. But in order fishery and livelihood development
to be sustainable, these initiatives in Chonburi. ICM implementation The Chonburi ICM project is
needed to be consolidated within in general is considered to be currently focused on further
an integrated framework that will contributing significantly to improving the governance
enhance their effectiveness, reduce building of local capacity to address mechanisms. As such, ICM scaling
duplication of efforts, and promote various challenges to sustainable up, long-term sustainability, and
cooperation and collaboration. coastal development, including the continuing commitment of
enhancing food security and Chonburi’s ICM Network to sharing
The Chonburi ICM project focused livelihood. Hopefully, the ongoing of experiences, demonstrating good
on enhancement of governance development of a State of the practices will be assured.
mechanisms to support integration Coasts (SOC) reporting system will
and collaboration of various coastal facilitate improved data gathering,
management initiatives, including documentation consolidation and