16.

512, Rocket Propulsion

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez
Lecture 3: Ideal Nozzle Fluid Mechanics

Ideal Nozzle Flow with No Separation (1-D)

- Quasi 1-D (slender) approximation

- Ideal gas assumed

F = m ue + ( Pe − Pa ) Ae

F
CF ≡
Pc At

Optimum expansion: Pe = Pa

Ae
- For less , Pe > Pa , could derive more forward push by additional
At
expansion

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 3

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 1 of 10
 Ae
- For more , Pe < Pa , and the extra pressure forces are a suction,
At
backwards

Compute m = ρ uA at sonic throat:

1 γ +1
⎛ 2 ⎞ γ −1 ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 (γ −1) Pc At R
m = ρc ⎜ ⎟ γ RgTc ⎜ ⎟ At = g⎜ ⎟ ; Rg =
⎝ γ + 1⎠ ⎝ γ + 1⎠ ⎝ γ + 1⎠ RgTc M

call Γ 2
3

RgTc Pc At
call c* = (“characteristic velocity”) → m =
Γ (γ ) c*

⎛P ⎞ A
Can express ue , Pe , Ae , etc in terms of either Me or ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ or e :
⎝ Pc ⎠ At

Pe 1
= γ
; γ +1
Pc 2 ( γ −1)
⎛ γ −1 2⎞ γ −1
⎜ 1 + 2 Me ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1+ 1
⎛ γ −1 2 ⎞2 γ −1
1+ Me
Ae ⎛ Pt ⎞ ⎛ ut ⎞ ⎛ Pt ⎞ 1 Tt 1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
At ⎝ Pe ⎠ ⎝ ue ⎠ ⎝ Pe ⎠ Me Te Me ⎜ γ +1 ⎟⎟
⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠

γ
Pe ⎛ Te ⎞ γ −1
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ,
Pc ⎝ Tc ⎠

Te 1
and = ,
Tc γ −1
1+ Me2
2

ue2 γ M2 γ
Because c pTe + = c pTc → RgTe + e γ RTe = RT
2 γ −1 2 γ −1 g c

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 3

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 2 of 10
 m ⎛ P − Pa ⎞ Ae u ⎛P P ⎞ Ae
CF = ue + ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ = *e + ⎜⎜ e − a ⎟⎟
Pc At ⎝ Pc ⎠ At c ⎝ Pc Pc ⎠ At

Tc
Me γ Rg
γ −1 γ +1
1+ Me2
ue 2 ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 (γ −1) Me
= =γ⎜ ⎟
⎝ γ + 1⎠
*
c RgTc γ −1
1+ Me2
Γ 2

In vacuum,

( Pa = 0)

γ +1 γ 1
−
γ +1 ⎛ γ − 1 2 ⎞ 2 (γ −1) γ −1 −
2
⎜ 1+ Me ⎟
ue Pe Ae ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 (γ −1) γ Me 1 ⎝ 2 ⎠
CFv = + =⎜ ⎟ + γ +1
⎝ γ + 1⎠
* Pc At Me
c γ −1
1+ Me2 ⎛ γ + 1 ⎞ 2 (γ −1)
2 Me ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

1
γ +1 γ Me +
⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 (γ −1) Me
(CF )v =⎜ ⎟
⎝ γ + 1⎠ γ −1
1+ Me2
2

and otherwise,

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 3

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 3 of 10
 ⎛ A ⎞ Pa
CF = CF v − ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟
⎝ At ⎠Me Pc

Note:

For Pe = Pa ,

γ +1
ue ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 (γ −1) γ Me
(CF )Matched = =⎜ ⎟
⎝ γ + 1⎠
*
c γ −1
1+ Me2
2

γ +1
2 ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 (γ −1)
For Pe = Pa = 0 (CF )Max,Vac =γ
γ −1
⎜ ⎟
⎝γ + 1⎠

Choice of Optimum Expansion For a Rocket Flying Through an Atmosphere

( Pa varying)

F
The thrust coefficient CF = was derived in class in the form
Pc At

Pa ⎛ Ae ⎞
CF = CFvac − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (1)
Pc ⎝ At ⎠

γ +1
γ Me + 1
⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 (γ −1) Me
CFvac =⎜ ⎟ (2)
⎝ γ + 1⎠ γ −1
1+ Me2
2
and we also found
γ +1
⎛ γ −1 2 ⎞ 2 (γ −1)
1+ Me
Ae 1 ⎜ 2 ⎟
= ⎜ ⎟ (3)
At Me ⎜ γ +1 ⎟⎟
⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠

The thrust-derived velocity increment is

tb F tb CF
ΔVF = ∫0 m
dt = Pc At ∫0 m
dt (4)

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 3

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 4 of 10
where CF = CF ( t ) due only to the variation of Pa in (1), while m = m ( t ) because of
Ae
mass burnout. The quantities CFvac and depend on Me (or nozzle geometry), but
At
are time-invariant. Substituting (1), (2) and (3) into (4),

⎡ tb dt ⎛ Ae ⎞ tb Pa dt ⎤
ΔVF = Pc At ⎢CFvac
⎣⎢
∫0
−⎜ ⎟
m ⎜⎝ At ⎟⎠ ∫ 0
⎥
Pc m ⎦⎥

or
tbPa dt
ΔVF ∫0 Pc m Ae
= CFvac − (5)
tb dt tb dt At
Pc At ∫
0 m ∫0 m

We now make the approximation that the trajectory will change little when we vary
A
Me (and hence CFvac , e ). We can then regard the time integrals in (5) as fixed
At
quantities while we optimize Me . Define the non-dimensional variables

tbPa dt
ΔVF ∫
0 Pc m
v = ; p= (6)
tb dt tb dt
Pc At ∫0 m ∫0 m

so that (5) becomes

⎛A ⎞
v = CFvac ( Me ) − p ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟ ( Me ) (7)
⎝ At ⎠

and we can now differentiate v w.r.t Me (holding p=const.)

⎛A ⎞
∂CFvac ∂⎜ e ⎟
∂v A
−p ⎝ ⎠ =0
t
= (8)
∂Me ∂Me ∂Me

γ +1
⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 (γ −1)
From (2) and (3), the factor ⎜ ⎟ appears in both terms of (8) and can be
⎝ γ + 1⎠
ignored. We then have

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 3

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 5 of 10
 ⎡ γ +1 ⎤
⎛ ⎞ ⎢ ⎛ 1 + γ − 1 M 2 ⎞ 2 (γ −1) ⎥
⎜ γ Me + 1 M ⎟ ⎢ ⎜⎝ e ⎟ ⎥
∂ ⎜ e ⎟= p ∂ 2 ⎠
⎢ ⎥
∂Me ⎜ γ −1 2 ⎟ ∂Me ⎢ M e ⎥
⎜ 1+ Me ⎟ ⎢ ⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥

γ +1
γ −1 ⎛ γ − 1 2 ⎞2(γ −1) ⎡ γ −1 ⎤
γ− 1 2Me ⎜1 + 2 Me ⎟ 2Me
Me2⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 ⎢ γ +1 1 ⎥
− ⎜⎜ γ Me + ⎟⎟
2 = p⎝ ⎠
⎢
2 − ⎥
⎢ 2 ( γ − 1) 1 + γ − 1 M2 Me ⎥
Me ⎠ 2 ⎛ 3 Me
γ −1 2 ⎝ γ −1 2 ⎞ 2
1+ Me
⎜1 + 2 Me ⎟
e
2 ⎣⎢ 2 ⎥⎦
⎝ ⎠

3
⎛ γ −1 2⎞ 2 γ +1 1 γ
Multiply times ⎜1 + Me ⎟ , and note that + =
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ( γ − 1) 2 γ − 1

γ
⎛ γ −1 2⎞ γ −1
⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ γ −1 2⎞ γ −1 ⎜1 + 2 Me ⎟ ⎡ γ − 1 2 ⎞⎤
⎜ γ − 2 ⎟ ⎜1 +
⎜ M ⎟⎝ 2
Me ⎟ −
⎠ 2
γ Me2 + 1 = p ⎝ ( M 2
⎠
) ⎣
⎛
⎢( γ + 1) Me − ⎜1 +
2

⎝ 2
Me ⎟ ⎥
⎠⎦
⎝ e ⎠ e

Expand & simplify

γ
⎛ γ −1 2⎞ γ −1

γ ( γ − 1) 2 γ − 1 γ ( γ − 1) 2 γ − 1 ⎜1 + 2 Me ⎟
γ +
2
1
Me − 2 −
Me 2
−
2
Me −
2
= p ⎝
Me2
⎠
(M2
e −1)
1444444444442444444444443

1 Me2 − 1
1− =
Me2 Me2

Me2 − 1
Cancel the factor ( Me = 1 is clearly not an optimum!)
Me2

γ γ −1
⎛ γ −1 2⎞
1 = p ⎜1 + Me ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

or

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 3

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 6 of 10
 γ −1 ⎡ γ −1 ⎤
γ −1 ⎛1⎞ γ 2 ⎢⎛ 1 ⎞ γ ⎥
1+ Me2 = ⎜ ⎟ Me = ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ (9)
2 ⎝ p⎠ OPT γ −1 ⎝ p⎠
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

Notice that the exit pressure is given by

Pe 1
= γ
(10)
Pc
⎛ γ −1 2⎞ γ −1
⎜ 1 + 2 Me ⎟
⎝ ⎠

and so the optimum exit pressure turn out to be

⎛ Pe ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =p (11)
⎝ Pc ⎠OPT

Pao
However, if p < 0.4 , this would imply Pe < 0.4Pao , and there would be flow
Pc
separation at the highest Pa (on the ground). To avoid this, the optimality condition
must be amended to

⎛ Pe ⎞ ⎪⎧ Pa ⎪⎫
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = Greater of ⎨ ρ , 0.4 o ⎬ (12)
⎝ Pc ⎠OPT ⎪⎩ Pc ⎪⎭

with a similar expression for Me :

⎧ ⎡ γ −1 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎡ γ −1 ⎤
⎪ 2 ⎢⎛ 1 ⎞ γ ⎥ 2 ⎢⎛ Pc ⎞ γ ⎥ ⎪⎪
Me = Least of ⎨ ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ , ⎢⎜ 2.5 ⎟ − 1⎥ ⎬ (13)
OPT
⎪ γ − 1 ⎢⎝ p ⎠ γ − 1 ⎢⎝ ⎜ Pao ⎟ ⎥⎪
⎥⎦ ⎠
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ ⎪⎭

The limiting condition in which the whole burn occurs at Pa o is simple.

We then obtain

tb Pao dt
∫0 Pc m Pao
p= tb dt
= (14)
Pc
∫ 0 m

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 3

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 7 of 10
and the optimality condition (12) yields ( Pe )OPT = Pao , i.e., the nozzle should be
pressure-matched, as expected.
Pao
As more and more of the burn shifts to higher altitudes, p decreases from . As
Pc
Pao
long as it still remains above 0.4 , equation (11) gives some intermediate
Pc
Pao
optimum design, and if p drops below 0.4 , the nozzle should be designed to be
Pc
on the verge of separation on the ground.

Nozzle Flow Separation Effects

Rule of thumb (to be explored later):

Flow separates at the point in the nozzle where

P 0.4Pa (Summerfield criterion)

So, if Pe > 0.4Pa (even if Pe < Pa ), no separation

After separation, roughly parallel flow, at P = Pa (no strong p gradients in “dead

water” region to turn flow).

So zero thrust contribution Performance with separation at that of a nozzle

with exit pressure Pe' = 0.4Pa

So,

Pe (full nozzle)
(a) Pa < ,
0.4

Pa Ae
CF = CFvac −
Po At

f ( Me ) g ( Me )

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 3

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 8 of 10
 Pe (full nozzle)
(b) Pa > ,
0.4

⎪⎪ e (
⎧M ' = M P ' = 0.4 P
e a )
calculate ⎨ A' A'
⎪ e = e Me'
⎪⎩ At At
( )

Pa Ae'
( )
then CF = CFvac Me' −
Po At

16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 3

Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 9 of 10
16.512, Rocket Propulsion Lecture 3
Prof. Manuel Martinez-Sanchez Page 10 of 10